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Percy Boulnois - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Municipal and Sanitary Engineer's Handbook - -Author: H. Percy Boulnois - -Release Date: November 11, 2017 [EBook #55935] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MUNICIPAL AND SANITARY *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="tnbox"> -<p class="center">Please see the <a href="#TN">Transcriber’s Notes</a> at the end of this text.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="scr"> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover_sm.jpg" alt="cover image" width="386" height="600" /> -</div> - -</div><!--scr--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h1><span class="fsize60">THE</span><br /> -<span class="fsize80">MUNICIPAL AND SANITARY</span><br /> -ENGINEER’S HANDBOOK.</h1> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="titpag"> - -<p class="titlerepeat"><span class="fsize60">THE</span><br /> -<span class="fsize80">MUNICIPAL AND SANITARY</span><br /> -ENGINEER’S HANDBOOK.</p> - -<p class="author"><span class="fsize60">BY</span><br /> -<span class="gesp1">H. PERCY BOULNOIS</span>, M. <span class="smcap">Inst. C.E.</span>,<br /> -<span class="smcap">M. San. Inst. Gt. Britain</span>;<br /> -<span class="fsize60">BOROUGH ENGINEER, PORTSMOUTH; LATE CITY SURVEYOR, EXETER;<br /> -AUTHOR OF “DIRTY DUST-BINS AND SLOPPY STREETS,” “ANNIHILATION OF SEWER GASES,” ETC.</span></p> - -<p class="fsize80 highline4">“<i>SALUS POPULI SUPREMA LEX.</i>”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/spon.jpg" alt="logo" width="75" height="88" /> -</div> - -<p class="publisher"><span class="fsize80">LONDON:</span><br /> -E. & F. N. SPON, 16, CHARING CROSS.<br /> -<span class="fsize80">NEW YORK:</span><br /> -35, MURRAY STREET.<br /> -1883.</p> - -</div><!--titpag--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagev">[v]</span></p> - -<h2>PREFACE.</h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/chapline.png" alt="line" width="68" height="10" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent highline2">In carrying out the many duties devolving upon a Borough -Surveyor, it has so often been my wish to turn to a practical -book of reference upon the many subjects connected with -these duties, that I have written the following pages; and I -trust that they will form a useful Handbook.</p> - -<p class="right padr2 highline4">H. PERCY BOULNOIS.</p> - -<p class="noindent fsize80"><span class="padl2"><span class="smcap">Portsmouth</span>,</span><br /> -<span class="padl6"><i>May, 1883</i>.</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Pagevi">[vi]</a><br /><a id="Pagevii">[vii]</a></span></p> - -<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/tocline.png" alt="line" width="94" height="15" /> -</div> - -<div class="toc"> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER I.</p> - -<p class="chapname">THE TOWN SURVEYOR.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Office of surveyor first legalised — Clause of Public Health Act 1875, -making appointment — Division of England into districts — Surveyor -to Rural Authority — Clauses of Act referring to surveyor — Title of -“Surveyor” is an erroneous one — List of subjects on which he has -often to advise — Want of Government protection for surveyor — Mr. -Lewis Angell on protection — Reasons for Government refusal — Time -will effect a change<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page1">page 1</a></span></p> - - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER II.</p> - -<p class="chapname">THE APPOINTMENT OF SURVEYOR.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Sub-committee to fix salary and duties — Specimen report and list of -duties — Test of merit necessary — Examination by Sanitary Institute -of Great Britain — Particulars of these examinations — Syllabus of -subjects — Specimens of examination papers — Authoritative examination, -however, still necessary — Methods to be adopted to obtain -appointment of surveyor — Canvassing<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page10">10</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER III.</p> - -<p class="chapname">THE SURVEYOR’S DUTIES.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Public Health Act and surveyors of highways — List of duties devolving -upon surveyor in consequence — Meetings of boards and committees — List -of suitable names for committees — Punctuality — Reports — Methodical -habits<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page20">20</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER IV.</p> - -<p class="chapname">TRAFFIC.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Interests involved in construction and maintenance of streets — Requirements -of a good roadway — Wearing effect of traffic — Mr. Deacon’s -standard — Effect of horses’ -hoofs on roadways — Remarks on shoeing — <span class="pagenum lg" id="Pageviii">[viii]</span>Traction -on roads — Tables of resistance — Forces tending to destroy -momentum — Table of tractive force, etc. — Another table giving -inclinations — Proper gradients of roadways — Table of resistance by -Crompton — Wheel resistance — Mr. Haywood and safety of traffic — Stopping -and starting vehicles — Safe width of roadways — Vehicles -and pedestrians passing each other — Sanctuaries — Danger of -crossings<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page25">25</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER V.</p> - -<p class="chapname">MACADAMISED ROADWAYS.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Laying out new roads — Macadamised roads a luxury — Telford and -Macadam — Specification of roadway, fifty years ago — Modern specification -of roadway — Advantages of Telford’s system — Hard core — Concrete — Table -of depths of materials — Ellice Clarke’s tables of -comparative cost — Further particulars of comparative cost — Streets of -Paris — Cross section of roadway — Objections to macadamised roadways — Notes -on maintenance — Bituminous roadways<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page34">34</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER VI.</p> - -<p class="chapname">ROAD METAL AND BREAKING.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Test of fitness of stone — Primary investigations — Qualities necessary — List -of stones used as road metal — Variety of materials used — Table of -comparative efficiency of road metal in France — Hand-broken stone — Gauging -the size — Quantity broken per diem — Machines for breaking -stones — Price of machines — Work effected by machinery — Precautions -necessary — Objections to machinery — Weight of broken stone — Specification -for supply of road metal<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page48">48</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER VII.</p> - -<p class="chapname">ROAD ROLLING.</p> - -<p class="subjects">First introduction of rollers — Mr. Parry on steam rolling — Cost for -repairs — Number of men necessary — Fuel used — Other uses for engine -power — Spikes for chequering — Binding material — Gradients — Work -effected — Description of manner in which roller should be applied — Method -adopted in the United States — Use of roller for repairs of -roads — Method adopted at Gloucester — Effect of weight of roller on -roads — Advantages of steam rolling — Mr. Paget on rolling — Disadvantages -of steam rolling — Horse rollers<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page60">60</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pageix">[ix]</span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER VIII.</p> - -<p class="chapname">PITCHED PAVEMENTS.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Economy under heavy traffic — Noise and slipperiness — Improvements -effected — Size of setts — Description of best class of stones — Mr. -Walker and wear of stones — The Euston pavement — The Guidet -paving — Manchester pavement — Concrete foundations — Grouting — Bituminous -mixture — Stone tram-tracks<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page73">73</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER IX.</p> - -<p class="chapname">WOOD PAVING.</p> - -<p class="subjects">First introduced into metropolis — Improvements since — List and description -of many various modern methods — Sanitary objections to wood -pavement — Power of absorption of wood — Preserving processes — Wear -of wood paving — Different estimates of life — Woods employed — Advantages -of this description of paving — Objections to it — Cost -of wood pavement — Tables of cost and life — Specification of wood -pavement<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page81">81</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER X.</p> - -<p class="chapname">COMPRESSED ASPHALTE ROADWAYS.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Description of asphalte — Mr. Deland’s test — Percentage of bitumen -necessary — Method of construction of compressed asphalte roadway — Advantages -of this description of pavement — Objections to it on -account of slipperiness — Gradient — Cost of asphalte pavement — Tables -on the subject — Specifications for a compressed asphalte roadway — Other -descriptions of asphalte roadways — Hints on the success -or the reverse of asphalte roadways<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page96">96</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XI.</p> - -<p class="chapname">FOOTPATHS.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Foundation — List of materials for footpaths — Mastic asphalte — Description -of manner of laying — Proportions of asphalte, bitumen, and -grit — Yorkshire flagging — Specification for York flagging — Caithness -flagging — Its advantages — Blue lias flagging — Concrete footpaths — Description -of American concrete path — Artificial stone pavements — Brick -footpaths — Granite slabs — Artificial asphalte paths — Specification -of tar pavement — American tar pavement — Gravel footpaths — Sections -of paths — Tarred paths<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page106">106</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagex">[x]</span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XII.</p> - -<p class="chapname">KERBING AND CHANNELLING, ETC.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Necessity for kerb — Section of granite kerb and channel — Setting kerb — Cost -of kerb and channelling — Necessity for gutter or channel crossings — Gully -gratings — Objects to be attained — Drawing of a gully-pit — Drawing -of a buddle-hole — Mr. Baldwin Latham on the -subject<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page123">123</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XIII.</p> - -<p class="chapname">LIGHTING STREETS.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Gas v. Electricity — Public Health Act on lighting — Different hours at -which public gas lamps are lighted — Hints for a contract with a gas -company — Supply by meter — Objections to meters — Regulators — -Lamp-posts — Lanterns — Burners — Numbering -lamps — Formula for determining distance of lamps — M. Servier on spreading light -uniformly — Tables of different lights — Points to be considered in -public lighting by electricity — Motive power required — Machinery -necessary — Regulations as regards fire risks — Lamps — Value of -electric light — Difficulty of photometrical measurement — Cost of electric -light — Mr. Shoolbred’s tables — Comparative cost on Thames embankment — Value -of these investigations — Acme of all lighting<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page129">129</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XIV.</p> - -<p class="chapname">STREET NAMING AND NUMBERING.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Necessity of naming and numbering streets — Public Health Act on the -subject — Different methods of naming — Minton’s china letters — Cast -iron plates — Painted names — Enamelled iron — Wooden figures — Enamelled -glass tablets — Size of letters — Association of names — Methods -of numbering — Forms of notice to number<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page149">149</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XV.</p> - -<p class="chapname">BREAKING-UP STREETS.</p> - -<p class="subjects">The law on the subject — Water Works Clauses Act, 1847 — Consideration -of the clauses — What is meant by “plan” — Specimen of specification -or plan — Damage caused to roads by opening them — Private -individuals breaking-up streets — Clauses of the Public Health Act — Telegraphs -Act, 1863 — Clauses of this Act — Advantages and <span class="pagenum" id="Pagexi">[xi]</span>disadvantages -of subways — Power of individuals to open streets for -drains — Clauses of the Public Health Act on the subject — Uncertainty -on the subject — Forms of notices necessary — Customs prevailing in -different towns<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page157">157</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XVI.</p> - -<p class="chapname">OBSTRUCTIONS IN STREETS.</p> - -<p class="subjects">List of subjects discussed — Improving line of frontages — Assessing value -of compensation — Removing projections of buildings — What are legal -projections? — Doors or gates opening outwards — Forms of notice -necessary — Vaults or cellar coverings — Forms of notice necessary — Advantages -of an “Easement book” — Rain water from shutes -or down pipes — Form of notice necessary — Blinds or awnings -over paths — Trees overhanging roadways — Form of notice necessary — Surface -water from premises — Hoardings and scaffolds — Dangerous -Buildings — Tall chimney shafts — Dangerous rock — Forms of notice -necessary — Temporary obstructions<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page174">174</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XVII.</p> - -<p class="chapname">IMPROVEMENT OF PRIVATE STREETS.</p> - -<p class="subjects">The 150th section of the Public Health Act — Criticisms of this section — Duties -of the surveyor in connection with it — Specimen forms -of notices — Carrying out the work — Taking over private streets — Agreement -to take over a road — What is a “road”? — Legal -definition of the term street<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page193">193</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XVIII.</p> - -<p class="chapname">NEW STREETS AND BUILDINGS.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Important duty of surveyor — Clauses of the Public Health Act — Model -bye-laws — What is a new building? — The term “ground floor” — Alteration -of existing buildings — Deposit of plans — Clauses of the -Public Health Act — Clauses necessary in the bye-laws with regard -to deposit — Form of notice in respect of deposit of plans — Suggestions -for town surveyor in connection with this duty and examination -of plans — Supervision of buildings in course of erection — Stringency -of bye-laws — Protection of life from fire necessary — Party walls -through roofs — Space at back — Fee for -inspection<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page206">206</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexii">[xii]</span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XIX.</p> - -<p class="chapname">SCAVENGING.</p> - -<p class="subjects">The Public Health Act on the subject — List of duties involved by the -clauses of the Act — What is house refuse? — Removal of trade or -garden refuse — Position of dust bin — Objections to fixed bin — Different -methods of collection of refuse — Public dust bins — House to -house call — Receptacles brought out into streets — Carts employed -for scavenging — Life and cost of wooden carts — Improved sanitary -carts — Disposal of refuse — Methods adopted in various towns — Destruction -by fire — Cleansing of streets — Machinery v. hand labour — Durability -of brooms — Scavenging at Liverpool — Quantity of -material removed from roads — Cleansing private courts and alleys — Removal -of snow — Mr. Hayward on the subject — Clarke’s apparatus — Hints -on removal of snow — Street watering — Several methods -described — Brown’s system — Mr. Parry on hand-watering — Headley’s -machine — Street watering in Paris — Bayley’s Hydrostatic Van — Mr. -Scott on watering and stand-pipes — Advantage of using disinfectant -with water — Cost of scavenging, &c. — Heads for a contract — Administration -of work without intervention of contractor the best<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page221">221</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XX.</p> - -<p class="chapname">SEWERAGE.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Public Health Act on the subject — Definition of sewer — Definitions of -sewerage and sewage — Requirements of good system of sewerage — Position -of sewers should be at back of houses — Form of notice to -carry sewer through private lands — Hints for carrying out sewerage — Stamford’s -joint — Pipe sewers — Drawing of various pipes — Causes of -breakage — Causes of chokage — Separate system — Advantages of -partial separation — List of different methods of sewerage — Dry -systems<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page251">251</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XXI.</p> - -<p class="chapname">SEWAGE DISPOSAL.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Magnitude of question — Interception — List of methods of disposal — Tidal -outfalls — Broad irrigation — Crops for sewage — Intermittent -filtration — Action of earth on sewage — Mechanical subsidence — Artificial -filters — Screening — Precipitation — List of chemical processes — List -of chemical ingredients — Disposal of sludge — Effect of -plants on sewage<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page263">263</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexiii">[xiii]</span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XXII.</p> - -<p class="chapname">VENTILATION OF SEWERS.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Duty of dealing with noxious sewer vapours — Germ theory and open -ventilation — Open shafts and objections to them — Shafts against -dwellings — Use of rainwater pipes — Use of lamp posts — Charcoal -trays — Use of chimney shafts — Lofty shafts — Failure of furnaces — List -of methods tried — Annihilation of sewer gas — Composition of -sewer gas — Direction of flow — Importance of disconnecting house -drains<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page271">271</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XXIII.</p> - -<p class="chapname">PUBLIC CONVENIENCES.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Clause of Public Health Act empowering their erection — Selection of site — Construction -of Urinals — Why iron is preferable — Description of -urinals — Public w. c. accommodation — Description of a simple w. c. — Jennings -and Macfarlane for urinals<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page280">280</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XXIV.</p> - -<p class="chapname">ARTIZANS AND LABOURERS’ DWELLINGS.</p> - -<p class="subjects">The Act of 1868 — Mode of procedure under it — Amendment of Act in -1879 — Further amendment in 1882 — Importance of this amendment — Act -of 1875 for improvement of dwellings of working classes — Mode -of procedure under it — Amended by Act of 1879 — Further amended, -1882 — Duties of surveyor under these acts — Health of model -dwellings — Description of industrial dwellings — Labouring classes’ -Lodging Houses Acts — Copy of bye-laws under them — Table of sizes -of rooms<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page284">284</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XXV.</p> - -<p class="chapname">DEFECTS IN DWELLING-HOUSES, ETC.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Cellar dwellings — Clauses of the Public Health Act on the subject — Insufficient -w. c. accommodation — Clauses on the subject — Forms of -notice to be served — W. C. accommodation for factories — Houses -without a proper supply of water — Clauses on the subject — Mode of -procedure — Disadvantages of cistern -storage<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page295">295</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexiv">[xiv]</span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XXVI.</p> - -<p class="chapname">HOUSE DRAINAGE.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Definition of drain — Difficulty of always deciding what is a drain — Duties -of surveyor in connection with house drainage — Inspection of new -drains — Form of “regulations” necessary by a local authority — Difficulty -of efficient inspection — Drains of new buildings — Inspection -of defective drains — Several clauses of the Public -Health Act on the subject — Procedure necessary to carry them out — List -of a few requirements of good house drainage — Necessity of -register of all house drains<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page303">303</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XXVII.</p> - -<p class="chapname">PUBLIC PLEASURE GROUNDS AND STREET TREES.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Law empowering acquisition and maintenance of parks, &c. — Duties of -surveyor in connection therewith — Public playgrounds — A few hints — List -of a few useful shrubs — Trees in gales — Planting trees at sides of -streets — Qualities necessary in trees for this purpose — List of -suitable trees — Precautions necessary — Grating and grill — Description -of Paris planting — Cost of trees in Paris — Damage to street -trees<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page318">318</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XXVIII.</p> - -<p class="chapname">PUBLIC ABATTOIRS.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Necessity and law for their establishment — Defects of private slaughter-houses — Legal -powers to close private slaughter-houses — Particulars -of London private slaughter-houses — Site of public abattoir — The -Manchester abattoir — Accommodation necessary — Lairs and pens — The -killing-house — Floor, drainage, rings, pole-axe, lighting, &c. — Machinery -for hoisting — Plans of public abattoir — Condemned meat -department — Pig-killing department — Blood-house — Tripery — Tallow -market — Other accommodation — Dr. Chancellor on slaughter-houses — Difference -between public and private slaughter-houses<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page328">328</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XXIX.</p> - -<p class="chapname">MARKETS.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Law authorizing their establishment — Site for a cattle market — Accommodation -necessary — Paving — Cattle enclosures — Sheep pens — Dimensions -of pens and lairs — Weighing machine — Markets for general -merchandise — List of requirements — A few hints on their -accommodation<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page344">344</a></span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Pagexv">[xv]</span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XXX.</p> - -<p class="chapname">CEMETERIES.</p> - -<p class="subjects">The surveyor’s duties in connection with these — Some legal points to be -remembered — Selection of site on sanitary grounds — Mr. Eassie on -soils — Dr. Parsons on requirements of cemeteries — Unsuitability of -clay soil — Amount of land necessary — Points to be considered in -laying out a cemetery — Division of cemetery — Description of sections — Cemetery -rules and regulations — Suitable trees for cemeteries — Regulations -by Secretary of State, 1863 — Cremation — Its great -advantages over burial — Area of some existing cemeteries — Necessity -for reliable information as to causes of death<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page350">350</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XXXI.</p> - -<p class="chapname">MORTUARIES.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Evils arising from keeping corpses — Some clauses of the Public Health -Act on the subject — List of different descriptions of mortuaries — A -German Leichenhaus — Requirements of a mortuary — The chapel — The -dead-house — The post-mortem room — The coroner’s court — Other -accommodation necessary — Plan of a model mortuary — Disinfection — Apparatus -necessary — Dr. Ransom’s machine — Fetching -infected clothing<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page365">365</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XXXII.</p> - -<p class="chapname">BORROWING UNDER THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Clauses of the Public Health Act — Stimulus to public works — List of -time for which money can be borrowed — Mr. Rawlinson on procedure -and plans, &c., necessary — Responsibility of Local Government -Board — Captain Galton on Government responsibility<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page375">375</a></span></p> - -<p class="chapno">CHAPTER XXXIII.</p> - -<p class="chapname">CONTRACTS.</p> - -<p class="subjects">Clauses of Public Health Act — Public contracts different from private -ones — Specifications necessary — Conclusion — A list of useful -books<span class="pageno"><a href="#Page381">381</a></span></p> -</div><!--toc--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page1">[1]</span></p> - -<p class="titlerepeat2">MUNICIPAL<br /> -<span class="fsize60">AND</span><br /> -SANITARY ENGINEERS’<br /> -HANDBOOK.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/chapline.png" alt="line" width="68" height="10" /> -</div> - -<h2>CHAPTER I.<br /> -<span class="chapname">THE TOWN SURVEYOR.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">The office of town surveyor was first legalised by the Towns -Improvement Clauses Act 1847 (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 7),<a id="FNanchor1"></a><a href="#Footnote1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> -although for some considerable period prior to this date -similar appointments had been made in several of the more -important English towns, notably in the case of Liverpool. -In the following year the legal office of surveyor was confirmed -by the Public Health Act 1848 (11 & 12 Vic. c. 63, s. 37), and -it is now law under the Public Health Act 1875 (38 & 39 Vic. -c. 55): that comprehensive statute, under which all Sanitary -Acts are now included, and which Act will be frequently -alluded to in the course of this book.</p> - -<p>The clause which specially refers to the appointment of -the surveyor is as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>“Every urban authority shall from time to time appoint -fit and proper persons to be medical officer of health, surveyor, -inspector of nuisances, clerk, and treasurer: Provided that if -any such authority is empowered by any other Act in force<span class="pagenum" id="Page2">[2]</span> -within their district to appoint any such officer, this enactment -shall be deemed to be satisfied by the employment -under this Act of the officer so appointed, with such additional -remuneration as they think fit, and no second appointment -shall be made under this Act. Every urban authority shall -also appoint or employ such assistants, collectors, and other -officers and servants as may be necessary and proper for the -efficient execution of this Act, and may make regulations -with respect to the duties and conduct of the officers and -servants so appointed or employed . . .” (38 & 39 Vic. -c. 55, s. 189), and these officers (except the medical officer of -health and the inspector of nuisances, when any portion of their -salary is paid out of moneys voted by Parliament <i>to the powers -of the Local Government Board</i>), may be removed by the urban -authority at their pleasure, which was not the case when the -appointment was first made in 1847.</p> - -<p>Here it is necessary to state that for sanitary purposes -England and Wales are divided into two divisions—viz. urban -sanitary districts and rural sanitary districts, the former of -these divisions being further subdivided into boroughs, where -the urban sanitary authority is the mayor, aldermen, and -burgesses acting by the council, and districts, which are under -the authority of improvement commissioners or local boards; -the rural sanitary districts are the areas of unions not included -in urban districts, and they are under the authority of the -guardians of the union.</p> - -<p>It is my intention to deal more particularly with the duties -of a surveyor acting under an urban authority, but the following -section of the Public Health Act 1875 relates apparently -to the appointment of a surveyor to a rural authority, although -no mention is made in this or any other clause of the Act -directly of such an officer by name, except that amongst -the definitions of the Public Health Act the following -<span class="nowrap">appears:—</span></p> - -<p>“‘Surveyor’ includes any person appointed by a rural<span class="pagenum" id="Page3">[3]</span> -authority to perform any of the duties of surveyor under this -Act” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 4).</p> - -<p>The clause I have above referred to is as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>“Every rural authority shall from time to time appoint fit -and proper persons to be medical officer or officers of health -and inspector or inspectors of nuisances; they shall also -appoint such assistants and other officers and servants as may -be necessary and proper for the efficient execution of this -Act . . .” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 190).</p> - -<p>The following clauses apply to officers of rural as well as -urban <span class="nowrap">authorities:—</span></p> - -<p>“The same person may be both surveyor and inspector of -nuisances . . .” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 192).</p> - -<p>“Officers or servants appointed or employed under this -Act by the local authority shall not in any wise be concerned -or interested in any bargain or contract made with such -authority for any of the purposes of this Act . . .” -(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 193).</p> - -<p>“Before any officer or servant of a local authority enters -on any office or employment under this Act by reason whereof -he will or may be entrusted with the custody or control of -money, the local authority by whom he is appointed shall take -from him sufficient security for the faithful execution of such -office or employment and for duly accounting for all moneys -which may be entrusted to him by reason thereof” (38 & 39 -Vic. c. 55, s. 194).</p> - -<p>In addition to these clauses there are several regulating the -receipt of money by officers, but these should not affect the -town surveyor. Although in many places he has the onerous -duty of paying workmen, certifying tradesmen’s accounts, and -other financial transactions, he ought under no circumstances -to have anything to do with the receipt of money. Unfortunately, -in some of the smaller towns the surveyor is also employed -as rate collector; but as this is evidently a very improper -proceeding, I shall not further allude to it in any manner.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page4">[4]</span></p> - -<p>It will be observed that in the foregoing clauses of the -Public Health Act the word “surveyor” is always used, and -thus this is the legal title of those holding such appointments. -It is obvious, however, that, although this title may have well -suited the office up to the year 1847, when it was made the -legal title, the prodigious growth of municipal work during the -last 35 years has made it necessary that some change should -be made, and the title altered to that of “engineer,” or some -other similar suitable name. At the present time several -different meanings and occupations are attached to the word -“surveyor,” as the following list will show:—“land surveyor,” -“district surveyor,” “county surveyor,” “road surveyor,” -“surveyor of taxes,” “surveyor of customs,” “quantity -surveyor,” “fire insurance surveyor,” “Lloyd’s surveyor,” -and a still more curious instance where an urban authority -is itself dubbed “surveyor of highways” by the 144th section -of the Public Health Act 1875; and the title of town -surveyor as now applied cannot but lead to confusion and to -perfectly erroneous impressions as to his work and duties.</p> - -<p>Dr. Ackland, in a paper read before the Association of -Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors, at a district -meeting held at Oxford, makes the following remarks on this -point:—“In the Public Health Act 1875 (the summary of all -health enactments) the name of ‘engineer’ does not once -occur in the 343 clauses. He is still the old ‘surveyor’ we all -remember, the plodding, energetic man of highways and byeways -. . . but then the surveyor of the present day may be -called on to advise on anything, from the form and cost of an -earthen syphon trap to the calculation of work to be done by -engines which are to supply half a million of persons with -water; to be responsible for the construction of sanitary -mechanisms, from a housemaid’s sink to an intermittent downward -filtration farm.”</p> - -<p>There can be but little doubt that it is absolutely necessary -for the town surveyor of the present day to be a competent<span class="pagenum" id="Page5">[5]</span> -civil engineer of great knowledge and varied experience, for -he may at any moment be called upon to advise his corporation -upon any of the following subjects, or to act in any one -of the following capacities, in addition to the multifarious -ordinary duties legally devolving upon him as surveyor under -the Sanitary <span class="nowrap">Acts:—</span></p> - -<p>(1.) As engineer for sewerage and sewage works.</p> - -<p>(2.) As engineer for water and gas works.</p> - -<p>(3.) As engineer for canals, docks, harbour improvements, -and river navigation, or for the protection of coasts against -the encroachments of the sea, and the prevention of floods by -rivers.</p> - -<p>(4.) As engineer for the construction and maintenance of -roads and bridges.</p> - -<p>(5.) As engineer for the construction and maintenance of -lines of tramways.</p> - -<p>(6.) As architect for the construction of lunatic asylums, -municipal offices, hospitals, abattoirs, mortuaries, baths and -wash-houses, cemetery chapels, stables, police stations, and -other similar works.</p> - -<p>(7.) As landscape gardener for the laying out of public -recreation grounds, parks, and cemeteries.</p> - -<p>(8.) As quantity surveyor to make estimates of all works, -and often (very improperly) to furnish bills of quantities to -intending contractors.</p> - -<p>(9.) As surveyor and valuer to advise his employers on the -values, &c., of corporate or other property.</p> - -<p>(10.) As land surveyor to make surveys of any size that -may be required.</p> - -<p>(11.) As accountant to examine and rectify the workmen’s -wages sheets, and all tradesmen’s accounts for work performed -or goods supplied.</p> - -<p>The foregoing list is no exaggeration of the onerous duties -of the town surveyor, and it seems to be a grievous mistake -that this officer, whose importance in all practical sanitary<span class="pagenum" id="Page6">[6]</span> -work cannot be over-stated (as without him no useful municipal -work could go on) has been left unprotected by the -Public Health Act of 1875.</p> - -<p>In that Act both the medical officer of health and the -inspector of nuisances have received Government protection, -whereas the surveyor, the very officer of all others who necessarily -is more likely to come into collision and to be unpopular -with his employers in the faithful discharge of his duties, has -been afforded no protection whatever, but has been left to the -tender mercies of an annually changing body of municipal -governors, “to be removable at their pleasure” (38 & 39 Vic., -c. 55, s. 189).</p> - -<p>On this highly important point I cannot do better than -quote several passages from Mr. Lewis Angell’s interesting -address to the Association of Municipal and Sanitary -Engineers and Surveyors on the occasion of their inauguration -in the year 1873:<a id="FNanchor2"></a><a href="#Footnote2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<p>“The ‘town surveyor,’ according to his opportunities, has -done the country good service, but, surrounded as we have been -with obstructions and difficulties, cramped and restricted by -popular prejudices and private interest, subject to clamour and -attack, without protection and without appeal, it is indeed -surprising that we have accomplished so much. Had such -officers been from the first judiciously selected, adequately -remunerated, properly supported, and duly protected, our -influence upon sanitary progress would have been more -conspicuous and our office better appreciated.</p> - -<p>“As engineers we do not pretend to a knowledge of medical -science, but it is equally within the knowledge of the average -sanitary engineer as of a medical officer of health that pure air, -pure water, properly constructed houses, and an unpolluted -soil are the cardinal conditions of health. These are mere -sanitary axioms. The means by which such conditions are<span class="pagenum" id="Page7">[7]</span> -attained are drainage, ventilation, water-supply, and other -matters entirely within the functions of the engineer. It is the -function of the sanitary engineer to prevent that which the -medical officer of health is called upon to detect. . . .</p> - -<p>“In many cases the unprotected surveyor may be required -to report to a protected medical officer the negligence of his -own employers. No local surveyor or engineer can be expected -to give cordial and active assistance in compulsory sanitary -work when he is conscious that his action would be opposed to -the views or the interests of his employers, the public upon -whom he is dependent. The existence of such a distinction -between the medical officer and surveyor under the same -board will produce a want of harmony in interest, and must -lead to a divergence of action between the two departments. . . .”</p> - -<p>And speaking of the multifarious duties of the town -surveyor, Mr. Angell says: “Any one section of his duties -would, under commercial circumstances, command fair pay -according to its importance; but where cumulative duties are -included in the same office, they demand constant attention, -special knowledge, professional experience, and administrative -ability; to which is added the anxiety which the responsibilities -of public office always involve. Such a position in -a commercial concern would receive high remuneration in -proportion to the extent of the undertaking, but unfortunately, -our work does not pay a dividend: it is all expenditure -from which the town derives no return excepting in -health and comfort, matters which are neither fairly assessed, -nor duly appreciated; consequently, the municipal engineer -is paid less for his professional knowledge than the contractor’s -agent whose work he directs.”</p> - -<p>Speaking further on the subject of Government protection, -Mr. Angell says: “Surveyors appointed under the Towns -Improvement Clauses Act were protected during the existence -of the General Board of Health. Sir C. Adderle<span class="pagenum" id="Page8">[8]</span>y’s -Public Health and Local Government Bill of 1872 proposed -similar protection. Officers employed under the Poor Laws -are fully protected as to position, emoluments, and superannuation. -The administration of the Poor Laws and the -Public Health Acts is now united in one department under -the newly established Local Government Board: it is therefore -in my opinion equally due to Local Board officers, that -they also should be recognised and protected. Without such -protection, sanitary legislation cannot, in the words of the -Royal Sanitary Commission, be ‘active and effective,’ because -local officers are too dependent on their immediate employers -to be thoroughly efficient.</p> - -<p>“In advocating protection let me not be misunderstood. -I do not mean centralisation or the removal of that proper -control which every local authority should maintain over its -own officers. I would maintain intact the great principle of -local government, which has been the bulwark of our social -and political freedom. But local government may degenerate, -and in small towns deteriorate into littleness: local -affairs are too frequently avoided by those who are most -fitted by intelligence and social standing to take part therein. -I would simply control in the most constitutional manner the -short-comings or excesses of local government as is already -done in various other departments. I would require that -local officers should be properly qualified and adequately -remunerated; that in the honest discharge of their duties and -during good behaviour they should be protected from the -effects of ignorance, narrow prejudices, and interested clamour, -and that they should have an appeal to a disinterested -and judicial body, superior to local feeling. The demand is -reasonable—I ask no more. . . . .”</p> - -<p>To these admirable remarks by Mr. Angell on the present -position of the town surveyor I can add but little.</p> - -<p>I believe that the sole reason which is given why Government -protection is not granted to the surveyor is the argument<span class="pagenum" id="Page9">[9]</span> -used by those in authority, that if a surveyor disagrees with -the corporation he serves, it is considered better that he -should resign his appointment rather than be protected by -the Local Government Board or other central office; but if -this argument is sound, why does it not also apply in a -similar manner to the medical officer of health or the -inspector of nuisances? The real fact no doubt is, that in -framing the Public Health Act of 1875, medical men were -consulted and not engineers, and this is very apparent in -many of the clauses, which will be fully considered in their -proper places in this book.</p> - -<p>The time will no doubt come when the necessity for -some change in the position of the town surveyor will be -apparent, and adequate protection will be afforded him; in -the meantime let him strive, by attention to work, and by -daily advancement in scientific knowledge, and in courtesy to -those with whom he is associated, to make the position and -power of the town surveyor felt and honoured as it should -be throughout the kingdom.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote1"></a><a href="#FNanchor1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> -The section is as follows:—“The Commissioners shall appoint, subject to -the prescribed approval, or where no approval is prescribed, subject to approval by -one of Her Majesty’s principal Secretaries of State, a person duly qualified to -act as a local surveyor of the paving, drainage, and other works authorized under -the provisions of this and the special Act . . . . . . and the Commissioners -with the like approval may remove any such surveyor.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote2"></a><a href="#FNanchor2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> -‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and -Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. i. p. 18.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page10">[10]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER II.<br /> -<span class="chapname">THE APPOINTMENT OF SURVEYOR.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">Whenever a vacancy occurs in the office of surveyor to a -town, or upon a sanitary authority determining to make such -an appointment, the question is usually relegated to a committee -or sub-committee to report upon the subject, to fix the -amount of salary proposed to be given, and frame the duties -of the office.</p> - -<p>The following report is one that has lately emanated from -an important English borough, and is given in full as a -specimen of such reports, and as a guide on which a report -could be framed; altered, of course, to such requirements as -may be locally <span class="nowrap">necessary:—</span></p> - -<h3><i>Report of the Special Sub-Committee as to the Surveyor.</i></h3> - -<p>(1.) Your sub-committee report that they have, in compliance -with the resolution of the day of , carefully -considered the steps to be taken with reference to the vacancy -caused by Mr. ———’s resignation, and they have come to -the unanimous conclusion that it is desirable that the office of -surveyor should be continued.</p> - -<p>(2.) Your sub-committee have also considered the duties -which were assigned to the office of Mr. ———’s appointment, -and they beg now to submit them, revised in accordance -with the present circumstances of the department, and with -the recommendations contained in this report.</p> - -<p>(3.) Your sub-committee further recommend that the -salary of the surveyor be fixed at £ . . per annum, and -that advertisements be issued for candidates.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page11">[11]</span></p> - -<h4 id="IntRef3"><i>Duties of the Surveyor.</i></h4> - -<p> (1.) To have charge of the repairs of all highways, and to perform -all duties devolving on the council as surveyors of highways.</p> - -<p> (2.) To report from time to time to the committee superintending -the same, the state of the several highways and lines -of tramway, and as to the materials wanted or works necessary.</p> - -<p> (3.) To prepare all plans, specifications, or instructions -necessary in relation thereto, and as to the materials to be -used therein, and to see that all works are completed according -to contracts entered into.</p> - -<p> (4.) To engage and dismiss under sanction of the committee -all workmen employed at daily and weekly wages.<a id="FNanchor3"></a><a href="#Footnote3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> - -<p> (5.) To certify all accounts for work done, materials supplied, -and wages due.</p> - -<p> (6.) To have charge of all materials and implements.</p> - -<p> (7.) To purchase or contract for, or hire all horses, carts, -tumbrils, stones, flags, gravel, draining pipes, and proper -implements and materials, and all other matters and things, -at such prices and in such manner as the committee shall -judge reasonable and expedient, and to sell or otherwise dispose -of the same as he may be directed.</p> - -<p> (8.) To have the entire charge and superintendence of the -breaking up and repairing of all streets, for the purpose of -laying or replacing gas and water pipes.</p> - -<p> (9.) To inspect and report, in conjunction with the medical -officer of health, upon slaughter-houses preliminary to -licences being granted, and to make the plans and superintend -the construction of any slaughter-houses which the council -may hereafter erect.</p> - -<p>(10.) To take all levels and surveys which may be necessary -for the purpose of deciding on the best mode of draining -the several districts, or any part thereof, or for the purpose of<span class="pagenum" id="Page12">[12]</span> -fixing the levels and inclinations of any streets or roads, or in -anywise relating thereto.</p> - -<p>(11.) To carry out the scheme now in course of construction -for the interception of the sewage of the borough, and -any future scheme, for its precipitation, filtration, deodorization, -or any other process which the council may adopt, either -within or without the borough.</p> - -<p>(12.) To superintend the construction and completion of -all tramway lines and sidings which may be required.</p> - -<p>(13.) To prepare, from time to time, schemes for the -drainage of the several districts or any part thereof.</p> - -<p>(14.) To prepare all such plans, sections, and specifications -as may be necessary for the due execution of any flagging, -paving, sewering, or other works required to be done, or for -entering into any contracts in relation thereto, and to see that -all works are executed in accordance therewith.</p> - -<p>(15.) To measure up and duly certify the execution of all -works, and apportion the cost to the parties chargeable therewith.</p> - -<p>(16.) To see that all house drains, which may from time to -time be carried into any public sewer, are made and connected -in accordance with the regulations.</p> - -<p>(17.) To give to the several contractors performing any -works, orders for the same in writing only, keeping duplicates -thereof, duly entered in a book to be kept by him for that -purpose.</p> - -<p id="IntRef1">(18.) To prepare all plans, drawings, and estimates required, -and to superintend the execution of all improvements.</p> - -<p>(19.) To see that no encroachments be made on any highway -or public place.</p> - -<p id="IntRef2">(20.) To advise on, and execute, all engineering works, -and prepare all such plans, specifications, and estimates of, -and take out quantities for, such sewers, buildings, bridges, -and works as may be required, and to superintend the erection -and execution thereof.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page13">[13]</span></p> - -<p>(21.) To have in his charge, and be responsible for, the -proper management of all buildings and properties belonging to -the corporation, or for the repair and maintenance of which the -corporation is liable, except otherwise directed by the council.</p> - -<p>(22.) To examine and report upon all plans and elevations -of buildings proposed to be erected or altered upon land sold -or leased by the corporation.</p> - -<p>(23.) To inspect and report on plans of new streets to be -laid out, of houses to be built, and of buildings to be erected -or altered.</p> - -<p>(24) To see that all streets are properly named, and that -the name plates are kept in good order.</p> - -<p>(25.) To act as building surveyor in all matters relating to -the execution of the Sanitary and Local Acts, and to examine -and certify new houses as fit for habitation.</p> - -<p>(26.) To examine all buildings in a condition dangerous -to the public, to report thereon, and to take such steps as may -be necessary to prevent accidents arising therefrom.</p> - -<p>(27.) To prepare all plans and sections for deposit, pursuant -to Standing Orders, with respect to all street improvements, -tramways, gasworks, waterworks, or other works, unless -otherwise ordered by the council, and to prepare all other -surveys, plans, and sections required.</p> - -<p>(28.) To attend the meetings of the several committees -when required.</p> - -<p>(29.) To prepare all returns relating to his office that may -be required by the Government.</p> - -<p>(30.) To attend in London or elsewhere when required, -without extra charge, excepting only his travelling and hotel -expenses.</p> - -<p>(31.) To keep accurate permanent records and plans relating -to all properties purchased, leased, or sold, or in possession.</p> - -<p>(32.) To devote the whole of his time to the duties of his -office, and not to be engaged in any other office, business, or -employment whatever.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page14">[14]</span></p> - -<p>(33.) To report from time to time all and every matter -connected with any branch of his office which, in his opinion, -may require the attention of any committee, and take their -instructions thereon.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore_tb"><a href="#IntRef1">Clauses 18</a> and <a href="#IntRef2">20</a> in the above list of duties are very -comprehensive, and as a rule a town surveyor’s duties may -be summed up in a very few words—“to do anything that he -is requested.” It is, however, better that some definite instructions -should be laid down, and those which I have given may -be taken as a fair specimen of what such duties may be.</p> - -<p>Unlike the medical officer of health, who by Act of -Parliament is required to hold a diploma of competency,<a id="FNanchor4"></a><a href="#Footnote4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> it -is open to anyone to apply for and obtain the appointment of -a town surveyor. This is no doubt unfortunate, as some test -of merit is desirable, and of late years the necessity of some -examination as to competency has been much discussed.</p> - -<p>In order to meet this requirement, the Sanitary Institute -of Great Britain has instituted examinations and granted -certificates of competency for both town surveyors and -inspectors of nuisances. The following particulars of these -examinations, and the reasons given for their necessity, may -be of interest, and are given in full.<a id="FNanchor5"></a><a href="#Footnote5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> - -<h3><i>Examination of Local Surveyors and Inspectors of Nuisances.</i></h3> - -<p>The great and increasing importance of the duties devolving -upon local surveyors and inspectors of nuisances in connection -with the various statutes relating to Public Health and -the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, has led the council of the -Institute to establish voluntary examinations for local surveyors -and inspectors of nuisances, and for persons desirous of -becoming such, or of obtaining the certificate of the Institute.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page15">[15]</span></p> - -<p>Each examination occupies a portion of two days. On -the first day the examination of surveyors is continued for -four hours, viz. from 2 to 4 and 6 to 8 <span class="smcapall">P.M.</span> and consists of -written papers only. Inspectors of nuisances have two hours’ -written examination on the first day, viz. from 4 to 6 <span class="smcapall">P.M.</span> -On the second day the examination for both classes commences -at 11 <span class="smcapall">A.M.</span>, and is <i>vivâ voce</i>; with one or more questions -to be answered in writing if deemed necessary. A certificate -of competence signed by the examiners is granted to successful -candidates.</p> - -<p>As rural sanitary authorities are able under the Public -Health Act 1875 to obtain almost all the powers of urban -sanitary authorities, it is not considered advisable to make -any distinction in the examination of the two classes of -surveyors.</p> - -<p>As one person may, under the Public Health Act 1875, be -both local surveyor and inspector of nuisances, candidates -wishing to obtain the double qualification may enter for both -examinations on the same occasion.</p> - -<p>Candidates are required to furnish to the council of the -Institute satisfactory testimonials as to personal character, and -to give two weeks’ notice to the secretary previous to presenting -themselves for examination, stating whether they wish -to be examined as surveyors or inspectors of nuisances, or -as both.</p> - -<p>The fee for the examination must be paid to the secretary, -by post-office order or otherwise, at least six days before the -the day of examination. On receipt of the fee a ticket will be -forwarded admitting to the examination.</p> - -<p>The fees payable for the examination are as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="fees"> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">For Surveyors</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">£5</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">5</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr3">For Inspectors of Nuisances</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Unsuccessful candidates are allowed to present themselves -a second time for one fee.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page16">[16]</span></p> - -<h3><i>Syllabus of Subjects for Examination for Local Surveyors.</i></h3> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Laws and Bye-Laws.</i></h4> - -<p class="inlineh">—A thorough knowledge of the Acts -affecting sanitary authorities, so far as they relate to the duties -of local surveyors; also of the model bye-laws issued by the -Local Government Board.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Sewerage and Drainage.</i></h4> - -<p class="inlineh">—The sanitary principles which -should be observed in the preparation of schemes for, and the -construction of sewerage works; the ventilating and flushing of -sewers and drains; the internal drainage and other sanitary -arrangements of houses, privies, water-closets, dry-closets, and -the removal of refuse; the sanitary details of builders’ and -plumbers’ work.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Water Supply of Towns and Houses.</i></h4> - -<p class="inlineh">—The sanitary -principles which should be observed in the preparation of -schemes for, and the construction of water-works; the various -ways in which water is likely to become polluted and the best -means of ensuring its purity.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Regulations of Cellar Dwellings and Lodging Houses.</i></h4> - -<p class="inlineh">—General -principles of ventilation; the amount of air and space -necessary for men and animals; the means of supplying air, -and of ensuring its purity.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Highways and Streets.</i></h4> - -<p class="inlineh">—The sanitary principles which -should be observed in the construction and cleansing of streets -and roads.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Examination Papers, November 6, 1879.</span></h3> - -<h4><i>Questions for Surveyors, November 6, 1879, 2 to 4 o’clock.</i></h4> - -<p>1. Define street; state the law applicable to every description -of street in an urban sanitary authority district, and -the rights and obligations and duties of sanitary authorities, -owners and occupiers therein.</p> - -<p>2. What are the relative advantages of circular and egg-shaped -sewers; in what case are they respectively preferred?</p> - -<p>3. Give a specification of a water-tight sewer. Describe<span class="pagenum" id="Page17">[17]</span> -and give a sketch of the form of man-hole which you consider -best adapted for ordinary town sewers, and state the rule -which you adopt for determining the amount of ventilation to -be afforded in a main street sewer.</p> - -<p>4. In what way does the size and shape of the sewer affect -the velocity of sewage flowing through it? If a nine-inch pipe -sewer, laid at an inclination of 1 in 200, gives a velocity of 3 -feet per second, what velocity will it give when laid at an -inclination of 1 in 800, the pipe running full in each case? -Will this velocity suffice to keep it clear from deposits? -Describe the various modes which may be resorted to for -flushing sewers.</p> - -<p>5. Give a description of the process termed intermittent -downward filtration. State what area of land you would -require, with a gravelly soil, for applying this method of -purifying sewage to a town with a population of 1000 inhabitants, -and state the arrangements you would adopt for dealing -with the rain-water falling on the roofs, yards, and streets.</p> - -<h4><i>November 6, 1879, 6 to 8 o’clock.</i></h4> - -<p>1. In reporting upon the source of water supply for a -town, what are the points to which you would direct your -attention?</p> - -<p>2. Give a sketch of a <span class="sstype">D</span> trap, an <span class="sstype">S</span> trap, -a <span class="sstype">P</span> trap, and a pan -water closet (plan of a dwelling-house annexed).</p> - -<p>3. Criticise the arrangements of this residence as to position -of rooms, walls, doors, fire places, windows, &c., from a sanitary -point of view.</p> - -<p>4. Describe the drainage arrangements shown on the plan. -Say whether they are satisfactory; if not, in what way are -they faulty?</p> - -<p>5. Sketch on the plan any other system of drains which -you would think preferable.</p> - -<p>6. Describe in detail the arrangements necessary for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page18">[18]</span> -water supply of the residence, a bath being fixed in the room -over the serving room, a W.C. on the first floor over that on the -ground floor, and a housemaid’s sink near.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore_tb">It is, of course, open to consideration whether the Sanitary -Institute of Great Britain is the proper authority to hold these -examinations or not; but there is no doubt that some such -examination is necessary, and would be welcomed by nearly -all town surveyors in order to more firmly secure their -positions; and the Sanitary Institute is entitled to every -credit for having taken the initiative step in the matter.</p> - -<p>Under the present system of appointment to the office of -town surveyor those seeking that office must be prepared to -work hard to obtain it, and to give up some considerable time -to its acquisition. Tact, patience, and perseverance are indispensable -qualities when seeking such appointments, and the -following suggestions on this matter may be of use.</p> - -<p>The appointment usually rests finally with the whole body -of the town council or corporation, even if a sub-committee or -committee has been appointed in the first case to make some -selection of candidates. The candidates thus selected by the -committee are usually requested to appear before the whole -body of the town council, who then make the appointment from -amongst them.</p> - -<p>The first thing a candidate should do when he hears of a -vacancy occurring in the office of a town surveyor, or sees an -advertisement requiring a surveyor’s services, is to obtain -fresh testimonials from those persons of position and influence -for whom he has worked or who know him professionally. -These testimonials, with any very good old ones (but not too -many of either), should be sent by post to the town clerk or -person mentioned in the advertisement, with a formal, carefully-worded -application for the appointment.</p> - -<p>If canvassing is not prohibited, a list of the members of the -town council, with their addresses, should then be procured,<span class="pagenum" id="Page19">[19]</span> -to whom printed copies of the application and testimonials -should be sent, accompanied by an autograph letter asking -that the application and testimonials should be read.</p> - -<p>This should be followed up (if possible, immediately), by a -journey to the town and a personal visit to each member of -the council or corporation, not necessarily for the purpose of -soliciting a vote, but with a view to making the acquaintance -of the members of the corporation and to identify the applicant -with his testimonials; and in these visits great tact and -patience are necessary. It is also of importance to seek and -obtain all the outside influence that is possible, in order to -bear upon the members of the corporation, by means of letters -of introduction, and informal testimonials as to eligibility for -the appointment, and personal character and position, &c.</p> - -<p>Canvassing on behalf of oneself is extremely unpleasant and -harrassing work; but wrong as the system may appear to be, -it is not easy to see how, in municipal government, any other -method can be adopted, and the visit of the candidate to each -member gives the latter an opportunity of asking him -questions and satisfying himself as to his qualifications, and -thus he will not feel he is acting blindly when he gives his -vote in favour of that candidate whom he thinks, after a -personal interview, the most suitable for the appointment.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote3"></a><a href="#FNanchor3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> -This seems to be an undue interference with the control which a surveyor -should always have over his men.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote4"></a><a href="#FNanchor4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> -“A person shall not be appointed Medical Officer of Health under this Act -unless he is a legally qualified medical practitioner” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, sec. 191).</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote5"></a><a href="#FNanchor5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> -‘Calendar of the Sanitary Institution of Great Britain for the year 1880.’</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page20">[20]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER III.<br /> -<span class="chapname">THE SURVEYOR’S DUTIES.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">It will be observed on reference to the <a href="#IntRef3">list</a> of the duties of the -surveyor, given in the preceding chapter, that the first on the -list is as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>“To have charge of the repairs of all highways, and to -perform all duties devolving on the council as surveyors of -highways.”</p> - -<p>The necessity for these duties are obvious when we turn to -the Public Health Act 1875, and read the following sections:—<a id="FNanchor6"></a><a href="#Footnote6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> - -<p>“Every urban authority shall within their district, exclusively -of any other person, execute the office of and be surveyor -of highways, and have, exercise, and be subject to all the -powers, authorities, duties, and liabilities of surveyors of highways -under the law for the time being in force, save so far as -such powers, authorities, or duties are or may be inconsistent -with the provisions of this Act; every urban authority shall -also have, exercise, and be subject to all the powers, authorities, -duties, and liabilities which by the Highway Act 1835, or any -Act amending the same, are vested in and given to the -inhabitants in vestry assembled of any parish within their -district.</p> - -<p>“All ministerial acts required by any Act of Parliament to -be done by or to the surveyor of highways may be done by -or to the surveyor of the urban authority, or by or to such -other person as they may appoint” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 144).</p> - -<p>“All streets being or which at any time become highways<span class="pagenum" id="Page21">[21]</span> -repairable by the inhabitants at large within any urban district, -and the pavements, stones, and other materials thereof, -and all buildings, implements, and other things provided for -the purposes thereof, shall vest in and be under the control of -the urban authority. The urban authority shall from time to -time cause all such streets to be levelled, paved, metalled, -flagged, channelled, altered, and repaired as occasion may -require; they may from time to time cause the soil of any -such street to be raised, lowered, or altered as they may think -fit, and may place and may keep in repair fences and posts for -the safety of foot-passengers. Any person who without the -consent of the urban authority wilfully displaces, or takes up, -or who injures the pavement, stones, material, fences, or posts -of, or the trees in, any such street shall be liable to a penalty -not exceeding five pounds, and to a further penalty not -exceeding five shillings for every square foot of pavement, -stones, or other materials so displaced, taken up, or injured; -he shall also be liable, in the case of any injury to trees, to -pay to the local authority such amount of compensation as the -court may award” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 149).</p> - -<p>The duties thus devolving upon the town surveyor by -reason of these sections and the orders of the council are very -considerable. The following table gives a list of the principal -subjects which will require his attention; all of which will be -considered in due course in this book.</p> - -<h3><i>List of Duties devolving upon a Town Surveyor as “Surveyor -of Highways.”</i></h3> - -<p> (1.) The construction and maintenance of highways or -streets, <span class="nowrap">including—</span></p> - -<div class="dutylist"> - -<p> (<i>a.</i>) Roads formed of broken stones or “metal,” commonly -called macadamised roadways;</p> - -<p> (<i>b.</i>) Streets paved with granite cubes or setts;</p> - -<p> (<i>c.</i>) Streets paved with wood;</p> - -<p> (<i>d.</i>) Streets paved with asphalte.</p> - -</div><!--dutylist--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page22">[22]</span></p> - -<p> (2.) The construction and maintenance of footwalks or -footpaths, including the different materials of which these are -formed.</p> - -<p> (3.) The breaking of stone for road metal.</p> - -<p> (4.) Steam rolling.</p> - -<p> (5.) The necessary notices and specifications under the -150th Section of the Public Health Act 1875, for the purpose -of compelling private streets to be properly sewered, levelled, -paved, metalled, flagged, channelled, lighted, and made good.</p> - -<p> (6.) The lighting, cleansing, and watering of streets.</p> - -<p> (7.) The naming and numbering of streets.</p> - -<p> (8.) The planting of trees along the sides of footwalks.</p> - -<p> (9.) Obstructions caused by builders’ rubbish or by hoardings -and scaffold poles; and also by dangerous or defective -cellar coverings.</p> - -<p>(10.) The damage caused to footpaths by allowing water -from private premises to flow over them, and the nuisance -caused by defective rain-water gutters or shutes.</p> - -<p>(11.) The damage caused to roadways by the laying or -removal of gas and water mains and services, and the -surveyor’s powers and duties in connection therewith.</p> - -<p>(12.) The importance, especially in old towns, of laying -down improved building lines of frontage in the narrower or -crooked streets.</p> - -<p>(13.) The examination of all plans of proposed new streets -or buildings.</p> - -<p>(14.) The supervision of all new streets and buildings -whilst their construction is in progress.</p> - -<p>(15.) Dealing with all buildings in a condition dangerous -to the public.</p> - -<p>Each of the foregoing list of duties will be dealt with in -separate chapters in addition to other matters which will be -treated, but before closing this chapter a few words upon the -subject of “meetings” may be of use.</p> - -<p>It will be observed upon reference to the list which I have<span class="pagenum" id="Page23">[23]</span> -given of the duties of the surveyor, that there is one which -says, “To attend all meetings of the board, and committee -meetings, except where his attendance has been previously -dispensed with; to attend upon the chairman when so -required.”</p> - -<p>The result of this order is that a very large percentage of -the surveyor’s time has to be devoted to attendances at long -meetings of the Board or town council, and at the numerous -committee and sub-committee meetings which are appointed -under it.</p> - -<p>This work is doubled where, as in some towns, the -corporation and their committees sit in a dual capacity, -viz. as the council proper, and the council as the urban -sanitary authority; this generally involves two ordinary -meetings of the whole body each month, and probably at -least six committee meetings a week, leaving the surveyor -but scanty time to look properly after his works.</p> - -<p>With regard to these committee meetings it is necessary -that each should have some distinguishing title descriptive -of the class of work over which it has jurisdiction, and in -selecting names for them the following list may be of some -service:—Finance Committee, General Purposes Committee, -Law and Parliamentary Committee, Surveyor’s Committee, -Land and Estates Committee, Rates and Taxes Committee, -Streets Committee, Lighting and Cleansing Committee, Navigation -of Port Committee, Public Grounds Committee, Sanitary -Committee, Drainage and Sewerage Committee, Markets -Committee, Properties for Sale Committee, Works Committee, -Water Committee, Gas Committee, Watch Committee, Health -Committee, Library Museum and Arts Committee, Baths -Committee, Parks, Gardens, and Improvement Committee, -Streets Improvement Committee, etc. etc.</p> - -<p>The surveyor should always endeavour to be punctual in -his attendance at the council meetings and those of the -committees, as to be late is always looked upon with disfavour.<span class="pagenum" id="Page24">[24]</span> -His reports should as much as possible be in writing, -so that there should be no misunderstanding as to what his -advice is on any subject. To save trouble and expense it is -well that all drawings of new schemes should be first submitted -to a committee in pencil, as they are frequently much altered; -this is very vexing if they have been neatly and highly -finished. It must not be forgotten that the gentlemen who -form municipal bodies give their time gratuitously, and everything -should be done to save it as much as possible. It is an -excellent plan and a great convenience, if a surveyor will -have a series of named and numbered pigeon holes in his -office corresponding to his committees, in which to place all -papers, drawings, correspondence etc., which he intends to -bring up to the next meeting of a committee; thus saving -himself flurry at the last moment before the meeting, in -endeavouring to find the papers he wants. With his varied -duties, correspondence, interviews, meetings, inspections, investigations, -reports, drawings, and calculations, the motto of -a surveyor’s office should be “method.”</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote6"></a><a href="#FNanchor6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> -For full particulars and explanations of the various Highway Acts see -‘The Powers and Duties of Surveyors of Highways and of other Authorities with -regard to the Management of the Public Highways,’ by Alex. Glen, M.A., etc.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page25">[25]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<span class="chapname">TRAFFIC.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">Before a surveyor can decide upon the best material with -which the streets of his town shall be paved, it will be well to -consider the question of the class of traffic they will have to -bear.</p> - -<p>It must be remembered that three distinct interests have -to be considered in dealing with this question, viz. (1.) The -rate-payers, upon whom the cost of construction and maintenance -of streets falls. (2.) The owners and employers of -horses and vehicles who principally use the streets; and (3.) -The inhabitants of the adjoining premises, who would be -annoyed if the material selected were unduly noisy or dirty. -In addition to these considerations, much depends upon local -circumstances; the class of trade upon which the welfare of a -town is dependent must not be lost sight of. A pavement suitable -for a busy, pushing manufacturing city may not be suitable -for a quiet agricultural or cathedral town, or for a town which -is used as a health resort. Again, the question of the most -adaptable materials must be considered, and the climate and -physical character of a town should enter largely also into this -question.</p> - -<p>To condense the requirements of a good roadway into as -small a compass as possible, the following may be given as -some of its principal <span class="nowrap">requisites:—</span></p> - -<p> (1.) It must not be extravagantly costly in its first construction.</p> - -<p> (2.) It must be durable and require the least possible -amount of repairs at the least cost.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page26">[26]</span></p> - -<p> (3.) It must be safe, firm and hard, with an even face and -yet giving sufficient foothold to horses.</p> - -<p> (4.) It must be as noiseless as possible.</p> - -<p> (5.) It must be so constructed as to be quickly laid down -and repaired when broken up for water, gas, drains, or other -purposes.</p> - -<p> (6.) It must be of strong foundation, so as to carry the -heaviest weight without subsidence.</p> - -<p> (7.) It must be of such a shape as will throw off all -surface water at once.</p> - -<p> (8.) It must be of such materials as will make a -minimum of dust or mud.</p> - -<p> (9.) It must be easily cleansed.</p> - -<p>(10.) It must be non-absorbent of impurities or moisture -of any kind.</p> - -<p>(11.) It must give easy traction upon its surface.</p> - -<p>(12.) It must not cause jolting to the traffic.</p> - -<p>(13.) It must not injure horses’ legs or hoofs.</p> - -<p>Of the above requirements No. 1 affects the ratepayers -alone; Nos. 3, 11, 12, 13, affect the traffic only, except that -the occupiers of shops are indirectly affected by them; No. 4 -affects both traffic and occupiers, and No. 10 affects the -occupiers principally. The remainder of the requirements -affect all three interests.</p> - -<p>With reference to the wearing effect of traffic upon the -surface of the roadway, no standard has yet been arrived at -by which this can be determined with accuracy. In France a -great number of observations and experiments have been -made from time to time by the engineers of the Ponts et -Chaussées, but their practice has been to count the number of -“collars” passing a given section of a roadway in a given time, -irrespective of the weights, speeds, or number of wheels such -collars may be drawing. Mr. Deacon, the former Borough -Engineer of Liverpool, has, however, reduced traffic to a standard -of tons per yard width of roadway per annum. This he<span class="pagenum" id="Page27">[27]</span> -effected by having the traffic in any street carefully watched -for a certain definite time, the number of vehicles, their -character and approximate weight being noted as well as -the number of horses by which they were drawn, and their -number of wheels.</p> - -<p>The effect of the traffic thus tabulated, arranged, and -reduced to ton yards per annum, can be ascertained upon any -roadway, and Mr. Deacon has given the results of his observations -in a valuable paper on the subject of street carriage -pavements which he read before the Institution of Civil -Engineers.<a id="FNanchor7"></a><a href="#Footnote7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - -<p>Sir John MacNeill has estimated that 80 per cent. of the -total wear of a road is due to traffic, the remaining 20 per -cent. being due to atmospheric causes. Of this 80 per cent. -60 per cent. he considers is due to the action of horses’ hoofs -where the traffic is fast, and 44·5 per cent. where the traffic -is slow. General Morin estimates the wear of a road due to -horses’ feet to be two-thirds of all causes. There can be no -doubt that the action of horses’ feet, shod as they are with -heavy iron shoes with long toe pieces and heels, must have a -destructive effect upon the surface of a carriage-way, and this -may be easily observed when watching the ruts formed by -any continuous line of traffic in a roadway.</p> - -<p>The following remarks from a report of the Society of -Arts on this subject may here be of interest. “It may be -mentioned that as respects the horses’ shoes, attention has -long been called to its defects by Sir Francis Head and -others, but Sir Joseph Whitworth now points out the achievement -of a decided and important improvement, which will have -a large effect in road conservancy, as well as the reduction of -noise. The improvement consists in the fastening of a rim of -hardened steel, of about half-an-inch square, to the horses’ -feet, and letting the frog grow to its natural size. One effect<span class="pagenum" id="Page28">[28]</span> -is to reduce by five-sixths the weight of the old shoe, or in -other words to reduce by five-sixths the weight of the iron -hammers constituted by the common horses’ shoes, pounding -the road surface, and creating road dust and dirt, and distributing -it about. The saving in this respect, as well as the -reduction of noise by the reduction of the weight of rim, and -also the saving of road wear, would warrant the imposition of -the stimulus of a tax, or a toll upon heavy horses’ shoes to -hasten this removal.”<a id="FNanchor8"></a><a href="#Footnote8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> - -<p>Up to the present date, however (1883), no general change -has been effected in the manner of shoeing horses, notwithstanding -these admirable remarks of Sir Joseph Whitworth -upon the subject.</p> - -<p>With reference to the question of traction upon roads -General Morin, in his ‘Expériences sur le Tirage des Voitures,’ -states that the resistance to the rolling of vehicles upon solid -metalled roads and pavements is proportional to the weight -and inversely proportional to the diameter of the wheels. On -solid roads he states that the resistance is nearly independent -of the width of the tires when they exceed 3 or 4 inches, but -on a compressible face it decreases in proportion to the width -of the tire; the resistance further increases with the velocity on -hard roads, but does not do so when they are soft.</p> - -<p>The following table is almost universally now adopted as -showing the traction upon level roads formed of different -materials, asphalte being taken as the standard of excellence -in this respect.</p> - -<table class="fsize90" summary="Traction"> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline w25m"> </td> -<td class="thinline w30m"> </td> -<td class="thinline w10m"> </td> -<td class="thinline w25m"> </td> -<td class="thinline"> </td> -<td class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="5" class="left padr4">Asphalted roadway</td> -<td class="left">1·0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Paved</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left"> roadway, </td> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">dry and in good order</td> -<td class="left">1·5 to 2·0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">„</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">in fair order</td> -<td class="left">2·0 „ 2·5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">„</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">but covered with mud</td> -<td class="left">2·0 „ 2·7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left">Macadamised</td> -<td colspan="2" class="left"> roadway, </td> -<td class="left padr4">dry and in good order</td> -<td class="left">2·5 „ 3·0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">„</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">„</td> -<td class="left padr4">in a wet state</td> -<td class="left">3·3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">„</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">„</td> -<td class="left padr4">in fair order</td> -<td class="left">4·5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">„</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">„</td> -<td class="left padr4">but covered with mud</td> -<td class="left">5·5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="center">„</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">„</td> -<td class="left padr4">with the stones loose</td> -<td class="left">5·0 „ 8·2</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page29">[29]</span></p> - -<p>There are four forces constantly at work tending to destroy -the momentum of vehicles passing along a roadway: they are -gravity, collision, friction, and the resistance of the air.</p> - -<p>The first of these is lessened by easy gradients in a road, the -second can be overcome to a great extent by evenness of surface, -the third by hardness, and the fourth, as well as all the -others, by giving sufficient foothold to the animal drawing the -vehicle.</p> - -<p>Another excellent table<a id="FNanchor9"></a><a href="#Footnote9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> prepared from experiments made -by Mr. Amos on different descriptions of pavement in the -City of London may be useful, and is here <span class="nowrap">given:—</span></p> - -<table class="pavements" summary="Pavements"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th colspan="4" class="br">Road Material.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Speed in<br />Miles<br />per hour.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Draught<br />in lbs.</th> -<th class="br">Fraction<br />of Load.</th> -<th colspan="2">Tractive<br />Force in<br />Decimals<br />of the<br />Load.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="descr">Gravelly Macadam in a side street</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace br"> </td> -<td class="intpart">6</td> -<td class="decpart br">·945</td> -<td class="intpart">126</td> -<td class="decpart br">·6</td> -<td class="frac"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot">45·3</span></span></td> -<td class="intpart zero"> </td> -<td class="decpart">·0219</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="intpart">3</td> -<td class="decpart br">·45</td> -<td class="intpart">114</td> -<td class="decpart br">·322</td> -<td class="frac"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot">50·3</span></span></td> -<td class="intpart zero"> </td> -<td class="decpart">·0197</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3" class="descr">Granite pitching by side of tramway</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="brace">-</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td rowspan="3" class="brace br"> </td> -<td class="intpart">5</td> -<td class="decpart br">·15</td> -<td class="intpart">70</td> -<td class="decpart br">·963</td> -<td class="frac"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot">81·1</span></span></td> -<td class="intpart zero"> </td> -<td class="decpart">·0123</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="intpart">3</td> -<td class="decpart br">·196</td> -<td class="intpart">41</td> -<td class="decpart br">·932</td> -<td class="frac"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot">137·3</span></span></td> -<td class="intpart zero"> </td> -<td class="decpart">·0072</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="intpart">2</td> -<td class="decpart br">·557</td> -<td class="intpart">47</td> -<td class="decpart br">·572</td> -<td class="frac"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot">121</span></span></td> -<td class="intpart zero"> </td> -<td class="decpart">·0082</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="descr">Granite Macadam “freshly laid”</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace br"> </td> -<td class="intpart">4</td> -<td class="decpart br">·239</td> -<td class="intpart">262</td> -<td class="decpart br">·886</td> -<td class="frac"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot">21·9</span></span></td> -<td class="intpart zero"> </td> -<td class="decpart">·0456</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="intpart">2</td> -<td class="decpart br">·775</td> -<td class="intpart">242</td> -<td class="decpart br">·726</td> -<td class="frac"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot">23·7</span></span></td> -<td class="intpart zero"> </td> -<td class="decpart">·0421</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3" class="descr">Asphalte Pavement</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="brace">-</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td rowspan="3" class="brace br"> </td> -<td class="intpart">5</td> -<td class="decpart br">·025</td> -<td class="intpart">91</td> -<td class="decpart br">·525</td> -<td class="frac"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot">64·9</span></span></td> -<td class="intpart zero"> </td> -<td class="decpart">·0158</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="intpart">3</td> -<td class="decpart br">·56</td> -<td class="intpart">69</td> -<td class="decpart br">·753</td> -<td class="frac"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot">82·5</span></span></td> -<td class="intpart zero"> </td> -<td class="decpart">·0121</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="intpart">5</td> -<td class="decpart br">·687</td> -<td class="intpart">84</td> -<td class="decpart br">·268</td> -<td class="frac"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot">68·3</span></span></td> -<td class="intpart zero"> </td> -<td class="decpart">·0111</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="3" class="descr">Wood Pavement</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="brace">-</td> -<td rowspan="3" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td rowspan="3" class="brace br"> </td> -<td class="intpart">3</td> -<td class="decpart br">·932</td> -<td class="intpart">118</td> -<td class="decpart br">·163</td> -<td class="frac"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot">48·7</span></span></td> -<td class="intpart zero"> </td> -<td class="decpart">·0205</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="intpart">3</td> -<td class="decpart br">·278</td> -<td class="intpart">102</td> -<td class="decpart br">·412</td> -<td class="frac"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot">56·2</span></span></td> -<td class="intpart zero"> </td> -<td class="decpart">·0177</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="intpart">3</td> -<td class="decpart br">·827</td> -<td class="intpart">100</td> -<td class="decpart br">·066</td> -<td class="frac"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot">57·5</span></span></td> -<td class="intpart zero"> </td> -<td class="decpart">·0173</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Macadam road, very good on Victoria Embankment</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace">-</td> -<td class="brace br"> </td> -<td class="intpart">6</td> -<td class="decpart br">·65</td> -<td class="intpart">109</td> -<td class="decpart br">·06</td> -<td class="frac"><span class="horsplit"><span class="top">1</span><span class="bot">52·7</span></span></td> -<td class="intpart zero"> </td> -<td class="decpart">·0181</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page30">[30]</span></p> - -<p>The following table from Law’s ‘Rudimentary Treatise on -Civil Engineering’ shows the force required to move a load of -a ton weight on different descriptions of roadway, the -limiting angle of resistance, and the greatest inclination which -should be given to the road being also stated.</p> - -<table class="pavements" summary="Pavements"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br">Description<br />of the Road.</th> -<th class="br">Force<br />in lbs.<br />required<br />to move<br />a ton.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Limiting<br />angle of<br />resistance.</th> -<th colspan="3">Greatest<br />inclination<br />which should<br />be given<br />to the road.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th>°</th> -<th class="br">′</th> -<th colspan="3"> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr br">Well laid pavement</td> -<td class="right br padr3">33</td> -<td class="center">0</td> -<td class="center br">50</td> -<td class="center padl2">1</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">in</td> -<td class="center padr1">68</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr br">Broken stone surface on a bottom of rough pavement or concrete</td> -<td class="right br padr3">46</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="center br">11</td> -<td class="center padl2">1</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="center padr1">49</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr br">Broken stone surface laid on an old flint road</td> -<td class="right br padr3">65</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="center br">40</td> -<td class="center padl2">1</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="center padr1">34</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="descr br">Gravel road</td> -<td class="right br padr3">147</td> -<td class="center">3</td> -<td class="center br">45</td> -<td class="center padl2">1</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="center padr1">15</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>As a matter of fact, however, the gradient of a macadamised -road should not, if possible, exceed 1 in 20,<a id="FNanchor10"></a><a href="#Footnote10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> experience having -shown that a horse, unless the hill is a very long one, is able -to draw his ordinary load for a level up such an inclination, -whereas, if it is steeper he is sometimes stopped altogether, -even though the carter tries the zigzag route so as to obtain -an artificial ease of gradient.</p> - -<p>The table given in ‘Molesworth’ upon the same subject is -too well known to be repeated, and another table may be -found in Sir Henry Parnell’s work on roads, which gives a -comparison between the draught necessary on a well-paved -road at 2, on a well-made, clean macadamised road at 5, -whereas on a wet and muddy gravel or flint road it rises -to 32!</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page31">[31]</span></p> - -<p>Mr. T. D. Hope, of Liverpool, assuming the power of -traction at 100, gives the following <span class="nowrap">table:—</span></p> - -<table class="fsize90 dontwrap" summary="Traction"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2"> </th> -<th colspan="3">Weight<br />drawn.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr0">Level </td> -<td class="left padl0 padr4">macadamised road</td> -<td class="right padr0">27</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left">cwt.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr4">granite pavement</td> -<td class="right padr0">30</td> -<td class="left padl0">·5</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr4">wood <span class="dontshow">pave</span>„</td> -<td class="right padr0">54</td> -<td class="left padl0">·75</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="noindent">And Lieut. Crompton has given the resistance of wheels in -lbs. per ton on different surfaces as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<table class="fsize90 dontwrap" summary="Resistance"> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">Very good pavement</td> -<td class="right padr1">35</td> -<td class="center">lbs.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">Good macadam</td> -<td class="right padr1">60</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">Ordinary ditto</td> -<td class="right padr1">90</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">Newly-laid gravel</td> -<td class="right padr1">200</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">Soft grass land</td> -<td class="right padr1">300</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">Newly-laid metal</td> -<td class="right padr1">440</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="noindent">Here “newly-laid metal” comes out very badly, and points to -the necessity of rolling, of which I shall speak in a <a href="#Page60">future -chapter</a>.</p> - -<p>Whilst on the question of wheel resistance, it may be well -to note that the small front wheels of a waggon cause considerably -more harm to a macadamised road than the larger hind -wheels. In the smaller diameter any loose stone or obstruction -is pushed along in front for a considerable distance, often -tearing up the surface of the road, whereas in the other case -the stone is forced into its place or crushed as under a -roller.</p> - -<p>On the question of “safety” to traffic, Mr. Haywood, the -eminent Surveyor of the City of London, has caused several -most complete observations to be made from time to time, the -results of such observations being detailed by him in various -reports. Amongst other useful information compiled by him, -he has ascertained that a horse will travel 446 miles upon a -roadway paved with blocks of wood without a fall, 191 miles -upon asphalte, and 132 miles upon granite setts. I cannot do -better than give verbatim his remarks upon this <span class="nowrap">point:—</span></p> - -<p>“Slight rain makes both asphalte and wood more slippery -than they are at other times. On asphalte the slipperiness<span class="pagenum" id="Page32">[32]</span> -begins almost immediately the rain commences, wood requires -more rain before its worst condition ensues. The slipperiness -lasts longer upon wood, on account of its absorbent nature, -than it does upon the asphalte; when dry weather comes after -the rain, when asphalte is in its most slippery state, and the -horses fall on it very suddenly, <i>on wood their efforts to save -themselves are more effectual</i>; wood also is frequently in that -peculiar condition of surface in which horses slip or glide along -it without falling. A small quantity of dirt upon asphalte -makes it very slippery, wood requires a large quantity. Slipperiness -can be temporarily cured on both pavements; on the -asphalte by sprinkling it with sand, on the wood by -sprinkling it with gravel. The result in both cases is dirt. -<i>The sand thrown on asphalte helps to wear it out, the gravel -thrown on wood tends to preserve it.</i> When a horse falls on -asphalte it has difficulty in getting up; on wood it rises more -readily.”<a id="FNanchor11"></a><a href="#Footnote11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> - -<p>In streets crowded with traffic, the constant stopping and -starting, especially on any surface that is slippery, is very -trying to horses. Attention has lately been directed to this -point with a view to the storage of some power in a vehicle, -either by the compression of a spring in stopping or by some -other mechanical means, in order that in starting the driver -may at will liberate this power so as to assist the horse in -overcoming the inertia of his load. These trials, however, -have not at present met with much success.</p> - -<p>Before closing this chapter on traffic, it will be well to point -out that nearly all vehicles travelling rapidly can pass each -other safely if allowed a clear space of eight feet; hence all -roadways should, if possible, be made of a width between the -kerbs of some multiple of eight: a convenient width for the -footpaths, so far as foot-passenger traffic is concerned, is found -to be one-fifth of the entire width of street. It is scarcely<span class="pagenum" id="Page33">[33]</span> -necessary to add that vehicles pass each other on the left side, -pedestrians on the right. It is not easy to assign a cause for -the former beyond custom, except that the whip is held in the -right hand, and in consequence free play is given for its use as -the driver sits on that side and can watch his wheels in passing. -In France and other countries the right side is the “rule of the -road.” In the case of pedestrians it is perhaps more convenient -for many reasons to pass on the right side, one being -that the umbrella or parasol is always carried in the right -hand, which is also used to remove the hat when bowing, and -another because one’s tendency in passing any obstacle is to -give way with the left shoulder. For regulating the traffic -and for the protection of foot passengers, “sanctuaries,” as -they are termed, have often to be constructed by surveyors in -broad streets or awkward centres of traffic, and it is well to -place a lamp-post on these sanctuaries, on which may be -advantageously fixed a notice, “Keep to the Left,” so as to -regulate vehicular traffic. On the lamp-posts at the edge of -the footpaths it is also sometimes customary to fix small -enamelled iron plates bearing the inscription on both sides, -“Keep to the Right,” so as to regulate the pedestrian -traffic.</p> - -<p>Of the danger to life and limb to pedestrians in London -much has frequently been said, and no wonder, when we consider -the number of persons who are daily injured and sometimes -killed according to the Registrar-General’s returns. -Some years ago it was proposed to erect light iron bridges -over the most dangerous crossings approached by winding -stairs, but “time is money” in the mighty metropolis, and -the scheme was abandoned because it was felt that most -persons would prefer the risk of being run over rather than -spend the time in ascending and descending the necessary -steps for this purpose.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote7"></a><a href="#FNanchor7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> -‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. -lviii.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote8"></a><a href="#FNanchor8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> Report of the Society of Arts on the application of Science and Art to -street paving and street cleansing of the metropolis, 1875.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote9"></a><a href="#FNanchor9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Ibid.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote10"></a><a href="#FNanchor10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> -Experiments made by the direction of the French Government on the tramway -between Sèvres and Versailles, showed that a horse on a level tramway draws -three-and-a-half times the weight, at the same speed and with the same expenditure -of power, that he can do on an ordinary road. Up a gradient of 1 to 100, he -is capable of drawing 2·25 times the weight he can do up the same gradient on an -ordinary road, and up a gradient of 1 to 25 he can draw one-and-a-half times the -load he can do under similar circumstances on the ordinary road.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote11"></a><a href="#FNanchor11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> -‘Report on accidents to Horses on Carriageway Pavements,’ by William -Haywood (1874).</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page34">[34]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER V.<br /> -<span class="chapname">MACADAMISED ROADWAYS.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">I do not propose in this work to speak of any of the -engineering operations necessary to lay out or construct long -lines of connecting roadways, as that is a duty which seldom -falls to a town surveyor to perform, and there are a great -number of treatises and books upon the subject already published. -The object of this chapter will be to give some -information and hints upon the construction and maintenance -of what are known as macadamised roads, suitable for urban -and suburban traffic.</p> - -<p>There can be little doubt that roadways of this description -are expensive luxuries where the cost of their maintenance, -owing to excessive traffic or other causes, exceeds 2<i>s.</i> per -square yard per annum, but they are often necessary luxuries -when the requirements of the locality are considered, a point -to which I drew attention in the <a href="#Page25">preceding chapter</a> upon -“Traffic.” For purposes of what may be styled “pleasure -traffic,” macadamised roadways are unequalled when well -constructed and maintained, but there are many objections -to them which will be considered in their place in this -chapter.</p> - -<p>The word macadamised is, as is well known, derived from -one John Loudon Macadam, who in the year 1816 first took -up the question of putting broken metal upon a road instead -of the boulders previously used.<a id="FNanchor12"></a><a href="#Footnote12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> His name, being rather a<span class="pagenum" id="Page35">[35]</span> -peculiar one, has been attached to this description of road -ever since.</p> - -<p>As a matter of fact, the “macadamised” roadways of the -present day are constructed after a method introduced by -Thomas Telford as an improvement upon Macadam’s principles, -and a perusal of the two following specifications will, I -think, show that there is not very much difference between -the method introduced by Telford and that followed at the -present time.</p> - -<h3><i>Specification of a Roadway as designed by Thomas Telford -more than fifty years ago.</i><a id="FNanchor13"></a><a href="#Footnote13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></h3> - -<p>“Upon the level bed prepared for the road materials, a -bottom course or layer of stones is to be set by hand in form -of a close, firm pavement; the stones set in the middle of the -road are to be seven inches in depth; at nine feet from the -centre five inches; at twelve feet from the centre four inches; -and at fifteen feet three inches. They are to be set on their -broadest edges lengthwise across the road, and the breadth of -the upper edge is not to exceed four inches in any case. All -the irregularities of the upper part of the said pavement are to -be broken off by the hammer, and all the interstices to be -filled with stone chips firmly wedged or packed by hand with -a light hammer, so that when the whole pavement is finished -there shall be a convexity of four inches in the breadth of -fifteen feet from the centre.<a id="FNanchor14"></a><a href="#Footnote14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> - -<p>“The middle eighteen feet of pavement is to be coated -with hard stones to the depth of six inches. Four of these -six inches to be first put on and worked in by carriages and -horses; care being taken to rake in the ruts until the surface -becomes firm and consolidated, after which the remaining two -inches are to be put on.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page36">[36]</span></p> - -<p>“The whole of this stone is to be broken into pieces, as -nearly cubical as possible, so that the largest piece in its -longest dimensions may pass through a ring of two and a half -inches inside diameter.</p> - -<p>“The paved spaces on each side of the eighteen middle -feet are to be coated with broken stones or well-cleaned stony -gravel up to the foot path or other boundary of the road, so as -to make the whole convexity of the road six inches from the -centre to the sides of it, and the whole of the materials are to -be covered with a binding of an inch and a half of good -gravel free from clay or earth.”</p> - -<p>If the above specification, written more than fifty years ago, -is compared with one of the present date, it will be seen that -there is a strong resemblance between them.</p> - -<h3><i>Specification of a Roadway as now executed.</i></h3> - -<p>The cross section of the roadway <i>when finished</i> is to be -an arc of a circle, with a rise of 1 in 27 from kerb to the centre -of the roadway each way.<a id="FNanchor15"></a><a href="#Footnote15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> The roadway, when consolidated -and finished, to be 12 inches in depth at the gutters -and 15 inches at the centre, diminishing gradually from this -point right and left to the depth named. The gutters to be -2 feet in width, formed of stone setts 6 inches by 6 inches, -and laid in sand, on a firmly consolidated surface of small -broken stone or gravel.</p> - -<p>The earth road-bed on which the surface formation is to -rest is to be excavated to the required depth, and when graded -and shaped to its proper form, it is to be thoroughly and -repeatedly rolled with a steam roller, and all depressions -which then appear are to be filled with the same material -as the road-bed, and rolled until the whole be uniformly -compact and firm.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page37">[37]</span></p> - -<p>On the road-bed thus formed and compacted, a bottom -layer of stone of a depth of 8 inches at the centre of the road, -and gradually diminishing to 6 inches at the kerb, is to be set -by hand, to form a close, firm pavement. The stones are to -be laid, with their largest side down, in parallel lines across -the street, breaking joint as much as practicable.<a id="FNanchor16"></a><a href="#Footnote16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> The width -of the upper part of the stone not to be more than 8 inches, -nor less than 6 inches. The stone not to exceed 15 inches in -length. After being set closely together, the stones are to -be firmly wedged by inserting a bar in all possible places, and -placing between them stones as nearly as possible of the depth -of the pavement, until the whole is bound in position. Projections -of the upper part of this course are to be broken off, -care being taken not to loosen the pavement; and no wedging -is to be done within 20 feet of the face of the work being laid. -The small interstices are to be filled in with stone chips firmly -wedged with hammers. The whole is to be thoroughly -rammed and settled to place, and all undue irregularities of -surface broken off.</p> - -<p>On the foundation course must be laid an intermediate -layer of broken stones, varying in size from 3 inches in their -greatest diameters to 1 inch in their smallest diameters. -These irregular-sized stones may be either the “tailings” of -the screened stones, or may be raked from the quarry, and -placed on the roadway without being machine-broken; but -they must nevertheless be so laid as to compact solidly, and -must be clean broken stone, free from dust and dirt, and -within the dimensions given above. This intermediate course -must be 4 inches in depth at the centre of the roadway, -gradually decreasing to 3 inches in depth at the gutters; it is -to be thoroughly rolled with the steam roller until it be firm, -compact, and solid. On its upper surface it must be identical<span class="pagenum" id="Page38">[38]</span> -in rise and form to the cross-section of the finished pavement, -as specified above. In the laying of this course of stone a -small quantity of binding material is to be used, sufficient -only to fill up the crevices, and render this portion of the -pavement solid. Preferably the binding is to be of fine -screened gravel or sand, which is to be sufficiently watered -during the process of rolling, so that the “licking up” of -the road material, and its adherence to the rolling-wheels -may be prevented.</p> - -<p>On the intermediate course is to be laid the surface layer -of broken stone.<a id="FNanchor17"></a><a href="#Footnote17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> -It must be 2¹⁄₂ inches in depth, and the stones -must be practically uniform in quality, and as near an approach -to a cube in form as possible. Each stone used in this layer -must have passed through a 2¹⁄₂-inch circular hole, and all -stones that are wedge-shaped, and do not approach uniformity -of measurement on their sides, are to be taken from the road -with properly shaped rakes, and no stones allowed to remain -which are not sound, strong, and equable in size and quality -of material. The stones are to be raked into an even layer, -and the steam roller passed over them twice or thrice. After -this a quantity of fine screened gravel or sand is to be thrown -on and sufficiently sprinkled to moisten the mass without -“licking up.” The rolling is then to be continued (working -the roller backwards and forwards, gradually from the gutter -to the crown), with an occasional light watering of the pavement, -until the cross-section be exact according to specification, -the interstices filled in, the roadway firmly compacted and -solid, and all excess of binding removed from the surface of -the finished pavement.<a id="FNanchor18"></a><a href="#Footnote18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page39">[39]</span></p> - -<p>Telford’s object was the complete separation of the road -metal from the subsoil by a firm and regular foundation, and -this system has ever since held its ground. The advantages -to be gained in constructing a roadway in this manner may -be summed up as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>(1.) Economy of construction, as a considerable quantity -of metalling is saved; only 3 inches of properly broken -stone and a little binding material being necessary, the -foundation of the roadway (which really carries the traffic) -may be made of a quality of stone unsuitable for road metal, -or even of bricks or stones from old buildings that are being -pulled down.</p> - -<p>(2.) The prevention of the rising up or “spewing” of the -clay or other soft material on which the roadway rests.</p> - -<p>(3.) A solid foundation is secured which will successfully -resist the weight and percussion of the traffic.</p> - -<p>(4.) The increased facility for the drainage of the roadway -water being ruinous to it.<a id="FNanchor19"></a><a href="#Footnote19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> - -<p>Instead of forming a paved or “pinned” foundation for -macadamised roadways, sometimes what is called “hard -core” is placed at the bottom of the road upon the surface -formation.</p> - -<p>This “hard core” is made of very heterogenous materials, -often the waste products of the house refuse depôt, and consists<span class="pagenum" id="Page40">[40]</span> -of ashes, old pots and pans, meat tins, old bottles, shells, -and a variety of similar articles; sometimes the core is made -of burnt ballast, but in no case does it make so good a -foundation as stones set by hand.</p> - -<p>Concrete has also been employed as a foundation with -great success, but it is very expensive, and is seldom used -except under streets paved with either granite, wood, or -asphalte, of which I shall speak hereafter; for if the traffic was -so great as to necessitate the use of concrete for a foundation -it would surely be better to give the roadway a more durable -surface than macadam.</p> - -<p>The following tables, showing the thickness of the foundation -and metalling of broken stone roads, is from a paper on -roadways, read to the Association of Municipal and Sanitary -Engineers, by Mr. James Hall, Borough Surveyor of Stockton, -and may be of use to those who would like to know what proportions -to use.</p> - -<table class="pavements" summary="Foundations"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th rowspan="2" class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="3" class="br">Pinned Foundations.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Broken Stones.</th> -<th colspan="2">Concrete.</th> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<th class="br">Pinning.</th> -<th class="br">Cover-<br />ing.</th> -<th class="br">Metal.</th> -<th class="br">Under.</th> -<th class="br">Upper.</th> -<th class="br">Con-<br />crete.</th> -<th>Metal.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br">in.</th> -<th class="br">in.</th> -<th class="br">in.</th> -<th class="br">in.</th> -<th class="br">in.</th> -<th class="br">in.</th> -<th>in.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr br">Country roads</td> -<td class="right padr4 br">6</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">3</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">4</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">9</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">4</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">4</td> -<td class="right padr3">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr br">Suburban<span class="padl2">„</span></td> -<td class="right padr4 br">9</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">3</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">5</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">9</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">6</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">6</td> -<td class="right padr3">5</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="descr br">Town streets</td> -<td class="right padr4 br">9</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">6</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">5</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">15</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">6</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">10</td> -<td class="right padr3">5</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Chalk has sometimes been used for the bottom of a roadway, -but where this is likely to be affected by frost it is the -worst material that can be used, as it is likely to blow up the -roadway.</p> - -<p>With regard to the annual outlay upon macadamised -roadways, the following comparative tables<a id="FNanchor20"></a><a href="#Footnote20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> prepared by -Mr. Ellice Clark, the then Surveyor of Derby, may be of -interest.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page41">[41]</span></p> - -<table class="pavements" summary="Pavements"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="3" class="br">Description<br />of Pavement.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="3" class="br">Original<br />cost<br />per<br />square<br />yard.</th> -<th colspan="15">Annual Outlay.</th> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Interest.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Sinking<br />fund 3<br />per cent.<br />compound<br />interest.</th> -<th colspan="3" class="br">Main-<br />tenance.</th> -<th colspan="3" class="br">Scav-<br />enging.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Gravel.</th> -<th colspan="3">Total.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3" class="br"> </th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Wood pavement</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="right padr1">15</td> -<td class="intpart">1</td> -<td class="decpart br">·5</td> -<td class="intpart">7</td> -<td class="decpart br">·5</td> -<td class="intpart">10</td> -<td class="decpart br">·1</td> -<td class="right padr1">0</td> -<td class="intpart">1</td> -<td class="decpart br">·0</td> -<td class="right padr1">0</td> -<td class="intpart">2</td> -<td class="decpart br">·7</td> -<td class="intpart">5</td> -<td class="decpart br">·0</td> -<td class="right padr1">2</td> -<td class="intpart">2</td> -<td class="decpart">·3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Val de Travers compressed asphalte</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="right padr1">18</td> -<td class="intpart">0</td> -<td class="decpart br">·0</td> -<td class="intpart">9</td> -<td class="decpart br">·7</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">..</td> -<td class="right padr1">0</td> -<td class="intpart">3</td> -<td class="decpart br">·6</td> -<td class="right padr1">0</td> -<td class="intpart">0</td> -<td class="decpart br">·4</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">..</td> -<td class="right padr1">1</td> -<td class="intpart">1</td> -<td class="decpart">·7</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Granite setts 7 inches by 3 inches laid over a layer of 12 inches of cement concrete</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="right padr1">17</td> -<td class="intpart">9</td> -<td class="decpart br">·0</td> -<td class="intpart">9</td> -<td class="decpart br">·6</td> -<td class="intpart">0</td> -<td class="decpart br">·5</td> -<td class="right padr1">0</td> -<td class="intpart">1</td> -<td class="decpart br">·3</td> -<td class="right padr1">0</td> -<td class="intpart">2</td> -<td class="decpart br">·5</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">..</td> -<td class="right padr1">1</td> -<td class="intpart">1</td> -<td class="decpart">·9</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Macadam in south of England</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="right padr1">4</td> -<td class="intpart">9</td> -<td class="decpart br">·0</td> -<td class="intpart">2</td> -<td class="decpart br">·1</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">..</td> -<td class="right padr1">3</td> -<td class="intpart">6</td> -<td class="decpart br">·0</td> -<td class="right padr1">1</td> -<td class="intpart">0</td> -<td class="decpart br">·0</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">..</td> -<td class="right padr1">4</td> -<td class="intpart">8</td> -<td class="decpart">·1</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<table class="pavements" summary="Pavement"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th rowspan="6" class="w20m br"> </th> -<th class="br">Material.</th> -<th class="br">Load of Mud<br />per area.</th> -<th class="br">Traffic per Annum<br />per yard<br />of width.</th> -<th rowspan="6" class="w20m"> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br">superficial<br />yards.</th> -<th class="br">tons.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr br"><span class="padl1">Macadam</span></td> -<td class="right padr5 br">344</td> -<td class="right padr6 br">25,000</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr br"><span class="padl1">Granite setts</span></td> -<td class="right padr5 br">500</td> -<td class="right padr6 br">50,000</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr br"><span class="padl1">Wood</span></td> -<td class="right padr5 br">1666</td> -<td class="right padr6 br">25,000</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="descr br"><span class="padl1">Asphalte</span></td> -<td class="right padr5 br">4000</td> -<td class="right padr6 br">500,000</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The following is a table of the cost of streets in Paris per -square yard per annum.<a id="FNanchor21"></a><a href="#Footnote21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p> - -<table class="pavements" summary="Pavement"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br">Description<br />of Pavement.</th> -<th colspan="3" class="br">Mainte-<br />nance.</th> -<th colspan="3" class="br">Cleans-<br />ing.</th> -<th colspan="3">Total.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr br">Stone Pavement</td> -<td class="center">0</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·50</td> -<td class="center">0</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·37</td> -<td class="center">0</td> -<td class="right padr0">7</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1">·87</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr br">Macadam</td> -<td class="center">0</td> -<td class="right padr0">9</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·25</td> -<td class="center">0</td> -<td class="right padr0">7</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·31</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1">·26</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="descr br">Asphalte</td> -<td class="center">0</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·20</td> -<td class="center">0</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·17</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1">·37</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The cost of maintaining macadamised roadways as compared -with that of granite setts has been said to be as high as -5 to 1 and that this cost if capitalised for 12 or 13 years will -equal the first expense, interest on money, and the necessary -repairs for a granite paved roadway.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page42">[42]</span></p> - -<p>The following table gives the cost per annum per square -yard for the maintenance of macadamised roadways in -different places, so far as I have been able to collect them:</p> - -<table class="fsize90 dontwrap" summary="Costs"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2"> </th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th> -<th> </th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th> -<th> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">Bristol</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">to</td> -<td class="right padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">Charing Cross (London)</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="right padr1">5</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl1">(now paved)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">Exeter</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl1">including cleansing</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">Glasgow</td> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₂</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">Leeds</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">Liverpool</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">Manchester</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">Merthyr Tydfil</td> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₂</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">Newcastle</td> -<td class="right padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td colspan="5"> </td> -<td class="left padl1">including watering</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">Paris</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right padr0">9</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₄</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right padr1">10</td> -<td class="right padr0">9</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr1">Parliament Street</td> -<td class="left padr4">(London)</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="right padr1">3</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl1">repairs only</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr1">Regent Street</td> -<td class="center padr4">(ditto)</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="right padr1">3</td> -<td class="right padr0">7</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl1">(now paved with wood)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">Stockton</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="right padr0">9</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">Sheffield</td> -<td class="right padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="left padr4">Wakefield</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -<td class="right padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">0</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl1">all paved streets now.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>In Birmingham the macadamised streets have worn down -6 inches in one year, with a traffic of 2484 vehicles passing in -10 hours.</p> - -<p>With reference to the great cost of maintenance in Paris, -the following particulars<a id="FNanchor22"></a><a href="#Footnote22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> may here be given;</p> - -<p>“The surface of the street is picked by gangs of men, -metal from 2¹⁄₂ to 9 inches in thickness is then laid on, a -coating of sand is then spread upon it, it is watered and -rolled at per kilometre ton, that is, at per ton weight of roller -per kilometre travelled, at a cost of about 15·33<i>d.</i> per ton -mile for the first 250,000 ton miles, and at reduced rates for -additional service. The materials used for the roads are -flints costing 4<i>s.</i> 6¹⁄₂<i>d.</i> per cubic yard for light traffic roads; -for medium traffic, hard millstone at 11<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>; and for the -heaviest and greatest traffic, porphyry at 15<i>s.</i> 9<i>d.</i> The -average total cost of maintenance of the streets is 1<i>s.</i> 8¹⁄₂<i>d.</i> -per square yard per annum for the first-class roads, and -1<i>s.</i> 1¹⁄₂<i>d.</i> for the lighter traffic; the highest cost for maintenance<span class="pagenum" id="Page43">[43]</span> -is as high as 10<i>s.</i> 9<i>d.</i> per square yard, the lowest 9¹⁄₄<i>d.</i> -per annum.”</p> - -<p>It may be well to mention that 73 per cent. of the streets -in Paris are paved, 5 per cent. are coated with asphalte, and -22 per cent. are macadamised.</p> - -<p>The contour, or best form of cross section that should be -given to a roadway, has often exercised the minds of engineers, -but for all practical purposes evenness of surface and regularity -of section in a macadamised roadway are of more -importance than the slight difference between straight lines -and curves, which might only tend to confuse the workmen. -Formerly it was the practice to employ a complicated gauge -in the form of a straight-edge fitted with plummet or level and -sliding bars, but a good eye, assisted by a long straight-edge -and spirit-level and three boning rods, is generally found to be -sufficient, and if the centre of the roadway is kept level with -the heel of the footpath, a sightly cross-section is generally -the result; or say 6 inches to 9 inches higher in centre of a -roadway 30 feet in width between the kerbs, 3 inches to -4 inches where it is from 18 to 20 feet in width.</p> - -<p>The following detailed section of a macadamised roadway -is one which I am in the habit of specifying for suburban -districts, as it is easily set out and constructed, and answers all -purposes most admirably.</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600"> -<img src="images/illo059.jpg" alt="Roadway" width="600" height="219" /> -<p class="largeillo up"><a href="images/illo059lg.jpg">Large illustration</a> (66kB)</p> -</div> - -<p>The total width of street is 36 feet, of which the roadway -takes 24, leaving a footpath 6 feet in width on each side.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page44">[44]</span></p> - -<p>The surface of the finished roadway is a segment of a -circle, the crown being level with the heels of the footpaths on -each side; the formation surface is parallel with it, and of -course the depth of this and the thickness of foundations and -metal must depend upon local circumstances. It will be seen -that the haunches are drained with 3-inch common drain-pipes. -This may be omitted if the ground is thoroughly dry, but it is -often a great help to a road.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#Page106">paths</a>, <a href="#Page123">kerbing</a>, and <a href="#Page123">channelling</a> will be described in -their respective chapters.</p> - -<p>It must be borne in mind that on a perfectly level road a -more convex section is necessary than on a gradient.</p> - -<p>It is wrong to make the sides of a roadway weaker than -the centre, especially in streets with shops on each side, or on -hills where drags are likely to be used. On hills, too, be it -remembered, the channels should take the surface water; any -ruts from wheel tracks acting as watercourses are disastrous. -Hauling timber on a macadamised roadway is also very -damaging.</p> - -<p>The great objections to macadamised roadways are as -<span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>(1.) They manufacture too much mud and dust.<a id="FNanchor23"></a><a href="#Footnote23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> - -<p>(2.) They are too absorbent.</p> - -<p>(3.) They are very noisy and damaging to vehicles and -horses when fresh metalled.</p> - -<p>(4.) They constantly require mending, but never seem -quite sound.</p> - -<p>(5.) They are frequently encumbered by men and carts -engaged in either repairs, cleansing, or watering.</p> - -<p>(6.) They are very expensive to maintain and cleanse.</p> - -<p>(7.) They are bad for a horse to fall upon, as such falls -generally damage the knees.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page45">[45]</span></p> - -<p>The following notes upon the maintenance of macadamised -roadways may here be of <span class="nowrap">service:—</span></p> - -<p>(1.) Roads should be inspected in wet weather, as hollows -and other imperfections are then easily detected; a hollow -place extends very rapidly if neglected.</p> - -<p>(2.) All ruts should be filled in at once. If there are -three parallel, the centre rut should be first filled in; the -traffic is thus slightly diverted, as a horse will avoid new -metal.</p> - -<p>(3.) Ruts should not be allowed to form; the surface of the -road ought never to lose its regular section.</p> - -<p>(4.) A road should be thoroughly repaired directly it shows -the least sign of being fairly worn all over.</p> - -<p>(5.) The right season of the year for repairs is the autumn, -although where a steam roller can be used almost any time -will do. If the surface of the road is very hard it should be -“lifted”<a id="FNanchor24"></a><a href="#Footnote24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> previous to repairs.</p> - -<p>(6.) All loose stones should be picked off at once or put -together in hollow places upon the roadway, as, if allowed to -remain, they are not only dangerous to horses, but are liable to -be crushed, or to be forced through the skin of the roadway, -thus causing it damage.</p> - -<p>(7.) Water lodging upon a road does great mischief, but it -should not be let off by digging a trench with a pickaxe to the -side of roadway, as is sometimes done.</p> - -<p>(8.) A roadway when very dry sometimes suffers through -disintegration of the surface.</p> - -<p>(9.) Scraping the mud off a roadway may damage it -by loosening stones; sweeping the surface when wet is -best.</p> - -<p>(10.) A heavy shower does a road good by washing it; a<span class="pagenum" id="Page46">[46]</span> -continuous drizzle, especially after frost, is very ruinous to a -roadway.</p> - -<p>(11.) A good cleansing is sometimes worth a coat of -metal.<a id="FNanchor25"></a><a href="#Footnote25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> - -<h3><i>Bituminous Roadways.</i></h3> - -<p>In some towns in England bituminous or asphalte -macadamised roadways are made. This consists in mixing -ordinary coal tar with the road metal ordinarily employed for -macadamised roads, only it must be borne in mind that the -metal employed must be limestone or some other soft material, -otherwise it will not wear down evenly with the tar, and thus -a lumpy surface will be produced in course of time.</p> - -<p>The method of mixing is by heating the stone, which has -of course been previously broken to the required size, and then -thoroughly mixing and incorporating it with the tar. This is -then carried to the roadway, is spread in the ordinary manner -and well rolled to the proper contour, a surface being afterwards -given to it by a coating of about 2 inches thick, -composed of a similar mixture, the stones of which are of -much smaller size.</p> - -<p>Another method is to place about 6 inches of the broken -metal described above upon the necessary foundation. Upon -this a boiling mixture composed of about 50 gallons of creosote -oil and 1 ton of pitch is poured until every interstice is filled -with the mixture. Whilst this is still warm, a thin layer of -small broken stone is spread upon the surface and well rolled; -more small stones or chippings are added, and the whole is -rolled until the surface of the roadway has attained its proper -contour and presents a perfectly smooth and clean appearance, -little inferior to that of real asphalte.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page47">[47]</span></p> - -<p>Dry weather is essential whilst this class of roadway is in -course of construction, and they require careful watching, as, -upon the skin becoming broken, the whole roadway soon -breaks up. They have, however, many advantages over -ordinary macadamised roadways when finished, not the least -of them being their imperviousness to moisture, and the ease -with which they are cleansed.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote12"></a><a href="#FNanchor12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> -The first road “engineer” in this country was John Metcalf of Knaresborough, -who was born in 1717, and who, although totally blind, was the first person to -introduce a methodical system of road repairs. <i>Vide</i> ‘Roads and Road Makers,’ -by Henry Alexander Glass.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote13"></a><a href="#FNanchor13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘A Treatise on Roads,’ by Sir H. Parnell (1833).</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote14"></a><a href="#FNanchor14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> The total width of roadway being thirty feet.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote15"></a><a href="#FNanchor15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> -It is necessary to give a new roadway more convexity than it will have when -finished, for however carefully it is raked or attended to when being rolled, the -top is sure to flatten and spread towards the haunches.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote16"></a><a href="#FNanchor16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> -Instead of parallel lines it is sometimes well to place these stones diagonally -from centre to kerb or “herring-bone” fashion, thus greatly facilitating the under -drainage.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote17"></a><a href="#FNanchor17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> -In metalling a road it is better to put on the coats gradually, than to give -the whole thickness of metal at once.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote18"></a><a href="#FNanchor18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> -The method adopted in Chicago, U.S.A., for forming their roadways is as -follows:—The road bed is prepared of the proper contour and well-rolled with -a 15-ton steam roller until it is even, firm, and compact; on this bed rubble -stone is carefully placed by hand with its broadest surface downwards, then -12 inches of metal are added 6 inches at a time, thoroughly rolled to bond it well, -it is then topped with 4 inches of crushed trap rock or some other equally hard -stone, which will not disintegrate through the action of the weather, nor pulverise -under the pressure and wear of vehicles upon it; this is again, thoroughly well -rolled so as to compact and bind it together.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote19"></a><a href="#FNanchor19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> -“If roads be kept dry they will be maintained in a good state with proportionally -less expense. It has been well observed that the statuary cannot saw his -marble, nor the lapidary cut his jewels without the assistance of the powder of the -specific materials on which he is acting; this, when combined with water, produces -sufficient attrition to accomplish his purpose. A similar effect is produced on -roads, since the reduced particles of the materials, when wet, assist the wheels in -rapidly grinding down the surface.” Parnell’s ‘Treatise on Roads,’ 1883. More -modern writers have likened macadamised roadways to “stone mills on which the -stones are ground into dust when dry, or mud when wet.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote20"></a><a href="#FNanchor20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> -‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lx.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote21"></a><a href="#FNanchor21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Annales industrielles de Paris,’ Oct. 21st and Nov. 4th, 1877.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote22"></a><a href="#FNanchor22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Annales industrielles de Paris.’</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote23"></a><a href="#FNanchor23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> -A report of the Paddington Vestry on “wood and other pavements,” (1878) -states macadam as a mud producing material is twelve times worse than wood, -and six times worse than granite cubes.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote24"></a><a href="#FNanchor24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> -This is also sometimes called “stocking” or “chequering,” and consists of -making furrows across a roadway with a sharp pickaxe, about a couple of inches -in depth, thus removing any irregularities, and also allowing the new metal to -bed properly.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote25"></a><a href="#FNanchor25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> -In Birmingham, good cleansing is said to have reduced the amount of metal -necessary for the maintenance of the roadways from 20,000 tons per annum to -13,000 tons.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page48">[48]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<span class="chapname">ROAD METAL AND BREAKING.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">The only true test of the fitness of any stone for use as a road -metal is by an experimental trial upon a certain length of -roadway; but in making the first selection for such trials it is -well to make the following <span class="nowrap">investigations:—</span></p> - -<p>(1.) Ascertain from local persons, such as masons, quarrymen, -and others, their opinion of the qualities of the stones -in the neighbourhood.</p> - -<p>(2.) Make a trial of the stone for toughness. This can be -done by setting a good stone-breaker to work upon a heap of -the stone as quarried and carefully watching how much he can -break in an hour.<a id="FNanchor26"></a><a href="#Footnote26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> - -<p>(3.) Ascertain what power the stone has to resist abrasion. -This is done in France by putting the broken metal into a -revolving cylinder and then carefully noting by weight what -the cubes lose by contact with each other. Another plan may -be adopted by pressing the stone against a grindstone with a -uniform pressure, and noting the loss caused by such contact.</p> - -<p>(4.) The power to resist compression may be easily ascertained -by placing small cubes in an hydraulic press and noting -under what pressures each cube will crush.</p> - -<p>(5.) The effect of weather is not easily ascertained artificially, -although it is suggested that a good test may be made -by soaking the stone in a saturated solution of sulphate of -soda; and then on exposure to the air, if soft, it is said the stone -will disintegrate as if under the action of thaw succeeding -frost.<a id="FNanchor27"></a><a href="#Footnote27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page49">[49]</span></p> - -<p>The specific gravity of a stone is no criterion whatever as to -its fitness. Clay-slate has a higher specific gravity than a tough -flint, and yet the former is almost useless as a road metal; the -latter, on the contrary, often making excellent roadways.</p> - -<p>The qualities necessary for a really good road metal are -hardness, toughness, not easily decomposed or affected by the -weather, and at the same time the stone when broken ought -to have some power of cohesion without the necessity of much -binding material. The question of cost I put aside at once, as -it is well known that the best road metal is always the cheapest -where there is much or heavy traffic.</p> - -<p>Local circumstances must to a great extent determine what -stone to use upon a roadway, but the following list may be of -<span class="nowrap">use:—</span></p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Syenite.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—This is a granite in which hornblende takes the -place of mica, and is an excellent road material; the darker -the colour the more durable it is found to be.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Granite.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—This should have more felspar than quartz, and -have as little mica as possible; the closer the grain the better. -Coarse-grained granites soon decompose.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Trappean Rocks.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—Some of these are excellent for road -metal. Basalts of dark colour and close grain should be -selected. Greenstones with similar characteristics are good; -as is also Whinstone.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Gneiss.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—Is inferior to granite; it has mica in layers and -is not a good road metal.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Clay Slates.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—These are useless, as they crumble on -exposure or degenerate into mud.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Limestone.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—The Metamorphic, Silurian, and Carboniferous -limestones may be used if crystalline in appearance, but the -Lias and Oolitic are of little use.<a id="FNanchor28"></a><a href="#Footnote28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page50">[50]</span></p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Sandstones.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—Some of these, if cherty or containing a large -percentage of iron, may be used; but as a rule they are quite -unfitted for use as a road metal.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Flints.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—These, if tough, make excellent roadways; but -unfortunately they are sometimes too brittle for heavy traffic. -Surface-picked flints are better than those from a quarry.<a id="FNanchor29"></a><a href="#Footnote29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Pebbles.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—These are found on sea shores and river beds. -They are composed of very various rocks, and are much water-worn -and rounded; when broken they sometimes answer very -well if mixed with gravel to bind them.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Gravel.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—This, if of a flinty character, and not too much -mixed with earthy matter, makes good roads for light traffic, if -carefully watched or well rolled during formation. Pit gravel -should always be screened through wire screens of 1¹⁄₂ to 1³⁄₄ -gauge, and the small can be used for footpaths.</p> - -<p>In some places it is difficult to obtain any natural stone for -the purposes of road metal; in these cases slag from blast -furnaces or ordinary clinkers from furnaces are sometimes -used. Oyster shells are used on the roadways near the Gulf -coasts<a id="FNanchor30"></a><a href="#Footnote30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> -and charcoal in Michigan, United States.<a id="FNanchor31"></a><a href="#Footnote31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> I have -myself made a most excellent roadway with coral on the coast -of Jamaica, and no doubt many strange materials have been, -and still are, used for this purpose.</p> - -<p>“I never mix” is an adage that should be followed by -surveyors as regards road metal. Do not mix a soft material -with one that is harder for either construction or maintenance -of a roadway; the effect is what is known as a “bumpy” -road, arising from the fact of the soft stone wearing faster -than the hard. The hardest metal should be kept for the top -or surface layer of the roadway.</p> - -<p>As an instance of the extreme difficulty besetting the -question of the best material for road metal, I will here give a<span class="pagenum" id="Page51">[51]</span> -table showing the comparative coefficients of quality assigned -to them by the engineers of the French Department of the -Ponts et Chaussées.<a id="FNanchor32"></a><a href="#Footnote32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> - -<p class="center fsize90 blankbefore2"><span class="smcap">Coefficients of Quality of Road Materials.</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90 notop" summary="Stones"> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Granitic gravel</td> -<td class="right padr0">23</td> -<td class="left padl0">·8</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Quartz gravel</td> -<td class="right padr0">21</td> -<td class="left padl0">·4</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Trap</td> -<td class="right padr0">20</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Quartz</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">to</td> -<td class="right padr0">25</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="left padl1">(in one instance 4·8)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Basalt</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">20</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Porphyry</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">20</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="left padl1">(in one instance 5·0)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Quartzite</td> -<td class="right padr0">11</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">18</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Devonian schist</td> -<td class="right padr0">16</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Schist</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">to</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Sandstone</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">16</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Granite</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">20</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="left padl1">(generally 10·0 to 12·0)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Syenite</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Gneiss</td> -<td class="right padr0">9</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">to</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Silicious pebbles and gravel</td> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">19</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="left padl1">(in one instance 6·0)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Silex</td> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">16</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Chalk flints</td> -<td class="right padr0">7</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">11</td> -<td class="left padl0">·6</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Silicious limestone</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">18</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="left">(generally about 10·0 to 12·0)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Compact limestone</td> -<td class="right padr0">14</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Magnesian limestone</td> -<td class="right padr0">16</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Carboniferous limestone</td> -<td class="right padr0">9</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Oolitic limestone</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">to</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Lias limestone</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Juranic limestone</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Limestone</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="left padl0">·0</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descrip padr4">Mean of all France</td> -<td class="right padr0">10</td> -<td class="left padl0">·63</td> -<td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>It will be seen by the above table how different are the -results obtained from materials of the same character.</p> - -<p>Breaking stone for the purpose of using it as a road metal -was, until comparatively recent years, always effected by -hand; now, as in other cases, machinery has stept in and -somewhat supplanted manual labour. Hand-broken road -metal, however, still finds favour with road surveyors; it is -better broken, and in some districts, the occupation finds -employment for persons who otherwise would be thrown on -the rates for support.</p> - -<p>In breaking stone by hand the breaker sits and strikes the<span class="pagenum" id="Page52">[52]</span> -stone with a small cast-steel chisel-faced hammer, weighing -about one pound, at the end of a long, straight-grained but -flexible ash stick.<a id="FNanchor33"></a><a href="#Footnote33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> The breaker also has another hammer, -weighing about five pounds, with which he reduces the size of -the large stones before breaking them into the proper size for -road metal. This latter size is often a matter of choice, some -engineers preferring it to be broken so small as will pass -through a ring of only 1¹⁄₂ inch in diameter; others are -content with 3 inches, especially where the roads are steam -rolled. An old method of gauging used to be “such a size -as the stone breaker could put in his mouth,” but this was -unsatisfactory to all persons concerned, and “to pass all ways -through a ring of 2¹⁄₂ inches internal diameter” is now the size -most generally adopted.</p> - -<p>Mr. Codrington says<a id="FNanchor34"></a><a href="#Footnote34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> “a good stone breaker will break 2 -cubic yards of hard limestone to the ordinary gauge in a -day, and some men will break more. Hard silicious stones and -igneous rocks can only be broken at the rate of 1¹⁄₂ or of 1 -cube yard per day; of some of the toughest, such as Guernsey -granite, a man can only break on an average half a cube yard -per day. River gravel, field stones, or flints, which are -already of a small size, can be broken at the rate of 3 or 4 -cube yards per day.”</p> - -<p>This may be taken as fairly representing a day’s work, the -price for breaking however must vary considerably in different -localities on account of the variety of the stones to be broken -and the value of labour; in some districts the road metal does -not cost more than 1<i>s.</i> per cube yard, in others 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> and -2<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> is not considered too high, and it was to meet and -reduce this great expense that steam stone-breaking machines -have been introduced. These machines are known as -“Ellison’s,” “Newall and Archer’s,” “Hope’s,” and “Blake’s,” -the latter being that which is best known and most generally -used in this country.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page53">[53]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<img src="images/illo069a.png" alt="" width="600" height="400" /> -<p class="caption">“ARCHER’S” STONE BREAKER.</p> - -<img src="images/illo069b.png" alt="" width="600" height="374" /> -<p class="caption">“BLAKE’S” STONE BREAKER.</p> - -<img src="images/illo069c.png" alt="" width="600" height="236" /> -<p class="caption">“NEWALL AND ARCHER’S” STONE BREAKER.</p> - -</div><!--figcenter--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page54">[54]</span></p> - -<p>The foregoing illustrations will give a general idea of the -manner in which the stone is broken or crushed between -strong iron jaws; in all cases a revolving perforated screen is -necessary (not shown in the drawings) to separate the stone -broken to proper gauge from that which is too large, and also -from the spalls or chippings.</p> - -<p>The Blake’s or “Blake Marsden’s” machines are of various -sizes and weights; the following particulars with respect to -them, as advertised, may be of use.<a id="FNanchor35"></a><a href="#Footnote35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> - -<table class="fsize90" summary="Stone breakers"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th colspan="3" class="br">Size of machine<br />at mouth,<br />showing what<br />size of stone<br />each machine<br />will take.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Approxi-<br />mate<br />quantity<br />of road<br />metal<br />broken<br />per hour.</th> -<th class="br">Nominal<br />horse-<br />power<br />required.</th> -<th colspan="3" class="br">Total weight<br />of machine<br />with wheels,<br />axles, horse<br />shafts,<br />automatic<br /> -screening<br />apparatus,<br />etc.</th> -<th colspan="3">Price of<a id="FNanchor36"></a><a href="#Footnote36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a><br /> machine<br />complete.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3" class="br">inches.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">cube yards.</th> -<th class="br">H.P.</th> -<th>tons</th> -<th>cwt.</th> -<th class="br">qrs.</th> -<th>£</th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th><i>d.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1 padl1">10</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">×</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">8</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">¹⁄₃</td> -<td class="right padr4 br">3</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">5</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">6</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">157</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1 padl1">12</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">×</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">8</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padr4 br">3</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">5</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">11</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">167</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1 padl1">15</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">×</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">8</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padr4 br">5</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">6</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">19</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">200</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1 padl1">15</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">×</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">10</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padr4 br">6</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">8</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">5</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">220</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1 padl1">20</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">×</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">10</td> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padr4 br">8</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">10</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">265</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1 padl1">24</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">×</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">13</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padr4 br">10</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">15</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">5</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">390</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1 padl1">24</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">×</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">17</td> -<td class="right padr0">13</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padr4 br">14</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">16</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">415</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1 padl1">24</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">×</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">19</td> -<td class="right padr0">14</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padr4 br">16</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">19</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">17</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">440</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="right padr1 padl1">30</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">×</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">13</td> -<td class="right padr0">14</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padr4 br">16</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">16</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">440</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Mr. Till, the Borough Engineer of Birmingham, speaking of -the work done by one of Blake’s machines in 1874, says:<a id="FNanchor37"></a><a href="#Footnote37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> -“The stone-breaking machine at Holliday Street will break -on an average 40 tons of ragstone per day, at a cost, exclusive -of wear and tear of machine, of 10¹⁄₂<i>d.</i> per ton, but it produces<span class="pagenum" id="Page55">[55]</span> -16 per cent. of dust or fine stone; of the remainder one-fifth -has to be rebroken by hand, the whole is very irregular -in size and very flaky in comparison with hand-broken stone. -The machine is much more efficient in breaking granites or -pebbles. It has, however, been found very useful during the -last two years, in consequence of the difficulty of obtaining -labour.”</p> - -<p>Mr. Jacob, the Borough Engineer of Barrow in Furness, -read an excellent paper on the subject of stone-breaking -machinery to the members of the Association of Municipal -and Sanitary Engineers, at their meeting in Manchester in -1875,<a id="FNanchor38"></a><a href="#Footnote38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> -giving a full description of one of Blake’s machines, to -which I will refer my readers.</p> - -<p>Mr. Codrington<a id="FNanchor39"></a><a href="#Footnote39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> gives the result of breaking whinstone in -a 16-inch by 9-inch Hope machine, from which it appears that -the total cost, including wages, coal, oil, cottonwaste, etc., wear -and tear of machinery, and, I presume, interest on first cost of -machine, was about 1<i>s.</i> per cube yard. This effected a saving -of 10<i>d.</i> per cube yard as compared with the same stone -broken by hand, and the machine broke 40 tons of stone per -diem.</p> - -<p>To make a stone-breaking machine pay, it is necessary:</p> - -<p>(1.) To give it nearly constant work.</p> - -<p>(2.) That the stone to be broken shall be too tough to -break economically by hand.</p> - -<p>(3.) That the machine shall be at the quarry, so as to save -the expense of much handling.</p> - -<p>(4.) To exercise care in feeding, to give it a sufficient -supply without allowing an undue quantity of stone to pass in -at one time.</p> - -<p>(5.) As about 20 per cent. of grit or dust is produced, this<span class="pagenum" id="Page56">[56]</span> -must be used for foot-paths, or as a binding material for roads, -or in asphalte or tar paving.</p> - -<p>In addition to the grit which is produced, a great many -long and thin pieces of stone pass through the machine, -which have to be again broken by it before they could be used -as road metal; and having once taken this form, they will -frequently pass several times through the machine before -they get properly broken.</p> - -<p>The wear and tear of a stone-breaking machine is very -considerable, as can be easily imagined; it has been known to -reach as high as 62·5 per cent.<a id="FNanchor40"></a><a href="#Footnote40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> of the first cost of the -machine in one year. The objections to stone-breaking by -machinery are principally:</p> - -<p>(1.) In some districts labour can be successfully employed -in this manner.</p> - -<p>(2.) Hand-broken stone is sharper in fracture, as it is -done by a blow and not by gradual pressure, whereas machine-broken -stone is often flaky or with rounded edges, and -frequently each stone may be cracked and shaken by the -pressure.</p> - -<p>(3.) Want of uniformity in the size of the stones.</p> - -<p>The smaller the stone is broken the heavier a cubic yard -of it will weigh, as the percentage of vacant space between -each stone will be less. It has been found by experiment, -however, that 55 per cent. of ordinary road metal is solid, so -that the weight of a cubic yard of it can easily be ascertained -in the following manner.<a id="FNanchor41"></a><a href="#Footnote41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> - -<p>Multiply the weight of a cubic foot of any stone by 27 to -bring it to a cubic yard, and then multiply this by 0·55: the -result will be the weight of a cubic yard of the same stone -when broken for metalling.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page57">[57]</span></p> - -<p>A cubic yard of Guernsey granite broken to pass through -a 2¹⁄₂ inch ring has been weighed, and gives an average of 1 ton -3 cwt. 2 qrs.</p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Rocks"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3"> </th> -<th>tons</th> -<th>cwt.</th> -<th>qrs.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">A cube </td> -<td class="left">yard of </td> -<td class="left padr4">flint weighed</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="center">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left padr4">pit gravel weighed</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="center">4</td> -<td class="center">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left padr4">limestone weighed</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="center">3</td> -<td class="center">0</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>A cubic yard of ordinary broken road metal will, when -properly spread, cover an area of about 30 square yards of -surface of a roadway.</p> - -<p>The following specimen specification for the supply of -stone either unbroken or broken may be of use.</p> - -<h3><i>Specification for the Supply of Road Metal.</i></h3> - -<p>(1.) The road metal must at all times be clean and free -from clay or other dirt, and fully equal to the sample; if -required to be broken, each cube must have a square face and -sharp edges, and pass all ways through a 2¹⁄₂ inch ring.</p> - -<p>(2.) The metal must be delivered in (<i>name of town</i>) free of all -charge to the corporation, either at a railway station or at one -of the depôts of the corporation, at the option of the contractor, -such option to be declared in the tender.</p> - -<p>(3.) The metal must be supplied on the order of the -borough engineer in such quantities as he may specify, and -must be delivered within the time specified in the order. -The contractor shall not be required to supply and deliver -more than tons in any one week; but the corporation will -be at all times ready to take the metal in larger quantities.</p> - -<p>(4.) The bill of lading or railway invoice shall be taken as -<i>primâ facie</i> evidence of the weight of metal supplied; but the -corporation retain the right to test the accuracy of such bill -of lading or railway invoice, by passing the metal over a -weighbridge as it is received.</p> - -<p>(5.) Metal delivered at a depôt by carts shall be measured -when broken and paid for at the rate of cwt. per cubic yard.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page58">[58]</span></p> - -<p>(6.) The corporation retain the right to reject all metal -which shall not be equal to the sample, or at their option to -pay a reduced price according to its value.</p> - -<p>(7.) Quarterly payments will be made by the corporation -on the certificate of the borough engineer, and within one -month from the date of such certificate.</p> - -<p>(8.) The borough engineer shall be the sole judge as to -the fitness of the metal supplied, and his certificate, in writing, -shall be conclusive evidence upon the point as between the -corporation and the contractor.</p> - -<p>(9.) If the contractor shall make default in the supply and -delivery of road metal in accordance with the terms of this -specification, and within the time specified for the purpose in -the order of the borough engineer, the corporation shall be -at liberty to obtain such road metal as they may deem -fit and necessary from another source, and any excess in price -or other loss they may consequently incur, shall be recoverable -by them from the contractor as liquidated and ascertained -damages.</p> - -<p>(10.) Tenders must be sent in only on the prescribed form, -and the person tendering must insert in his tender the name -of two persons who will join him in a joint and several bond -to the corporation in the sum of <i>l.</i> for the due performance -of the contract.</p> - -<p>(11.) Each person tendering must send to the office of the -borough engineer a sample of the road metal he offers, accompanied -by a full description, and the name and position of the -quarry from which it is produced; such sample to be not less -that one cwt. in weight, and to be retained by the corporation -in the event of the tender being accepted.</p> - -<p>(12.) The corporation do not bind themselves to accept -the lowest or any tender; and they further retain the right to -reject a contractor in the event of his failing to find sureties to -their satisfaction in compliance with the 10th condition.</p> - -<p>(13.) The word “corporation” shall mean the mayor,<span class="pagenum" id="Page59">[59]</span> -aldermen and burgesses, of in their capacity as the urban -sanitary authority for . The word “contractor” shall -mean the person whose tender is accepted, and who has -signed these conditions; and the words “borough engineer” -shall mean the engineer to the said corporation for the time -being.</p> - -<p>Since writing this chapter my attention has been directed -to a stone-breaking machine which is said to substitute a -“knapping” for that of the usual crushing motion which is so -generally the great defect in these machines: I allude to that -known as “Baxter’s patent knapping-motion stone breaker,” -by which a rapid jerk or blow is given instead of the slow -crushing movement, thus (it is contended) causing less waste -from dust and chippings, and also less strain of the machinery -and less power to drive it.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote26"></a><a href="#FNanchor26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> -Toughness is not all that is required. Leather would be very difficult to -break with a hammer, but it would not make a good road metal.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote27"></a><a href="#FNanchor27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> -I have tried this experiment, but without success, except on such soft stones -as were evidently unfitted for use as a road metal.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote28"></a><a href="#FNanchor28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> -Many hundreds of miles of roadways in this country are made with limestones; -they often make an excellent surface, as they possess a considerable power of -binding together, but weather and very heavy traffic affect them considerably: as -they all have a strong affinity for water, their very power of thus cementing -themselves together causes a quantity of dust in dry, and mud in wet weather.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote29"></a><a href="#FNanchor29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> -A flinty or quartzose stone seems to harden with exposure. This is notably -the case in pebbles; old pebble paving taken up and broken makes a most hard -and durable road metal.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote30"></a><a href="#FNanchor30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> -‘Roads, Streets and Pavements,’ by Q. A. Gillmore, p. 10.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote31"></a><a href="#FNanchor31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i></p> - -<p><a id="Footnote32"></a><a href="#FNanchor32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roadways,’ by Thomas Codrington, -p. 33, a most excellent work upon this subject.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote33"></a><a href="#FNanchor33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> -Mr. W. Bold considered a hammer weighing 1¹⁄₄ lb. of an elliptical form, -pointed at the ends, the area of each end being about ¹⁄₁₀₀th of a square inch, to be -the most suitable to break hard stones. <i>Vide</i> ‘Minutes of Proceedings, Institution of -Civil Engineers,’ vol. i. (1840) p. 50.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote34"></a><a href="#FNanchor34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> -‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roads,’ by Thomas Codrington, p. 38.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote35"></a><a id="Footnote36"></a><a href="#FNanchor35"><span class="label">[35, 36]</span></a> -No doubt the price of the machine varies with the price of iron, etc.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote37"></a><a href="#FNanchor37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> -‘Report of the Borough Surveyor of Birmingham to the Paving and -Street Improvement Sub-Committee,’ p. 11.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote38"></a><a href="#FNanchor38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers,’ -vol. ii. p. 76.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote39"></a><a href="#FNanchor39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> -‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roadways,’ by Thomas Codrington, -p. 41.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote40"></a><a href="#FNanchor40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers,’ -vol. ii. p. 82.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote41"></a><a href="#FNanchor41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roadways,’ by Thomas Codrington, -p. 45.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page60">[60]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<span class="chapname">ROAD ROLLING.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">The march of civilisation has decided that road rolling is a -necessity for macadamised roads, instead of allowing the -stones of which they are composed to be worn in by the -traffic, as was formerly the custom. In Calcutta bullock -rollers were used so long ago as the year 1855, and it was the -cruelty of this operation that suggested to Mr. W. Clark the -necessity for a steam roller,<a id="FNanchor42"></a><a href="#Footnote42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> the outcome of which was the -well-known roller as manufactured and supplied by Messrs. -Aveling and Porter of Rochester, and now so generally used -throughout this country, as well as in American and other -foreign towns.<a id="FNanchor43"></a><a href="#Footnote43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> - -<p>Steam rolling saves money as well as suffering, and the -legislature have recognised the importance of a sanitary -authority becoming possessed of a steam roller by permitting -money to be borrowed for the purchase of a roller as -for a permanent work. (Sect. 234 Glenn’s Public Health -Act 1875, footnote to Sub. Sect. (1).)</p> - -<p>Mr. Albert W. Parry, the Borough Surveyor of Reading, -has prepared some tables on the subject of steam road rollers, -from information he received on this subject, in answer to some -questions he addressed to the surveyors of a number of towns -a few years ago. It appears from this tabulated statement -that thirty-three 15-ton steam rollers were in use, six 10-ton -rollers, one 21-ton roller, one 8-ton roller, one 9¹⁄₂ ton roller,<span class="pagenum" id="Page61">[61]</span> -one 14¹⁄₂-ton roller, one 17-ton roller, and one 25-ton roller; this -latter not being much used, as it was found to be too heavy.</p> - -<p>The average gross cost per annum of necessary repairs to -the rollers, other than those which could be effected by the -men in charge of it, amounted to 35<i>l.</i> 12<i>s.</i> The number of -men employed to attend to the roller and cost of labour per -day varied considerably, from one case (South Shields) where -“one engine-man at 26<i>s.</i> per week, and an old scavenger with -the flag” were found to be sufficient; to another (Gloucester) -where the cost per day is stated as follows: “one man -works the engine at 5<i>s.</i> per day, one boy with signal flag, -1<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>, two men spreading gravel or sand at 3<i>s.</i>, two men -watering and sweeping to keep water from running off in -channels.”</p> - -<p>Some of the older rollers require a steersman as well as a -driver, and the Locomotives Amendment Act requires two men -with flags, but this is seldom really necessary. The sweepers, -spreaders and sprinklers should be taken as irrespective of the -actual cost of the roller, which may therefore be assumed to be -the wages of the engine-man, say 5<i>s.</i> per diem, and a boy or -old man with a flag at 2<i>s.</i>, thus making a total for labour of 7<i>s.</i> -per diem.</p> - -<p>The fuel that is consumed by a 15-ton roller seems to be -from 3 to 5 cwt. of coke per diem, common gas coke being -generally used, though steam coal would no doubt answer -equally well, some of the smokeless Welsh descriptions being -of course necessary.</p> - -<p>With regard to the question “When not used for rolling -roads, to what other use (if any) do you put the engine -power?” there are not many towns that use the machine for -any other purpose than rolling, but the following uses may be -enumerated to which the machines have been applied:—Driving -a stone-breaker, a mortar-mill, a saw-bench, a chaff-cutting -machine, a bean-crusher, etc. It has also been used -in connection with pumping, and to produce the necessary<span class="pagenum" id="Page62">[62]</span> -power for the electric light, and it is frequently employed as a -traction engine.</p> - -<p>The driving rollers usually have provision by which spikes -may be fitted into holes in their faces, in order that they -may be used for lifting or chequering roads. These, however, -apparently do not answer; the working of a machine in this -manner is said to shake and strain it considerably, and the -holes in the rollers, which are plugged with wood when not in -use, are objectionable, as these plugs wear out and the road -metal gets into the holes, and the surface of the road is picked -up as the rolling proceeds; besides this, the spikes seem to -have no effect unless the surface of the roadway being -operated upon is soft.</p> - -<p>With reference to the use of binding material, the most -commonly used and that which receives most favour is road -grit or scrapings,<a id="FNanchor44"></a><a href="#Footnote44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> sharp sand is also employed, as well as -gravel if clean, and also stone chippings and screenings; these -should be of the same material of which the road is made, if -possible, and no doubt <i>newly</i> constructed roads require more -care in the binding material than simple repairs. The steepest -gradient upon which a roller will act appears to be 1 in 9 in -Blackburn, with a 15-ton roller, but this must require a very -heavy pressure of steam, and 1 in 14 seems to be a gradient -that gives no trouble to roll either up or down; in going down -hill, of course it is a mere question of sufficient break power.</p> - -<p>The number of superficial yards rolled per day must -vary extremely with circumstances: the class of material, the -amount of binding and water used, the gradient and pressure -of steam maintained, and the amount of rolling considered -necessary,<a id="FNanchor45"></a><a href="#Footnote45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> being amongst the various influences. From the -above returns I find that the number of square yards rolled<span class="pagenum" id="Page63">[63]</span> -varies from 500 to 3000 per diem, the average for 42 towns -being 1105 square yards per diem.</p> - -<p>The cost per square yard rolled, including all charges, may -be assumed to be between ¹⁄₂<i>d.</i> and 1<i>d.</i>, and the cost of binding -material about 3<i>d.</i> per square yard. With reference to the -necessity of binding material, the following, facts are interesting.</p> - -<p>Mr. Wm. H. Grant, Superintending Engineer of the New -York Central Park, in his report upon the park roads, says:<a id="FNanchor46"></a><a href="#Footnote46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> -“At the commencement of the macadam roads, the experiment -was tried of rolling and compacting the stone by a -strict adherence to Macadam’s theory, that of carefully excluding -all dirt and foreign material from the stones, and -trusting to the action of the roller and the travel of teams to -accomplish the work of consolidation. The bottom layer of -stone was sufficiently compacted in this way to form and -retain, under the action of the rollers (after the compression -had reached about its practical limit) an even and regular -surface; but the top layer, with the use of the heavy roller -loaded to its greatest capacity, it was found impracticable to -solidify and reduce to such a surface as would prevent the -stones from loosening and being displaced by the action of -waggon-wheels and horses’ feet. No amount of rolling was -sufficient to produce a thorough binding effect upon the -stones or to cause such a mechanical union and adjustment -of their sides and angles together, as to enable them mutually -to assist each other in resisting displacement. The rolling -was persisted in with the roller adjusted to different weights -up to the maximum load (12 tons) until it was apparent -that the opposite effect from that intended was being produced. -The stones became rounded by the excessive attrition -they were subjected to, their more angular parts wearing -away, and the weaker and smaller ones being crushed.”</p> - -<p>“The experiment was not pushed beyond this point. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page64">[64]</span> -was conclusively shown, that broken stones of the ordinary -sizes, and of the very best quality for wear and durability, -with the greatest care and attention to all the necessary conditions -of rolling and compression, would not consolidate in -the effectual manner required for the surface of a road while -entirely isolated from and independent of other substances. -The utmost efforts to compress and solidify them while in this -condition after a certain limit had been reached, were unavailing.”</p> - -<p>From the foregoing it is very evident that some description -of binding material is essential in making a road under a -roller. Where traffic is allowed to consolidate a road it is -different, as then the stones are knocked about and are -sufficiently abraded against each other to form a binding -material for themselves. Too much binding material or too -much water should not be used in forming a road with a -steam roller. It is unfortunately frequently the case that a -road is made quickly only to go to pieces with the traffic in a -few weeks. The surface of a well-constructed macadamised -roadway should after being rolled look almost like an encaustic -pavement. If there is too much binding material in -the joints of the stones, the first heavy rain washes it out and -the surface of the roadway quickly goes to pieces.</p> - -<p>The following description of the manner in which it is -recommended that the roller should be applied is taken from -an excellent little pamphlet on Steam Road Rolling, by -Messrs. Aveling and Porter, the well-known makers of steam-rollers, -and although local circumstances must guide the -surveyor in all his works, the particulars may be of <span class="nowrap">use:—</span></p> - -<p>“In the best practice the roadway is excavated, graded, -and properly formed to a depth of 14 inches from the level of -the gutters, with a cross section conforming to the cross -section of the road when finished; it is then thoroughly and -repeatedly rolled with the steam roller, all depressions being -carefully filled and rolled before the stone is put on. On the<span class="pagenum" id="Page65">[65]</span> -bed thus formed and consolidated a layer of stones 8 inches -thick is set by hand, and rammed or settled to place by sledge -hammers, all irregularities of surface being broken off and the -interstices wedged with pieces of stone. The intermediate -layer of broken stone, of a size not exceeding 3 inches in -diameter, is then evenly spread to a depth of 4 inches and -thoroughly rolled, and this is followed by rolling in half-an-inch -of sand. The surface layer of stone, broken to a size not -larger than 2 inches diameter, and to a form as nearly cubical -as possible, is then put on to a depth of 3 inches, thoroughly -rolled, and followed as before by sand, also rolled. Finally, a -binding composed of clean, sharp sand is then applied, well -watered and most thoroughly rolled with the steam roller, -until the surface becomes firm, compact and smooth, the -superfluous binding material being swept off and removed.”</p> - -<p>And the following account of the method adopted in the -United States at Hartford may also be of interest.<a id="FNanchor47"></a><a href="#Footnote47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> - -<p>“The surface of the road is excavated to a suitable depth—say, -18 inches; preparing the form for the pavement with -the precautions as for a common pavement; 4 inches of -gravel and proper drainage where required, provided blocks -of stone of any irregular shape are selected for the pavement, -of about 7 inches in thickness. The blocks are set by -hand with great care, as closely in contact at their base as -practicable. The surface between the blocks is filled with -chippings of stone carefully laid in. A layer of broken stone, -4 inches thick, is laid over this pavement. The road-covering -thus prepared should be rolled with the steam roller until the -upper layer has become perfectly compact and consolidated. -The second layer, about 3 inches in depth, is then laid on; a -coating of clean coarse gravel, 1¹⁄₂ inch thick, termed ‘binding,’ -is spread over the surface, and the whole well rolled as before, -and you have the requisites of a good road—viz., clean, hard, -and even at all seasons. No road should be considered made<span class="pagenum" id="Page66">[66]</span> -until it is completely rolled. A road made in the manner -above described, and kept perfectly clean, hard, and even, -with materials of a good tough quality, would show extremely -little wear on the surface; indeed, it has been found in France -to be less than ¹⁄₂ an inch in a year, on a road of great -traffic.”</p> - -<p>In the neighbourhood of New York the steam roller is -used as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>Two and a half inches of trap rock is laid and lightly rolled -until the stones have become a little compacted, then coarse -screenings are added, and it is again rolled; after this a layer -of about 2 inches of stones are added and rolled with coarse -screenings as before. Fine screenings or stone dust is then -applied, and the roadway is then rolled until every interstice -is filled up; it is then well watered and again rolled.</p> - -<p>With reference to the employment of the steam roller -in repairs of roads, the following description is given of the -method adopted by the Surveyor to the Tottenham Local -Board, near London.<a id="FNanchor48"></a><a href="#Footnote48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> - -<p>“When a road becomes so full of holes or so worn as to -require coating throughout its entire length and width, it -should be hacked completely over and raked into a segmental -form in its transverse section to remove irregularities, and so -that the road may have a fall from the crown to the channel -of not less than one inch to a yard. It should then be coated -with stone broken as nearly cubical as possible and to an -uniform gauge. When spread it should be slightly coated -with gravel screenings, or the grit sweepings from the roads, -which are equally suitable for the purpose when in proper condition. -The road should then be watered and rolled, beginning -with the road at the channels, and ending at the crown of -the road, until a smooth surface is obtained, more stones -being added to fill up any inequalities that may exist, until -the whole is consolidated. By constantly sweeping the grit<span class="pagenum" id="Page67">[67]</span> -from the sides to the crown of the road as the roller passes -over, every stone is thoroughly grouted into its bed.”</p> - -<p>Mr. R. Read, the Surveyor of Gloucester, says:<a id="FNanchor49"></a><a href="#Footnote49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> “The road -should be thoroughly well lifted and the metalling spread in -three-inch layers evenly, and rolled once or twice before the -gravel or other binding material is spread; then spread gravel -or sand evenly and well watered with fine distributor until the -stone is entirely covered, and the sand does not adhere to the -roller. Dam up the road channels to prevent water and sand -running off into sewers and let men scoop up the water, and -throw it back on the road, as it collects in the gutters.”</p> - -<p>In all cases the sides should be rolled first to such a -degree of firmness that when the roller passes over the centre -or crown of road, its weight, which tends to spread the metal -or make it work off towards the sides, may be resisted by their -consolidation.</p> - -<p>With reference to the effect of the weight of steam road -rollers upon roadways, it may be well here to compare that of -a 15-ton roller with other burdens that a road has to bear, -taking each case at per inch of width of tire.</p> - -<p>An ordinary loaded two-wheeled cart presses with a weight -of about 9 cwt. per inch width of tire, a loaded wagon about -7¹⁄₂ cwt., a 9-ton traction engine about 3³⁄₄ cwt., and a 15-ton -steam road roller about 3¹⁄₂ cwt. So that as far as the surface -of the roadway is concerned, a roller affects it the least of any -of the above loads.</p> - -<p>It has, however, been found that where rollers of more -weight than 15 tons are used,<a id="FNanchor50"></a><a href="#Footnote50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> not only are they unwieldy, -but, from their great weight, the solidity of the foundation of -the roadway may be interfered with, and also there is great -danger of damaging gas or water mains and services, besides -any cellars that may be constructed under the roadway.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page68">[68]</span></p> - -<p>The steam rollers which are principally used in this -country, are those manufactured by Messrs. Aveling and -Porter, and those by Messrs. Green and Sons, drawings of -both of which are here represented.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo085.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="482" /> -<p class="caption">MESSRS. AVELING AND PORTER’S 15-TON STEAM ROAD ROLLER.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page69">[69]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo086.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="485" /> -<p class="caption">MESSRS. GREEN AND SON’S 15-TON STEAM ROAD ROLLER AND TRACTION ENGINE COMBINED.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page70">[70]</span></p> - -<p>In Paris the Gellerat steam roller is used, and another is -also known, which is manufactured by Messrs. Morland and -Sons.</p> - -<p>A 15-ton steam roller costs about 650<i>l.</i> in the first place, -the cost of working it &c., has been given in the <a href="#Page60">early pages</a> -of this chapter.</p> - -<p>The advantages of steam road rolling may be summed up -as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>(1.) The saving of wear and tear to vehicles and horses. -Roads should be made <i>for</i> the traffic, and not <i>by</i> it.<a id="FNanchor51"></a><a -href="#Footnote51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> - -<p>(2.) Economy; as it is said that a saving of from 30 to 50 -per cent. is effected by reason of the roads being better made -thus obviating the necessity for such frequent sweeping and -scraping.</p> - -<p>(3.) The roads can be made or repaired at any season of -the year.</p> - -<p>(4.) The avoidance of cruelty to horses, cattle, and sheep, -as in the case of newly metalled unrolled roads.</p> - -<p>(5.) A saving of road metal. (<i>a</i>) Because it need not be -broken so small. (<i>b</i>) Because there are no loose stones to be -kicked about and lost. (<i>c</i>) Because there is no abrasion of -the stones, only one surface of the stone being exposed. (<i>d</i>) -Because no ruts can be formed in which water can lie to rot -the stone. (<i>e</i>) Because a thinner coating of metal can be -employed.</p> - -<p>(6.) The roller can be advantageously used for other -purposes.</p> - -<p>(7.) Rolled streets have a better appearance, they are -easier of traffic as having more evenness of surface and superior -hardness, and it is contended that if steam rollers were more -general there would not be such an outcry for other descriptions -of pavement for roadways.</p> - -<p>(8.) The steam roller soon finds out the good from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page71">[71]</span> -bad metal for roads, it is also contended that it also does this -with respect to the gas and water mains, the latter, however -may be looked upon as a rather doubtful advantage.</p> - -<p>(9.) The avoidance of the necessity of the continued employment -of men raking the metal into the ruts.</p> - -<p>In Mr. Paget’s valuable little pamphlet upon the subject of -steam rolling<a id="FNanchor52"></a><a href="#Footnote52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> may be found the following -<span class="nowrap">remarks:—</span></p> - -<p>“One of the main advantages attending the rolling of -roads by steam-power, consists in the diminished proportion -of mud or soluble matter which is then incorporated in the -structure of the road surface. If the surface of an ordinary -road that has not been rolled is broken up and the material -washed, it is found that as much as half of it is soluble matter, -mud, dirt, and very fine sand; the stones, having only been -thrown loosely upon the road, have lain so long before -becoming consolidated by the traffic, and have undergone in -the meantime such extensive abrasion that the proportion of -mud, dirt, and pulverised material in the metalling is increased -to that extent, and the stones are really only stuck together -by the mud. This accounts for the fact that although an -unrolled macadamised road may indeed, after long use, have -a surface that is pretty good and hard in dry weather, and -may offer then a very slight resistance to traction, yet it will -quickly become soft and muddy when there is any rain. By -the employment, however, of a steam roller upon the newly-laid -metalling of a macadamised road the stones are rolled in -and well bedded at once, and the surface is thus consolidated -into a sort of stone felt, capable of resisting most effectually -the action of ordinary traffic, and containing the smallest -quantity of soluble matter to form mud in wet weather.”</p> - -<p>Having given the advantages of steam road rolling, I will -now proceed to give the disadvantages.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page72">[72]</span></p> - -<p>(1.) The first cost; this to a small borough or town is often -the great stumbling block. It is a pity that two or three of -them could not join, and procure one between them at joint -cost, thus avoiding the individually heavy burden.</p> - -<p>(2.) The risk of damage to gas and water mains and -services; or even of cellars under the streets in some of the -older towns.</p> - -<p>(3.) The interference to traffic whilst the roller is at work; -the result is generally unsatisfactory if, to avoid this, the -machine is worked during the night.</p> - -<p>(4.) The noise and smoke.</p> - -<p>(5.) The risk of frightening horses.</p> - -<p>(6.) If too heavy a roller is used, the foundation of the -roadway may be injured or the metal may be crushed instead -of bedded.</p> - -<p>(7.) The necessity of using so much binding material and -water.</p> - -<p>Before closing this chapter it will be necessary to say a -few words upon rollers drawn by horses.</p> - -<p>These are always unsatisfactory: they are expensive to use, -as a large team of horses and a number of attendants are -necessary; they are difficult to turn, and the horses’ feet displace -almost as many stones as the roller compresses into their beds.</p> - -<p>They cannot be of greater weight than 10 tons, even when -on the hydrostatic principle, and they are clumsy and difficult -of manipulation.</p> - -<p>If a roller is to be used at all, let it be a steam road roller -of the most modern description, and of the best manufacture.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote42"></a><a href="#FNanchor42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lviii. -p. 95. (The first steam roller was made in the year 1864.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote43"></a><a href="#FNanchor43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> -The first steam roller used in England was, I believe, in the year 1872; in -Paris about 1864.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote44"></a><a href="#FNanchor44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> -This should be collected and “weathered” so as to get rid of mud and any -organic matter in it.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote45"></a><a href="#FNanchor45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> -In Paris 3 to 3·75 ton miles of roller are applied to every cubic yard of -metal; in America 5 ton miles are thought necessary.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote46"></a><a href="#FNanchor46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> -‘Roads, Streets, and Pavements,’ by Q. A. Gillmore, p. 89.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote47"></a><a href="#FNanchor47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> Aveling and Porter’s pamphlet on ‘Steam Road Rolling,’ p. 32.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote48"></a><a href="#FNanchor48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> Aveling and Porter’s pamphlet on ‘Steam Road Rolling,’ p. 33.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote49"></a><a href="#FNanchor49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘The Use of Steam Rollers,’ by A. W. Parry, Reading.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote50"></a><a href="#FNanchor50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> -Some road surveyors contend that for gravelled roads 6-ton rollers are heavy -enough, for macadam roads 12-ton rollers.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote51"></a><a href="#FNanchor51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Traffic in making a roadway is apt to grind off the sharp edges and spoil -the metal before it is set.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote52"></a><a href="#FNanchor52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> -‘Report on the Economy of Road Maintenance and Horse Draught through -Steam Rolling, with special reference to the Metropolis,’ by Frederick A. Paget, -C.E., etc. etc., London 1870, to which I refer my readers for many scientific and -useful facts upon this subject.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page73">[73]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER VIII.<br /> -<span class="chapname">PITCHED PAVEMENTS.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">It has been asserted that where a roadway has a traffic -exceeding 1000 vehicles per diem, that to maintain it as a -macadamised roadway is not economical.<a id="FNanchor53"></a><a href="#Footnote53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> However that may -be, it is unquestionable that for very heavy traffic blocks of -hammer-dressed stone, laid upon a concrete or hard gravel -bed, have been in use for a great number of years, and indeed -the Romans, who were great road makers, introduced the -system (the Archaic, as it is sometimes called) into this -country more than 2000 years ago; the size of the paving -stones was, however, much larger than modern science finds -necessary.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that a roadway paved with granite or -whinstone setts, upon a hard concrete foundation, presents a -most enduring pavement, costing but a few pence per annum -in repairs<a id="FNanchor54"></a><a href="#Footnote54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> and cleansing, and in other respects it answers -nearly all the requirements of traffic except in two very -important particulars—it becomes very greasy and slippery -under certain conditions of the weather after having been laid -any time, and it is an intolerable nuisance in any great -thoroughfare, from the incessant din and clatter arising from -the wheels of vehicles and the iron shoes of the horses striking -upon it; so great is the noise in some thoroughfares thus<span class="pagenum" id="Page74">[74]</span> -paved, that tradesmen are compelled to keep their doors and -windows tightly closed in order that they may be able to -conduct their business, and it is known to injuriously affect -the nerves and health of persons who are obliged to live in -the vicinity of such streets. It is a bad pavement too -for horses to travel upon, the jar upon the legs of the -unfortunate animals soon telling upon them.</p> - -<p>Great improvements, however, have in recent years been -introduced to correct these faults. The setts are now made -very narrow, about 3 inches in width, or 4 setts to 14 inches -including the joints: this gives a better foothold for the horse, -the hoof having but a little way to slip before being arrested -by a joint; it also lessens the noise, and helps besides to -prevent the edges of the stones becoming worn or the -pavement wearing unevenly.</p> - -<p>Running the joints with an asphaltic composition instead -of ordinary grouting has also materially conduced to deaden -the noise.</p> - -<p>Taking the question of cost into account—and cost of this -description of paving, be it remembered, is considerably -affected by weight, when carriage of the stone has to be -considered—the following sizes of stones may be taken as -satisfactory.<a id="FNanchor55"></a><a href="#Footnote55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Stones"> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">Depth</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">to</td> -<td class="center">8</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">inches</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">Width</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₂</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="center">3</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">Length</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="center">9</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The following table,<a id="FNanchor56"></a><a href="#Footnote56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> showing the number of square yards -that 1 ton in weight of different sizes of granite setts will<span class="pagenum" id="Page75">[75]</span> -cover, may be of use, but this must vary with the specific -gravity of the stone employed.</p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Areas"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2">Depth.</th> -<th> </th> -<th colspan="2">Width.</th> -<th colspan="3">Square yards.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">5</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">inches</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">×</td> -<td class="center">3</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">inches</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">covers</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₃</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">6</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">×</td> -<td class="center">3</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="left padl0">²⁄₅</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">4</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">×</td> -<td class="center">4</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₃</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">7</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">×</td> -<td class="center">3</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="left padl0"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The question of the best class of stones to employ as a -paving material must to a great measure depend upon local -circumstances, but it is important to select such stones as are -very hard and durable, but which will not wear smooth and -slippery nor round by reason of the chipping off of their -edges.</p> - -<p>Nearly all granites are suitable for this work, but Carnarvonshire -syenite<a id="FNanchor57"></a><a href="#Footnote57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> is said to be the best material that can -be used, although, being denser than granite, it is heavier and -consequently more expensive.</p> - -<p>At one time large quantities of paving stones were used in -London and Liverpool which were brought from Bombay and -China, as ballast for ships trading between those ports.</p> - -<p>Mount Sorrel from Leicestershire and the Welsh stones -are said to wear slippery<a id="FNanchor58"></a><a href="#Footnote58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> as well as porphyry, whereas the -presence of felspar in the granite always keeps it rough under -traffic.</p> - -<p>Of the granites, that from Dalbeattie in Scotland is said to -be the best.</p> - -<p>The table on the next page, prepared by Mr. Walker -in 1831, showing the wear of different stones, may be of -interest.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page76">[76]</span></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="smcap">Table showing the Result of Experiments made by Mr. Walker<br /> -on the wear of Stones in 1830-31, a period of 17 Months.</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90 notop" summary="Wear"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br">Name of<br />stone.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Super-<br />ficial<br />area<br />in feet.</th> -<th colspan="4" class="br">Original<br />weight.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Loss<br />of<br />weight<br />by<br />wear.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Loss<br />per<br />super-<br />ficial<br />foot.</th> -<th colspan="2">Relative<br />losses.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"> </th> -<th>cwt.</th> -<th>qrs.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">lbs.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2"> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4 br">Guernsey</td> -<td class="right padr0 padl1">4</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·734</td> -<td class="center">7</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="left padl0 br padr1">·75</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·50</td> -<td class="right padr0 padl1">0</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·951</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0">·000</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4 br">Herm</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·250</td> -<td class="center">7</td> -<td class="center">3</td> -<td class="right padr0">24</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·25</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·50</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·048</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0">·102</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4 br">Budle</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·336</td> -<td class="center">9</td> -<td class="center">0</td> -<td class="right padr0">15</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·75</td> -<td class="right padr0">7</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·75</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·223</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0">·286</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4 br">Peterhead (blue)</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·484</td> -<td class="center">4</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="right padr0">7</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·50</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·25</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·795</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0">·887</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4 br">Heytor</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·313</td> -<td class="center">6</td> -<td class="center">0</td> -<td class="right padr0">15</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·25</td> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·25</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·915</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0">·014</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4 br">Aberdeen (red)</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·375</td> -<td class="center">7</td> -<td class="center">2</td> -<td class="right padr0">11</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·50</td> -<td class="right padr0">11</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·50</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·139</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0">·249</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4 br">Dartmoor</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·500</td> -<td class="center">6</td> -<td class="center">2</td> -<td class="right padr0">25</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·0</td> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·50</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·778</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0">·921</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="left padr4 br">Aberdeen (blue)</td> -<td class="right padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·823</td> -<td class="center">6</td> -<td class="center">2</td> -<td class="right padr0">16</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·0</td> -<td class="right padr0">14</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·75</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">·058</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="left padl0">·216</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The Aberdeen granite as at present laid in the City of -London, 3 inches wide by 9 inches in depth, has a life of about -15 years.<a id="FNanchor59"></a><a href="#Footnote59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> In the City of Durham whinstone setts of the same -width last 17 or 18 years, in Manchester similar granite setts -last 15 to 20 years. On this subject Mr. Deacon, the then -Borough Engineer of Liverpool, has collected some most -valuable information, and I refer my readers to a paper read -by him before the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1879,<a id="FNanchor60"></a><a href="#Footnote60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> for -a great deal of useful information on this and other subjects -connected with roadways.</p> - -<p>Various methods have been adopted for constructing granite -paved streets, some of which I will proceed to describe.</p> - -<p>One of the first really good granite pavements introduced -into London was that known as the “Euston Pavement,” -and it was constructed in the following manner: The -foundation was shaped to the intended surface of the finished -roadway; upon this a layer of coarse gravel was spread 4 -inches in thickness, this was well rammed,<a id="FNanchor61"></a><a href="#Footnote61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> -and upon it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page77">[77]</span> -spread 4 inches of gravel mixed with a small quantity of -chalk to bind it; this again being well rammed, upon it was -placed a similar layer only composed of finer gravel, and upon -this foundation the stones were placed, being bedded upon -about an inch of fine sand. The stones used were Mount Sorrel -granite, which were hammer-dressed and squared, 3 inches -in width by 4 inches in depth; they were set close together -at right angles with the lines of the kerb, they were then -thoroughly rammed by the pavior. The whole surface was -afterwards covered with screened gravel which was allowed to -find its way into the joints and thus steady the entire -pavement.</p> - -<p>The following section will explain this.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo095.png" alt="Road section" width="600" height="285" /> -</div> - -<p>In many cases the foundation is simply formed by shaping -the soil to the required contour, and covering this with 3 or 4 -inches of gravel or cinders, which is afterwards either rammed -or consolidated by the traffic; upon this the setts are placed as -closely as possible, the joints are then filled with fine gravel -well worked in with a “cramming iron,” the whole surface -being then covered with a grouting of lime and sand, which is -brushed into the joints with a stumpy broom.<a id="FNanchor62"></a><a href="#Footnote62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page78">[78]</span></p> - -<p>In Leeds, Manchester, Salford, and many other important -cities, I believe the foundations are formed in the manner just -described, but of greater depth, the grouting also is a bituminous -mixture, which I will presently describe, instead of the -ordinary lime grouting.</p> - -<p>The paved streets of Manchester are proverbial for their -excellence, which is attributable to the manner in which the -foundations of the streets are consolidated by the traffic before -any setts are placed on them; in many cases the old macadamised -surface of a street being utilised as a foundation, this -process being almost identical with that recommended by Sir -Henry Parnell fifty years ago.<a id="FNanchor63"></a><a href="#Footnote63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p> - -<p>Where the traffic is heavy, however, a firmer foundation -even than this is necessary, and up to the present time no -better foundation has been introduced than that of good -Portland cement concrete. This should be at least 9 inches in -thickness, and be composed of one part of Portland cement, -two parts of clean sharp river sand, and four parts of clean -river ballast, or broken stones, or other suitable material. The -surface of the concrete, after having been placed in position, -should be smoothed over with the shovel, so as to present the -proper convexity and have an even surface for the granite setts -to be bedded upon.</p> - -<p>Another description of foundation now very extensively -used where the traffic is heavy, is that known as “Bituminous -Concrete,” which is made as follows:</p> - -<p>The ground being excavated to the proper depth and -contour, broken stone as for macadam is spread for a depth of<span class="pagenum" id="Page79">[79]</span> -6 or 9 inches; this is then levelled and thoroughly rolled with a -light roller, a boiling mixture of pitch and tar, or creosote oil -is then poured over the whole surface until every interstice is -filled, when a thin layer of small broken stone is spread upon -it, and then well rolled until it consolidates.</p> - -<p>It may be well to observe here that in all works involving -concrete foundations and paving in streets, the traffic should -be entirely stopped if at all possible. Streets paved half at a -time are never quite satisfactory, and the concrete should -have at least a week to set before the pavement is placed -upon it.</p> - -<p>Upon a foundation of either Portland cement or bituminous -concrete, the granite setts themselves should be grouted with -a bituminous mixture instead of cement or lime grouting. This -renders the pavement more impervious to moisture, makes it -less noisy, and adds considerably to its strength; the mode of -applying it is nearly similar to that of ordinary grouting. The -setts are placed on about an inch of sand and well rammed, -the boiling mixture is then poured over the whole surface, -which is then covered with a thin coating of small, sharp -gravel.</p> - -<p>The following table of the proportions necessary for the -bituminous mixture may here be of use.</p> - -<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="smcap">Proportions for Bituminous Mixture.</span><a id="FNanchor64"></a><a -href="#Footnote64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p> - -<table class="fsize90 notop" summary="Mixtures"> - -<tr> -<th> </th> -<th colspan="2">Pitch.</th> -<th> </th> -<th colspan="2">Tar.</th> -<th> </th> -<th colspan="2">Pitch.</th> -<th> </th> -<th>Creo-<br />sote<br />oil.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">For grouting in pavements</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">to</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">or</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">to</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">For foundations or lower layer of asphalte macadam</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">to</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">or</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₂</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">to</td> -<td class="center">¹⁄₂</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">For upper layer of asphalte macadam and for foot paths</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₂</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">to</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₂</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">or</td> -<td class="right padr0">3</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₄</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">to</td> -<td class="center">³⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The objections to this method of paving are only temporary: -the nuisance arising from the fumes of the boiling mixture -whilst it is being applied, and the necessity for dry<span class="pagenum" id="Page80">[80]</span> -weather to make the operation successful. Healey’s Patent -Pitch Boilers<a id="FNanchor65"></a><a href="#Footnote65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> are said to moderate, if not entirely to do away -with the former, and the latter can be arranged by only doing -the work at favourable seasons, or if the worst come to the -worst, to cover the work with tarpaulins raised on trestles.</p> - -<p>Before closing this chapter I should like to draw attention -to the question of provision for wheel tracks, or tramways -paved with stone, asphalte, or other hard material, and a -track for horses giving a firmer foot-hold, similar to those so -highly spoken of in Milan and other Italian cities. An excellent -description is given of them by Mr. P. le Neve Foster, Jun., in -an appendix to a report on the Application of Science and -Art to Street Paving and Street Cleansing of the Metropolis -(1872).</p> - -<p>The roadway where stone tramways are employed cannot -be of convex section; on the contrary, it should be concave, -with the channel, gutter, or water table in the centre. This -is in itself an obvious advantage, and I trust that the question -of these tramways may at some future date receive more -attention from English engineers; the great objection to them -in this country being that the smooth tram-track would be -very slippery and apt to throw horses down when passing on -and off, but they have many advantages which should not be -passed over without consideration.<a id="FNanchor66"></a><a href="#Footnote66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote53"></a><a href="#FNanchor53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> -Birmingham in 1854 had not, I believe, a single mile of paved streets; the -principal ones are now nearly all paved with granite setts, and over 20,000 square -yards were so paved in 1880.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote54"></a><a href="#FNanchor54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> -It is said that the cost per annum per square yard of granite paved roadways -is but 3<i>d.</i>, whereas the same cost for macadamised roadways under the -same circumstances is 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p><a id="Footnote55"></a><a href="#FNanchor55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> -In Paris after considerable research into the question, the engineers of the -Ponts et Chausseés, decided that the size of the paving stones, which used formerly -to be 9 inches square should be 4 inches wide by 6¹⁄₄ inches long by 6¹⁄₄ inches -deep, the stone that is used being a grit sandstone, from the forest of Fontainebleu.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote56"></a><a href="#FNanchor56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lviii. -p. 66.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote57"></a><a href="#FNanchor57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> -Syenite is a hard, greenish-grey metamorphic rock, composed principally of -silica, alumina, and lime, in conjunction with magnesia, iron, etc. Its specific -gravity is 2·96.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote58"></a><a href="#FNanchor58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> -Mr. Boyle, District Surveyor of Manchester, says: “I would caution you -against the use of the old blue Penmaenmawr stone as being an extremely slippery -stone, and one which makes a dangerous pavement.” <i>Vide</i> ‘Proceedings of the -Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers,’ vol. iii. p. 58.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote59"></a><a href="#FNanchor59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> -The old granite paving of London used only to last eight years. <i>Vide</i> -‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. ix. p. 222.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote60"></a><a href="#FNanchor60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Street Carriageway Pavements,’ by George Frederick Deacon, -M. Inst. C.E., ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. -lviii. p. 1 <i>et seq.</i></p> - -<p><a id="Footnote61"></a><a href="#FNanchor61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> -The pavior’s rammer is about 55 lb. in weight, with an iron ring at its foot; -this is swung with some dexterity between the legs, and is allowed to fall with -great force upon the earth or stones it is in use upon.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote62"></a><a href="#FNanchor62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> -The usual specifications for the Guidet paving blocks (in New York) require -that they shall be of granite, equal in hardness to the Quincy granite, of durable -and uniform quality, each measuring not less than 3¹⁄₂ nor more than 4¹⁄₂ inches in -width on the upper surface or face, and not less than 10 nor more than 15 inches -in length, and not less than 8 nor more than 9 inches in depth. Blocks of 3¹⁄₂ inches -in width on the face to be not less than 3 inches in width at the base; all other -blocks to measure on the base not more than 1 inch less in width or in length -than on the face. The blocks are set upright in close contact on their edges in -courses, with the longest dimensions and the continuous joints running across the -street, breaking joints lengthwise of the street.</p> - -<p>The ends of the blocks are dressed off so as to give close joints in the direction -of the draught, while the broad vertical sides of the blocks are left rugged or -uneven, or with the split rock-face so that the continuous joints running across -the street are somewhat open. <i>Vide</i> ‘Roads, Streets, and Pavements’ by Q. A. -Gillmore, p. 157.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote63"></a><a href="#FNanchor63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> -‘A Treatise on Roads,’ by Sir Henry Parnell, p. 130.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote64"></a><a href="#FNanchor64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> -As these ingredients often vary very much in their constitution, the surveyor -must use his judgment to a great extent as to these proportions.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote65"></a><a href="#FNanchor65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> -These boilers are now much used for such purposes, they hold from 60 to -500 gallons and are light and portable; the temper of the bituminous mixture -also remains uniform whilst being drawn off, and there is very little evaporation -or waste arising from them.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote66"></a><a href="#FNanchor66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> -Since writing the above, the Liverpool and Manchester tram-road was -designed I believe on this principle.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page81">[81]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER IX.<br /> -<span class="chapname">WOOD PAVING.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">In the year 1843 Mr. Charles Cochrane, the President of the -‘Association for the promotion of Improved Street Paving, -etc.,’ in a paper which he read before the Institution of Civil -Engineers, on the State of the Streets of the Metropolis, said -that there existed at that date 100,000 yards of wood pavement.<a id="FNanchor67"></a><a href="#Footnote67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> -He further states that it is said to be slippery, but -that he approves of it as the best material hitherto used, “both -as regards its general economy and durability as well as its -facility of traction, and more especially its extreme cleanliness.”</p> - -<p>Two years previous to this date, Mr. Edward Lomas condemned -wood pavement as slippery, and recommended granite -pavement for horses with wood tram-tracks for the wheels of -vehicles.<a id="FNanchor68"></a><a href="#Footnote68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> - -<p>Since these dates the question of wood paving has made -giant strides, many companies and private firms having -started business as wood paviors, with many various methods, -which they strongly advocate as being superior to the others; -amongst them I will enumerate and describe the following:</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>The Improved Wood Pavement Company.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—The ground -being consolidated, a layer of sand is made the basis of the -pavement, and assumes the shape the surface of the street is -intended to take. Red-wood boards 1-inch in thickness are -then laid across the roadway, from kerb to kerb, placed -together so as to break joint; boards of the same material and<span class="pagenum" id="Page82">[82]</span> -thickness are then laid longitudinally, and breaking joint in -the same manner.<a id="FNanchor69"></a><a href="#Footnote69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> On this foundation red-wood blocks are -placed in rows, taking the same direction as the under -flooring.</p> - -<p>Between each row of blocks, a strip of wood ³⁄₄ × ³⁄₄ inch -is nailed to the block and flooring, the blocks in all cases -breaking joint; the spaces thus formed between the rows of -blocks are then run with a thick composition which fills all -vacant spaces there may be between the strip and the block, -covering the strip about ¹⁄₈ of an inch. Gravel, dried and sifted -through ³⁄₄-inch mesh, is then put in, solidly rammed, and composition -poured in; the pavement is then covered to a depth -of ¹⁄₂ an inch with dried gravel and composition for the purpose -of indurating the surface, and filling the spaces flush with the -top of the block, a slight covering of sand is then spread, when -the traffic may immediately pass over.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>The Asphaltic Wood Pavement Company.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—After the ground -is properly prepared, 6 or 9 inches of concrete is laid, on this -is laid a bed of asphalte not less than ¹⁄₂-inch in thickness; then -wood blocks 3 by 8 by 5 inches or 3 by 9 by 5 inches, of -good, sound, yellow Baltic timber are laid with joints ¹⁄₂-inch -in width, these joints are filled from 2 inches up with -heated asphalte, the remaining 3 inches being filled with a -grouting of hydraulic lime, and clean, sharp, fine river grit -or sand, the whole being covered with a top dressing of fine, -sharp sand, which wears in with the traffic.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Croskey’s Wood Pavement.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—Upon a bed of concrete, cross -grained planks were to be placed side by side and be forced -together by pressure so as to form a compact homogeneous -surface of wood.<a id="FNanchor70"></a><a href="#Footnote70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Lloyd’s Patent Keyed Wood Pavement.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—The special feature -of this system is that <i>Pitch Pine</i> blocks are used laid<span class="pagenum" id="Page83">[83]</span> -<i>direct</i> upon the concrete foundation, the blocks being grooved -on each side so that the grouting (composed of Portland -cement) shall run in and form a key.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Harrison’s Wood Pavement.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—This system consists of a -concrete foundation, upon which strips of wood 2 inches wide -by ¹⁄₂ an inch in thickness are laid. Upon these, wood blocks -3 inches in breadth are placed, and then hot asphalte is -poured into the joints, which conglomerates the whole.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Henson’s Wood Pavement.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—The main feature of this -patent consists in placing common felt on the concrete bed, -and between the joints of the wood blocks; thus, it is contended, -giving elasticity and allowing for the expansion and -contraction of the blocks. The blocks are also bevelled on the -top and grooved in a particular manner.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Carey’s Wood Pavement.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—In this case the blocks are cut -4 inches wide by 9 inches long, and 5 or 6 inches deep, -according to the traffic; these blocks are shaped with alternate -convex and concave ends, and are laid on a bed of sand about -2 inches thick, the joints between the blocks, which have been -left about ³⁄₈ inch wide, being filled with a grouting of lime and -sand.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Messrs. Mowlem and Company’s</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh"> method of laying wood -paving is to form a foundation of concrete, varying in thickness -according to the nature of the subsoil and the traffic; -then to pave with blocks of yellow deal, 3 inches wide and 6 -or 7 inches deep; the joints, which vary from ³⁄₈ to ¹⁄₂ inch, are -filled in with sand and lias lime, and the surface is afterwards -indurated by strewing it with shingle.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Patent Ligno-Mineral Paving Company.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—This company -lays claim to the speciality of using hard woods as well as -pine, and that the pine blocks they employ are preserved or -mineralised so as to be more durable than the wood in its -natural state.<a id="FNanchor71"></a><a href="#Footnote71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page84">[84]</span></p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Nicholson’s Wood Pavement.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—This is principally in use -in the United States, and consists of rectangular blocks of pine -laid upon a close flooring of pine boards, 1 inch thick, laid -lengthwise with the line of street, their ends resting on -similar boards laid transversely from kerb to kerb, the boards -being thoroughly tarred and laid upon a bed of sand. The -joints of the wood blocks are run with an asphaltic mixture, -and the whole surface is finally covered with hot coal tar and -sprinkled with fine sand and gravel.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Stowe’s Wood Pavement.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—This is also American, the blocks -resting directly upon sand or gravel about 6 inches in thickness.<a id="FNanchor72"></a><a href="#Footnote72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> -“The blocks are set in courses transversely across -the street, so as to break joint lengthwise of the street, the -courses being separated from each other 1 inch by a continuous -course of wooden wedges placed close together edge -to edge, and extending from kerb to kerb. These wedges -are set in the first instance with their tops flush with the top -surface of the blocks. After the whole pavement shall have -been well rammed, so as to give each block a firm bed, the -wedges are driven down about 3 inches, and the open joints -thus formed above them between the courses are filled in with -a concrete composed of hot coal tar and fine roofing sand and -gravel. The surface of the pavement may then be coated -with coal tar prepared by boiling with pitch, and finished off -with a thin layer of sand.”</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Wood Paving in Norwich.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—Mr. P. Marshall, the City -Surveyor of Norwich, states<a id="FNanchor73"></a><a href="#Footnote73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> that the wood pavement in that -city is “simply laid on the road formation levelled up with -shingle. The blocks are grouted in with blue lias lime and -well rammed down. This makes a splendid road, and is -superior to any portion of the road that has been laid with<span class="pagenum" id="Page85">[85]</span> -concrete. This wood paving, 5 inches deep, laid as described, -costs 7<i>s.</i> per yard super. We have had some down here now -for 2 years, and have had no settlement whatever. It is a -very important matter, for it makes wood paving possible for -country towns.”</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Shiel’s Composite Block Paving.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—This pavement consists -of composite blocks 12 inches by 15 inches, cast in iron -moulds with two rows of wood placed at an equal distance -from either side and each other, the vacant spaces being filled -with granite broken as for macadam; over all is poured a -boiling composition of pitch, chalk, and sand. The blocks are -thus treated at the works, and are, when cool, taken to the -street, laid on a concrete foundation, and grouted with cement -grouting.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Prosser’s Wood Pavement.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—This is composed of blocks -sawn at an angle of 60°, the grain of the wood running in the -same direction. Each end of the block rests on the other, -transversely to line of street. Between the rows of blocks a -plank, the same depth as the blocks, but with the grain of the -wood horizontal, is placed. The blocks, which on one side of -the plank lean in an opposite direction to those on the other, -are secured or dowelled together by wooden pins running -through the plank and piercing the blocks about an inch.</p> - -<p>In Chicago, U.S.A., cedar blocks 6 inches square, set on a -composition of tar and gravel, are used, and are said to make -a very durable pavement.</p> - -<p>The following sanitary objections to wood as a material -for pavements are made in the Report on the Application of -Science and Art to Street Paving and Street Cleansing of the -Metropolis (1872) page 17.</p> - -<p>“The General Board of Health set aside wood as an -ineligible material for this amongst other reasons, that street -surfaces ought to be impermeable; and for roads of light -traffic and cheap construction, they looked to modifications of<span class="pagenum" id="Page86">[86]</span> -macadam, with bituminous binders of mineral tar. Since -then wood has been reproduced for the purpose, and strongly -pressed in improved forms for trial. It certainly offers the -advantage of a great gain in noiselessness over granite, more -especially from the horses’ feet, though with some disadvantage -from a dead rumble and vibration; and further it has the -advantage of being more available than smooth pavements for -inclines. But hygienists object to its use on grounds which, -in the absence of sanitary science, are overlooked, but which it -is important to particularise as showing the dangerous state of -ignorance and incompetency of the authorities by whom they -are not entertained or are disregarded.”</p> - -<p>The sum total of these charges against wood as a pavement -consists in the following: “Wood is porous, it is composed -of bundles of fibres, it absorbs and retains wet, foul wet -especially.” Why <i>foul</i> wet should be absorbed more than -ordinary wet does not transpire.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that wood in its natural state does -absorb a large quantity of water,<a id="FNanchor74"></a><a href="#Footnote74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> but this can be avoided in -wood paving by preserving the wood of which it is composed -by one of the following processes.</p> - -<table class="fsize90" summary="Wood conservation"> - -<tr> -<td class="right top padr1">(1)</td> -<td class="left top padr4">Burnetising</td> -<td class="left top">Chloride of zinc is used in this process.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right top padr1">(2)</td> -<td class="left top padr4">Kyanising</td> -<td class="left top">Corrosive sublimate is used.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right top padr1">(3)</td> -<td class="left top padr4">Renwickising</td> -<td class="left top">Boiling in coal tar.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right top padr1">(4)</td> -<td class="left top padr4">Boucherising</td> -<td class="left top">Sulphate of copper is used.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right top padr1">(5)</td> -<td class="left top padr4">Bethelising</td> -<td class="left top">Creosote heated to 200° F. is used.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right top padr1">(6)</td> -<td class="left top padr4">Seelyising</td> -<td class="left top">Creosote is also used, the wood being first boiled.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right top padr1">(7)</td> -<td class="left top padr4">Hayfordising</td> -<td class="left top">Creosote is also used, wood being unseasoned.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The fibres of the wood are also compressed, and no open -joints between the blocks are permitted, by paving the blocks<span class="pagenum" id="Page87">[87]</span> -transversely, with butt joints closely packed together, and by -filling the cross joints with an asphaltic or other impervious -grouting.</p> - -<p>Wood paving should, however, be laid in streets with -moderate traffic, and plenty of sun and air. In confined -spaces such as courts, it soon rots and becomes a source of -much unhealthiness.<a id="FNanchor75"></a><a href="#Footnote75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p> - -<p>Many reports have been from time to time made on the -advantages and disadvantages of wood paving, and much has -been said and written upon the subject, so that I will only -touch upon some of the principal questions at issue.</p> - -<p>The first of importance is that of durability, and although -the life of a hard wood constantly exposed to attrition is -amazing, as may be seen on the stairs of the Metropolitan -Railway Stations, and in many cog wheels of old machinery, -still some diversity of opinion exists as to what may be fairly -put down as the wear per annum of the surface of a street -paved with wood blocks.</p> - -<p>It must be remembered that to arrive at any fixed ratio -of wear, a standard of traffic should be fixed; but this unfortunately -has not hitherto been done, so that the results of -observations are bound to differ considerably. It must also -not be lost sight of that the reason of excessive wear in a -wood pavement generally arises from wide joints being the -means of causing the edges of the blocks to abrade and -become worn.</p> - -<p>Mr. D. T. Hope, in a paper he laid before the Scottish -Society of Arts, upon some most careful investigations he -had made on this subject, gives the wear as ¹⁄₈ of an inch -in 18 months on blocks laid with vertical fibre, which he -proved was the best manner of laying them to ensure the -longest life.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page88">[88]</span></p> - -<p>Mr. Deacon estimated the wear at from 1³⁄₈ inch to -2⁵⁄₁₆ inches per annum.<a id="FNanchor76"></a><a href="#Footnote76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p> - -<p>Mr. Copland estimated the wear at ³⁄₁₆ of an inch per -annum.<a id="FNanchor77"></a><a href="#Footnote77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p> - -<p>Mr. Howorth estimates the life of wood paving at 25 -years per inch of wood, if an absolutely uniform quality of -wood fibre could be assumed.<a id="FNanchor78"></a><a href="#Footnote78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p> - -<p>Mr. Haywood says,<a id="FNanchor79"></a><a href="#Footnote79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> “Wood pavements with repairs have -in this City (London) had a life varying from 6 to 19 years, -and that with repairs, an average life of about 10 years may -be obtained.”</p> - -<p>The life of wood is no doubt extended by being preserved -by one of the processes I have enumerated, but as its life -may be taken as an average of 8 to 10 years, and as the blocks -are bound to wear unevenly, they should be made as shallow -as is consistent with stability; as it is an undisputed fact that -the foundation of a roadway is the important carrier of the -traffic, the surface material, of whatever it may be constructed, -only acting as a skin to preserve it. If the blocks are too -thick, unnecessary capital is locked up.</p> - -<p>Wood pavement was laid in Sunderland<a id="FNanchor80"></a><a href="#Footnote80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> in 1859 with -strips of creosoted red pine, creosoted beech wood, and unpreserved -oak, the bulk of the paving being unpreserved red deal, -and this was replaced in 1867.</p> - -<p>In 1877, on renewing the pavement, it was found that the -creosoted wood suffered less from wear and tear than the -unpreserved, so the whole was done with creosoted red pine,<span class="pagenum" id="Page89">[89]</span> -the original strip of creosoted red pine was left untouched, the -strip of oak was turned, and the beech was merely raised; and -there is no doubt that the best wood pavement is that which -can be constructed in the simplest manner, as for instance -deal blocks 4 or 5 inches deep, laid with a close joint -upon a Portland cement concrete bed, the blocks being -well grouted in with Portland cement grouting, their surface -being afterwards sprinkled or strewn with sand or -sharp gravel.</p> - -<p>The woods employed for paving are beech and oak, -both of which are said to be too slippery, elm, which is -not durable, pitch pine and Baltic fir. Memel and Dantzic -timber is better than Riga, the best wood for the -purpose being said to be Wyborg or St. Petersburgh -red deals.</p> - -<p>All sappy wood must be at once rejected as unsuitable. -This is a great objection to creosoting or other preserving -processes, as it hides defects in the wood.</p> - -<p>The advantages of wood paving may be summed up as -<span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>(1.) It is the quietest of all known pavements, wheels make -scarcely any noise upon it and there is no clatter of horses’ -hoofs.</p> - -<p>(2.) It is much safer than either asphalte or granite pavements -for horses travelling upon it and if a horse falls he can -rise more easily.</p> - -<p>(3.) The traction necessary upon it, though slightly greater -than upon asphalte, is compensated for by the better foothold -given to horses.</p> - -<p>(4.) It is clean. If well constructed there should be no -mud made upon it; all that appears upon its surface -should arise either from its being imported upon it, or -from the gravel with which it is sometimes necessary to -dress the surface.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page90">[90]</span></p> - -<p>(5.) It presents a uniform and slight elasticity, which is of -great benefit to vehicles passing over it.</p> - -<p>(6.) It may be laid on a gradient of 1 in 20 with safety to -the traffic.</p> - -<p>The principal objections to wood as a paving <span class="nowrap">are:—</span></p> - -<p>(1.) It is said to absorb moisture and to smell offensively, -but this has often been refuted.<a id="FNanchor81"></a><a href="#Footnote81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p> - -<p>(2.) It is said to be difficult to cleanse without the aid -of water, as dirt adheres to the wood, and lingers in the -joints.</p> - -<p>(3.) It is not easy to open it or repair it, for the purposes -of gas and water pipes, etc., and rather a large surface has to -be removed for this purpose, and it has to be left a little time -after repairs before traffic is again allowed on it.</p> - -<p>(4.) The wood swells if wet, and cases are on record of the -side kerbs of streets being raised, and lamp posts thrown -down, by the pressure of the wood thus swelling.<a id="FNanchor82"></a><a href="#Footnote82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p> - -<p>With regard to the cost of wood paving. This must -vary in different localities, according to the value of -labour, of materials, and in the manner in which the work -is done.</p> - -<p>The practice of most of the companies engaged in this -class of work is to make a fixed charge per square yard for -the pavement, including the concrete but excluding the -excavation, and they also guarantee to keep the pavement in<span class="pagenum" id="Page91">[91]</span> -repair free of charge for one or two years, and then for so -many years after, at so much per yard per annum.</p> - -<p>About 14<i>s.</i> per square yard is generally the first charge -for constructing, and 1<i>s.</i> per square yard is the annual charge -for maintenance.</p> - -<p>Upon the subject of cost the following tables<a id="FNanchor83"></a><a href="#Footnote83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> may be -useful.</p> - -<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="smcap">Table showing the Actual Duration and Cost<br />of certain -Wood Pavements in the City of London.</span></p> - -<table class="notop fsize90" summary="Costs"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th colspan="4" class="br">Situation.</th> -<th class="br">Date when<br />laid New.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Life.</th> -<th colspan="4" class="br">First Cost<br />per<br />Square Yard.</th> -<th colspan="4" class="br">Total Cost<br />of Repairs<br />per<br />Square Yard<br />during Life.</th> -<th colspan="4">Average Cost<br />per<br />Square Yard<br />per Annum.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="4" class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th>Yrs.</th> -<th class="br">Mths.</th> -<th>£</th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th>£</th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th>£</th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">Cornhill</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace right padr0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace br"> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">May, 1855</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr2">10</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr3 br">2</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">12</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">2</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">17</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">¹⁄₂</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">11</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">July, 1865</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr2">6</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr3 br">8</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">11</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">6</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">8</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">9</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">³⁄₄</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">3</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">0</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₂</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">Gracechurch Street</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace right padr0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace br"> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">Nov. 1853</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr2">11</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr3 br">7</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">12</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">8</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">17</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">¹⁄₂</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">6</td> -<td class="left padl0">³⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">June, 1865</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr2">6</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr3 br">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">11</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">6</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">6</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">11</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">3</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">0</td> -<td class="left padl0">³⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">Lombard Street</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace right padr0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace br"> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">May, 1851</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr2">9</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr3 br">4</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">9</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">6</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">6</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">0</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">7</td> -<td class="left padl0">³⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">Sept. 1860</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr2">10</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr3 br">7</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">9</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">2</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">2</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">9</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">Lothbury</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace right padr0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace br"> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">May, 1854</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr2">12</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr3 br">3</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">12</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">6</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">8</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">³⁄₄</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">3</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">4</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">Aug. 1866</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr2">6</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr3 br">1</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">12</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">6</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">3</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">³⁄₄</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">7</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₂</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">Mincing Lane</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace right padr0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace br"> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">July, 1841</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr2">19</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr3 br">1</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">14</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">4</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">13</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">4</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">Aug. 1860</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr2">13</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr3 br">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">9</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">2</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">6</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">³⁄₄</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="left">Bartholomew Lane</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace right padr0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace br"> </td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">May, 1854</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr2">12</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr3 br">3</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">12</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">6</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">17</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">³⁄₄</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center padl1 padr1 br">Aug. 1866</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr2">5</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr3 br">5</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">12</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">6</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">3</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">11</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">¹⁄₄</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">3</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">0</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="19" class="left padl4">Foundations are included, but no excavation.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page92">[92]</span></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="smcap">Table showing First Cost, and Tendered Cost per Annum<br />for Maintaining Certain -Wood Carriageway Pavements in the City of London.</span></p> - -<table class="fsize90 notop" summary="Pavements"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br">Situation.</th> -<th class="br">Date<br />when<br />Laid.</th> -<th class="br">Name of<br />Contractor.</th> -<th class="br">Years<br />to be<br />main-<br />tained<br />by<br />Con-<br />tractor.</th> -<th colspan="3" class="br">First Cost<br />per<br />Square Yard.</th> -<th class="br">Agreed Cost of<br />maintenance per<br />Square Yard for<br />the Contract Term.</th> -<th colspan="3" class="br">Total Cost<br />of Pavements<br />during<br />Contract<br />Term,<br />per<br />Square Yard.</th> -<th colspan="4">Average<br />Cost<br />per<br />Square Yard<br />per Annum.</th> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="w10m">£</th> -<th class="w10m"><i>s.</i></th> -<th class="w10m br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="w10m">£</th> -<th class="w10m"><i>s.</i></th> -<th class="w10m br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th class="w10m">£</th> -<th class="w10m"><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="hind01 br">King William Street</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">Feb. 1873</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">Improved Wood Paving Co.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr3 br">16</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">18</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="hind01 br">1 year free</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">2</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1 br">6</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">2</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="w10m right padr0">6</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="w10m left padl0">¹⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td class="hind01 br">15 years at 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> = 1<i>l.</i> 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="hind01 br">Ludgate Hill</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">Nov. 1873</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">Ditto</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr3 br">16</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">18</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="hind01 br">1 year free</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">2</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1 br">6</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">2</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">6</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">¹⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td class="hind01 br">15 years at 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> = 1<i>l.</i> 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="hind01 br">Portions of Great Tower Street and Seething Lane</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">Sept. 1873</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">Ditto</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr3 br">16</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">16</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="hind01 br">1 year free</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">14</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1 br">9</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">2</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr0">2</td> -<td rowspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td class="hind01 br">15 years at 1<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> = 18<i>s.</i> 9<i>d.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td class="hind01 br">Bartholomew Lane</td> -<td class="center br">Jan. 1872</td> -<td class="center br">Carey</td> -<td class="center br">No<br />agree-<br />ment</td> -<td class="right padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padr1">12</td> -<td class="right padr1 br">6</td> -<td class="center br">——</td> -<td colspan="3" class="center br">——</td> -<td colspan="4" class="center">——</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td class="hind01 br">Ditto</td> -<td class="center br">Dec. 1871</td> -<td class="center br">Improved Wood Paving Co.</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">3</td> -<td class="right padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padr1">16</td> -<td class="right padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="hind01 br">3 years free</td> -<td class="right padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padr1">16</td> -<td class="right padr1 br">0</td> -<td colspan="4" class="center">——</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="hind01 br">Duke Street</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">May, 1873</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">Mowlem and Co.</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr3 br"><a id="FNanchor84"></a><a href="#Footnote84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a>5</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">15</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="hind01 br">2 years free</td> -<td rowspan="6" colspan="7" class="hind01">These pavements will no doubt last some years longer than the contract term of maintenance.</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td class="hind01 br">3 years at 1<i>s.</i> = 3<i>s.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="hind01 br">Houndsditch</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">Not yet laid</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">Ditto</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr3 br"><a href="#Footnote84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a>7</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">17</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1 br">0</td> -<td class="hind01 br">2 years free</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td class="hind01 br">5 years at 9<i>d.</i> = 3<i>s.</i> 9<i>d.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="hind01 br">Ditto</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">Ditto</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">Carey</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr3 br"><a href="#Footnote84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a>7</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1">13</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padr1 br">6</td> -<td class="hind01 br">2 years free</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="hind01 br">5 years at 1<i>s.</i> = 5<i>s.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="18" class="hind01">In the wood pavements the cost of the foundation is included, but no excavation.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="18" class="hind01">The pavements at the end of each financial year are to be in a good sound condition.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page93">[93]</span></p> - -<p>The following table<a id="FNanchor85"></a><a href="#Footnote85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> is also given as showing the comparative -cost of wood paving with macadam and bituminous -concrete paving in Liverpool.</p> - -<table class="fsize90" summary="Pavements"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th rowspan="2" class="br">Description<br />of<br />Pavement.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="3" class="br">Original<br />Cost<br />per<br />Square<br />Yard at<br />present<br />prices.</th> -<th colspan="5" class="br">Deductions from<br />First Cost to<br />determine Cost of<br />Renewal.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="2" class="br">Interest<br />on<br />Original<br />Cost at<br />4¹⁄₂<br />per cent.<br /> -per<br />Square<br />Yard<br />per<br />Annum.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="2" class="br">Sinking<br />Fund in-<br />vested<br />at 3<br />per cent.<br />Com-<br />pound<br />Interest.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="3" class="br">Mainte-<br />nance per<br />Square<br />Yard<br />per<br />Annum.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="2" class="br">Scav-<br />enging<br />per<br />Square<br />Yard<br />per<br />Annum.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="2" class="br">Gravel-<br />ling<br />per<br />Square<br />Yard<br />per<br />Annum.</th> -<th rowspan="2" colspan="3">Total<br />Annual<br />Cost<br />per<br />Square<br />Yard.</th> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<th colspan="3" class="br">Cost of<br />Foun-<br />dation<br />not<br />requiring<br />renewal.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Allowances<br />for old<br />Materials<br />at date of<br />renewal.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">No. 6.</td> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="hind01 padr1 br">Bituminous Concrete Pavement</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">3</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">9</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="center br">Nil</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">Nil</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·0</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">Nil</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">9</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·4</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">..</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1">·4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">No. 7.</td> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="hind01 padr1 br">Wood Pavement</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">15</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·5</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">0</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">Nil</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">7</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·5</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·3</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·7</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·0</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">8</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1">·5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">No. 8.</td> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="hind01 padr1 br">Macadam Pavement</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">6</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">9</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="center br">Nil</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">Nil</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">3</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·4</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">Nil</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">0</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br"> </td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">8</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·0</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">Nil</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">11</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1">·4</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page94">[94]</span></p> - -<p>In concluding this chapter upon wood paving, I will give -a specimen specification for work of this description.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Excavation.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—Excavate the ground to a depth of — inches -below the level of the proposed finished surface of the roadway.<a id="FNanchor86"></a><a href="#Footnote86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> -The formation surface thus excavated must be well -watered and rolled or punned if found necessary, and any -soft or made earth removed to such a depth as may be found -to be sufficient.<a id="FNanchor87"></a><a href="#Footnote87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Foundation.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—Upon the excavated formation surface a bed -— inches thick of concrete is to be laid, composed of one part -of good approved Portland cement to two of fine, sharp river -sand, and three of clean river ballast or broken stone. The -concrete to be finished off with an even and smooth top -surface conforming with the contour line of proposed finished -roadway.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Wood Blocks.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—Upon the concrete thus laid, and after it -has sufficiently set, wood blocks are to be laid.<a id="FNanchor88"></a><a href="#Footnote88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> These -blocks must be of the best description of Baltic red timber<a id="FNanchor89"></a><a href="#Footnote89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> -(or such other timber as shall be specified), sound and -thoroughly well seasoned, free from all sap, shakes, large and -loose knots or other defects, and any that may be rejected -by the surveyor as unfitted for the work shall be at once -removed from the works or broken up. The blocks must not -be less than 6 inches or more than 12 inches in length by 3 -inches in width and 6 inches in depth, they are to be carefully -laid with the fibre of the wood placed vertically, their ends<span class="pagenum" id="Page95">[95]</span> -must butt with close joints to each other, and each course -must be kept ³⁄₈ of an inch apart by means of wooden laths, -which are afterwards removed.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Joints.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—The joints are then to be carefully run with a -grouting composed of one part of best approved Portland -cement to two parts of fine, sharp, clean river sand. (In some -cases a hot bituminous mixture or asphalte is run between -the joints as a grouting.)</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Top Dressing.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—The whole surface of the pavement is then -to be spread with a coating, at least ¹⁄₂-inch in thickness, of fine -sharp gravel or chippings.</p> - -<p>The following heads of general conditions under such a -contract may also be useful.</p> - -<p>Alteration of gullies, sewer man-holes etc., will be done at -the expense of the sanitary authority.</p> - -<p>Contractor must make good at once any damage caused -to gas or water mains or services—time penalty for delay.</p> - -<p>Maintenance of work after completion for a specified time.</p> - -<p>Power must be reserved to surveyor to suspend work -during bad weather or from other causes.</p> - -<p>Heavy time penalties for non-completion of contract by a -certain date.</p> - -<p>Payments to be made to contractor on surveyor’s certificate, -up to 80 per cent. of whole contract, remaining 20 per -cent. to be paid at end of (say) 2 years after completion.</p> - -<p>With the above specimen specification I conclude the -chapter on Wood Paving.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote67"></a><a href="#FNanchor67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> -The first wood pavement laid in London was in front of the Old Bailey, in -1839.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote68"></a><a href="#FNanchor68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. i. -p. 131.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote69"></a><a href="#FNanchor69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> -This specification is the company’s own, as advertised when they first began -business; for many reasons the boards have since been discontinued, and other -alterations introduced into the system.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote70"></a><a href="#FNanchor70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> -I am unable to ascertain if this plan has ever been tried anywhere.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote71"></a><a href="#FNanchor71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> -It is also affirmed by the Borough Surveyor of Sunderland that this process -dispenses with watering. <i>Vide</i> ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal -and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. iii. p. 72.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote72"></a><a href="#FNanchor72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> -‘A Practical Treatise on Roads, Streets, and Pavements,’ by Q. A. -Gillmore, p. 166, which see also for a good account of wood pavements in the -United States.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote73"></a><a href="#FNanchor73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Wood Pavements,’ by Henry Allnutt, 1880, p. 22.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote74"></a><a href="#FNanchor74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> -The power of absorbing water by wood varies from 9·37 to 174·86 per cent. -in dry wood. In its ordinary state the power varies from 4·36 to 150·64 per -cent. The quantity of water contained in wood in its natural state varies from -4·61 to 13·56 per cent. <i>Vide</i> ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil -Engineers,’ vol. lvi. p. 300.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote75"></a><a href="#FNanchor75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> -‘Roads and Roadways,’ by George Waller Wilcocks, 1879, p. 34.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote76"></a><a href="#FNanchor76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> -‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lviii. -p. 82.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote77"></a><a href="#FNanchor77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> <i>Ibid</i>, vol. lx. p. 293.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote78"></a><a href="#FNanchor78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> <i>Ibid</i>, vol. lviii. p. 45.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote79"></a><a href="#FNanchor79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> -‘Report upon Asphalte and Wood Pavements,’ by William Haywood, -(1874) p. 44.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote80"></a><a href="#FNanchor80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> -See ‘Paper on Wood Pavements,’ by R. S. Rounthwaite, Boro’ Surveyor, -Sunderland, ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers -and Surveyors,’ vol. vii. p. 48.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote81"></a><a href="#FNanchor81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> -The surveyor of the parish of St. George’s Hanover Square, London, says, -“My experience of wood, and I have laid down 25,000 yards, is that it is -perfectly free from smells, even on a cab rank.” Report of a Committee of the -Paddington Vestry on Wood and other Pavements (1878) p. 30.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote82"></a><a href="#FNanchor82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> -Mr. Allnutt says on this: “As to the swelling of the wood, it has been -remarked that even brick walls have been forced out. We do not see what -provision can be made for this; but leaving the channel by the kerb stone for the -last work may relieve the lateral pressure, and perhaps it would be as well for the -blocks not to be so dry when being laid down.” <i>Vide</i> ‘Wood Pavement as -carried out on Kensington High Road, Chelsea, etc.’ by Henry Allnutt (1880) -p. 15.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote83"></a><a href="#FNanchor83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Report on Asphalte and Wood Pavements,’ by William Haywood, -1874, pp. 38 and 41.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote84"></a><a href="#FNanchor84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> -The Ligno-Mineral Paving Company and the Improved Wood Paving Company offered to -maintain their pavements, if laid, for terms of ten years and fourteen -years respectively; their tenders were not accepted.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote85"></a><a href="#FNanchor85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Paper on Street Carriageway Pavements,’ by G. F. Deacon, ‘Minutes -of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lviii. p. 23.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote86"></a><a href="#FNanchor86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> -If the road material thus excavated is macadam, it may be screened and -used as concrete in the foundation, if approved by the surveyor. The granite -pitching of crossings, channel gutters, etc., must remain the property of the sanitary -authority, as well as the surplus macadam.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote87"></a><a href="#FNanchor87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> -It is important to give sufficient notice to gas and water companies in order -that they may attend to their mains and services before the foundations are -put in.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote88"></a><a href="#FNanchor88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> -Sometimes about half an inch of fine sand is spread upon the surface of -the concrete upon which the wood blocks are bedded.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote89"></a><a href="#FNanchor89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> -If the blocks are to be creosoted, the number of pounds of creosote that -should be absorbed in a cubic foot of the wood should be specified; this is generally -about 10 lb. of creosote to 1 cubic foot of wood.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page96">[96]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER X.<br /> -<span class="chapname">COMPRESSED ASPHALTE ROADWAYS.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">The word asphalte in its generally accepted sense implies -a natural rock consisting of pure carbonate of lime, intimately -combined and impregnated with mineral bitumen in very -variable proportions; that used for roads or footpaths should -not contain less than 7 or more than 12 per cent. of -bitumen.</p> - -<p>The rock when broken takes an irregular fracture without -definite cleavage; it is principally derived from Val de Travers, -Seyssel, Sicily, Chieti, Auvergne, Lobsann, and Limmer. Its -grain should be regular and homogeneous, the finer the grain -the better.<a id="FNanchor90"></a><a href="#Footnote90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p> - -<p>When exposed to the atmosphere asphalte gradually -assumes a grey tint, by reason of the bitumen evaporating -from the surface leaving a thin film of limestone behind. The -stone is usually taken from open quarries, but at Val de -Travers shafts are sunk and the general treatment is similar -to a coal mine.</p> - -<p>Bitumen, it must be borne in mind, is itself a mineral -product found in Trinidad and some other places; it is -composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.</p> - -<p>The weight of a cubic yard of natural asphalte is about -3874 lbs., its specific gravity is 2·114, but this of course varies -with its percentage of bitumen.</p> - -<p>The following is a test for asphalte given by Mr. Deland -in a paper he read before the Institution of Civil Engineers in -the year 1880.<a id="FNanchor91"></a><a href="#Footnote91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page97">[97]</span></p> - -<p>“A specimen of the rock freed from all extraneous matter, -having been pulverised as finely as possible, should be -dissolved in sulphurate of carbon, turpentine, ether or benzine, -placed in a glass vessel and stirred with a glass rod. A dark -solution will result, from which will be precipitated the -pulverised limestone. The solution of bitumen should then -be poured off. The dissolvent speedily evaporates, leaving -the constituent parts of the asphalte, each of which should be -weighed so as to determine the exact proportion. The -bitumen should be heated in a lead bath and tested with a -porcelain or Baumé thermometer to 428° Fahr. There will -be little loss by evaporation if the bitumen is good, but if -bituminous oil is present the loss will be considerable—gritted -mastic should be heated to 450° Fahr. The limestone should -next be examined. If the powder is white and soft to the -touch it is a good component part of asphalte, but if rough -and dirty on being tested with reagents it will be found to -contain iron pyrites, silicates, clay, etc. Some asphaltes also are -of a spongy or hygrometrical nature. Thus, as an analysis -which merely gives so much bitumen and so much limestone -may mislead, it is necessary to know the quality of the -limestone and of the bitumen.</p> - -<p>“For a good compressed roadway an asphalte composed -of pure limestone and 9 to 10 per cent. of bitumen, non-evaporative -at 428° Fahr., is the most suitable. Asphaltes -containing much more than 10 per cent. of bitumen get soft -in summer and wavy, those containing much less have not -sufficient bind for heavy traffic, although asphalte containing -7 per cent. of bitumen properly heated does well for court -yards, as it sets hard when cold.”</p> - -<p>For roadways “compressed” asphalte should be used and -not “mastic,” which is only fitted for footpaths, court-yards, -etc. Compressed asphalte roadways are constructed as -follows:</p> - -<p>The asphalte rock is first crushed in a “Blake’s” or other<span class="pagenum" id="Page98">[98]</span> -suitable crusher, then pulverised in what is known as a -“Carr’s disintegrator,” until it is reduced to a powder; this -powder is then heated up to between 212° and 250° Fahr. in -revolving cylinders and is laid about 2¹⁄₂ inches in thickness -upon a concrete foundation previously prepared for its reception, -the powder is carefully raked to the required contour -and then either rolled or punned with iron punners previously -heated to prevent the adhesion of the powder to them.</p> - -<p>A roadway thus prepared presents many advantages over -macadam, granite setts or wood, the following passage amply -describing one of them:<a id="FNanchor92"></a><a href="#Footnote92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p> - -<p>“An indispensable feature of a weight-carrying pavement -must be the absolute exclusion of water at the surface as -nearly as it can be insured, and in this one respect it cannot -be questioned that a surface like asphalte has no equal, the -absorption being so gradual as to be inappreciable during any -possible continuance of moisture.”</p> - -<p>In addition to this indisputable fact the advantage of -durability is claimed for asphalte, but this must vary considerably -with the quality of the material and of the work. -Mr. Hayward estimates the life of an asphaltic Val de Travers -compressed roadway at 17 years, and it is claimed for it that -it will wear until it becomes quite thin, very heavy traffic -breaking it up when it is worn to about ³⁄₄ of an inch thick. -Another advantage claimed for asphalte is cleanliness, and -this is evidently indisputable, as, being impervious, none but -imported mud or dust can be formed upon it.</p> - -<p>In addition to the foregoing the following advantages are -also claimed:</p> - -<p>Pedestrians can walk on asphaltic roadways as well as on -the footways.</p> - -<p>It is comparatively noiseless under traffic, though in this<span class="pagenum" id="Page99">[99]</span> -case wood is better, as the clatter of the iron-shod horses’ feet -upon asphalte is very apparent.</p> - -<p>It is expeditiously laid, and when repairs are necessary -they can easily be effected; no pavement shows less signs of -openings being made in it for gas and water-pipe repairs than -asphalte.</p> - -<p>The rapid laying causes less inconvenience to traffic in the -streets.</p> - -<p>Ease of traction; but here steps in the one great -objection to asphalte as a roadway paving, viz. danger to -horses by slipping and falling, of which I shall say more -hereafter.</p> - -<p>Cellars and vaults under the streets are kept dry, by -reason of its impermeability to moisture.</p> - -<p>Easily cleansed, especially by mechanical sweeping, and -snow is easily removed.</p> - -<p>It is very pleasing to the eye, being so uniformly regular -and of good colour.</p> - -<p>There is no vibration or concussion in travelling over it, -and apart from the question of safety it is delightful to drive -over it.</p> - -<p>It is a cool pavement at night; it does not absorb heat -during the day, and consequently none radiates from it after -the sun has gone down.<a id="FNanchor93"></a><a href="#Footnote93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p> - -<p>The great objection to asphalte as a material for roadways -arises from the fact that it is extremely slippery when damp,<a id="FNanchor94"></a><a href="#Footnote94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> -irrespective of temperature, and this in the climate of England -is frequently the case. The result of this slipperiness is, that -not only do horses frequently fall upon it, but it is also difficult<span class="pagenum" id="Page100">[100]</span> -to stop a horse when drawing a load, thus causing more risk -to foot-passengers of being run over, and straining the horse -considerably in its efforts. Again, in thoroughfares crowded -with vehicular traffic, constant stoppages occur, and in starting -again it is painful to witness the struggles of the horses to -keep their footing and overcome the inertia of their load. -When a horse falls he has very great difficulty in rising, but on -the other hand, although he may be strained, a horse never -breaks his knees upon this class of pavement. How far this -might be altered if <i>all</i> the streets of a town were paved -with asphalte, is a fair matter for argument, as it is asserted -that horses are very nervous on going from one pavement -to another, and accidents frequently happen in consequence.</p> - -<p>The strewing of sand upon asphalte renders it less slippery, -but in addition to the interference of the traffic whilst this is -being done, there are the further objections, of the possible -injury of the sand cutting into the asphalte, the expense of -labour and materials, and the mud caused thereby which has -afterwards to be removed. Another plan is to frequently -wash the asphalte with water, but this is expensive and only -of temporary benefit.</p> - -<p>Another objection to asphaltic roadways is that they cannot -with safety be constructed of greater gradient than 1 in 60, -and it must also be borne in mind that fine weather is necessary -both for the construction and repairs of a roadway of this -description.</p> - -<p>Very little smell, and that not of an unpleasant character, -arises from the work when compressed asphalte is being used, -the mastic is however temporarily unpleasant to those who -dislike the odour.</p> - -<p>With reference to the question of the cost of compressed -asphalte for roadways: it is of course a matter depending -upon local circumstances as to the first cost, but it must be -remembered that the compressed asphalte hitherto laid has<span class="pagenum" id="Page101">[101]</span> -been nearly all that of the Val de Travers Company, who -charge a fixed price per square yard for laying according to -thickness required, the distance of the locality from London, -and other local circumstances. With reference to maintenance, -this is a question dependent mainly upon traffic, but here -again the company will undertake to keep in repair at so -much per square yard per annum for a certain number of -years.</p> - -<p>It would, however, perhaps be a better plan not to enter -into such an agreement, but to arrange for repairs under a -schedule of prices, but this must greatly depend upon the -character of the work in the first place, and other local -considerations.</p> - -<p>Mr. Ellice Clarke gives the following as the cost of Val de -Travers compressed asphalte.<a id="FNanchor95"></a><a href="#Footnote95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p> - -<p>The cost is reduced to 100,000 tons per annum per yard of -width.</p> - -<table class="pavements" summary="Costs"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th rowspan="3" class="w20m br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Original Cost<br />per<br />Square Yard.</th> -<th class="br">Interest on<br />original<br />Cost.</th> -<th class="br">Maintenance<br />per<br />Square Yard.</th> -<th class="br">Scavenging<br />per<br />Square Yard.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Total.</th> -<th rowspan="3" class="w20m"> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="center">18</td> -<td class="center br">0</td> -<td class="center br">9·7</td> -<td class="center br">3·6</td> -<td class="center br">0·4</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="center br">1·7</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Nothing is charged for renewal, as the annual sum for -maintenance provides the asphalte in perpetuity.<a id="FNanchor96"></a><a href="#Footnote96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p> - -<p>The following table<a id="FNanchor97"></a><a href="#Footnote97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> may here be of use:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page102">[102]</span></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="smcap">Table showing the agreed Cost per Annum of certain<br />Asphalte Carriageway Pavements -in the City of London.</span></p> - -<table class="pavements notop" summary="Costs"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br">Situation.</th> -<th class="br">Description<br />of<br />Asphalte.</th> -<th class="br">Years<br />to be<br />maintained<br />by<br />Contractor.</th> -<th colspan="3" class="br">First Cost<br />per<br />Square Yard.</th> -<th colspan="8" class="br">Agreed Cost<br />of maintenance<br />per Square Yard<br />for the<br />Contract Term.</th> -<th colspan="3" class="br">Total Cost<br />of Pavements<br />during<br />Contract Term<br />per<br />Square Yard.</th> -<th colspan="4">Average Cost<br />per<br />Square Yard<br />per Annum.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th>£</th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th colspan="8" class="br"> </th> -<th>£</th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th>£</th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="descr br">Cheapside and Poultry</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1 br">Val de Travers (Compressed)</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">17</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">18</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace right padr0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="right top padr1">2</td> -<td colspan="3" class="hind01 top">years free</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 br">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">6</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">2</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr0">4</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">¹⁄₂</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right top padr1">15</td> -<td class="hind01 top">years at 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td> -<td class="center top padl1 padr1">=</td> -<td class="hind01 top">£1 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="8" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="descr br">Gracechurch Street</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1 br">Ditto</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">17</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">17</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace right padr0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="right top padr1">2</td> -<td colspan="3" class="hind01 top">years free</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 br">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">12</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">10</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr0">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">¹⁄₂</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr1 top">15</td> -<td class="hind01 top">years at 1<i>s.</i></td> -<td class="center top padl1 padr1">=</td> -<td class="hind01 top">15<i>s.</i> 0<i>d.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="8" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="descr br">Finsbury Pavement</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1 br">Ditto</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">17</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">16</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace right padr0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="right top padr1">2</td> -<td colspan="3" class="hind01 top">years free</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 br">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">7</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">3</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr0">7</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">¹⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right top padr1">15</td> -<td class="hind01 top">years at 9<i>d.</i></td> -<td class="center top padl1 padr1">=</td> -<td class="hind01 top">11<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="8" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="descr br">Moorgate Street</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1 br">Ditto</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">17</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">16</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace right padr0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="right top padr1">2</td> -<td colspan="3" class="hind01 top">years free</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 br">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">7</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">3</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr0">7</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">¹⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right top padr1">15</td> -<td class="hind01 top">years at 9<i>d.</i></td> -<td class="center top padl1 padr1">=</td> -<td class="hind01 top">11<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="8" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="center padr4 br">Ditto</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1 br">Limmer (Mastic)</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">17</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">16</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace right padr0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="right top padr1">2</td> -<td colspan="3" class="hind01 top">years free</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 br">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">7</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">3</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr0">7</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">¹⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right top padr1">15</td> -<td class="hind01 top">years at 9<i>d.</i></td> -<td class="center top padl1 padr1">=</td> -<td class="hind01 top">11<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="8" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="descr br">Lombard Street</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1 br">Ditto</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">17</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">16</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace right padr0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="right top padr1">2</td> -<td colspan="3" class="hind01 top">years free</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 br">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">7</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">3</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr0">7</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">¹⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right top padr1">15</td> -<td class="hind01 top">years at 9<i>d.</i></td> -<td class="center top padl1 padr1">=</td> -<td class="hind01 top">11<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="8" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="descr br">Cornhill</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1 br">Ditto</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">17</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">15</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace right padr0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="right top padr1">2</td> -<td colspan="3" class="hind01 top">years free</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 br">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">6</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">3</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr0">6</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">¹⁄₂</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right top padr1">15</td> -<td class="hind01 top">years at 9<i>d.</i></td> -<td class="center top padl1 padr1">=</td> -<td class="hind01 top">11<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="8" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="2" class="descr br">Mincing Lane</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1 br">Ditto</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="center br">17</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">12</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace right padr0">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="right top padr1">2</td> -<td colspan="3" class="hind01 top">years free</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0 br">-</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">3</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1 br">3</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">0</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr1">1</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="right padl1 padr0">4</td> -<td rowspan="2" class="left padl0">¹⁄₂</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right top padr1">15</td> -<td class="hind01 top">years at 9<i>d.</i></td> -<td class="center top padl1 padr1">=</td> -<td class="hind01 top">11<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="8" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page103">[103]</span></p> - -<p>The cost of foundations is included in this table, but their -thickness is not mentioned; the excavation was done for the -contractors.</p> - -<p>With the one serious objection of slipperiness, compressed -asphalte seems a most suitable material for the surface of a -roadway, but that objection is of considerable weight when we -reflect that the great object of roadways is that of “traffic,” -and it is for that purpose they are constructed; still, in cities -where a heavy <i>business</i> traffic is going on, this class of roadway -has so many advantages that where cheap horses are driven -it might be used; where, however, valuable horses are used for -pleasure driving, as in the west end of London and the corresponding -better parts of cities, some other description of -roadway should be maintained.</p> - -<p>Mastic asphalte will be described in the chapter on -<a href="#Page106">footpaths</a>.</p> - -<h3><i>Specimen Specification for a Compressed Asphalte Roadway.</i></h3> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Excavation and Concrete.</i></h4> - -<p class="inlineh">—The excavation and concrete<a id="FNanchor98"></a><a href="#Footnote98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> -foundation may be specified to be executed in a manner -similar to that contained in the specimen specification for -wood paving,<a id="FNanchor99"></a><a href="#Footnote99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> except of course that the excavation will be -shallower in this case.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Asphalte.</i></h4> - -<p class="inlineh">—The asphalte to be used shall be the pure unadulterated -natural rock known as the Val de Travers, and -be unmixed with any foreign or other matter whatever. The -rock after being properly broken, shall be ground in a Carr’s -disintegrator to a powder of such fineness, that not more than - per cent. shall be left on a sieve containing meshes to -the square inch and decrepitation by heat will not be accepted. -This powder shall be heated to 240° F. or such other<span class="pagenum" id="Page104">[104]</span> -temperature as shall be found desirable, so as to eliminate all -moisture, and carefully transported to the street in covered -iron carts, in order that not more than 20° F. of heat shall -be lost in transit. The powder must be spread upon the -concrete inches in thickness<a id="FNanchor100"></a><a href="#Footnote100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> -and carefully raked so as to -have regularity of depth and surface.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Ramming.</i></h4> - -<p class="inlineh">—The powder must then be rammed with iron -punners of not less weight than 10 lb. heated so as to prevent -the adhesion of the asphalte. The ramming must be done -lightly at first, so as to ensure equality of thickness, and afterwards -augmented to heavy blows. Where the rammers are -not available a T tool must be employed.</p> - -<p>To meet some of the objections to compressed asphalte as -a material for roadways the “Imperishable Stone Paving -Blocks” have been introduced in America; they consist of -asphalte formed into rectangular blocks under pressure of -about one ton to the square inch, these are laid close together -without any grouting, and a pavement of this -description is said to combine all the advantages of wood -and asphalte, though sufficient time has not yet elapsed to -prove this.</p> - -<p>In Salford, Manchester, etc., I believe “Woodward’s -Patent Molten Ironstone Blocks” are used with some success -where there is not any very exceptionally heavy traffic.</p> - -<p>One of the principal reasons of durability in asphalte -pavement is its elasticity, and it should be remembered that -compressed asphalte does not begin to “wear” until all compression -has ceased; this is the case with no other system of -pavement—stone and wood both begin “wearing” from the -day the traffic commences. Under ordinarily heavy traffic it -may be estimated that it will take two years to complete the -compression of asphalte, and the weight of a square foot of -this pavement will at the expiration of that time be nearly -the same as on the day it was laid, though the thickness is<span class="pagenum" id="Page105">[105]</span> -reduced during the first two years as much as it will be in -the following eight.</p> - -<p>Much is said about the advisability of <i>good</i> and <i>dry</i> -concrete, but it may be as well to explain the reasons that -necessitate so much care in the foundation. First, it should be -always borne in mind that asphalte pavement is nothing more -than a tough “carpet,” and has no power of itself of offering -resistance to heavy traffic; consequently, if the substratum or -concrete is not thoroughly solid and resisting, the weight of -traffic will crush it, and the asphalte will at once give way in -all directions. The concrete should be made strong enough -to resist the traffic, and the asphalte is a simple covering to -protect the concrete from direct contact with the wear and friction -caused by the traffic. So much for the strength, but the -dryness is of even still greater importance; for the best -asphalte, laid by skilled workmen, on thoroughly first-rate but -damp concrete, will rapidly go to pieces—a phenomenon takes -place, which, although quite natural, is little realised by most -engineers. When the hot asphalte is laid, the water is immediately -sucked up and turned into steam, which tries to -escape through the heated powder, and the result is that -although the surface of the asphalte is smooth, the mass is -really disintegrated from underneath by its bitter enemy -“water,” and as soon as the surface begins to wear, the -fissures formed by the passing of the steam appear on the -surface and the whole pavement falls to pieces: thus accounting -for some of the failures this description of roadway -has met with under unskilled treatment.</p> - -<p>This completes the subject of roadways; I will turn to that -of footpaths in the <a href="#Page106">next chapter</a>.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote90"></a><a href="#FNanchor90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> -In this respect the Seyssel is the best, being of a very fine grain.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote91"></a><a href="#FNanchor91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Minutes of Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lx.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote92"></a><a href="#FNanchor92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> Mr. Howarth’s paper on ‘Wood as a Paving Material under Heavy -Traffic,’ ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. lviii. -p. 35.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote93"></a><a href="#FNanchor93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> -In Paris and other cities liable to civil war or internal commotions, it is -contended as an advantage of asphalte that it cannot be used for the construction -of barricades, breastworks, or rifle pits.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote94"></a><a href="#FNanchor94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> Mr. Haywood’s Report upon Asphalte and Wood Pavements, also -Report on the Application of Science and Art to Street Paving and Cleansing -of the Metropolis,’ and numerous other pamphlets and reports by eminent -authorities upon the subject.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote95"></a><a href="#FNanchor95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Asphalte and its Application to Street Paving,’ by E. B. Ellice Clarke, -‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers,’ vol. vi. -p. 52.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote96"></a><a href="#FNanchor96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> -The asphaltic roadways of Paris, of which there were 290,000 square yards -in the year 1878, cost from 10<i>s.</i> to 12<i>s.</i> per square yard to lay, and about 8·83 -pence per square yard per annum to maintain, including the charge for renewing -¹⁄₁₅th part of the surface every year, which is the method adopted there. <i>Vide</i> -‘Annales Industrielles,’ 1878.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote97"></a><a href="#FNanchor97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> Mr. Haywood’s report on asphalte and wood pavements, 1874.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote98"></a><a href="#FNanchor98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> -“Lime concrete ruins compressed work.” <i>Vide</i> ‘Asphalte and its Application -to Street Paving,’ by B. Ellice Clarke. ‘Proceedings of the Association of -Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. vi. p. 46.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote99"></a><a href="#FNanchor99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> See <a href="#Page94">p. 94</a> <i>ante</i>.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote100"></a><a href="#FNanchor100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> -It must be ²⁄₅ths more in thickness than that specified as finished.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page106">[106]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XI.<br /> -<span class="chapname">FOOTPATHS.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">As in the case of roadways, so with footpaths: the foundation -is of primary importance, whatever material may be used for -the surface. Where this material may be classed under the -head of “Paving,” concrete<a id="FNanchor101"></a><a href="#Footnote101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> -makes the best foundation. For -gravel, tar paving, or other similar surface, a hard core bottom -well drained is sufficient. The materials of which a footpath -can be formed are almost innumerable, but the following may -be given as embodying most of them:</p> - -<p>(1.) Natural asphalte, compressed and mastic.</p> - -<p>(2.) Yorkshire flagging—Caithness flagging.</p> - -<p>(3.) Blue lias, and Devonian limestone flagging.</p> - -<p>(4.) Concrete.</p> - -<p>(5.) Bricks.</p> - -<p>(6.) Granite slabs.</p> - -<p>(7.) Artificial asphaltes, including tar pavement.</p> - -<p>(8.) Gravel.</p> - -<p>First on the list stands natural asphalte, compressed and -mastic.</p> - -<p>The compressed has been thoroughly described in the preceding -chapter; it is sometimes used for footpaths where there -is a very heavy traffic, and answers admirably.</p> - -<p>I will, however, now deal solely with mastic asphalte, -which means the rock ground to powder, mixed with a certain -proportion of bitumen to act as a flux, and then subjected to<span class="pagenum" id="Page107">[107]</span> -heat; this is sometimes used in conjunction with fine sharp -clean river sand, but more often with finely crushed stone -about the size of peppercorns, and is styled “gritted -asphalte.”</p> - -<p>As long ago as the year 1838, Mr. F. W. Simms speaks of -asphalte mastic from Pyrimont, near Seyssel, and says “it may -be considered a species of mineral leather”<a id="FNanchor102"></a><a -href="#Footnote102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a>—a very good -description of its surprisingly tough, hard, durable and pliant -properties.</p> - -<p>The usual method of the preparation of the mastic is as -<span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>According to the amount of bitumen contained in the -natural stone, from 5 to 8 per cent. of refined Trinidad bitumen<a id="FNanchor103"></a><a href="#Footnote103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> -is placed in a large caldron which is usually provided with -agitators driven by steam power; when this is thoroughly -melted, the powdered asphalte is added little by little, the -heat being raised to between 390° and 480° F., the mixture -kept well stirred and “cooked” for about five hours. It is -then turned out into iron moulds, most companies having a -special pattern with a trade mark for this purpose.</p> - -<p>The caldrons generally used contain from 1¹⁄₂ to 2 tons of -mastic.</p> - -<p>Some companies in large towns are provided with caldrons -on wheels, commonly called “Locomobiles,” in which case the -grit is mixed with the mastic in the fixed caldrons, and the -whole mass run out into the locomobiles (which are also provided -with agitators worked by an endless chain attached to -the axle of the wheels), and transported direct to where the -work has to be done. This system, though undoubtedly the -best, is not practicable except in large towns; the more usual<span class="pagenum" id="Page108">[108]</span> -method of laying mastic footpaths is to send the asphalte -cakes to the works, where they are remelted in small round -street caldrons, containing from 8 to 12 cakes each, weighing -from 40 to 50 lbs., the grit being sometimes added in the -fixed caldrons, sometimes in the street caldrons, this amount -of grit varying from 20 to 60 per cent. according to the nature -of the work.</p> - -<p>The grit makes the asphalte more difficult to spread, but -it lessens the cost and makes a very durable path. The -affinity between the asphalte and grit is so great that, in -breaking a sample, the actual pieces of grit will be found -broken in half.</p> - -<p>The asphalte should be spread from ¹⁄₂ to ⁷⁄₈ of an inch in -thickness (if compressed 1 inch is the minimum), and should be -brought hot on to the works in covered caldrons on wheels, -the test of its being ready and fit to lay being made by -plunging a wooden spatula into it, which should come out -without any of the asphalte adhering to it, and also by jets of -light smoke darting out of the mixture.</p> - -<p>The mastic should be taken from the caldron with a -warmed ladle, and put into buckets previously heated, then -thrown out on the concrete (which should be perfectly dry) -near the spreader, who spreads it skilfully with a wooden -stave, spreader, or spatula. The surface should then be -floated and dusted over with fine sand, portland cement, or -stone dust.</p> - -<p>Dishonest contractors sometimes substitute inferior materials -for natural asphalte, such imitations being made of -ground chalk, fire-clay, and pitch or gas tar, or ground limestone -mixed with bitumen.</p> - -<p>A sample of the footpath after it is laid should be cut out -(this is easily effected by heating the surface with a piece of -hot mastic), in order to see that the proper thickness is given, -and by applying a light to the sample, the smell will readily -tell if real asphalte or any inferior material has been used.<span class="pagenum" id="Page109">[109]</span> -Stockholm tar or common pitch should not be allowed -to be substituted for Trinidad bitumen, or it will spoil the -mastic.</p> - -<p>Asphalte mastic footpaths are excellent in every way, the -only objections to them being the necessity for the grit, and -the temporary unpleasant smoke and smell whilst being laid. -It is also necessary to put stone sills round the cellar openings -and coal shutes, etc., for it to butt against, but it makes an -invaluable pavement, especially for courts, alleys, back yards, -etc., for sanitary and other reasons.</p> - -<p>The proportions of asphalte, bitumen and grit are given as -follows by Mr. Delano in his translation of a paper by M. -Ernest Chabrier, on the applications of asphalte.<a id="FNanchor104"></a><a href="#Footnote104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p> - -<p>“One ton of sanded mastic requires 13 cwt. of pure block -mastic, 2 qrs. 12 lb. of bitumen, 7 cwt. of grit or sand washed -and dried,” and it takes 2 cwt. of coal to heat it. He further -says that one workman can easily prepare 3 tons of material -in 12 hours.</p> - -<p>The following table gives the number of square yards -that a ton of prepared Sicilian rock asphalte will spread.</p> - -<table class="fsize90 dontwrap" summary="Asphalte"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th rowspan="8" class="w20m br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Without grit.</th> -<th class="br">With about<br />25 per cent.<br />of grit.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Thickness.</th> -<th rowspan="8" class="w20m"> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2" class="br">square<br />yards.</th> -<th class="br">square<br />yards.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">inches.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">63</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">80</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0 br">³⁄₈</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">51</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">65</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0 br">¹⁄₂</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">32</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">40</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0 br">³⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">26</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">33</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr0">16</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">20</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">¹⁄₂</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="right padr0">12</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">¹⁄₂</td> -<td class="center br">16</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>A skilled workman properly assisted can lay 140 to 180 -square yards in a day.<a id="FNanchor105"></a><a href="#Footnote105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> - -<p>With regard to the price of asphalte mastic footpaths, this<span class="pagenum" id="Page110">[110]</span> -is quite a local question, and is not worth while discussing. The -life of a footpath thus treated may be reckoned at about 15 years -under ordinary traffic; the concrete will remain untouched and -what is left of the asphalte may be remelted, so that a renewal -is not so costly as the first expense.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Yorkshire Flagging.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—This pavement is too well known to -need any description from me; it is an excellent pavement -in many ways, and is most pleasant to walk upon, -there being a cling or foothold not experienced in any -other material.</p> - -<p>The objections to this description of pavement <span class="nowrap">are:—</span></p> - -<p>(1.) Its first cost, which is undoubtedly high as compared -to its durability.</p> - -<p>(2.) The fact of uneven wearing: one stone will be found -soft next to a hard one; the former wears, leaving a pit -which forms a pool for water in due course, and has to be -removed.</p> - -<p>(3.) Unless very carefully bedded, a stone will see-saw; -this is very unpleasant in wet weather, water accumulates -beneath, and as the pedestrian treads on one end of the stone -a squirt of dirty water up to his knees, and a stumble, remind -him that the stone is loose.</p> - -<p>(4.) Liability to crack when any heavy goods are thrown -upon it.</p> - -<p>The following specimen specification for Yorkshire flagging -pavement may be of use.</p> - -<h4><i>Specimen Specification for Yorkshire Flagging -Foot Pavements.</i></h4> - -<p>The old flagging (where and when directed) to be taken -up, refaced, squared, and relaid.</p> - -<p>The new flagging is to be chisel-dressed to a fair face, true, -out of winding, and not less than 3 inches thick,<a id="FNanchor106"></a><a href="#Footnote106" -class="fnanchor">[106]</a> to be properly<span class="pagenum" id="Page111">[111]</span> -squared and not pitched off only, or undercut, but to -hold good to the square; to have not more than fourteen -pieces to the hundred superficial feet; the joints must be -set flush, and bedded and pointed with the best blue lias -mortar.</p> - -<p>The bed for the flagging both old and new, if any is -required, to be made with proper earth, gravel, or dry rubbish, -and all surplus earth and rubbish to be carted from the streets -as it arises from the works.</p> - -<p>The flagging to be properly cut and rebated to receive all -area gratings, coal shoots, rain water troughs, &c.</p> - -<p>Any damage done to gas or water service pipes in digging -for the flagging, or in any way connected with the work, to be -made good by the contractor, as also all and every other -damage to windows, wood, or glass work; and the contractor -will be held responsible for, and will make compensation for -any injury that the public may sustain through the negligence -of his workmen, or otherwise.</p> - -<p>The whole of the flags to be of the very best quality, -from Halifax, the quarries in the neighbourhood of Bradford -or in Yorkshire, and subject to the approval of the -surveyor.</p> - -<p>The contractor to provide all lights and proper guards at -night, and when old paving is to be taken up the work is to be -done under the direction of the surveyor, and if considered -necessary, the stones are to be removed from the streets -to be re-faced and squared. No stone to be stacked in -the streets.</p> - -<p>The flagging to be measured after the work is completed.</p> - -<p>The contractor to provide all stone, materials, tools, -implements, horse and cart hire, and pay all railway dues, -freightages, etc., and also to provide all labour of every kind -for properly completing the work to the full and entire satisfaction -of the surveyor. Payment will be made as the work -proceeds, on the certificate of the surveyor.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page112">[112]</span></p> - -<p>Should the contractor fail to perform the work to the -satisfaction of the surveyor, he then shall have power to execute -the work and charge the same to the contractor, and deduct -the cost from any amount that may be due to him; and in -the event of the cost being more than the amount due, or if -there shall then be no sum due to the contractor, such cost -shall be paid by the contractor to the mayor, aldermen, and -citizens, and the same shall be recoverable from him as liquidated -and ascertained damages.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Caithness Flagging</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh"> is now used very largely instead of -Yorkshire; it comes from Thurso in Scotland, and it is contended -for it that it possesses many excellent qualities, amongst -others may be enumerated the following:</p> - -<p>(1). It is impervious to wet.</p> - -<p>(2.) It is not slippery nor does it wear so.</p> - -<p>(3.) It does not scale or flake.</p> - -<p>(4.) It dries rapidly after rain.</p> - -<p>(5.) Its appearance is cheerful.</p> - -<p>(6.) Great durability, as it does not abrade.</p> - -<p>(7.) Frost has no effect upon it.</p> - -<p>(8.) Can be re-used when half worn.</p> - -<p>(9.) Cleanliness; for, not being porous, no dirt or dust can -adhere to it.</p> - -<p>(10.) Vehicular traffic may be turned over it without -injury to the path.</p> - -<p>(11.) Economy; as natural forces can be used, thus saving -labour, and it can be laid from 1¹⁄₂ to 2 inches thick only.</p> - -<p>(12.) Having sawn edges, the joints are expeditiously and -well made.</p> - -<p>(13.) Its whole surface wears evenly.</p> - -<p>The following table was compiled by the well-known firm -of Kirkaldy, by direction of Mr. Tarbotton the Borough -Engineer of Nottingham, in order to ascertain the resistance -to a gradually increased bending stress upon Yorkshire -flagging as compared with Caithness.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page113">[113]</span></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="smcap">Yorkshire.</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90 notop" summary="Yorkshire"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th rowspan="2" class="br">Test<br />No.</th> -<th rowspan="2" class="br">Weight.</th> -<th colspan="5" class="br">Dimensions.</th> -<th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Ultimate<br />Stress.</th> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<th class="br">Length.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Breadth.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Thick-<br />ness.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="center br">K</th> -<th class="center br">lbs.</th> -<th class="center br">inches.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="center br">inches.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="center br">inches.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="center">lb.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">1918</td> -<td class="center br">184</td> -<td class="center br">36</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">24</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·07</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·46</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">4</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1">·744</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">1919</td> -<td class="center br">163</td> -<td class="center br">36</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">24</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·03</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·22</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">3</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1">·398</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">1920</td> -<td class="center br bb">107</td> -<td class="center br bb">36</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0 bb">23</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br bb">·90</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0 bb">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br bb">·50</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0 bb">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 bb">·459</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="center br">Mean</td> -<td class="center br">151</td> -<td class="center br">36</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">24</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·00</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·06</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">3</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1">·200</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="smcap">Caithness.</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90 notop" summary="Caithness"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th rowspan="2" class="br">Test<br />No.</th> -<th rowspan="2" class="br">Weight.</th> -<th colspan="5" class="br">Dimensions.</th> -<th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Ultimate<br />Stress.</th> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<th class="br">Length.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Breadth.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Thick-<br />ness.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="center br">K</th> -<th class="center br">lb.</th> -<th class="center br">inches.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="center br">inches.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="center br">inches.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="center">lb.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">1921</td> -<td class="center br">215</td> -<td class="center br">36</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">24</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·06</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·59</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">17</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1">·274</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">1922</td> -<td class="center br">178</td> -<td class="center br">36</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">24</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·05</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·15</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">12</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1">·711</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center br">1923</td> -<td class="center br bb">114</td> -<td class="center br bb">36</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0 bb">23</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br bb">·90</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0 bb">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br bb">·38</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0 bb">6</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 bb">·211</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="center br">Mean</td> -<td class="center br">169</td> -<td class="center br">36</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">24</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·00</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1 br">·04</td> -<td class="right padl1 padr0">12</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1">·065</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="noindent">By which it appears that the balance in favour of Caithness -flagging is 8·865 lbs.</p> - -<p>The objection to this style of flagging is, that however -varied the sizes of the stones selected may be, as they have -sawn edges and are very hard to cut with a chisel, a difficulty -sometimes arises in finishing rounded corners of footpaths, and -against uneven frontages of shops or buildings abutting on the -footpath; this is especially the case in old towns.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Blue Lias Flagging.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—A blue lias flagging does not make -a first-rate pavement, as although it is very cheap, durable, -clean, and has many other good qualities, it sometimes wears -slippery and is then dangerous to pedestrians; but the Devonian -limestone, which is much used in the west of England, -has not apparently this defect.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Concrete Footpaths.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—These have been tried in this country, -but generally without success; the concrete or cement cracks,<span class="pagenum" id="Page114">[114]</span> -and in addition to this the paths wear slippery and greasy, and -as some time is necessary in order to allow the concrete to -thoroughly set before the traffic can be allowed on them, they -have not found much favour.</p> - -<p>In the United States, however, concrete footpaths seem to -be made successfully; the following detail particulars of such -a foot-pavement will, I think, be of great interest and use.<a id="FNanchor107"></a><a href="#Footnote107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p> - -<p>“Concrete footpaths should be laid upon a form of well-compacted -sand, or fine gravel, or a mixture of sand, gravel and -loam. The natural soil, if sufficiently porous to provide -thorough sub-drainage, will answer.<a id="FNanchor108"></a><a href="#Footnote108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p> - -<p>“It is not usual to attempt to guard entirely against the -lifting effects of frost, but to provide for it by laying the -concrete in squares or rectangles, each containing from 12 to -16 superficial feet, which will yield to upheaval individually, -like flagging stones, without breaking and without producing -extensive disturbance in the general surface.</p> - -<p>“When a case arises, however, where it is deemed necessary -to prevent any movement whatever, it can be done by underlying -the pavement with a bed of broken stone, or a mixture -of broken stone and gravel, or with ordinary pit gravel -containing just enough of detritus and loam to bind it together. -In high latitudes this bed should be 1 foot and upwards in -thickness, and should be so thoroughly subdrained that it will -always be free from standing water. It is formed in the usual -manner of making broken stone or gravel roads already -described, and finished off on top with a layer of sand or fine -gravel, about 1 inch in depth, for the concrete to rest upon.</p> - -<p>“The concrete should not be less than 3¹⁄₂, and need rarely -exceed 4 to 4¹⁄₂ inches in thickness, the upper surface to the -depth of ¹⁄₂ an inch should be composed of hydraulic cement and -sand only. Portland cement is best for this top layer. For<span class="pagenum" id="Page115">[115]</span> -the rest, any natural American cement of standard quality will -answer. The following proportions are recommended for -this bottom layer.</p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Mixtures"> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">Rosendale or other American cement</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">measure</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">Clean sharp sand</td> -<td class="right padr0">2</td> -<td class="left padl0 padr1">¹⁄₂</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">Stone and gravel</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="center">„</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>“It is mixed from time to time as required for use, and is -compacted with an iron-shod rammer in a single layer to a -thickness less by ¹⁄₂ an inch than that of the required pavement. -As soon as this is done and before the cement has had time to -set, the surface is roughened by scratching, and the top layer, -composed of,</p> - -<p class="center fsize90 blankbefore1" >1 volume of Portland cement, and<br /> -2 to 2¹⁄₂ volumes of clean fine sand,</p> - -<p class="noindent blankbefore1">is spread over it to a uniform thickness of about 1¹⁄₂ inch, and -then compacted by rather light blows, with an iron-shod -rammer. By this means its thickness is diminished to ¹⁄₂ an inch. -It is then smoothed off and polished with a mason’s trowel and -covered up with hay, grass, sand, or other suitable material to -protect it from the rays of the sun, and prevent its drying too -rapidly.</p> - -<p>“It should be kept damp and thus protected for at least 10 -days, and longer if circumstances will permit; and even after -it is opened to travel, a layer of damp sand should be kept -upon it for two or three weeks, to prevent wear while tender.</p> - -<p>“At the end of one month from the date of laying, the -Portland cement mixture forming the top surface will have -attained nearly one-half its ultimate strength and hardness, and -may then be subjected to use by foot-passengers without injury.</p> - -<p>“The rammers for compacting the concrete should weigh -from 15 to 20 lb., those used on the surface layer from 10 to -12 lb. They are made by attaching rectangular blocks of -hard wood shod with iron to wood handles about 3 feet long, -and are plied in an upright position. Certain precautions are<span class="pagenum" id="Page116">[116]</span> -necessary in mixing and ramming the materials in order to -secure the best results. Especial care should be taken to avoid -the use of too much water in the manipulation. The mass of -concrete, when ready for use, should appear quite incoherent, -and not wet and plastic, containing water however in such -quantities that a thorough ramming with repeated though not -hard blows will produce a thin film of moisture upon the -surface under the rammer, without causing in the mass a -gelatinous or quicksand motion.”</p> - -<p>Under the head of Concrete may be included many artificial -stone pavements, such as “Bucknell’s Granite Breccia” -“Ransome’s Artificial Stone,” “Eureka Concrete,” “Granolithic,” -and the “Silicated Victoria Stone,” this last being -worth a description. The stone is really a concrete, formed -by mixing very superior Portland cement with crushed -Thames gravel, furnace or iron slag, Kentish rag-stone, -granite chippings, or other suitable material carefully washed. -This fine concrete, after being mixed in the moulds forming -the slabs, is thoroughly incorporated by being rocked or -jiggled in a trembling machine; this motion, as can be easily -understood, making the whole mass even and homogeneous -when it sets. The cost of the slabs is about 9<i>d.</i> per square -foot, 3 inches in thickness, and they make an excellent footpath.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Brick Footpaths.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—These are sometimes constructed of -ordinary bricks laid on their sides, but soon wear, and are -unsuitable for the purpose.<a id="FNanchor109"></a><a href="#Footnote109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> Staffordshire blue paving bricks -make an excellent footpath. These are bricks made of stoneware -highly vitrified; they should be about 12 inches in -length by 6 inches wide, by about 2⁷⁄₈ inches in thickness, -their surface being chequered with a diamond pattern so as -to prevent their being slippery. They are exceedingly hard<span class="pagenum" id="Page117">[117]</span> -and durable if well burnt, and to ascertain this a brick should -be broken across and the colour, etc., noted.</p> - -<p>They should be laid in cement mortar upon a bed of -concrete or sand. The objections to this class of pavement -are as follows:</p> - -<p>(1.) The colour is objectionable; being very dark, the -footpaths give a street the appearance of mourning.</p> - -<p>(2.) The difficulty of breaking up the path for gas or -water services, or for other purposes.</p> - -<p>(3.) The hardness of the bricks makes them awkward to -cut to rounded corners, or for water trunks, coal-holes, etc.</p> - -<p>(4.) A loaded hand-barrow driven over them will sometimes -break off the chequered pattern.</p> - -<p>(5.) They are slippery in a frost after snow.</p> - -<p>But notwithstanding these disadvantages, they make a -most wonderfully durable and useful pavement for back -streets.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Granite Slab Pavement.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—This is sometimes adopted, large -granite slabs, 6 inches in thickness being laid; they are very -useful when there are cellars underneath, or where heavy -vehicular traffic is intended to cross the foot pavement. -Granite is of course excessively durable, but it wears very -slippery with traffic and must then be tooled or axed; in -process of time this wears it out, and its first cost is heavy.</p> - -<p>This description of pavement can be laid with advantage -in front of markets or similar buildings.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Artificial Asphalte Pavements.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—The cost of obtaining -natural rock asphalte from the mines, and the knowledge -that it is composed of two very simple ingredients, limestone -and bitumen, has led to a great number of artificial asphaltes -being introduced, especially for foot pavements. “British -Rock Asphalte” is a name by which many of the compositions -are known; “Beauchamp’s Mendip Mountain Machine-made -Granite Asphalte” is a high-sounding title; “Prentice’s -Mineral Foreign Rock Asphalte” is another.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page118">[118]</span></p> - -<p>All these, and many more of the same description, are -really what may be better and more correctly described as -“tar concrete” or “tar paving,” and consist of different -modifications of the homely coal-tar and limestone.</p> - -<p>So long ago as the year 1840, “Lord Stanhope’s Composition” -was well known; it was made as follows:</p> - -<p>Three gallons of Stockholm tar, 2 bushels of well-dried -chalk, 1 bushel of fine, sharp, clean sifted sand, the whole -being boiled in an iron caldron.</p> - -<p>Tar paving is now made in many and various ways by -different surveyors of towns, some making it with hot compositions, -some with cold. A description will be found in the -chapter on Macadamised Roadways, page 46, of one method -of making it, a modification of this being all that is necessary -for foot pavements.</p> - -<p>The best paths of this description that I have seen are to -be found at Torquay, and by the kind permission of Mr. John -Little, County Surveyor of Devon, and late Surveyor of -Torquay, I give his useful specification in detail, as follows:</p> - -<h3><i>Tar Concrete for Footpaths.</i></h3> - -<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="smcap">Proportions of Materials.</span></p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90 notop" summary="Mixtures"> - -<tr> -<td class="right">12</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">barrow</td> -<td class="center padr1">loads of</td> -<td class="left">engine ashes.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">4</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="center padr1">„</td> -<td class="left">screened slaked blue lias lime.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right">4</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1">„</td> -<td class="center padr1">„</td> -<td class="left">small spar or sharp grit.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="left">34 gallons of best gas tar.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="left">20 bucketsful, say 70 to 80 gallons of water.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Method of Mixing.</i></h4> - -<p class="inlineh">—On a clean flagged or wooden floor -spread three barrow-loads of ashes, then about one barrow-load -of lime, and so on until the whole of the dry materials -(or one mixing) has been spread; then throw over them -about three bucketfuls of tar, and before mixing it with them -add (say) six bucketfuls of water; then mix as for concrete, -and when the liquids are pretty well absorbed add a similar -quantity, mix again, and so on until all the liquids have been -absorbed; the mass will then be something of the consistency<span class="pagenum" id="Page119">[119]</span> -of ordinary mortar. Next pass the whole three times <i>at least</i> -through a pug mill: if this be not done the concrete will be a -failure. An ordinary hand pug-mill will not be sufficient; -the knives are not strong enough, nor will it incorporate the -materials thoroughly, but an upright pug-mill, worked by -steam power where practicable, or by at least one horse, -should be used.</p> - -<p>It will be found that as the mass emerges from the pug-mill -a large proportion of the water will run from it; means -should therefore be provided for allowing the water to escape -freely from the floor.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>Method of Laying.</i></h4> - -<p class="inlineh">—Prepare the path for a layer of concrete -3 inches in thickness, on a hard dry bottom, inclining -from the inside to the kerb, at the rate of ¹⁄₂ an inch to a -foot for pathways not more than 6 or 7 feet wide, but for -wider pathways an inclination of ³⁄₈ of an inch to a foot will -be sufficient.</p> - -<p>A template the full width of the path having been provided, -lay concrete with a shovel on the inner side of the -path for a length of (say) 15 feet and a width of 1 foot, at -such a height that when it has been well rammed and patted -with shovels it shall be the exact height intended for the -path; this is to form a resting-place for one end of the -template, the kerb forming that for the other end; then fill -the intervening space with concrete up to the template, treading -and ramming it solidly for about twenty minutes, and as it -gets into shape, patting it with shovels and smoothing with a -trowel; then, with an iron (not stone) roller weighing about -5 cwts., roll for two hours, trimming and filling up hollows -where necessary; then go on with another length, and occasionally -roll the first for half-an-hour, and so on. Experience -alone will decide the quantity of rolling necessary after the -first day or two, as weather and other causes tend to a more -rapid solidification of the concrete at some times than at -others.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page120">[120]</span></p> - -<p>On the third day, sprinkle a small quantity of sea or other -very fine sand on the concrete, and allow it to remain for two -or three days after the path has been in use—it should then -be removed.</p> - -<h4 class="inline"><i>General Remarks.</i></h4> - -<p class="inlineh">—The ashes should not be those from a -saw-mill or other place where wood ashes would be mixed -with them. All ashes, spar or grit, and lime, should be -passed through a screen of ³⁄₈-inch mesh. The lime should be -the best blue lias, slaked under cover; it should be allowed -to lie for at least four days, but not more than six days, -before it is used. The spar or grit should be sharp and -angular.</p> - -<p>Great care should be taken to keep the concrete free from -mud or dust; it should be tipped from the carts or barrows, -either directly into place, or, if this cannot be done, a few -slabs or boards should be laid down, on which it may be -tipped.</p> - -<p>The path should not be used until the concrete is sufficiently -solid to bear a man’s weight without taking the -impression of his boots.</p> - -<p>It has been found by experience that the laying of this -concrete should not be commenced before May, and that it -should not be continued beyond the end of September (or -middle of October, if the weather is very fine). Frost is fatal -to it before it has become hard, and continuous cold wet -weather retards considerably the hardening.</p> - -<p>There can be no doubt that a pavement of this description -for traffic that is not too heavy answers every requirement; -for streets of greater traffic, genuine mastic asphalte -should be used.</p> - -<p>Before closing my remarks on artificial asphalte pavements, -the following description of an American method may -be interesting:</p> - -<p>On a dry foundation is placed a coat of rough clinkers -from anthracite coal or iron clinkers from a foundry, mixed<span class="pagenum" id="Page121">[121]</span> -with sand and tar in the proportions of 15 cubic feet of fine -sifted ashes, 14¹⁄₂ cubic feet of pit sand, and 1¹⁄₂ cubic feet or -9 gallons of tar. This is laid about 3 to 4 inches thick and -well rolled. Over this is placed a coating from 1 inch to -1¹⁄₂ inch thick, composed of 15 cubic feet of coarse sifted ashes, -15 cubic feet of clinkers, and 1¹⁄₄ cubic feet or 8 gallons of tar. -It must be then well rolled and sanded, care having been -taken that the materials are thoroughly mixed.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Gravel Footpaths.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—For the suburbs of a town and in the -country, nothing looks so pretty as a gravel footpath.</p> - -<p>The same rules that apply to a macadamised roadway -apply to a gravel footpath. They must be well “bottomed,” -and well drained and well rolled. Limestone or other stone -chippings may with advantage be used with a pit gravel for -constructing paths of this description, and a barrelled surface -looks better and is more enduring than a hanging path. The -following cross sections of footpaths will explain themselves -better than any long description:</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600"> -<img src="images/illo141.png" alt="Footpath" width="600" height="570" /> -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo141lg.png">Large illustration</a> (163 kB)</p> -</div> - -<p>Gravel footpaths are sometimes tarred over when -thoroughly consolidated. This must be done only when the -weather is quite settled and fine: the least rain will spoil -the whole operation; it consists in simply tarring over the<span class="pagenum" id="Page122">[122]</span> -surface of the footpath in the same manner that a gate or -wall or any other substance would be tarred. The surface of -the path must previously have been swept perfectly clean, -and immediately as the tarring is completed, fine stone dust -must be sprinkled on its surface; the traffic should be diverted -from it for a few hours, and it is then ready.</p> - -<p>Care must be taken that the tar is not too thin in consistency, -and that the coat is not put on too thick. Treating -a path in this manner saves gravel, which is washed or kicked -off it if left with an ordinary surface; but a cold night, a -slight shower, or inferior tar will make the whole process -abortive, and the path will be in a fearful mess in the winter.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote101"></a><a href="#FNanchor101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> -Concrete is especially necessary as a foundation for asphalte, as it has little -or no power of resistance to vertical pressure in itself, and indentations in its -surface would be very unsightly as well as hold water. The concrete should be -perfectly dry and thoroughly set before the asphalte is laid on it.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote102"></a><a href="#FNanchor102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. i. p. 6.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote103"></a><a href="#FNanchor103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> -Trinidad bitumen is best, but it has to be refined before it can be used. -This is done by cooking it with shale oil, then straining it and decanting it, which -is a troublesome and tedious process, and there is great danger of fraud being -practised. Good bitumen can be detected by its elasticity and softness when -rolled between the finger and thumb, and also by its smell.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote104"></a><a href="#FNanchor104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. xliii. p. 293.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote105"></a><a href="#FNanchor105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> <i>Ibid</i>, vol. xliii. p. 293.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote106"></a><a href="#FNanchor106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> -A rule is sometimes made that York flags should be ¹⁄₂-inch thick for every -square foot of surface, but they should never be less than 2 inches thick.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote107"></a><a href="#FNanchor107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Roads, Streets, and Pavements,’ by Q. A. Gillmore, p. 208.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote108"></a><a href="#FNanchor108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> -Sawdust 2 feet in thickness has sometimes been used, well rammed and -rolled.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote109"></a><a href="#FNanchor109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> -The town of Brighton is an instance of this. Ordinary red bricks used to -be laid as a footpath, no doubt to give a rural appearance for the eye of the jaded -Londoner, but these are giving place to more modern materials.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page123">[123]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XII.<br /> -<span class="chapname">KERBING AND CHANNELLING, ETC.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">For all footpaths both urban and sub-urban a kerb of some -description is necessary to be fixed on the outside of the footpath, -for the following reasons:</p> - -<p>(1.) It acts as a sill against which the material of which -the footpath is paved may butt.</p> - -<p>(2.) It retains both the foundation and surface of the footpath.</p> - -<p>(3.) Whether there is a paved channel gutter or not, a kerb -is necessary in order to finish the haunches of the roadway.</p> - -<p>(4.) The appearance of a footpath without kerbing is very -unsightly.</p> - -<p>(5.) Unless a footpath is raised above the roadway it is -liable to be flooded.</p> - -<p>Many materials are used for kerb, of which granite -being the best is generally used in streets where there is much -traffic, as the kerb is often subjected to severe blows from the -passing vehicular traffic as well as a grinding action from the -wheels of waggons and other heavy vehicles, especially on -gradients where “hugging” the kerb acts as a drag or break. -In such cases granite, although the most expensive in the -first case, is certainly the most economical, and no other -material should ever be used.</p> - -<p>Granite kerb varies in dimensions considerably in different -localities and according to the width of the footpaths, the -wider the path the wider should be the kerb. It should however -never be of less depth than 9 inches, nor narrower than -4 inches; depth is necessary to prevent the kerb turning over -towards the channel gutter, or water table as it is sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page124">[124]</span> -termed, and the filling in on the gutter side must also be -well rammed with a bar to prevent this. Kerb should never -be in less lengths than 3 feet, and when 8 inches and broader -it is better that the top surface should be bevelled off to conform -with the slope of the footpath, but in narrower kerbing -such a practice is unnecessary, and if carried to an extreme -may even be dangerous.</p> - -<p>The kerb should be drafted about 1 inch along both top edges -and hammer dressed about 5 inches on the face, in addition to -the whole surface of the top and for 3 inches at the back, in -order that there may be a smooth surface visible against the -channel gutter, and also for the flagging or other paving to -butt fair against, besides giving a clean appearance to the aris -of kerb both inside and out.</p> - -<p>The following section of an 8-inch granite kerb will -explain this:</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600"> -<img src="images/illo144.jpg" alt="Kerb" width="600" height="202" /> -<p class="largeillo up"><a href="images/illo144lg.png">Large illustration</a> (106 kB)</p> -</div> - -<p>The top surface should always be tooled or axed whenever -it has worn smooth and slippery, as a slip from a kerbstone -often causes a very bad fall to a pedestrian.</p> - -<p>Setting kerb requires a very experienced hand, for as it is -set dry great care must be shown, or it will sink, turn slightly -over, or move even months after it has been set. In addition -to this it is heavy stuff to handle, but unless the line is -accurate both as regards level and contour, the appearance -will be exceedingly bad. Of course the skillet line and -boning rods are freely used in setting kerb, but even with these -helps one mason will set kerb in a pleasing manner, whilst<span class="pagenum" id="Page125">[125]</span> -another, with even more care, does not seem able to make it -appear graceful.</p> - -<p>Deep and narrow kerb should be bedded on good clean -river gravel, and beaten into its place with hard blows from a -heavy wooden setting maul or beetle weighing not less than -50 lbs.</p> - -<p>Broader and shallower kerb should be bedded on -concrete.</p> - -<p>In addition to granite, kerbing is also made of Endon or -Yorkshire stone, limestone, and for brick pavements a kerb -specially made of the same material is generally used; it is also, -though not often in this country, constructed of wood, old -railway sleepers being used for the purpose. In the more -rural districts grass sods are used with good effect for -gravel paths.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to estimate the cost of kerbing, as local -questions must interfere, carriage of the material and value of -labour entering so largely into the question.</p> - -<p>Mr. Codrington<a id="FNanchor110"></a><a href="#Footnote110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> states that “A limestone kerb about 1 foot -deep and 4 inches wide costs from 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> to 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per lineal -yard, and a channel 10 inches wide by 6 inches thick rather -more.</p> - -<p>“Granite kerbs 12 inches wide by 9 inches deep, 6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> -to 7<i>s.</i> per yard run.</p> - -<p>“Granite channel 12 inches wide by 6 inches deep, 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> -per lineal yard.</p> - -<p>“A channel 12 inches wide, formed of granite cubes -4 inches by 7 inches, costs about the same.”</p> - -<p>I have found that granite kerb 6 by 12 inches could be -fixed “<i>in situ</i>” at 3<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> per yard run, and 8 by 12 inches at -4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per lineal yard.</p> - -<p>Granite channelling composed of 3 courses of granite -pitchers 6 by 8 inches, costing 5<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per lineal yard.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page126">[126]</span></p> - -<p>Limestone channelling 15 inches in width by 3 inches in -depth, costing 3<i>s.</i> per lineal yard.</p> - -<p>A paved channel, gutter, or water table is of the greatest -use to a roadway, besides adding greatly to its appearance. -Without such a channel the haunches of a road become sadly -damaged by the wash of the surface water, which is sometimes -so extreme as to undermine the kerb and cause it to -fall out.</p> - -<p>These channel gutters are made of different materials for -macadamised roads, granite setts laid in the direction of the -gutter being the best. A channel gutter should not be less than -18 inches wide, so that if made with ordinary 3-inch setts, 6 -courses will be necessary; they should be bedded on gravel -and well grouted in with lime or cement grouting. Sometimes -granite slabs 18 inches wide by 3 or 4 inches thick are -used and make an excellent gutter, they are however liable to -tip under heavy loads. Limestone slabs can also be used in -roads of light traffic with advantage.</p> - -<p>In streets paved with granite setts, wood blocks or asphalte, -the same material is used for the channelling, the setts or -blocks being however bedded in line with the channel instead -of transversely as in the street itself.</p> - -<p>The channel gutter should take the slope of the roadway -and the granite kerb should show from 3 to 5 inches above -it. At paved crossings it is well to keep them level with the -kerb so that pedestrians may step off the path on to the -crossing without any drop, or if there is any water in them at -such points, it is a good plan to let the edge of the crossing -drop rather suddenly towards the kerb, so that the ordinary -stride of the pedestrian carries him on to the level.</p> - -<p>Gulley gratings or buddle holes should be placed along the -line of channel at such intervals as may be found necessary. A -great number of different forms have been from time to time -introduced for this purpose, the objects to be considered -being:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page127">[127]</span></p> - -<p>(1.) Sufficient area to carry off all the water.</p> - -<p>(2.) Not easily choked on surface by leaves or other -debris.</p> - -<p>(3.) Sufficiency of pit to retain all sand or road detritus -and prevent it being washed into the sewer.</p> - -<p>(4.) The least possible obstruction to the traffic.</p> - -<p>(5.) Constructed so that the pit may easily be cleaned -out.</p> - -<p>(6.) Trapped so as to prevent the escape of sewer -gas.<a id="FNanchor111"></a><a href="#Footnote111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p> - -<p>(7.) The drain from it should be easily freed of any -obstruction.</p> - -<p>One of the best forms of gully pit is that manufactured by -Messrs. Oates and Green of Halifax, as it meets nearly all the -requirements which I have summarised as being necessary for -this description of work. The following drawing will explain -itself:</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo147.jpg" alt="Gully pit" width="400" height="443" /> -</div> - -<p>What is called a “buddle hole,” which is an opening under -the kerb, has much to recommend it as giving a free unobstructed -waterway and at the same time avoiding the<span class="pagenum" id="Page128">[128]</span> -necessity of a grating in the street itself. The following -drawing will explain the general features of this “buddle-hole:”</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600"> -<img src="images/illo148.png" alt="Buddle hole" width="600" height="231" /> -<p class="largeillo up"><a href="images/illo148lg.png">Large illustration</a> (92 kB)</p> -</div> - -<p>A great number of different descriptions and forms of -gully pits are shown in Mr. Baldwin Latham’s excellent book -on sanitary engineering, to which I refer my readers for -any further information upon this subject.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote110"></a><a href="#FNanchor110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> -‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roads,’ by Thomas Codrington, p. 18.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote111"></a><a href="#FNanchor111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> -In many towns the gully gratings are purposely in direct communication -with the sewers, so as to act as ventilators.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page129">[129]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XIII.<br /> -<span class="chapname">LIGHTING STREETS.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">At the present moment the question of lighting streets by -electricity is gaining so much attention, that it must necessarily -be first considered in connection with the subject of -lighting streets: but to enter fully into all the details and -comparative merits of electricity and gas as applied to street -lighting would entail more space than can be afforded in this -work. It may however be of some use, even under the present -state of uncertainty, if I attempt to condense as much information -upon this necessary part of a surveyor’s duty into as -small a compass as possible. Nor must it be forgotten that -electric lighting will not easily be adapted in old cities and -towns, where, in addition to the main streets being narrow and -crooked, there are few large open spaces suitable for intense -lights, and there are numerous small courts and alleys which -require lighting, and this for a long time to come will probably -be effected with gas.<a id="FNanchor112"></a><a href="#Footnote112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page130">[130]</span></p> - -<p>Section 161 of the Public Health Act 1875 enacts as -follows:</p> - -<p>“Any urban authority may contract with any person for -the supply of gas or other means of lighting the streets, -markets, and public buildings in their district, and may -provide such lamps, lamp-posts and other materials and -apparatus as they may think necessary for lighting the same. . . .” -(38 and 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 161.)</p> - -<p>I do not propose to entertain the question of lighting -where the gas works are the property of the corporation, but -only to give information that may be of use where a contract -has to be entered into between the corporation and a company. -These contracts are based nearly always upon the length of -time at which the public lamps are to be kept lighted, and -may be summarised as follows:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page131">[131]</span></p> - -<p>(1.) The public lamps are lighted from sunset to sunrise -every night throughout the year; this averages 12 hours per -diem, or about 4000 hours per annum.</p> - -<p>(2.) The public lamps are not lighted on the nights of full -moon, nor for two or three nights before and after this period; -the rest of the year they are lighted at sunset.</p> - -<p>(3.) Similar to the preceding, except that the public -lamps are not lighted during the five nights of full moon, the -night after they are lighted for one hour and extinguished on -the rising of the moon; this lighting increases from night to -night about three quarters of an hour until the moon has -entirely disappeared, when the lamps are lighted during the -whole of the night for five consecutive nights. Then again on -the appearance of the new moon the lamps are extinguished -the first night for about an hour that the moon is visible, and -this extension increases nightly about three quarters of an -hour according as the moon appears until the period of full -moon, the intention being to profit by every hour of the -moon’s light.</p> - -<p>By this arrangement the lighting is about 2000 hours per -annum, instead of 4000 hours, when it is continued throughout -the night during the whole of the year.</p> - -<p>(4.) Sometimes, in addition to the foregoing, the lamps are -not lighted at all during the summer months.</p> - -<p>(5.) Occasionally the public lamps are extinguished at -midnight all the year round, if not for the whole, for some -portions of the district, it being assumed that all respectable -citizens being in bed, no light is required.</p> - -<p>(6.) In some cases every other lamp only is lighted in the -summer months, and many other similar variations for the -sake of economy may be practised.</p> - -<p>(7.) The public lamps are sometimes supplied by gas -through meters, which is then paid for at so much per 1000 -cubic feet consumed.</p> - -<p>Of all the above methods the first is undoubtedly the<span class="pagenum" id="Page132">[132]</span> -most satisfactory to the inhabitants, the urban authority, -their officers, and the gas company; it is the least likely to -introduce disputes, and although something may be saved by -adopting the more parsimonious methods enumerated, it is -found in practice that the first is the best.</p> - -<p>In drawing up an agreement with the gas company to -light the public street lamps for any length of time, the -following points must be considered.</p> - -<h3><i>Hints for a Contract with a Gas Company.</i></h3> - -<p>The company to provide a sufficient supply of gas of -the full illuminating power and quality as provided by -their Act.</p> - -<p>Payment to be at so much per lamp, or per 1000 cubic feet -consumed, or at per hour, or whatever may be determined on.</p> - -<p>Payment to be made by urban authority for lighting, -extinguishing, cleaning, repairing, etc., as may be agreed, such -payments to be made quarterly, or at such times as may be -agreed upon.</p> - -<p>The hours or times throughout the year during which the -lamps shall be lighted to be determined by a table, every -lamp to be fully lighted within one hour of the time named, -and not extinguished before that named for extinguishing. -The consumption of the gas to be regulated and determined -by Sugg’s or Borradaile’s street lamp governors, or such -other mode as is agreed upon.</p> - -<p>The company to keep the governors and burners in repair, -and also the lanterns, at a fixed sum per lamp per annum.</p> - -<p>The company to light and extinguish, and keep all lanterns -clean, and all pipes, valves, etc., in repair.</p> - -<p>The company to keep the lamp posts etc., properly painted -after they are fixed by the urban authority. Lamps may be -shifted or fresh lamps erected by the urban authority, on their -paying the cost.</p> - -<p>The company not to be compelled to supply gas to lamps<span class="pagenum" id="Page133">[133]</span> -which are beyond a certain distance of their existing mains, -without compensation.</p> - -<p>A certain pressure of gas must be maintained, to be -ascertained by water gauges fixed at certain public places, or -at such points as may be determined.</p> - -<p>Any lamps burning under size or out, shall be immediately -attended to by the company. A deduction in payment for -gas by the urban authority to be made if neglect can be -proved. An arbitration clause is necessary for this or other -matters that may be disputed, and also a clause for determining -the agreement upon notice being given.</p> - -<p>In supplying gas to the public lamps by meter, either wet -or dry meters may be employed, and these are fixed either in -the lamp posts themselves or under the footpath. Sometimes -each lamp has a separate meter, but in the generality of cases -one meter fixed to a lamp gives the average of gas consumed -by ten or a dozen of its fellows at the same level, and in the -same neighbourhood. The difficulties arising from this system -are:</p> - -<p>(1.) The liability of the meters to get out of repair, -especially in times of severe frost, or by vibration of traffic.</p> - -<p>(2.) The first cost of providing and fixing the meters, and -subsequent cost of repairs.</p> - -<p>(3.) The trouble and cost of inspection and keeping the -accounts.</p> - -<p>And it is found that by employing either “Borradaile’s,” -“Sugg’s,” or other regulators the consumption of the gas can -be readily adjusted to consume from 3 to 6 cubic feet per hour, -according to the requirements of the situation of the lamp.<a id="FNanchor113"></a><a href="#Footnote113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page134">[134]</span></p> - -<p>Lamp posts and lanterns are of innumerable sizes, shapes, -and patterns, but the following hints in connection with them -may be of some service.</p> - -<p>The lamp must not only be ornamental by day, but useful -by night.</p> - -<p>The light must not be placed either too high or too low.</p> - -<p>The post must not be too clumsy so as to interfere -with the pedestrian traffic, nor too fragile so as to be -easily broken if driven against. Bracket lamps have advantages -in these respects, and also in the very important -one of throwing no downward shadow,<a id="FNanchor114"></a><a href="#Footnote114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> as well as being -cheaper.</p> - -<p>The lantern should be made with the lightest possible -amount of metal frame compatible with sufficient strength, the -angle bars should be very narrow to avoid shadow, trap doors -of perforated zinc or glass should be provided at the bottom -for the admission of the torch, and a good outlet at the top is -essential for the escape of the heated air. Flat glass is much -cheaper and easier of repair than curved. The top of the -lantern should be furnished with a reflector cover, otherwise a -large percentage of the light is lost: this is very observable on -approaching a large city, by the glare which is thrown upwards. -Some hundreds of different patterns of lanterns for street -lamps have been designed from time to time, and it is not -necessary, nor have I space, to describe them.</p> - -<p>The burners should have steatite tips and be of varying -size to suit the requirements of the locality, the regulators -which I have previously mentioned must be kept in good -repair. A lever tap is indispensable with the torch for lighting, -as well as the trap door or opening in the bottom of the -lantern through which the torch is inserted.</p> - -<p>Each public lamp post should be legibly numbered, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page135">[135]</span> -the surveyor should keep a register in his office of all the -public lamps in his town.</p> - -<p>In order to determine the distance apart of the public -lamps in a street, it must be remembered that the intensity of -light is directly proportional to the illuminating power of the -light, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance -of the light, if unreflected. For instance, the illumination of -any point between lamps may be arrived at by adding all the -quotients obtained by dividing the illuminating power in -standard sperm candles of each lamp, by the square of its -distance in yards from the point.</p> - -<p>Thus a point midway between two lamps of 15 candles -each, 20 yards apart, would be reckoned thus:</p> - -<p class="formula"> -X = <span class="horsplit"><span class="top">15</span><span class="bot">100</span></span> -+ <span class="horsplit"><span class="top">15</span><span class="bot">100</span></span> -= ·30</p> - -<p>In this country, the rule has generally been adopted that -public street lamps burning 5 cube feet per hour of 15 candle -gas should not be placed at a greater distance than 60 yards -apart, the average distance in most English towns being about -40 yards.</p> - -<p>On this question, the following interesting particulars by -Monsieur Servier will be of special interest.<a id="FNanchor115"></a><a href="#Footnote115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p> - -<p>It appears to M. Servier that up to the present there has -been too much straining after intensity, with insufficient care -for the object of obtaining a proper quantity of light uniformly -spread over the surface of the ground. The paper in question -is therefore intended in the first place to elucidate this latter -subject, so as to determine beforehand the necessary intensity -for luminous centres, gas or electric, and also their height -from the ground and distance from each other required to -produce a certain effect. With this purpose M. Servier -proposes to determine for any point of the road-surface, by<span class="pagenum" id="Page136">[136]</span> -the law of the squares of the distances, the intensity of light, -in terms of the Carcel standard, which is spread at that point -by one or more lights of given power. Representing these -intensities by proportional ordinates, the extremities of these -ordinates form an irregular surface, and the volume contained -between this surface and that of the roadway represents a -specific value equivalent to the total luminous intensity -distributed over the soil. In default of a better term, M. -Servier calls this a volume of <i>cubic Carcels</i>, a cubic Carcel -being the intensity of a Carcel (9·5 standard candles) multiplied -by a square mètre of surface. The different cases -capable of being valued in this manner are as follows:</p> - -<p>1. A burner consuming 140 litres (5 cubic feet nearly), and -of 1·1 Carcels (10·45 candles) illuminating power, placed at -the height of 3 mètres (9 feet 6 inches). This burner gives at -the foot of the lamp-pillar a maximum intensity of 0·122 Carcel -(1·159 candles), and at 10 mètres (32·8 feet) away the illuminating -power is reduced to 0·01 Carcel (0·095 candle). The -distance of 20 to 30 mètres kept between the street lamps, -even in the best-lighted towns, is therefore excessive, for these -should not be more than 13 mètres (14 yards) apart in order -to obtain between them the minimum illuminating power of -0·05 Carcel (0·475 candle), sufficient for enabling passengers -to read.</p> - -<p>2. The second case is that of a burner consuming 1400 -litres (50 cubic feet nearly) of gas, with an illuminating -intensity of 14 Carcels (133 candles), placed at the height of -3·20 mètres; this being the class of burner fixed in the Rue -du Quatre Septembre. The intensity of light at the foot of -the lamp-pillar is 1·367 Carcels (13 candles nearly), and to -obtain the light of 0·05 Carcel (0·475 candle) already mentioned -as the least intensity enabling one to read, a point -must be fixed in a circle of 16 mètres radius from the lamp as -a centre. Taking now a group of six lamp-columns, three on -each side of the street, and overlapping, as in the Rue du<span class="pagenum" id="Page137">[137]</span> -Quatre Septembre, it will be found that the distribution of -light is defective. The most brilliantly lighted point at the -foot of the column has an intensity of 1·367 Carcels (13 -candles), or more than triple that of the darkest point, which -has an intensity of 0·5 Carcel (4·75 candles) at 4·58 mètres -distance.</p> - -<p>3. A lamp of 50-Carcel (475-candle) power, gas or electric, -fixed at the height of 8 mètres (26·24 feet). The illuminating -intensity at the point vertically under the light is -reduced to 0·7 Carcel (6·65 candles); but the light of 0·5 -Carcel (4·75 candles) is to be found in a circle of 6 mètres -radius from this point. It will therefore be observed that <i>the -distribution of light over the ground is better in proportion as -the luminous centre is higher</i>; but conversely also, <i>the amount of -light thrown on the ground is greater as the luminous centre is -lower</i>. It consequently results that the power of the light and -its height should be determined in every case with reference -to the effect desired. The method shortly described shows -that, in the case of the lighting of the Rue du Quatre Septembre, -the mean amount of light per square mètre of the -roadway is 855 <i>décicarcel-cubes</i>, the best lighted parts having -an intensity of 1·62 cubic Carcels, and the darkest portions -an intensity of 0·50 cubic Carcel.</p> - -<p>M. Servier has examined the question of lighting a street -20 mètres wide and one or more kilomètres long, with the -condition that the illumination of the ground shall present a -mean determinate quantity of light per square mètre, or a -given intensity at the darkest points. Some interesting -results are thus obtained. Thus, by substituting for the 14-Carcel -(133-candle) lamps in the Rue du Quatre Septembre, -burners of 50-Carcel (475-candle) power, with the condition of -giving the same intensity of 0·5 Carcel (4·75 candles) to the -darkest points, a quantity of light more considerable than -before will be required. That is, a greater number of Carcels -(3000 as against 1848 per kilomètre in length) will be necessary<span class="pagenum" id="Page138">[138]</span> -in the larger burners than were required in the original -smaller lamps. It is therefore imperative, in order that the -lighting shall be equally economical, that the unit of intensity—the -Carcel or candle power—shall be less costly in a lamp -of 50 Carcel (or 475-candle power) than in the smaller lamps. -By fixing lamps of 50-Carcel (475-candle) power in the centre -of the street, instead of along the side walks, maintaining the -condition of giving the light of 0·5 Carcel (4·75 candles) in -the darkest parts of the thoroughfares, it is found that the -pillars must be 8 mètres high and 20 mètres apart. The -best-lighted part of the road would then have the intensity -of 1 Carcel (9·5 candles), and would therefore be -only twice as brilliantly lighted as the darkest corner; -the mean quantity light per square mètre would be 755 -<i>décicarcel-cubes</i>.</p> - -<p>Lastly, the same method of lighting has been applied to -the “ordinary,” as distinguished from the “luxurious” lighting -of the public thoroughfares, assumed to be 20 mètres wide, -giving a light of 0·05 Carcel (0·475 candle) at the darkest -points. With ordinary street burners consuming 200 litres -(7 cubic feet) of gas per hour, and giving 1·72-Carcel (16·34-candle) -power, it is found that the lamps should be 18 mètres -(20 yards nearly) apart, the burners being 3 mètres (9 feet 10 -inches) high. With burners of 14-Carcel (133-candle) power -placed at the height of 3·20 mètres (10 feet 6 inches), the -lamp-pillars would be 106 mètres (115 yards) apart. Or with -lamps of 50-Carcel (475-candle) power placed at a height of -8 mètres (26·24 feet), the distance between the pillars may be -increased to 270 mètres (494 yards).</p> - -<p>In the case of electric lighting M. Servier has studied two -examples—the Jablochkoff candle, and an arc light (system -not stated). The former is credited with the illuminating -power of 16 Carcels (152 candles), and is fixed at the height -of 5 mètres (16 feet 3 inches), on pillars 110 mètres (120 yards)<span class="pagenum" id="Page139">[139]</span> -apart. This would give a light of 0·65 Carcel (6·27 candles) at -the foot of the pillar, and a minimum intensity of 0·05 Carcel -(0·475 candle) midway between the lights. The arc light is -purposely made exactly equal in computed efficiency to the -larger Siemens burner of 50 Carcels (475 candles). In the -matter of expense, however, using the data applicable to -Paris, with 12-candle gas at 6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per 1000 cubic feet, -M. Servier makes a striking comparison. The cost of lighting -a kilomètre of road in the “ordinary” manner last described -varies very little for the three classes of gas lamps—small, large, -and very powerful—included in the calculation, and ranges -from 3·33 frs. to 3·96 frs. per hour. The cost of the same -work done by the Jablochkoff candle is estimated at about -double, or 6·91 frs. per hour; and with the arc light the cost -would be 4 frs., or still higher than with the most costly -system of gas lighting, although less than the expense of the -Jablochkoff electric light.</p> - -<p>The following table will show the particulars of different -lights so placed that persons may see to read ordinary print -in any part of the street, which may be taken as then being a -well-lighted street.</p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Lights"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th colspan="4" class="br">Description<br />of Light.</th> -<th class="br">Illumi-<br />nating<br />Power.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Height<br />of<br />Lamps.</th> -<th class="br">Distance<br />of<br />Lamps<br />apart.</th> -<th class="br">Number<br />of<br />Lamps<br />per Mile.</th> -<th class="br">Total<br />Illumi-<br />nating<br />Power.</th> -<th class="br">Con-<br />sump-<br />tion<br />of Gas<br />per<br />Mile.</th> -<th class="br">Greatest<br />Intensity<br />of Light<br />on<br />Ground.</th> -<th>Least<br />Intensity<br />of Light<br />on<br />Ground.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="4" class="center br"><i>Gas.</i></th> -<th class="br">candles.</th> -<th>ft.</th> -<th class="br">in.</th> -<th class="br">yards.</th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br">candles.</th> -<th class="br">cub. ft.</th> -<th class="br">candles.</th> -<th>candles.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Batswing,</td> -<td class="right">7</td> -<td class="center">cubic</td> -<td class="center br padr1">feet</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">16·34</td> -<td class="right padr1">9</td> -<td class="right padr1 br">10</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">20</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">176</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">2876</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">1232</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">2·15</td> -<td class="right padr2">0·47</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Cluster,</td> -<td class="right">50</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center padr1 br">„</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">133·00</td> -<td class="right padr1">10</td> -<td class="right padr1 br">6</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">115</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">29</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">3857</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">1450</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">13·10</td> -<td class="right padr2">0·47</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left">Siemens,</td> -<td class="right">100</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center padr1 br">„</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">475·00</td> -<td class="right padr1">26</td> -<td class="right padr1 br">3</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">294</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">10</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">4750</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">1000</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">7·46</td> -<td class="right padr2">0·47</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="4" class="center br"><i>Electricity</i></th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="4" class="br">Jablochkoff candle</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">152·00</td> -<td class="right padr1">16</td> -<td class="right padr1 br">3</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">120</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">29</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">4408</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">..</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">6·18</td> -<td class="right padr2">0·47</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td colspan="4" class="br">Arc light</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">475·00</td> -<td class="right padr1">26</td> -<td class="right padr1 br">3</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">294</td> -<td class="right padr3 br">10</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">4750</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">..</td> -<td class="right padr2 br">7·46</td> -<td class="right padr2">0·47</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>It must not be lost sight of, that the illuminating power of -the gas in Paris is very low, and is thus fixed. Under a<span class="pagenum" id="Page140">[140]</span> -pressure of 12 hundredths of an inch, gas burning at the rate -of 4·05 cubic feet per hour (or 115 litres) shall give a light of -9·5 standard sperm candles (or a “Carcel” lamp burning 42 -grammes of pure colza oil) per hour.</p> - -<p>The competition which has been started by the electric -lighting companies has given a great impetus to gas lighting. -A large number of improved street gas lamp burners and -lanterns having been invented and brought into general use, -the following particulars with reference to some of those -which were tried in the City of Exeter may be of use as a -comparison.</p> - -<table class="lights" summary="Lights"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br">Description<br />of Lamp.</th> -<th class="br">Candle<br />Power<br />of Light.</th> -<th class="br">Con-<br />sumption<br />of gas<br />in<br />cubic feet<br />per hour.</th> -<th colspan="2">Cost<br />per Hour,<br />gas being<br />supplied<br />at 3<i>s.</i><br />per 1000<br />cubic feet.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2">pence.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Ordinary street lamp with batswing burner</td> -<td class="power">15</td> -<td class="consumption">5</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="penfrac">³⁄₁₆</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Siemens’</td> -<td class="power">330</td> -<td class="consumption">50</td> -<td class="penint">1</td> -<td class="penfrac">³⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr"><span class="padl2">Ditto</span></td> -<td class="power">130</td> -<td class="consumption">25</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="penfrac">⁷⁄₈</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr"><span class="padl2">Ditto</span></td> -<td class="power">45</td> -<td class="consumption">10</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="penfrac">³⁄₈</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Sugg’s</td> -<td class="power">50</td> -<td class="consumption">16</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="penfrac">⁵⁄₈</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr"><span class="padl2">Ditto</span></td> -<td class="power">30</td> -<td class="consumption">10</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="penfrac">³⁄₈</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="descr">Bray’s</td> -<td class="power">80</td> -<td class="consumption">20</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="penfrac">³⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Having thus far given a few facts upon lighting streets with -coal gas, I will now turn to the question of lighting them by -means of electricity, and in doing this the following points will -be considered:</p> - -<p>(1.) The motive-power to be employed in producing electricity -and its applicability for the purpose.</p> - -<p>(2.) The description of machinery to be employed.</p> - -<p>(3.) The value of the light produced, and its adaptability -to the requirements of any town.</p> - -<p>(4.) The comparative cost of the electric light as compared -with gas.</p> - -<p>(1.) Whatever motive power is employed, whether water-power,<span class="pagenum" id="Page141">[141]</span> -steam or gas, it is essential that it should be steady -and unfailing; steady, because the regularity and uniformity of -the light depends upon the evenness of the speed with which -the power works, and unfailing, because a stoppage means the -immediate extinguishment of the lights: electricity, unlike gas, -is not stored after manufacture, but is used as fast as it -emanates from the producing power.<a id="FNanchor116"></a><a href="#Footnote116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p> - -<p>Sensitive governors and careful bedding of the machinery -greatly tend to lessen unsteadiness, and are points of considerable -importance.</p> - -<p>(2.) The machinery consists of the dynamo machines, the -conducting wires and the lamps.</p> - -<p>I will not here enter into the question of which is the best -dynamo machine to employ, as to discuss the merits of them -all would involve a large amount of space; but for this and -other valuable information upon the subject of electric lighting -I will refer my readers to Mr. Hedges’ excellent little book -entitled ‘Useful Information on Electric Lighting,’<a id="FNanchor117"></a><a -href="#Footnote117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> but the -following points should be attended to. The dynamo -machine should be fixed in a dry place, and not be exposed -to dust or flyings, it should be kept perfectly clean, and -its bearings well oiled, its coils and conductors should be -perfectly insulated, and it should, where practicable, be fixed -on an insulated bed. With regard to the wires, the following -‘Regulations for the prevention of Fire Risks arising from -Electric Lighting,’ published by the Society of Telegraph -Engineers and of Electricians, are given in full, as they leave -nothing to be desired in the way of their careful selection -and fixing:</p> - -<p>“(7.) Every switch or commutator used for turning the -current on or off should be constructed so that when it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page142">[142]</span> -moved and left to itself it cannot permit of a permanent arc or -of heating, and its stand should be made of slate, stoneware, or -some other incombustible substance.</p> - -<p>“(8.) There should be in connection with the main circuit a -safety fuse constructed of easily fusible metal which would be -melted if the current attain any undue magnitude, and would -thus cause the circuit to be broken.</p> - -<p>“(9.) Every part of the circuit should be so determined that -the gauge of wire to be used is properly proportioned to the -currents it will have to carry, and changes of circuit, from a -larger to a smaller conductor, should be sufficiently protected -with suitable safety fuses, so that no portion of the conductor -should ever be allowed to attain a temperature exceeding -150° F.</p> - -<p>“N.B.—These fuses are of the very essence of safety. -They should always be enclosed in incombustible cases. -Even if wires become perceptibly warmed by the ordinary -current, it is a proof that they are too small for the work -they have to do and that they ought to be replaced by -larger wires.</p> - -<p>“(10.) Under ordinary circumstances complete metallic -circuits should be used, and the employment of gas or water -pipes should in no case be allowed.</p> - -<p>“(11.) Where bare wire out of doors rests on insulating supports, -it should be coated with insulating material, such as -india-rubber tape or tube, for at least two feet on each side of -the support.</p> - -<p>“(12.) Bare wires passing over the tops of houses -should never be less than seven feet clear of any part of -the roof, and they should invariably be high enough, when -crossing thoroughfares, to allow fire-escapes to pass under -them.</p> - -<p>“(13.) It is most essential that the joints should be -electrically and mechanically perfect. One of the best joints<span class="pagenum" id="Page143">[143]</span> -is that shown in the annexed sketches. The joint is whipped -around with small wire, and the whole mechanically united by -solder.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo163.jpg" alt="wires" width="600" height="148" /> -</div> - -<p>“(14.) The position of wires when underground should be -efficiently indicated, and they should be laid down so as to be -easily inspected and repaired.</p> - -<p>“(15.) All wires used for indoor purposes should be -efficiently insulated.</p> - -<p>“(16.) When these wires pass through roofs, floors, walls, or -partitions, or where they cross or are liable to touch metallic -masses, like iron girders or pipes, they should be thoroughly -protected from abrasion with each other, or with the metallic -masses, by suitable additional covering; and where they are -liable to abrasion from any cause or to the depredations of rats -or mice, they should be efficiently encased in some hard -material.</p> - -<p>“(17.) Where wires are put out of sight, as beneath flooring, -they should be thoroughly protected from mechanical injury, -and their position should be indicated.</p> - -<p>“N.B.—The value of frequently testing the wires cannot be -too strongly urged. It is an operation skill in which is easily -acquired and applied. The escape of electricity cannot be -detected by the sense of smell as can gas, but it can be -detected by apparatus far more certain and delicate. Leakage -not only means waste, but in the presence of moisture it means -destruction of the conductor and its insulating covering by -electric action.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page144">[144]</span></p> - -<p>The lamps may take either the “arc” form, or the “incandescent.” -The former is produced by the electric current -passing between carbon points, and requires considerable -electrical pressure; they give a light of from 1500 to 4000 -candle power; the mechanism of arc lamps has to be of the -most delicate kind to ensure the proper distance of the carbon -points being maintained. The lamps should be guarded by -globes of frosted glass, not only to prevent incandescent pieces -of carbon from falling, but to lessen the glare of the light. -“Incandescent” lamps are of small size, giving a light of -from 8 to 50-candle power, which is produced by the heating -of a filament of carbon in a vacuum owing to the resistance -caused to the electric current by this contraction of the -conductor.</p> - -<p>(3.) With regard to the value of the light produced, and its -adaptability to the requirements of any town, it will be seen -on reference to the opening of this chapter that at present considerable -doubt exists as to its adaptability for general public -lighting, and as each town varies in the length, straightness, -and width of its streets, the number of its large squares or -confined courts and alleys, the surveyor must use his own -judgment as to the suitability of the light before recommending -his corporation to adopt it.</p> - -<p>As to the value of the electric light, there can be no doubt -that a most brilliant and powerful light is produced by the -voltaic arc: so brilliant indeed, as to render it necessary to -screen it nearly always behind frosted or opalescent glass -globes, the former being found to be much the best for many -reasons.</p> - -<p>As to the photometrical value of the light, some considerable -difficulty has hitherto been experienced in obtaining -accurate observations, principally owing to the peculiar colour -of the electric light, and also from its fluctuating character; -but these difficulties are being steadily overcome, and -with a photometer mounted on a light frame with wheels,<span class="pagenum" id="Page145">[145]</span> -some excellent experiments have been made in the public -streets upon the comparative values of different lights.</p> - -<p>(4.) The last and really one of the most important questions -remaining to be discussed is that of the cost of the electric -light as compared with gas.</p> - -<p>With reference to the cost of the electric light, the following -table may be of use; it is compiled from an excellent paper -on electric lighting, by Mr. James N. Shoolbred:<a id="FNanchor118"></a><a href="#Footnote118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="smcap">Table of Comparative Estimates of First Outlay and<br />of Working -Expenses of some Systems of Electric Lighting.</span></p> - -<table class="shoolbred notop" summary="Costs"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th colspan="3" class="br">Name of Machine.</th> -<th colspan="4" class="br">First Cost, including<br />Engine to drive it.</th> -<th colspan="12">Working Expenses per hour.</th> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<th colspan="3" class="br"> </th> -<th class="br">One<br />light.</th> -<th class="br">Two<br />lights.</th> -<th class="br">Three<br />lights.</th> -<th class="br">Five<br />lights.</th> -<th colspan="3" class="br">One<br />light.</th> -<th colspan="3" class="br">Two<br />lights.</th> -<th colspan="3" class="br">Three<br />lights.</th> -<th colspan="3">Five<br />lights.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3" class="br"> </th> -<th class="br">£</th> -<th class="br">£</th> -<th class="br">£</th> -<th class="br">£</th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"><i>d.</i></th> -<th><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Gramme single light “A” with Siemens lamp</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="center br">330</td> -<td class="center br">535</td> -<td class="center br">725</td> -<td class="center br">935</td> -<td class="shilltop">1</td> -<td class="wholepence">6</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="shilltop">2</td> -<td class="wholepence">1</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="shilltop">2</td> -<td class="wholepence">7</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="shilltop">3</td> -<td class="wholepence">0</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Cost per light per hour</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="center br">—</td> -<td class="center br">—</td> -<td class="center br">—</td> -<td class="center br">—</td> -<td class="shilltop">1</td> -<td class="wholepence">11</td> -<td class="partpence br">·4</td> -<td class="shilltop">1</td> -<td class="wholepence">4</td> -<td class="partpence br">·8</td> -<td class="shilltop">1</td> -<td class="wholepence">2</td> -<td class="partpence br">·2</td> -<td class="shilltop">0</td> -<td class="wholepence">10</td> -<td class="partpence">·2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Siemens single light “medium” with Siemens small-sized lamp</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="center br">365</td> -<td class="center br">611</td> -<td class="center br">835</td> -<td class="center br">1185</td> -<td class="shilltop">1</td> -<td class="wholepence">7</td> -<td class="partpence br">¹⁄₂<a id="FNanchor119"></a><a href="#Footnote119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></td> -<td class="shilltop">2</td> -<td class="wholepence">4</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="shilltop">2</td> -<td class="wholepence">10</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="shilltop">3</td> -<td class="wholepence">9</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Cost per light per hour</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="center br">—</td> -<td class="center br">—</td> -<td class="center br">—</td> -<td class="center br">—</td> -<td class="shilltop">2</td> -<td class="wholepence">1</td> -<td class="partpence br">·4</td> -<td class="shilltop">1</td> -<td class="wholepence">6</td> -<td class="partpence br">·8</td> -<td class="shilltop">1</td> -<td class="wholepence">3</td> -<td class="partpence br">·84</td> -<td class="shilltop">1</td> -<td class="wholepence">0</td> -<td class="partpence">·8</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3" class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br bb">Six<br />lights.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br bb">Twenty<br />lights.</th> -<th colspan="6" class="br bb">Six lights.</th> -<th colspan="6" class="bb">Twenty lights.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3" class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">£</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">£</th> -<th> </th> -<th colspan="2"><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th> </th> -<th colspan="2"><i>s.</i></th> -<th colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th> -<th> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Gramme “many light” machine with candles</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">576</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">1155</td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="shillbot">2</td> -<td class="wholepence">8</td> -<td colspan="2" class="br"> </td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="shillbot">6</td> -<td class="wholepence">3</td> -<td colspan="3"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="6" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="6" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="descr">Cost per light per hour</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">—</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">—</td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="shillbot">0</td> -<td class="wholepence">6</td> -<td colspan="2" class="partpence br">·4</td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="shillbot">0</td> -<td class="wholepence">4</td> -<td colspan="3" class="partpence">·2</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="6" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="6" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Mr. Shoolbred has also given another table<a id="FNanchor120"></a><a href="#Footnote120" -class="fnanchor">[120]</a> of street<span class="pagenum" id="Page146">[146]</span> -lighting which partly deals with the question of cost, it is -as follows:</p> - -<table class="shoolbred" summary="Costs"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th colspan="3" class="br">Date of<br />Lighting.</th> -<th class="br">Cost to<br />Municipal<br />Authority.</th> -<th class="br">Length of<br />Street Lit.</th> -<th class="br">Annual<br />Cost<br />per mile<br />of street.</th> -<th class="br">No. of<br />Lamps.</th> -<th class="br">Illuminating<br />Power<br />of each<br />(on<br />horizontal).</th> -<th>Remarks.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3" class="thinline br"> </th> -<th class="thinline br"> </th> -<th class="thinline br"> </th> -<th class="thinline br"> </th> -<th class="thinline br"> </th> -<th class="thinline br"> </th> -<th class="thinline"> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="9" class="center highline2"><span class="smcap">City of London.</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="9" class="center highline2"><i>District No. 1.</i> (Ludgate Hill, &c.).—“Brush” Electric Light Co.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3" class="br"> </th> -<th class="br">£</th> -<th class="br">yards<br />lineal.</th> -<th class="br">£</th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br">candles.</th> -<th> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center dontwrap">Mar. 31, 1881<br />to<br />Mar. 30, 1882</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="center br">660[<a href="#TabNoteA">A</a>]</td> -<td class="center br">1750</td> -<td class="pounds">660</td> -<td class="center br">32 arc</td> -<td class="candles">950</td> -<td class="remark">1 40-light Brush machine.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="remark"><a id="TabNoteA">[A]</a> Add £750 to cost, for fixing and final removal of apparatus.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="9" class="center highline2"><i>District No. 2.</i> (King William Street, &c.).—Siemens Bros. & Co., Ld.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center dontwrap">Mar. 31, 1881<br />to<br />Mar. 30, 1882</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="center br">2270[<a href="#TabNoteB">B</a>]</td> -<td class="center br">1960</td> -<td class="pounds">2026</td> -<td class="center br">6 arc</td> -<td class="candles">4000</td> -<td class="remark">6 continuous current machines.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">23 arc</td> -<td class="candles">330</td> -<td class="remark">2 alternating ditto.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="remark"><a id="TabNoteB">[B]</a> Add £1450 to cost, for fixing and removal of apparatus.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="9" class="center highline2"><i>Metropolitan Board of Works</i> (Thames Embankment).—“Jablochkoff” Co.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center dontwrap">Dec. 13, 1878<br />to<br />June 30, 1881</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="center br">2¹⁄₂<i>d.</i> per light per hour.</td> -<td class="center br">2540</td> -<td class="pounds">1131</td> -<td class="center br">60 candles</td> -<td class="candles">380</td> -<td class="remark">3 Gramme double-machine (“A” and divider).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="remark">1 Ransome’s steam engine. 20 HP nominal.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center dontwrap">July 1, 1881<br />to<br />June 30, 1884}</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="center br">1¹⁄₂<i>d.</i> per light per hour.</td> -<td class="center br">..</td> -<td class="pounds">753</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="9" class="center highline2"><span class="smcap">City of Norwich</span> (Prince of Wales’ Road, -&c.).—R. E. Crompton & Co.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center dontwrap">Aug. 15, 1881<br />to<br />Jan. 31, 1883</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="center br">710</td> -<td class="center br">1700</td> -<td class="pounds">531</td> -<td class="center br">5 arc</td> -<td class="candles">2000</td> -<td class="remark">4 Bürgin machines.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">9 arc</td> -<td class="candles">500</td> -<td class="remark">1 Ransome’s steam engine, 20 HP nominal.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="9" class="center highline2"><i>Chesterfield</i> (Market Place, &c.).—Brush (Hammond) Electric Light Co.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center dontwrap">Nov. 1, 1881<br />to<br />Oct. 31, 1882</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace left padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="center br">855</td> -<td class="center br">3500</td> -<td class="pounds">..</td> -<td class="center br">22 arc</td> -<td class="candles">950</td> -<td class="remark">2 40-Light “Brush” machines.</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td colspan="3" class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">100<br />Incan-<br />descent.</td> -<td class="candles">16</td> -<td class="remark">2 Fowler’s semi-portable compound engines 20 HP nominal.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page147">[147]</span></p> - -<p>As to the comparison of cost between the electric light and -gas, this has only, I believe, been properly estimated on the -Thames Embankment, London, by Sir Joseph Bazalgette, the -results of whose investigations upon this important point I -shall give <a href="#Ref1">presently</a>; it has, however, been stated generally, and -without contradiction, that arc lights can be produced of about -2000 candle power, with 1 HP at a cost of from 3<i>d.</i> to 6<i>d.</i> per -candle per annum of 4000 hours, gas costing from 1<i>s.</i> 9<i>d.</i> to -3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per candle according to the price of the gas.</p> - -<p>Incandescent lamps cost 3<i>s.</i> to 4<i>s.</i> per candle per annum, as -their life is short, and only 200 candle power can be got from -1 HP.<a id="FNanchor121"></a><a href="#Footnote121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p> - -<p id="Ref1">The latest investigations into the comparative cost of -lighting by gas and electricity upon the Victoria Embankment -and Waterloo Bridge in London, show that the lighting as -effected by 96 gas burners for an average of 12 hours burning -all night, and 121 gas burners for 6 hours lighted after the -electric lights are put out, together with the electric lighting -40 lights on the parapet of Embankment, and 10 on the bridge, -costs 834<i>l.</i> for the gas and 663<i>l.</i> for the electric light per -annum. Gas costing 3<i>s.</i> 2<i>d.</i> per 1000 cubic feet showed a cost -of nearly 1<i>s.</i> per hour for every 1000 candle power of light. -The electric lights cost 1¹⁄₂<i>d.</i> per light per hour, which is stated -to represent 5·66 pence per 1000 candle power of light; each -electric light as now used, it is said, gives a photometric light of -265 candles, frosted glass globes being found to pass much -more light than the opalescent globes.</p> - -<p>These are by far the most important and reliable comparisons<span class="pagenum" id="Page148">[148]</span> -that have hitherto been made, and it will be seen that the -cost is in favour of the electric light.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that the acme of all artificial lighting is -the prolongation of the light of day, and whether this is proposed -to be effected by electricity or gas, it should be the goal -aimed at by all who make this question their study.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote112"></a><a href="#FNanchor112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> -Since writing these lines the following letter has appeared in the Standard -and has never been refuted, which shows that electric lighting for streets is not -yet all that can be desired:</p> - -<p class="center highline2"><span class="smcap">Electric Lighting.</span></p> - -<p class="center highline2"><i>To the Editor of the</i> <span class="smcap">Standard</span>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>,—At this time, when the question of lighting by means of electricity is -receiving so much attention, and as Chesterfield is the only town in England -whose lighting is done throughout by electricity, it may be interesting to your -readers to know what our experience has been.</p> - -<p>I need not detail the stages which led to our abandoning gas, and taking up -the electric light after being in darkness some months. I may briefly state that, -after going carefully into the question, we decided to adopt the system whose -praise was in everyone’s mouth a year ago, namely, “The Brush,” and, though -we were applied to by other companies, we placed the execution of the work in the -hands of the one that we considered the most suitable—the Hammond Company. -During the negotiations of the contract, Mr. Hammond particularly pressed us -not to stipulate for incandescent lamps, as he acknowledged that their Company -were not in a position to cope with incandescent lighting for public purposes. -We, however, decided upon the town being lighted with the Lane-Fox Incandescent -Lamps, as well as the Brush Arc Lights.</p> - -<p>After waiting many weary months for the completion of the incandescent -lighting, it is now, when declared by the contractors complete, in my opinion -a decided failure. The Lane-Fox lamps, which have been supplied by the Brush -Company, are most variable in their lighting power; whilst some are good, -others only give a feeble light instead of a light equal to that of fifteen candles, as -expected. The arc lights are doing good service in some of the large streets, but -as a whole I think it has been fully demonstrated in a year’s trial in Chesterfield, -that the field for arc lighting is very limited indeed.</p> - -<p>Though the tradesmen have been canvassed by the Hammond Company with -a view to introducing the arc lights into their shops and hotels, in not one single -case has the light been adopted. Indeed, it is evident to us who have them -under our eyes every night, that they are only fit for lighting works and large, -open spaces. The experience that has been thus gained at Chesterfield at the -present juncture must be of value to all towns intending to adopt the electric -light, and is my reason for troubling you with this letter, although I believe the -time will shortly come when lighting by electricity may be advantageously adopted, -both for public and private purposes.</p> - -<div class="signed"> - -<p class="noindent highline15">I am, Sir, your obedient servant,</p> - -<p class="center highline15"><span class="smcap">Geo. Edwd. Gee</span>,<br /> -<i>Alderman of the Borough of Chesterfield</i>.</p> - -</div><!--geesigned--> - -<p class="noindent highline15"><span class="smcap">High Street, Chesterfield</span>, <i>October 10, 1882</i>.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote113"></a><a href="#FNanchor113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> -The Surveyor of Folkestone says: “Sugg’s self-acting regulator is used, -adjusted as nearly as may be practicable to consume 4 feet per hour, and so very -satisfactory is this apparatus that for the last two years, after burning 7294 hours, -it is found by the average meter to have consumed 29,227 feet, as against 29,176 -feet as per regulator, being only 51 feet in excess of that which the apparatus is -adjusted to consume.” <i>Vide</i> Ellice Clark on gas in Public Streets, ‘Proceedings -of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. ii. -P. 193.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote114"></a><a href="#FNanchor114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> -Bracket lamps may not be fixed by an urban authority to houses within -their district without the previous consent of the owners of such houses. <i>Vide</i> -‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health Act,’ third edition, p. 182.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote115"></a><a href="#FNanchor115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> -Meeting of the ‘Société Technique de l’lndustrie du Gaz en France’ in -1882.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote116"></a><a href="#FNanchor116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> -“Faure’s” batteries can store electricity, but at present this cannot be -manipulated on a very large scale.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote117"></a><a href="#FNanchor117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> -Published by Messrs. Spon, 16 Charing Cross, London.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote118"></a><a href="#FNanchor118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers -and Surveyors,’ vol. vi. p. 9 <i>et seq.</i></p> - -<p><a id="Footnote119"></a><a href="#FNanchor119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> -Siemens’ light at Blackburn cost 2<i>s.</i> per hour per lamp of 6000 candle -power.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote120"></a><a href="#FNanchor120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers -and Surveyors,’ vol. viii. p. 171, &c.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote121"></a><a href="#FNanchor121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> -On this point Mr. W. G. Laws, Borough Engineer, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, -says: “Taking as an example a street a mile long, lighted by the arc system, -the arrangement would probably be lamps 60 yards apart, placed alternately on -either side, giving 30 lamps or 60,000 candles at a cost of about 800<i>l.</i> per annum. -If lighted by ‘incandescent lamps’ we should have them placed about 30 yards -apart on both sides: that is, 120 lamps giving 2400 candles at a cost of about 420<i>l.</i> -per annum. The number of gas lamps for the same distance might be 150, giving -about 2250 candles at a cost of 300<i>l.</i> per annum.” (‘Proceedings of the Association -of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. viii. p. 65.)</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page149">[149]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XIV.<br /> -<span class="chapname">STREET NAMING AND NUMBERING.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">It was not until the commencement of the present century -that inconvenience was apparently felt from the want of any -distinguishing names of streets, or numbers to houses, either in -London or provincial towns; the first Act of Parliament on -the subject being one passed in the year 1819, which gave -powers to vestries and district boards to put up the names of -streets, and even then for some considerable period afterwards -houses or premises were not marked with numbers, but with -distinguishing trade signs or names.</p> - -<p>The Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, however, contains -the following clauses which are incorporated with the -Public Health Act 1875, by the 160th section of that act:</p> - -<p>“The commissioners shall from time to time cause the -houses and buildings in all or any of the streets<a id="FNanchor122"></a><a href="#Footnote122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> to be marked -with numbers as they think fit, and shall cause to be put up -or painted on a conspicuous part of some house, building or -place at or near each end, corner, or entrance of every such -street the name by which such street is to be known; and -every person who destroys, pulls down, or defaces any such -number or name, or puts up any number or name different -from the number or name put up by the commissioners, shall -be liable to a penalty not exceeding 40<i>s.</i> for every such -offence” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, sec. 64).</p> - -<p>“The occupiers of houses and other buildings in the streets -shall mark their houses with such numbers as the commissioners<span class="pagenum" id="Page150">[150]</span> -approve of, and shall renew such numbers as often -as they become obliterated, or defaced; and every such -occupier who fails within one week after notice for that purpose -from the commissioners to mark his house with a number -approved of by the commissioners, or to renew such number -when obliterated, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding -40<i>s.</i>; and the commissioners shall cause such numbers to be -marked or to be renewed as the case may require, and the -expense thereof shall be repaid to them by such occupier, and -shall be recoverable as damages” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 65).</p> - -<p>Some difference even now exists as to the manner in which -streets are named, there being considerable diversity in the -sizes, colours, and materials of the name plates, as well as in -the spaces allowed for the letters. The following list is given -to show how this diversity existed in the metropolis even so -late as the year 1870.</p> - -<p>Table taken from a “Memorandum by the Superintending -Architect of the Metropolitan Board of Works, relative to the -enforcement of the Law regulating the naming of Streets and -numbering of Houses in the Metropolis” (1871):</p> - -<table class="roadsigns" summary="Signs"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="2"> </th> -<th>Parish A.</th> -<th>Parish B.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr1">Names</td> -<td class="support">on houses at corners of streets</td> -<td class="number">237</td> -<td class="number">281</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="support">on piers of railings</td> -<td class="number">24</td> -<td class="number">36</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="support">on iron plates</td> -<td class="number">6</td> -<td class="number">44</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="support">on wooden boards</td> -<td class="number">18</td> -<td class="number">36</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="support">on enamelled plates</td> -<td class="number">1</td> -<td class="number">2</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="support">impressed in terra cotta</td> -<td class="number">2</td> -<td class="number">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="support">in cement letters</td> -<td class="number">14</td> -<td class="number">9</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="support">in Minton’s china letters</td> -<td class="number">2</td> -<td class="number">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="support">engraved on stone</td> -<td class="number">5</td> -<td class="number">13</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="support">on porcelain plates</td> -<td class="number">1</td> -<td class="number">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="support">with raised letters on iron girder</td> -<td class="number">1</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="support">on board on posts</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="number">11</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="support">on zinc</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="number">2</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="noindent">And to this table are added the words “Some names are completely -hidden by vines, names given for ‘streets’ are put up -as ‘roads.’” Since this table was prepared however, the confusion<span class="pagenum" id="Page151">[151]</span> -has been rectified by the energetic action of the Metropolitan -Board of Works.</p> - -<p>It is no doubt essential that for postal, telegraphic, and -social reasons there should be uniformity in the manner -in which the naming and numbering of streets is carried -out, and the following particulars and suggestions may be -of use.</p> - -<p>Names of streets should be marked up in such a manner -as to be legible both by day and lamp light, and the materials -of which the name-plates are composed should be of sufficient -strength to prevent any damage accruing to them from stone-throwing -or other wilful or accidental injury, or from the -action of changes of temperature or climatic influences of any -kind, and the following list is given descriptive of some of the -modern methods of effecting this:</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Minton’s China Tiles.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—These are white glazed china -tiles 6 inches square, on which either blue or black letters are -burnt in, one letter on each tile (except in the case of St. -which is on one tile); they are fixed by chasing them into walls -of buildings, and setting them in cement. They are the best -description of name-plate with which I am acquainted, their -cost being only 6<i>d.</i> each, with the additional advantages of -being not easily broken, they can be removed and re-used with -facility, weather has no effect upon them, and they require no -attention whatever after they are once fixed.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Cast-iron Plates with Embossed Letters.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—These are generally -painted with a white ground, and black letters; they -are liable to become broken, and as they are fixed with screws -these rust through in course of time, when the plate may -suddenly fall in a dangerous manner into the street; another -disadvantage is that they require to be painted about once -every three years.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Painted Names on Walls of Buildings.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—This method -requires no special mention; it is an economical plan and is -more adopted than any other, but the letters must be painted<span class="pagenum" id="Page152">[152]</span> -every three years at least, and they are apt to be defaced if -the premises are painted by the owner or occupier.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Enamelled Iron Plates.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—These look very well, but they -are apt to get loose, and a blow from a stone will shiver -them.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Wooden or Metal Figures cut out and fastened on to Boards -or against Walls.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—The same objection holds good with this -method as with others of the same description, the fastenings -fail in time, and the name disappears.</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Enamelled Glass Tablets in Street Lamps.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—This is an excellent -method of recent introduction, and has many advantages. -The name can be seen very plainly either by day or night, no -private premises have to be interfered with in fixing them,<a id="FNanchor123"></a><a href="#Footnote123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> -a uniformity of position or “where to look” for the name of -the street is secured, and there is no limit to the number of -times the name may be repeated.</p> - -<p>Where the names of streets are placed against buildings -the letters which compose the name should not be less than -4 inches in height by 2 inches in breadth, with a space between -each letter of not less than 1 inch; a light colour should always -where practicable be used for the back ground, and black or -blue for the letters. One great objection to painted letters is -that they must be frequently repainted, and in order to do -this, ladders have to be raised against the building, which the -occupiers naturally object to without previous notice: it is -always very annoying to any citizen to have the head of a -painter appearing outside his bed-room window at any time, -and more especially at an inconvenient hour in the morning.</p> - -<p>In selecting names for streets it is very important that they -should not be duplicated in a town, and also that there should -be some sense in their nomenclature; generally some local<span class="pagenum" id="Page153">[153]</span> -association can be found with a family or historical name -which is suitable for the street. Nothing is more ridiculous -than to see such names as Bath Street or York Road given to -streets which have as much association with such places as -with Jericho.</p> - -<p>The street having been properly and conspicuously named, -the next point to consider is that of the manner in which it -shall be numbered, there being three methods in vogue by -which this can be effected.</p> - -<p>(1.) By allotting even numbers on one side of the street -and odd numbers on the other side.</p> - -<p>(2.) By allotting consecutive numbers up one side of the -street, and down the other side.</p> - -<p>(3.) By allotting corresponding numbers to both sides of -the street, which are distinguished by a prefix of north and -south, or east and west, as the case may require.</p> - -<p>The first is by far the best method to pursue, for the -following reasons:</p> - -<p>If the street is ever extended after being numbered, the -sequence is in no way disturbed. By this method any house -can be more easily found, as on reference to a directory it will -at once be seen at which end of the street it is situated. If the -second method had been adopted this would be impossible, -except for the first few numbers, and where a street is of considerable -length with branch streets running into it this is of -the greatest importance. It is the best method also for the -Post-Office officials, as it facilitates the district sorting of the -letters.</p> - -<p>Giving each side of the street distinctive prefixes to its -name, such as north and south, &c., is evidently a bad plan, and -leads to much confusion.</p> - -<p>In allotting numbers to premises in a street, if it has been -already numbered care should be taken to disturb existing -numbers as little as possible, for an altered number involves -considerable expense as well as inconvenience to the occupier<span class="pagenum" id="Page154">[154]</span> -of business or trade premises, owing to the necessity of altering -bill heads, letter paper, &c., and sometimes even considerable -trouble and expense in order to secure the validity of the -title.</p> - -<p>Avoid numbering from right to left, and take care to allot -sufficient numbers to vacant spaces which may eventually be -built upon, and to do this the length of frontage may be -divided into such lengths as (in the surveyor’s judgment) will -represent the new frontages. In any case it is better to have -too many numbers in a street than too few, and large premises, -and any public or other buildings which may be removed, and -other buildings substituted should have numbers allotted to -them, although it will not be necessary to serve the notices to -have them affixed. Most large shops prefer to have more -than one number, although I have heard the rather far-fetched -contention urged, that more than one number means -extra rating.</p> - -<p>Considerable care must be exercised to ensure that no -separate premises are passed over in allotting the numbers, -often only a door or side passage denoting the existence of -another claimant for a number. Nothing looks worse in a -freshly numbered street than to see such numbers as 37<span class="smcapall">A</span> or -96¹⁄₂ placed upon premises that should have had a distinct -numeral, and thus showing that they must have been left out.</p> - -<p>The manner in which streets are numbered is generally as -follows:</p> - -<p>The town surveyor or one of his assistants walks through -the street, and with a piece of chalk legibly marks each house -with its correct number, taking care to observe the precautions -I have enumerated; having done this throughout its entire -length, these numbers must be entered in a book with the -name of the occupier written opposite to the number. Upon -returning to the office the surveyor must then fill up and serve -the necessary notice upon each of these occupiers, the following -being given as a specimen of such notice:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page155">[155]</span></p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p class="center highline15"><i>Urban Sanitary Authority for the <span class="padl8">.</span></i></p> - -<p class="right padr4"><span class="smcap">Town Surveyor’s Office</span>, <span class="padl6"> </span> -<span class="nowrap">188<span class="padl2">.</span></span></p> - -<p class="noindent">____________</p> - -<p>I beg leave to give you notice, that the Town Council -of <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl6">,</span></span> as the Urban Sanitary Authority, have approved of -the number <span class="padl4">for</span> the house in your occupation, in <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl6">.</span></span></p> - -<p>You are therefore required, within one week from the date -of this notice [to obliterate the present number, and]<a id="FNanchor124"></a><a href="#Footnote124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> to mark -the said house with the number so approved of, and to renew -the same from time to time in the case of its becoming -obliterated.</p> - -<p>A penalty of 40<i>s.</i> will be incurred in the event of default in -compliance with this notice.</p> - -<div class="signed"> - -<p class="noindent">I am,</p> - -<p class="center highline15"><span class="padr6">Your obedient Servant,</span><br /> -_________________________<br /> -<span class="padl6"><i>Town Surveyor</i>.</span></p> - -</div><!--signed--> - -<p class="noindent"><i>To</i> __________________<br /> -<span class="padl6"><i>No.</i> __________________</span></p> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p>In the event of the old number with which any premises -were marked not being obliterated by the occupier, the following -notice may be served:</p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p class="center highline15"><i>Urban Sanitary Authority for the <span class="padl8">.</span></i></p> - -<p class="right padr4"><span class="smcap">Town Surveyor’s Office</span>, <span class="padl6"> </span> -<span class="nowrap">188<span class="padl2">.</span></span></p> - -<p class="noindent">____________</p> - -<p>It has been reported to the Town Council that you have -neglected to obliterate the old number of your premises, -No. <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl3"> </span></span> <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl8 padr8"> </span></span> -Street, after receiving notice of a -new number being allotted to such premises by the Town -Council, whereby you have incurred a penalty of 40<i>s.</i></p> - -<p>The duplication of numbers in the same street was found -to be the occasion of so much inconvenience, that the Council<span class="pagenum" id="Page156">[156]</span> -were obliged to re-number the street in question, and it is -manifest that if a number allotted to another house is retained -by you, the inconvenience sought to be removed will still -remain.</p> - -<p>I am therefore instructed to inform you that unless the -old number of your premises is obliterated within seven days -from the date of this notice, proceedings will be taken against -you for the recovery of the penalty incurred.</p> - -<div class="signed"> - -<p class="noindent">Yours faithfully,</p> - -<p class="center highline15">_________________________<br /> -<span class="padl6"><i>Town Surveyor</i>.</span></p> - -</div><!--signed--> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p>Of course, if nothing is done after service of this second -notice, it only remains to summon the offender as provided by -the sections of the Act, which I have given in the early part of -this chapter.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote122"></a><a href="#FNanchor122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> -“Street” includes any highway (not being a turnpike road), and any public -bridge (not being a county bridge), and any road, lane, footway, square, court, -alley, or passage, whether a thoroughfare or not. (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 4.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote123"></a><a href="#FNanchor123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> -The law apparently gives the Sanitary Authority power to fix names of streets -against any premises they may choose, without first applying for or obtaining -any consent from either the occupier or owner of such premises. (<i>Vide</i> 10 & 11 -Vic. c. 34, s. 64.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote124"></a><a href="#FNanchor124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> -If the premises have no existing number, these words can be left out.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page157">[157]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2>CHAPTER XV.<br /> -<span class="chapname">BREAKING UP STREETS.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">In nearly every city and town of the United Kingdom, -except those where the gas and water undertakings are the -property of the urban authority, the town surveyor is constantly -annoyed by having some portions of his streets broken up and -greatly damaged by the action of the gas or water companies -of the district.</p> - -<p>With regard to the lasting character of the damage caused -to the street by this disturbance of its surface, I shall have -something to say in this chapter, but it is first necessary to see -what legal powers the companies have to break up the streets, -and what powers the surveyor has to enforce the work being -properly carried out.</p> - -<p>It will be found that the sections bearing upon this point -are almost precisely similar in their wording in the following -Acts:</p> - -<p>“The Gas Works Clauses Act 1847” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 15).</p> - -<p>“The Water Works Clauses Act 1847” (10 & 11 Vic. -c. 17).</p> - -<p>“The Electric Lighting Act 1882” (45 & 46 Vic. c. 56).</p> - -<p class="noindent">but with regard to the powers of the Government to lay -telegraph and telephone wires, &c., the clauses are different, -and are contained in,</p> - -<p>“The Telegraphs Act 1863” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112).</p> - -<p>As the clauses on this subject of “the Water Works Clauses -Act” are those which are incorporated with the Public Health -Act 1875, I shall select the sections from that Act, the first -of importance being as follows:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page158">[158]</span></p> - -<p>“The undertakers, under such superintendence as is -hereinafter specified, may open and break up the soil and -pavement of the several streets and bridges within the limits of -the special Act, and may open and break up any sewers, drains, -or tunnels, within or under such streets or bridges, and lay -down and place within the same limits pipes, conduits, service -pipes, and other works, and engines, and from time to time -repair, alter, or remove the same, and for the purposes aforesaid -remove and use all earth and materials in and under such -streets and bridges, and do all other acts which the undertakers -shall from time to time deem necessary for supplying <i>water</i><a id="FNanchor125"></a><a href="#Footnote125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> -to the inhabitants of the district included within the said -limits; doing as little damage as can be<a id="FNanchor126"></a><a href="#Footnote126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> in the execution -of the powers hereby or by the special Act granted, -and making compensation for any damage which may be -done in the execution of such powers” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17 -s. 28).</p> - -<p>The next clause deals only with the powers of laying pipes, -&c., in private property, and here it will be well to remark that -if the water undertaking is in the hands of the urban authority -they have much more power of entry for these purposes than -companies possess (<i>Vide</i> ss. 16, 18, 32, and 54, 38 & 39 Vic. -c. 55), but this is a matter which does not affect the questions -dealt with in this chapter.</p> - -<p>The next clause is upon the subject of giving the necessary -notices, and is as follows:</p> - -<p>“Before the undertakers<a id="FNanchor127"></a><a href="#Footnote127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> open or break up any street, -bridge, sewer, drain, or tunnel, they shall give to the persons -under whose control or management the same may be, or to -their clerk, surveyor, or other officer, notice in writing of their<span class="pagenum" id="Page159">[159]</span> -intention to open or break up the same, not less than three -clear days before beginning such work, except in cases of -emergency arising from defects in any of the pipes or other -works, and then so soon as is possible after the beginning of -the work or the necessity for the same shall have arisen” -(10 & 11 Vic. c. 17, s. 30).</p> - -<p>The next clause is of great importance, as it gives the -surveyor the necessary powers to dictate the manner in which -the interference with his streets is to be conducted.</p> - -<p>“No such street, bridge, sewer, drain, or tunnel shall, except -in the cases of emergency aforesaid, be opened or broken up -except under the superintendence of the persons having the -control or management thereof, or of their officer, and according -to such plan<a id="FNanchor128"></a><a href="#Footnote128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> as shall be approved of by such persons or -their officer, or in case of any difference respecting such plan, -as shall be determined by two justices; and such justices may, -on the application of the persons having the control or management -of any such sewer or drain, or their officer, require the -undertakers to make such temporary or other works as they -may think necessary for guarding against any interruption of -the drainage during the execution of any works which interfere -with any such sewer or drain. Provided always, that if the -persons having such control or management as aforesaid, and -their officer fail to attend at the time fixed for the opening of -any such street, bridge, sewer, drain, or tunnel, after having -such notice of the intention of the undertakers as aforesaid, or -shall not propose any plan for breaking up or opening the -same, or shall refuse or neglect to superintend the operation, -the undertakers may perform the work specified in such notice<span class="pagenum" id="Page160">[160]</span> -without the superintendence of such persons or their officer” -(10 & 11 Vic. c. 17, s. 31).</p> - -<p>There are several points to which it is necessary to draw -attention whilst considering the above clause. I am afraid -that the “attendance” of the surveyor “at the time fixed for -the opening” or even of one of his assistants could not always -be managed, nor would it be practicable to prepare a “plan” -for every opening that might be made by a gas or water -company for new services, leaks in mains, &c.; but where it is -proposed to carry out any extensive works, such as laying a -considerable length of new main or removing an old one, it is -certainly necessary that there should be some “plan” of the -manner in which such work is proposed to be carried out by -the company.</p> - -<p>On referring to the clause it is evident that the first -“plan” mentioned must be prepared by and on behalf of -the company proposing to carry out the work, and this -plan must show the exact position on each street of the -proposed excavations, and their depth, &c., which “shall -be approved of by such persons (having the control of the -streets) or their officer,” their officer really being the -surveyor.</p> - -<p>Lower down in the clause another “plan” is referred to in the -following words: “or shall not propose any plan for breaking -up or opening the same.” This plan, or more correctly speaking, -a specification of the manner in which the company shall -proceed with the work, must be prepared by the surveyor, and -if it meets with the approval of his corporation it can be -enforced.</p> - -<p>In order to assist town surveyors who may be required to -act under this clause, I now give a verbatim copy of a “plan” -or specification under which I compelled a gas company to -work after they had given me the usual statutory notice of their -intention to break up certain macadamised streets for the -purpose of removing some disused mains.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page161">[161]</span></p> - -<p class="hind04 blankbefore15"><i>Plan of the manner in which the <span class="padl5 padr5"> </span> Gas Light and -Coke Company shall take up and remove the old mains -in <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> street, commencing at or near <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> street.</i></p> - -<p class="blankbefore15">A trench to be excavated of not greater width than <span class="padl4"> </span> inches -and of no greater length than <span class="padl4"> </span> feet at a time.</p> - -<p>Great care must be taken to keep the top facing metal -separate from the lower formation of the roadway, so that they -may not become mixed together; no metal is on any account -to be removed from the street.</p> - -<p>The mains must be taken up with all possible speed and -instantly conveyed away, without being allowed to remain at -the sides of the streets.<a id="FNanchor129"></a><a href="#Footnote129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a></p> - -<p>The trench to be then at once filled in, care being taken to -replace all the materials of which the roadway is formed in their -proper positions. All extra filling in that may be required owing -to the removal of the mains shall be done on the surface with -the best <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> stone, broken so as to pass all ways through -a ring of 2¹⁄₂ inches internal diameter, the top of the trench -being always kept flush with the surface contour of the roadway. -No earth, rubbish, or other material shall be allowed to -be brought on to the ground by the gas company for the -purpose of filling in, nor shall any material of any kind be -allowed to be brought from any other excavations that may be -being made by the gas company in other parts of the town -for the purpose of laying or removing mains.</p> - -<p>The filling in to be done in the proportion of one man -filling to two men ramming with punners of not less weight -than <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> lbs. each. During dry weather a plentiful supply of -water must be allowed to run into the trench whilst the -filling in is in progress, for the purpose of consolidating the -ground.</p> - -<p>The traffic must not in any case be impeded, and planks<span class="pagenum" id="Page162">[162]</span> -must be placed across the excavations, where necessary, for -the convenience of foot passengers.</p> - -<p>The work shall if necessary be suspended on market days, -or any other days that the surveyor may deem proper for the -convenience of the public.</p> - -<p class="center highline2"><span class="padl2 padr2">*</span><span class="padl2 padr2">*</span><span class="padl2 -padr2">*</span><span class="padl2 padr2">*</span><span class="padl2 padr2">*</span><span class="padl2 padr2">*</span><span class="padl2 -padr2">*</span><span class="padl2 padr2">*</span><span class="padl2 padr2">*</span></p> - -<p>The next clause of the Act deals with the manner in which -the companies shall reinstate and make good the road or -pavement, and is as follows:</p> - -<p>“When the undertakers open or break up the road or -pavement of any such street, or bridge, or any sewer, drain, or -tunnel, they shall with all convenient speed complete the work -for which the same shall be broken up, and fill in the ground -and reinstate and make good the road or pavement, or the -sewer, drain, or tunnel so opened or broken up, and carry -away the rubbish occasioned thereby; and shall at all times -whilst any road or pavement shall be so opened or broken up -cause the same to be fenced and guarded, and shall cause a -light sufficient for the warning of passengers to be set up, and -kept there against every night during which such road or -pavement shall be continued open or broken up, and shall -after replacing and making good the road or pavement which -shall have been so broken up, keep the same in good repair -for three months thereafter, and such further time, if any, not -being more than twelve months in the whole, as the soil so -broken up shall continue to subside” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17, -s. 32).</p> - -<p>The conditions embodied in the above clause are easier -written than carried out.</p> - -<p>It is well known that a trench cut longitudinally through a -street takes a very long time to heal. Asphalte shows it the -least if there is a good backing of concrete, but all other -pavements suffer considerably in the process, as it is almost -impossible to maintain their strict contour, and with macadamised -roadways the result is simply disastrous.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page163">[163]</span></p> - -<p>Opening a macadamised roadway does it more harm than -the heaviest and most persistent traffic, and it is surprising for -what a length of time the surface will show the treatment it -has received.</p> - -<p>It is unfortunately the practice generally for the men in -the employ of a gas or water company, after laying a pipe, to -try and ram into the trench all the material they have -removed, without allowing for the cubical contents taken up by -the pipe, or if they do condescend to cart anything away it is -generally the metal, which they think will come in nicely for -the repairs of the trench during their liability for such repairs. -What ought to be done is that no filling of ordinary earth, &c., -should be allowed to come within at least six inches of the -top of the trench, which should then be filled in with good road -metal, and as this wears down it should be brought up to the -proper level with more metal. In the former plan a hump is -seen over the trench, and this hump is a mass of mixed dirt -and road-metal for which there is no cure but its entire -removal to a depth of at least six inches, and the substitution -of good clean road-metal, which would have been the best and -most economical plan in the first place.</p> - -<p>The clauses following those I have quoted are “penalty -clauses” for non-compliance with the provisions of the Act, -and need not be here given, but there is one more clause of -the Water Works Clauses Act 1847, dealing with the powers -of private individuals to break up streets for the purpose of -laying service pipes, which it is necessary to give <i>in extenso</i>.</p> - -<p>On the question of similar powers to private individuals -to break up streets for drains, &c., I shall speak later on in -this chapter:</p> - -<p>“Any such owner or occupier may open or break up so -much of the pavement of any street as shall be between the -pipe of the undertakers and his house, building or premises, -and any sewer or drain therein, for any such purpose as aforesaid, -doing as little damage as may be and making compensation<span class="pagenum" id="Page164">[164]</span> -for any damage done in the execution of any such work; -provided always, that every such owner or occupier desiring -to break up the pavement of any street or any sewer or drain -therein, shall be subject to the same necessity of giving -previous notice, and shall be subject to the same control, -restrictions, and obligations in and during the time of breaking -up the same, and also reinstating the same, and to the same -penalties for any delay in regard thereto, as the undertakers -are subject to by virtue of this or the special Act” (10 & 11 -Vic. c. 17, s. 52).</p> - -<p>It would also seem that the <i>consent</i> of the urban authority -must be obtained (as well as notice given to them) before a -street is broken up (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 149).</p> - -<p>Very often, however, the companies prefer to execute all -this work themselves, as they do not like anyone else to -interfere with their mains or put in services which may be -unfitted for the purpose; consequently they give the necessary -notices, execute the work themselves, and charge the owner or -occupier with the expense.</p> - -<p>The powers under which streets are broken up for telegraphic -or telephonic purposes are, as I have previously stated, contained -in the “Telegraphs Act 1863,” the following being the -clauses which refer to this subject:</p> - -<p>“The company shall not place a telegraph under any street -within the limits of the district over which the authority of the -Metropolitan Board of Works extends, or of any city or municipal -borough or town corporate, or of any town having a population -of thirty thousand inhabitants or upwards (according to -the latest census), except with the consent of the bodies -having the control of the streets within such respective limits” -(26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, s. 9).</p> - -<p>“Where the company has obtained consent to the placing, -or by virtue of the powers of the company under this Act -intends to proceed with the placing of a telegraph under a -street or public road, the depth, course and position at and in<span class="pagenum" id="Page165">[165]</span> -which the same is to be placed shall be settled between the -company and the following bodies:</p> - -<p>“The body having the control of the street or public road.</p> - -<p>“The body having the control of the sewerage or drainage -thereunder.</p> - -<p>“But if such settlement is not come to with any such body, -the following provisions shall take effect:</p> - -<p>“(1.) The company may give to such body a notice -specifying the depth, course and position which the company -desires.</p> - -<p>“(2.) If the body to whom such notice is given does not, -within 28 days after the giving of such notice, give to the -company a counter-notice objecting to the proposal of the -company, and specifying the depth, course and position which -such body desires, they shall be deemed to have agreed to the -proposal of the company.</p> - -<p>“(3.) In the event of ultimate difference between the -company and such body, the depth, course and position shall -be determined in England or Ireland by two Justices, and in -Scotland by two Justices or the Sheriff” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, -s. 10).</p> - -<p>“Subject to any special stipulations made with a company -by the body having the control of a street or public road, and -to any determinations, orders, or directions of the Justices, or -Sheriff, as aforesaid, where the company proceeds to open or -break up a street or public road, the following provisions shall -take effect.</p> - -<p>“(1.) The company shall give to the bodies between whom -respectively and the company the depth, course and position -of a telegraph under such street or public road are hereinbefore -required to be settled or determined, notice of their -intention to open or break up such street or public road, -specifying the time at which they will begin to do so, such -notice to be given in the case of an underground work ten -days at least, and in the case of an above-ground work five<span class="pagenum" id="Page166">[166]</span> -days at least before the commencement of the work, except in -case of emergency, in which case notice of the work proposed -shall be given as soon as may be after the commencement -thereof.</p> - -<p>“(2.) The company shall not (save in case of emergency) -open or break up any street or public road except under the -superintendence of the bodies to whom respectively notice is -by the present section required to be given, unless such bodies -respectively refuse or neglect to give such superintendence at -the time specified in the notice for the commencement of the -work or discontinue the same during the work.</p> - -<p>“(3.) The company shall pay all reasonable expenses to -which such bodies respectively may be put on account of such -superintendence” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, s. 17).</p> - -<p>It will be seen by the above section that the time required -before the work is commenced after service of the notice is -considerably longer than that for gas or water mains or for -electric lighting wires, and subsection 3 authorises a payment -for the services of the surveyor or other officer attending to -superintend the work, which is not the case in the other Acts.</p> - -<p>The next clauses are as follows:</p> - -<p>“Subject to any such special stipulations as aforesaid, -after the company has opened or broken up a street or public -road they shall be under the following further obligations:</p> - -<p>“(1.) They shall with all convenient speed complete the -work on account of which they opened or broke up the same, -and fill in the ground and make good the surface, and generally -restore the street or public road to as good a condition as that -in which it was before being opened or broken up, and carry -away all rubbish occasioned thereby:</p> - -<p>“(2.) They shall in the meantime cause the place where the -street or public road is opened or broken up to be fenced and -watched, and to be properly lighted at night:</p> - -<p>“(3.) They shall pay all reasonable expenses of keeping the -street or public road in good repair for six months after the<span class="pagenum" id="Page167">[167]</span> -same is restored, so far as such expenses may be increased by -such opening or breaking up” . . . (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, -s. 18).</p> - -<p>“Whenever the permanent surface or soil of any street or -public road is broken up or opened by the company it shall -be lawful for the body having the control of the street or road, -in case they think it expedient so to do, to fill in the ground, -and to make good the pavement or surface or soil so broken -up or opened, and to carry away the rubbish occasioned -thereby, instead of permitting such work to be done by the -company; and the cost and expenses of filling in such ground -and making good the pavement or soil so broken up or -opened, shall be repaid on demand to the body having the -control of the street or road by the company, and in default -thereof may be recovered by the body having the control of -the street or road from the company, as a penalty is or may -be recoverable from the company” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, -s. 19).</p> - -<p>“The company shall not stop or impede traffic in any -street or public road, or into or out of any street or public -road, further than is necessary for the proper execution of their -works. They shall not close against traffic more than one -third in width of any street or public road or of any way -opening into any street or public road at one time; and in -case two-thirds of such street or road are not wide enough to -allow two carriages to pass each other, they shall not occupy -with their works at one time more than fifty yards in length -of the one-third thereof except with the special consent of -the body having the control thereof” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, -s. 20).</p> - -<p>It will be seen that these are much more elaborate clauses, -restricting the rights of the telegraph companies than those of -the gas and water companies, &c., and as the Telegraphs Act -containing these strict clauses was passed in the year 1863 -and the Water Works Clauses Act in 1847, it is fair to assume<span class="pagenum" id="Page168">[168]</span> -that the clauses of the Telegraphs Act 1863 were framed to -meet certain objections to these clauses and upon experience -of their working, and are consequently better and more -adapted for the case in point.</p> - -<p>To obviate all the difficulties and complications arising -out of this constant breaking up of streets, with the attendant -inconvenience to the public and damage to the surfaces of the -roadways, it was suggested many years ago that subways -should be constructed under the surface of the principal -streets, in which should be placed all the gas and water mains -then existing.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that there are many advantages in this -plan as well as some disadvantages. It must be recollected -that probably the subways would have been constructed of -sufficient capability to carry all the mains and wires then -existing, with a margin for future extensions of size, but when -we see the enormous growth of many towns, notably that of -the metropolis, and the consequent increase necessary in the -number and diameters of the mains, it is to be feared that -sufficient space would not have been left, and competition -between rival gas and water companies might consequently -have been crippled.</p> - -<p>Still there would be great convenience in many respects -if all water and gas mains, telegraph and telephone wires -could be carried in subways, as they would be easily accessible -for repairs, and hidden leaks would be unknown. With -regard to the one great objection so constantly urged, that in -the case of a leaky gas main or service a most terrible and -damaging explosion might take place, it is true that this is a -very grave and serious objection, but it must also be recollected -that although this danger may be enhanced by the necessarily -solid masonry of which the subway is constructed, still there -would be every precaution taken to prevent leakage of gas, -and in the present system liability to explosion is not -altogether remote. In Percy Street, Tottenham Court Road,<span class="pagenum" id="Page169">[169]</span> -only a year or two ago, there was a terrible explosion in -trenches and mains which had become full of gas and -atmospheric air in the proportions of one volume of gas to -fifteen volumes of air, and if gas mains were laid in subways -greater precautions would no doubt be taken.</p> - -<p>There would be also great danger in conveying the wires -used for electric lighting purposes in these subways, as they -might fuse and thus cause danger, and at all events they would -have some considerably disturbing influence upon the wires -of the telegraph and telephone systems, if laid too near.</p> - -<p>I will now pass on to consider the powers of individuals to -break the surface of public streets for the purpose of putting -new drains to their premises or of repairing existing drains.</p> - -<p>With regard to the former question I have given full -particulars with regard to new drains or connections with -sewers in the chapter upon “house drainage,” but with regard to -the latter question it will be necessary to make a few remarks.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that the public streets vest in the urban -authority, and it is contended that the following clause of the -Public Health Act 1875 prevents any person from breaking -up any street without their permission, although it is sometimes -questioned whether the words “wilfully displaces” do -not mean the doing of an illegal act, such as taking up a stone -in a street to annoy or injure a neighbour or from sheer -mischief, rather than that of a legal act for a proper purpose; -the clause in question is as follows:</p> - -<p>“All streets being or which at any time become highways -repairable by the inhabitants at large within any urban -district, and the pavement stones and other materials thereof -and all building implements and other things provided for the -purposes thereof, shall vest in and be under the control of the -urban authority. . . . Any person who without the consent -of the urban authority wilfully displaces or takes up, or who -injures the pavement, stones, materials, fences or posts of or -the trees in any such street, shall be liable to a penalty not<span class="pagenum" id="Page170">[170]</span> -exceeding five shillings for every square foot of pavement, -stones or other materials so displaced taken up or injured; he -shall also be liable in the case of any injury to trees to pay to -the local authority such amount of compensation as the court -may award” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 149).</p> - -<p>Even, however, granting that application must be made -before any individual can break up a street, the urban -authority would not be likely to withhold their consent if it -was for a legitimate purpose, and having disturbed the street, a -person must light and guard the opening, and the “hole,” as -it is called in the clauses following must be “filled up or -otherwise made secure;” but it is very doubtful if he can be -called upon to keep the surface of the road in repair for any -length of time, as can be done in the case of water and gas -companies, &c.; the following are the clauses in question:</p> - -<p>“When any building materials, rubbish or other things are -laid or any hole made in any of the streets, whether the same -be done by order of the commissioners or not, the person -causing such materials or other things to be so laid or such -hole to be made, shall at his own expense cause a sufficient -light to be fixed in a proper place upon or near the same, and -continue such light every night from sun-setting to sun-rising -while such materials or hole remain. And such person shall -at his own expense cause such materials or other things and -such hole to be sufficiently fenced and enclosed until such -materials or other things are removed or the hole filled up or -otherwise made secure” . . . (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 81).</p> - -<p>“In no case shall any such building materials or other -things or such hole be allowed to remain for any unnecessary -time.” . . . (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 82).</p> - -<p>“If any building, or hole, or any other place near any -street be for want of sufficient repair, protection or inclosure, -dangerous to the passengers along such street, the commissioners -shall cause the same to be repaired, protected, or inclosed, -so as to prevent danger therefrom, and the expenses of<span class="pagenum" id="Page171">[171]</span> -such repair, protection, or inclosure shall be repaid to the commissioners -by the owner of the premises so repaired, protected -or inclosed, and shall be recoverable from him as damages” -(10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 83).</p> - -<p>These three sections are incorporated in the Public Health -Act 1875, by 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 160, and the last clause -undoubtedly gives power to the urban authority to repair a -“hole” which for want of “sufficient repair” is “dangerous to -passengers” but not otherwise, in however unsightly a manner -the trench may have been repaired.</p> - -<p>The result of this uncertainty has been that a great many -towns have inserted in their private improvement Acts, clauses -making it compulsory upon all persons to give them from 3 to -7 days’ notice of their intention to break up the streets, specifying -the manner in which the work shall be done, and also -compelling them to deposit a sum of money in order to secure -that the repairs of the street are properly executed.<a id="FNanchor130"></a><a href="#Footnote130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> A better -method than this is to insert in any private improvement Act -a clause giving powers to the urban authority to execute all -drain-work themselves and charge it upon the owners of the -property, thus ensuring that any interference with the surface -of the street shall be done in a proper manner by men -accustomed to the work, and also that the drain itself shall be -of perfect workmanship.</p> - -<p>Where the town surveyor has no private improvement -Act dealing with this question, it is well to frame some regulations -as to the manner in which the notice of intention to -break up the surface of the street shall be given to him by the -person intending to do the work, and if possible to obtain a -deposit of a few shillings as a guarantee that the surface of -the street shall be kept in something like decent repair.<span class="pagenum" id="Page172">[172]</span> -Although this may not be strictly legal, it is a very universal -practice amongst town surveyors.</p> - -<p>The following forms of notices are given as specimens of -the description of notice now in use, and are copied verbatim -from those which are now enforced in a very large borough in -this country:</p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p class="center highline2"><i>Borough of</i> <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>.</span></p> - -<p class="highline2"><span class="smcap">To the Borough Surveyor</span>,</p> - -<p>I hereby apply for permission to break up the footway or -roadway, and make excavations in <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> for the purpose -of <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>,</span> and I hereby undertake to light, watch and fence -the place during the progress of the works, to temporarily -make good the surface of the footway or roadway, to remove -all rubbish, and to execute and complete the work to the -satisfaction of the borough surveyor. I also deposit the sum -of five shillings for the repair of the surface, and agree to pay -the balance if it should cost more than that sum.</p> - -<div class="signed"> - -<p class="noindent">(Signature)<br /> -(Address)</p> - -</div><!--signed--> - -<p>Witness and receiver <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl8 padr8">.</span></span></p> - -<p>Received by accountant <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> <span class="nowrap">188<span class="padl2">.</span></span></p> - -<p>Surface repaired <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> <span class="nowrap">188<span class="padl2">.</span></span></p> - -<p>At a cost of <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4"> </span>.</span></p> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p class="center highline2"><i>Borough of</i> <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>.</span></p> - -<p class="right padr8">188<span class="padl2">.</span></p> - -<p class="highline2">To Mr.</p> - -<p>This is to certify that you have paid a deposit of five -shillings, and that you are hereby permitted to take up the -footway or roadway and make excavations in <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> for the -purpose of <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> on the undertaking you have given to light, -watch and fence the place during the progress of the works, to -temporarily make good the surface of the footway or roadway, -to remove all rubbish, and to execute and complete the work<span class="pagenum" id="Page173">[173]</span> -to the satisfaction of the borough surveyor; also that you will -pay the balance if the surface repairs should cost more than -the aforesaid sum of five shillings.</p> - -<div class="signed"> -<p class="center padr6">______________________________<br /> -<i>Borough Surveyor.</i></p> - -</div><!--signed--> - -<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>—If the surface repairs should cost less than the -deposited sum, the balance will be returned to you by the -accountant, who will notify you of the fact.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore15 fsize90">Notice must be given to the Building Inspector when the work is ready for -inspection, and no drainage work must be covered up until it has been examined -by the Inspector.</p> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p>It may be well to add to this authority to break up the -streets, the following <span class="nowrap">words—</span></p> - -<p>“This authority may be revoked at any time if found -necessary, and it does not in any way relieve the person to -whom it is granted from any liabilities he may incur in respect -of accidents from anything done in pursuance thereof.”</p> - -<p>In some towns the following custom prevails in regard to -this question.</p> - -<p>The person desirous of opening the street for the execution -of any work has to apply to the surveyor for a licence, and at -the same time deposit a sum sufficient to cover the expense -of the work, such sum being estimated and fixed by the -surveyor. The corporation then supply one labourer whilst -the job is in hand, who, whilst working, takes care that the -soil is properly rammed and the surface made good; a mason -is also supplied to make any drainage or sewer connections. -The deposit is kept for about 3 months, and the cost of the -labourer and mason, and of any subsequent making good the -surface of the street, is then deducted, and the balance returned -to the person who made the deposit.</p> - -<p>This arrangement seems an excellent plan, and is said to -work remarkably well where it is in vogue, but whether it is -strictly legal is open to considerable question.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote125"></a><a href="#FNanchor125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> Or gas or electricity, as the case may be.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote126"></a><a href="#FNanchor126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> -These words apply only to the manner of doing the work, not to alternative -ways of doing it. (<i>Vide</i> ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health and Local Government Act, -1875,’ 3rd edition, p. 45.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote127"></a><a href="#FNanchor127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> -In the “Electric Lighting Act 1882,” the words “proceed to” have been -inserted before the word open, which is an obvious improvement.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote128"></a><a href="#FNanchor128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> -It is incumbent upon the undertakers intending to break up a road to communicate -beforehand their proposed plan or method of executing the work to the -road authority, and this in a sufficient manner to enable the road authority to -judge whether what is proposed ought to be done without modification. The -plan should, therefore, show the position on the road of the proposed excavation, -and its depth. (Edgware Highway Board <i>v.</i> Colne Valley Water Company, 46 -L. J. ch. 889.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote129"></a><a href="#FNanchor129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> -This precaution was necessary, as the smell of the old mains was naturally -very offensive and a nuisance.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote130"></a><a href="#FNanchor130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> -In some towns it is the practice to give the builder a junction pipe or block -for nothing, thus ensuring his calling to give notice, but this is only successful in -the case of new attachments to sewers, in which case the law is much more -strict.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page174">[174]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XVI.<br /> -<span class="chapname">OBSTRUCTIONS IN STREETS.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">For convenience, I propose to treat in this chapter some -subjects which, strictly speaking, do not come under the head -of “obstructions,” but they are all questions which have to be -considered by the town surveyor; temporary obstructions and -other offences with which it is the province of the police to -deal are omitted.</p> - -<p>The following subjects will therefore be discussed:</p> - -<p>(<a href="#Obstruction1">1</a>.) Improving the line of frontages of streets.</p> - -<p>(<a href="#Obstruction2">2</a>.) Removing projections.</p> - -<p>(<a href="#Obstruction3">3</a>.) Doors and gates opening outwards.</p> - -<p>(<a href="#Obstruction4">4</a>.) Vault or cellar coverings.</p> - -<p>(<a href="#Obstruction5">5</a>.) Rain-water shutes and down-pipes.</p> - -<p>(<a href="#Obstruction6">6</a>.) Blinds or awnings over footpaths.</p> - -<p>(<a href="#Obstruction7">7</a>.) Trees over-hanging roadways.</p> - -<p>(<a href="#Obstruction8">8</a>.) Surface water from private premises running over footpaths.</p> - -<p>(<a href="#Obstruction9">9</a>.) Hoardings and scaffolds.</p> - -<p>(<a href="#Obstruction10">10</a>.) Dangerous buildings.</p> - -<h3 class="inline" id="Obstruction1">(1.) <i>Improving the Line of Frontages of Streets.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—By the -Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, certain powers were -granted which enabled the commissioners to agree with owners -of property to set back for the purpose of widening any street,<a id="FNanchor131"></a><a href="#Footnote131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> -but this was often found to be difficult and wearisome of accomplishment, -consequently in the Public Health Act 1875, -the following important clause bearing upon this point was -inserted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page175">[175]</span></p> - -<p>“Where any house or building situated in any street in an -urban district, or the front thereof, has been taken down in order -to be rebuilt or altered, the urban authority may prescribe the -line in which any house or building, or the front thereof, -to be built or rebuilt in the same situation shall be erected, -and such house or building or the front thereof shall be -erected in accordance therewith. The urban authority shall -pay or tender compensation to the owner or other person -immediately interested in such house or building for any -loss or damage he may sustain in consequence of his house -or building being set back or forward, the amount of such -compensation in case of dispute to be settled by arbitration -in manner provided by this Act” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, -s. 155).</p> - -<p>This clause gives an excellent power to the sanitary -authority, especially in older towns, to lay down improved -building lines upon the plan of their town, and thus set back -the line of buildings as opportunity offers.</p> - -<p>In assessing the value of compensation to be paid to -the owner for setting back his property, the following points -should be considered:</p> - -<p>(1.) The value of the area of the land given up to the -public.</p> - -<p>(2.) The loss of available and useful space to the -premises.</p> - -<p>(3.) If any use is made by the owner of the land given up -to the public by constructing cellars underneath, the amount -of compensation should be less.</p> - -<p>(4.) The amount the owner will have to expend to make -good the sides of the neighbouring premises thus exposed by -his setting back must be considered.</p> - -<p>A surveyor should be very careful to recollect if any -building line has been laid down in any street when the plans -of new buildings are deposited with him for approval. If -these plans are approved without any notice being given to<span class="pagenum" id="Page176">[176]</span> -the owner to set back, it is questionable whether he can -afterwards be called upon to do so.<a id="FNanchor132"></a><a href="#Footnote132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></p> - -<h3 class="inline" id="Obstruction2">(2.) <i>Removing Projections of Buildings.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—The Towns Improvement -Clauses Act 1847 made provision for setting -back any house or building, or any part which projected -beyond the regular line of street when taken down, on -payment of compensation,<a id="FNanchor133"></a><a href="#Footnote133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> and this and the following -sections were incorporated in the general Public Health -Act 1875.<a id="FNanchor134"></a><a href="#Footnote134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p> - -<p>“The commissioners may give notice to the occupier<a id="FNanchor135"></a><a href="#Footnote135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> of -any house or building to remove or alter any porch, shed, -projecting window, step, cellar, cellar-door, or window, sign, -sign-post, sign-iron, show-board, window shutter, wall, gate, or -fence, or any other obstruction or projection erected or -placed after the passing of the special Act, against or in front -of any house or building within the limits of the special Act, -and which is an obstruction to the safe and convenient passage -along any street, and such occupier shall within fourteen days -after the service of such notice upon him, remove such -obstruction or alter the same in such manner as shall have -been directed by the commissioners, and in default thereof -shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding forty shillings; and -the commissioners in such case may remove such obstruction -or projection, and the expense of such removal shall be paid -by the occupier so making default, and shall be recoverable as -damages; provided always, that except in the case in which -such obstructions or projections were made or put up by the -occupier, such occupier shall be entitled to deduct the expense -of removing the same from the rent payable by him to the -owner of the house or building.”</p> - -<p>The wall of a garden in front of a house, and shrubs in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page177">[177]</span> -garden, which encroach on the street, come within the words -“any other obstruction” in this section.<a id="FNanchor136"></a><a href="#Footnote136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p> - -<p>It is doubtful, however, if trade signs projecting at such a -height as not to be “an obstruction to the safe and convenient -passage along any street” can be removed under this section, -however unsightly they may be, nor does it appear that flag -poles or flags can be ordered to be removed when at such a -height as to cause no obstruction.</p> - -<p>The following clause, however, of the Public Health Act -1875 affects the question of new projections much more closely.</p> - -<p>“It shall not be lawful in any urban district, without the -written consent of the urban authority, to bring forward any -house or building forming part of any street or any part -thereof, beyond the front wall of the house or building on -either side thereof, nor to build any addition thereto beyond -the front of the house or building on either side of the same. -Any person offending against this enactment shall be liable -to a penalty not exceeding 40<i>s.</i> for every day during which -the offence is continued after written notice in this behalf -from the urban authority” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 156).</p> - -<p>Here some difficulty is frequently experienced as to the -question if the building has really been brought beyond the -common line of neighbouring buildings, especially where the -houses are detached; but it is apparently left to the tribunal -before whom the case is heard to decide this point, and the -surveyor can only give his evidence, as in many other cases, to -the best of his ability and knowledge, and trust to obtaining a -verdict in his favour.</p> - -<p>With regard to obstructions erected before the passing of -the special Act, the commissioners may cause the same to be -removed or altered as they think <span class="nowrap">fit—</span></p> - -<p>“Provided that they give notice of such intended removal -or alteration to the occupier<a id="FNanchor137"></a><a href="#Footnote137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> -of the house or building against<span class="pagenum" id="Page178">[178]</span> -or in front of which such alteration or removal is begun; and -if such obstructions or projections shall have been lawfully -made, they shall make reasonable compensation to every -person who suffers damage by such removal or -alteration.”<a id="FNanchor138"></a><a href="#Footnote138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p> - -<p>Here the words “<i>reasonable</i> compensation” are difficult of -construction and lead frequently to long litigation.</p> - -<h3 class="h3left" id="Obstruction3">(3.) <i>Doors or Gates opening outwards.</i>—</h3> - -<p>Section 71 of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act -1847 enacts that “All doors, gates and bars put up after the -passing of the special Act within the limits thereof, and which -open upon any street, shall be hung or placed so as not to -open outwards, except when in the case of public buildings -the commissioners allow such doors, gates or bars to be otherwise -hung or placed; and if (except as aforesaid) any such -door, gate or bar be hung or placed so as to open outwards on -any street, the occupier of such house, building, yard or land -shall, within eight days after notice from the commissioners to -that effect, cause the same to be altered so as not to open -outwards; and in case he neglect so to do the commissioners -may make such alteration, and the expenses of such alteration -shall be paid to the commissioners by such occupier, and shall -be recoverable from him as damages, and he shall in addition -be liable to a penalty not exceeding 40<i>s.</i>”</p> - -<p>Section 72 of the same Act further enacts, “If any such -door, gate or bar was before the passing of the special Act -hung so as to open outwards upon any street, the commissioners -may alter the same so that no part thereof when open -shall project over any public way.”</p> - -<p>It is naturally necessary that doors or gates of all public -buildings should hang so as to open outwards, so as to -give a free and easy exit in case of panic, many serious -accidents having arisen from a want of this precaution; -but with regard to private premises the case is altogether -different, and if doors and gates were allowed to open outwards,<span class="pagenum" id="Page179">[179]</span> -they would soon become a dangerous and intolerable -nuisance.</p> - -<p>It will be seen that there are two courses to be pursued in -connection with this offence.</p> - -<p>The first is where the door, gate or bar has been placed -before the passing of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act in -1847, in which case the “commissioners may alter the same, -so that no part thereof when open shall project over any public -way.” This duty of course rests with the town surveyor, -and in many cases it is not easy of execution, as structural -difficulties may have to be encountered and overcome.</p> - -<p>In the second case, where the door, gate or bar has been -placed since the passing of the Act in 1847, certain penalties -are incurred by the occupier or owner, and the commissioners -may also alter the door, gate or bar at his expense.</p> - -<p>The following specimen form of notice to be served in -connection with a case of this description may be of use:</p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p class="right padr6 highline2"><span class="smcap">Town Surveyor’s Office</span>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>,</p> - -<p>I beg leave to give you notice that <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> of the premises -in your occupation opens outwards, and when open, projects -into the street called or known as <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>.</span></p> - -<p>I have therefore to require that you will be good enough -to have such <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> altered so that it shall not open outwards -into the said street, within eight days next after your receipt -of this notice.</p> - -<p>I beg leave also to give you notice that if you neglect to -make the alteration required within the period specified by -this notice, you render yourself liable to a penalty of 40<i>s.</i>, and -I shall proceed to make the necessary alterations, and recover -the costs and penalties from you as the law directs.</p> - -<div class="signed"> - -<p class="left">I am, Sir, your obedient Servant,</p> - - -<p class="center">______________________________<br /> -<i>Town Surveyor.</i></p> - -</div><!--signed--> - -<p>To______________________________</p> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page180">[180]</span></p> - -<h3 class="h3left" id="Obstruction4">(4.) <i>Vault or Cellar Coverings.</i>—</h3> - -<p>Section 73 of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847 -enacts, “When any opening is made in any pavement or -footpath within the limits of the special Act, as an entrance -into any vault or cellar, a door or covering shall be made by -the occupier<a id="FNanchor139"></a><a href="#Footnote139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> of such vault or cellar, of iron, or such other -materials, and in such manner as the commissioners direct, -and such door or covering shall from time to time be kept in -good repair by the occupier of such vault or cellar: and if -such occupier do not within a reasonable time make such -door or covering, or if he make any such door or covering -contrary to the directions of the commissioners, or if he do -not keep the same when properly made in good repair, he -shall for every such offence be liable to a penalty not -exceeding five pounds.”</p> - -<p>Besides the penalty, the person negligently leaving the -covering in a dangerous condition would be liable to an -action for damages at the suit of anyone who had sustained -an injury in consequence of the covering being so kept.<a id="FNanchor140"></a><a href="#Footnote140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p> - -<p>There is another clause incorporated in the Public Health -Act 1875 from the Towns Police Clauses Act 1847 upon this -subject, which is as follows:</p> - -<p>“Every person who leaves open any vault or cellar, or the -entrance from any street to any cellar or room underground, -without a sufficient fence or hand rail, or leaves defective the -door, window or other covering of any vault or cellar . . . . -shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding 40<i>s.</i> for each offence, -or in the discretion of the justice before whom he is convicted -may be committed to prison, there to remain for a period not -exceeding 14 days” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 89, s. 28).</p> - -<p>But the former section I have quoted is that upon which -the town surveyor generally acts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page181">[181]</span></p> - -<p>In connection with this duty the following is given as a -specimen notice:</p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>,</p> - -<p>I beg to call your attention to the fact that the door or -covering to the vault or cellar in your occupation, No. <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> -<span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> Street, is not in good repair (and is slippery and dangerous to -foot-passengers),<a id="FNanchor141"></a><a href="#Footnote141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> you are in consequence liable to a penalty -of 5<i>l.</i></p> - -<p>I must request you will be good enough to have such -door or covering properly repaired and made good in accordance -with the construction required by law, within <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> -days from the date hereof, and in the event of your failing to -do so, proceedings will be taken to enforce the penalty to -which you are liable without further notice.</p> - -<div class="signed"> - -<p class="left">I am, your obedient Servant,</p> - -<p class="center">______________________________<br /> -<i>Town Surveyor</i>.</p> - -</div><!--signed--> - -<p>To _______________</p> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p>In accordance with the provisions contained in the section -of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847 which I have -quoted, that the “door or covering shall be made by the -occupier of such vault or cellar of iron or such other materials, -and in such manner as the commissioners direct,” most -towns in this country have prescribed the size and materials -of which they shall be made, the size being often limited to -6 feet in length, by 20 inches projection, from the line of plynth -of the building, for cellar coverings or pavement lights as -they are sometimes called, and 12 inches in diameter for coal -plates.</p> - -<p>Hayward’s patent hexagonal and semiprismatic pavement -lights, however, have obviated the danger of slipping upon this -description of covering, and consequently little or no inconvenience<span class="pagenum" id="Page182">[182]</span> -is experienced, even if the greater portion of the -foot pavement is covered by them.<a id="FNanchor142"></a><a href="#Footnote142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p> - -<p>Coalhole plates should be so firmly fixed as to prevent the -possibility of their shifting, even when the rebate of the flag -stone into which they are dropped is worn, and also to prevent -mischievous persons from raising them.</p> - -<p>Here let me state that no person can without the written -consent of the urban authority cause “any vault, arch or -cellar to be newly built or constructed under the carriageway -of any street” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 26); but from this section -it does not appear illegal to construct a vault, arch or cellar -under the footpath, which would generally be the extent to -which such constructions would be extended. However, the -more general powers contained in section 149 of the same -Act, by which all “streets and the pavement stones and other -materials thereof” vest in and are under the control of the -urban authority, give the necessary powers to prevent the -construction of cellars under any portion of the foot-pavement -without the consent of the urban authority.</p> - -<p>The usual practice adopted is for any person who requires -to construct a cellar under the foot-pavement or carriageway -of any street, to apply to the urban authority for the necessary -permission to do so. In granting the permission, the urban -authority call upon the owner of the premises to which the -proposed vault or cellar is attached, to enter into an agreement -acknowledging that the cellar or vault is only an easement, -and agreeing to remove the encroachment whenever -called upon by the urban authority to do so.</p> - -<p>These agreements and any other similar easements should -be kept together in a book, which may be called the “Easement -Book,” and indexed in such a manner that a reference<span class="pagenum" id="Page183">[183]</span> -can be easily made at any time to any easement that has -been granted.</p> - -<h3 class="h3left" id="Obstruction5">(5.) <i>Rain-water from Shutes or Down Pipes.</i>—</h3> - -<p>Water may not be allowed to drip on to the pavements of -the streets from the adjoining houses, and the following clause -from the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847 has been -incorporated with the Public Health Act 1875:</p> - -<p>“The occupier of every house or building in, adjoining, or -near to any street shall, within seven days next after service -of an order of the commissioners for that purpose, fit up and -keep in good condition a shoot or trough of the whole length -of such house or building, and shall connect the same either -with a similar shoot on the adjoining house, or with the pipe -or trunk to be fixed to the front or side of such building from -the roof to the ground, to carry the water from the roof -thereof in such a manner that the water from such house or -any portico or projection therefrom shall not fall upon the -persons passing along the street or flow over the footpath; -and in default of compliance with any such order within the -period aforesaid, such occupier shall be liable to a penalty not -exceeding 40<i>s.</i> for every day that he shall so make default” -(10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 74).</p> - -<p>In many private Town Improvement Acts, the cost of the -repair necessary under an order to do so from the urban -authority may be deducted by the occupier from the rent -payable to the owner of the premises, thus ensuring the work -being done more quickly.</p> - -<p>The following is a specimen notice to be served upon the -occupier to repair or put new shuting to his house:</p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p>I beg to give you notice that the eaves, shuting, or projecting -cornice<a id="FNanchor143"></a><a href="#Footnote143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> -to the house or building No. <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> in your -occupation, is out of repair. A penalty of 40<i>s.</i> will be incurred<span class="pagenum" id="Page184">[184]</span> -if this shuting be not repaired within seven days from the date -of this notice (and under the Special Improvement Act the -cost of such repair may be deducted from the rent payable to -the <span class="nowrap">owner).<a id="FNanchor144"></a><a href="#Footnote144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a></span></p> - -<div class="signed"> - -<p class="left">I am, your obedient Servant,</p> - -<p class="center">______________________________<br /> -<i>Town Surveyor</i>.</p> - -</div><!--signed--> - -<p>To______________________________</p> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p>It is a common practice in most towns for the urban -authority to provide and fix trunks or troughs across their -footpaths into which the down pipes from the rain-water -shutes can empty their contents.</p> - -<h3 class="h3left" id="Obstruction6">(6.) <i>Blinds or Awnings over Footpaths.</i>—</h3> - -<p>These may be dealt with as obstructions under sec. 69 of -the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, which I have -already quoted,<a id="FNanchor145"></a><a href="#Footnote145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> but they are more particularly alluded to -in the Police Clauses Act 1847 in the following section:</p> - -<p>“Every person who . . . places any blind, shade, covering, -awning, or other projection over or along any such footway, -unless such blind, shade, covering, awning or other projection -is 8 feet in height at least in every part thereof from the -ground, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding 40<i>s.</i> for each -offence, &c.” . . . (10 & 11 Vic. c. 89, s. 28).</p> - -<p>Thus legalising the fixing of shop-blinds, &c., provided -they are at least 8 feet in height and consequently no obstruction -to the traffic.</p> - -<p>In order to make the blinds or awnings sufficiently secure -where they are of large dimensions, it is very usual for the -owner or occupier of the premises to which the blind or -awning is to be attached, to seek and obtain the consent of the -local authority to fix iron sockets in the kerb of the footpath -into which iron or wood standards are inserted for the purpose -of supporting the outer part of the blind or awning, and there<span class="pagenum" id="Page185">[185]</span> -can be no objection to this practice provided that the work -is efficiently performed and to the satisfaction of the town -surveyor.</p> - -<h3 class="h3left" id="Obstruction7">(7.) <i>Trees overhanging Roadways.</i>—</h3> - -<p>It used formerly to be considered by road surveyors and -others<a id="FNanchor146"></a><a href="#Footnote146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> that great injury was caused to roadways by overhanging -branches of trees or bushes, which were supposed to -exclude the light and air from the roadway and thus damage -it, hence powers were given to local authorities, as surveyors of -highways, to compel occupiers of premises adjoining the -roadways to cut back and prune their trees or hedges in order -to prevent this damage. The following being the form of -notice usually adopted for this purpose:</p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p>To___________________________</p> - -<p>You are hereby required to cut, prune, and trim your -hedges adjoining the highway leading from <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> to <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> -and also to cut down, prune, or lop the branches of trees, -bushes and shrubs growing in or near such hedges and other -fences adjoining thereto, in such manner that the said highway<span class="pagenum" id="Page186">[186]</span> -shall not be prejudiced by the shade thereof, and that the -sun and wind may not be excluded therefrom. And you will -further take notice, that if you shall neglect so to do within -five days of the delivery hereof, I shall proceed to have the -said hedges, trees, and bushes cut and pruned, according to -the power and provisions of the various Acts of Parliament -relating thereto. And further, that I shall also proceed to -recover from you the penalties in this respect imposed by the -said Acts of Parliament.</p> - -<p>Dated this <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> day of</p> - -<div class="signed"> - -<p class="center">____________________________<br /> -<i>Surveyor</i>.</p> - -</div><!--signed--> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p>It is however now very seldom that overhanging branches -of trees or hedges cause any damage to the roadways within -an urban district, and unless they are an actual obstruction to -the traffic, the growth of trees near urban roads and streets -should be encouraged; indeed it is now a common practice to -plant trees close alongside the roadway, the branches of which -must of necessity hang over it, and cause no damage if the -roadway is properly formed and attended to.</p> - -<h3 class="h3left" id="Obstruction8">(8.) <i>Surface Water from Private Premises running over -Footpaths.</i>—</h3> - -<p>It frequently happens that the rain-water which falls upon -a front garden or courtyard finds its way, for want of a sufficient -drain, out of the gate and across or along the public -footpath, thus causing annoyance to pedestrians even if it does -no injury to the path. There does not seem to be any clause -in the Public Health Act 1875 to meet this objection, for the -section which I have given with reference to rain-water shutes -and down pipes (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 74), does not apply to -such cases, as it only refers to water from the “roof or any -portico or projection” and not to water falling upon the surface -of a garden or courtyard, nor is there anything in the -Highways Acts which can be brought to bear upon the -subject.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page187">[187]</span></p> - -<p>If, however, any injury is caused to the footpath, no doubt -the cause of offence may be stopped or the perpetrator -prosecuted or indicted in default.</p> - -<h3 class="h3left" id="Obstruction9">(9.) <i>Hoardings and Scaffolds.</i>—</h3> - -<p>When buildings are in course of erection, or repairs are -being carried out to them, it is generally necessary that the -person engaged in the work should construct either a hoarding -or inclosure, or at all events a scaffold, so as to execute the -work properly. Upon this point the following clause of the -Towns Improvement Clauses Act has been incorporated with -the Public Health Act 1875:</p> - -<p>“Every person intending to build or take down any -building within the limits of the special Act, or to cause the -same to be so done, or to alter or repair the outward part of -any such building, or to cause the same to be so done, where -any street or footway will be obstructed or rendered inconvenient -by means of such work, shall, before beginning the -same, cause sufficient hoards or fences to be put up in order to -separate the building where such works are being carried on -from the street, with a convenient platform and handrail if -there be room enough, to serve as a footway for passengers, -outside of such hoard or fence, and shall continue such hoard -or fence with such platform and handrail as aforesaid standing -and in good condition, to the satisfaction of the commissioners, -during such times as the public safety or convenience requires, -and shall, in all cases in which it is necessary in order to -prevent accidents, cause the same to be sufficiently lighted -during the night.<a id="FNanchor147"></a><a href="#Footnote147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> And every such person who fails to put -up such fence or hoard or platform with such handrail as -aforesaid, or to continue the same respectively standing and in -good condition as aforesaid, or who does not, while the said<span class="pagenum" id="Page188">[188]</span> -hoard or fence is standing, keep the same sufficiently lighted -in the night, or who does not remove the same when directed -by the commissioners within a reasonable time afterwards, -shall for every such offence be liable to a penalty not exceeding -5<i>l.</i>, and a further penalty not exceeding 40<i>s.</i> for every day -while such default is continued” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 80).</p> - -<p>Hoardings and scaffoldings are now so scientifically -erected as to be little or no inconvenience to foot-passengers. -Care must, however, be taken to see that in the erection of a -hoarding the doors or gates in it shall not open outwards, and -the police should be instructed to prevent carts being backed -in and left standing across the footpath.</p> - -<p>The surveyor must exercise great discretion in the length -of time he allows a hoarding to remain; without undue hardship -on the builder, he must study at the same time the -more important question of the public convenience.</p> - -<h3 class="h3left" id="Obstruction10">(10.) <i>Dangerous Buildings.</i>—</h3> - -<p>This is the last, although by no means the least, of the -series of “obstructions” I have enumerated. Here, again, -very grave responsibility rests with the surveyor to determine -what is a dangerous building, and in what manner it shall be -rendered safe and secure, for his opinion is apparently legally -conclusive on this matter.</p> - -<p>The following is the clause of the Towns Improvement -Clauses Act which deals with ruinous or dangerous -buildings:</p> - -<p>“If any building or wall, or anything affixed thereon, -within the limits of the special Act, be deemed by the -surveyor of the commissioners to be in a ruinous state and -dangerous to passengers or to the occupiers of the neighbouring -buildings, such surveyor shall immediately cause a -proper hoard or fence to be put up for the protection of passengers,<a id="FNanchor148"></a><a -href="#Footnote148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> -and shall cause notice in writing to be given to the -owner of such building or wall, if he be known and resident<span class="pagenum" id="Page189">[189]</span> -within the said limits, and shall also cause such notice to be -put on the door or other conspicuous part of the said premises, -or otherwise to be given to the occupier thereof, if any, -requiring such owner or occupier forthwith to take down, -secure or repair such building, wall or other thing, as the case -shall require. And if such owner or occupier do not begin to -repair, take down or secure such building, wall or other thing, -within the space of three days after any such notice has been -so given or put up as aforesaid, and complete such repairs or -taking down or securing as speedily as the nature of the case -will admit, the said surveyor may make complaint thereof -before two justices to order the owner, or in his default the -occupier (if any) of such building, wall, or other thing, to take -down, rebuild, repair or otherwise secure, to the satisfaction of -such surveyor, the same, or such part thereof as appears to -them to be in a dangerous state, within a time to be fixed by -such justices. And in case the same be not taken down, -repaired, rebuilt or otherwise secured within the time so -limited, or if no owner or occupier can be found on whom to -serve such order, the commissioners shall with all convenient -speed cause all or so much of such building, wall, or other -thing as shall be in a ruinous condition and dangerous as -aforesaid, to be taken down, repaired, rebuilt or otherwise -secured in such manner as shall be requisite, and all the -expenses of putting up every such fence, and of taking down, -repairing, rebuilding or securing such building, wall or other -thing shall be paid by the owner thereof” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, -s. 75).</p> - -<p>Great care must be observed in seeing that the notices are -properly prepared and served in accordance with sections -266 and 267 of the Public Health Act 1875, and the town -clerk, as the legal adviser of the sanitary authority, should be -consulted (in this as in all cases requiring notices) by the -surveyor.</p> - -<p>It sometimes happens that a tall chimney shaft, wall, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page190">[190]</span> -other erection may apparently be perfectly safe, whereas in a -high gale of wind it may be blown down.</p> - -<p>Many tall chimney shafts rock in an alarming manner in a -high wind,<a id="FNanchor149"></a><a href="#Footnote149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> but he would be a bold surveyor who would -order some of these expensive structures to be pulled down in -the face of the opposition he would receive.<a id="FNanchor150"></a><a href="#Footnote150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></p> - -<p>A curious case of some difficulty in connection with dangerous -buildings has come under my notice, where a house was -built with the approval of the urban authority, and after completion -and occupation the attention of the surveyor was -called to the fact that a large piece of rock at the back of the -house, from which the site had been excavated for the purpose -of its erection, was in a dangerous condition and likely to fall -at any moment and cause great damage to property, or even -loss of life. The clerk to the urban authority, when consulted, -was of opinion that the surveyor could do nothing in the -matter, as the case was not met in any way by the Act.</p> - -<p>The following is given as a specimen notice to serve with -reference to a dangerous structure:</p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p class="center highline2"><span class="smcap">Notice.</span></p> - -<p><i>To</i> (<a href="#NoticeRef1" class="fnanchor lg">A</a>) <span class="padl8 padr8"> </span> <i>the Owner of -the ruinous and dangerous</i> (<a href="#NoticeRef2" class="fnanchor lg">B</a>) -<span class="padl8 padr8"> </span> <i>under-mentioned -and the occupier thereof.</i></p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">Whereas a certain (<a href="#NoticeRef2" class="fnanchor lg">B</a>) <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span> -situated at <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span> within the -borough of <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>,</span> -in the county of <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>,</span> is deemed by me, -the undersigned, the surveyor of the mayor, aldermen and -burgesses of the said borough of <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>,</span> acting by the council -as the urban sanitary authority for the same, to be in a ruinous<span class="pagenum" id="Page191">[191]</span> -state and dangerous to passengers or to the occupiers of -neighbouring buildings:</p> - -<p>Therefore take notice, that you are hereby required, in -pursuance of the provisions in that behalf of the Public Health -Act 1875, and the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, to -take down, repair or secure the said (<a href="#NoticeRef2" class="fnanchor lg">B</a>).</p> - -<p>And that if you do not or if neither of you does begin to -take down, repair, or secure the said (<a href="#NoticeRef2" class="fnanchor lg">B</a>) -<span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> within the space -of three days after this notice has been served upon you or -put upon the said premises, and complete such taking down, -repairing or securing as speedily as the nature of the case -will admit, I shall cause complaint thereof to be made before -two justices in accordance with the provisions of the statutes -aforesaid.</p> - -<p>Dated this <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> day of <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> -<span class="nowrap">18 .</span></p> - -<div class="signed"> - -<p class="center">____________________<br /> -<i>Surveyor of the said Urban Sanitary Authority.</i></p> - -</div><!--signed--> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fsize90" id="NoticeRef1">A. The name and description of the owner or occupier, or the names, &c., of -both should be here inserted.</p> - -<p class="fsize90" id="NoticeRef2">B. Building, wall, or anything affixed thereon.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p>Before closing this chapter upon “Obstructions in Streets” -I give the following clause from the “Towns Improvement -Clauses Act,” which comes after two other sections of the -same Act principally dealing with building materials, rubbish, -or holes in streets, and although in this clause the word -“building” is used, the section cannot be taken as referring to -dangerous buildings, although it may undoubtedly be used -where it is required on account of waste land, &c., being left -in an unprotected and dangerous <span class="nowrap">state:—</span></p> - -<p>“If any building or hole or any other place near any street -be, for want of sufficient repair, protection or inclosure, dangerous -to the passengers along such street, the commissioners -shall cause the same to be repaired, protected or inclosed so -as to prevent danger therefrom; and the expense of such -repair, protection or inclosure shall be repaid to the commissioners<span class="pagenum" id="Page192">[192]</span> -by the owner of the premises so repaired, protected -or inclosed, and shall be recoverable from him as -damages” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 83).</p> - -<p>I have purposely omitted any reference to temporary obstructions -in the streets, which are naturally subjects for the -interference of the police, but I think I have enumerated -all those which require the attention of the town -surveyor.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote131"></a><a href="#FNanchor131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> 10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 67.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote132"></a><a href="#FNanchor132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> Fitzgerald’s ‘Public Health and Local Government Act 1875,’ 3rd -edition, p. 166.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote133"></a><a href="#FNanchor133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> 10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 68.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote134"></a><a href="#FNanchor134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> ss. 69 and 70.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote135"></a><a href="#FNanchor135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> -Or <i>Owners</i>, see s. 160, 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote136"></a><a href="#FNanchor136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> Fitzgerald’s ‘Public Health and Local Government Act 1875,’ 3rd -edition, p. 174.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote137"></a><a href="#FNanchor137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> -Or owner, see 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 160.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote138"></a><a href="#FNanchor138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, s. 70.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote139"></a><a href="#FNanchor139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Or owner.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote140"></a><a href="#FNanchor140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health and Local Government Act 1875,’ 3rd -edition, p. 175.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote141"></a><a href="#FNanchor141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> -Care must be taken that the mode of construction “directed by the commissioners” -authorises this part of the notice.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote142"></a><a href="#FNanchor142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> -In the City of London these patent lights have been fixed in the pavement -round the whole of the frontage of Mansion House Buildings, at the corner of -Queen Victoria Street, and also over the whole of the pavements in Draper’s -Gardens, besides many other equally crowded thoroughfares, without the least -inconvenience being experienced.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote143"></a><a href="#FNanchor143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> -In the Act the words used are “shoot” and “trough.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote144"></a><a href="#FNanchor144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> -These words must be omitted if there is no special Improvement Act.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote145"></a><a href="#FNanchor145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> <a href="#Page176">p. 176</a>.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote146"></a><a href="#FNanchor146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> -Sir Fred. Parnell in his celebrated work upon roads has the following paragraph -upon this subject:— -</p> -<p> -The great advantage of having a road perfectly exposed to the action of the -sun and wind will be more accurately conceived by referring to writers of science -on evaporation. Dr. Hailey states that one-tenth of an inch of the surface of -the sea is raised per diem in vapour. He also says that the winds lick up the -water somewhat faster than it exhales by the heat of the sun. Other writers say -the dissipation of moisture is much accelerated by the agency of sweeping winds, -the effects being sometimes augmented five to ten times. -</p> -<p> -Trees are particularly injurious by not allowing the sun and wind to have free -action on the surface of roads producing evaporation. Besides the benefit which -a road receives from its drying rapidly by an open exposure to the atmosphere, -there is another of great importance, namely, that of affording to horses the -advantage of free respiration; for it is well known that the powers of a horse to -perform work with ease, particularly when moving rapidly, depends upon the -quantity of cool and fresh air that he can pass through his lungs. If the cause -of horses tiring or becoming ill under their work be carefully examined into, it -will often be found that it is not their muscles or limbs that fail them, but their -wind; and therefore, it is particularly important to have a road so circumstanced -that a horse may on all parts of it have the benefit of a free current of air.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote147"></a><a href="#FNanchor147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> -No person can put up hoards or scaffolds in the streets without first obtaining -the consent of the urban authority, <i>vide</i> sections 144 and 149 of the Public Health -Act 1875. Many towns also have private improvement Acts with very binding -clauses on this subject, empowering the surveyor to demand a fee for a licence to -erect a hoarding, and empowering him to remove these after notice, &c.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote148"></a><a href="#FNanchor148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> -This is scarcely ever feasible, or of the slightest use if done.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote149"></a><a href="#FNanchor149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> -Mr. Cooper states that “a tall chimney will rock 1 inch in a moderate -wind, and even to an extent of ¹⁄₈th of an inch at a distance of only 16 feet up -from its base, and yet be safe.” (<i>Vide</i> ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution -of Civil Engineers,’ vol. xxvii. p. 100.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote150"></a><a href="#FNanchor150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> -Whilst this work was in the press the terrible disaster arising from the -falling of an immense chimney shaft at Bradford took place, the result of which -was the death of upwards of forty persons and great destruction of property.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page193">[193]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XVII.<br /> -<span class="chapname">IMPROVEMENT OF PRIVATE STREETS.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">Prior to the passing of the Public Health Act 1875 the -improvement of private roads and streets was dealt with -under section 69 of the Public Health Act 1848, but the -clause under which the town surveyor now works is that -which is so well known as the 150th section of the Public -Health Act 1875, and is as follows:</p> - -<p>“Where any street within any urban district (not being a -highway repairable by the inhabitants at large) or the -carriageway, footway, or any other part of such street is not -sewered, levelled, paved, metalled, flagged, channelled and -made good, or is not lighted to the satisfaction of the urban -authority, such authority may, by notice addressed to the -respective owners or occupiers of the premises fronting, -adjoining or abutting on such parts thereof as may require -to be sewered, levelled, paved, metalled, flagged or -channelled, or to be lighted, require them to sewer, level, -pave, metal, flag, channel or make good, or to provide proper -means for lighting the same within a time to be specified in -such notice.</p> - -<p>“Before giving such notice the urban authority shall cause -plans and sections of any structural works intended to be -executed under this section, and an estimate of the probable -cost thereof, to be made under the direction of their surveyor, -such plans and sections to be on a scale of not less than one -inch for eighty-eight feet for a horizontal plan, and on a scale of -not less than one inch for ten feet for a vertical section, -and, in the case of a sewer, showing the depth of such sewer -below the surface of the ground: such plans, sections and<span class="pagenum" id="Page194">[194]</span> -estimate shall be deposited in the office of the urban authority, -and shall be open at all reasonable hours for the inspection of -all persons interested therein during the time specified in such -notice; and a reference to such plans and sections in such -notice shall be sufficient without requiring any copy of such -plans and sections to be annexed to such notice.</p> - -<p>If such notice is not complied with, the urban authority may, -if they think fit, execute the works mentioned or referred -to therein; and may recover in a summary manner the -expenses incurred by them in so doing from the owners in -default, according to the frontage of their respective premises, -and in such proportion as is settled by the surveyor of the -urban authority, or (in case of dispute) by arbitration in -manner provided by this Act; or the urban authority may by -order declare the expenses so incurred to be private improvement -expenses.</p> - -<p>“The same proceedings may be taken and the same -powers may be exercised in respect of any street or road of -which a part is or may be a public footpath or repairable by -the inhabitants at large, as fully as if the whole of such street -or road was a highway not repairable by the inhabitants at -large” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 150).</p> - -<p>One has only to look at the number of footnotes that follow -this clause both in “Glenn” and “Fitzgerald” to see that it -requires some considerable interpretation. I propose in this -chapter to call attention to some of its engineering discrepancies -and to point out the duties of the town surveyor in -connection with its enforcement.</p> - -<p>First then, I conclude that it is the duty of the surveyor -to call the attention of the urban authority to the fact that -any street within his district (not being a highway repairable -by the inhabitants at large) is not “sewered, levelled, paved, -&c.” but there is no express order for him to do so, but with -whoever this duty rests, it is no doubt the surveyor’s duty to -be certain that the street in question has never been dedicated<span class="pagenum" id="Page195">[195]</span> -to the public or repaired at the cost of the rates, but is really -a private street within the meaning of the Act.</p> - -<p>Before proceeding to give the manner of putting the 150th -section into force, it is necessary to draw attention to some of -its wording.</p> - -<p>The word “sewered” no doubt is also meant to include all -drains both for house sewage and surface water falling on the -street, &c., and may be used in the same comprehensive -manner that the word “sewerage” is generally employed.</p> - -<p>“Levelled” is also rather a vague term, but it has been held -to refer only to the level or cross section of the street itself, -there being no power to charge the adjacent owners with the -expense of altering the level of the street so as to make it -conform to a street with which it connects. The word -“formed” would in this case have therefore been a more -appropriate phrase.</p> - -<p>“Paved, metalled, flagged, channelled and made good” are -very precise directions, but why both the words “paved” and -“metalled” are used is not clear. Is the paving to be placed -on the top of the metalling or vice versâ? It seems ludicrous -to have used both words. The word “kerbed” also ought no -doubt to have been inserted, as no street either urban or -suburban can be formed without this necessary adjunct.</p> - -<p>These very precise directions, if carried out in their entirety, -would cause great injustice to the adjacent owners of the -property who had to bear the expense, for although “paving” -and “flagging” may be necessary for streets situated in a -town itself, they would be perfectly unnecessary for a suburban -road, and it is to this latter class of work that the -section is more frequently applied. There are generally very -few badly maintained private streets in the heart and busiest -parts of a town, much difference of opinion consequently -exists in different localities as to what the requirements -shall be.</p> - -<p>Some urban authorities insist that the roadways shall be<span class="pagenum" id="Page196">[196]</span> -paved with granite setts or wood blocks, the footpaths being -flagged or paved with asphalte, while others are content with -ordinary macadamised roadways and gravelled paths.</p> - -<p>There can be no doubt that the town surveyor must use -considerable discretion in deciding what class of work should -be demanded, and he must be greatly guided by the situation -and requirements of the street in question and the description -and value of the adjoining property.</p> - -<p>With reference to the words “or is not lighted,” my -opinion is that nearly all private streets are at once lighted by -the urban authority out of the rates, so soon as buildings are -erected at its sides or it is found necessary for the public -convenience to do so. A reference to section 161 of the Public -Health Act 1875 will show that there is no exclusion of private -streets for that purpose, and for many obvious reasons it is -better that the urban authority should themselves undertake -this duty rather than throw it upon private individuals.</p> - -<p>Having thus far drawn attention to some of the wording -of the clause, it is now necessary to discuss the duties of the -town surveyor in connection with it.</p> - -<p>It will be seen that notice has to be addressed to the -owners or occupiers of “premises fronting, adjoining or -abutting <i>on such parts thereof</i> as may require to be sewered, -levelled, paved, &c.” It is often found that although the -greater portion of a certain private street may be in a -shocking state of repair, perhaps just a small length here and -there opposite portions of different frontages may not be so -bad: for instance, the path may be well gravelled and kerbed -and a narrow channel gutter inserted against a wretchedly -constructed roadway. It is often open to question if the owners -of these properties against which these partial improvements -have been effected can expect to escape their liability. If -they can, it complicates still more the working of an already -greatly complicated clause.</p> - -<p>“Before giving such notice the urban authority shall<span class="pagenum" id="Page197">[197]</span> -cause plans and sections . . . to be made under the direction -of their surveyor.”</p> - -<p>This order involves some considerable amount of work. -Very accurate surveys must be made and plotted to a large -scale, levels must be taken, and where sewers have to be -included in the notice it is often necessary to extend the -survey considerably, in order to make provision for future -extensions of streets or buildings or for the existing sewerage -system. The clause is very particular in stating that the -“depth of such sewer below the surface of the ground” must -be shown, but no mention is made about the size. The latter -point being of quite as great importance it would be thought -as the depth, the question also at once arises, whether the new -sewer must be specified of such a size as only to meet the -requirements of the street alone, or may it be made of such an -area as will carry the sewage of a considerable district? It -would be most unjust to expect the owners of property to pay -for a sewer larger than was required for the street in respect -of which they were responsible, and if legal, the better plan -would be for them to be charged with the cost of such a -sewer as would be sufficient for their purpose and let any -extra size that the surveyor found was requisite be paid for -out of the public rates.</p> - -<p>It should be noted that in addition to the plans and -sections “an estimate of the probable cost” must also be -prepared by the surveyor, and this must be very carefully -prepared, for it has been held to be a “condition precedent to -the recovery of the expenses, that such estimate should have -been properly made” (<i>Vide</i> ‘Fitzgerald’ p. 160, 3rd edition).</p> - -<p>No mention is however made in the Act of a specification, -which is of course absolutely essential.</p> - -<p>It may here be of use if I give a specimen form of notice -to be served in connection with carrying out the duties -involved by this clause; of course each town surveyor must -alter the work specified to meet the requirements of the case;</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page198">[198]</span></p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p class="hind08 blankbefore1"><i>To the Owner or Owners of certain premises fronting, adjoining, -or abutting upon a certain street, called <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span> in the -parish of <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> in the borough of <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span> in the county -of <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span></i></p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">Whereas the said street is not levelled, paved, metalled, -channelled and made good to the satisfaction of the mayor, -aldermen and burgesses of <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>,</span> the urban sanitary -authority of the above-named borough:</p> - -<p>And whereas your said premises front, adjoin, or abut on -certain parts of the said street which requires to be levelled, -paved, metalled, channelled and made good as aforesaid:</p> - -<p>Now therefore, the mayor, aldermen and burgesses -of <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>,</span> the urban sanitary authority of the said borough as -aforesaid, hereby give you notice (in pursuance of the statute -in that case made and provided) to level, pave, metal, channel -and make good the portion of the said street in which your -said premises front, adjoin, or abut as aforesaid, within the -space of one month from the date hereof, in manner following, -that is to say:</p> - -<p class="center highline2">(<i>If a sewer is to be formed, fill in this first.</i>)</p> - -<p>The carriage-way and water tables thereof to be formed in -the mode, according to the sections, and on the levels and at -the rates of inclination shown upon the plan, sections, and in -accordance with the specification of the work prepared by the -surveyor to the said urban sanitary authority, and now open -for public inspection at his office, <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span> during the usual office -hours.</p> - -<p>The carriage-way to be bottomed, formed, and carefully -levelled up to the form shown by the said sections; and in the -following manner:</p> - -<p class="center highline2">(<i>Here fill in specification of method.</i>)</p> - -<p>Construct <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> gullies, fitted with five-bar cast-iron -gratings and frames of the form and pattern to be seen<span class="pagenum" id="Page199">[199]</span> -at <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>,</span> these gullies to be placed in such positions as are -shown on the aforesaid plan and sections; each gully to have -a six-inch glazed stoneware socket-pipe drain connecting it -with the sewer, to be laid on a solid bed, and at an uniform -inclination from gully to sewer, with joints made of neat -Portland cement.</p> - -<p>The existing kerb to be taken up and replaced by -<span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> inches by <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> inches granite kerb in lengths of not -less than <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> inches, to the lines shown on plan, and to -the levels marked on sections.</p> - -<p>The water-tables or gutter to be channelled with <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span> -properly laid, and bedded on fine gravel to the levels and -inclinations marked on sections.</p> - -<p>The footpaths shall be properly formed, bottomed, and -drained where required; the formation level made to the -inclination shown on section, and afterwards coated with <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>.</span></p> - -<p>The whole of the above-mentioned works to be executed -by you in accordance with the plan and sections hereinbefore -referred to and now open for inspection at the surveyor’s -office as aforesaid, and of the dimensions, widths and levels -shown thereon, and to be done in a good, workmanlike and -substantial manner, to the satisfaction of the said urban -sanitary authority and of their surveyor.</p> - -<p>An estimate of the probable cost of the said work, prepared -under the direction of the surveyor to the said urban -sanitary authority, is also lying for inspection at the office of -the said surveyor, in manner required by section 150 of the -Public Health Act 1875.</p> - -<p>Dated this <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> day of <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span> -<span class="nowrap">18 .</span></p> - -<div class="signed"> - -<p class="center">_________________________<br /> -<i>Town Clerk</i>.</p> - -</div><!--signed--> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p>The clause then goes on to say “If such notice is not -complied with.”</p> - -<p>It would be a most difficult and costly proceeding for -any individual owner of property to execute the work for half<span class="pagenum" id="Page200">[200]</span> -the width of the street opposite his length of frontage, and the -result would be anything but satisfactory if the owners of the -properties were to comply with the notices in this manner.</p> - -<p>If the owners do intend to comply with the notice, and -carry out the work themselves, the best method for them to -adopt is to hold a meeting and decide upon having it done, then -to appoint one of their number, or some other person to -superintend or carry out the work, and afterwards collect the -money, but this is very seldom done, and the wisest course -(which is generally adopted) is not to comply with the notice, -but let the urban authority execute the work themselves. -This again entails considerable labour upon the town surveyor, -who has to superintend the work and see that all the details -contained in the statutory notices are properly carried out, but -his labour does not end here. Upon the completion of the -work the amount expended has to be recovered “from the -owners in default according to the frontage of their respective -premises, and in such proportion as is settled by the surveyor -of the urban authority, or (in case of dispute) by -arbitration.”</p> - -<p>It is scarcely necessary to point out what an immense -amount of responsible work this involves. First, a separate -account of all the labour and materials employed on the -street must be most carefully kept and totalled at the end of the -work, with such additional sum for supervision, &c., as the urban -authority may think necessary.<a id="FNanchor151"></a><a href="#Footnote151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> The exact length of each -property “fronting, adjoining or abutting” on the street, must -be most carefully measured. A proportionate sum has then -to be calculated for each of these, and this sum is often complicated -by cross roads, cul-de-sacs, narrow passages, strips of -land intervening between the street and the properties, and -many other perplexing intricacies, in addition to those persons<span class="pagenum" id="Page201">[201]</span> -who are legally exempted from any payment under the -following clause of the Public Health Act 1875:</p> - -<p>“The incumbent or minister of any church, chapel, or place -appropriated to public religious worship, which is now by law -exempt from rates for the relief of the poor, shall not be liable -to any expenses under the last preceding section as the -owner or occupier of such church, chapel, or place, or of any -churchyard or burial ground attached thereto, nor shall any -such expenses be deemed to be a charge on such church, -chapel or other place, or on such churchyard or burial ground -. . .” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 151.).</p> - -<p>The town surveyor, having ascertained what is the amount -of the sum due from each owner, shall proceed to fill in the -amount upon a form a specimen of which is now given:</p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p class="hind08 blankbefore1"><i>To the Owner of certain premises fronting, adjoining or abutting -upon a certain street called <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span> in the parish -of <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span> in the borough of <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span> in the county -of <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span></i></p> - -<p class="blankbefore1">Whereas the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of -the urban sanitary authority for the said <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>,</span> by a notice in -writing pursuant to the statute in that behalf made and provided, -dated the <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> day of -<span class="nowrap"><span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>,</span> <span class="nowrap">18 ,</span> required you -being the owner of certain premises fronting, adjoining or -abutting upon a street or highway called <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>,</span> within the -said <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span> (and not being a street or highway repairable by -the inhabitants at large) to level, pave, metal, channel and -make good the said street or highway within the time and in -the manner specified in the said notice, and according to the -plans and sections deposited at the office of the surveyor to -the said urban sanitary authority at <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>:</span></p> - -<p>And whereas the said notice not having been complied -with by you within the time limited by the said notice, the -said urban sanitary authority have executed the works -mentioned or referred to therein:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page202">[202]</span></p> - -<p>And whereas the expenses incurred by the said urban -sanitary authority in levelling, paving, metalling, channelling -and making good the said street, amount to <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> pounds -<span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> shillings and <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> pence:</p> - -<p>Wherefore take notice that I the undersigned, being the -surveyor of the said urban sanitary authority, in pursuance of -the statutes in that case made and provided, do hereby apportion -the sum of <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> pounds, <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> -shillings and <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> pence -as the proportion of the said sum of <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> pounds, -<span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> shillings and <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> pence, to be paid by you as such owner -aforesaid, such apportionment being according to the frontage -of your said premises, fronting, adjoining or abutting upon the -said street or highway.</p> - -<p>Further take notice that the aforesaid apportionment will -be binding and conclusive upon you unless within the period -of three months from the day of the date of this notice you -shall by written notice to the said urban sanitary authority -dispute the same.</p> - -<p>Dated this <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> day of <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl6 padr6"> </span>,</span> -<span class="nowrap">18 .</span></p> - -<div class="signed"> - -<p class="center">______________________<br /> -<i>Surveyor to the said Urban Sanitary Authority.</i><br /> -______________________<br /> -<i>Clerk of the said Urban Sanitary Authority.</i></p> - -</div><!--signed--> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p>There seems to be no power on the part of any owner to -dispute the question as to whether the works carried out have -been necessary or not, or whether the cost of the works have -been excessive; the only point upon which they can go to -arbitration is that as to whether the proportion settled by the -surveyor is accurate or not, and this point the arbitrator is left -to decide.</p> - -<p>It must not be lost sight of that there is a clause in the -Public Health Act 1875, which makes the expenses so settled -by the surveyor very binding upon the owner of the property -in question, unless he appeals within three months from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page203">[203]</span> -service of the notice, as the following extract from the clause -will show:</p> - -<p>. . . “Where such expenses have been settled and apportioned -by the surveyor of the local authority as payable by -such owner, such apportionment shall be binding and conclusive -on such owner, unless within three months from service -of notice on him by the local authority or their surveyor of the -amount settled by the surveyor to be due from such owner, he -shall by written notice dispute the same” . . . (38 & 39 Vic. -c. 55, s. 257)<a id="FNanchor152"></a><a href="#Footnote152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> and it must also be borne in mind that the -person from whom these expenses may be recovered “is the -owner of the premises at the time when the work was done, -not the owner to whom notice requiring the work to be done -may be given” (<i>vide</i> Fitzgerald’s Public Health Act, p. 301, -3rd edition); so that the town surveyor must be very careful to -make sure that any of the property abutting on the street has -not changed hands before he commences the work.</p> - -<p>After the 150th section of the Public Health Act has been -carried out and a private street has been thus put into -thorough repair, the urban authority may take possession of it -and declare it to be a highway repairable by the inhabitants at -large; the following section of the Act gives the modus -operandi necessary to effect this:</p> - -<p>“When any street within any urban district, not being a -highway repairable by the inhabitants at large, has been -sewered, levelled, paved, flagged, metalled, channelled and -made good and provided with proper means of lighting to the -satisfaction of the urban authority, such authority may if they -think fit, by notice in writing put up in any part of the street, -declare the same to be a highway, and thereupon the same -shall become a highway repairable by the inhabitants at large, -and every such notice shall be entered among the proceedings -of the urban authority.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page204">[204]</span></p> - -<p>“Provided that no such street shall become a highway so -repairable if within one month after such notice has been put -up, the proprietor or the majority in number of proprietors of -such street, by notice in writing to the urban authority, object -thereto, and in ascertaining such majority, joint proprietors -shall be reckoned as one proprietor” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, -s. 152).</p> - -<p>The necessary notices in conformity with this section are -usually prepared by the town clerk, so that the town surveyor -has nothing to do with this proceeding except to maintain the -street after it has been declared a highway repairable by -the inhabitants at large, in the same manner as he does the -rest of the public streets within his district.</p> - -<p>There is still one other clause of the Public Health Act -1875, which deals with the question of private roads, and it is -as follows:</p> - -<p>“Any urban authority may agree with any person for the -making of roads within their district for the public use through -the lands and at the expense of such person, and may agree -that such roads shall become and the same shall accordingly -become on completion, highways maintainable and repairable -by the inhabitants at large within their district; they may -also with the consent of two-thirds of their number agree with -such person to pay and may accordingly pay any portion of -the expenses of making such roads” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, -s. 146).</p> - -<p>This clause is very explicit and requires no comment, it -would however be much better for the urban authority in -contemplating a case of this description to execute the necessary -works themselves and agree with the person about the -expense, for if they are intended to be afterwards taken over -it is to be feared that the roads would be very improperly -constructed in the first place by the person intending to hand -them over. It must be noted that the word “roads” is used -in the above clause instead of “streets” as in the other<span class="pagenum" id="Page205">[205]</span> -clauses I have quoted, and also that the word “maintainable” -is added to repairable.</p> - -<p>Street is the term legally used in the Public Health Act -1875, and is thus defined:</p> - -<p>“Street includes any highway (not being a turnpike road) -and any public bridge (not being a county bridge), and any -road, lane, footway, square, court, alley or passage, whether a -thoroughfare or not” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 4.) so that whereas -in the 150th section of the Public Health Act 1875, any of -the above can be dealt with, it is only open for the urban -authority to deal with roads under the 146th section of the -Act, and it is sometimes rather difficult to define a road for -the purposes of the latter section.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote151"></a><a href="#FNanchor151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> -In some districts the urban authority make an additional charge of 5 per -cent. upon the total outlay to cover the cost of preliminary surveys and supervision -of the work by their surveyor; this 5 per cent., however, is not paid to him, but -is paid to the city treasurer, and thus becomes a set off against his salary.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote152"></a><a href="#FNanchor152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> -See also 38 & 39 Vict. c. 55, s. 268, where a person who deems himself -aggrieved may memorialise the Local Government Board, &c.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page206">[206]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XVIII.<br /> -<span class="chapname">NEW STREETS AND BUILDINGS.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">One of the most important duties devolving upon a “town -surveyor” is that of exercising control over any new streets -that may be constructed, or any new buildings that may be -erected, within the limits of his jurisdiction.</p> - -<p>This duty is imposed on him by the following clause of -the Public Health Act 1875:</p> - -<p>“Every urban authority may make byelaws with respect to -the following matters; (that is to say,)</p> - -<p>“(1.) With respect to the level, width and construction of -new streets, and the provisions for the sewerage thereof;</p> - -<p>“(2.) With respect to the structure of walls, foundations, -roofs, and chimneys of new buildings, for securing stability and -the prevention of fires, and for purposes of health;</p> - -<p>“(3.) With respect to the sufficiency of the space about -buildings to secure a free circulation of air, and with respect to -the ventilation of buildings;</p> - -<p>“(4.) With respect to the drainage of buildings, to waterclosets, -earth closets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools, in connexion -with buildings, and to the closing of buildings or parts -of buildings unfit for human habitation, and to prohibition of -their use for such habitation;</p> - -<p>“And they may further provide for the observance of such -byelaws by enacting therein such provisions as they think -necessary as to the giving of notices; as to the deposit of -plans and sections by persons intending to lay out streets or -to construct buildings; as to inspection by the urban authority, -and as to the power of such authority (subject to the provisions -of this Act) to remove, alter, or pull down any work<span class="pagenum" id="Page207">[207]</span> -begun or done in contravention of such byelaws. Provided -that no byelaw made under this section shall affect any -building erected in any place (which at the time of the passing -of this Act is included in an urban sanitary district) before -the Local Government Acts came into force in such place, or -any building erected in any place (which at the time of the -passing of this Act is not included in an urban sanitary -district) before such place becomes constituted or included in -an urban district, or by virtue of any order of the Local -Government Board subject to this enactment.</p> - -<p>“The provisions of this section, and of the two last preceding -sections, shall not apply to buildings belonging to any -railway company, and used for the purposes of such railway -under any Act of Parliament” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 157).</p> - -<p>The result of this power having been so given to urban -authorities, is that they have all framed sets of byelaws, which -having received the sanction of the Local Government Board, -are now law in the several districts.</p> - -<p>In the year 1877, it being found that considerable variation -existed in the requirements set forth in the byelaws, according -to the districts from which they emanated, and experience -having shown that the forms of byelaws previously issued by -the Local Government Board were inadequate, the Local -Government Board in order to assist urban authorities issued -a series of model byelaws; amongst the series being a set of -byelaws regulating the manner in which new streets should -be constructed and buildings erected.<a id="FNanchor153"></a><a href="#Footnote153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a></p> - -<p>These model byelaws are too extensive to give in detail, -as they contain 99 clauses, but every town surveyor should at -once procure a copy, even if his corporation have not adopted -them, nor intend to do so.</p> - -<p>One of the first difficulties that often presents itself to<span class="pagenum" id="Page208">[208]</span> -those who have to enforce the observance of the necessary -“giving of notices and deposit of plans and sections by -persons intending to construct new buildings” is to prove -that the building is “new” so as to bring it under the operations -of the Act.</p> - -<p>In many cases, of course, there can be no doubt where -bare land is being built upon, but often after buildings have -been partially destroyed by fire, or where extensive alterations -are being carried out, some considerable elements of uncertainty -as to what is a “new building” are introduced.</p> - -<p>The law attempts to settle the question as follows:</p> - -<p>“For the purposes of this Act, the re-erecting of any -building pulled down to, or below the ground floor, or of any -frame-building of which only the frame-work is left down to -the ground floor, or the conversion into a dwelling house of -any building not originally constructed for human habitation, -or the conversion into more than one dwelling house of a -building originally constructed as one dwelling house only, -shall be considered the erection of a new building” (38 & 39 -Vic. c. 55, s. 159).</p> - -<p>But the difficulty at once presents itself as to what is -meant by the words “ground floor.” Does this mean the -actual floor level, or the cubical space contained by the walls, -floor and ceiling of the “ground floor” (or as it is sometimes -called “ground story”) of the building? The latter may be -assumed to be the correct interpretation, for if we order a -man to hang a picture, or to fix a chandelier on the “ground -floor,” we certainly do not expect to find them placed upon -the floor.</p> - -<p>It is important that this point should be settled definitely, -or some more explanatory term employed in the Act in order -to determine what is a new building, for in the present state -of uncertainty it may be urged that the whole building must -be razed to the ground, whereas if the proper meaning of -“ground floor” is taken, would the removal of the superstructure<span class="pagenum" id="Page209">[209]</span> -and destruction of the ceiling only of the “ground -floor” bring the new work under the definition of a new -building and within the operation of the byelaws?</p> - -<p>This uncertainty is now taken advantage of by builders -and others, who sometimes find it irksome and inconvenient -to be obliged to construct a building in accordance with the -byelaws of any town. Somewhat sharp practices are consequently -resorted to in order to evade the law, and old -buildings are converted into new ones without any powers -of interference by the urban authority or their surveyor. -This is greatly to be regretted, as unless the building comes -within the operation of the byelaws, it is frequently erected -without any sanitary precautions or even stability.</p> - -<p>Sometimes a so-called repair of a building is commenced by -adding a new roof perhaps, at a higher level than the old one; -when sufficient time has elapsed to allay suspicion, a new front -is erected, and then new back and side walls in due course, the -alteration of the interior floors not attracting much attention.</p> - -<p>Cases of this description are very troublesome to the -town surveyor, as if legal proceedings are to be taken against -the offender, it is necessary for the surveyor to make surveys -and drawings of the works as they are in progress in order to -prove his case, and these might extend over a considerable -period of time.<a id="FNanchor154"></a><a href="#Footnote154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> In order to make these surveys it would be -necessary for him to enter the premises whilst the works were -in progress, but there does not seem to be any powers conferred -on him by any Act of Parliament for such a purpose,<span class="pagenum" id="Page210">[210]</span> -so that really he has no power to prevent the occurrences I -have mentioned.</p> - -<p>It must also not be forgotten that what may sometimes -appear to be an entirely new building, may only be an addition -to one that existed before the passing of the Act, and -although the new work may be ten times as large as the old, -still much conflicting evidence may be brought to bear before -it can be proved to be a “new building” within the meaning -of the Act.</p> - -<p>Turning again to section 159 of the Public Health Act -1875, these words will be found as defining also what is a -new building: “or the conversion into a dwelling house of -any building not originally constructed for human habitation.”</p> - -<p>It would have been better in the interests of sanitation if -the Act had prohibited the conversion of any building at all -into a dwelling house without the approval of the urban -authority, for as the law stands at present, it is open for an -owner of property to convert stables or warehouses, &c., into -dwelling houses, by simply asserting and bringing witnesses -or other evidence to prove that they were “originally constructed -for human habitation” irrespective of whether they -are adapted for the purpose or not, thus defeating the intention -of the Public Health Act to secure a better description of -dwellings than those that were erected before the passing of -the Act.</p> - -<p>When a dispute does arise with anyone as to whether a -building comes within the definition of “new” or not, it is well -if possible to agree upon certain points of fact and upon plans, -&c., before the case comes into court, and then to endeavour -to get the magistrates to “view.” This course if pursued often -saves lengthy litigation, and a great waste of time and money.</p> - -<p>With reference to the deposit of plans of new streets or -buildings, the following clause of the Public Health Act 1875 -provides that this shall be done:</p> - -<p>“Where a notice, plan or description of any work is<span class="pagenum" id="Page211">[211]</span> -required by any byelaw made by an urban authority to be -laid before that authority, the urban authority shall, within -one month after the same has been delivered or sent to their -surveyor or clerk,<a id="FNanchor155"></a><a href="#Footnote155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> -signify in writing their approval or disapproval -of the intended work to the person proposing to -execute the same; and if the work is commenced after such -notice of disapproval, or before the expiration of such month -without such approval, and is in any respect not in conformity -with any byelaw of the urban authority, the urban authority -may cause so much of the work as has been executed to be -pulled down or removed” . . . (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 158.).</p> - -<p>The result of these clauses of the Act with reference to -new streets and buildings is, that some of the most arduous -and irksome duties of the town surveyor are embodied in the -few words they contain. These duties consist of, first, the careful -examination of, and report upon all plans of new streets and -buildings; secondly, the constant supervision of these streets -and buildings whilst the works are in progress; and each of -these duties will be considered in the course of this chapter.</p> - -<p>First then, as to the deposit and examination of the plans -of new streets or buildings.</p> - -<p>The byelaws of which I have already made mention should -contain some such clause as the following:</p> - -<p>“Every person who shall intend to make or lay out any -new street, whether the same shall be intended to be used as a -public way or not, shall give notice to the urban authority of -such intention, by writing delivered to them at their office, or -at the office of their surveyor, and shall at the same time -leave or cause to be left at the office of the urban authority, -or of their surveyor, a plan and section of such intended new -street, drawn to a scale of not less than 1 inch to every -44 feet, and shall show on every such plan the names of the -owners of the land through or over which such street shall be<span class="pagenum" id="Page212">[212]</span> -intended to pass, the level, width, direction, the proposed mode -of construction, the proposed name of such intended new street, -and its position relatively to the streets nearest thereto; the size -and number of the intended building lots, and the proposed -sites, height, class, and nature of the buildings to be erected -therein, and the proposed height of the division and fence -walls thereon; and the name and address of the person -intending to lay out such new street, and he shall himself -sign such plan, or cause the same to be signed by his duly -authorised agent.</p> - -<p>“Such person shall show on every such section the level of -the present surface of the ground above some known fixed -datum, the level and rate or rates of inclination of the intended -new street, the level and inclination of the streets with which -it will be connected, and the level of the lowest floors of the -intended new buildings.</p> - -<p>“Every person who shall intend to erect any new building -shall give notice to the urban authority of such intention by -writing delivered to them at their office or at the office of their -surveyor, and shall at the same time leave or cause to be left -at the said office detail plans and sections of every floor of -such intended new building, drawn to a scale of not less than -1 inch to every 8 feet, showing the position, form and dimensions -of the several parts of such building, and of the watercloset, -earth closet, privy, cesspool, ashpit, well, and all other -appurtenances; and together with such plans and sections he -shall leave or cause to be left at the office of the urban -authority, or of their surveyor, a description of the materials -of which the building is proposed to be constructed, of the -intended mode of drainage, and means of water supply.</p> - -<p>“Such person shall at the same time leave or cause to be -left at the office of the urban authority, or of their surveyor, a -block plan drawn to a scale of not less than 1 inch to every -44 feet, and shall show the position of the buildings and -appurtenances of the properties immediately adjoining, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page213">[213]</span> -width and level of the street in front, and of the street, if any, -at the rear of such building, the level of the lowest floor of -such building, and of any yard or ground belonging thereto.</p> - -<p>“Such person shall likewise show on such plan the intended -lines of drainage of such building, and the intended size, depth -and inclination of each drain; and the details of the arrangement -proposed to be adopted for the ventilation of the drains.”</p> - -<p>With reference to the deposit of plans as required by the -above byelaw, the following suggestions as to the best manner -of effecting this may be of some use:</p> - -<p>(1.) The town surveyor should see that the person, or his -agent, intending to carry out the work, deposits tracings of -the proposed street or building signed by himself, so that -there should be no after dispute as to what really has been -deposited; these tracings should be on good paper properly -inked in and coloured so as to be indelible. In some towns it -is the practice for original plans to be deposited temporarily -with the surveyor, who is expected to have them traced and -then returned to the owner, but this not only tends to the possibility -of dispute as to the correctness of the tracings, but it -also takes up a large amount of the surveyor’s time, or of such -other officer as may have charge of this branch of the duties.</p> - -<p>In order to insure that the plans deposited shall not be -afterwards claimed by the person making the deposit, it might -be well to add these words to the clause of the byelaws which -I have quoted:</p> - -<p>“All such plans and sections so left at the office of the -urban authority or of their surveyor, shall remain the property -of the urban authority.”</p> - -<p>(2.) It is advisable for the town surveyor to have in his -possession a number of printed forms on which application -should be made by the person intending to erect a new -building and filled in and signed by him or his duly authorised -agent. The following is given as a specimen form for this -purpose:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page214">[214]</span></p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p class="center highline2"><i>To the Surveyor of the Urban Authority of <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span></i></p> - -<p>I hereby give you notice that it is my intention to erect -certain buildings in <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span> street, and that the following particulars -relate thereto:</p> - -<table class="questions" summary="Questions"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br w10m">No.</th> -<th class="w150m brd">Questions.</th> -<th class="br w10m">No.</th> -<th class="w150m">Answers.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">1</td> -<td class="query">Christian and Surname <i>in full</i>, Address and Occupation of persons for whom buildings to be erected.</td> -<td class="nr">1</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">2</td> -<td class="query">Number of drawings deposited.</td> -<td class="nr">2</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">3</td> -<td class="query">Name of architect, if any.</td> -<td class="nr">3</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">4</td> -<td class="query">Description of buildings and of the materials to be used in construction of same.</td> -<td class="nr">4</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">5</td> -<td class="query">Situation of buildings.</td> -<td class="nr">5</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">6</td> -<td class="query">Level, or intended level of cellar, or ground floor, with reference to surface of street.</td> -<td class="nr">6</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">7</td> -<td class="query">Thickness of walls.</td> -<td class="nr">7</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">8</td> -<td class="query">Height of building in stories.</td> -<td class="nr">8</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">9</td> -<td class="query">Area of clear open space at rear or side of buildings exclusively belonging thereto.</td> -<td class="nr">9</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">10</td> -<td class="query">Distance across such open space.</td> -<td class="nr">10</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">11</td> -<td class="query">Description of ventilation.</td> -<td class="nr">11</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">12</td> -<td class="query">Width of street or open space opposite buildings.</td> -<td class="nr">12</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">13</td> -<td class="query">Size and description of drains, and traps, and if ventilated.</td> -<td class="nr">13</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">14</td> -<td class="query">Inclination of drains.</td> -<td class="nr">14</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">15</td> -<td class="query">Description of outlet to drains.</td> -<td class="nr">15</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="nr">16</td> -<td class="query">How supplied with water.</td> -<td class="nr">16</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="nr">17</td> -<td class="query">Situation, dimensions, and particulars of apparatus of w.c.’s.</td> -<td class="nr">17</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>And I herewith leave detail plans and sections of every<span class="pagenum" id="Page215">[215]</span> -floor of such intended new buildings, drawn to a scale of not -less than 1 inch to every 8 feet, showing the position, form, -and dimensions of the several parts of such buildings, and of -the watercloset, privy, cesspool, earthcloset, ashpit, well, and -all other appurtenances; and also, a block plan drawn to a -scale of not less than 1 inch to every 44 feet, showing the -position of the buildings and appurtenances of the properties -immediately adjoining, the width and level of the street, the -level of the lowest floor of the intended building, and of the -yard or ground belonging thereto.</p> - -<p>Dated this <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> day of <span class="padl6 padr6"> </span> -<span class="nowrap">18 </span></p> - -<div class="mleft10m"> - -<p class="noindent blankbefore1">Signature in full,<br /> -Address,<br /> -Occupation,</p> - -</div><!--margin-left--> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p>A similar form may be prepared relating to plans of proposed -new streets, but of course the number of the questions -contained in it will be less.</p> - -<p>(3.) When the necessary notices have been given and the -tracings properly deposited with the surveyor, he should carefully -examine them to see if they are in accordance with the -byelaws which are in force in his district. They should then -be folded and placed in a large envelope, which should be -endorsed with the name of the person proposing to carry out -the work, the description of the work proposed, the name of -the architect, if any, the name of the builder, if any, the date -of the deposit, and a blank left for the date of approval. -Each envelope should also have a large number stamped -upon it.</p> - -<p>(4.) These particulars should be entered in a book of -reference against a corresponding number, so that at any future -date it may be easy to find and refer to any plans that have -been deposited by means of an index and the number on the -envelope.</p> - -<p>(5.) If on examining the plans the surveyor finds anything<span class="pagenum" id="Page216">[216]</span> -in them which does not conform to the byelaws, he should be -empowered by the urban authority to return them at once to -the person depositing them, without having to wait to lay -them before a committee, as this is a great saving of time. -In returning the plans the surveyor should write a letter setting -forth a schedule of his objections and the particulars of the -manner in which the plans and sections fail to comply with the -requirements of the byelaws.</p> - -<p>(6.) If the plans are redeposited unaltered or showing still -some non-compliance with the byelaws, the surveyor must lay -them before his committee and explain in what respects they -are defective, leaving it to the committee to decide whether -they shall be approved or not.</p> - -<p>(7.) If the plans are in accordance with the byelaws, the -surveyor reports the fact to the committee, whereupon the -plans should be at once signed by the chairman of the -committee.</p> - -<p>(8.) All plans which the committee decline to approve of -should be at once returned to the person who deposited them -with a written notification of the reasons.</p> - -<p>(9.) Plans which are approved of by the committee and -afterwards ratified by the general meeting of the urban -authority, should be carefully put away in pigeon-holes, so -that by means of the reference book previously described they -can be easily found at any future time. This is very important, -as no extension of a building the plans of which have been -thus approved by the urban authority can ever afterwards be -carried out without their consent; and the plans of any alteration -which would not involve building upon an increased area -must be deposited as in the case of a new building.</p> - -<p>(10.) A notification in writing should be sent to the person -who has deposited the plans when they have been approved by -the urban authority; and in sending this notification it is well -to draw his attention to the fact that notice must be given to -the surveyor of the commencement of the work, in order that<span class="pagenum" id="Page217">[217]</span> -the foundations, drains, &c., may be examined by him before -the ground is filled in.</p> - -<p>The importance and necessity for the deposit of plans with -a sanitary authority cannot be over-estimated, but this deposit -is of but little practical good unless it can be insured that all -the buildings are erected strictly in conformity with these -plans, and this, according to the Act, is the duty also of the -town surveyor. As a matter of fact, it is quite impossible for -any single person in any large town to perform this duty, and -a staff of assistants is consequently necessary if the sanitary -authority really wish their byelaws to be enforced.</p> - -<p>Anyone who is practically acquainted with the difficulties -that even architects experience in superintending buildings -they have <i>themselves</i> designed, and how much they have to -trust to the clerk of works (of which there is generally one to -every building), will readily see what an absurdity it is to suppose -that a town surveyor, with his multitude of other duties -and attendances at committees and meetings, can even pretend -to see that the 99 detail clauses of such byelaws as those -emanating from the Local Government Board Office, or even -those of a less stringent character, can possibly be enforced, -especially when it is remembered that many of the buildings -he has to inspect have no superintending architect, but are -being erected for purposes of speculation by what are commonly -known as jerry builders.</p> - -<p>Laws may be passed, books on sanitary questions may be -written, but until a change is made in the machinery and -manner of the inspection of buildings in the course of erection, -and a large staff of inspectors or sanitary police or some such -officials are kept by a sanitary authority, very little real -advancement will be made with the poorer classes of -buildings.</p> - -<p>It must in fairness to the builder be stated that to erect -houses in strict accordance with the model byelaws would -probably mean loss of money to him, as they could not<span class="pagenum" id="Page218">[218]</span> -possibly be built with any prospect of a reasonable return -upon the outlay. This partly arises from the stringent clauses -inserted with respect to the structure of walls and other precautions -for the prevention of fires. I cannot help thinking -that too much interference is now made by sanitary authorities -for the protection of property from fire.<a id="FNanchor156"></a><a href="#Footnote156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> It is not a sanitary -question, and is certainly one which chiefly affects insurance -companies. Every one should be able to pay his small -insurance premium and the companies should look after their -own interests, and not expect it to be done by others. If the -sanitary authority wish to interfere in the question of fire, why -should not the protection of <i>life</i> be considered as much as -property? Yet no clause can be discovered in the model byelaws -rendering it compulsory to make some provision in -dwelling-houses or factories for the easy escape of the inmates -in case of fire. Indeed, as the Public Health Act does not -authorise the enactment of a byelaw for such a purpose, such -a clause would most probably be held to be <i>ultra vires</i>.</p> - -<p>Another cause of expense to builders is the necessity -imposed on them to provide a comparatively large open space -at the back or sides of new dwelling-houses, thus sacrificing -land, and sometimes making it almost impossible to build at -all. This necessity for open gardens or yards at the back of -even small labourers’ dwellings is in some towns pushed to an -extreme. If such houses are erected in a thoroughly sanitary -manner in all points of detail, it is questionable if this open -space is really beneficial. My experience has shown me that -the space is often misused, animals, such as rabbits, chickens, -pigeons, &c., being kept there, or it is made into a so-called -garden, really a refuse heap which is a receptacle for all the -garbage and filth of the house, soon becoming a fruitful source<span class="pagenum" id="Page219">[219]</span> -of disease to the occupants of the house itself and the neighbours. -It is also difficult to ensure that the space thus provided -and approved of in the deposited plans shall not be built -upon at some future period. It would be better if the streets -in front of such dwellings were wide, and a narrow street or -“drangway” constructed at the back for the dust-cart service, -supply of coals, &c. The houses themselves should have their -rooms properly and thoroughly ventilated; underground -kitchens or living rooms should be prohibited. The drainage, -water-supply, and all the apparatus in connection with them, -should be perfect but simple. At the back of the house should -be a small yard or court well paved with asphalte or other -impervious material, in which should be placed the wash-house, -w.c., &c. These and public parks and plenty of fresh air in -the streets and in the dwelling-houses themselves should take -the place of the large open spaces at the back of small -dwelling-houses, which, as I have already stated, are generally -so much misused.</p> - -<p>The model byelaws with regard to new streets and -buildings issued by the Local Government Board contain -most admirable clauses—valuable suggestions which should -receive attention from any town surveyor who has to advise -his corporation upon the subject of framing a set of byelaws for -his district—but they necessarily contain many clauses which -are not suitable equally well for towns in the north, south, east, -and west of England.</p> - -<p>Many of the clauses are too stringent to be enforced, but -this arises not from any fault in the byelaws themselves, but -rather from the machinery employed in carrying them into -effect. To secure all that they require adequate inspection is -needed, and this might be effected if there was a fee charged -by the urban authority of any town for the purposes of proper -inspection of buildings in course of construction; and although -it must be admitted that any provision which increases the -cost of construction of small dwelling-houses which shall be<span class="pagenum" id="Page220">[220]</span> -complete in all sanitary requisites is undesirable, the extra -cost of such inspection would be too small to be appreciable, -while the advantages arising from such improved supervision -would, even from a pecuniary point of view, be of immense -advantage not only to the community as tending to improve -the public health, but also to the owner as ensuring good -honest work in return for his money. In larger and more -expensive buildings this supervision is exercised by the architect, -but as a rule there is no architect employed in the case -of small houses, and the builder is accordingly left to his own -devices, with frequently unfortunate results.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote153"></a><a href="#FNanchor153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> -‘Model Bye-laws issued by the Local Government Board for the use of -sanitary authorities. New Streets and Buildings, IV.’ Printed by George E. -Eyre and William Spottiswoode, 1877.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote154"></a><a href="#FNanchor154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> -It is open also to question whether in the case of an old building being -gradually altered into a new one, it would be possible to prosecute, as there is the -following limitation as to proceedings in the Public Health Act 1875: “Any -complaint or information made or laid in pursuance of this Act shall be made or -laid within six months from the time when the matter of such complaint or -information respectively arose” . . . (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 252). The complaint -could not be made when the work was first commenced, as no offence would have -been committed, and if made after the work was finished, it might be urged that -the offence was commenced more than six months prior, and that the complaint -should have been made “when the matter of such complaint or information -respectively arose.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote155"></a><a href="#FNanchor155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> -Plans are usually deposited with the surveyor as being the officer who would -be most likely to understand them.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote156"></a><a href="#FNanchor156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> -Nothing can be more vexatious than the bye-law compelling the party walls -of new buildings to be carried up above the roof to at least 12 inches; not only -does this frequently spoil the architectural appearance of a building, but it causes -great expense in order to keep the wet out: a very difficult thing with a wall -treated in this manner.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page221">[221]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XIX.<br /> -<span class="chapname">SCAVENGING.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">In a great number of towns in this country the town surveyor -has charge of the unostentatious, though very necessary -sanitary work of the scavenging of the district over which he -has charge, and the following are the clauses of the Public -Health Act 1875, under which he carries out his duties:</p> - -<p>“Every local authority may, and when required by order of -the Local Government Board shall, themselves undertake or -contract <span class="nowrap">for—</span></p> - -<p>“The removal of house refuse from premises;</p> - -<p>“The cleansing of earthclosets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools;</p> - -<p class="noindent">either for the whole or any part of their district: Moreover -every urban authority and any rural authority invested by the -Local Government Board with the requisite powers may, and -when required by the said board shall, themselves undertake -or contract for the proper cleansing of streets, and may also -themselves undertake or contract for the proper watering of -streets for the whole or any part of their district.</p> - -<p>“All matters collected by the local authority or contractor -in pursuance of this section may be sold or otherwise disposed -of, and any profits thus made by an urban authority shall be -carried to the account of the fund or rate applicable by them -for the general purposes of this Act; and any profits thus made -by a rural authority in respect of any contributory place shall -be carried to the account of the fund or rate out of which -expenses incurred under this section by that authority in such -contributory place are defrayed.</p> - -<p>“If any person removes or obstructs the local authority or -contractor in removing any matters by this section authorised<span class="pagenum" id="Page222">[222]</span> -to be removed by the local authority, he shall for each offence -be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds: Provided -that the occupier of the house within the district shall not be -liable to such penalty in respect of any such matters which -are produced on his own premises and are intended to be -removed for sale or for his own use, and are in the meantime -kept so as not to be a nuisance” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 42).</p> - -<p>The next clause imposes a penalty on the local authority -if they fail “without reasonable excuse after notice in writing -from the occupier of any house” to cleanse the ashpit, &c., -within seven days if they have “themselves undertaken or -contracted for the removal of house refuse” &c., and the next -clause is as follows:</p> - -<p>“Where the local authority do not themselves undertake -or contract for,</p> - -<p>“The cleansing of footways and pavements adjoining any -premises;</p> - -<p>“The removal of house refuse from any premises;</p> - -<p>“The cleansing of earthclosets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools -belonging to any premises;</p> - -<p>“They may make byelaws imposing the duty of such -cleansing or removal, at such intervals as they think fit, on the -occupier of any such premises.</p> - -<p>“An urban authority<a id="FNanchor157"></a><a href="#Footnote157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> may also make byelaws for the -prevention of nuisances arising from snow, filth, dust, ashes, -and rubbish, and for the prevention of the keeping of animals -on any premises so as to be injurious to health”<a id="FNanchor158"></a><a -href="#Footnote158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> (38 & 39 -Vic. c. 55, s. 44).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page223">[223]</span></p> - -<p>There is also another clause in the Public Health Act 1875, -which is as follows:</p> - -<p>“Any urban authority may, if they see fit, provide in proper -and convenient situations receptacles for the temporary deposit -and collection of dust, ashes, and rubbish; they may also -provide fit buildings and places for the deposit of any matters -collected by them in pursuance of this part of this Act” (38 & -39 Vic. c. 55, s. 45).</p> - -<p>The result of the above comprehensive clauses upon -the subject of scavenging is that the following duties fall -upon the town surveyor where that officer is responsible for -such work:</p> - -<p>(1.) “The removal of house refuse from premises.”</p> - -<p>This work, like all the rest which follows, can be done -either by the local authority themselves or by contract, the -former method, as I hope presently to show, being much the -best system.</p> - -<p>In connection with this first duty of the removal of house -refuse, the following points will have to be considered:</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) What is house refuse?</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) What is the best manner of storing it on the premises -pending the visit of the scavenger?</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) Which are the best methods for its collection?</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) Which are the best methods for its disposal?</p> - -<p>(2.) “The cleansing of earthclosets, privies, ashpits, and -cesspools.”</p> - -<p>This work where necessary (owing to the want of a system -of sewerage) can be carried out simultaneously with the collection -of house refuse and in almost the same manner.</p> - -<p>(3.) “The proper cleansing of streets.”</p> - -<p>In connection with this duty the following points must be -considered:</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) The best methods for sweeping and cleansing streets.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) If machinery effects such work better and more -economically than hand labour.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page224">[224]</span></p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) The extra work involved by the bad construction -of streets, or the ill chosen materials of which they are -formed.</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) Whether private streets, courts and alleys, “not repairable -by the inhabitants at large,” should be swept and -cleansed by the local authority?</p> - -<p>(<i>e.</i>) The ultimate disposal of excessive accumulations of -mud.</p> - -<p>(<i>f.</i>) The removal and disposal of snow.</p> - -<p>(4.) “The proper watering of streets for the whole or any -part of their district.”</p> - -<p>In considering this question it is necessary to note:</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) The best form of vehicle for carrying and spreading -the water.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) The number, position, and description of standpipes.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) Whether vehicles, or fixed standpipes and hose are -best.</p> - -<p>(5.) If the local authority do not impose a byelaw they -must themselves cleanse the “footways and pavements -adjoining any premises;” and this in excessively muddy -weather, or after a heavy fall of snow, is no inconsiderable -work.</p> - -<p>(6.) An <i>urban authority</i> may make provision for the -“temporary deposit and collection of dust, ashes and -rubbish.”</p> - -<p>This involves public dust-bins being placed in suitable -positions in the town, the points in connection with this work -being,</p> - -<p>(a.) The most suitable sites for such accommodation.</p> - -<p>(b.) The materials and form of which they shall be constructed.</p> - -<p>Having thus stated all the heads under which the work of -scavenging may be grouped, it is necessary to decide what is -“house refuse;” for unless this is satisfactorily settled, considerable -onus and expense will be put upon the local authority if<span class="pagenum" id="Page225">[225]</span> -they are to include in the removal trade, garden, and other -similar refuse.<a id="FNanchor159"></a><a href="#Footnote159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a></p> - -<p>It may be assumed that all house refuse which it is the -duty of the scavenger to remove, is really so removed by the -direction of the local authority without dispute, but that the -following articles, which frequently find their way into a -domestic dust-bin, are not in the strict terms of the Act -expected to be removed by him. (1) Plaster from walls and -brick bats, (2) Large quantities of broken bottles and flower -pots, (3) Clinkers and ashes from foundries and green-houses, -(4) Wall paper torn from the rooms of a house, (5) Scrap -tin (but not old tins which have contained meats, &c., and -which, although very useless and bulky, may be fairly -assumed to be house refuse), (6) All garden refuse such as -grass cuttings, dead leaves, and the loppings from trees and -shrubs.<a id="FNanchor160"></a><a href="#Footnote160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a></p> - -<p>As a matter of fact, out of ninety towns with which I -communicated on this subject only thirteen of them directed -the removal of both trade and garden refuse without any special -extra payment being made by the householder, and this is -only done when these materials are placed in the ordinary -dustbin or ashpit attached to a house. Several towns, however, -it appears remove such materials on special payments being -made of sums varying from 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> to 3<i>s.</i> per load.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page226">[226]</span></p> - -<p>Disputes frequently arise between the men employed in -scavenging and the householder on these vexed questions -as to the difference between house, trade or garden refuse: a -dispute often raised by the scavengers themselves, in the hope -of obtaining a gratuity or reward for the clearance of a dustbin, -which no doubt, legally, they are perfectly justified in -refusing to empty; and in order to lessen the chance of such -disputes and to attempt to settle this question, the following -suggestions may be of value.</p> - -<p>It would no doubt be vexatious if any sanitary authority -were to absolutely refuse to remove the “garden” refuse from -those houses to which a small flower garden was attached, -whilst it would on the contrary be an unfair tax upon the -general community if the refuse of large gardens was removed -without payment. A good rule would therefore be to remove -only such <i>garden</i> refuse as was contained in the ordinary -dustbin or ashpit attached to a house, and that as the removal -of any kind of <i>trade</i> refuse would no doubt lead to abuses if -done gratuitously by the sanitary authority, that this material -should only be removed on payment of some sum, which should -be previously fixed by the local authority, and each case should -be reported to the officer superintending the work before it was -removed.</p> - -<p>The next question is the important one of the manner and -place in which house refuse shall be temporarily stored -pending the visit of the scavenger.</p> - -<p>The Public Health Act of 1875 enacts that: “Every local -authority shall provide that all drains, waterclosets, earthclosets, -privies, <i>ashpits</i>, and cesspools within their district be -constructed and kept so as not to be a nuisance or injurious to -health” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 40).</p> - -<p>And section 35 of the above Act states, “It shall not be -lawful newly to erect any house or to rebuild any house pulled -down to or below the ground floor without a sufficient watercloset, -earth closet, privy, and an <i>ashpit</i> furnished with proper<span class="pagenum" id="Page227">[227]</span> -doors and coverings. Any person who causes any house to be -erected or rebuilt in contravention of this enactment shall be -liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds” (38 & 39 -Vic. c. 55, s. 35).</p> - -<p>The same Act also gives power to local authorities to -enforce provision of ashpit accommodation for houses where -such accommodation does not already exist, and to frame byelaws -with respect to ashpits.</p> - -<p>There can be no doubt that the position of the dustbin or -ashpit, as regards its site with reference to the main dwelling-house, -is of primary sanitary importance, for if the garbage -and domestic accumulations therein are allowed to remain for -a few days, especially when the weather is close, damp, and -warm, they become very offensive, and the emanations therefrom -may even be highly deleterious and dangerous to health; -this effect is aggravated by persons emptying vegetable refuse -and other matters which are <i>wet</i> into the dustbin, as decomposition -of these matters is greatly assisted by this addition, -and it would be well that all such matters should be burnt on -the kitchen or scullery fire along with a large percentage of -the ashes which could be sifted and saved from those which too -readily find their way into the dustbin, and are thus wasted. -Care would of course have to be taken in this process that -no smell or nuisance was caused by the process of burning.</p> - -<p>It is open to considerable doubt if the fixed dustbin or ashpit -is the best or most sanitary receptacle for the house refuse; -they may be necessary and suitable for Public Institutions, -or for large isolated private dwellings, or for schools or any -places where excessive quantities of refuse may accumulate, -but where this refuse is systematically and properly removed -by the order of the local authority, at such times and in such -manner as will be hereafter pointed out, moveable or portable -dustbins, boxes or baskets are far preferable to the large immoveable, -inconvenient fixed ashpit, recommended and enforced -under the Act.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page228">[228]</span></p> - -<p>The next point to consider is that of the collection of -the house refuse, which should be effected satisfactorily, -economically and expeditiously.</p> - -<p>The following are the three methods by which this is -attempted:</p> - -<p>(1.) By a house to house call at intermittent periods.</p> - -<p>(2.) By the scavengers giving notice of their approach by -ringing a bell or by other signal, and requiring the householder -to bring out the refuse to the cart.</p> - -<p>(3.) By placing public dustbins in different localities, and -expecting householders in their vicinity to place the house -refuse in these dustbins, which are then cleared from time to -time by the local authority.</p> - -<p>Experience alone can teach which of these is the best -method to adopt in any district, and it is usually found that -some modification of all three is necessary.</p> - -<p>It is, however, difficult sometimes to adopt public dustbins -not only on account of their first cost, but from the objections -raised by the occupiers of adjacent houses to their being fixed -in their neighbourhood.</p> - -<p>If these dustbins were constructed with properly balanced -self-closing lids, these objections might be overcome, and their -first cost would be but trifling when compared with the benefit -to be derived by placing them in some of the thickly populated -courts and alleys which are unfortunately to be found in nearly -every town. Where there are no public dustbins the inhabitants -of these courts throw their waste products upon the surface of -the streets or courts, from time to time throughout the day, as -it cannot be expected nor desired that such materials should -remain, even for twenty-four hours, in their one living room, -which is frequently over crowded, and has but little spare space -even for the common necessities of life; but that these waste -products should be thus strewn over the surface of the -street or court is almost equally objectionable, and points -to the advantage to be gained by placing in convenient<span class="pagenum" id="Page229">[229]</span> -situations covered dustbins which could be easily emptied -once a day.</p> - -<p>Undoubtedly the best method for the removal of refuse is -the house to house call, but except in suburban districts and for -the collection of refuse from the better class of dwelling-houses -and public institutions, the expense, delay and difficulty which -would be incurred in calling at every house throughout a town, -would make it almost impracticable, and consequently this -system is universally combined with that which is known as the -bell or signal system, which simply means that the scavenging -cart in going its rounds has a bell attached to it, or the horse, -which bell rings automatically as the cart proceeds on its way; -or the man in charge blows a trumpet, or calls in stentorian -tones, “Dust oh!” On hearing this signal, <i>but not before</i>, the -householder is expected to bring out the refuse in some convenient -receptacle, which is then emptied into the cart by the -scavenger.</p> - -<p>As a matter of fact, the receptacles containing all the waste -products of these householders are brought out and are placed -in the gutter of the street close to the kerb, long before the -cart makes its appearance or can be reasonably expected to -do so.</p> - -<p>The result of these (generally inappropriate) receptacles -filled with heterogenous collections of house refuse being left -unprotected in the public streets, is that their contents are -quickly strewn about the surface of the street, by their being -upset accidentally, or purposely, and the appearance of the -street, which has probably been carefully swept and garnished -during the night or early in the morning, quickly assumes, -especially in a high wind, a very offensive character, and -probably has to be entirely re-swept and cleansed before the -ordinary traffic of the day commences.</p> - -<p id="IntRef4">To obviate this evil I must refer my readers to a small book -on the subject of scavenging, entitled ‘Dirty Dustbins and -Sloppy Streets,’ published by Messrs. Spon & Co., written by<span class="pagenum" id="Page230">[230]</span> -myself, in which I have suggested moveable iron cylinders -being placed in the streets for the reception of the house refuse.</p> - -<p>The “house to house” call system in the suburbs of a town -may be greatly assisted by a very simple remedy, which has -already been tried in some towns with considerable success. -It consists in the householder placing a card bearing the -letter D, or some other distinguishing mark, in a conspicuous -place in a window, when the services of the scavengers are -required; these cards should be printed and circulated by the -Sanitary Authority of the district, who should state on the -back of the card the days on which the scavengers would visit -each neighbourhood, with the approximate hour of the day in -which they would appear, in order that the householder may -not be unnecessarily inconvenienced by being obliged to keep -the card for any length of time in his window.</p> - -<p>The scavengers in passing observe the signal, and call at -the house; otherwise they pass on, unless specially called in by -the occupants, thus avoiding any unnecessary delay in their -rounds.</p> - -<p>A visit from the scavengers either before seven or after -ten in the morning is generally very inconvenient for households -of a superior class, and should be, if possible, carefully avoided -by the sanitary authority.</p> - -<p>The cart usually employed for scavenging is that known as -the ordinary “tip cart,” strongly, if not clumsily, constructed -of an oak frame, with elm or deal sides of considerable height; -it holds about a couple of cubic yards of material, and costs -from sixteen to twenty pounds.</p> - -<p>These carts are not only clumsy and heavy, but they give -an overweighted diminutive appearance to the horse between -the shafts, especially as the quality of horses employed for -work of this character is frequently none of the best. The -height, too, of the cart is often so great as to necessitate the -use of a short ladder, up which the scavenger has to climb, the -result being a shower of dust when it is being loaded with house<span class="pagenum" id="Page231">[231]</span> -refuse, and spatterings of mud, when it is being used as a slop -cart.</p> - -<p>It is difficult also to effectually cover a cart of this description. -The imperfect mode at present adopted is to cover it with -a tarpaulin, which is tied down as tightly as the circumstances -of the case will admit, but which as a rule does not effectually -answer the purpose for which it is intended. In towns where -the house refuse is not collected separately from the road -scrapings, a judicious mixture of the two in the cart considerably -assists in preventing any mud from splashing over or the -dust from blowing about.</p> - -<p>The employment of wooden carts for this work is bad -economy, their rough usage, and the mode adopted for -emptying them by “tipping,” renders their life a short one; a -cart in constant work frequently costs from 4<i>l.</i> to 5<i>l.</i> per annum -in repairs, and having but little of the original material of -which it was constructed left in it at the end of six years. -They are also difficult to cleanse or disinfect.</p> - -<p>With a view to obviate these and other objections, several -improved carts and waggons have been introduced by different -makers, who have styled them by a variety of names. Amongst -others they are called dust carts, general purpose carts, sanitary -carts, slush carts, tumbler carts, mud waggons, tip waggons, slop -waggons, &c. These are constructed with iron bodies fixed -upon wooden frames and wheels; they are of various forms and -designs, the principal objects aimed at being lightness of construction -combined with strength, so balanced as to bear with a -minimum of weight upon the horse; economy in their cost -has not been lost sight of, and they are usually provided with -some special means for emptying, either by being tipped by a -chain and windlass, or by some mechanical arrangement of -the tailboard; they are built very low upon their axles, so as -to be easily filled, are either completely covered over with a -moveable lid, or are fitted with hinged side boards, so as to -prevent any splashing over of their contents, and as they are<span class="pagenum" id="Page232">[232]</span> -nearly all constructed with iron; they are easily cleansed and -disinfected whenever it is thought necessary to do so.</p> - -<p>With reference to the important question of the ultimate -disposal of house refuse, street sweepings &c., no rules can be -laid down, as so much depends upon the position of every town -and the character of the district in which it is situated, as the -following replies to some questions which I addressed to -several English towns will show.</p> - -<p>In many towns it is stated that the whole of the refuse is -used by brick makers, in others it is simply “tipped to waste.” -In one case the answer is, “Sold by auction twice a year,” but -to whom it is sold, and for what purpose, does not transpire. -In some towns it appears to be mixed with lime and used as -manure upon the fields, and in others it is mixed with the -sludge of the sewage farms, and is then ploughed or dug into -the soil of the farm. This seems a better plan than that of -another town, where it is “given or thrown away,” although -the difficulty of disposing of the old iron, tins, &c., is not -touched upon in any of the foregoing answers. The next reply -states that “it is riddled, and the cinders and vegetable refuse -are burnt to generate steam, the fine dust is used with the -manure manufactory (tub system), the old iron is sold, and the -pots, &c., used for the foundations of roads.” In one case the -whole of the refuse is taken out to sea in hopper barges, and -sunk in deep water.<a id="FNanchor161"></a><a href="#Footnote161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> In a great number of towns it is sold by -tender for the year, but what eventually becomes of it does not -transpire. But the most favoured methods, where it cannot be -sold as manure to farmers, seem to be either that of carting it -away to some spot outside the town, and there using it for the -purpose of filling up hollows and depressions, or that of giving -or selling it to brick-makers.</p> - -<p>The practice of filling up hollow places with such materials -cannot be too strongly deprecated if there is any<span class="pagenum" id="Page233">[233]</span> -chance of dwelling houses being erected on them, as the -unsanitary condition of sites thus formed has been frequently -demonstrated.</p> - -<p>Where towns are unable to dispose of their refuse by sale -to farmers or market gardeners, the best method, and one which -is gaining in popularity every day, is that of its destruction by fire.</p> - -<p>With this object in view a Mr Fryer has invented an -apparatus which he styles a “Patent Carboniser, for the conversion -of garbage, street, and market sweepings, also other -vegetable refuse, into charcoal.” This apparatus consists of a -structure somewhat resembling, externally, a brick kiln. It is -divided into hopper-shaped compartments, which at the bottom -are furnished with a furnace, fitted with a reverberatory arch. -A fire is lighted in this furnace, the necessary combustion -being obtained, and the heat maintained, by burning the -cinders, which are sifted out of the house refuse for this purpose. -All the street sweepings, refuse, garbage, &c., is then -thrown in at the top of the kiln, and it is there and then completely -destroyed by the action of the fire, and converted into -charcoal, which is withdrawn through a sliding door fixed at -the bottom of the kiln.<a id="FNanchor162"></a><a href="#Footnote162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a></p> - -<p>The next point which has to be considered, and which is -the second in order of the list of duties I have given at the -commencement of this chapter, is “the cleansing of earth closets, -privies, ash-pits, and cesspools.”</p> - -<p>This is generally effected in conjunction with the collection -of the house refuse and the work is carried out at night. -Under the Goux-tub system the ashes of the house refuse are -largely used as a deodorant or absorbent as a lining for the -tub,<a id="FNanchor163"></a><a href="#Footnote163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> but in the pail systems this mixture is not effected until -the tubs and refuse arrive together at the depôt.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page234">[234]</span></p> - -<p>For descriptions of the manner in which the pail system for -the collection of excreta is carried out in Birmingham, I must -refer my readers to an article written by myself in a number of -<i>The Sanitary Engineer</i> of New York published on the 1st -Sept. 1881, in which I have entered fully into the method there -adopted and its advantages and disadvantages, but which are -too long to recapitulate in this chapter.</p> - -<p>The next duty which has to be considered is that of “the -proper cleansing of streets.”</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that for the sake of the appearance as -well as the health of any town its streets cannot be too well -cleansed. Muddy and wet streets cause dampness in the subsoil -of neighbouring dwellings, and dust is not only injurious -to tradesmen’s goods but also to the lungs of those who have -to breathe an atmosphere loaded with silicate and organic -impurities.<a id="FNanchor164"></a><a href="#Footnote164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p> - -<p>Street cleansing is effected either by hand-sweeping and -hand-scraping, or by machinery. As to which is the most -economical much depends upon the value of labour, and also -upon the condition of the roads to be dealt with, but in point -of time and as a general rule the value of a horse rotary brush-sweeping -machine is undoubted, the only time at which such -a machine fails to do effective work is on the occasions when -the mud to be removed (owing to a peculiar condition of the -atmosphere), has attained a semisolidity, and is of a stiff and -sticky consistency, when it either adheres to and clogs the -brushes of the machine, or is flattened by them on to the road -instead of being removed.<a id="FNanchor165"></a><a href="#Footnote165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a></p> - -<p>The brushes of a machine last about 180 hours constant<span class="pagenum" id="Page235">[235]</span> -work, and then the old stocks can be easily refilled with bass -at no great cost. The comparative work which can be done -by a sweeping machine is about 11 to 1 of that effected by -manual labour, so that the economy involved by the former -method is evident.</p> - -<p>The strength and durability of the brooms used for the -work of sweeping the streets is of some importance, as affecting -the ultimate cost of the work, and some care and skill is -required in their selection. Bass brooms are better than birch -brooms for this purpose, and the bass of which the brooms are -made should be sufficiently stout and of regular thickness; -it should be tough and elastic, not old, dry, and -brittle, each knot should be of uniform size and be firmly -set, and the number of knots in each broom head is also -a matter of choice. A convenient and fair test of the -soundness of a broom is to soak it for a few days in water -before issuing it to the sweeper, and then note the time it -will last. The handles of the brooms should be made of -alder wood.</p> - -<p>On the question of the extra work involved in street -cleansing by its bad construction or by the materials of which -it is constructed, climate must be considered, as well as the -amount of traffic it has to bear, and also its gradient and the -habits of the people residing in it.<a id="FNanchor166"></a><a href="#Footnote166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></p> - -<p>The Superintendent of the Scavenging Department at -Liverpool has made some observations and obtained some -valuable information on these points, which he has detailed -in a report he presented to the Health Committee of -that borough in the year 1877, an abstract of which is as -follows:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page236">[236]</span></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="smcap">Gross Cost for Each Time of Cleansing 10,000 Yards Superficial of<br />Different -Descriptions of Roadway in the Borough of Liverpool.</span></p> - -<table class="liverpool" summary="Costs"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br">Street.</th> -<th colspan="5" class="br">Description<br />of<br />Pavement.</th> -<th class="br">When<br />paved.</th> -<th class="br">Condition<br />of<br />repair of<br />Roadway.</th> -<th class="br">Area of<br />Carriage-<br />way.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Loads<br />removed<br />in one<br />Month.</th> -<th class="br">Times<br />swept<br />in one<br />month.</th> -<th colspan="4">Gross Cost<br />per<br />10,000<br />Yards<br />Superficial<br />for each<br />cleansing.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="thinline br"> </th> -<th colspan="5" class="thinline br"> </th> -<th class="thinline br"> </th> -<th class="thinline br"> </th> -<th class="br">Yds.<br />supr.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </th> -<th class="thinline br"> </th> -<td class="right padl1">£</td> -<td class="right padl1"><i>s.</i></td> -<th colspan="2"><i>d.</i></th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">Lord Street</td> -<td class="brace padr0">-</td> -<td class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="pavement">Granite setts, asphalte joints</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="pavedcond">1877</td> -<td class="pavedcond">Very good</td> -<td class="area">4,503</td> -<td class="loadint">15</td> -<td class="loadfrac"> </td> -<td class="sweeps">26</td> -<td class="valueint">0</td> -<td class="valueint">6</td> -<td class="valueint">5</td> -<td class="valuefrac">¹⁄₂</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="5" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">North John Street</td> -<td class="brace padr0">-</td> -<td class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="pavement">Ditto</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="pavedcond">1872</td> -<td class="pavedcond">Good</td> -<td class="area">3,287</td> -<td class="loadint">17</td> -<td class="loadfrac">¹⁄₂</td> -<td class="sweeps">26</td> -<td class="valueint">0</td> -<td class="valueint">8</td> -<td class="valueint">10</td> -<td class="valuefrac">¹⁄₂</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="5" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">Tithebarn Street</td> -<td class="brace padr0">-</td> -<td class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="pavement">Granite setts, ordinary joints</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="pavedcond">1872 and 1874</td> -<td class="pavedcond">Bad</td> -<td class="area">5,150</td> -<td class="loadint">38</td> -<td class="loadfrac"> </td> -<td class="sweeps">26</td> -<td class="valueint">0</td> -<td class="valueint">11</td> -<td class="valueint">2</td> -<td class="valuefrac"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="5" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">West Derby Road</td> -<td class="brace padr0">-</td> -<td class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="pavement">Ditto, asphalte joints</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="pavedcond">1876</td> -<td class="pavedcond">Very good</td> -<td class="area">11,980</td> -<td class="loadint">35</td> -<td class="loadfrac"> </td> -<td class="sweeps">13</td> -<td class="valueint">0</td> -<td class="valueint">9</td> -<td class="valueint">4</td> -<td class="valuefrac">³⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="5" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">Great Howard Street</td> -<td class="brace padr0">-</td> -<td class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="pavement">Ditto</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="pavedcond">1877</td> -<td class="pavedcond">Good</td> -<td class="area">16,860</td> -<td class="loadint">85</td> -<td class="loadfrac"> </td> -<td class="sweeps">13</td> -<td class="valueint">0</td> -<td class="valueint">14</td> -<td class="valueint">4</td> -<td class="valuefrac">¹⁄₂</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="5" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">Great Homer Street</td> -<td class="brace padr0">-</td> -<td class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="pavement">Ditto, ordinary joints</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="pavedcond">Not ascertain-<br />able</td> -<td class="pavedcond">Moderate</td> -<td class="area">15,900</td> -<td class="loadint">85</td> -<td class="loadfrac"> </td> -<td class="sweeps">13</td> -<td class="valueint">0</td> -<td class="valueint">14</td> -<td class="valueint">1</td> -<td class="valuefrac"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="5" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">Kensington Street</td> -<td class="brace padr0">-</td> -<td class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="pavement">Macadam breasted with setts</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="pavedcond">Ditto</td> -<td class="pavedcond">Good</td> -<td class="area">14,540</td> -<td class="loadint">76</td> -<td class="loadfrac"> </td> -<td class="sweeps">13</td> -<td class="valueint">0</td> -<td class="valueint">14</td> -<td class="valueint">3</td> -<td class="valuefrac">³⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="5" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">Stanley Road</td> -<td class="brace padr0">-</td> -<td class="brace bt bb bl"> </td> -<td class="pavement">Ditto</td> -<td class="brace bt br bb"> </td> -<td class="brace padl0 br">-</td> -<td class="pavedcond">Ditto</td> -<td class="pavedcond">Bad</td> -<td class="area">16,534</td> -<td class="loadint">186</td> -<td class="loadfrac"> </td> -<td class="sweeps">13</td> -<td class="valueint">1</td> -<td class="valueint">8</td> -<td class="valueint">9</td> -<td class="valuefrac">¹⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="5" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="2" class="thinline br"> </td> -<td class="thinline br"> </td> -<td colspan="4" class="thinline"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page237">[237]</span></p> - -<p>He adds that the full benefit of the impervious pavements -as regards the cost of scavenging has not yet been felt, for -almost all the lines of streets so paved are intersected at short -distances by streets of ordinary jointed granite setts or -macadam, whence a quantity of mud and refuse is dragged by -the traffic on to the asphalted jointed roadways, which are -consequently debited with the cost of removal of some effete -material not intrinsically belonging to them.</p> - -<p>Mr. Till, the Borough Surveyor of Birmingham, from investigations -he has made on this subject, says that for granite -pavement 2 cart loads of mud have to be removed from every -1000 square yards of surface, one third of a load for wood -pavement<a id="FNanchor167"></a><a href="#Footnote167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> and 4 loads three times a day (a total of 12 loads) -for macadamised roadways.</p> - -<p>The ultimate disposal of the material removed from the -surfaces of roadways especially when they are macadamised is -a difficult matter, as, being chiefly composed of silicate, it is -valueless as a manure.</p> - -<p>In small towns, except during abnormally muddy weather, -it may be mixed with the house refuse and sold to farmers, or -the road scrapings themselves may be used as an excellent -sand, if thoroughly washed, to mix with lime or cement to form -mortar for public works; excessive accumulations of mud, -however, must be got rid of in the most economical and speedy -manner possible, and this is effected either by filling up old -disused quarries with it, or depositing it upon waste lands, or -forming embankments for new roads, but in no case should it -be used, as I have before stated, upon building sites; it is -difficult and expensive to destroy it or partially convert it into -other matters by fire, so that if these methods which I have -enumerated are impracticable, the only other method left for -the disposal of the sweepings or scrapings from the streets is to<span class="pagenum" id="Page238">[238]</span> -take them out to sea in hopper barges and sink them in deep -water.</p> - -<p>The last question that arises on the subject of scavenging -before we consider the disposal of snow, is whether the onus of -cleansing private courts and alleys which are not repairable by -the urban authority should be borne by them or not.</p> - -<p>The great difficulty attached to this duty arises from the -fact that these private courts and alleys are generally very -badly paved, if paved at all, full of pits, where pools of -stagnant mud and water collect, and even in the best cases, the -interstices between the pebbles, or other paving, are filled with -filth arising in great measure from the dirty habits of the people, -and this filth it is found exceedingly difficult to dislodge. The -remedy for this is to compel the owners of the abutting properties -to have the courts and alleys properly paved with -asphalte, or other equally impervious material, after which it -would be easy for the urban authority to cause them to be -swept at least once a day, and flushed with water in the hot -weather once a week, but in order to compel the owners to -execute this very desirable work it would be necessary to put -the complicated machinery of section 150 of the Public Health -Act 1875 in force, and the expense to the landlords would be -in many cases very disproportionate to the value of their -property.</p> - -<p>Out of the ninety towns to which reference has before been -made, the authorities of only nineteen of them cleanse the -private courts and alleys in their jurisdiction, although for the -sake of sanitation it is very desirable that such work should be -so undertaken by them.</p> - -<p>In most towns it is necessary to cleanse its principal streets -at least once a day, and this appears to be the practice of -nearly all the ninety towns I have referred to; only seven of -them, however, appear to have this operation repeated more -frequently; in several towns, the horse droppings, &c., are -removed at once, under what is called the “orderly” system,<span class="pagenum" id="Page239">[239]</span> -and this is especially necessary in streets that are paved with -such materials as wood paving, asphalte, or granite setts. The -suburban streets of a town need only be cleansed once or twice -a week, except in special cases of extremes of mud or snow, -and I will now proceed to discuss the questions involved by -a heavy fall of the latter.</p> - -<p>Experiments have shown that a cubic yard of fresh fallen -snow may weigh as much as 814 pounds or as little as 71 -pounds. Assuming that a cubic foot will weigh 16·38 pounds, -I estimate that for a fall of 3 inches of snow upon a street 36 -feet in width, 20 tons, representing a bulk of about 100 cubic -yards, would have to be removed for every 100 yards of length -of street if it was thought necessary to clear it away.</p> - -<p>Assuming that there are 30 miles of street in a town from -which the snow must be removed; 21,144 loads must be carted -somewhere, at a cost of at least 1,500<i>l.</i>, assuming that each -cart could make ten trips a day, and even then it would take -352 carts a whole week to effect it.</p> - -<p>It may be contended that I have taken an extreme case, and -that, of course, the snow does not lie for very long upon the -ground in the condition in which it fell, and that hourly it is -reducing in bulk and weight by being ground up by the traffic, -and finding its way in the form of water into the sewers. This -may be so, but at the same time it must not be forgotten that -the bulk is also being constantly increased by that which is -shovelled off the house tops<a id="FNanchor168"></a><a href="#Footnote168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> and brought out from private -premises adjoining the streets.</p> - -<p>Upon this point Mr. Hayward, the Engineer to the Commissioners -of Sewers of the City of London, -<span class="nowrap">says<a id="FNanchor169"></a><a href="#Footnote169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a>:—</span></p> - -<p>“Snow readily compresses under the traffic, and when -removed in carts and shot down elsewhere it may be assumed<span class="pagenum" id="Page240">[240]</span> -that on an average four cubic yards of snow measured as it -has fallen is equal to one cubic yard when placed on the -apparatus.” This computation, however, does not make any -allowance for the snow thrown from off the roofs, &c., and it of -course greatly consolidates whilst travelling in the cart.</p> - -<p>Fortunately for a town surveyor in this country, exceptionally -heavy falls of snow are not very frequent, but when they -do happen great pressure is put upon his department to cope -with it, and one of the greatest difficulties he has to contend -against is the disposal of the snow after it has been placed in -the cart.</p> - -<p>If there is a river close by, it can be taken there and tipped, -but this is objectionable if it is a navigable river where dredging -has to be done, as it is surprising what a quantity of road -scrapings and other matters are always removed with the snow, -and these materials naturally sink to the bottom, and add -considerably to the cost of dredging.</p> - -<p>If there are public parks the snow may be heaped in them, -provided no damage is done to the grass or paths, but the -snow thus heaped takes a considerable time to melt, the first -effect of a thaw being to consolidate it: a better plan is to -deposit it upon waste spots, if these are not too far from the -streets which have to be cleared.</p> - -<p>Tipping the snow down the manholes into the sewers has -been tried in London and other cities, but has failed through -the snow consolidating, and although lighted gas jets have -been turned on to the snow, it has still melted too slowly to be -of any practical utility.</p> - -<p>Speaking of Clarke’s apparatus for melting snow, Mr. -Haywood, in the same report from which I have already quoted, -says:</p> - -<p>“It is seldom that a fall of snow occurs sufficiently large to -cause serious interruption to the traffic; heavy snowstorms in -fact occur only once in six or seven years; for some years -therefore these apparatuses if fixed might not be required.<span class="pagenum" id="Page241">[241]</span> -They would either have to be taken out, stored and refixed -yearly or maintained in their places and kept in order there, in -either case at an annual expense.”</p> - -<p>In perusing Mr. Hayward’s report it also appears that the -cost of this apparatus fixed is about 120<i>l.</i>, and the cost of -melting the snow 9<i>d.</i> per cubic yard.</p> - -<p>In order to grapple with this question of the removal of -snow, I am of opinion that it is useless to attempt to cart it -away while falling, but try to make clear crossings for the foot -passengers and to keep the traffic open. If there should be a -high wind at the time, and the snow drifts in consequence, cut -through the drifts so as to allow the vehicular traffic to continue. -Directly the snow ceases to fall put on all available -hands to clear the channel gutters and street gratings, in preparation -for a sudden thaw, when, if these precautions were not -taken, serious flooding and great damage to property might -ensue; for the same reason cart away all the snow you can -at the bottom of gradients and in the valleys, and also -from very narrow streets and passages, &c. In the wider -streets use the snow plough, or with gangs of men (in the -snow season there is generally plenty of labour obtainable), -shovel the snow into a long narrow heap on each side of -the street, taking care to leave the channel gutters and -gratings quite clear, and a sufficient space between the heaps for -at least two lines of traffic. Passages must also be cut at frequent -intervals through the heaps, in order to allow foot passengers -to cross the street, and also to let the water reach the channel -gutters as soon as the snow begins to melt.<a id="FNanchor170"></a><a href="#Footnote170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page242">[242]</span></p> - -<p>The next point to be considered in this chapter is that of -“The proper watering of streets for the whole or any part of -their district.”</p> - -<p>One of the earliest methods for watering streets, but one -which has, I think, almost entirely died out, on account principally -of the large quantity of water used in the process, was that -of allowing the water to run down the channel gutters, ponding -it back by means of canvas or leather aprons placed across -the gutter, and then spreading the water on to the surface of -the street by throwing it with wooden shovels. This method, -which at first sight may appear clumsy, is an exceedingly -good one upon sanitary grounds. It not only lays the dust, -but it washes the surface of the street, and it most effectually -scours out the gutters and at the same time flushes the sewers, -which at the season that watering is necessary is also of great -importance to any town. By this process a delightful freshness -is given to the air, and the appearance of the cool and limpid -water rushing along on each side of the street acts favourably -upon the inhabitants. The great objections to this system are<span class="pagenum" id="Page243">[243]</span> -(1) the enormous quantity of water that is used in the process, -and (2) the difficulty of doing the work after the traffic of -the day has commenced.</p> - -<p>Somewhat of a modification of this process is what is -known as “Brown’s System of Street Watering,” which may -be described as follows:—A lead pipe is laid in the footpath -at the back of the kerb on each side of the street to be -watered, small gratings or shields being fixed in the pipe at -intervals of twelve inches, and the remaining space filled with -asphalte; small holes are then bored in the pipe through -the openings in the shields. The pipe is connected with -the water main in the street, and is provided with the necessary -stopcocks, &c. On the water being turned on, fine jets are -thrown in different directions upon the surface of the street. -The width of roadway that can be watered by this process -depends upon the pressure of the water, but it may be fairly -assumed that in most towns streets of fifty feet width could be -effectually watered in a few minutes by a pipe on each side of -the street.</p> - -<p>This process has not gained much favour hitherto, principally -on account of the large first cost involved, which would -amount to upwards of 800<i>l.</i> per mile of street, but the expense -afterwards should not much exceed the wages of one man at -about 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per day to manipulate the necessary work, and -the interest on the outlay and depreciation of the pipes, &c.</p> - -<p>The other objections to this system <span class="nowrap">are:—</span></p> - -<p>(1.) The liability of the pipes and perforations to get out -of order, especially when allowed to lie idle for so many months -in each year.</p> - -<p>(2.) The unpleasantness to pedestrians which must be -caused whilst the watering is proceeding.</p> - -<p>(3.) The inconvenience to the traffic during the process.</p> - -<p>(4.) The effect upon the water by high winds, when in all -probability it would be blown back across the foot pavement.</p> - -<p>(5.) In very broad streets it would be inoperative.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page244">[244]</span></p> - -<p>In Paris and other continental cities, and also in several -towns in this country, the watering is effected by hose and reels, -or by portable iron tubes.</p> - -<p>Mr. Parry, C.E., the Borough Surveyor of Reading, has -given the following particulars of the system of hand watering -adopted in that borough, in which he gives the cost, and -describes the utility of that method as compared with the use -of water carts:</p> - -<p>A water cart (he states) will water twice a day a superficial -area of 23,849 yards, and for a length watered one width that -means 5,962 lineal yards, or for a double width 2,981 yards, -the cost per day of laying on being as follows:—Horse, cart, -and man, 8<i>s.</i> cost of maintenance of cart, harness, shoeing, &c., -1<i>s.</i> 5<i>d.</i>, making 9<i>s.</i> 5<i>d.</i> per day.</p> - -<p>With respect to the hand machines he states that he has -one of Headley’s drum machines, and three of special make, -somewhat similar to those used in Paris. They are equal in -point of work; and one machine will water 23,740 square -yards twice a day, which, it will be observed, is very close to -the amount of work performed by a cart.</p> - -<p>“Headley’s machine cost us (he continues), five years ago -when new, 31<i>l.</i> 7<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i>, and the repairs and maintenance since -that date have been 22<i>l.</i>, or an average of 4<i>l.</i> 8<i>s.</i> per annum, and -is just now almost past repair. The other description of hand -machine cost each when new 20<i>l.</i>, and the repairs and maintenance -have amounted to an average of 3<i>l.</i> 18<i>s.</i> each year. -They were in use some time before Headley’s was obtained, -and they will be of use for a long time yet. The cost of -labour per day by the hand machines is for two men at 2<i>s.</i> 10<i>d.</i> -each—5<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>—as it requires two men to work the machine -properly, one to distribute the water, and the other to move the -machine and to attach and detach the apparatus to and from -the hydrants; add to this 7<i>d.</i> per day for maintenance and -repairs, will make 6<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i> per day. The quantity of water -delivered by the water carts is 0·51 gallons per square yard, -and by the hand machine 1·30 gallons.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page245">[245]</span></p> - -<p>It will thus be seen that in the case of the cart 24,324 -gallons of water are used per diem, and 61,724 gallons by the -hand machines, the surface watered being very nearly the same -in both cases. Assuming that the water has a commercial -value of 6<i>d.</i> per 1000 gallons, and adding this to the cost per -diem in each case, the total cost stands thus:</p> - -<table class="fsize90" summary="Costs"> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">Hand machines</td> -<td class="right padr1">£1</td> -<td class="right padr1">10<i>s.</i></td> -<td class="right padr1">10<i>d.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4">Carts</td> -<td class="right padr1">£1</td> -<td class="right padr1">1<i>s.</i></td> -<td class="right padr1">7<i>d.</i></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="noindent">the advantage in point of cost being in favour of the carts; but -the hand machine may water better, especially in broad streets, -although in narrow streets or where there is much traffic, this -method would be impracticable.</p> - -<p>In Paris both hose and carts are used for watering the -thoroughfares, the former for the boulevards, the avenues, and -a certain number of first-class streets.</p> - -<p>The most commonly known method in this country for -watering the streets and roads of our towns is that of carrying -the water in wheeled barrels, carts, or vans, and distributing it -therefrom through a perforated pipe upon the surface of the -road as the vehicle is drawn along by a horse attached to the -shafts.<a id="FNanchor171"></a><a href="#Footnote171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a></p> - -<p>The old barrel upon wheels gave place to a cart, and now -we have “Bayley’s Patent Hydrostatic Van,” which is too well -known to almost all town surveyors to need much description. -It holds about 450 gallons of water and takes about 9 minutes -to fill (this time of course varying with the size of main and -pressure of water), and ten minutes to spread the water upon -the surface of the road.</p> - -<p>With regard to the work that one of these vans will accomplish -in comparison to that effected by an ordinary cart,<span class="pagenum" id="Page246">[246]</span> -the following table, compiled from experiments on the question, -will be useful:</p> - -<table class="fsize90" summary="Comparison"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br">Cart<br />or<br />Van.</th> -<th class="br">Contents<br />in<br />Gallons.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">No. of<br />Loads<br />to<br />cover<br />beat.</th> -<th class="br">Total<br />quantity<br />of<br />Water.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Time.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Differ-<br />ence.</th> -<th colspan="2">Gain<br />per<br />Cent.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br"> </th> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th>Hrs.</th> -<th class="br">Mnts.</th> -<th>Hrs.</th> -<th class="br">Mnts.</th> -<th colspan="2"> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4 br">Bayley’s van</td> -<td class="center br">450</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">¹⁄₂</td> -<td class="center br">2475</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="center br">23</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">..</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">..</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td class="left padr4 br">Ordinary cart</td> -<td class="center br">225</td> -<td class="right padr0">11</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">2475</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="center br">50</td> -<td class="center">0</td> -<td class="center br">27</td> -<td class="right padr0">24</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₂</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4 br">Bayley’s van</td> -<td class="center br">450</td> -<td class="right padr0">5</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">¹⁄₂</td> -<td class="center br">2475</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="center br">38</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">..</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">..</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td class="left padr4 br">Ordinary cart</td> -<td class="center br">237</td> -<td class="right padr0">11</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">2607</td> -<td class="center">2</td> -<td class="center br">10</td> -<td class="center">0</td> -<td class="center br">32</td> -<td class="right padr0">25</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4 br">Bayley’s van</td> -<td class="center br">450</td> -<td class="right padr0">6</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">2700</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="center br">45</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">..</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">..</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb"> -<td class="left padr4 br">Ordinary cart</td> -<td class="center br">290</td> -<td class="right padr0">11</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">3190</td> -<td class="center">2</td> -<td class="center br">10</td> -<td class="center">0</td> -<td class="center br">25</td> -<td class="right padr0">19</td> -<td class="left padl0">¹⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr4 br">Bayley’s van</td> -<td class="center br">450</td> -<td class="right padr0">8</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">3600</td> -<td class="center">2</td> -<td class="center br">15</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center br">..</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center">..</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="left padr4 br">Ordinary cart</td> -<td class="center br">260</td> -<td class="right padr0">17</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="center br">4420</td> -<td class="center">3</td> -<td class="center br">30</td> -<td class="center">1</td> -<td class="center br">15</td> -<td class="right padr0">36</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>This shows a mean gain of 26 per cent. in favour of the -van, and the following tables, made by an inspector in 1873, -showing the actual occupation of the ordinary carts and -Bayley’s vans during a day’s work, are extremely interesting, -as showing that while the van is engaged in spreading the -water the time of the cart is wasted in travelling to and from -the stand posts, and when it is borne in mind also that the van -spreads water more widely than the cart, there can be no -doubt that a saving of at least 30 per cent. can be effected by -the substitution of these vans for the old-fashioned cart.</p> - -<table class="occupations" summary="Occupations"> - -<tr> -<td colspan="11" class="center highline3">CARTS</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Filling.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Travelling<br />Full.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Travelling<br />Empty.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Waiting,<br />&c.</th> -<th colspan="2">Spreading.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="right padr1">H.</th> -<th class="right padr1 br">M.</th> -<th class="right padr1">H.</th> -<th class="right padr1 br">M.</th> -<th class="right padr1">H.</th> -<th class="right padr1 br">M.</th> -<th class="right padr1">H.</th> -<th class="right padr1 br">M.</th> -<th class="right padr1">H.</th> -<th class="right padr1">M.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">Paddington</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes br">45</td> -<td class="hours">2</td> -<td class="minutes br">9</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes br">58</td> -<td class="hours">0</td> -<td class="minutes br">20</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes">30</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">St. Saviour’s</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes br">29</td> -<td class="hours">2</td> -<td class="minutes br">16</td> -<td class="hours">2</td> -<td class="minutes br">4</td> -<td class="hours">0</td> -<td class="minutes br">26</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes">29</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">Strand</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes br">11</td> -<td class="hours">2</td> -<td class="minutes br">30</td> -<td class="hours">2</td> -<td class="minutes br">18</td> -<td class="hours">0</td> -<td class="minutes br">17</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes">3</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">Kensington</td> -<td class="hours">4</td> -<td class="minutes br">40</td> -<td class="hours">2</td> -<td class="minutes br">2</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes br">57</td> -<td class="hours">0</td> -<td class="minutes br">0</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes">54</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">Chelsea</td> -<td class="hours">2</td> -<td class="minutes br">44</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes br">15</td> -<td class="hours">2</td> -<td class="minutes br">14</td> -<td class="hours">0</td> -<td class="minutes br">35</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes">6</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="11" class="center highline3 bt bb">VANS.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">Paddington</td> -<td class="hours">3</td> -<td class="minutes br">33</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes br">9</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes br">3</td> -<td class="hours">0</td> -<td class="minutes br">0</td> -<td class="hours">3</td> -<td class="minutes">0</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="street">St. Saviour’s</td> -<td class="hours">2</td> -<td class="minutes br">20</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes br">4</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes br">21</td> -<td class="hours">0</td> -<td class="minutes br">23</td> -<td class="hours">2</td> -<td class="minutes">58</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="street">Strand</td> -<td class="hours">2</td> -<td class="minutes br">30</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes br">25</td> -<td class="hours">1</td> -<td class="minutes br">14</td> -<td class="hours">0</td> -<td class="minutes br">20</td> -<td class="hours">2</td> -<td class="minutes">23</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page247">[247]</span></p> - -<p>In the year 1856, Mr. Scott, C.E., the Chief Surveyor of the -parish of St. Pancras, kept an account of the daily round of -an ordinary water cart, when he found that through an average -working day of 10¹⁄₄ hours, exclusive of the breakfast and -dinner hours, the cart took one hour and twenty minutes -filling, fifty minutes only in distributing the water on the roads, -and eight hours and seven minutes in travelling to spread the -water and back to the stand posts. It was obvious that these -were placed too far apart, and by the subsequent introduction -of additional standposts Mr. Scott found, in the year 1867, -that the filling occupied two hours, the distribution one hour -and thirty minutes, and the travelling to and fro six hours and -thirty minutes; so that it may be assumed, with an ordinary -two-wheeled water cart, that two-thirds of the day is spent -in travelling, one fifth in filling, and about one-seventh in the -actual spreading. But a watch should be kept upon the man -who is engaged in this work, otherwise he will idle away his -time and the streets remain unwatered. A good check upon -this is Mr. Bayley’s Tell-Tale, which registers automatically -on a dial at the side of the van the number of rounds a -man goes each day.</p> - -<p>Watering the streets with sea water should be adopted -whenever it is feasible, as it not only gives a delightful -freshness to the air and dispels iodine, but it also causes the -surface of the street to maintain its humidity for a longer -period than when fresh water is used, as it impregnates the -soil with hygrometric matter. This has been often attempted -artificially, by adding common salt to the water used for -watering, but it is rather too expensive for the benefit -derived.<a id="FNanchor172"></a><a href="#Footnote172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></p> - -<p>Watering the roads with a largely diluted disinfectant<span class="pagenum" id="Page248">[248]</span> -such as “Sanitas” in the liquid form, is frequently of great -benefit, and where it can be afforded, it should be occasionally -done, especially in the narrower streets and more crowded -districts of a city or town, or when an epidemic has broken -out.</p> - -<p>With reference to the very important question as to the -cost of scavenging, street-cleansing and watering. It is, -of course, not possible to lay down any hard and fast -lines, as it must necessarily vary considerably according to -circumstances; much depends upon whether the district is an -urban one, consisting of houses closely packed together, or -whether it is suburban, with scattered villas and mansions -standing in their own grounds; the question, also, of the -distance of the depôts to which the material has to be carted, -considerably affects the result of any estimate, as also does the -cost of horse hire, the rate of wages, and whether the district -is of a hilly or flat nature, and, as I have before shown, the -manner in which the streets are formed and paved, the habits -of the people, the requirements as to cleansing streets and -watering, and last, but not least, the manner of the eventual -disposal of the rubbish after removal; all these points must -bear with great weight upon any question of cost, and make -the results widely different.</p> - -<p>On referring to the returns to which I have more than once -alluded, it is found that the cost of removing the house refuse -and cleansing and sweeping the streets combined, varies considerably -in different localities. In one case the sum amounts -only to the rate of one half-penny per annum per head of the -population of the town, whereas in another case the amount is -at the rate of three shillings and sixpence per head. On -calculating the average cost per head of population per annum -of the ninety towns from which I received replies on this point, -I find that it amounts to about tenpence half-penny, after -giving credit for any sum of money realised by the sale of the -refuse to farmers and others; so that if this work is costing the<span class="pagenum" id="Page249">[249]</span> -ratepayers of a town or city anything under a shilling per head -of the whole population every year, they have no cause to -grumble.</p> - -<p>Before closing this chapter I will make a few observations -upon the subject of contracts for work of this description.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that the “dust and slopping” contractor -is fast going out of fashion,<a id="FNanchor173"></a><a href="#Footnote173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> as it has been found that the work -is far more carefully and systematically carried out without the -intervention of a contractor; for if we turn to the articles of -agreement or contract usually drawn up between a sanitary -authority and a contractor for scavenging, we find that they -must be very binding in their phraseology, and enter fully into -the details of the work; they should state very clearly the -number of times in every week that the contractor shall cause -all the ashpits in the districts enumerated to be emptied and -cleansed, the manner in which this work shall be performed, -and how the materials thus removed shall be disposed of and -the place of their ultimate destination. The conditions should -further specify what amount of manual, team labour, and -carts, are necessary for the work, and also what plant the -contractor must keep in the way of ladders, baskets, shovels, -and brooms, &c. The conditions should also contain a carefully -prepared list of the streets to be swept, and the manner -and number of times this work must be executed, and arrange -for the disposal of the materials thus removed.</p> - -<p>In many such contracts it is found necessary to insert -clauses binding the contractor, under all sorts of penalties, to -be always at the disposal of and under the commands of the -inspector of nuisances, or such other officer or officers as the -sanitary authority may appoint. The contractor’s men also<span class="pagenum" id="Page250">[250]</span> -are forbidden to accept gratuities, and are directed on no -account to remove either trade or garden refuse, and they are -also enjoined to be “careful to consult the convenience of the -householders in their visits, and to thoroughly clean up all dirt -and litter that they may cause in the discharge of their -duties. If they fail in any or either of these injunctions and -commands, or for any other dereliction of duty, the inspector -of nuisances, or such other officer as the sanitary authority -shall appoint, may summarily dismiss them, without any -reference being made on the subject to their employer the -contractor, and in fact the conditions have necessarily to be -made so stringent and binding as to be either totally inoperative -or open to grave abuses, or, on the other hand, the work -can be carelessly and improperly executed by the contractor.</p> - -<p>The consequence of such binding clauses is that the officers, -if they do their strict duty, will probably be engaged in -constant disputes and litigation with the contractor as to the -due and proper observance of the terms of his contract, and -thus their time is much occupied instead of in other more -important matters, which is naturally detrimental to the -interests of the ratepayers.</p> - -<p>I am strongly of opinion that the work of the collection of -house refuse and cleansing the streets should be carried out by -the local authority with their own officers and staff, and that -executing this work by contract is a mistake and a false -economy. It is, perhaps, true that it may be done in the -latter manner at less actual cost to the ratepayers, but all -public work should be done in the best manner possible, -irrespective of cost, thoroughly, but without extravagance, and -the result of such work, especially where it affects the cleanliness -and the appearance of a town, soon fully repays any -moderate extra cost that may thus have been incurred, -irrespective of the enormous benefit that is conferred upon any -community by the reduction of disease and the death-rate by -a proper attention to such necessary sanitary work.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote157"></a><a href="#FNanchor157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> -A <i>rural authority</i> cannot apparently make any byelaw with regard to the -prevention of such nuisances.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote158"></a><a href="#FNanchor158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> -A byelaw under this section “must be limited to imposing upon the -occupier the duty of cleansing or removal at such intervals as the sanitary -authority may think fit. The mode of cleansing or removal and the precautions -to be observed in connection with the process are not matters within the range of -such byelaws.” <i>Vide</i> ‘Memorandum to the Model Byelaws issued by the Local -Government Board for the use of Sanitary Authorities, No. 1, Cleansing of Footways -and Pavements, &c.,’ 1877.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote159"></a><a href="#FNanchor159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> -In Glenn’s ‘Law of Public Health and Local Government,’ 8th edition, in -a footnote to section 44, p. 39, several instances are given of <i>what is not refuse</i>, -such as ashes from furnaces, &c., and it is stated that “the intention of the Act -was that only the rubbish arising from the domestic use of houses should be -removed.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote160"></a><a href="#FNanchor160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> -The Bromley Local Board issue a card on which is printed, amongst other -information with reference to the contract for the removal of house refuse, the -following suggestions:—“It is hoped that householders will as far as possible -facilitate the systematic removal of refuse by providing suitable dust-bins, and -directing their servants that ordinary house refuse only shall be deposited in such -receptacles. The following are some of the items of refuse which the contractors -are bound to remove, viz.:—cinder ashes, potatoe peelings, cabbage leaves, and -kitchen refuse generally. But the contractors are not required to remove the -refuse of any trade, manufacture, or business, or of any building materials or any -garden cuttings or sweepings.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote161"></a><a href="#FNanchor161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> -In New York about 800,000 tons of refuse are disposed of annually in this -manner.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote162"></a><a href="#FNanchor162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> -For a description of the manner in which this is effected at Manchester, see -my book on scavenging, to which I have <a href="#IntRef4">before</a> referred.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote163"></a><a href="#FNanchor163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> -The ashes are mixed with chaff, chopped straw, refuse hay, grass cuttings, -dry street sweepings, wool and hair, shoddy, &c., and a small percentage of -sulphate of iron or lime.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote164"></a><a href="#FNanchor164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> -Professor Tyndall, in his beautiful experiments, has proved that dusty air is -alive with the germs of the bacteria of putrefaction, whilst the pure fresh air which -he gathered on a mountain peak in the Alps is innocent of such germs, and is -absolutely powerless to produce any organisms.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote165"></a><a href="#FNanchor165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> -Dry dust will absorb about ten times its bulk of water, thus swelling considerably -and producing the greasy mud so often seen after rain.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote166"></a><a href="#FNanchor166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> -In Boston, U.S.A., the macadamised roads are not swept at all, as it is considered -that by sweeping off the sand and detritus their durability is much lessened, -but their gutters are cleansed as required, and rubbish picked up. (<i>Vide</i> ‘Minutes -of Proceedings Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lxiii. p. 368.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote167"></a><a href="#FNanchor167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> -In Regent Street, London, in November 1881, I saw four loads of mud -removed from about 1000 square yards of surface, it being then almost new wood -pavement.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote168"></a><a href="#FNanchor168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> -See note under “Other Obstructions and Nuisances,” p. 155, 8th edition, -Glen’s ‘Law of Public Health and Local Government.’</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote169"></a><a href="#FNanchor169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Report to the Streets Committee of the Honourable the Commissioners -of Sewers of the City of London on Melting Snow by Clarke’s Apparatus,’ by -William Haywood, Engineer and Surveyor to the Commission, 1881, p. 9.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote170"></a><a href="#FNanchor170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> -With regard to the removal of snow from the footpaths, it is highly desirable -that this should be effected by the occupiers of the premises adjacent to the street, -as otherwise it adds immensely to the work of the local authority. The following -interesting remarks by the superintendent of the scavenging department of Liverpool -will be no doubt read with great interest: -</p> -<p> -“The only way to compass the removal of snow from the footwalks of the -principal thoroughfares within a comparatively short time, is by sprinkling them -with salt, such as is commonly used for agricultural purposes. It is certain that, -unaided by the salt, a sufficient number of men cannot be procured for the -emergency of clearing snow from the footways of the most important thoroughfares. -It has been stated by medical authorities that the application of salt to -snow is detrimental to the health of people who have to walk through the ‘slush’ -produced by the mixture, and that the excessive cooling of the air surrounding -the places where the application has been made is injurious to delicate persons. -It therefore seems that the application of salt to snow should not be undertaken -during the day time, but should be commenced not before 11 p.m., nor continued -after 6 a.m., and that only such an area of footwalks should be so treated on any -one night as the available staff of men can clear by an early hour the following -morning.</p> - -<p>“To sweep snow from the footwalks whilst the fall of snow continues, and -especially during business hours, appears to be wasteful and futile, and to apply -salt during the same periods may be held to be injurious to health.</p> - -<p>“That the snow of an ordinary fall can be removed from the footwalks by an -application of salt an hour or so before they are scraped is an ascertained fact, -except at least when a moderately severe frost has preceded, accompanied, or -followed the snow-fall, or when the snow has drifted into extensive accumulations. -Were it not for the danger to health by excessive cooling of the air, and for the -expense attending the operation, all the impervious pavements could be cleared -of snow (unless the fall was a heavy one) in a comparatively short time by a -liberal application of salt and the employment of the horse sweeping machines as -soon as the snow had become sufficiently softened to admit of their use.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote171"></a><a href="#FNanchor171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> -In the metropolis of London alone, the watering of the streets and roads -employs, in addition to a staff of inspectors and foremen, about 1500 men, and an -equal number of horses and carts; and in order to lay the dust effectually, about -30,000 tons of water must be spread upon the streets every dry day, the cost of -this gigantic work being nearly 200,000<i>l.</i> per annum upon an average of 120 days -when watering becomes necessary.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote172"></a><a href="#FNanchor172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> -In Rouen, where chloride of calcium is obtained from the manufactories of -pyroligneous acid in the neighbourhood, it is mixed with the water for use on the -roads, and it is stated that on a mile of road, 16 feet in width, 5630 gallons of -water were necessary daily, but that the same result was attained with 1480 gallons -of chloride solution, marking 30° Baumé, and costing about ¹⁄₂<i>d.</i> per gallon, the -humectation remaining good for five or six days with the solution of chloride. -With water only in 1093 yards, in four rounds daily, 3520 gallons were used, the -cost being 48<i>s.</i>; with chloride of calcium the cost was 32<i>s.</i> per day.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote173"></a><a href="#FNanchor173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> -Amongst the questions which I addressed to the surveyors of the principal -towns of England in 1879 was the following:—“Is the house refuse collected by the -sanitary authority or by a contractor?” and out of the ninety towns from which I -received replies, only thirty were found to employ contractors for this purpose, -and of these the authorities of two of them proposed to dispense with the services -of the contractor, and to administrate the work with their own staff, as they found -the existing state of things was thoroughly unsatisfactory.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page251">[251]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XX.<br /> -<span class="chapname">SEWERAGE.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">The Public Health Act 1875 contains a considerable number -of clauses dealing with the subject of the sewers of a town, but -two of the shortest sections in the whole Act, and yet those -that involve a considerable amount of work in the town -surveyor’s department, are the following:</p> - -<p>“Every local authority shall keep in repair<a id="FNanchor174"></a><a href="#Footnote174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> all sewers -belonging to them, and shall cause to be made such sewers as -may be necessary for effectually draining their district for the -purposes of this Act”<a id="FNanchor175"></a><a href="#Footnote175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 15).</p> - -<p>“Every local authority shall cause the sewers belonging to -them to be constructed, covered, ventilated,<a id="FNanchor176"></a><a href="#Footnote176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> and kept so as -not to be a nuisance or injurious to health, and to be properly -cleansed and emptied”<a id="FNanchor177"></a><a href="#Footnote177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 19).</p> - -<p>As to what sewers do “belong” to the local authority, -the following section of the Public Health Act 1875 states:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page252">[252]</span></p> - -<p>“All existing and future sewers within the district of a -local authority, together with all buildings, works, materials, -and things belonging thereto,</p> - -<p>“Except</p> - -<p>“(1.) Sewers made by any person for his own profit, or -by any company for the profit of the shareholders; and</p> - -<p>“(2.) Sewers made and used for the purpose of draining, -preserving, or improving land under any local or private -Act of Parliament, or for the purpose of irrigating land; and</p> - -<p>“(3.) Sewers under the authority of any commissioners of -sewers appointed by the Crown,</p> - -<p class="noindent">shall vest in and be under the control of such local -authority.</p> - -<p>“Provided that sewers within the district of a local -authority which have been, or which may hereafter be constructed -by or transferred to some other local authority, or by -or to a sewage board or other authority empowered under -any Act of Parliament to construct sewers, shall (subject to -any agreement to the contrary) vest in and be under the -control of the authority who constructed the same, or to -whom the same have been transferred” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, -s. 13).</p> - -<p>And as to the definition of the word “sewer,” the same -Act states:</p> - -<p>“‘Sewer’ includes sewers and drains of every description, -except drains to which the word ‘drain’<a id="FNanchor178"></a><a href="#Footnote178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> interpreted as -aforesaid applies, and except drains vested in or under the -control of any authority having the management of roads and -not being a local authority under this Act.”</p> - -<p>The result of this acquisition by the local authority of the -sewers in their district is, that in most of the old cities and -towns a legacy of very defective and imperfect sewers has -been inherited, and considerable expense in their repair and -maintenance has thus been entailed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page253">[253]</span></p> - -<p>A great number of books have been written on the subject -of sewerage, and much valuable information has been published -from time to time, so that it almost seems superfluous -to say much upon the subject; however, a few remarks which -are particularly applicable to the work of a town surveyor may -be of some service.</p> - -<p>The word <i>sewerage</i> may be taken as meaning a system of -sewers carrying <i>sewage</i> which is the fluid and feculent refuse -from dwellings and their yards, &c. Sewage is generally -found mixed with rain water from the surface of the streets -and roofs of houses, together with the liquid waste products -from manufactories,<a id="FNanchor179"></a><a href="#Footnote179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> and sometimes, although very improperly, -with subsoil water.</p> - -<p>A good system of sewerage should embrace the whole of -the following <span class="nowrap">requirements:—</span></p> - -<p>(1.) Each sewer should be laid at such a depth as will -readily drain the basements of the adjoining buildings.</p> - -<p>(2.) Its area and gradient must be so regulated as to -make it self-cleansing, and at the same time carry off -effectively the maximum quantity of liquid for which it is -intended.<a id="FNanchor180"></a><a href="#Footnote180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p> - -<p>(3.) Each sewer should (unless quite impracticable) be laid -in straight lines and with even gradients between man- or -lamp-holes, and these gradients must not be excessive, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page254">[254]</span> -damage may be caused to the sewer. A velocity of about -6 feet per second is sufficient.</p> - -<p>(4.) Sewers must be laid at proper levels in respect of -their intersection with each other, bearing in mind that they -are all generally converging to one point.</p> - -<p>(5.) Manholes should be of simple construction; circular -brickwork upon concrete is a convenient description. They -may be made to serve the additional purposes of ventilating -shafts, flushing chambers, junction shafts, storm overflows, and -side entrances.</p> - -<p>(6.) Tributary sewers or drains should not join the main -sewers at right angles unless the bottom of the manhole is so -constructed as to give the required curve in the direction of -the flow of the sewage, and they should join at a height (if of -unequal section) equal to the difference of their sectional -diameters, the aim of all junctions being to cause as little -disturbance as possible in the proper flow of the liquids along -their respective channels.</p> - -<p>(7.) Sewers should not be constructed of too large a sectional -area, but none should be less than 6 inches internal -diameter, as house-drains in this country are never less than -4 inches diameter, and the main sewer should of course be -larger than its tributaries. It is also rather difficult to ventilate -a smaller sewer than 6 inches, and very little is saved by -putting in a smaller sewer than that.</p> - -<p>Stoneware pipes of greater diameter than 18 inches should -never be used. Where larger sewers are constructed they -should be either concrete pipes,<a id="FNanchor181"></a><a href="#Footnote181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> or brickwork or concrete -should be employed.</p> - -<p>The position of the sewer should, if possible, be behind the -houses for the following <span class="nowrap">reasons:—</span></p> - -<p>(1.) The waterclosets, sinks, &c., being nearly always at<span class="pagenum" id="Page255">[255]</span> -the back, a drain under the house (which is always objectionable) -is avoided.</p> - -<p>(2.) Economy is secured to the owner of the property, as a -shorter length of drain is required than if the sewer was in the -front.</p> - -<p>(3.) A better fall is usually obtained.</p> - -<p>(4.) Where there is a separate or partially separate -system of sewerage, a double sewer in the street is avoided.</p> - -<p>The only objection to this method being that of the -chance of the sewer becoming choked or broken when entry -has to be made into private property to repair it, but this -ought never to happen after once the sewer has been properly -constructed. Of course, where houses are closely packed -together it would not be possible to carry the sewer at the -back, but where it can be done I agree thoroughly with -Mr. Rawlinson, C.B., C.E., &c., who, speaking of this method, -says, “I know nothing but good of it.”</p> - -<p>Where the sewer is proposed to be taken through any -private lands it is necessary to act in accordance with the -following clause of the Public Health Act 1875, and serve -the necessary notices, a specimen form of which also -follows:</p> - -<p>“Any local authority may carry any sewer through, across, -or under any turnpike road, or any street or place laid out as -or intended for a street, or under any cellar or vault which may -be under the pavement or carriageway of any street, and, after -giving reasonable notice in writing to the owner or occupier -(if on the report of the surveyor it appears necessary), into, -through, or under any lands<a id="FNanchor182"></a><a href="#Footnote182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> whatsoever within their district. -They may also (subject to the provisions of this Act relating -to sewage works without the district of the local authority) -exercise all or any of the powers given by this section without<span class="pagenum" id="Page256">[256]</span> -their district for the purposes of outfall or distribution of -sewage” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 16).</p> - -<p>The form of notice necessary to be served before entry upon -any lands for the purpose of carrying out any sewerage works -may be on the following <span class="nowrap">pattern:—</span></p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p class="center highline2">“<span class="smcap">Notice is hereby given.</span></p> - -<p>“1. That the mayor, aldermen, and burgesses of the -borough of <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>,</span> in execution of the powers and authorities -given to and vested in them by virtue of the Public Health -Act 1875, upon the report of their surveyor, whereby it -appears to the said authority to be necessary to enter into, -through, or under the lands and premises particularly described -in the schedule hereunder written, for the several purposes -hereinafter mentioned, the said mayor, aldermen, and burgesses -will immediately after the <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> day of <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> enter into and -upon the premises described in the said schedule hereto, and -on the plan hereinafter mentioned numbered <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl2 padr2"> </span>,</span> for the -purpose of <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> in, through, or under the said lands and -premises <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>,</span> and to construct all other necessary works for -all or any of the purposes aforesaid.</p> - -<p>“2. The course of the said sewer is indicated by a line -drawn on the said plan from the point <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> to -<span class="nowrap"><span class="padl2 padr2"> </span>.</span></p> - -<p>“And notice is hereby further given that a plan of the -intended works, and of the lands and premises upon which it -is intended to enter for the construction of the same, is now -open for inspection, between the hours of 10 in the forenoon -and 4 in the afternoon, and may then be seen at the offices of -the borough surveyor, <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> Street, -<span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>,</span> and a tracing -thereof is hereunto annexed.</p> - -<p>Dated this <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> day of -<span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> <span class="nowrap">18 .</span></p> - -<div class="signed"> - -<p class="center">________________________________<br /> -<i>Town Clerk.</i>”<a id="FNanchor183"></a><a href="#Footnote183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a></p> - -</div><!--signed--> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page257">[257]</span></p> - -<p class="center highline2"><span class="smcap">The Schedule Referred to.</span></p> - -<table class="schedule" summary="Form"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br w15pc">No. on plan.</th> -<th class="br">Description<br />of premises.</th> -<th class="br w15pc">Where situate.</th> -<th class="br w15pc">Owner.</th> -<th class="w15pc">Occupier.</th> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="blank br"> </td> -<td class="blank br"> </td> -<td class="blank br"> </td> -<td class="blank br"> </td> -<td class="blank"> </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>In carrying out works of sewerage the greatest care is -necessary in the materials selected and the manner in which -the work is executed. Tunnels and shafts must be most carefully -timbered, levels very accurately given and adhered to, -and for this purpose sight rails and long boning rods can be -used with great advantage. In running sands, or where the -line of an old sewer is being followed, or in fact anywhere -where a good and quick joint is required, “Stanford’s” patent -jointed pipes should be used.</p> - -<p>“This joint is made by casting, upon the spigot and in the -socket of each pipe, rings of durable material, which, when put -together, fit mechanically into each other, as in a bored and -turned joint; it needs no skilled labour in fixing, only a little -grease, allows of slight settlement of the pipes without -injury, and requires neither cement, clay, nor other extraneous -material, the pipes containing a perfect joint within themselves.”</p> - -<p>Breakages sometimes occur in stoneware pipe sewers after<span class="pagenum" id="Page258">[258]</span> -they are laid, which generally are found on examination to -arise from one of the following causes:</p> - -<p>(1.) Laying the pipes on a rigid foundation without recessing -the sockets so as to give an even bearing.</p> - -<p>(2.) Laying the pipes on foundations which afterwards -yield or settle.</p> - -<p>(3.) Laying the pipes at too great a depth without protection -by concrete or otherwise to resist the pressure of the -superincumbent earth, or by not sufficiently punning the -filling-in, when a sudden settlement will often crack or crush a -pipe.</p> - -<p>(4.) Accidental or wilful injuries to pipes which are not -noticed before the trench is filled in.</p> - -<p>(5.) Laying the pipes at too shallow a depth without protection, -when heavy traffic or a falling weight upon the surface -will crush or crack a pipe.</p> - -<p>(6.) Defective or weak pipes.<a id="FNanchor184"></a><a href="#Footnote184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a></p> - -<p>The following plates give the different forms of sewerage -pipes that are now manufactured in this country, in addition to -those of common shapes:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page259">[259]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo278a.png" alt="" width="405" height="176" /> -<p class="caption">BROOKE’S PATENT SUBSOIL DRAINS AND PIPE-RESTS.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo278b.png" alt="" width="349" height="147" /> -<p class="caption">CREEKE’S PATENT CAPPED PIPES.</p> -</div> - -<div class="scr"> - -<div class="splitp259"> - -<div class="leftsplit"> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo278c.png" alt="" width="359" height="130" /> -<p class="caption">MAWBEY’S PATENT GROOVED SOCKET-PIPES.</p> -</div> - -</div><!--leftsplit--> - -<div class="rightsplit"> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo278d.png" alt="" width="132" height="130" /> -<p class="caption">HENRY SHARP, JONES, & CO.’S -ROCK-CONCRETE PIPES.</p> -</div> - -</div><!--rightsplit--> - -<p class="thinline allclear"> </p> - -</div><!--splitp259--> - -</div><!--scr--> - -<div class="hh"> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo278c.png" alt="" width="359" height="130" /> -<p class="caption">MAWBEY’S PATENT GROOVED SOCKET-PIPES.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo278d.png" alt="" width="132" height="130" /> -<p class="caption">HENRY SHARP, JONES, & CO.’S -ROCK-CONCRETE PIPES.</p> -</div> - -</div><!--hh--> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo278e.png" alt="" width="600" height="348" /> -<p class="caption">JENNING’S PATENT CHAIR AND SADDLE PIPES.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page260">[260]</span></p> - -<p>The chokage in pipe sewers generally arises from one or -more of the following <span class="nowrap">causes:—</span></p> - -<p>(1.) Improper gradients.</p> - -<p>(2.) Insufficient flush.<a id="FNanchor185"></a><a href="#Footnote185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a></p> - -<p>(3.) Foreign articles finding their way into and choking the -sewer.</p> - -<p>(4.) Defective joints through which the liquid runs leaving -solid matters behind.</p> - -<p>(5.) An excess of road detritus or of ashes, through the -house closets of the poor, finding their way into the sewer.</p> - -<p>(6.) Improper bends in the line of sewer.</p> - -<p>(7.) Right-angle or improper junctions being formed with -the sewer.</p> - -<p>(8.) A collapse of the sewer.</p> - -<p>A temporary chokage in a small-sized sewer which does -not arise from any structural defect can be speedily and effectually -remedied by the use of Ben Reed’s patent drain-cleaning -rods, which are probably too well known to every -town surveyor to need any description, but in conjuction with -man- or lamp-holes and straight lines of sewers they are very -valuable.</p> - -<p>Before closing this chapter, a few words upon what is -called the “separate system of sewerage” may be of use.</p> - -<p>The mistake hitherto made has been to try to absolutely -separate all rainfall from the sewers, and there is no doubt that -a partial separation of the rain-water from the sewage proper -has many advantages; but it must be understood that a great -deal of the rain-water that falls upon roofs of buildings and in -back yards and small back streets must of necessity be -carried into the sewers, as well as liquid refuse from manufactories. -A partial separation thus carried out has the -following advantages:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page261">[261]</span></p> - -<p>(1.) It is not necessary to have sewers of enormous -diameter.</p> - -<p>(2.) The depth of the surface water conduits need not be -so great as that which is necessary for sewers.</p> - -<p>(3.) The avoidance of road detritus being washed into the -sewers.</p> - -<p>(4.) Where the sewage has to be pumped or treated -chemically or put on the land, the combined system causes -an immense unwieldy bulk of liquid to be at times dealt -with.<a id="FNanchor186"></a><a href="#Footnote186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a></p> - -<p>(5.) The sewers may be placed at the back of the houses, -a great advantage which cannot be carried out under the -combined system.</p> - -<p>(6.) The regularity in the amount of flow of sewage.</p> - -<p>(7.) The accuracy with which the quantity of sewage may -be calculated and the sizes of sewers apportioned.</p> - -<p>(8.) Economy both to the general rates and also to -individuals in carrying out their connections.</p> - -<p>(9.) Where old and defective sewers exist they are often -fitted to carry surface water, but are quite inappropriate as -sewers.</p> - -<p>No rules, however, can be laid down with regard to this -question, as each town or district must be treated as the case -requires.</p> - -<p>In conclusion, I will mention the different methods at -present in vogue for the sewerage of towns.</p> - -<p>(1.) The combined system, where all sewage, surface water, -manufacturers’ refuse, and subsoil waters are carried in the -same sewer.</p> - -<p>(2.) Similar to the above, the subsoil water, however, being -carefully excluded.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page262">[262]</span></p> - -<p>(3.) The partially separate system.</p> - -<p>(4.) The absolutely separate system, where there are three -sets of sewers, one for sewage proper, one for surface water, -and one for subsoil water.</p> - -<p>(5.) The “Lieurner” system, which professes to remove -all sewage by exhausting the air in the sewers and drains.</p> - -<p>(6.) “Shone’s” pneumatic ejector system, which is described -as <span class="nowrap">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>“The ejectors are cast-iron receivers of a suitable form, -placed underground at depths to suit the locality, into which -ejectors the sewage flows through the ordinary pipe drains -from the houses. As the liquid rises in the interior of the -ejector, and when full, it lifts a valve and admits compressed -air from an engine which supplies the entire district. The -ejectors are thus emptied of their contents, which are blown -out in about eighty seconds of time, and the sewage passes -through cast-iron main pipes of suitable diameters to the land, -or other outlet provided to receive it, or it may be distributed -upon the waste land as it passes through.”</p> - -<p>(7.) The dry systems, which consist <span class="nowrap">of—</span></p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) Earth closets;</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) Tubs, as the Goux, &c.;</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) Pails, as the Rochdale;</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) Middens.</p> - -<p>But all these dry systems require some system of sewers -to carry off rain-water, slop-water, &c., and in my opinion are -not suitable for very large communities.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote174"></a><a href="#FNanchor174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> -If the sewers vested in and belonging to a local authority are allowed by -their negligence to get out of repair, they are liable to an action for damages -(<i>Vide</i> ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health Act,’ 3rd edition, p. 19). Keeping in repair does -not, however, include construction of entirely new works. (<i>Ibid.</i>)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote175"></a><a href="#FNanchor175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> -The sewers provided by a local authority must be sufficient to carry off the -ordinary sewage and rainfall of the district, but they need not be sufficient to -carry off an extraordinary flow of water caused by a storm; damage caused by -that comes under the definition of damage caused by the act of God, for which -there is no individual responsibility (<i>Ibid.</i> p. 20). This clause seems to insist -upon sewers carrying the rainfall.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote176"></a><a href="#FNanchor176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> -See chapter on “<a href="#Page271">Ventilation of Sewers</a>.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote177"></a><a href="#FNanchor177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> -A local authority is not to be held liable for not keeping their sewers -cleansed at all events and under all circumstances, but only where by the exercise -of reasonable care and skill they can be kept cleansed. They are, however, -liable, in case they make default in observing the requirements, to have an injunction -filed against them and to be restrained by injunction from allowing the continuance -of the nuisance. (<i>Ibid.</i> p. 23.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote178"></a><a href="#FNanchor178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> -For the legal definition of “drain,” see the chapter on “<a href="#Page303">House Drainage</a>.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote179"></a><a href="#FNanchor179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> -Facilities must be given to enable manufacturers to send the liquids proceeding -from their works into the public sewers, provided the sewers are more -than sufficient for the requirements of the district, or if the liquids would not -prejudicially affect the sewers, or from their temperature or otherwise be injurious -in a sanitary point of view. <i>Vide</i> Rivers Pollution Act 1876 (39 & 40 Vic. c. 75, -s. 7). But this question is often greatly disputed, and has led to much -litigation.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote180"></a><a href="#FNanchor180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> -If everything has to be carried in a sewer, the following provisions must be -<span class="nowrap">made:—</span></p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) The house sewage which may be calculated from the water supply.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Manufacturers’ refuse.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) Rainfall, which is a very uncertain quantity.</p> - -<p>(<i>d</i>) The subsoil water should certainly be dealt with, but it should on no -account be permitted to enter the sewers themselves; separate provision under -the main sewers should be provided for this purpose.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote181"></a><a href="#FNanchor181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> -Messrs. Sharp, Jones and Co., of Bournemouth, make most excellent concrete -pipes up to 36 inches in diameter, which can be economically and advantageously -used in many instances, and are gaining every day in popularity with engineers.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote182"></a><a href="#FNanchor182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> -The definition of “lands” as given in the Public Health Act 1875, is as -follows:—“‘lands’ and ‘premises’ include messuages, buildings, lands, easements, -and hereditaments of any tenure” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 4).</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote183"></a><a href="#FNanchor183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> -Notices may be signed either by the clerk to the local authority or their -surveyor (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 266).</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote184"></a><a href="#FNanchor184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> -The thickness of stoneware pipe sewers should be as follows:</p> - -<table class="fsize90" summary="Pipes"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="w20m br"> </th> -<th class="br">Internal<br />diameter<br />of pipe.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">Thickness<br />of<br />material.</th> -<th class="w20m"> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<th class="br"> </th> -<th class="br">in.</th> -<th colspan="2" class="br">in.</th> -<th> </th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td rowspan="7" class="br"> </td> -<td class="right padr4 br">3</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0 br">¹⁄₂</td> -<td rowspan="7"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr4 br">4</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0 br">⁵⁄₈</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr4 br">6</td> -<td> </td> -<td class="left padl0 br">³⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr4 br">9</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 br"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr4 br">12</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">¹⁄₈</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="right padr4 br">15</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">¹⁄₄</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="right padr4 br">18</td> -<td class="right padr0">1</td> -<td class="left padl0 br">³⁄₈</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The thickness of fire clay or earthenware pipes should be slightly in excess of -those given for stoneware.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote185"></a><a href="#FNanchor185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> -The patent automatic flushing arrangement by Mr. Rogers Field, C.E., is -an excellent apparatus for lessening the chances of a sewer becoming choked from -this cause.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote186"></a><a href="#FNanchor186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> -It is necessary in many towns where the combined system is in force, and -the sewage has to be pumped when heavy rains commence, to put temporary -clay dams round the street gratings to prevent the surface water from entering -the sewers, thus at once showing the inability of the system to deal with flood -waters.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page263">[263]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XXI.<br /> -<span class="chapname">SEWAGE DISPOSAL.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">The magnitude of the question of “sewage disposal” -almost decided me to refrain from making any remarks -upon it, but on reconsideration I thought a few might be -serviceable.</p> - -<p>Sewage disposal means the getting rid of the foul water -contained in the sewerage system of any community.</p> - -<p>Where a dry method is in force for the collection of the -excrementitious matters it is called “interception”; the following -are some of the systems which effect <span class="nowrap">it:—</span></p> - -<p>Privies, ashpits, middens, cesspools, pails, troughs, the -“Rochdale,” the “Eureka,” the “Goux,” Fosses Permanentes, -Fosses Mobiles, and Moule’s, Taylor’s, and Phillip’s earth -closets.</p> - -<p>The collection and disposal of the mass of excrement -under these dry systems is found to be a very troublesome -matter, and they are at their best but inferior substitutes for -water carriage, nor must it be forgotten that sewers and -drains are necessary even if a good interception process is in -force. I shall therefore confine my remarks to the disposal of -water-carried sewage.</p> - -<p>Many books have been written, many valuable reports -have been prepared and issued, lengthy papers and discussions -have been frequent at the meetings of scientific societies, and -almost innumerable pamphlets have been published upon this -important sanitary subject. Some millions of money have -also been spent in trying to deal satisfactorily with this question, -not only with a view to the purification of the effluent of -the sewage, but also to endeavour to make a profit out of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page264">[264]</span> -residuals.<a id="FNanchor187"></a><a href="#Footnote187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> The result of this literature, discussion, and -experiment has led to the following conclusions:</p> - -<p>No hard and fast lines can be laid down as to the best -method to be adopted for the disposal of the sewage of any -town, but the peculiar circumstances of each case must be -considered before advice could be given on the subject: -geographical position, physical arrangement, habits of the -population, and the character and quantity of the sewage of -the town being some of the most important.</p> - -<p>In any case it is necessary that the transmission of the -sewage to the outfall should be effected as speedily as possible, -and that the position of this outfall should be such as to cause -no nuisance. The contents of the sewers should, if possible, -be emptied by gravitation, as pumping is a constant expense, -and economy with efficiency must of course be studied.</p> - -<p>Up to the present time the following are the methods -adopted in this country for the disposal of sewage:</p> - -<p>(1.) Passing the sewage in its crude state into the sea or -tidal river.</p> - -<p>(2.) Passing the sewage in its crude state over large tracts -of land; this is called broad irrigation.</p> - -<p>(3.) Passing the sewage in its crude state on to small tracts -of land previously prepared by deep drainage; this is called -intermittent downward filtration.</p> - -<p>(4.) Mechanical subsidence of the sewage in large tanks, -the effluent passing on to land or into a river.</p> - -<p>(5.) Mechanical filtration of the sewage, the effluent passing -on to land or into a river.</p> - -<p>(6.) The introduction of lime or other precipitant into the -sewage, which is allowed to settle in tanks, the effluent passing -on to land or into a river.</p> - -<p>Very little need be said upon the first of these methods. -Many engineers of high standing contend that, where practicable,<span class="pagenum" id="Page265">[265]</span> -the sea or the tidal estuary of a river is the right place -for the sewage, as no costly works are necessary, and an -abominable nuisance is thus got rid of at once and for ever. -To ensure this, however, great care must be exercised in the -selection of the site for the outfall. Float observations should -be made, not only of the surface tides and currents, but also of -those at different depths, and the effect upon the sewage by its -different specific gravity from that of the salt water must be -allowed for, as well as the difference of level of the tides and -the configuration of the adjoining coast line.</p> - -<p>The second method, that of broad irrigation, is one that -finds considerable favour with a large number of engineers -and agriculturists. The great sewage-disposal cry has -always been, “Put back on the land what you have taken -from it, or some day there will be no beef and no bread.” -The difficulty is to always find land in sufficient quantity and -so situated as to be available for this purpose. Almost any -soil is, however, suitable for irrigation, provided it is well and -properly drained. The quantity of sewage which should be -used for this purpose per acre of land varies considerably, as -will be seen on reference to a table prepared by Mr. Henry -Robinson,<a id="FNanchor188"></a><a href="#Footnote188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> where the number of inhabitants to each acre -irrigated is in one case (Leamington) stated to be 55, in -another (Blackburn) 208,<a id="FNanchor189"></a><a href="#Footnote189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> the average being 137, the number -of gallons per head of population per diem being 38.</p> - -<p>It may be useful to state here that a hundred tons of -sewage will cover an acre of land 1 inch in depth, and that the -value of sewage as a manure is said to vary from ¹⁄₂<i>d.</i> to 2<i>d.</i> per -ton, or, calculated in another manner, about 10<i>d.</i> per head of -population per annum.</p> - -<p>The best crops for a sewage farm (in addition to nearly all -kinds of market-garden produce) are rye-grass, mangolds, -beetroot, cabbages, carrots, potatoes, turnips, rabi, parsnips,<span class="pagenum" id="Page266">[266]</span> -lucerne, beans, wheat, oats, and barley; the cereals, however, -are apt to run rather to straw, and some care is also necessary -not to oversewage potatoes and some other root crops. -Grazing cattle or cows can also be carried on with advantage, -the presence of sewage having no effect either on the milk or -flesh of animals fed on sewage farms.</p> - -<p>The third method, that of intermittent downward filtration, -is really irrigation of land to such an extent as the land will -filter or purify the sewage, the effluent passing off pure, irrespective -of any effect upon the crops which may be growing -upon the land.</p> - -<p>Great discussions have arisen (the principal battle-ground -being Merthyr Tydvil) as to the maximum quantity of sewage -which an acre of properly prepared land will treat, some of the -champions of this system contending that a good porous soil -properly drained to a depth of six feet will purify the sewage -of 6000 persons per acre, others that only the sewage of 250 -persons can be so treated.<a id="FNanchor190"></a><a href="#Footnote190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a></p> - -<p>There can be no doubt that earth has a most powerful -deodorising power. Laboratory experiments have shown that -as much as eight gallons of sewage can be filtered through a -cubic yard of loamy soil in twenty-four hours, the soil being -drained at a depth of six feet, the effluent therefrom having -obtained a wonderful degree of purity. Much, however, must -depend upon the character of the soil of the filtering area and -the strength of the sewage which is being operated upon.</p> - -<p>The following description of the manner in which the earth -acts upon sewage will be of interest:</p> - -<p>“The fæcal matters and other impurities attached themselves -to the surfaces of the particles of earth by a kind of -cohesive attraction, and in this state were readily attacked by<span class="pagenum" id="Page267">[267]</span> -the oxygen of the air. Their organic carbon became carbonic -acid, their nitrogen was converted into nitrous or nitric acid, -which united with the lime, magnesia, and other basic matters -present. Mechanically suspended impurities were arrested as -by a sieve, and the water issued from beneath—not indeed -fit for dietetic or domestic purposes, but at any rate in a fair -state of purity and quite inoffensive to the senses.” (<i>Vide</i> -W. Crookes in the discussion on the Sewage Question by -Norman Bazalgette, ‘Min. of Proceedings of the Institution of -Civil Engineers,’ vol. xlviii. p. 164.)</p> - -<p>The land thus used as a sewage filter requires constant -aëration by being dug over or ploughed, and if this precaution is -taken, it is surprising to what a wonderful extent the land will -take sewage without becoming what is called “sewage sick.” -Clay soils are, however, stated to be ill-adapted for this purpose.</p> - -<p>The next method, that of mechanical subsidence of the -sewage in large tanks, has been attempted in conjunction with -irrigation and filtration without much benefit, nor has the fifth -method I have mentioned, viz., that of mechanical filtration of -the sewage, met with any better result. Artificial filters have -been constructed of burnt clay, cinders, coke, charcoal, peat, -chalk, gravel, broken stone, sand, spongy iron (this is now -being applied very successfully for the purification of water), -straw, cocoa-nut matting, wicker-work, and wire gauze of -different degrees of fineness of mesh.</p> - -<p>The late Mr. Odams spent a considerable sum in endeavouring -to strain sewage through revolving screens of wire -gauze with but little success, and Mr. Bannehr has striven to -achieve the same object by passing sewage over oscillating -screens of the like material.</p> - -<p>In all these cases of mechanical filtration, however, the -effluent has either not been sufficiently pure or the screens -and filters have become clogged and refused to act.<a id="FNanchor191"></a><a href="#Footnote191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page268">[268]</span></p> - -<p>The last method that I have mentioned for the disposal -of sewage is that of precipitation, or what may be more -properly called the chemical treatment of sewage.</p> - -<p>Precipitation means the production, by the introduction of -chemical substances within the body of the sewage, of certain -solid compounds, which, in settling, drag down with them the -suspended matters in the sewage, together with a small proportion -of the polluting matters which are in solution in the -sewage, this proportion varying with the quantity of solid -matters deposited. The effluent from the tanks in which this -precipitation takes place is then allowed to flow direct into a -river or stream, or is still further purified by being passed over -land or filtered through deep-drained soils.</p> - -<p>Chemical treatment of sewage was first tried in Paris in -the year 1740, and since then every effort has been made to -extract a valuable and commercial manure from sewage and -purify the effluent. Between the years 1865 and 1875 more -than 400 patents were taken out in respect of these and other -matters in connection with the sewage question.</p> - -<p>It is almost needless to say that but few of these patents -were of any practical value. Those processes which have -some merit and are now best known are, I believe, included in -the following <span class="nowrap">list:—</span></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="smcap">List of Chemical Processes for<br />the Treatment of -Town Sewage.</span></p> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<ul class="chemprocs"> - -<li>The A. B. C. (or Sillar’s) process</li> -<li>Anderson’s process</li> -<li>Bird’s <span class="righttext padr18">„</span></li> -<li>Blyth’s <span class="righttext padr18">„</span></li> -<li>Campbell’s <span class="righttext padr18">„</span></li> -<li>Collin’s <span class="righttext padr18">„</span></li> -<li>Forbes and Price’s process</li> -<li>Fulda’s process</li> -<li>Goodall’s <span class="righttext padr20">„</span></li> -<li>Hanson’s <span class="righttext padr20">„</span></li> -<li>Higg’s <span class="righttext padr20">„</span></li> -<li>Hille’s <span class="righttext padr20">„</span></li> -<li>Holden’s <span class="righttext padr20">„</span></li> -<li>Lenk’s <span class="righttext padr20">„</span></li> -<li>Lundy’s <span class="righttext padr20">„</span></li> -<li>Manning’s <span class="righttext padr20">„</span></li> -<li>Scott’s <span class="righttext padr20">„</span></li> -<li>Smith’s <span class="righttext padr20">„</span></li> -<li>Spence’s <span class="righttext padr20">„</span></li> -<li>Stothert’s <span class="righttext padr20">„</span></li> -<li>Suvern’s <span class="righttext padr20">„</span></li> -<li>Whitthread’s process</li> -<li>Wickstead’s <span class="righttext padr18">„</span></li> - -</ul> - -<p class="thinline allclear"> </p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -<p>Space will not permit me to describe these processes, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page269">[269]</span> -probably most of them, if not all, are familiar to my readers. -Suffice it to say that in nearly all cases the <i>modus operandi</i> is -that of mixing certain chemicals with the sewage by mechanical -agitation, or by passing the sewage over “salmon ladders,” -&c., then allowing the sewage to remain perfectly still whilst -the solids are gravitating, and then dealing with the effluent -in different manners.</p> - -<p>Amongst the numerous chemical ingredients which are -used for this purpose may be mentioned the <span class="nowrap">following:—</span></p> - -<p>Alum, animal charcoal, ashes, blood, bone ash, carbolic -acid, chalk, chloride of lime, chloride of zinc, chloride of iron, -clay, creosote, hæmatite, hydrate of lime, lead nitrate, magnesian -salts, oxide of manganese, perchloride of iron, salt, -soda, sulphate of zinc, sulphate of iron, sulphuric acid, and tar.</p> - -<p>One of the great difficulties in connection with the precipitation -of sewage is the disposal of the sludge which is left -behind in the tanks.</p> - -<p>This sludge contains about 90 per cent. of moisture, and if -left to dry atmospherically, a thin crust forms over it, thus -protecting that which is underneath, and it will not dry for -many months. In some cases it is sought to dispose of the -accumulations of sludge by digging it into the land; in others -it is mixed with house ashes, &c., and sold as manure. Its -bulk, however, in proportion to its manurial value is so excessive -as to render it almost valueless, and it is difficult to get -rid of it for this purpose even when fortified with ammonia or -other chemical. A frequent practice now adopted is to reduce -its bulk by exposure or by presses to a semi-dried condition; -in other cases it is dried to a powder by heat, and General -Scott has patented a method where, in connection with the -lime process, it is burned and manufactured into cement. -Sometimes it is squeezed in presses, such as Needham and -Kite’s or Johnson’s, or it is filtered by Milburn’s or Weare’s -apparatus. For drying the sludge by heat, Borwick’s or -Forrest’s machines have been used with some success, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page270">[270]</span> -there is no doubt that the slimy, glutinous, albuminous, offensive -mixture technically known as sludge is a difficult matter -to dispose of in all sewage works.</p> - -<p>In connection with the chemical treatment of sewage, it is -of advantage to pass the effluent over land filters on the intermittent -downward filtration principle. Another very effective -plan is to pass the effluent (or even crude sewage) through land -which is thickly planted with the Anacharis or American weed, -duckweed, sedges, rushes, reeds, &c., or through beds of -osiers or alder trees. An acre of land thus planted is said to -purify more than three million gallons of sewage per diem.<a id="FNanchor192"></a><a href="#Footnote192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a></p> - -<p>There is no doubt that plants of this description have a -powerful action in purifying sewage or foul water of any -kind, and where land is scarce this method has many -advantages.</p> - -<p>It is almost unnecessary to add that where sewage is -treated in any other manner than that of throwing it into the -sea or river, bulk is a great objection, especially if it has to be -pumped.</p> - -<p>To obviate this bulk the separate system is of great advantage, -and Isaac Shone’s new method for ejecting sewage along -pipes seems also to be a most desirable invention in connection -with this subject.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote187"></a><a href="#FNanchor187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> -It is computed that every ton of liquid sewage which is treated chemically -costs about three-quarters of a farthing.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote188"></a><a href="#FNanchor188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Sewage Disposal,’ by Henry Robinson, C.E., &c., 2nd edition, p. 79.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote189"></a><a href="#FNanchor189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> -I purposely omit (Kendal) 856, as this is, properly speaking, “filtration.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote190"></a><a href="#FNanchor190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> -For much interesting information upon this and other subjects in connection -with sewage disposal, see ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil -Engineers,’ vol. xlviii. p. 105 et seq. Also the report of a committee of the -Local Government Board on Modes of Treating Town Sewage, 1876. ‘Sewage -Disposal,’ by Henry Robinson, C.E., and other works on the subject.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote191"></a><a href="#FNanchor191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> -Under the Rivers Pollution Act, no effluent is allowed to enter a stream -&c., if it contains more than three parts of suspended inorganic matter, and one -part organic matter for every 100,000 parts of liquid.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote192"></a><a href="#FNanchor192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. -xlviii. p. 179.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page271">[271]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XXII.<br /> -<span class="chapname">VENTILATION OF SEWERS.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">The necessity for some manner of dealing with the noxious -vapours emanating from sewage other than that of letting it -find its way from the sewers into the house drains and thence -into dwelling houses, has induced the legislature of this country -to introduce the following clause in the Public Health Act -1875, which imposes on every local authority the duty of -causing their sewers to be ventilated so as not to be a nuisance -or injurious to health.</p> - -<p>“Every local authority shall cause the sewers belonging to -them to be constructed, covered, ventilated and kept, so as -not to be a nuisance, or injurious to health, and to be properly -cleansed and emptied” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 19).</p> - -<p>The result of this compulsion upon local authorities to -ventilate their sewers has been the introduction of many -methods to effect the purpose, the great difficulty being to -“ventilate so as not to be a nuisance or injurious to health,” -the advocates of open ventilation contending that this is -effected by having a sufficient number of openings in a sewer -to dilute and safely disseminate the foul gas with atmospheric -air so that no nuisance is caused.<a id="FNanchor193"></a><a href="#Footnote193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a></p> - -<p>Many other methods have been from time to time suggested, -some of which have been carried into effect, and I will now -proceed to give them in detail, discussing their merits and -objections in each case.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page272">[272]</span></p> - -<p>(1.) Open shafts are carried up from the crown of the sewer -to the centre or side of the roadway, and there protected by -an open iron grid or grating at the level of the street surface.</p> - -<p>This is the system which has hitherto found most favour -with town surveyors, and is sometimes modified or worked in -conjunction with the practice of untrapping all the gully pits -and buddle holes at the sides of the roadway, which is an -excellent plan if the theory of the atmospheric air dilution at -which this system aims is a correct one; in fact, if this dilution -by air is all that is necessary to render the foul air in a sewer -innocuous and inoffensive, there cannot be too many openings -into it.</p> - -<p>The objections to this system are as follows:</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) The foul air escaping into the public streets is often -very injurious to persons passing a ventilator, and sewers are -buried out of sight, but they are not out of mind so long as we -are constantly and unpleasantly reminded of their existence.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) It is found that a change of temperature either of the -atmosphere, or of the air in a sewer, will seriously affect the -action of a shaft, causing it sometimes to have upcast currents of -air, sometimes downcast; the effect of this latter action, especially -when it arises from the direction of the wind blowing over or -into the shaft, is frequently to drive the impure gases contained -in the sewer into the house drains, and from thence into the -houses, unless they are so trapped and ventilated as to prevent it.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) They are also affected by the fluctuations of the flow -of sewage in the sewer, or by barometric changes in the -atmosphere.</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) The situation of the open grids in the street is sometimes -somewhat awkward for traffic, and horses will frequently -shy at them, they also admit solid road detritus into the -sewer unless they are protected by a catch plate of some -description.</p> - -<p>(<i>e.</i>) They are tempting places for children to play over, with -what results may be imagined.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page273">[273]</span></p> - -<p>(2.) Open shafts are carried up the sides (gable ends if -possible) of buildings in the neighbourhood of the sewer; these -shafts may be either open at the top, or be furnished with -exhaust cowls. This system is sometimes employed in conjunction -with inlet shafts at the sides of the street, in the -manner shown by the drawing which follows:</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo293.png" alt="Ventilation" width="500" height="504" /> -</div> - -<p>This method has the advantage over the first system I -have mentioned of carrying the smells further from our reach, -but it also has the following disadvantages:</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) The distance and the number of bends and elbows the -gases have to traverse before reaching the external air.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) The difficulty of fixing them just at the points where -they are most required with reference to the gradients of the -sewer, especially if they are to be constructed of such an -internal diameter as will ensure their efficiency.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) The great objection raised by occupiers and owners of<span class="pagenum" id="Page274">[274]</span> -premises against having them fixed on their premises, both -on sanitary and legal grounds.</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) Their great expense.</p> - -<p>(<i>e.</i>) The effect of weather upon their currents.</p> - -<p>(3.) By making use of the rain-water pipes from adjoining -buildings.</p> - -<p>This method commends itself as being very economical, -and the opportunities thus given for ventilation are so numerous. -If sewers are to be ventilated at all<a id="FNanchor194"></a><a href="#Footnote194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> it would seem at first -sight that there could not be too many openings from and into -them, but this system has the following serious objections:</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) When raining, little or no ventilation can take place, -and this is the very time, owing to the rising of the water in -the sewer, that the gases should be allowed free egress if such -is considered the best manner of dealing with them.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) The position of the head of the rain-water pipe is -generally the worst that could be chosen for the egress of the -gases, both on sanitary and pneumatic grounds.</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) The joints of a rain-water pipe are usually none of the -best.</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) The objections persons naturally have to allow the rain-water -pipes of their houses to be used for such a purpose.</p> - -<p>(4.) By utilising the lamp posts or columns adjacent to the -sewer.</p> - -<p>The objects of this system are first to obtain a constant -upward current from the sewer, and secondly to secure that -the foul gases and air shall be consumed and rendered -innocuous by being burnt. The objections to this system -<span class="nowrap">are—</span></p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) The lamps are only lit at night, consequently little or -no ventilation would be going on during the day.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) The number and diameter of the lamps are generally<span class="pagenum" id="Page275">[275]</span> -too small to make any appreciable effect upon the ventilation -of the sewer.</p> - -<p>(5.) By passing or filtering the foul air through charcoal -placed in trays or other receptacles in shafts.</p> - -<p>The theory of this method is admirable, as the charcoal -would arrest all the impurities and flocculent organic matters -contained in the foul air, and allow only the pure filtered air -to pass into the atmosphere.</p> - -<p>It has been found, however, where this method has been -adopted, that the charcoal very soon becomes so caked and -consolidated from damp and the vibration of the traffic, that -it will neither allow the air to filter through, nor absorb the -impurities contained in it; these objections and the amount of -attention this system requires, has not rendered it very -popular with town surveyors, although it has much to recommend -it.</p> - -<p>(6.) By making use of ordinary chimney shafts.</p> - -<p>This method and the one which follows have some merits, -the principle being that an upward current is established as an -exhaust from the sewer, and also that the foul air is purified -by being passed through fire, but both these advantages are -only gained when the fires are actually burning; the objections -to this system <span class="nowrap">are—</span></p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) Structural difficulties must often be encountered and -overcome.</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) Possibility of explosion arising from leaks of gas mains -into sewers (a by no means uncommon occurrence, as all who -have charge of sewers frequently find to their cost).</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) The objections of owners and occupiers to allow -their premises to be thus made use of to carry off a public -nuisance for which they as individuals are in no way -responsible.</p> - -<p>(7.) By lofty shafts erected at convenient positions which -are either in connection with furnaces or are simply open to -the air.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page276">[276]</span></p> - -<p>For a long outfall sewer with no connections this method -has many advantages, notably so in the large furnace and -shaft erected on the Brighton outfall sewer by the borough -surveyor, Mr. Lockwood. But in a general system of sewerage, -it was found by experiments made by Sir Joseph Bazalgette, -C.B. that the effect of trying to reduce the gases by the -action of furnaces was but very small, and that the area over -which the effect extended was but very limited: in fact, a -sewer may be compared to a perforated tube, the house -drains, gully drains, &c., representing the perforations; the -effect of an exhaustion by the action of the furnace is simply -to suck fresh air into the sewer at all these points instead of -removing the foul air for any distance.</p> - -<p>High shafts at different points effect a partial clearance -of sewer gases, but they are very costly, and the reasons I -have previously given against the system of open shafts -are practically the same in this and all other modifications of -the principle.</p> - -<p>Many other methods have been tried from time to -time, either to prevent the formation of gases in the -sewers, or neutralize or destroy them, some of which are -as follows:</p> - -<p>By giving a quick velocity of discharge in a sewer; by -placing materials within sewers which would absorb the gases -as fast as they were generated; by passing deodorants or -disinfectants into sewers; by deodorizing or disinfecting all -materials before they are allowed to enter a drain or sewer; -by placing chemical agents within sewers to give off certain -gases which would then, it was conjectured, destroy the -noxious properties of the sewer gases; by introducing charcoal -into sewers to absorb the foul gases; by laying pipes -within the sewers for the purpose of discharging chlorine into -the sewer; by employing galvanic agency to disengage or to -produce ozone from the sewer gas; by passing the foul air -through shafts into which water was constantly injected,<span class="pagenum" id="Page277">[277]</span> -and by endeavouring to extract the foul air by fans driven by -machinery.</p> - -<p>I have myself patented a plan for “annihilating sewer -gases” by allowing them to be absorbed into dry earth, and -have tried the system with some very marked and successful -results.<a id="FNanchor195"></a><a href="#Footnote195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a></p> - -<p>Having thus far considered all the known methods for -dealing with the noxious emanations which proceed from -sewers, the next point to consider is what these noxious -emanations are, and whether they exist in all sewers.</p> - -<p>It has been found that even in sewers of the best and most -modern construction what is called “sewer gas” is generated -in more or less quantity; this arises even from fresh sewage, -but is far more noxious and dangerous to health when the -sewage has begun to decompose. Even where the sewers are -so constructed as to remove all the sewage to the outfall -within 24 hours (which has been decided to be the maximum -time it should take), there is still an accumulation of slime on -the inner periphery of the sewers, owing to the rise and fall of -the sewage line, which is constantly manufacturing gases of -decomposition.</p> - -<p>It is no doubt true that the more perfect the system of -sewerage is the less foul air there is in the sewers, but in very -few towns will there be found no sewers or drains where -temporary obstructions of the sewage do not occur, and where -gases are generated, which then find their way into other parts -of the sewage system unless they are dealt with in some -effective manner.</p> - -<p>As to what is the actual composition of this foul air in a -sewer little or nothing seems to be known, except that it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page278">[278]</span> -highly dangerous to health if breathed, and is also very -offensive to the smell.</p> - -<p>The “fœtid organic vapour,” or sewer gas proper, has for -its companions in a sewer, sulphuretted hydrogen, a most -poisonous as well as unpleasant smelling gas, carburetted -hydrogen, due very often to leaky gas mains or services, -or to decomposing vegetable matters, carbonic acid gas or -carbonic anhydride (choke damp), and some ammoniacal -compounds.</p> - -<p>The actual component parts, however, of any gases in a -sewer must vary considerably with its conditions and locality, -&c., in the same manner as they would in any public building -or room, and it is impossible to tell, without costly experiments, -what gases may be prevalent in any particular portion -of a sewer. But whatever may be the analysis of this foul air, -there can be but little doubt that it contains organic matter -floating about in it as solids, and that it is excessively -injurious and even dangerous to breathe, and that it should -be caught and destroyed or rendered innocuous, and not -be permitted to pass into and contaminate and poison the -air we breathe.</p> - -<p>Some engineers are of opinion that this foul air always -finds its way to the upper portions of the sewerage system, -but my investigations into this subject have led me to believe -that no rule of this kind can be laid down, for with quick -velocities of flow, in some sewers, the gases are carried by -friction in the direction of the flow of the sewage, and do not -ascend as has been imagined.</p> - -<p>Whatever system of ventilation of the main sewers in any -town may be adopted, it is imperative that the house drains -connected with them should be properly trapped and ventilated, -and this is in my judgment of even greater importance -than the ventilation of the main sewers. On this point I -have given more explanations in the chapter upon “<a href="#Page303">House -Drainage</a>.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page279">[279]</span></p> - -<p>In conclusion, let me refer my readers to a most exhaustive -discussion, and very valuable information contained in the -chapter entitled “Ventilation of Sewers and Drains” in Mr. -Baldwin Latham’s ‘Sanitary Engineering,’ in which may be -found almost everything that is at present known upon this -important subject.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote193"></a><a href="#FNanchor193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> -If there is any truth in the “germ theory” of disease, how dangerous must -be the practice of open sewer ventilation, a waft of foul air from a sewer carrying -with it a germ, and the unsuspecting passer-by is inoculated just as surely as if he -had handled or been near the excrements of the diseased person whose evacuations -have been passed into the public sewer.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote194"></a><a href="#FNanchor194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> -The important city of Bristol has no system of sewer ventilation, and yet -the death rate of the city, which is by no means specially healthily situated, has -not been abnormally high up to this year (1883).</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote195"></a><a href="#FNanchor195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> -For further information upon my system for the annihilation of sewer -gases, I must refer my readers to a pamphlet written by myself in 1880, entitled -‘Sewer Ventilation, or a New and Improved System for the disposal of the -Noxious Gases generated in Sewers and Drains,’ and also to a paper I read on -this subject at the meeting of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain, held in -Exeter in the year 1881.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page280">[280]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XXIII.<br /> -<span class="chapname">PUBLIC CONVENIENCES.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">In almost every town in the United Kingdom public urinals -are now erected, although it is not often that good watercloset -accommodation is provided, except at hotels and railway -stations, over which the local authority have no jurisdiction; -or perhaps if they do provide any accommodation of this -description it is only in connection with the public parks or in -the markets, museums, &c.</p> - -<p>The clause of the Public Health Act which empowers an -urban authority to spend money out of the district rates for -this purpose is as follows:</p> - -<p>“Any urban authority may if they think fit provide and -maintain in proper and convenient situations, urinals, waterclosets, -earthclosets, privies and ashpits and other similar -conveniences for public accommodation” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, -s. 39).</p> - -<p>It is not my intention to enter into the merits or otherwise -of the many descriptions of urinals and latrines that have been -brought to the notice from time to time of every town -surveyor by enterprising manufacturers and patentees, but only -to give a few suggestions upon the subject.</p> - -<p>Public urinals ought to be erected by the urban authority -as a matter of convenience to the peripatetic portion of any -community, and also to prevent nuisances being committed in -improper places.</p> - -<p>In selecting sites for urinals the town surveyor must -take care that after erection they shall not be offensive -or a nuisance to any persons living in the vicinity, and -that they shall be so placed that although they may be<span class="pagenum" id="Page281">[281]</span> -easily found, the persons using them shall be effectually -screened.<a id="FNanchor196"></a><a href="#Footnote196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a></p> - -<p>Urinals are better constructed of iron rather than of brickwork -or more solid workmanship, in order that they can be -readily removed. It is surprising what an uproar is sometimes -raised in a neighbourhood by the erection of a urinal; this -clamour occasionally has so much effect upon the urban -authority that they order the removal of the urinal, although -it may not have been erected many days, and if it has been -substantially built a considerable waste of the public money -is thus involved.</p> - -<p>Where a urinal is constructed with basins, as by the -following plan, the basins may be of iron or good stone ware -or similar construction, these being always kept full of water -which is constantly although slowly changing.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo301a.png" alt="Urinal" width="500" height="334" /> -</div> - -<p>Stall urinals may be some modification of the following -plan, and be constructed of iron with slate partitions, or the<span class="pagenum" id="Page282">[282]</span> -partitions may be of iron covered with plate glass where -soiled, the stalls should not be less than 24 in. in the clear, -and water must be kept constantly flowing over the soiled -portion either from a perforated pipe or a spreader.<a id="FNanchor197"></a><a href="#Footnote197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> A very -excellent arrangement is to have a trench or trough cut at -the foot of the stall for the whole length of the urinal, which is -kept constantly full of water and occasionally flushed, thus -avoiding nuisance in a very satisfactory manner.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo301b.png" alt="Urinal" width="450" height="130" /> -</div> - -<p>Provision must of course be made to efficiently drain and -light all public urinals, and arrangements should be made by -which they can be thoroughly washed once or twice a day, so -as to keep every part scrupulously clean. Urine after a very -short exposure exhales a most fœtid and unpleasant odour, -from the decomposition of its nitrogenous matter. Carbolic -acid, chloride of lime, sanitas, or other disinfectant should -also be used, especially in warm weather.</p> - -<p>If the interior of a public urinal or latrine has to be painted -a light colour, it is well to mix a little sand with the paint, so -as to prevent as much as possible that literature and art which -so often disfigures establishments of this description. An -excellent composition with which to treat urinals, although it -is of a somewhat dark tint, is a mixture of common coal tar -and naphtha, which not only gives a clean and polished -appearance to the place, but is also an excellent deodorant -and disinfectant.</p> - -<p>With regard to public W.C. accommodation, this, as I have -before stated, is not very often provided by an urban authority,<a id="FNanchor198"></a><a href="#Footnote198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> -although common public latrines are sometimes erected. -These are generally used by rather rough persons, and should -be constructed in a strong and simple manner.</p> - -<p>For this purpose stoneware bowls or basins placed over a -drain and fitting into ordinary right-angled junctions placed<span class="pagenum" id="Page283">[283]</span> -vertically are simple and effective as well as very economical -in construction. Slate, iron, or wood seats may be placed on -these basins, which should be kept half full of water. A -periodical and sudden flush which carries the whole contents -into the nearest sewer can be arranged for so as to work -automatically by the introduction of a cistern and one of Mr. -Roger Field’s flush syphons at the upper end of the system.</p> - -<p>For further information on the subject of urinals, waterclosets, -latrines, and all similar subjects, let the town surveyor -refer to Mr. George Jennings or Messrs. Macfarlane, who have -an endless variety of designs and appliances in connection -with such matters.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote196"></a><a href="#FNanchor196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> -The urban authority have an absolute discretion as to the sites they -select. They cannot, however, erect public conveniences so as thereby to cause a -nuisance, even though the convenience is wanted and the locality chosen suitable. -(<i>Vide</i> ‘Public Health and Local Government Act,’ by F. V. Fitzgerald, 3rd edition, -p. 33.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote197"></a><a href="#FNanchor197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> -The quantity of water usually required to each stall when kept constantly -running is about half a gallon per minute.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote198"></a><a href="#FNanchor198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> -For an excellent specimen of such public accommodation, that at Liverpool -near the St. George’s Hall should be inspected.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page284">[284]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XXIV.<br /> -<span class="chapname">ARTIZANS AND LABOURERS’ DWELLINGS, &c.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">The Artizans and Labourers’ Dwellings Act 1868 (31 & 32 -Vic. c. 130) was in effect incorporated in the Public Health -Act 1875 so that “every urban authority shall within their -district, . . . have, exercise and be subject to all the -powers, rights, duties, capacities, liabilities, and obligations -within such district exercisable or attaching by and to the -local authority” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 10).</p> - -<p>The mode of procedure is as follows:</p> - -<p>Where the “officer of health”<a id="FNanchor199"></a><a -href="#Footnote199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> finds any premises in a -condition or state dangerous to health so as to be unfit for -human habitation, he shall report the same in writing to the -clerk of the local authority. The local authority must then -refer such report to a surveyor or engineer,<a id="FNanchor200"></a><a -href="#Footnote200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> who shall thereupon -consider the report so furnished to him, and report to -the local authority what is the cause of the evil so reported -on, and if such evil is occasioned by defects in any premises, -whether the same can be remedied by structural alterations -and improvements or otherwise, or whether such premises or -any or what part thereof ought to be demolished (31 & 32 -Vic. c. 130, s. 6).</p> - -<p>Upon the receipt of this report from the surveyor the -local authority sends copies to the owner of the premises, -giving him opportunities of attending before them and of -appealing against the report, and if his objections are overruled,<span class="pagenum" id="Page285">[285]</span> -a plan and specification of the works (if any) and an estimate -of the cost of such works, must be prepared by the surveyor, -and these in turn may be inspected by the owner and objected -to by him in writing, and he may also attend before the local -authority, and if he makes good his objections the local -authority may direct the plan, specification and estimate -to be amended, and the works would then be executed in -accordance with the amended plans, &c. (31 & 32 Vic. c. 130, -s. 8).</p> - -<p>Persons who are aggrieved by any order of the local -authority may appeal against it, but failing this, if the owner -does not within two months diligently proceed with and -complete the same in conformity with the specification to the -satisfaction of the surveyor, the local authority may either -order the premises to be shut up, or to be demolished, or may -themselves execute the required works in conformity with the -specification (31 & 32 Vic. c. 130, s. 18).</p> - -<p>If the requirements of the order involve the total demolition -and not the improvement of the premises, the owner shall -within three months proceed to take down and remove -them, and if he fail to do so, then the local authority may pull -down and recoup the expenses by a sale of the old material -(31 & 32 Vic. c. 130, s. 20).</p> - -<p>The above Act was amended in 1879 by the “Artizans -and Labourers’ Dwellings Act (1868) Amendment Act 1879” -(42 & 43 Vic. c. 64), the most important clause affecting the -action of the town surveyor being as follows:</p> - -<p>“Notwithstanding anything in the Act of 1868, the owner -of any premises specified in an order of the local authority -made under that Act, and requiring him to execute any works -or to demolish such premises, may within three months after -service on him of the order, require the local authority in -writing to purchase such premises” (42 & 43 Vic. c. 64, s. 5).</p> - -<p>The amount of compensation to be paid to the owner is to -be settled by arbitration if no agreement can be arrived at,<span class="pagenum" id="Page286">[286]</span> -such arbitration to be carried out in a manner provided for by -certain clauses in this Amendment Act 1879.</p> - -<p>Sec. 9 of the same Act also provides for the repayment -(by sale of old materials, &c.) of the cost incurred by the -local authority in executing any works under the Acts.</p> - -<p>This Act has again been amended quite recently (August -1882) by “An Act to Amend the Artizans and Labourers’ -Dwellings Acts” (45 & 46 Vic. c. 54), the most important -clause affecting the working of this Act being as follows:</p> - -<p>(1.) “If in any place to which the Artizans and Labourers’ -Dwellings Act 1868 applies the officer of health finds that any -building, although not in itself unfit for human habitation, is -so situate that by reason of its proximity to or contact with -any other building it causes one of the following effects, that -is to say:</p> - -<p class="ind84">“(1.) It stops ventilation or otherwise makes or conduces -to make such other buildings to be in a condition -unfit for human habitation; or</p> - -<p class="ind84">“(2.) It prevents proper measures from being carried -into effect for remedying the evils complained of in respect -of such other buildings,</p> - -<p class="noindent">in any such case the officer of health shall make a report -to the local authority in writing of the particulars relating -to such first-mentioned building (in this Act referred to as -‘an obstructive building’) stating that in his opinion it is -expedient that the obstructive building should be pulled -down, and shall deliver the report to the clerk of the local -authority.</p> - -<p>“(2.) The local authority shall refer such report to a surveyor -or engineer to report thereon, and to report as to the -cost of acquiring the lands on which such obstructive building -is erected, and of pulling down such building.”</p> - -<p>The local authority then consider the reports of the officer -of health and of the surveyor, and proceed to give copies to -the owner of the lands in question, who has liberty of appeal,<span class="pagenum" id="Page287">[287]</span> -&c., as before given in the Act 1868. The lands may be -acquired by the local authority by agreement or compulsorily -under the Lands Clauses Consolidation Acts, and the obstructive -building, “or such part thereof as may be obstructive,” -may be pulled “down, and the whole site, or such part thereof -as may be required to be kept open for the purpose of -remedying the evils” kept as an open space.</p> - -<p>The owner of the land may, by giving due notice, declare -that “he desires to retain the site of the obstructive building, -and undertake either to pull down or to permit the local -authority to pull down, the obstructive building,” in which -case he retains the site, and is compensated only for the -building.</p> - -<p>These recent amendments to the old Act of 1868 are of the -greatest importance, for they aim at the easy improvement of -courts and alleys, by opening them where houses have been -erected across the entrance, in some cases depriving the courts -and alleys of light and air, and leaving only a small covered -archway through which the occupants can enter.</p> - -<p>The Act has only too recently become law for me to give -any particulars with regard to its working, but it appears to -be a most valuable sanitary Act.</p> - -<p>Prior to these amendments of the Act 1868, it was felt -that it dealt only with isolated buildings, and consequently, in -order to improve large areas, the “Act for Facilitating the -Improvement of the Dwellings of the Working Classes in -Large Towns” was passed in 1875 (38 & 39 Vic. c. 36), since -which date, like the Act 1868, it has been twice amended, -once in 1879 (42 & 43 Vic. c. 63), and again in 1882 (45 & 46 -Vic. c. 54).</p> - -<p>The object of the Act of 1875 was to facilitate the removal -of portions of towns, especially of the courts and alleys in the -poorer and more densely-populated parts.</p> - -<p>The Act is to be put in force where an official representation -is made by the medical officer of health to the local<span class="pagenum" id="Page288">[288]</span> -authority of an urban sanitary district (which must contain a -population of at least 25,000) that “any houses, courts, or -alleys within a certain area” are “unfit for human habitation, -or that diseases indicating a generally low condition of health -amongst the population have been from time to time prevalent -in a certain area,” and that this is attributable to -the bad arrangement or bad condition of the streets and -houses, or “other sanitary defects,” which can only be -remedied by “an improvement scheme for the rearrangement -and reconstruction of the streets or houses” (38 & 39 -Vic. c. 36, s. 3).</p> - -<p>The improvement scheme to be prepared on receipt of this -report by the local authority must be accompanied by “maps, -particulars, and estimates” (no doubt these must be prepared -by the surveyor, although no mention is made as to who shall -prepare them), and this scheme may “provide for widening -any existing approaches to the unhealthy area, or otherwise -for opening out the same for the purposes of ventilation or -health.” It must distinguish “the lands proposed to be taken -compulsorily,” and by the Act 1875 it was necessary to -“provide for the accommodation of at the least as many -persons of the working class as may be displaced in the area -with respect to which the scheme is proposed in suitable dwellings, -which, unless there are any special reasons to the contrary, -shall be situate within the limits of the same area or in -the vicinity thereof” (sec. 5).</p> - -<p>So much practical difficulty was experienced in carrying -this latter part of the clause into effect, that in 1879 a short -Act was passed (42 & 43 Vic. c. 63), which by the 4th section -amended that part of the original clause as to the provision of -accommodation for the working classes as follows:</p> - -<p>“Where it is proved to the satisfaction of the confirming -authority . . . . that equally convenient accommodation can -be provided . . . . at some place other than within the area or -the immediate vicinity . . . . and it is also proved to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page289">[289]</span> -satisfaction of such authority that the required accommodation -has been or is about to be forthwith provided.” The confirming -authority may be satisfied with such provision, and for -this purpose the local authority may make use of any lands -belonging to them, or purchase any that are suitable (42 & 43 -Vic. c. 63, s. 4).</p> - -<p>This part of the Act has again been amended in the year -1882 by 45 & 46 Vic. c. 54, which in section 3 enacts as -follows:</p> - -<p>“. . . . and where any such improvement scheme comprises -an area situate elsewhere than in the metropolis or the -City of London, it shall, if the confirming authority so require -(but it shall not otherwise be obligatory on the local authority -so to frame their scheme), provide for the accommodation of -such number of those persons of the working class displaced -in the area with respect to which the scheme is proposed in -suitable dwellings to be erected in such place or places either -within or without the limits of the same area as the said -authority, on a report made by the officer conducting the local -enquiry, may require . . . .”</p> - -<p>Having thus far given the <i>modus operandi</i> under which the -Act has to be enforced, it is necessary to see what are some of -the town surveyor’s duties in connection therewith.</p> - -<p>First, there are the “maps, particulars, and estimates” -which have to be prepared, and these <span class="nowrap">involve—</span></p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) Accurate surveys of the area;</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) A reference of all the properties included:</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) A census of the population of the area;</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) A valuation of all the properties;</p> - -<p>(<i>e.</i>) A plan of the proposed new streets, &c.</p> - -<p>(<i>f.</i>) An estimate of the cost of the whole work.</p> - -<p>In addition to this it is necessary for the local authority to -“impose suitable conditions and restrictions as to the elevation, -size, and design of the houses and the extent of the -accommodation to be afforded thereby, and to make due provision<span class="pagenum" id="Page290">[290]</span> -for the maintenance of proper sanitary arrangements,” -and this naturally involves detailed drawings of the buildings -to be erected.</p> - -<p>In the same clause (38 & 39 Vic. c. 36, s. 9) it is stated -that the local authority may engage with any society, &c., -to carry the whole or any part of the scheme into effect, but -“the local authority shall not themselves, without the express -approval of the confirming authority, undertake the rebuilding -of the houses or the execution of any part of the scheme, -except that they may take down any or all of the buildings -upon the area, and clear the whole or any part thereof, and -may lay out, form, pave, sewer, and complete” all the necessary -streets, &c., which shall thenceforth be public streets -repairable by the inhabitants at large.</p> - -<p>It is scarcely necessary to say that the enforcement of this -Act involves a considerable expenditure of work and time in -the office of the town surveyor.</p> - -<p>The buildings which are erected on the sites dealt with -under this Act are generally of the “high block” class, as it -is found that the labouring man prefers to live near his work, -and land is generally too expensive in such localities to admit -of the erection of any other description of buildings.</p> - -<p>As to whether this class of dwelling is as healthy as -ordinary cottages or houses, the following death-rates for the -year 1879 will be some guide:</p> - -<table class="fsize90" summary="Death-rates"> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">The London Improved Industrial Dwellings</td> -<td class="center bot">16·4</td> -<td class="center padl1 padr1 bot">per</td> -<td class="center bot">1000</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">The Peabody Trust Dwellings</td> -<td class="center bot">17·2</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">The Metropolitan Association Dwellings</td> -<td class="center bot">14·3</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">The Newcastle Improved Industrial Dwellings</td> -<td class="center bot">12·0</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">The general death rate for the Metropolis at the same date being</td> -<td class="center bot">21·2</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>It is of course necessary that the sanitary arrangements of -industrial dwellings of the block type should be very perfect, -and as to the manner in which they should be erected the<span class="pagenum" id="Page291">[291]</span> -following words of Mr. John Price, who for twelve years -had lived in one of them himself, can be here given with -advantage:<a id="FNanchor201"></a><a href="#Footnote201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a></p> - -<p>“Model dwellings are therefore most appreciated by -working men when placed near the scene of their daily -labour. The arrangements most preferred are those which -bring the fewest families or persons in contact with one -another on a flat or landing. As a rule the buildings should -not exceed four stories in height; the staircases should be -about four feet in width, and broken by short landings, lighted -by large windows open to the external air; the window-sills -should not be less than three feet from the floors for the safety -of young children, and for the same reason well staircases -should be avoided. The steps of the stairs should only -have a 6-inch ‘rise,’ for the more easy accommodation of old -people and young children; they should be fire-proof, and well -lighted with gas on an evening. There should be a thick -layer of deafening between the floors. The waterclosets -should be placed in an offshoot from the main building, -opening on to each landing, and well ventilated by open windows -and air bricks. The watercloset apparatus should be as -simple and effective as possible. Patents depending upon the -proper working of valves and ball-cocks should be avoided, as -the fruitful cause of trouble and expense; little reliance must -be placed on their proper use by tenants where more than one -family have access to them. I have seen excellent closets -stopped up with cloths and all manner of earthenware and -hardware, children of careless parents being the principal -offenders; what is everybody’s duty is often most neglected. -It will be found most economical in large buildings of this -class to appoint a person whose duty it should be to attend to -the proper flushing of waterclosets daily. I would suggest<span class="pagenum" id="Page292">[292]</span> -that there should be a large cistern under the roof (distinct -from the cistern used for domestic purposes), a ³⁄₄-inch feed pipe -should lead to each w.c., which should consist of a simple -metal or earthenware pan, provided only with a tap, flushing -rim, and plug, placed under the seat securely, and under the -sole control of the attendant, who, by the necessary daily -inspection, would detect any stoppage or injury to the fittings. -The expense of such supervision would probably be soon -saved in plumbers’ bills. Of course the soil-pipes should be -well ventilated above the roof of the building, and all drains -and sinks should be properly trapped. The attendant on his -daily rounds would also be able to see that these are kept in -proper order. The dust-shaft, extending to the full height of -the building, should have proper hoppers connected with it to -prevent the dust coming from the lower or upper landings; a -nuisance sometimes complained of in block dwellings. The -washhouses should be placed on the roof or in the yards, fitted -with set pots and requisite conveniences. The soft water from -the roofs should be stored in tanks for washing and domestic -purposes—it will be much appreciated by sensible tenants, and -save the water bill greatly.</p> - -<p>“The great desiderata of these large blocks of buildings is -ample playground for the children, without which they play -upon the stairs, and are often the cause of strife amongst -neighbours. I know those who have experience in the matter -may say that it is more easy to state what is desirable than -what is practical. The enhanced value of land in all our large -towns precludes any liberal investment on what appears so -financially unremunerative as playgrounds, yet they are -essential adjuncts wherever there is an infantile population. -Mr. Powell, on behalf of the London Trades’ Unions, enumerated -before Sir Richard Cross’s Committee certain objections -which the working classes of London entertained against the -earliest erected blocks of dwellings, amongst which was their -barrack-like and uninviting appearance, and also their want of<span class="pagenum" id="Page293">[293]</span> -playgrounds for children. Recently these defects have been -greatly remedied.”</p> - -<p>A few words are necessary upon the “Labouring Classes’ -Lodging Houses Acts” (14 & 15 Vic. c. 34; 29 & 30 Vic. -c. 28; 30 & 31 Vic. c. 28).</p> - -<p>The object of these Acts was to empower urban authorities, -under certain restrictions and after certain formalities, -to appropriate any lands vested in them or at their disposal, -or to purchase or rent the necessary lands for the purpose of -erecting suitable buildings for lodging-houses for the working -classes, or to convert any buildings into lodging-houses, and -“repair and improve the same respectively with all requisite -furniture, fittings, and conveniences”; and further powers are -given in the Acts for the urban authority to contract with -persons for different objects, &c.</p> - -<p>I am unable to give any experiences of the working of these -Acts, for I do not know of any urban authority which has -carried them into effect, the Artizans and Labourers’ -Dwellings Improvement Acts having virtually superseded -them.</p> - -<p>The following copy of the bye-laws as sanctioned by the -Treasury in 1867 in connection with the Labouring Classes’ -Lodging Houses Acts may, however, be of interest, as well as -the <a href="#IntRef5">table</a> of sizes of rooms which follows:</p> - -<p>Separate watercloset accommodation to be provided for -each tenement, or else, where watercloset accommodation is -to be used in common by the occupants of two or more tenements, -separate accommodation must be provided for each sex. -Such accommodation may be either watercloset, earthcloset, -or privy.</p> - -<p>Each tenement to have a dustbin or the use of a dustbin -common to several buildings.</p> - -<p>Each tenement to be well lighted by external windows -made to open.</p> - -<p>Each tenement to have ready access to water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page294">[294]</span></p> - -<p>Where several tenements in one building, proper ventilation -to be provided for the passages, staircases, &c.</p> - -<p>The drains to be well constructed.</p> - -<p>Parties to whom moneys to be advanced to enter into -covenants with the Public Works Loan Commissioners, that -where there are several tenements in one building they</p> - -<p>(<i>a.</i>) Will cause the passages, staircases, &c., to be kept clean;</p> - -<p>(<i>b.</i>) Will cause the waterclosets, &c., to be kept in good -repair;</p> - -<p>(<i>c.</i>) Will cause the dustbins to be emptied at intervals of -seven days;</p> - -<p>(<i>d.</i>) Will take precautions against any interruption in the -supply of water;</p> - -<p>(<i>e.</i>) Will keep the windows in good order and repair, and -the chimneys swept;</p> - -<p>(<i>f.</i>) Will keep the drains in proper order;</p> - -<p>(<i>g.</i>) Will allow inspection by Commissioner of Works to -see that the above covenants are observed.</p> - -<p>Number of cubic feet in each room of the several classes -of tenements (none of less than two rooms) for which money -has been authorised to be advanced:</p> - -<table class="roomfeet" summary="Volumes" id="IntRef5"> - -<tr class="bt2 bb"> -<th class="br">Class.</th> -<th class="br">One<br />Room<br />of<br />cubic<br />feet.</th> -<th class="br">One<br />Room<br />of<br />cubic<br />feet.</th> -<th class="br">One<br />Room<br />of<br />cubic<br />feet.</th> -<th class="br">One<br />Room<br />of<br />cubic<br />feet.</th> -<th>One<br />Room<br />of<br />cubic<br />feet.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tenement">Class I. of two rooms</td> -<td class="cubes br">715</td> -<td class="cubes br">1,219</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tenement">Ditto</td> -<td class="cubes br">816</td> -<td class="cubes br">994</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tenement">Ditto</td> -<td class="cubes br">995</td> -<td class="cubes br">1,020</td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td class="br"> </td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tenement">Class II. of four rooms</td> -<td class="cubes br">960</td> -<td class="cubes br">960</td> -<td class="cubes br">960</td> -<td class="cubes br">960</td> -<td> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tenement">Class III. of five rooms</td> -<td class="cubes br">372</td> -<td class="cubes br">675</td> -<td class="cubes br">1056</td> -<td class="cubes br">1056</td> -<td class="cubes">1232</td> -</tr> - -<tr class="bb2"> -<td class="tenement">Ditto</td> -<td class="cubes br">446</td> -<td class="cubes br">459</td> -<td class="cubes br">459</td> -<td class="cubes br">781</td> -<td class="cubes">1468</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>It may be information valuable to a town surveyor, if -before closing this chapter I draw attention to the provisions -of the Municipal Corporations Act 1882, sec. 3, which gives -corporations power to convert any corporate land into sites -for working men’s dwellings, although the corporation are not -authorised to erect the dwellings thereon.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote199"></a><a href="#FNanchor199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> -The term “officer of health,” as respects any urban sanitary district in -England, means the medical officer of health appointed by the urban sanitary -authority under the Public Health Act 1875 (42 & 43 Vic. c. 64, s. 3).</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote200"></a><a href="#FNanchor200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> -The town surveyor is usually employed for this work.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote201"></a><a href="#FNanchor201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Industrial Dwellings from a Sanitary point of View,’ by John Price, -Resident Agent, Newcastle-on-Tyne Industrial Dwellings Company, read September -28th, at the Congress of the Institute, held at Newcastle-on-Tyne.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page295">[295]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XXV.<br /> -<span class="chapname">DEFECTS IN DWELLING-HOUSES, &C.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">There are many defects in dwelling-houses with which it is -the duty of the sanitary inspector to deal, such as the Bakehouse -Regulations Act, offensive trades, nuisances rendering -houses unfit for human habitation, &c., but I propose to give -in this chapter, in addition to those with which I have already -dealt, such subjects under this head as come within the duties -of the town surveyor.</p> - -<p>The first which I propose to treat is that of the question -of</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Cellar Dwellings.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—These are at all times objectionable -even if the clauses of the Public Health Act 1875 be strictly -carried out, and the surveyor should discourage them as much -as possible. Nothing more can be said with reference to them -than is contained in the provisions of the above Act, which are -as follows:<a id="FNanchor202"></a><a href="#Footnote202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a></p> - -<p>“It shall not be lawful to let or occupy or suffer to be -occupied separately as a dwelling, any cellar (including for the -purposes of this Act in that expression any vault or underground -room) built or rebuilt after the passing of this Act, or -which is not lawfully so let or occupied at the time of the -passing of this Act” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 71).</p> - -<p>And with regard to existing cellar dwellings they are only -to be let or occupied on the following <span class="nowrap">conditions:—</span></p> - -<p>“Unless the cellar is in every part thereof at least<span class="pagenum" id="Page296">[296]</span> -seven feet in height, measured from the floor to the ceiling -thereof, and is at least three feet of its height above the -surface of the street or ground adjoining or nearest to the -same; and</p> - -<p>“Unless there is outside of and adjoining the cellar and -extending along the entire frontage thereof, and upwards from -six inches below the level of the floor thereof up to the surface -of the said street or ground, an open area of at least two feet -and six inches wide in every part; and</p> - -<p>“Unless the cellar is effectually drained by means of a -drain, the uppermost part of which is one foot at least below -the level of the floor thereof; and</p> - -<p>“Unless there is appurtenant to the cellar the use of a -watercloset, earthcloset, or privy, and an ashpit, furnished with -proper doors and coverings, according to the provisions of this -Act; and</p> - -<p>“Unless the cellar has a fireplace with a proper chimney -or flue, and an external window of at least nine superficial feet -in area clear of the sash frame, and made to open in a manner -approved by the surveyor (except in the case of an inner or -back cellar let or occupied along with a front cellar as part of -the same letting or occupation, in which case the external -window may be of any dimensions, not being less than four -superficial feet in area clear of the sash frame).</p> - -<p>“Provided that in any area adjoining a cellar there may be -steps necessary for access to such cellar, if the same be so -placed as not to be over, across, or opposite to the said -external window, and so as to allow between every part of -such steps and the external wall of such cellar a clear space of -six inches at the least, and that over or across any such area -there may be steps necessary for access to any building above -the cellar to which such area adjoins, if the same be so placed -as not to be over, across, or opposite to any such external -window” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 72).</p> - -<p>Where two convictions in respect of the same cellar have<span class="pagenum" id="Page297">[297]</span> -taken place within three months, the local authority may close -it, and recover any expenses incurred by them in the execution -of this duty (38 & 39 Vic., c. 55, s. 75).</p> - -<p>The next defect in a dwelling-house which will be considered -is that of</p> - -<h3 class="inline"><i>Insufficient W.C. accommodation.</i></h3> - -<p class="inlineh">—A new house may not be -erected without “a sufficient watercloset, earthcloset,<a id="FNanchor203"></a><a -href="#Footnote203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> or privy” -under a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds<a id="FNanchor204"></a><a href="#Footnote204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> (38 & 39 Vic. -c. 55, s. 35).</p> - -<p>And with regard to existing premises:</p> - -<p>“If a house within the district of a local authority appears -to such authority <i>by the report of their surveyor</i> or inspector of -nuisances to be without a sufficient watercloset, earthcloset, -or privy . . . . the local authority shall by written notice -require the owner or occupier of the house within a reasonable -time therein specified, to provide a sufficient watercloset, earthcloset, -or privy . . . . or either of them as the case may -require. If such notice is not complied with the local authority -may, at the expiration of the time specified in the notice, do -the work, provided that where a watercloset, earthcloset, or -privy has been and is used in common by the inmates of two -or more houses, or if in the opinion of the local authority a -watercloset, earthcloset, or privy may be so used, they need -not require the same to be provided for each house” (38 & 39 -Vic. c. 55, s. 36).</p> - -<p>If the local authority approve, an earthcloset may be constructed -instead of a watercloset, but in this case they should -make arrangements for the supply of the dry earth and the -removal of its contents.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page298">[298]</span></p> - -<p>The necessary form of notice to be served in connection -with insufficient w.c. accommodation may be as follows:</p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p class="center highline2"><i>To the owner of the house No. <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> in the borough of -<span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>.</i></p> - -<p>Whereas the above-mentioned house is situate within the -district of the mayor, aldermen, and burgesses of <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>,</span> the -urban sanitary authority for the borough of <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>:</span> And -whereas it appears to the said urban sanitary authority that -the said house is without a sufficient watercloset, earthcloset, -or privy: Now the said urban sanitary authority do hereby -require you, the said owner, within <span class="padl4 padr4"> </span> from the date of this -notice to provide a sufficient watercloset for the use of the inhabitants -of the said house. And take notice, that if you do -not within the time above specified provide a sufficient watercloset, -as aforesaid, to the satisfaction of the said urban -sanitary authority, they will themselves, at the expiration of -such time, do the necessary work to provide such closet -accommodation as aforesaid, and proceed to recover the costs -and expenses thereby incurred in manner provided by the -Public Health Act 1875.</p> - -<p>Dated this <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> of <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>,</span> -<span class="nowrap">188 .</span></p> - -<div class="signed"> - -<p class="center">___________________________________<br /> -<i>Surveyor to the said Mayor, Aldermen and Burgesses.</i></p> - -</div><!--signed--> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p>And where the case demands, the following note may be -added below the above notice:</p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The urban sanitary authority may, if they so -determine, require a separate watercloset to be provided for -each house, or they may permit a watercloset to be used in -common by the inmates of two or more houses,<a id="FNanchor205"></a><a href="#Footnote205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> but in either -case the closet itself must be properly constructed and provided -with due means of ventilation. The urban sanitary authority<span class="pagenum" id="Page299">[299]</span> -will approve of the existing closet accommodation if it is perfected -by means of the following works being carried out. -(Specification of work required to be done must here be -inserted.) The whole of the work to be executed in a workmanlike -manner and to my entire approval.</p> - -<p>“It is, however, to be understood that the above notice -requiring the work to be executed within one month will be -rigidly enforced; and if at the expiration of that time the -work be not completed, the urban sanitary authority will themselves -proceed to execute the necessary work to provide proper -closet accommodation in such manner as they may deem most -advisable, without pledging themselves to the adoption of the -method above suggested.”</p> - -<div class="signed"> - -<p class="center">___________________________________<br /> -<i>Surveyor to the said Mayor, Aldermen and Burgesses.</i></p> - -</div><!--signed--> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p>With regard to watercloset accommodation for factories, it -appears to rest entirely with the town surveyor to draw the -attention of the sanitary authority to any case where he -considers this is deficient, as by the following clause:</p> - -<p>“Where it appears to any local authority by the report of -their surveyor that any house is used or intended to be used -as a factory or building in which persons of both sexes are -employed or intended to be employed at one time in any -manufacture, trade, or business, the local authority may, if -they think fit, by written notice require the owner or occupier -of such house, within the time therein specified, to construct a -sufficient number of waterclosets, earthclosets, or privies and -ashpits for the separate use of each sex.</p> - -<p>“Any person who neglects or refuses to comply with any -such notice shall be liable for each default to a penalty not -exceeding twenty pounds, and to a further penalty not exceeding -forty shillings for every day during which the default -is continued” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 38).</p> - -<p>In providing closet accommodation which is to be used in -common by the occupants of a number of houses, it must be<span class="pagenum" id="Page300">[300]</span> -remembered that it should be of the most simple description. -Any one acquainted with the working of waterclosets situated -in courts and alleys will know how badly they are treated, and -into what a fearful state of disrepair and filth they speedily -fall, as the great difficulty the sanitary inspector always finds -is to have them kept clean; “What is everybody’s business is -nobody’s.” And although by clauses 40, 41, 46, &c., of the -Public Health Act 1875 persons causing a nuisance can be -punished, it is a difficult matter to detect the person in fault, -unless of course it is a structural defect, when the owner can -be summoned if it is allowed to remain uncured.</p> - -<p>For this reason what are known as “Fowler’s closets,” or -some modification of this principle, should be adopted in all -such localities where earthclosets or some of the dry systems -are not in force, as they are without any complicated valve -apparatus or anything of the kind.</p> - -<p>The last point to consider in this chapter is that of <i>Houses -without a proper supply of water</i>.</p> - -<p>“Where on <i>the report of the surveyor</i> of a local authority it -appears that any house is without a proper supply of water, -and that such a supply can be furnished at a cost not exceeding -that authorised by any local Act, or where there is not any -local Act, not exceeding twopence a week, or at such other -cost as the Local Government Board may determine, the -local authority shall give notice in writing to the owner, -requiring him, within a time specified, to obtain such supply, -and to do all such works as may be necessary for that purpose,<a id="FNanchor206"></a><a href="#Footnote206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> -and in default of his doing so may carry out all necessary -works themselves for obtaining such supply” (<i>vide</i> 38 & 39 -Vic. c. 55, s. lxii.).</p> - -<p>It is not very often that a house is found without any<span class="pagenum" id="Page301">[301]</span> -supply of water at all, for if that from the mains is not laid on -it is generally found that the house is supplied from a well or -from a stand-pipe in a court, or some similar source. If the -water is derived from an impure well or other contaminated -source, the following clause of the Public Health Act 1875 -must be enforced in order to close the well or compel the -discontinuance of the polluted supply, when a “proper” -supply of water can be enforced in the manner I have -described:</p> - -<p>“On the representation of any person to any local -authority that within their district the water in any well, tank, -or cistern, public or private, or supplied from any public pump, -and used or likely to be used by man for drinking or domestic -purposes, or for manufacturing drinks for the use of man, is so -polluted as to be injurious to health, such authority may -apply to a court of summary jurisdiction for an order to -remedy the same; and thereupon such court shall summon -the owner or occupier of the premises to which the well, tank, -or cistern belongs if it be private, and in the case of a public -well, tank, cistern or pump, any person alleged in the application -to be interested in the same, and may either dismiss the -application, or may make an order directing the well, tank, -cistern, or pump to be permanently or temporarily closed, or -the water to be used for certain purposes only, or such other -order as may appear to them to be requisite to prevent injury -to the health of persons drinking the water.</p> - -<p>“The court may, if they see fit, cause the water complained -of to be analysed at the cost of the local authority applying -to them under this section.</p> - -<p>“If the person on whom an order under this section is -made fails to comply with the same, the court may, on the -application of the local authority, authorise them to do whatever -may be necessary in the execution of the order, and any expenses -incurred by them may be recovered in a summary -manner from the person on whom the order is made.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page302">[302]</span></p> - -<p>“Expenses incurred by any rural authority in the execution -of this section, and not recovered by them as aforesaid, -shall be special expenses” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 70).</p> - -<p>It is an established fact that wells within a town must -always be regarded with some suspicion, and where they exist -either publicly or privately the local authority would do well -to have the water from them analysed with a view to having -them closed. Even cisterns, if not frequently examined and -cleansed, will cause the water that is stored in them to become -polluted, not only from the dust of the air settling in them and -the natural impurities of the water passing through them, but -frequently from foreign objects falling into them and decaying, -such as rats, mice, cats, and in one case that I know of, a -sirloin of beef, and in another a plumber! These remained in -the cistern until the colour, smell, and taste of the water drew -the attention of the drinkers to “something being the -matter!” The cure for the chance of such cases as these is -of course the constant supply.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote202"></a><a href="#FNanchor202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> -Any cellar in which any person passes the night shall be deemed to be -occupied as a dwelling within the meaning of this Act (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, -s. 74).</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote203"></a><a href="#FNanchor203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> -“In this Act (P. H. Act 1875) the term ‘earth closet’ includes any place for -the reception and deodorization of fæcal matter constructed to the satisfaction -of the local authority” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 37).</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote204"></a><a href="#FNanchor204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> -In case of several houses together, it has been held as not necessary to -have separate accommodation for each house, if there is sufficient for them -collectively. (Clutton Guardians v. Pointing, 4 Q. B. Division 340, 48 -L. J. M. C. 137.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote205"></a><a href="#FNanchor205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> -It is not always possible for a separate w.c. to be provided for each house, -hence the wisdom of the law which makes it permissive for a local authority to -allow a group of tenements to be provided for by several waterclosets close together.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote206"></a><a href="#FNanchor206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> -A similar provision is made requiring the keeper of a common lodging -house to obtain a proper supply of water (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 81), but it -does not appear to be the express duty of the town surveyor to draw attention to -this, as it does in the more general clause.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page303">[303]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XXVI.<br /> -<span class="chapname">HOUSE DRAINAGE.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">It would not be possible in one chapter of a book of this -description to enter into all the details and necessary apparatus -in connection with house drainage. I propose only to point -out some of the town surveyor’s duties in connection with this -subject, and to add a few remarks which may be of some -service.</p> - -<p>The definition of the word “drain” as given in the Public -Health Act 1875 is as follows:</p> - -<p>“‘Drain’ means any drain of and used for the drainage of -one building only, or premises within the same curtilage, and -made merely for the purpose of communicating therefrom -with a cesspool or other like receptacle for drainage, or with a -sewer into which the drainage of two or more buildings or -premises occupied by different persons is conveyed” (38 & 39 -Vic. c. 55, s. 4).</p> - -<p>Although this definition is very clear, it occasionally -happens, especially in old towns, that some doubt arises as to -whether an existing conduit for sewage is a “drain” or a -“sewer”<a id="FNanchor207"></a><a href="#Footnote207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> -for though a conduit is of small size it maybe found -to be carrying the sewage of two or more buildings, and thus -is really “a sewer belonging to the local authority.”</p> - -<p>This difficulty often leads to litigation where a notice -having been served upon an owner of property to put in a -new drain in place of one that has been found on examination -to be defective, the new work is of course commenced at the -junction with the main sewer, and it is not until the new so-called<span class="pagenum" id="Page304">[304]</span> -drain is nearly completed that it is found to be “used -for the drainage” of more than one building, and is in fact “a -sewer into which the drainage of two or more buildings or -premises, occupied by different persons is conveyed” (see -clause quoted above), and is therefore repairable by the local -authority (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 13).</p> - -<p>Where the town surveyor is in any doubt as to whether -the conduit is a drain or a sewer, he should test from whence -the sewage comes by passing diluted white lime or carbolic -acid down the adjacent water-closets and watching whether it -flows through the conduit or not, but even here he is sometimes -at fault if the drains are old and dilapidated, as they do not -reach the point he is watching and he is thus misled.</p> - -<p>In connection with the question of house drainage the -town surveyor has the following duties to perform:</p> - -<p>(1.) To inspect all new drains that are constructed in -connection with existing buildings within his district.</p> - -<p>(2.) To inspect all drains of new buildings that are -constructed within his district.</p> - -<p>(3.) To inspect all defective drains within his district, -serve the necessary notices in respect thereof, and inspect -the works he has required to be executed whilst they are in -progress.</p> - -<p>(1.) With reference to the first of these duties the following -is the clause of the Public Health Act 1875 which bears upon -the point:</p> - -<p>“The owner or occupier of any premises within the district -of a local authority shall be entitled to cause his drains to -empty into the sewers of that authority on condition of his -giving such notice as may be required by that authority of -his intention so to do, and of complying with the regulations -of that authority in respect of the mode in which the communications -between such drains and sewers are to be made, -and subject to the control of any person who may be -appointed by that authority to superintend the making of<span class="pagenum" id="Page305">[305]</span> -such communications. Any person causing a drain to empty -into a sewer of a local authority without complying with the -provisions of this section shall be liable to a penalty not -exceeding twenty pounds, and the local authority may close -any communication between a drain and sewer made in -contravention of this section . . . .” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, -s. 21).</p> - -<p>The first thing therefore that a local authority has to do -is to frame the necessary regulations and appoint a “person -to superintend the making of such communications.”</p> - -<p>The following is given as a specimen form of the manner -in which these regulations may be compiled:<a id="FNanchor208"></a><a href="#Footnote208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a></p> - -<div class="notice"> - -<p class="hind04"><i>Regulations made and ordained by the Urban Sanitary -Authority for <span class="nowrap"><span class="padl4 padr4"> </span>,</span> as to the giving of notice before -any drains are made to communicate with the sewers -of the said Urban Sanitary Authority; regulating the -mode in which such communications are to be made; and -appointing the person under whose superintendence and -control the work is to be executed.</i></p> - -</div><!--notice--> - -<p>1.—No communication shall be made with any sewer -belonging to the said Urban Sanitary Authority, nor any drain -made to empty therein, unless notice of an intention so to do, -signed by the owner or occupier of the premises to which<span class="pagenum" id="Page306">[306]</span> -such drains belong, be left at the office of the borough surveyor -two days previously; and such notice must specify the point -at which it is desired that communication shall be made, and -the time at which it is proposed the work shall be commenced, -and any person not complying with these regulations will be -liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds.</p> - -<p>2.—Work required to be done in connecting any house -drain or drains with the main or public sewer, shall be executed -in the following manner:</p> - -<p>The ground to be excavated to the required depth with all -possible expedition, the work to proceed by night and day; -and there shall be maintained during the progress of the work -all such fencings, hoardings, struttings, and shorings, as may be -necessary for or in consequence of any of the works, for the -protection of the public, and of all buildings and property -whatever, near to or liable to be affected by the work, which -shall also be well watched and lighted.</p> - -<p>The shoring and strutting of the excavation is to be done -in such manner, with poling boards, waling pieces and struts, -as the surveyor shall consider necessary.</p> - -<p>All surplus earth or material is to be carted away as -speedily as possible. Care must be taken where the excavation -is made in a road or path to keep separate the surface -material from the lower, so as to replace them in their proper -positions.</p> - -<p>The excavation shall in all cases where practicable be in -open cutting, and not by shafts and headings.</p> - -<p>The junction with the main sewer to be done in the -following <span class="nowrap">manner:—</span></p> - -<p>The drain shall in no case be less than four inches internal -diameter, and shall be constructed of well-burnt glazed socketed -stoneware pipes, circular, perfectly true in bore, and straight, -with whole socket joints free from flaws, blisters, cracks, or -other defects, set in Portland cement joints with a uniform fall, -well bedded on well-rammed and solid ground, the sockets<span class="pagenum" id="Page307">[307]</span> -being sunk into it so as to give an even bearing. No shafts or -sudden falls will be allowed.</p> - -<p>Where the junction is with a sewer constructed of pipes, -one length of the sewer (or more if necessary) shall be removed -and an oblique proper glazed socket junction pipe, set in -Portland cement, inserted in its place.</p> - -<p>The junction with the sewer shall be of the same size as -the drain.</p> - -<p>Where the junction is with a brick or stone sewer, the -connection shall be made at such height above the invert as -the surveyor shall determine, and be made with a glazed -socket pipe obliquely in line of current of main sewer, properly -bedded in with cement, cut off so as to take the form of -the main sewer and offer no obstruction to the proper flow of -sewage therein, or with a properly constructed stoneware block -junction.</p> - -<p>On completion of the junction, which shall be made before -any of the pipe drain is laid, it shall be inspected by the -surveyor, and the work must not be further proceeded with -until such inspection has been made and the junction pronounced -satisfactory. The drain shall be properly trapped -between the sewer and the house, with a syphon of such form -as the surveyor shall direct, and be at its inlet end or other -extremity carried up open its full diameter to above the -roof line.</p> - -<p>The excavation is to be filled in within six inches of the -surface of the ground, with layers of earth not more than six -inches in thickness, carefully rammed or punned with iron -punners of not less weight than 10 lbs.</p> - -<p>The surface of a roadway must be brought up to its proper -level with the surface material kept separate, and properly -broken or other approved road metal, and the roadway where -broken shall be kept in repair by the person opening the -ground for a period of twelve months after the completion of -the work.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page308">[308]</span></p> - -<p>If the excavation is made under a footpath or paved road, -the paving must be made good and kept in repair for a similar -period.</p> - -<p>3.—A. B. C., the present borough surveyor, and his -successors in office, or the person for the time being acting as -or discharging the duties of borough surveyor, are hereby -appointed as the person or persons to superintend the making -of such communications with the public sewers as aforesaid.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore_tb">(1.) Notwithstanding the stringency of the above regulations -it is very difficult to ensure that the whole of the new drain is -properly executed by the person who is carrying out the work, -for if he wishes to deceive the surveyor’s department it is not -very difficult to do so in works of this description. It would -be far better if all drains of dwelling houses could be constructed -solely by the staff of the local authority, and failing -any general act upon the subject, that they should be able to -obtain private powers to do so.</p> - -<p>It is illegal for anyone to touch the surface of either roadway -or footpath for any purpose whatever<a id="FNanchor209"></a><a href="#Footnote209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> without the consent -of the urban authority (see 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, sec. 149), -and especially to touch or interfere with the main sewers. All -such work could be done better and cheaper, both for the -ratepayers and the owners of property, if carried out by the -trained staff of the local authority; nothing would be gained -by scamping the work, and one of the worst stumbling blocks -in the interests of sanitation would be removed by this simple -and effective measure. Gas and water companies invariably -refuse to allow anyone to interfere with their mains or services, -but execute the work with their own men; how much more -important is it that house drains and sewers should be equally -protected. If a gas or water main or house service leaks -through defective work it is quickly detected and remedied; -not so with a drain or sewer, the deadly gases may be oozing<span class="pagenum" id="Page309">[309]</span> -through defective joints or the foul liquid may be poisoning -the soil under the adjacent dwelling houses, and many victims -may suffer before the cause is ascertained, and even then -laborious legal machinery has to be put in force before it can -be rectified.</p> - -<p>The only objections that can be raised to the plan I so -strongly advocate are, first, the interference with the trade -connections and interests of builders and others; and secondly, -the responsibility incurred by the local authority to execute -thoroughly sound and good work, and the difficulty they -might afterwards experience if it was necessary to find fault -with their own work. The first objection should really have -no weight when lives are at stake, and the responsibility -incurred by the second objection ought not to be shirked.</p> - -<p>Until some alteration is made in the present law the town -surveyor must be as vigilant as he can, and endeavour to -induce the public to look more closely themselves into such -all-important points.</p> - -<p>(2.) The next duty of the town surveyor is to inspect all -drains of new buildings that are being constructed in his -district.</p> - -<p>I have dealt with this subject in the chapter on “<a href="#Page206">New -Buildings</a>.” The model bye-laws to which I have there -referred contain some excellent principles in reference to this -matter, and too much power cannot be given to a local -authority in respect of house drains, even to the extent of -prohibiting any one else to construct them. The main sewer, -shared in common as it is by all the inhabitants of a town, -must be looked upon as a common danger, and each house that -connects with it should so far as possible be severed from it; -at the same time the drain must be so constructed that the -sewage reaches the sewer as quickly and as completely as -possible, without any nuisance or knowledge of the unpleasant -nature of its contents or those in the sewer reaching the -inhabitants of the house: this is the key-note of all house<span class="pagenum" id="Page310">[310]</span> -drainage, and many excellent books and descriptions of this -class of work have been from time to time written.</p> - -<p>(3.) The next duty of the town surveyor is to inspect all -defective drains within his district, and serve the necessary -notices, &c.</p> - -<p>This duty is embodied in the following clauses of the -Public Health Act, 1875:</p> - -<p>“Where any house within the district of a local authority is -without a drain sufficient for effectual drainage, the local -authority shall by written notice require the owner or occupier -of such house, within a reasonable time therein specified, to -make a covered drain or drains emptying into any sewer which -the local authority are entitled to use, and which is not more -than one hundred feet from the site of such house; but if no -such means of drainage are within that distance, then -emptying into such covered cesspool or other place not being -under any house as the local authority direct; and the local -authority may require any such drain or drains to be of such -materials and size, and to be laid at such level and with such -fall, as on the report of their surveyor may appear to them to -be necessary.</p> - -<p>“If such notice is not complied with, the local authority -may, after the expiration of the time specified in the notice, -do the work required, and may recover in a summary manner -the expenses incurred by them in so doing from the owner, -or may by order declare the same to be private improvement -expenses.</p> - -<p>“Provided that where, in the opinion of the local authority, -greater expense would be incurred in causing the drains of two -or more houses to empty into an existing sewer pursuant to -this section, than in constructing a new sewer and causing such -drains to empty therein, the local authority may construct -such new sewer, and require the owners or occupiers of such -houses to cause their drains to empty therein, and may apportion -as they deem just the expenses of the construction of such<span class="pagenum" id="Page311">[311]</span> -sewer among the owners of the several houses, and recover in -a summary manner the sums apportioned from such owners, -or may by order declare the same to be private improvement -expenses” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 23).</p> - -<p>The above clause is the most simple under which this duty -can be carried out, provided it can be proved that the house<a id="FNanchor210"></a><a href="#Footnote210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> -is “without a drain sufficient for effectual drainage,” and for -this purpose it would probably be necessary to enter the -premises and open up and examine the drain, unless, of course, -it was a case where no drain existed to the house at all, or -was evidently and notoriously without “effectual drainage.” -In order to enter for this purpose the requisite powers are -conferred in the following clause of the Public Health Act -1875:</p> - -<p>“The local authority, or any of their officers, shall be -admitted into any premises for the purpose of examining as to -the existence of any nuisance thereon, or of enforcing the -provisions of any Act in force within the district requiring fireplaces -and furnaces to consume their own smoke, at any time -between the hours of nine in the forenoon and six in the afternoon, -or in the case of a nuisance arising in respect of any -business, then at any hour when such business is in progress -or is usually carried on.</p> - -<p>“Where under this Act a nuisance has been ascertained to -exist, or an order of abatement or prohibition has been made, -the local authority or any of their officers shall be admitted -from time to time into the premises between the hours aforesaid, -until the nuisance is abated, or the works ordered to be -done are completed, as the case may be.</p> - -<p>“Where an order of abatement or prohibition has not been -complied with, or has been infringed, the local authority, or -any of their officers, shall be admitted from time to time at all<span class="pagenum" id="Page312">[312]</span> -reasonable hours, or at all hours during which business is in -progress or is usually carried on, into the premises where the -nuisance exists, in order to abate the same.</p> - -<p>“If admission to premises for any of the purposes of this -section is refused, any justice on complaint thereof on oath by -any officer of the local authority (made after reasonable notice -in writing of the intention to make the same has been given to -the person having custody of the premises), may, by order -under his hand, require the person having custody of the -premises to admit the local authority, or their officer, into the -premises during the hours aforesaid, and if no person having -custody of the premises can be found, the justice shall, on oath -made before him of that fact, by order under his hand authorise -the local authority or any of their officers to enter such -premises during the hours aforesaid.</p> - -<p>“Any order made by a justice for admission of the local -authority or any of their officers on premises shall continue in -force until the nuisance has been abated, or the work for which -the entry was necessary has been done” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, -s. 102).</p> - -<p>The above clause also gives the necessary powers of entry -where the following clause of the Public Health Act is enforced -with reference to defective house drainage, instead of the 23rd -section which I have quoted.</p> - -<p>“On the written application of any person to a local authority, -stating that any drain, watercloset, earthcloset, privy, ashpit, -or cesspool on or belonging to any premises within their -district is a nuisance, or injurious to health (but not otherwise), -the local authority may, by writing, empower their surveyor -or inspector of nuisances, after twenty-four hours’ written -notice to the occupier of such premises, or in case of emergency -without notice, to enter such premises, with or without assistants, -and cause the ground to be opened, and examine such -drain, watercloset, earthcloset, privy, ashpit, or cesspool. If -the drain, watercloset, earthcloset, privy, ashpit, or cesspool<span class="pagenum" id="Page313">[313]</span> -on examination is found to be in proper condition, he shall -cause the ground to be closed, and any damage done to be made -good as soon as can be, and the expenses of the works shall -be defrayed by the local authority. If the drain, watercloset, -earthcloset, privy, ashpit, or cesspool on examination appear -to be in bad condition, or to require alteration or amendment, -the local authority shall forthwith cause notice in writing to -be given to the owner or occupier of the premises requiring -him forthwith or within a reasonable time therein specified to -do the necessary works; and if such notice is not complied -with, the person to whom it is given shall be liable to a penalty -not exceeding ten shillings for every day during which he -continues to make default, and the local authority may, if -they think fit, execute such works, and may recover in a -summary manner from the owner the expenses incurred by -them in so doing, or may by order declare the same to be -private improvement expenses” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 41).</p> - -<p>In acting upon the above clause it is well to note the -machinery that is necessary in order to secure success in the -event of a prosecution.</p> - -<p>(1.) The notice to the local authority of the existence of a -nuisance arising from a drain, &c., must be in writing, and that -authority must then proceed to consider the notice.</p> - -<p>(2.) If they agree to take action the local authority may -empower their surveyor to enter the premises (with or without -notice as the case may require) but this order to him must -also be in writing.<a id="FNanchor211"></a><a href="#Footnote211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a></p> - -<p>(3.) If the surveyor is allowed by the occupier of the -premises to enter (and in default he must put the 102nd -section which I have quoted in force) he may then open the -ground “with or without assistants.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page314">[314]</span></p> - -<p>(4.) If he finds a defective drain he must then report to -the local authority in writing, unless he has been primarily -invested by the local authority with such powers as will -dispense with such report.<a id="FNanchor212"></a><a href="#Footnote212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a></p> - -<p>(5.) The local authority shall “forthwith cause notice in -writing to be given to the owner, &c.” to do the work.</p> - -<p>(6.) If the owner executes the work the surveyor must -supervise its execution.</p> - -<p>(7.) If this work is not done within a reasonable time -the local authority “may if they think fit” execute the -works; the surveyor has probably to carry them out, after -having obtained the necessary permission to enter for the -purpose.</p> - -<p>(8.) The costs of the work have to be recovered.</p> - -<p>Anyone acquainted with local government will know how -difficult and tedious such processes must necessarily be, the -delay between the meetings of the local authority being quite -sufficient to make the matter in dispute last a considerable -time, and this delay is extremely undesirable where a nuisance -arising from a defective house-drain is in existence.</p> - -<p>There seems to be no doubt that the clauses which are -given in the Public Health Act 1875 empower the local -authority to specify without dispute the class of work they -think necessary in order to remedy any evils arising from a -defective drain, but it is a pity that some more simple process -cannot be introduced to improve the sanitary condition of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page315">[315]</span> -house without the necessity of so much laborious legal -machinery.</p> - -<p>There is still one other clause in the Public Health -Act 1875, which refers to house drainage, and it is as -follows:</p> - -<p>“Every local authority shall provide that all drains, waterclosets, -earthclosets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools within their -district be constructed and kept so as not to be a nuisance, or -injurious to health” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 40). But this -clause is usually taken to apply rather to nuisances arising -from temporary defects than to more important structural -defects in a drain, and such nuisances come more under the -cognizance and duties of the inspector of nuisances than those -of the town surveyor.</p> - -<p>It would not be possible, as I have already stated, in one -chapter to give all the detail descriptions of house drains and -the necessary apparatus in connection therewith, and besides -very many excellent books, pamphlets and papers have been -from time to time written on this important subject.<a id="FNanchor213"></a><a href="#Footnote213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> Before, -however, bringing this chapter to a conclusion, I will give a -list of the essential requirements of all good house drainage -which may be of some use to the town surveyor:</p> - -<p>(1.) A house drain should be constructed of stoneware -pipes (not earthenware or fire clay), these are generally salt -glazed, and should be perfectly smooth or even slippery inside, -the pipes must be of true circular section and thickness of -material, and straight in the direction of their length, with -whole sockets of proper depth, and free from any cracks,<span class="pagenum" id="Page316">[316]</span> -blisters, sand holes, or other defects. As even the most -carefully manufactured pipes vary somewhat in diameter of -sockets; &c., it is well to have them sorted before commencing -the work; it is scarcely necessary to add that no “seconds” -should be allowed on the works.</p> - -<p>(2.) The internal diameter of the drain should not be too -large; 6 inches may be considered as a maximum, 4 inches is -generally quite sufficient to carry off all the sewage from an -extensive establishment, even if all the water from the roofs or -a portion of them is included.</p> - -<p>(3.) The inclination is governed by circumstances, but -about 1 in 60 is found to be a very convenient fall for many -hydraulic, and other reasons.</p> - -<p>(4.) The jointing of the pipes should be executed with -great care; if cement joints are made each pipe should be -jointed separately, and it should be seen that no cement is left -in the drain. Sometimes tarred gaskin is used to prevent this, -and Stanford’s patent joints are excellent where running water -or sewage has to be contended with, or great despatch of the -work is necessary.<a id="FNanchor214"></a><a href="#Footnote214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a></p> - -<p>(5.) The sockets of the pipes should be sunk into the -ground at the bottom of the trench so as to give an even -bearing, which amongst other benefits dispenses with the chance -of settlements.</p> - -<p>(6.) No pipes should be allowed to be covered in until they -have been inspected by the town surveyor or his assistants, -and in order to test the soundness of the joints, it is a good -plan to fill the drain with water, having first stopped up the -lower end, and note the effect.</p> - -<p>(7.) Drains should not pass under buildings if it can be -avoided, but if unavoidable they must be buried in good<span class="pagenum" id="Page317">[317]</span> -concrete, and relieving arches turned to any walls passing over -them. In America iron pipes are used under houses.</p> - -<p>(8.) Care must be exercised, in filling in over pipes, not to -break or injure them.</p> - -<p>(9.) The trap to a house drain should be a “Buchan” or -other similar syphon with a good cascade action, its position -must be guided by circumstances.</p> - -<p>(10.) The drain should end at the outside wall of the house -and be carried up the wall its full diameter to above the roof -for ventilation, an inlet for fresh air being essential on the -house side of the trap; if the drain has to pass under the -house it must be similarly carried up on the other side.</p> - -<p>(11.) The connection with the main sewer has been -already described.</p> - -<p>In conclusion I would urge the necessity of a register of all -drains being kept that are examined by the surveyor’s department. -This can be done by having a series of numbered notebooks -kept solely for this purpose, and all the information -thus acquired should also be plotted on the map of the town -if on a sufficiently large scale.</p> - -<p>The necessity of correct plans of the drainage of buildings -cannot be over-estimated, especially for hospitals, asylums, -workhouses, schools, or other public buildings, and even for -the smallest dwelling house such a plan would often prove to -be the greatest boon to the occupier or owner as well as at all -times to the town surveyor, the medical officer of health, and -the inspector of nuisances.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote207"></a><a href="#FNanchor207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> -For definitions of the word “sewer,” see the chapter on <a href="#Page251">Sewerage</a>.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote208"></a><a href="#FNanchor208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> -The New York Board of Health require that earthenware drain pipes -connecting dwellings with street sewers shall be hard and salt glazed, sound and -cylindrical; at least ⁵⁄₈ths of an inch thick if 5 inches in diameter, and ³⁄₄ of an inch -thick if 6 inches in diameter. Pipe must be connected with hydraulic cement of -the best quality. No “tempered up” cement can be used. The pipes must be -laid with such good alignment that the inspector can see through the entire line -from the house to the sewer, and every section must be bedded in cement so as -to have a firm bearing, not only at the hub, but along its entire length. The -inside of the drain must be freed from all cement which may have oozed through -at the joints, and from all other obstructions. Before the drain is covered notice -must be sent to the Health Department, by the owner or plumber, that the -inspector may visit and examine the work, and the Board of Health will not -approve or permit a drain which has not been examined by one of its inspectors -and found to be properly constructed.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote209"></a><a href="#FNanchor209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> -See chapter on “<a href="#Page157">Breaking up Streets</a>.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote210"></a><a href="#FNanchor210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> -The definition of house is as follows:—“House” includes schools, also -factories and other buildings in which more than twenty persons are employed at -one time. (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 4)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote211"></a><a href="#FNanchor211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> -Notices, orders, and other such documents under this Act may be in writing -or print, or partly in writing and partly in print; and if the same require authentication -by the local authority, the signature thereof by the clerk to the local -authority or their surveyor or inspector of nuisances shall be sufficient authentication -(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 266).</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote212"></a><a href="#FNanchor212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> -Having obtained admission to the premises, the inspection of the alleged -nuisance should be so conducted as to enable the local authority to determine -whether it exists, or whether it existed at the time the notice was given, and -whether, although it has since been removed or discontinued, it is likely to recur -or to be repeated; and in all cases it will be the most expedient course to reduce -to writing the result of the inspection. When the inspection is made by an officer -of the local authority, it will also be expedient for that authority, on receiving the -report of their officer formally and in writing, to record the conclusions to which -they have come after considering his report in order to ground further proceedings. -(<i>Vide</i> ‘Law of Public Health and Local Government,’ by W. C. and A. G. Glen, -8th edition, p. 81.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote213"></a><a href="#FNanchor213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> -For ample information on the subject of house drainage and similar subjects -see the following books, etc.:— Bailey Denton’s ‘Sanitary Engineering’; Baldwin -Latham’s ‘Sanitary Engineering’; Buchan’s ‘Plumbing’; Slagg’s ‘Sanitary -Work’; Hart’s ‘Manual of Public Health’; Hellyer’s ‘Plumber and Sanitary -Houses’; Galton’s ‘Healthy Dwellings’; ‘House Drainage,’ by W. A. Tylor; -Philbrick’s ‘American Sanitary Engineering,’ and many others, besides the numerous -reports of the “Health of Towns Commission,” and several articles in the -<i>Sanitary Record</i>, the <i>Sanitary Engineer of New York</i>, and Mr. Rawlinson’s -‘Hints,’ all of which should be studied by the town surveyor.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote214"></a><a href="#FNanchor214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> -In some parts of the north of England taper pipes are used about 20 inches -in length, the internal diameter of the larger end being slightly greater than the -external diameter of the smaller end, thus allowing the small end of one pipe to -enter the large end of another. Continuous lengths of cement pipes made <i>in situ</i> -are also now being introduced.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page318">[318]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XXVII.<br /> -<span class="chapname">PUBLIC PLEASURE GROUNDS AND STREET TREES.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">Amongst the clauses of the Public Health Act 1875 which -affect the duties of the town surveyor will be found the -following:</p> - -<p>“Any urban authority may purchase or take on lease, lay -out, plant, improve, and maintain lands for the purpose of -being used as public walks or pleasure grounds, and may support -or contribute to the support of public walks or pleasure -grounds provided by any person whomsoever.</p> - -<p>“Any urban authority may make bye-laws for the regulation -of any such public walk or pleasure ground, and may by -such bye-laws provide for the removal from such public walk -or pleasure ground of any person infringing any such bye-law -by any officer of the urban authority or constable” (38 & 39 -Vic. c. 55, s. 164).</p> - -<p>There are very few, if any, cities or towns in this country -that have not availed themselves of this clause, even if they -did not already possess one if not more public parks or -pleasure grounds of some description, these having either -been given by some benevolent citizen or acquired in some -other manner by the urban authority.<a id="FNanchor215"></a><a href="#Footnote215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a></p> - -<p>Included in the powers given by the above clause are -no doubt those regulating the acquisition and support of -recreation or public playgrounds, public walks, or old city -walls or other places, and disused burying grounds.<a id="FNanchor216"></a><a href="#Footnote216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a></p> - -<p>In connection with the above clause of the Public Health<span class="pagenum" id="Page319">[319]</span> -Act, the town surveyor may have the following duties to -perform:</p> - -<p>To advise his corporation upon the value, suitability, and -desirability of any site that is intended for use as a public -park or recreation ground, and after its acquisition to adapt it -for the requisite purposes. To effect this it must be drained -and laid out with carriage-drives, walks, lawns, flower-beds, -plantations, and sometimes streams, waterfalls, and lakes. He -must design and erect the necessary lodges, entrance gates, -fences, shelters, seats,<a id="FNanchor217"></a><a href="#Footnote217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> band-stands, and fountains, and must -afterwards superintend the maintenance of these and the rest -of the works in connection with the pleasure ground.</p> - -<p>It would be impossible to lay down any rules for the -guidance of a surveyor in carrying out these works, for each -case must be dealt with as its exigencies require, and a great -deal of common sense, as well as engineering, architectural, -and artistic skill must be displayed by him in carrying out -any works of this description, details of which could not -possibly be given in a book of this size dealing with so many -subjects.<a id="FNanchor218"></a><a href="#Footnote218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a></p> - -<p>A few suggestions may, however, be of some service on -these points.</p> - -<p>Public playgrounds for children should be composed of -large, level, well-rolled, gravelled spaces, with a few trees for -shade, and some sheds for shelter. Turf soon gets spoiled -and worn bare, when it is not so pleasant as well-rolled gravel, -as it is far more dusty in dry weather and very damp in wet, -besides having an uncared-for appearance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page320">[320]</span></p> - -<p>In public parks, shrubs planted singly directly on the -lawns without any beds around them have a very pleasing -look, although it adds somewhat to the difficulty of mowing -the grass. The grass itself is greatly improved if it is well -dressed with manure in the spring and constantly watered all -the year round.</p> - -<p>Paths should be gravelled in the autumn, care being taken -to wait until all the leaves have fallen, which are swept up and -removed at once. A good fence for a path, if any protection -is necessary, is either a strained wire fence or cast-iron hoops -representing bent sticks. They are both cheap, and stand well -against weather and rough treatment.</p> - -<p>A very economical and neat border to the footpaths can -be made from the old used-up flagstones from the foot -pavements of the streets, these cut up and placed on edge, -especially if in conjunction with a pitched channel gutter of -pebbles, look remarkably well.</p> - -<p>Ornamental flints make a pretty border, but they are nasty -things for a child to fall upon.</p> - -<p>For flower-beds a flat border or edge of ivy has a very -telling effect. If there are ponds or lakes in the park there -should be a broad path or road close to the water’s edge. It -is surprising what a great advantage in effect this has over the -plan of leaving a strip of green between the path and the water.</p> - -<p>The selection of the proper shrubs for a park and their -distribution is a matter that requires the advice of an expert -gardener. The following list of ordinary shrubs that will -thrive well almost anywhere in this country may however be -of use for reference:</p> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<ul class="plantlist"> - -<li>Aucubas.</li> -<li>Azaleas.</li> -<li>Box.</li> -<li>Berberises.</li> -<li>Euonymus.</li> -<li>Hollies.</li> -<li>Ivies.</li> -<li>Laurels.</li> -<li>Lilacs.</li> -<li>Mahorrias.</li> -<li>Pampas grass.</li> -<li>Privet.</li> -<li>Rhododendrons.</li> -<li>Thorns.</li> -<li>Yuccas.</li> - -</ul> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page321">[321]</span></p> - -<p>With regard to the selection of trees, this also requires -skilled advice, but a list is given further on in this chapter, of -trees suitable for street planting, which may be also some -guide in this respect.</p> - -<p>In high gales of wind the surveyor may be expected to -endeavour to save valuable trees in a public park from being -blown down. This may sometimes be effected by a judicious -application of chains or ropes, but the better plan is to keep all -trees well pruned and as free as possible from “top hamper” -and undue leverage from overhanging limbs.</p> - -<p>On the pruning of trees and the removal of large limbs I -must refer my readers to a most admirable little book recently -published in America, being a translation from the -celebrated ‘Treatise on Pruning Forest and Ornamental -Trees, by A. des Cars,’ which enters most fully into the -subject, and being of great practical value, should be studied -by anyone who has anything to do with the care of forest or -other trees.<a id="FNanchor219"></a><a href="#Footnote219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a></p> - -<p>With regard to the planting of trees along the sides of -streets, our French neighbours are much in advance of us.<a id="FNanchor220"></a><a href="#Footnote220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> It -is true that in this country, owing to the much larger consumption -of coal as a domestic fuel, there is more soot in the -air, but it is erroneous to suppose that trees will not thrive -well in England. No doubt the moisture of our climate -causes the soot or “blacks” to adhere to the leaves and limbs -of the trees, but for that reason deciduous and not evergreen -trees should be selected for planting in towns, and these, if -well chosen and carefully planted, will most undoubtedly fully -repay their first cost and maintenance by the additional beauty<span class="pagenum" id="Page322">[322]</span> -to the street, the agreeable shade they cast, and their generally -healthful action on the population.</p> - -<p>In selecting trees to plant along the sides of the streets or -roads in any towns, it is well to bear in mind that the following -qualities are <span class="nowrap">necessary:—</span></p> - -<p>The tree must be hardy; it must not be affected by a -long-continued drought; heat must not wither it nor make it -look rusty; it must be able to withstand dust, smoke, soot, -foul air, and the insidious attacks of insects, and be able to -recover from any malicious or accidental injury it may -receive.</p> - -<p>The tree must be of rapid growth, and develope a straight, -clean stem with shady foliage. It must be graceful either in -full leaf or when bare as in winter; its roots must not require -too much room, and they must be able to withstand the effects -of pollution or rough treatment.</p> - -<p>Although the foregoing list of requirements may seem -rather formidable, yet amongst the trees whose names now -follow there will be found some which meet many, if not all -of these requirements, and which, if properly planted with all -reasonable care, may be expected to thrive if planted at the -sides of the streets in any town in this country.</p> - -<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="smcap">List of Trees suitable for Planting<br />at the Sides of Streets.</span></p> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<ul class="plantlist"> - -<li>Western Plane.</li> -<li>Lime.</li> -<li>Maple.</li> -<li>Horse Chestnut.</li> -<li>Elm.</li> -<li>Tulip tree.</li> -<li>Lombardy Poplar.</li> -<li>Ash.</li> -<li>Willow.</li> -<li>Beech.</li> -<li>Birch.</li> -<li>Oak.</li> -<li>Sycamore.</li> -<li>Copper Beech.</li> -<li>Pawlonia.</li> -<li>Ailantus Glandulosa.</li> -<li>Laburnum.</li> -<li>Lilac.</li> -<li>Almond.</li> -<li>Peach.</li> -<li>Hawthorn.</li> -<li>Acacia.</li> -<li>Double Cherry, etc.</li> - -</ul> - -<p class="thinline allclear"> </p> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -<p>Of the above list the western plane for many reasons is -the most desirable. Its freshness when it bursts into<span class="pagenum" id="Page323">[323]</span> -green buds is well known, and it is proverbial for its -hardiness.</p> - -<p>The lime was at one time the most popular tree for this -purpose, but it has several defects, the most notable being -that its leaves wither before the summer is over, and the tree -assumes a lifeless look at a time when most shade and freshness -are required of it.</p> - -<p>Of the remainder of the trees I have enumerated some are -slow in growth, which is a considerable drawback; others are -not wholly free from being affected by cold winds in the -spring or by lice in the winter, and the assistance of an expert -is very necessary in selecting trees for this important -purpose.</p> - -<p>Whatever trees are selected, the following precautions -should be taken:</p> - -<p>The young tree should have been well nourished in its -nursery before removal, and should on no account be planted -in the street until its stem is nearly 10 feet in height and -about 3 inches in diameter. The stem should be clean and -straight, and the whole tree symmetrical.</p> - -<p>The great difficulty in this country is to obtain sufficient -numbers of trees of the exact size and description, when it -becomes necessary to plant out a street. They have often to -be imported, when it is found that they are frequently unsuited -both for soil and climate, besides being very costly; thus -many failures have arisen in consequence. To obviate this -necessity in Paris the Government have for many years instituted -and maintained special nurseries where trees are grown -for this purpose alone, these nurseries being situated at -Passy, the Jardin Fleuriste, and Petit Buy, no less than -115 men being constantly employed in the work. Some -further particulars will be given presently on the cost of this -work.</p> - -<p>The trees thus nourished and selected should be planted -in the autumn, for there is a well-known saying that “a tree<span class="pagenum" id="Page324">[324]</span> -planted before Christmas can be <i>ordered</i> to grow; if planted -after Christmas it must be <i>asked</i> to do so”; and there is -no doubt that if trees are planted too late in the season -great difficulty in getting them to grow is generally experienced.</p> - -<p>The excavated pits must be well drained, and filling the -bottom of the pit with rubble is a good plan. The further -the tree can be planted from the kerb the better, so as -not only to give it a larger body of soil, but to lessen the risk -of killing the tree by the pollution of the ground with gas -from a defective main, and also excess of moisture from the -channel gutters. The distance apart of the trees is a matter -of choice. In Paris this is only 16 to 18 feet, but I think half -a chain (33 feet) is quite close enough; it economises trees and -gives plenty of room for the limbs of each tree to spread, and -the intermediate lamp-posts, watering hydrants, or other -standards are not crowded out.</p> - -<p>Each tree should have a cast-iron grating around its roots -similar to the following <span class="nowrap">drawing:—</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo344.png" alt="Grating" width="400" height="399" /> -</div> - -<p>This should be about 4 feet square. It prevents the -ground getting hard about the trees, and permits air and -water to enter to the roots. It also makes it easy to give any<span class="pagenum" id="Page325">[325]</span> -attention to the trees that they may require when young, such -as manuring, digging, &c.</p> - -<p>The tree should also be protected with a slight iron grill -or railing to prevent mischievous persons from cutting their -names on the trunk, climbing up into the tree, or breaking off -its branches whilst still young. The following sketch shows -the description of grill necessary, which is light, cheap, and at -the same time effective.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo345.png" alt="Grill" width="227" height="500" /> -</div> - -<p>The following interesting particulars of the manner in -which street planting of trees is conducted in Paris will be -useful, and are given <i>in extenso</i>:<a id="FNanchor221"></a><a href="#Footnote221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a></p> - -<p>“When the boulevarde is marked out and levelled, if the -soil is of bad quality, as is nearly always the case, trenches are<span class="pagenum" id="Page326">[326]</span> -dug in the footway from one end of the boulevarde to the -other. The width of this trench is usually about 6 feet, and -its depth 4 or 5; and before filling it in drain-pipes are laid -along the sides made with lapped joints so that the roots shall -not enter between them. The trench is then filled with good -garden earth, raising it a little higher than the level so as to -allow for settling. In this ground the trees are planted about -6 yards apart. They should be carefully chosen with perfect -roots, and moderately pruned. Formerly the stem was cut at -about 9 feet from the ground, but this had the bad effect of -preventing the top of the tree from being straight, and the -practice has been given up. The trees are next staked and -tied with wire over a neat wad of straw, which prevents all -injury to the stem. A protecting cage, neither heavy nor very -expensive, is placed round the tree to prevent accidents; and -if the weather be at all dry at the time of planting, the trees -are copiously watered.”</p> - -<p>The cost of planting a tree in the Paris boulevarde is thus -given:<a id="FNanchor222"></a><a href="#Footnote222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a></p> - -<table class="fsize90" summary="Costs"> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"> </td> -<td class="center padl0 padr0">fr. c.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">15 cubic metres of excavation at 4 francs</td> -<td class="center bot padl0 padr0">=</td> -<td class="right bot">60·00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">15 cubic metres of vegetable mould at 4 francs</td> -<td class="center bot padl0 padr0">=</td> -<td class="right bot">60·00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Training poles about 5 metres in height</td> -<td class="center bot padl0 padr0">=</td> -<td class="right bot bb">1·50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td rowspan="12"> </td> -<td class="right bot">121·50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Average deduction of 15 per cent. resulting from letting by tender</td> -<td class="right bot bb">18·23</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Price by contract</td> -<td class="right bot">103·27</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Pipe drainage and materials</td> -<td class="right bot">11·15</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Watering appliance (average)</td> -<td class="right bot">2·50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Cast iron grating round the base</td> -<td class="right bot">46·69</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Transport of tree from nursery</td> -<td class="right bot">2·00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Planting, including stakes</td> -<td class="right bot">3·00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Iron basket (to protect stem)</td> -<td class="right bot">8·70</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">The tree</td> -<td class="right bot">5·00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Labour for planting</td> -<td class="right bot bb">1·69</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td> </td> -<td class="right bot">184·00</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page327">[327]</span></p> - -<p>The maintenance of each tree costs 1·58 francs.</p> - -<p>The total cost, therefore, of each tree capitalised reaches -about 8<i>l.</i>, and its life is said not to exceed twelve years.</p> - -<p>Before closing this chapter it is well to advert to the -evident importance that the legislature attach to the planting -and preservation of trees along the sides of the public streets in -this country and their desire to protect them, as the following -clause of the Public Health Act 1875 will show. “. . . Any -person who, without the consent of the urban authority, -wilfully displaces or takes up, or who injures the pavement, -stones, materials, fences, or posts of, <i>or the trees</i> in any such -street shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds, -and to a further penalty not exceeding five shillings for every -square foot of pavement, stones, or other materials so displaced, -taken up, or injured; he shall also be liable in -the case of <i>any injury to trees</i> to pay to the local authority -such amount of compensation as the court may award” (38 & -39 Vic. c. 55, s. 149).</p> - -<p>It is a great source of regret that mischievous persons can -be found who by their wilful malice injure the trees planted at -the sides of streets out of the public funds and with great -expense and trouble.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote215"></a><a href="#FNanchor215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> -By the “Commons Act 1876,” powers were given to acquire and lay out -commons for purposes of public recreation, etc.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote216"></a><a href="#FNanchor216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> -Upon this latter point <i>Vide</i> 24 & 25 Vic. c. 61, s. 21.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote217"></a><a href="#FNanchor217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> -As a preservative against the malicious disfigurement of wooden seats, I -have seen the following inscription placed upon some seats in an old public park, -“Never cut a friend,” and it had apparently the desired effect.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote218"></a><a href="#FNanchor218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> -As an instance of the size and importance works of this description may -assume, the Bois de Boulogne, Paris, is an example. It covers an area of -2000 acres, of which one half is forest, one quarter is grass, one-eighth roads, and -about 70 acres is water. One of the most beautifully arranged public parks in -this country is Sefton Park, Liverpool, where the most perfect arrangements of -lawns, plantations, lakes and drives, have been carried out.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote219"></a><a href="#FNanchor219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> -‘A Treatise on Pruning Forest and Ornamental Trees,’ by A. des Cars, -translated from the 7th French edition, with an introduction by Charles S. -Sargent, etc. Published by A. Williams and Co., Boston, U.S.A., 1881.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote220"></a><a href="#FNanchor220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> -In Paris in the year 1880, there were 90,000 trees in the streets, besides -20,000 more in the cemeteries. (<i>Vide</i> Report of Mr. Till, the Borough Surveyor -of Birmingham, 20th December, 1880.) There are also upwards of 8000 seats in -public places; the trees and seats costing nearly 100,000<i>l.</i> per annum to maintain.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote221"></a><a href="#FNanchor221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘The Parks, Promenades, and Gardens of Paris,’ by W. Robinson, -F.L.S., 1869, p. 128.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote222"></a><a href="#FNanchor222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘L’Architecte,’ 20th November, 1880, p. 370.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page328">[328]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XXVIII.<br /> -<span class="chapname">PUBLIC ABATTOIRS.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">The following is the clause of the Public Health Act 1875 -which empowers an urban authority to establish public -slaughter-houses (or “abattoirs“<a id="FNanchor223"></a><a href="#Footnote223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> as they are sometimes -called) for the purposes of the district they govern:</p> - -<p>“Any urban authority may, if they think fit, provide -slaughter-houses, and they shall make bye-laws with respect -to the management and charges for the use of any slaughterhouses -so provided.</p> - -<p>“For the purpose of enabling any urban authority to -regulate slaughter-houses within their district, the provisions -of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, with respect -to slaughter-houses, shall be incorporated with this Act.<a id="FNanchor224"></a><a href="#Footnote224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a></p> - -<p>“Nothing in this section shall prejudice or affect any -rights, powers, or privileges of any persons incorporated by -any local Act passed before the passing of the Public Health -Act 1848, for the purpose of making and maintaining -slaughter-houses” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 169).</p> - -<p>The great necessity for the establishment of one or more -public slaughter-houses in any town can only fully be -realised by persons who will take the trouble to inspect those -which are private; they are generally placed near the shops -of the butchers for the sake of convenience, the result being -that they are situated in the central portions of the town and -are thus surrounded by closely packed dwellings. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page329">[329]</span> -private slaughter house often consists of a stable or shed -which has been converted into an ill-designed slaughter-house, -badly paved, with imperfect drainage; they are -frequently not sufficiently lighted, ventilated or drained, -and are utterly unfitted for the purposes for which they -are used.</p> - -<p>Their position also is often so badly chosen that the -children in the vicinity resort there to see the animals killed, -and the poor beasts have in some cases to be driven through a -narrow passage into the slaughter-house itself, where, trembling -at the sight and smell of the blood and carcasses of its dead -companions, it remains tethered until its turn comes to fall a -victim to the blow of the slaughter-man: a blow which sometimes -has often to be repeated before its object is attained, -owing to the bad light and cramped surroundings of the -place.</p> - -<p>As these slaughter-houses are generally rented by the -butcher using them at large rentals (such accommodation being -scarce), it is not to be expected that he will spend much money -to improve property which is not his own; but notwithstanding -the loss of weight incurred by the animal to be slaughtered -thus fretting and sweating in its terror, the damage to the -meat by its being dressed in the same locality with the live -beast, steaming and smelling in the vicinity, and the exorbitant -rents demanded, still there are great objections always raised -by butchers in towns to the establishment of public slaughter-houses. -These objections are based by them on the following -grounds:</p> - -<p>They contend that the carriage of the meat from the -slaughter-house to their shop deprives them of some of -their profits; that slaughtering their animals in the presence -of other butchers leads to disparaging remarks and trade -jealousies, and that they sometimes are robbed of fat, -tools, &c.</p> - -<p>These arguments are groundless if the public abattoir is<span class="pagenum" id="Page330">[330]</span> -properly designed, is in a suitable locality, and is well -managed.</p> - -<p>There are no powers by which butchers can be compelled -to abandon private slaughter-houses, and use those provided -by the urban authority, so long as the bye-laws of the authority -are not infringed; but as the law stands at present, private -slaughter-houses may be licensed (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, ss. 125, -126) or registered (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 127), and the only -manner in which they could be closed (which would then -compel the butcher to use the public abattoir) would be by -putting the 129th section of the same Act in force, which -states that the justices before whom any person is convicted -of killing or dressing cattle contrary to the provision of the -Act, or of the non-observance of any bye-law or regulation of -the local authority, in addition to the penalty may suspend -<i>the licence</i> for any period not exceeding two months; or in the -case of the owner of any <i>registered</i> slaughter-house may forbid -for any period not exceeding two months, the slaughtering of -cattle therein. For a second or other subsequent like offence, -in addition to the penalty the justices may revoke the licence -or absolutely forbid the slaughtering of cattle in the particular -house or yard. In such an event the local authority may -refuse to grant any <i>licence</i> whatever to the person whose -licence has been revoked, or on account of whose default the -slaughtering of cattle in any <i>registered</i> slaughter-house has -been forbidden.</p> - -<p>With reference to the establishment anew of the business -of a slaughterer of cattle in London, the following particulars -required to be deposited by the applicant with the Metropolitan -Board of Works will be useful.</p> - -<p>A plan of the premises and sections of the building drawn -to a scale of ¹⁄₄-inch to the foot and showing the proposed or -existing arrangements for drainage, lighting, ventilation, and -water supply, with a key plan of the locality, have to be -deposited, as well as replies to the following questions:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page331">[331]</span></p> - -<p>(1.) State what place for the accommodation or poundage of -the cattle about to be slaughtered is provided; if such place -has an entrance way for the cattle otherwise than through the -slaughter-house; if separated from the slaughter-house by a -brick partition with a door; and also what provision is made -therein for watering animals.</p> - -<p>(2.) State if slaughter-house and its poundage is within 20 -feet of an inhabited building; and if it has any entrance opening -directly on a public highway.</p> - -<p>(3.) State if the entrance to the premises is apart from and -independent of any shop or dwelling-house; if from a -street at the side or rear; and also the height of the -entrance gates.</p> - -<p>(4.) State the dimensions of the slaughter-house, length, -breadth, height to eaves, and construction of the roof; and -give similar information about the poundage.</p> - -<p>(5.) State if slaughter-house and poundage are drained by -glazed pipes communicating with public sewer, or how; how -drains are trapped; and if gratings have openings greater than -three-eighths of an inch across.</p> - -<p>(6.) State if floors are below level of outside road or footway, -and if paved with asphalte, or flag-stone set in cement, -or how.</p> - -<p>(7.) State how walls of slaughter-house are constructed, -and if they are covered with hard smooth and impervious -material to a height of at least 4 feet; and, if so, state what -material is used, and to what height it is carried.</p> - -<p>(8.) State how slaughter-house and poundage are lighted, -if with lantern, sky, or side-lights, or otherwise.</p> - -<p>(9.) State how ventilated, if by openings, windows, louvre -boards, or otherwise.</p> - -<p>(10.) State what provision is made for water-supply, the -capacity of the cistern, and at what height it is placed above -floor level.</p> - -<p>(11.) State if any watercloset, privy, urinal, cesspool, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page332">[332]</span> -stable, is within, or communicates directly with the slaughter-house.</p> - -<p>(12.) State if any rooms or lofts are constructed, or proposed -to be constructed, over the slaughter-house.</p> - -<p>(13.) State if the premises will be provided with all the -necessary and most approved apparatus and tackle for the -slaughtering of cattle.</p> - -<p>Having thus far dealt with private slaughter-houses, I will -now turn to the question of the provision of public establishments -of the kind by the urban authority, for it is usually the -duty of the town surveyor to advise his corporation upon such -a matter.</p> - -<p>First, as to the site of the proposed public abattoir, this -depends greatly upon what sites are at the command of the -town; it should if possible be near the cattle market to prevent -the passage of animals through the streets, not only on -account of the great public inconvenience, but also the loss of -weight to the animal<a id="FNanchor225"></a><a href="#Footnote225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> and the heated and bad state into -which its blood becomes from the exercise, and the violent -blows of the drovers’ sticks.</p> - -<p>The site would be isolated and yet not too far from the -shops of the butchers, or the cost of carriage of the meat will -be considerable; it is almost needless to say that it should be -easily and effectively drained, and the more air with which it -can be surrounded the better. It is imperative that the -entrance for the live beasts should be separate from the exit -of the dead meat, and the approach roads to the site should -not be narrow.</p> - -<p>In laying out the site every town surveyor must use his -own judgment, but the following plan on which the site of -the excellent public abattoir at Manchester is laid out may -serve as some guide for this purpose, although of course this -establishment is on a very large scale indeed, and is in<span class="pagenum" id="Page333">[333]</span> -connection with a carcass market more than 500 feet in -length:</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600"> -<img src="images/illo353.png" alt="" width="600" height="386" /> -<p class="caption">PLAN OF MANCHESTER SLAUGHTER-HOUSE.</p> -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo353lg.png">Large illustration</a> (78 kB)</p> -</div> - -<p>In designing an abattoir on a large scale provision for the -following accommodation should be considered.</p> - -<p>(1.) <i>Lairs for cattle and pens for sheep.</i></p> - -<p>These should be separated from the slaughter-house by a -smaller temporary lair in which the beast whose turn has come -can be fastened to the halter by which he is dragged into the -slaughter-house, the sides of the door-way being lined with -iron for this purpose. The paving of the lairs may be of -asphalte, but care must be taken that near the door of slaughter-house, -the paving is of pitchers or something that is not at all -slippery, as here the frightened beast often struggles and draws -back when he sees the “engines of destruction” in the -slaughter-house, and smells the blood of those who have gone -before.</p> - -<p>The lairs must be thoroughly well drained, lighted, and -ventilated, and troughs for hay and water placed for each -beast, for although the animals are not expected to remain -long in the lairs before being killed, still it is very important<span class="pagenum" id="Page334">[334]</span> -that they should be well and kindly treated, and rest, so -that they may obtain their normal condition before being -killed.</p> - -<p>A door easily closed should shut off the lair from the -slaughter-house, as it is open to question, if animals do not -see with fear the hapless fate of their comrades; for this and -other obvious reasons the animals must on no account be -permitted to pass through the slaughter-house to reach the -lair.</p> - -<p>The lairs should be well lighted artificially, as a great deal -of slaughtering is conducted before and after daylight.</p> - -<p>(2.) <i>The slaughter-houses.</i></p> - -<p>These may be separate or in one long building used in -common by the butchers; both systems have their advantages -and disadvantages.</p> - -<p>The long building has the advantage of greater economy -in erection and of management, as one inspector can see from -end to end of it. Where also a large site is not available -greater advantage can be taken of a slaughter-house erected -on this plan, as several butchers can slaughter in turn; the -lairs, however, must be kept separate. The butchers do not -like this plan, but prefer privacy, and a great deal of “horse -play” is sometimes indulged in by the slaughtermen at work -in a large building. The method of payment for the use of a -slaughter-house of this description cannot well be by rent, but -by head of animal slaughtered, and this is open to the objection -of possible fraud. It is necessary also to have separate -slaughter-houses for the sheep and the pigs.</p> - -<p>Whether the slaughter-houses are constructed separately -or in one long building, the detail requirements are much the -same.</p> - -<p>The pavement of the floor should be placed on concrete -and it should be constructed of some material that is easily -cleansed, is impervious to moisture, and is not slippery either -wet or dry. It must also be of sufficient durability, and be<span class="pagenum" id="Page335">[335]</span> -strong enough to bear the weight of the dead-meat carts -which have to back in over it under the beams carrying -the carcasses, should there be no dead meat market in -connection with the slaughter-house as at Manchester, -Dundee, &c.</p> - -<p>The requirements of such a floor are met by good natural -compressed or mastic asphalte. The necessary holes for the -reception of the flaying sticks used in many parts of -England can be easily managed by inserting either small -brass sockets specially made, or more simply by pieces of -gas-pipe cut into lengths of about an inch set tight in the -asphalte.</p> - -<p>The walls of the slaughter-house must be of sufficient -strength to carry the beams or girders of the overhead hoisting -gear, as well as some tons of hanging carcasses, as will presently -be explained.</p> - -<p>The inside of these walls must be lined to a height of -about 6 feet above the floor line with some material which is -impervious and easily cleansed. Glazed white tiles or bricks -are sometimes used for this purpose, but are apt to get -chipped or broken, and I have found that asphalte, although -dark in colour, answers the purpose admirably, and is much -cheaper.</p> - -<p>With regard to the drainage of the slaughter-house, this -should, if possible, be so arranged that there are no gratings -or gully-pits in the house itself. The floor should fall about -1 in 30 from the lairs to the cart doors, so that everything -should pass outside into a gutter in which the necessary -gratings and gully-pits can be arranged. If this is thought to -be objectionable, pits with double gratings, the lower one being -only a plate with perforated holes, can be placed in the -slaughter-house so as to prevent any solid matter whatever -from entering the drains, and these pits can be united -by short drains with gully-pits outside. The double grating -should in any case be inserted, as by this means all<span class="pagenum" id="Page336">[336]</span> -solid matter is kept out of the drains: a very important -consideration.</p> - -<p>The cart doors should be made sliding, and not hinged, or -great inconvenience will be experienced, and they must be -made wide enough for the carts to back in easily.</p> - -<p>In some slaughter-houses the killing ring to which the -beast is attached whilst the blow from the poleaxe is given<a id="FNanchor226"></a><a href="#Footnote226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> -consists of a strong horse-shoe shaped piece of iron projecting -about 24 inches from the wall at a height of about 18 inches, -and having a ring in the top curve, <span class="nowrap">thus—</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo356a.png" alt="Killing ring" width="94" height="140" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">whilst in others the killing ring is on the floor, <span class="nowrap">thus—</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo356b.png" alt="Killing ring" width="150" height="84" /> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">and in others an iron pillar standing up from the floor is used, -which is considered the best plan, as the beast should stand -in a natural and easy position at about a right angle from the -feller.</p> - -<p>The lighting of the slaughter-house should be effected -from the roof, as a good and steady light is essential to the -men engaged in this business. An awkward cut may seriously -damage good beef or mutton. Care must, however, be taken -to exclude the glare of the sun, and the ventilation should be -carefully arranged by louvres easily manipulated.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page337">[337]</span></p> - -<p>Water should be plentifully laid on at a good pressure, so -as to ensure thorough flushing, &c., and the necessary taps -should be recessed in the walls, as everything in a building of -this description should be kept as flush as possible, or it will -be damaged. In some slaughter-houses hot water is laid on, -and this is a great boon to the butchers and much appreciated -by them.</p> - -<p>Gas must of course be laid on, as much slaughtering takes -place during the night.</p> - -<p>The machinery for hoisting the beasts and slinging the -carcasses requires to be effective, simple, and very strong, as it -is subjected to the roughest treatment, and such machinery -has been patented and is erected by Messrs. John Meiklejon -and Son, of Dalkeith, on very reasonable terms.<a id="FNanchor227"></a><a href="#Footnote227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a></p> - -<p>This machinery hoists the beast by simply pulling on an -endless chain. It remains suspended at any height, and can -be equally easily lowered. The divided carcass can be placed -upon hooks at any point along the girders above without -being touched, and it can be taken off again and lowered -on to a man’s shoulders or into the cart direct, and in fact, -speaking from my own experience, this machinery is very -perfect.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page338">[338]</span></p> - -<p>The carcasses of the sheep are hung by hand upon hooks -projecting from rails which are placed at a convenient height -around the walls of the slaughter-house.</p> - -<p>In some abattoirs the sheep slaughter-houses are distinct -from those used for killing beasts, and this method has many -advantages.</p> - -<p>Before proceeding to describe the further requirements of -an abattoir or group of slaughter-houses, I think the following -plan will be of use to show the arrangement which I have -described with regard to lairs and <span class="nowrap">slaughter-houses:—</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter w550"> -<img src="images/illo358.png" alt="Slaughter-house" width="527" height="600" /> -<p class="largeillo"><a href="images/illo358lg.png">Large illustration</a> (133 kB)</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page339">[339]</span></p> - -<p>The following plan shows the arrangements adopted in the -Metropolitan Cattle Market slaughter-houses:</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo359.png" alt="" width="353" height="600" /> -<p class="caption">METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET SLAUGHTER-HOUSES.</p> -</div> - -<p>(3.) <i>The condemned meat department.</i></p> - -<p>This should consist of a lair for suspected cattle, a lair and -slaughter-house for the condemned cattle similar to that -already described, and a condemned meat store: this being the -place where not only all the diseased animals’ carcasses are -temporarily stored pending destruction, but also any meat of -sound beasts that may have gone bad after killing, &c. The -whole of the meat thus placed in the condemned store must -be taken to the boiling-down house, where it is destroyed by -being boiled down to fat, which is disposed of for various -trade purposes.</p> - -<p>The following description of the method employed for this -purpose at the Deptford Foreign Cattle Market will here be -of use:<a id="FNanchor228"></a><a href="#Footnote228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a></p> - -<p>“There are several killing houses for diseased cattle, and -excellent apparatus for boiling down condemned meat. For<span class="pagenum" id="Page340">[340]</span> -this purpose two boilers are suspended from a strong platform -through which they pass, and the bottoms of them are several -feet above the floor. They are each 4 feet 6 inches in -diameter and 10 feet in length under platform. At the bottom -the cylinder tapers to 2 feet 8 inches in diameter. Under this -there is a semispherical bottom to the boiler hinged and kept -shut by a back-weighted lever and screws. On the top of -each there is a semispherical cover and safety valve.</p> - -<p>“There is an iron crane and windlass for lifting off and on -the covers. After the boilers are charged with diseased meat -the covers are made secure and steam let into them near the -bottom. There is a cock in the bottom of each for running off -the liquid at certain stages into a trap grating in the floor -under it, and conducted into a cement cistern outside of the -boiling-house, from which it is periodically removed. Whether -any use is made of the tallow produced I am not informed. -The bones when removed are quite porous, of a very white -colour, and nearly as light as cork. I presume that they will -be sold for being converted into bone manure. I understand -these large boilers are not very often used, and that a small -close galvanized iron cylinder, 2 feet 9 inches in diameter, and -2 feet 6 inches high, placed 15 inches above the ground, having -cock at bottom, steam pipe at side, and portable lid, does most -of the work very efficiently.”</p> - -<p>(4.) <i>The pig-killing department.</i></p> - -<p>This should be separate from the ordinary slaughter-house, -as the styes for pigs must be differently arranged to the cattle -lairs, and a boiler house is necessary, as boiling water must be -had for scalding and dressing the carcasses. Special iron -troughs with false bottoms have been arranged by Messrs. -Meiklejon, which greatly facilitate this part of the butcher’s -work, and simple hoisting apparatus over these troughs lifts -the carcase in and out, and carries it off to the cooling or -hanging room, which must of necessity be separate from the -killing and scalding rooms. Drainage, lighting, ventilation<span class="pagenum" id="Page341">[341]</span> -and floors should be similar to those described for the -slaughter-houses, and plenty of lime wash can be used with -advantage here as well as in the main slaughter-house.</p> - -<p>(5.) <i>The blood house.</i></p> - -<p>The blood of the slaughtered animals, which formerly was -allowed to run away, has been found to contain a most valuable -aniline dye, and for this purpose it is now collected and taken -to the blood-houses, where in order to obtain this dye it is -necessary to place the blood in shallow tins, where it is warmed -by steam-pipes, the liquid is then drawn off, which is the -albumen from which the dye is extracted, the residuum left in -the trays is of the consistency of jelly, and is sold for manure.</p> - -<p>(6.) <i>The tripery.</i></p> - -<p>This is provided in large abattoirs for the purpose of preparing -the tripe and feet of the slaughtered animals, and in -the Glasgow public slaughter-houses this is effected by the -corporation free of charge by special machinery adapted for -the purpose.</p> - -<p>(7.) <i>The tallow market.</i></p> - -<p>Where tallow is melted down, and moulded in shapes for -manufacturers’ uses.</p> - -<p>(8.) <i>The hide store.</i></p> - -<p>This is where the hides and sheep skins are weighed and -temporarily stored, sometimes in connection with this <span class="nowrap">are—</span></p> - -<p>(9.) <i>Sale rooms</i>; for the hides, skins of sheep, &c., and -tallow.</p> - -<p>In addition to the above requirements may be mentioned,</p> - -<p>(10.) <i>A superintendent’s dwelling-house and office.</i></p> - -<p>(11.) <i>A gate keeper’s dwelling-house and office.</i></p> - -<p>(12.) <i>A weighing machine and office.</i></p> - -<p>(13.) <i>A convenient room</i> for the meetings of the committee -of the corporation having charge of the slaughter-house.</p> - -<p>(14.) <i>Waiting rooms</i> for dealers, drovers, slaughtermen, -and butchers, &c.</p> - -<p>(15.) <i>Store-rooms and a joiner’s workshop.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page342">[342]</span></p> - -<p>(16.) <i>Stables and shedding</i> for the horses and carts of the -jobbers and butchers, &c.</p> - -<p>(17.) <i>Lofts for straw and hay</i>; the former should be provided -free by the corporation, the latter on payment of so -much per diem for each beast.</p> - -<p>(18.) <i>The necessary urinal and w. c. accommodation.</i></p> - -<p>With regard to the provision to be made for storing the -dung and waste refuse from public slaughter-houses, I am -strongly of opinion that there should not be any fixed receptacle -for such matters, but that covered carts should be provided, -which could stand in convenient positions and be -removed every day, a fresh and clean cart being substituted at -once for the one removed; by this means all nuisance is -avoided.</p> - -<p>Speaking of public abattoirs, in a recent lecture on Industrial -Nuisances, Dr. C. W. Chancellor, of the Maryland State Board -of Health U.S.A., gives some advice on the management -of slaughter-houses. He says: “During the process of slaughtering -as much care as possible should be taken to prevent the -discharge of blood or other animal matter upon the floor of -the slaughter-house, upon the surrounding earth, or into an -open stream. The contents of the viscera should, with the -blood, offal and other garbage, be placed in impervious, covered, -moveable receptacles, constructed of galvanized iron or other -non-absorbent material, and removed from the premises without -undue delay. Where hides or skins are necessarily -retained for a day or two before they can be removed, they -might without injury be advantageously brushed over on the -fleshy side with a solution of carbolic acid or some other -antiseptic. Fat should be freely exposed to the air in a cool -place. As soon as the slaughtering is completed the whole -slaughter-house, floor and walls, should be thoroughly washed. -All the vessels and implements used in the slaughtering should -be kept clean and sweet. Deodorizers may sometimes be used -with advantage.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page343">[343]</span></p> - -<p>There can be no doubt that whereas private slaughter-houses -are frequently a most injurious nuisance to the neighbourhood -in which they are placed, owing to their situation -and construction, and a visit to one of them is likely to give a -strong impetus to vegetarianism, the public abattoir, on however -large a scale, if properly constructed and managed, need -be no nuisance whatever, and every town in the kingdom -should endeavour to obtain one, not only on account of the -nuisance caused by private slaughter-houses, but for the -incentive which is given to butchers to abstain from slaughtering -diseased or unwholesome animals, the prevention of -cruelty, and the material benefits derived in a proper -establishment for the best methods of dressing the meat.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote223"></a><a href="#FNanchor223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> -The word “abattoir” is a French word from “abattre” to fell, it is used in -this country to designate a group of slaughter-houses.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote224"></a><a href="#FNanchor224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> -The clauses referred to are contained in 10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, and are ss. 125, -126, et seq.; they refer to the registration, licensing and management of private -slaughter-houses, and need not be commented upon here.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote225"></a><a href="#FNanchor225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> -An ordinary beast is said to lose 3 cwt. in weight in a journey from -Edinburgh to London.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote226"></a><a href="#FNanchor226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> -The pole-axe should be of the American pattern, which has a head hollow -and very sharp round the periphery. The practise is, after the blow is struck and the -animal felled, to plunge a thin cane into the wound, which passes down the spine, -causing instantaneous death whilst the animal is lying stunned.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote227"></a><a href="#FNanchor227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> -The following is from the patent specification of this machinery:</p> - -<p>“Letters patent to John Meiklejon, of Westfield Iron Works, Dalkeith, in -the County of Mid-Lothian, Scotland, for the invention of new or improved -machinery and appliances to be used in hoisting, removing, dividing, and hanging -on hooks, taking off these hooks again, and loading carcasses and other bodies in -abattoirs, carcass and meat markets, and other places.”</p> - -<p>“The machinery and appliances above referred to enable the operations above -named to be performed without the necessity of the butchers touching the meat. -Also enables carcasses to be conveyed from abattoirs to carcass market on a -travelling hoist (hereafter described), same being provided with rows of fixed -jointed hooks or loops, attached to rails on which the hoist runs, so that the -travelling hoist is enabled to hang the carcasses or bodies on to such hooks or -loops. Also enables a butcher to hang a carcass on any of these hooks or loops, -and pick them off again, and load on a vehicle, without moving or touching any -of the other carcasses hanging on the other hooks. Also enables all operations to -be performed, from hoisting when killed to loading when sold or removed from -market.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote228"></a><a href="#FNanchor228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Report on the New Cattle Market and Abattoirs proposed to be -erected at Carolina Port, Dundee,’ by William Mackison, F.R.I.B. A., &c.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page344">[344]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XXIX.<br /> -<span class="chapname">MARKETS.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">Under certain conditions urban authorities are empowered to -provide markets in their district by the following clause of the -Public Health Act 1875:</p> - -<p>“Where an urban authority are a local board or improvement -commissioners, they shall have power, with the consent -of the owners and ratepayers of their district, expressed by -resolution passed in manner provided by Schedule III. to this -Act, and where the urban authority are a town council they -shall have power, with the consent of two thirds of their -number, to do the following things, or any of them, within -their district:</p> - -<p>“To provide a market place, and construct a market house -and other conveniences, for the purpose of holding markets:</p> - -<p>“To provide houses and places for weighing carts:</p> - -<p>“To make convenient approaches to such market:</p> - -<p>“To provide all such matters and things as may be -necessary for the convenient use of such market:</p> - -<p>“To purchase or take on lease land, and public or private -rights in markets and tolls for any of the foregoing purposes:</p> - -<p>“To take stallages, rents and tolls in respect of the use by -any person of such market:</p> - -<p>“But no market shall be established in pursuance of this -section so as to interfere with any rights, powers, or privileges -enjoyed within the district by any person without his consent” -(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 166).</p> - -<p>In many towns, markets both for cattle and general -merchandise have been already established, and the duties of -the town surveyor are simply to execute the necessary alterations<span class="pagenum" id="Page345">[345]</span> -and maintenance of the buildings in connection with -them, but there may be occasions on which he has to advise -his corporation upon the acquisition of land for the purpose of -laying it out as a cattle market, and afterwards the erection of -the necessary pens and buildings, and a few remarks upon the -subject may be of some service.</p> - -<p>The site for a cattle market should be selected, if practicable, -near to a railway station, so as to avoid as much as possible -the dangerous and objectionable practice of driving cattle and -sheep through the streets, and for the same reasons it should -be near the public slaughter-houses if there are any in the town. -Plenty of space should be provided in the market for the -cattle to move about in, for it must be remembered that many -of them which are sent to market are unused to the bustle of a -town, and are wild and untractable, and have never in their -lives been subjected to either penning or tethering.</p> - -<p>The site must be easily and effectively drained, it -should be somewhat isolated with respect to neighbouring -buildings, the more air that can be got to sweep through it -the better.</p> - -<p>The accommodation necessary in a cattle market must vary -considerably with the requirements of the district, but the -following list may be given for selection:</p> - -<p>(1.) Pens or lairs for fat beasts.</p> - -<p>(2.) Pens or lairs for store cattle.</p> - -<p>(3.) Pens or lairs for cows with calves.</p> - -<p>(4.) Pens or lairs for calves.</p> - -<p>(5.) Pens for sheep.</p> - -<p>(6.) Pens or styes for pigs.</p> - -<p>(7.) Covered sheds or stables for horses.</p> - -<p>(8.) A space for showing horses off.</p> - -<p>(9.) Sheds for agricultural implements.</p> - -<p>(10.) Shops for the display of seeds, ropes, tarpaulins, -sacks, etc.</p> - -<p>(11.) Accommodation for auctioneers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page346">[346]</span></p> - -<p>(12.) Lodges and offices for the superintendent or gate -keeper.</p> - -<p>(13.) A weighing machine and office.</p> - -<p>(14.) A corn exchange (this is sometimes provided in the -general market).</p> - -<p>The entrance to a cattle market may with advantage be -provided with double sets of gates, with a space between in -which flocks of sheep or herds of cattle can be temporarily -penned; a wicket gate in the second set of gates will enable -the toll collecter to count the number of animals easily as they -pass through into the market.</p> - -<p>The paving of the market should be of granite pitches, as -it is essential that it should not be slippery, or the cattle, which -usually arrive in a very excited condition, will fall and injure -themselves; this description of paving is also fairly impervious, -and is easily cleansed.</p> - -<p>The paving of the lairs and pens may, however, be of -asphalte.</p> - -<p>For the cattle there may be enclosures for loose bullocks -as well as divisions in which the cattle are tethered; these -divisions and enclosures may be constructed of brick walls -about 4 feet 6 inches in height, or posts and rails of wood and -iron, strongly fastened iron rings about 4 feet apart are necessary -to which the beasts must be tethered.</p> - -<p>The paving must be kept high towards the head of the -beast in order to show him off to the greatest advantage.</p> - -<p>Large painted signboards should be fixed over the entrance -of each compartment, to designate to which class it belongs, in -order to avoid confusion or mistake. There should be drinking -troughs for all cattle, and hydrants should be fixed all about -the market, so that it can be thoroughly flushed and washed -down.</p> - -<p>The sheep-pens can be constructed with iron or wood -posts and rails with the whole of one side opening as a gate, -they should be about 3 feet in height, and the floor should<span class="pagenum" id="Page347">[347]</span> -slope up from the point at which the purchaser will stand in -order that the sheep at the far end of the pen may not appear -diminutive.<a id="FNanchor229"></a><a href="#Footnote229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a></p> - -<p>The gates of the sheep-pens should be strongly stayed, as -they make most convenient seats on which the drovers and -heavy farmers sit whilst they drive their bargains.</p> - -<p>With regard to the dimensions of the pens and lairs, the -following sizes are suggested as sufficient spaces for different -animals, in the modern bye-laws, emanating from the Local -Government Board in 1877, with respect to markets:</p> - -<table class="fsize90" summary="Dimensions"> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">For every horse</td> -<td class="right bot">8</td> -<td class="center bot">feet</td> -<td class="center bot">by</td> -<td class="right bot">2</td> -<td class="center bot">feet.</td> -<td rowspan="2" colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">For every ox or cow</td> -<td class="right bot">8</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="right bot">2</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">For every mule or ass</td> -<td class="right bot">5</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="right bot">1</td> -<td class="center bot">feet</td> -<td class="center bot">6</td> -<td class="center bot">inches.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">For every calf</td> -<td class="right bot">5</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="right bot">1</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -<td class="right bot">3</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="8" class="">For every sheep, goat or pig (of medium size) 4 feet superficial.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The pens for calves and the styes for pigs should be -covered, and their floors should be about 3 feet 6 inches -above the general level of the market, as animals of this -description are generally brought in carts, and they could -thus be easily moved out and in.</p> - -<p>These pens and styes must of course be thoroughly well -drained and ventilated.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page348">[348]</span></p> - -<p>With regard to the weighing machine, this should be of -the best manufacture, and be of sufficient size to weigh a -large wagon. It is better to have what is called a “self -contained” iron foundation, and pit for the weighbridge rather -than one of masonry. A convenient size for this weighbridge -would be 15 feet in length by 12 feet in breadth.</p> - -<p>With reference to the rest of the provisions I have -enumerated, they require no special comment, but must -necessarily be left to the discretion of the town surveyor and -the wishes of his corporation.</p> - -<p>Markets for general merchandise are usually handsome -buildings, which are erected in the most central positions of -the town; they contain:</p> - -<p>(1.) The corn exchange (this is sometimes erected in the -cattle market).</p> - -<p>(2.) The fish market.</p> - -<p>(3.) The dead meat market (this is sometimes erected in -connection with the public slaughter-houses).</p> - -<p>(4.) The game and poultry market.</p> - -<p>(5.) The fruit, vegetable and flower market.</p> - -<p>(6.) The butter, eggs and cheese market.</p> - -<p>(7.) The miscellaneous goods market.</p> - -<p>(8.) Public conveniences.</p> - -<p>(9.) Offices and dwelling for the clerk of the market.</p> - -<p>(10.) Committee room for the market committee.</p> - -<p>The floor of the market should be on a level as much as is -practicable with the adjacent streets; steps up or down are -objectionable for the public, and galleries or upper floors -should also be avoided unless the available area of the site is -limited.</p> - -<p>The interior of the building should be lofty, and it must -be thoroughly well ventilated; the great fault with nearly all -existing markets is the cutting draught to which buyers and -sellers are usually subjected.</p> - -<p>Plenty of light is essential, but the rays of the sun should<span class="pagenum" id="Page349">[349]</span> -be excluded by frosted glass or other contrivance, or the -goods exposed for sale will be damaged.</p> - -<p>The floor should be of asphalte or other similar material; -it is surprising what a “mess” is always made in a market.</p> - -<p>The stalls must be so arranged as to show to best advantage -the goods offered, and plenty of “gangway” should be -left between them for the passage of the public.</p> - -<p>Fish stalls should be constructed of iron, slate or similar -material, plenty of water being provided in this department; -fish-washing troughs filled with running water are very desirable, -and a fountain can be introduced with pleasing effect.</p> - -<p>Butchers’ stalls should be of thick wood to resist the -chopping, and plenty of standards and rails provided with iron -hooks must be fixed above them.</p> - -<p>A great number of moveable iron “offal boxes” should be -placed in different parts of the market, which must be cleared -at least once a day, and the market should be frequently -flushed and cleansed with water from hydrants fixed in -different parts of the building.</p> - -<p>Many other points will no doubt suggest themselves to -town surveyors, who have the important work of designing -either cattle or general markets to undertake, but the few -suggestions which have been given may be of some use.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote229"></a><a href="#FNanchor229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> -The following is a description of the manner in which the sheep are penned -in the cattle market of la Villette at Paris:—“The enclosures or pens are all of -iron, those for the sheep have a centre railing 3 feet 3 inches high, and cross -railings 1 foot 9 inches high; the former with three horizontal rails and vertical -rods, and the latter two horizontal rails and vertical rods. There is a distance of -15 feet betwixt the high railings, which is divided into three by iron posts 21 inches -high. The first row of these posts is placed at a distance of 3 feet from the low -cross railing at the passage, the second row 18 inches from the first, the third -3 feet from the second, and so on. The sheep are placed in line side by side as -close as they can stand, with their heads up to the low rail. A moveable hurdle -of wood is then set on edge between the sheep in rear and the iron posts just -described. A passage of 18 inches is left clear, and then another row of sheep -and another passage, and so on. In this manner a great number of sheep are put -into little space, in such a way as all can be examined with the greatest ease.” -(<i>Vide</i> ‘Report on the New Cattle Market and Abattoirs proposed to be erected at -Carolina Port, Dundee,’ by W. Mackison, F.R.I.B.A., &c., Town Surveyor, -Dundee).</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page350">[350]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XXX.<br /> -<span class="chapname">CEMETERIES.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">Amongst the many duties that a town surveyor has to -perform is sometimes included that of laying out land for a -large burial ground or cemetery, and its management after -construction. Power is given to all local authorities to -become burial authorities by the Public Health Interments -Act 1879, and so strongly is the need felt for what is called -extramural interment, that the Local Government Board may -compel a local authority to provide and maintain cemeteries. -Power is also given for the compulsory purchase of land for -this purpose (see sections 175, 176, of the Public Health Act -1875), and the cemetery may be placed either within or -without the district over which the local authority exercise -their jurisdiction, and many other privileges are granted in -order to encourage the acquisition of land so far removed -from habitations as to make the burial ground as sanitary as -the practice of burying human bodies can be made.</p> - -<p>Land once consecrated or used for burial cannot afterwards -be sold or used for secular purposes, except of course -by an Act of Parliament; “footpaths may, however, be provided -in a consecrated but disused burial ground, and the -ground may be planted, so as in effect, though not nominally, -to make it a public garden.”<a id="FNanchor230"></a><a href="#Footnote230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a></p> - -<p>A cemetery must not be constructed within 200 yards -of any dwelling house, without the consent in writing -of the owner, lessee, and occupier of such house; but -there is no prohibition upon anyone to prevent their<span class="pagenum" id="Page351">[351]</span> -building a house close to a cemetery after it has been -established.<a id="FNanchor231"></a><a href="#Footnote231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a></p> - -<p>Chapels may be built in cemeteries for the performance of -the burial services, and the grounds may be laid out and -embellished as the local authority may deem fit. The -cemetery must be enclosed by walls or other sufficient fences -or iron railings 8 feet in height; it must be properly sewered -and drained, but such drainage must not flow into any -“stream, canal, reservoir, aqueduct, pond or watering -place.”<a id="FNanchor232"></a><a href="#Footnote232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a></p> - -<p>Cemeteries are divided into consecrated and unconsecrated -portions by bond stones or other suitable marks; a chapel -must be built upon the consecrated portion, although it does -not seem to be compulsory to do so upon the unconsecrated -portion.</p> - -<p>The selection of a proper site on sanitary and other grounds -for a cemetery is one of the greatest importance, and a town -surveyor, or anyone who has this duty to perform, cannot do -better than keep the following words of the well-known -sanitary engineer Mr. Eassie before him:<a id="FNanchor233"></a><a href="#Footnote233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a></p> - -<p>“A well-chosen cemetery is one whose soil is dry, close, -and yet porous, permitting the rain and its accompanying air -to reach a reasonable depth, and so expedite decay. The -formation is also well covered with vegetable mould, which -assists in neutralising any hurtful emanations, and encourages -the growth of shrubs. The subsoil is also of such a kind as to -need no under draining, and such as will prevent the water -lodging in any grave or vault. It will also stand exposed to -the north or north east winds which are dry, and which do not -hold the putrefactive gases in solution, like the moist south or -south westerly winds.”</p> - -<p>“An improperly chosen graveyard may be said to be -one where the soil is dense and clayey, and impervious to<span class="pagenum" id="Page352">[352]</span> -moisture. It will be insufficiently drained, necessitating the -use of planks to walk upon in wet weather. It will be too -close to the abodes of the living, too small to permit proper -planting, the graves covered, it may be with flat stones which -prevent the passage downwards of the air and rain, and -surrounded moreover by high walls which exclude the fresh -air. The ground will be stony and insufficiently covered -with vegetable soil. No natural outfall will exist, and the -drainage water must be pumped up, the bare idea of which -is horrible. It will be near also to water-bearing strata, or -to a reservoir. Long before decomposition has taken place -owing to the smallness of the site, and the impossibility of -obtaining any more land except at high building prices, the -organic matter hidden out of sight will be far too large in -proportion to the area.”</p> - -<p>Dr. Parsons, in a memorandum prepared by him on the -“Sanitary Requirements of Cemeteries” and published by -the Local Government Board in their eleventh annual report, -says:</p> - -<p>“The soil of a cemetery should be of an open, porous -nature, with numerous close interstices, through which air -and moisture may pass in a finely divided state freely in -every direction. In such a soil decay proceeds rapidly, and -the products of decomposition are absorbed or oxidised. The -soil should be easily worked, yet not so loose as to render -the work of excavation dangerous through the liability to falls -of earth. It should be free from water or hard rock to a -depth of at least 8 feet. If not naturally free from water, it -should be drained if practicable to that depth: to this end it -is necessary that the site should be sufficiently elevated above -the drainage level of the locality, either naturally, or, where -necessary, by filling it up to the required level with suitable -earth.”</p> - -<p>“Loam, and sand with a sufficient quantity of vegetable -mould, are the best soils; clay and loose stones the worst.<span class="pagenum" id="Page353">[353]</span> -A dense clay is laborious to work and difficult to drain; by -excluding moisture and air it retards decay, and it retains, in -a concentrated state, the products of decomposition, sometimes -to be discharged into graves opened in the vicinity, or -sometimes to escape through cracks in the ground to the -surface. A loose, stony soil, on the other hand, allows the -passage of effluvia.”</p> - -<p>And with reference to the site to be chosen for a cemetery -he further states:</p> - -<p>“Nevertheless, in view of the evils which in former times -have undoubtedly arisen from the practice of intramural -sepulture, and also because the erection of houses near a -cemetery interferes with the free play of air around and over -it, it is desirable that the site of the cemetery should be in a -neighbourhood in which building is not likely to take place, -and also that so far as practicable a belt of ground should be -reserved between the graves and the nearest land on which a -house may be built, in order to obviate to some extent the -risk of contamination of ground-air and subsoil water with -decomposing matters. This is especially necessary where -houses are constructed with cellars. It is, therefore, highly -desirable that interments should not be made up to the -extreme edge of the cemetery, and it would be possible -without great waste of space to reserve in all cases a strip of -ground free from interments, 15 to 30 feet in width, around -the whole cemetery on the interior of the boundary fence. -This strip would afford room, on the inside for a gravel or -asphalte walk to give access to all parts of the cemetery, and -on the outside next the fence to a belt of shrubs or trees, the -rootlets of which, penetrating the soil, would arrest and assimilate -any decomposing matters percolating to the exterior of -the cemetery. Obviously a cemetery should not be placed on -elevated ground above houses, where the soakings from it -may percolate to the sites and foundations of the dwellings -below. . . .”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page354">[354]</span></p> - -<p>“Sites are of course unsuitable which are liable to be -flooded or to landslips, or which are in danger of being -washed away, or encroached upon by streams or the sea. -Very steep sites are not desirable. The cemetery should be -accessible by good roads from all parts of the district.”</p> - -<p>As to the unsuitability of clay as a soil for cemeteries, -Louis Créteur in “Hygiene in the Battle Field” says, that -the bodies of soldiers slain during the Battle of Sedan were -buried in chalk, quarry rubble, sand, argillite, slate, marl, or -clay soils, and the work of disinfection lasted from the -beginning of March till the end of June. In rubble the -decay had fully taken place, but in the clay the bodies kept -well, and even after a very long time the features could be -identified.</p> - -<p>With regard to the amount of land necessary for a cemetery, -Dr. Parsons calculates that about a quarter of an acre of -land for every thousand of the population of the community -to whom the cemetery belongs, is the “usually estimated -minimum,” but this is far too small a proportion even for a -cemetery possessing every advantage, and he further states, -“The desirability of providing more than this bare minimum -of space is obvious, and is generally recognized.” It must be -remembered that as a rule, quite one-sixth of the total area of -a cemetery is taken up by the roads, paths, ornamental grass -or beds of flowers and shrubs, the chapels, mortuaries, lodges, -&c., and sufficient width should be allowed between each -grave space to permit every grave being reached without -trampling on others: a standard of 110 burials per acre has -sometimes been taken, but this appears to me to be rather a -small one.</p> - -<p>In laying out ground for a cemetery, the following are -some points that require careful attention:</p> - -<p>(1.) The position of the entrance or entrances; there -should if possible be only one, as a lodge is necessary at each, -which entails expense.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page355">[355]</span></p> - -<p>(2.) The best position for the lodge or lodges, the chapels -and mortuary.</p> - -<p>(3.) The direction of the roads in the cemetery: these -must be wide enough for the hearses and mourning coaches, -and there must be convenient places provided for turning -round.</p> - -<p>(4.) The direction of the paths:<a id="FNanchor234"></a><a href="#Footnote234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> these and the roads -should be as straight as possible, so as to economise available -burial ground, paths should be sufficiently wide to allow an -entrance to be made in them to the adjoining vaults or walled -graves, these being frequently covered with a massive tomb or -ledger very difficult to remove. The vaults and walled graves, -being of a better class, are generally put in the borders of the -burial ground, close to the paths.</p> - -<p>(5.) In some soils deep and careful drainage is necessary. -This should be carried out with ordinary drain pipes laid at a -depth of at least 10 feet, and so communicating with each -other and the grave spaces, that even in a clay soil each -grave as it is sunk should be found free from water.</p> - -<p>(6.) Surface drainage, especially of the roads and paths, is -also necessary.</p> - -<p>(7.) Provision must be made for the disposal of the soil -excavated from the graves, as very little punning or ramming -of the soil thrown in after a burial should be permitted, and -thus there is always a large quantity of material to be otherwise -disposed of.</p> - -<p>The cemetery must be divided into Church or consecrated -ground, Dissenters’ ground, and Roman Catholic ground, in -such proportions as may be found to suit the particular -requirements of the locality in which the cemetery is placed.</p> - -<p>These divisions must again be subdivided into sections -according to the class and description of the proposed grave, -and each of these subdivisions and grave-spaces must be<span class="pagenum" id="Page356">[356]</span> -accurately marked with a distinguishing letter and number, so -that on reference to a plan and a register book, any person’s -grave may be easily found, however long a time may have -elapsed since the interment took place, and although no headstone -or mark over the grave is there. It is needless to say, -that the plan of the cemetery has to be most carefully prepared, -and the ground equally carefully set out, to prevent -any chance of error occurring, or serious consequences might -result. It may be well to remark that no body can be removed -after burial without an order from one of Her Majesty’s -principal Secretaries of State, or by faculty from the Bishop -in consecrated ground.<a id="FNanchor235"></a><a href="#Footnote235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a></p> - -<p>The following description of the different sections necessary -in a large cemetery may here be of use, the fees chargeable -for the privilege of burying in each section advancing -with the letters appropriated to the sections.</p> - -<p><i>Section A.</i> This is appropriated to workhouse paupers or -very poor persons only,<a id="FNanchor236"></a><a href="#Footnote236" -class="fnanchor">[236]</a> the depth<a id="FNanchor237"></a><a href="#Footnote237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> of the grave may be -limited to 6 feet, and the size should be 9 feet by 4 feet; only -coffins made of wood should be allowed in this section.<a id="FNanchor238"></a><a href="#Footnote238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page357">[357]</span></p> - -<p><i>Section B.</i> This is of a slightly superior class to the last, -the depth and size may however be the same, but a larger fee -can be charged, and the position of the section with reference -to the paths should be better and more convenient.</p> - -<p><i>Section C.</i> This is again superior to either of the former -sections. Extra depth and size may be allowed, and the -position should also be better.</p> - -<p><i>Section D.</i> In the previous sections only “common” -graves as they are called should be allowed. In this section -either walled graves, vaults, tombs or common graves may be -placed, the common graves may be of extra depth and size, -the space for a vault may be 8 feet 6 inches by 6 feet.<a id="FNanchor239"></a><a href="#Footnote239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a></p> - -<p>This section should be exclusively the borders of the -paths and other spots easily accessible and prominent to -view.</p> - -<p><i>Section E.</i> This is the best section. No common graves -should be allowed in it, and the spaces allotted for burial may -be isolated and of various sizes according to agreement and -payment. Here costly tombs and monuments are erected, the -position of the section being generally near the chapels.<a id="FNanchor240"></a><a href="#Footnote240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></p> - -<p>In all the above sections it is necessary to provide for the -burial of children: these require smaller space and in some -instances they can be buried with their mother, but in separate -coffins. Unfortunately it is necessary to allow rather a large -percentage of available space for the interment of children, as -the infant mortality in this country is so excessive.</p> - -<p>In connection with the question of the plan and the sections<span class="pagenum" id="Page358">[358]</span> -for burial, it may be well to give the following rules and -regulations for the management of a cemetery:</p> - -<p class="center highline2"><i>Cemetery Rules and Regulations.</i></p> - -<p>(1.) All charges for interment, monuments, and gravestones -must be paid at the time the order is granted; no kind of -work allowed to be done, or any corpse brought on the ground -without the production of an order.</p> - -<p>(2.) Certificates of death to be produced (showing the -name of the parish, &c., and all other requisite information) -on paying the fees.</p> - -<p>(3.) Two days’ notice to be given for interment in graves, -(exclusive of Sunday,) and three days if a vault or brick grave -be required. In default, an extra charge will be made for -working by night.</p> - -<p>(4.) The time when the funeral procession will be on the -ground to be named in the notice. An extra fee of <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> will -be charged when the funeral procession is <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> minutes later -than the time appointed, and <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> for every <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> minutes -afterwards.</p> - -<p>(5.) The hours of interment are from <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> <span class="smcapall">A.M.</span> -to <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> <span class="smcapall">P.M.</span> -from Michaelmas to Lady-day, and from <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> <span class="smcapall">A.M.</span> -to <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> <span class="smcapall">P.M.</span> -from Lady-day to Michaelmas.</p> - -<p>(6.) All brick or stone work in the graves, and all foundations -and fixing of memorials, or planting, shall be under the -supervision and control of the local authority or their appointed -agent.</p> - -<p>(7.) No grave or vault shall be re-opened by other persons -than members of that family without the written consent -of the parties interested and of the local authority. An extra -fee for the interment of strangers will be charged at the -discretion of the local authority.</p> - -<p>(8.) In all unbricked graves, coffins of wood only shall be -used. No interment will be allowed nearer the surface than -four feet for an adult, or three feet for a child under 12 years.<span class="pagenum" id="Page359">[359]</span> -Every coffin in a bricked grave or vault to be separately -entombed in an air-tight manner.</p> - -<p>(9.) No palisades or iron railings to exceed feet in -height, except with the special consent of the local authority; -and no palisades, or enclosure of any description will be -permitted to a grave until a headstone or tomb has been -erected.</p> - -<p>(10.) A drawing of every monument or gravestone to be -submitted for approval, and a copy of the intended inscription, -if it contains more than name, age, and date. Inscriptions to -be arranged so as to face the paths as far as practicable. Any -question which shall arise touching the fitness of any monumental -inscription, placed in any part of the consecrated portion -of the ground, shall be determined on appeal by the Bishop of -the Diocese.</p> - -<p>(11.) All graves and vaults, monuments, gravestones, -fencing or other enclosures, to be kept in repair by the persons -interested in their preservation. If suffered to go out of -repair and become unsightly, the local authority will remove -them altogether, and they will not be allowed to be replaced -without the consent of the local authority. Graves will be -kept in order by the local authority for a fee of <span class="padl2 padr2"> </span> per -annum.</p> - -<p>A plan of the ground, showing each grave space, is kept at -the office of the surveyor to the local authority and may be -seen without charge.</p> - -<p>The public are admitted to the cemetery, on weekdays, -from 7 <span class="smcapall">A.M.</span> to 8 <span class="smcapall">P.M.</span> from Lady-day to Michaelmas, and from -8 <span class="smcapall">A.M.</span> to 5 <span class="smcapall">P.M.</span> from Michaelmas to Lady-day. On Sundays, -from 2 to 8 <span class="smcapall">P.M.</span> in summer and 2 to 5 <span class="smcapall">P.M.</span> in winter.</p> - -<p>All further information may be obtained at the office.</p> - -<p>The local authority forbid any gratuity being received by -their servants.</p> - -<p>The local authority reserves a right, from time to time, to -make any alteration in the foregoing charges and regulations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page360">[360]</span></p> - -<p>In connection with the above rules, a scale of fees of the -charges for interments must be prepared as well as for headstones, -foot-stones, ledgers, and tombs, or for enclosing any -grave with kerbing, iron-railings, posts and chains, &c.</p> - -<p>The practice of allowing persons to plant small shrubs and -trees upon the graves of their friends, should be deprecated, -as not only do they tend eventually to make a cemetery look -untidy but they are placed so close to the graves that when -they grow up their roots often split open a vault or walled -grave, and even damage valuable tombstones.</p> - -<p>Trees which are suitable for cemeteries, and which would -thrive even in a town atmosphere, are the weeping willow, -cypress, yew, cedar, juniper, birch, ash, weeping elm, and a -considerable number and variety of drooping and other -deciduous trees. These should, however, be planted under the -control of the local authority, as otherwise a cemetery would -soon be overrun by them.</p> - -<p>The regulations issued by the Secretary of State for the -Home Department in January 1863, for burial grounds -provided under the Burial Acts, may be of use for reference, -and are given <i>in extenso</i>:</p> - -<p>(1.) The burial ground shall be effectually fenced, and, if -necessary, under-drained to such a depth as will prevent water -remaining in any grave or vault.</p> - -<p>(2.) The area to be used for graves shall be divided into -grave spaces, to be designated by convenient marks, so that the -position of each may be readily determined, and a corresponding -plan kept on which each grave space shall be shown.</p> - -<p>(3.) The grave spaces for the burial of persons above 12 -years of age shall be at least 9 feet by 4 feet, and those for -the burial of children under 12 years of age, 6 feet by 3 feet, or -if preferred, half the measurement of the adult grave space, -namely, 4¹⁄₂ feet by 4 feet.</p> - -<p>(4.) A register of graves shall be kept in which the name, -age, and date of burial in each shall be duly registered.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page361">[361]</span></p> - -<p>(5.) No body shall be buried in any vault or walled grave -unless the coffin be separately entombed in an air-tight manner; -that is, by properly cemented stone or brickwork, which shall -never be disturbed.</p> - -<p>(6.) One body only shall be buried in a grave at one time, -unless the bodies be those of members of the same family.</p> - -<p>(7.) No unwalled grave shall be re-opened within 14 years -after the burial of a person above 12 years of age, or within -eight years after the burial of a child under 12 years of age, -unless to bury another member of the same family, in which -case a layer of earth not less than 1 foot thick shall be left undisturbed -above the previously buried coffin; but if on reopening -any grave the soil be found to be offensive, such soil -shall not be disturbed, and in no case shall human remains be -removed from the grave.</p> - -<p>(8.) No coffin shall be buried in any unwalled grave within -4 feet of the ordinary level of the ground, unless it contains -the body of a child under 12 years of age, when it shall not be -less than 3 feet below that level.</p> - -<p>For further information upon the subject of the Interments -Act 1879 and much useful information in connection with -cemeteries, I refer my readers to ‘Notes and Practical Suggestions -upon the Interment Act 1875,’ by T. Baker, Esq.</p> - -<p>I cannot close this chapter upon cemeteries without a few -words upon a subject which is analogous, cremation; and -although I am aware that this is a debateable question, -still it is impossible for me to be silent, as from my official -experience on the practice of burial, I am so deeply convinced -that cremation should be substituted for it for very -many weighty reasons, that I feel it is necessary for me to -give them.</p> - -<p>They are as follows:</p> - -<p>(1.) Nothing can be more unsanitary or dangerous to the -living than the burial of the dead. This has been enlarged -upon over and over again by men who have well studied the<span class="pagenum" id="Page362">[362]</span> -subject and are competent to give an opinion and to that -opinion I add my testimony.</p> - -<p>(2.) Nothing can be more loathsome and degrading to the -dead bodies of our friends or more revolting to our feelings, -than the horrible practice of placing the remains of those we -love in the soil of a common churchyard or cemetery, to be -devoured with other bodies by worms.</p> - -<p>(3.) In placing a dead body under ground we can never be -sure how long the remains will be left undisturbed, a new -street or railway will soon destroy all traces of its resting -place,<a id="FNanchor241"></a><a href="#Footnote241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> and even the law only allows a grave to remain -undisturbed for a short 14 years.</p> - -<p>(4.) In the event of friends or relations dying abroad their -remains cannot be sent home for burial except at great -expense, cremation would reduce the body to a few beautiful -silvery ashes which could easily be brought home and secured -on arrival in a suitable and safe position.<a id="FNanchor242"></a><a href="#Footnote242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a></p> - -<p>(5.) Cremation is the most respectful and beautiful manner -for the disposal of dead bodies, and need not alarm (on -religious grounds<a id="FNanchor243"></a><a href="#Footnote243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a>) any more than the practice at sea of -lowering the dead bodies overboard to be eventually eaten -and digested by marine animals.</p> - -<p>(7.) Cremation would settle at once and for ever the -vexed question of burial in consecrated or unconsecrated -ground, and all the unseemly quarrels which have taken -place in connection with it from time to time.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page363">[363]</span></p> - -<p>(8.) The great extent of land that is now wasted in public -burial grounds and cemeteries.<a id="FNanchor244"></a><a href="#Footnote244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a></p> - -<p>There is no reason, even if cremation should take the place -of burial, why the fees for clergymen and others should not -remain as at present, and the unpleasant assistance of the -British-ghoul, the undertaker, with his long face at the -ceremony and still longer bill afterwards, could easily be -dispensed with.</p> - -<p>The opponents of cremation urge that it would be more -expensive than burial, and consequently out of the reach of -the poorer classes, and also that it would cause so much -difficulty in detecting cases of poisoning, that it would tend -to encourage persons to poison others who happened to be in -their way, or objectionable to them, and thus crime would go -unchecked.</p> - -<p>If these are the only objections they are easily to be -overcome.</p> - -<p>First, by constructing public crematories, where for a few -shillings a day sufficient heat could be maintained to consume -almost any number of bodies, whilst the present great expense -of maintaining large cemeteries with their attendant guardians -and other costs would be dispensed with; and</p> - -<p>Secondly, by instituting a scientific and independent enquiry -as to the cause of every death which occurs. This is so<span class="pagenum" id="Page364">[364]</span> -much required at the present day for the sake of the public -health, that even if cremation is never introduced it should be at -once enforced, so that those who have charge of the public health -could have exact and reliable knowledge of the causes of all -the deaths throughout the United Kingdom, and thus obtain -such valuable information as would greatly assist in the daily -fight to subdue and overcome deaths from preventable causes.</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote230"></a><a href="#FNanchor230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health Act,’ p. 130, 3rd edition.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote231"></a><a href="#FNanchor231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health Act,’ p. 131, 3rd edition. Foot note to -clause x. Cemetery Clauses Act 1847.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote232"></a><a href="#FNanchor232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> Cemetery Clauses Act 1847, s. 20.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote233"></a><a href="#FNanchor233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Cremation of the Dead,’ by William Eassie, C.E. &c. &c., p. 50.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote234"></a><a href="#FNanchor234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> -The roads and paths in a cemetery require to be carefully made, in order -that they may be available during any weather.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote235"></a><a href="#FNanchor235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> 20 & 21 Vic. c. 81, s. 25.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote236"></a><a href="#FNanchor236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> -The following is a description of the manner of burying the poorer people in -the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, near Paris. (<i>Vide</i> ‘The Parks, Promenades, and -Gardens of Paris,’ by W. Robinson, F.L.S., &c., p. 109.) “A very wide trench or -fosse is cut wide enough to hold two rows of coffins placed across it, and 100 yards -long or so. Here they are rapidly stowed in one after another, just as nursery -labourers lay in stock ‘by the heels,’ only much closer, because there is no earth -between the coffins, and wherever the coffins, which are very like egg-boxes, only -somewhat less substantial, happen to be short so that a little space is left between -the two rows, those of children are placed in lengthwise between them to economise -space; the whole being done exactly as a natty man would pack together turves -or mushroom spawn bricks.”. . . Let us hope that whatever else may be -“taken from the French,” we may never imitate them in their cemetery management.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote237"></a><a href="#FNanchor237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> -Depth of burial varies from 6 to 10 feet, but there must be 4 feet of earth -upon the top of the last coffin if an adult, 3 feet if a child.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote238"></a><a href="#FNanchor238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> -A proper grave should be dry when opened, and have a sufficiency of soil -over the coffin to absorb any gases of decomposition; it should allow an adjoining -grave to be opened without collapsing, and should if possible dispense with the -necessity of shoring or close timbering the sides, and should allow sufficient space -for a headstone to be placed over it.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote239"></a><a href="#FNanchor239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> -In a tomb or walled grave, the coffin should be enclosed in an air-tight case, -by means of a stone cemented down which must never again be moved; or concrete -may be used. It is a good plan to put some charcoal with the coffin to -absorb any gases of decomposition in case of the vault opening accidentally at -any future time, and in order to guard against such an occurrence it is better to leave -at least 2 feet of earth on the top of the grave below the surface of the ground in -walled graves.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote240"></a><a href="#FNanchor240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> -“No body shall be buried in any vault under any chapel of the cemetery or -within 15 feet of the outer wall of any such chapel.” (<i>Vide</i> s. 39, Cemetery -Clauses Act 1847.)</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote241"></a><a href="#FNanchor241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> -In a beautiful out-of-the-way valley in Wales, there is a pretty village with a -quiet churchyard far from the “busy haunts of man,” yet here it is found necessary -to disinter all the bodies, as this churchyard will soon be 30 feet under the surface -of the water of an immense reservoir now being constructed to supply the living -with drinking water, and it would not be right to leave the bodies there.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote242"></a><a href="#FNanchor242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> -The body of Lord Balcarres was (as is now history) removed from the -mausoleum in his own grounds, and only recovered after a most painful interval; -this desecration could not have happened had his body been cremated and the -ashes suitably secured.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote243"></a><a href="#FNanchor243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> -I believe it was Lord Shaftesbury whose remark on this point was, “What -would have become of the blessed martyrs, if destruction by fire was to annul their -chances of resurrection?”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote244"></a><a href="#FNanchor244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> -The metropolis alone has in addition to the numerous burying grounds near -its parish churches, &c. (many of which have been, however, dug up and -destroyed), the average of which it would be difficult to determine, the following -cemeteries, which may be called extra mural:</p> - -<table class="fsize90 notop nobot" summary="Cemeteries"> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Woking Cemetery</td> -<td class="right bot padr1">500</td> -<td class="center bot">acres</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Ilford and Leytonstone Cemetery</td> -<td class="right bot padr1">168</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Norwood and Nunhead Cemetery</td> -<td class="right bot padr1">40</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Highgate Cemetery</td> -<td class="right bot padr1">40</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">West London at Brompton</td> -<td class="right bot padr1">40</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Abney Park Cemetery</td> -<td class="right bot padr1">32</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Kensal Green Cemetery</td> -<td class="right bot padr1">18</td> -<td class="center bot">„</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Victoria Cemetery</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center bot">——</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Tower Hamlets Cemetery</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center bot">——</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left top padr4">Colney Hatch Cemetery</td> -<td colspan="2" class="center bot">——</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page365">[365]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XXXI.<br /> -<span class="chapname">MORTUARIES.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">As the Public Health Act 1875 contains several clauses -bearing upon mortuaries, a few words upon this subject will -not be altogether inappropriate.</p> - -<p>The great and terrible evils arising from the practice of -keeping corpses in inhabited rooms by the poorer classes were -pointed out by Mr. Chadwick in the year 1843<a id="FNanchor245"></a><a href="#Footnote245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> and the -following clauses upon this subject and the necessity imposed -upon the local authority to provide proper mortuaries are contained -in the Public Health Act 1875:</p> - -<p>“Any local authority may, and if required by the Local -Government Board shall provide and fit up a proper place for -the reception of dead bodies before interment (in this Act -called a mortuary), and may make bye-laws with respect to -the management and charges for use of the same; they may -also provide for the decent and economical interment, at -charges to be fixed by such bye-laws, of any dead body which -may be received into a mortuary (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. -141).</p> - -<p>“Where the body of one who has died of any infectious -disease is retained in a room in which persons live or sleep, or -any dead body which is in such a state as to endanger the -health of the inmates of the same house or room is retained in -such house or room, any justice may, on a certificate signed by -a legally qualified medical practitioner, order the body to be -removed, at the cost of the local authority, to any mortuary -provided by such authority, and direct the same to be buried<span class="pagenum" id="Page366">[366]</span> -within a time to be limited in such order; and unless the -friends or relations of the deceased undertake to bury the body -within the time so limited, and do bury the same, it shall be -the duty of the relieving officer to bury such body at the -expense of the poor rate, but any expense so incurred -may be recovered by the relieving officer in a summary -manner from any person legally liable to pay the expense of -such burial.</p> - -<p>“Any person obstructing the execution of an order made -by a justice under this section shall be liable to a penalty not -exceeding five pounds” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 142).</p> - -<p>From these clauses it would appear that a mortuary or -mortuaries are an absolute essential in every town, although it -does not appear necessary to have a separate mortuary for any -“body of one who has died of any infectious disease,” but it -may be taken to the mortuary which has been provided for -the reception of dead bodies generally. It may also be -assumed that bodies may be viewed by a coroner’s jury in the -mortuary, although a post-mortem examination cannot be -made in it, as by the following section:</p> - -<p>“Any local authority may provide and maintain a proper -place (otherwise than at a workhouse or at a mortuary) for the -reception of dead bodies during the time required to conduct -any post-mortem examination ordered by a coroner or other -constituted authority, and may make regulations with respect -to the management of such place; and where any such place -has been provided, a coroner or other constituted authority -may order the removal of the body to and from such place for -carrying out such post-mortem examination, such costs -of removal to be paid in the same manner and out of -the same fund as the costs and fees for post-mortem examinations -when ordered by the coroner (38 & 39 Vic. -c. 55, s. 143).”</p> - -<p>It will be observed that the above clause apparently forbids -a post-mortem room being provided at the mortuary, although<span class="pagenum" id="Page367">[367]</span> -this would appear to be the most appropriate situation for it, -and indeed such a room is frequently provided at or near the -mortuary. The reason for this prohibition, especially as it is -associated with a workhouse, is evidently to overcome the prejudice -which would exist in the minds of the ignorant that the -fact of taking a body to a mortuary necessitated dissection: a -practice which is looked upon with much disfavour by such -persons.</p> - -<p>Mortuaries in this country generally consist of one of the -following descriptions:</p> - -<p>(1.) Elaborate groups of buildings, comprising mortuary -chapel, coroner’s room, post-mortem room, dead house, -waiting rooms, &c., and the necessary care-taker’s rooms, -and offices.</p> - -<p>(2.) Mortuaries in connection with infectious hospitals.</p> - -<p>(3.) Mortuaries in connection with general hospitals.</p> - -<p>(4.) Mortuaries at cemeteries or licensed burial grounds.</p> - -<p>(5.) Dead-houses provided by the sanitary authority.</p> - -<p>In arranging for the erection of a dead-house or mortuary -in any town, the surveyor may find the following particulars -and suggestions of some use to him:</p> - -<p>A mortuary must be provided in the grounds or near all -cemeteries that are in active operation, but in addition to these, -others ought to be erected in central positions of the town, so -that bodies can be easily conveyed there, not only with a view -to meet the objections mentioned in the opening of this -chapter, but also to avoid the unseemly practice at present so -largely in vogue of taking any cases of sudden death, suicide, -accidental drowning, violence or accident, &c., that may occur, -to the nearest public house, there to await identification and -the coroner’s inquest.<a id="FNanchor246"></a><a href="#Footnote246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a></p> - -<p>It has been computed that for every 50,000 of the population -of any town, a mortuary should be provided.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page368">[368]</span></p> - -<p>In Frankfort mortuaries have been for some years in -existence; they are simple buildings, with a separate room for -each corpse, intended not only to prevent bodies from being -kept in private houses, but also to lessen the chance of any -person being buried alive. The following is a plan of one of -these institutions:</p> - -<div class="figcenter w600"> -<img src="images/illo388.png" alt="" width="600" height="464" /> -<p class="caption">PLAN OF A GERMAN LEICHENHAUS OR DEAD-HOUSE.</p> -</div> - -<p>To prevent the chance of burying any person alive, each -corpse as it is placed in its little dead-house has a ring placed -upon its finger; this ring is attached to a string which is in -communication with a bell which hangs in the attendant’s room, -who is there night and day, a window communicates with each -dead-house, so that on the alarm being given he is at once -ready to render assistance.</p> - -<p>In Paris, as is well known, all bodies that are found are -placed in the “Morgue” behind “Notre Dame,” where -they are publicly exhibited, thus assisting identification,<span class="pagenum" id="Page369">[369]</span> -although the exposure of bodies in this manner is not very -attractive.</p> - -<p>In preparing designs for a group of buildings such as are -set forth in the first on the list which I have given, the -following requirements should be considered:</p> - -<p><i>The Mortuary Chapel</i> should be of such dimensions -as are suitable for the requirements of the district, bearing -in mind that if an epidemic of a fatal character was to -unfortunately break out, it could either provide accommodation -for the extra strain upon it or be capable of being easily -extended. It should be designed so as to combine the -characteristics of a chapel with the most perfect sanitary -arrangements.<a id="FNanchor247"></a><a href="#Footnote247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> The walls should be of stone and are better -lined with cement or glazed tiles, and everything should be -kept as flush as possible so as to avoid projections on which -dust could accumulate, the whole being easily and readily -cleansed and disinfected. The floor may be of asphalte or -other impervious material, and be well drained, great care -being of course taken to exclude rats.</p> - -<p>The ventilation must be perfect, the building should -always be of low temperature even in the hottest days of -summer. All the group of buildings should, if possible, be surrounded -by a free belt of air. Their position should be isolated -with respect to other buildings, and of course it is highly -necessary that they should be as far away as possible from -any dwelling-houses, a disused burial ground being sometimes -selected as a convenient site. The furniture of a mortuary -chapel should consist only of trestles or of brackets against -the walls upon which to rest the shells containing the -corpses.</p> - -<p><i>The Dead-house</i> should be a room smaller than the -mortuary chapel, but its construction may be the same. It is<span class="pagenum" id="Page370">[370]</span> -here that all bodies should be brought uncoffined for the -purpose of awaiting identification, or preparatory to post-mortem -examination, or of bodies of those who have died -from dangerous contagious maladies, and rendering immediate -removal necessary; these are placed upon slabs -provided for the purpose, which may be of slate, zinc, or -other suitable material. In conjunction with the dead-house -should be</p> - -<p><i>The Post-Mortem Room</i>, which requires plenty of light; it -must also, like the mortuary chapel and dead-house, be -thoroughly ventilated and drained and be easily cleansed. -Its furniture must consist of the necessary post-mortem table -of slate, zinc, or wood covered entirely with lead: this table -must slightly dish towards the centre and be drained into a -pail or on to a grating. Plenty of water is essential, conveniently -laid on, and the room must be fitted with good -arrangements for gas or other means of artificial lighting. -Some method is also necessary for the purpose of heating -water whenever it is required.</p> - -<p><i>The Coroner’s Court</i> may be simply a large room with -convenient seatings and tables for the coroner and his jury, -accommodation being also provided for the press, witnesses, &c. -with the necessary retiring rooms and offices.</p> - -<p>In addition to the above requirements the following -accommodation should also be provided:</p> - -<p><i>A caretaker</i> or <i>resident attendant</i> should have accommodation -at or near the main group of buildings.</p> - -<p><i>A Laboratory and Weighing Room</i> should also be provided -in connection with the post-mortem room; and a <i>Store -Room</i> for spare shells and disinfectants, &c.</p> - -<p>If possible also it is well to provide a <i>Hearse House</i>; and in -connection with the mortuary establishment, the disinfecting of -bedding, clothing, &c., which have become infected, should also -if possible be carried on.</p> - -<p>Before, however, proceeding to discuss the question of<span class="pagenum" id="Page371">[371]</span> -disinfection I will give the following drawing of a mortuary -chapel, &c., as proposed by the late Dr. W. Hardwicke, the well-known -Coroner, in a valuable paper upon the subject of Public -Mortuaries which he read before the Royal Institute of British -Architects in the year 1869:</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo391.png" alt="Mortuary" width="471" height="600" /> -</div> - -<p>I am, however, not aware that any public mortuary even of -this size has yet been actually carried out in this country, -greatly as they are needed.</p> - -<p>With reference to the question of disinfection, which as I -stated can be conveniently taken in connection with that of -mortuaries, the following is the clause of the Public Health -Act 1875 which deals with it:</p> - -<p>“Any local authority may provide a proper place, with all -necessary apparatus and attendance, for the disinfection of -bedding, clothing or other articles which have become infected, -and may cause any articles brought for disinfection to be -disinfected free of charge (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 122). See -also 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, ss. 120 and 121.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page372">[372]</span></p> - -<p>The first duty here involved is to provide a proper place -for this purpose, and this place cannot be better than that of the -mortuary, so as to centralize as much as possible the spots to -which infection has to be carried, and the necessary attendant -can also here be found, as well as convenient places to put the -hand carts, &c., presently described.</p> - -<p>The next duty is to provide the necessary apparatus, which -is now done almost exclusively by the action of heat. This -is sometimes effected by building brick-work chambers which -can be heated up to about 350° Fahr. after the doors are -closed, by means of coal or coke furnaces. Within these -chambers are moveable horses on which are placed the articles -to be disinfected: these are exposed to the necessary heat for -varying times according to the nature of the articles, the -horse is then drawn out, when the articles should be thoroughly -washed with a disinfecting soap and returned to their owners. -Great care is necessary in this operation to ensure evenness of -heat, as otherwise the clothes, bedding, &c., may be scorched -and injured, and the local authority will then have to make -compensation.</p> - -<p>A more convenient form of disinfecting machine, and one -that is less costly to work and more even in its temperature, -is one that can be heated by gas, this is sometimes effected -by the use of an iron box with counter-balanced lid into -which the articles are put, heat being applied by means of -gas jets burning underneath. A more elaborate and effective -method has however been patented, and is now manufactured -by Messrs. Goddard and Massey of Nottingham, which is -known as Dr. Ranson’s system. The following drawing -shows the arrangement of this machine, and some of the -advantages claimed for it are as follows:</p> - -<p>Its heat is maintained automatically within certain limits -in all parts of the chamber, and has great drying power, which -is important, as securing from the long period of time at which<span class="pagenum" id="Page373">[373]</span> -this steady heat can be maintained, that penetration into -bedding and other bad conductors which is so desirable to -secure the necessary destruction of all disease germs or -chances of after inoculation:</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/illo393.png" alt="Disinfection chamber" width="500" height="417" /> -</div> - -<p>There can be no doubt that where a machine is not -required to be constantly at work gas is the cheapest and -most convenient heat-producer that we have.</p> - -<p>It is of course necessary that the infected bedding and -clothing should be fetched from the owners’ houses in such a -manner as will lessen the risk of spreading infection as much -as possible, and for this purpose it is necessary for the local -authority to keep a covered hand-cart which should be lined -with tin and closed hermetically. It should be sufficiently -large to take a mattrass, and be of light construction, so that -one man can draw it when full.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page374">[374]</span></p> - -<p>Before concluding my remarks on disinfection, it is well to -state that plenty of carbolic acid should be kept in a mortuary. -Sheets saturated with carbolic acid are used to wrap around -the dead bodies of infected persons, and sawdust saturated -with carbolic acid is also freely used, besides large quantities -of that excellent disinfectant, “Sanitas.”</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote245"></a><a href="#FNanchor245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘A Supplementary Report on the Results of a Special Enquiry into the -Practice of Interments in Towns,’ by Edwin Chadwick, 1843.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote246"></a><a href="#FNanchor246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> -There is no law that can compel any one to receive a dead body into his -house.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote247"></a><a href="#FNanchor247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> -It is important to remove the idea of a “parish dead-house,” otherwise its -object will be defeated, as persons will object to allow the bodies of their deceased -friends to be taken to it.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page375">[375]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XXXII.<br /> -<span class="chapname">BORROWING UNDER THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">There are a number of clauses in the Public Health Act -1875, which empower a local authority to borrow money on -the credit of the rates for the purpose of “defraying any costs, -charges and expenses incurred or to be incurred by them in -the execution of the Sanitary Acts.” (<i>Vide</i> 38 & 39 Vic. -c. 55, s. 233).</p> - -<p>The exercise of these powers of borrowing are subject to -the following regulations:</p> - -<p>(1.) Money shall not be borrowed except for permanent -works.<a id="FNanchor248"></a><a href="#Footnote248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a></p> - -<p>(2.) The sum borrowed shall not exceed at any time, -including all outstanding debts, the assessable value for two -years of the district.</p> - -<p>(3.) Where it exceeds the value of one year, the Local -Government Board will not give their sanction until one of -their inspectors has held a local enquiry.</p> - -<p>(4.) The money cannot be borrowed for a longer time -than 60 years, and it must be paid off within that time.</p> - -<p>(5.) Certain regulations as to sinking funds, &c. (<i>Vide</i> 38 -& 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 234 <i>et seq.</i>)</p> - -<p>The power to borrow money thus granted to local -authorities has undoubtedly given a considerable stimulus -to the execution of important sanitary works which could not -be carried out if they had to be paid for out of the current -rates. It is also a fair and equitable arrangement that permanent -works should be paid for by those that reap the benefit<span class="pagenum" id="Page376">[376]</span> -of them, and it is now so arranged that the money borrowed -is repaid within a certain specified time by equal annual -payments, in order that the ratepayer of the present shall -not be unduly taxed for the benefit of posterity.</p> - -<p>No regular or fixed times have been settled by the Local -Government Board over which they will allow the repayment -of loans to be spread, but it appears that the duration of the -proposed works somewhat guides the length of time allowed, as -will appear from the following list which I have prepared -from the eighth Annual Report of the Local Government -Board:</p> - -<table class="dontwrap fsize90" summary="Loans"> - -<tr> -<th colspan="3">Description<br />of Work.</th> -<th colspan="3">Number<br />of Years.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Purchase of land</td> -<td class="right">50</td> -<td class="center">to</td> -<td class="right">60</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Sewage disposal</td> -<td class="right">30</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right">50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Sewerage works</td> -<td class="right">30</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right">50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Water supply</td> -<td class="right">20</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right">50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Fire brigade purposes</td> -<td class="right">30</td> -<td class="center">and</td> -<td class="right">60</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Market Purposes</td> -<td class="right">30</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right">60</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Plan of district</td> -<td class="right">20</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right">30</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Lamps for public lighting</td> -<td class="right">10</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right">20</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Artizans and Labourers’ Dwellings Act</td> -<td class="right">50</td> -<td rowspan="8" colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="left padr0">Erection</td> -<td class="center">of</td> -<td class="left padl1">hospital</td> -<td class="right">30</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left padl1">public baths</td> -<td class="right">30</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left padl1">slaughter-houses</td> -<td class="right">30</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="left padl1">buildings at sewage farm</td> -<td class="right">30</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">A public park</td> -<td class="right">50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Cemeteries</td> -<td class="right">30</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Gas supply</td> -<td class="right">30</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Street improvements</td> -<td class="right">15</td> -<td class="center">to</td> -<td class="right">30</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Paving<a id="FNanchor249"></a><a href="#Footnote249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> and channelling</td> -<td class="right">15</td> -<td class="center">„</td> -<td class="right">20</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Stables, urinals, enginehouse</td> -<td class="right">20</td> -<td rowspan="5" colspan="2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Construction of a new road</td> -<td class="right">20</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Disinfecting apparatus</td> -<td class="right">20</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Mortuary and weighing machine</td> -<td class="right">15</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="left padr4">Steam road roller</td> -<td class="right">10</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>Whenever a local authority decide to make application -to the Local Government Board for power to borrow money -for any proposed improvements or works within their district, -it is the duty of the town surveyor to prepare the necessary<span class="pagenum" id="Page377">[377]</span> -drawings and obtain the required information in order to fill -in the forms which are supplied from the Local Government -Board office.</p> - -<p>With reference to this important part of his duty, I cannot -do better than give the following Suggestions as to the -Preparation of Plans of Proposed Works, by Robert -Rawlinson, C.B., C.E., &c. (Chief Engineering Inspector to -the Local Government Board), prepared by him in 1878:</p> - -<p>“It will in all cases be necessary, upon application being -made for sanction to a loan, for the execution of works, that -plans (or tracings of the plans), sections, estimates in detail -and specifications be submitted with the application, accompanied -by information as to the population at the two last -periods of the taking of the census, the rateable value of the -district, and the amount of outstanding loans.”</p> - -<p>“Such plans or tracings may be used for showing lines of -main sewers, drains, water-pipes and gas-mains. The lines of -main sewers and drains should have the cross sectional dimensions -of the sewers and their gradients distinctly marked -(written and figured) upon them. The dimensions of water -and gas pipes should also be shown in figures or by -writing.”</p> - -<p>“N.B.—No general map should be submitted which is -drawn to a scale of less than 6 inches to a mile, except when -the inch ordnance map is used.”</p> - -<p>“Maps upon which sewerage works or water works are to -be shown, or for street improvements, should be not less than -the ordnance scale of ¹⁄₂₅₀₀th.”</p> - -<p>“The sections should be drawn to the same horizontal -scale, and to a vertical scale of 20 feet to 1 inch.”</p> - -<p>Any detailed plan for the purposes of house drainage, -paving, the purchase of land &c., should be “constructed to a -scale of not less than 10 feet to a mile, and upon this plan -should be exhibited all houses and other buildings, bench -marks, the levels of streets and roads, of cellars, of the sea at<span class="pagenum" id="Page378">[378]</span> -high and low tide level, and the summer and flood levels of -rivers. 3 feet by 2 feet will be a convenient size for the sheets -of this plan.”</p> - -<p>“Enlarged detail plans and sections of sewers, side entrances, -man-holes, sewer sluices, sluice valves, water-pipe -joints, and similar details, should be to a scale not less than -8 feet to 1 inch, and for some details 4 feet to 1 inch.”<a id="FNanchor250"></a><a -href="#Footnote250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a></p> - -<p>“As it may occasionally be desired to carry out works -piecemeal, with a view to save the time which would be -occupied in the preparation of a complete plan from actual -survey, it will be sufficient in the first instance to furnish any -available general plan of streets and roads, with the surface -levels and those of the deepest cellars figured in feet and -inches, and the proposed scheme of works shown (or sketched) -thereon, after which the works can proceed in sections. It -should be understood, however, that a complete plan of the -entire district must be proceeded with, so that when the -works are finished, the sanitary authority and this Board -may possess a proper record of them.”</p> - -<p>And again, Mr. Rawlinson in the same year, at a meeting -of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers, -writes as follows:</p> - -<p>“Plans should be neatly and clearly drawn, the cross -sectional dimensions and the gradient being written on the -<i>plan</i> of sewers; there should be a title and scale on each plan, -as also on each sheet, and the date with the name of the -engineer or surveyor clearly written so as easily to be read; -this as a rule should be in the right-hand corner. Many -names are so written that experts cannot read them, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page379">[379]</span> -plans are frequently sent out having no title, nor any scale, -nor any name.”</p> - -<p>“Plans of details, such as side entrances, man-holes, flushing -chambers, and sewer ventilating arrangements, should be at -4 feet to an inch, larger works may be at 4, 10 to 20 feet to an -inch. Clear understandable and measurable details are desirable . . . -I have much trouble in looking over defectively prepared -plans and crude ill-understood and ill-digested schemes -as they are submitted to the Local Government Board, for -approval and sanction to a proposed loan. One great fact -connected with the Board must not, however, be overlooked. -It is not an office of works, it does not undertake to devise -neither does it make itself responsible in any degree for the -plans or for the estimates which may have been sanctioned. -Each engineer and each local authority must both devise -and execute the local works, and the district must alone be -responsible for the local expenditure. The Board neither -dictates as to works, nor superintends works, but reserves the -power of refusing sanction to a proposed loan, and of requiring -full explanations as to failures in the works, or as to -expenses over estimates before sanctioning a supplemental -loan. The reason that the Board declines responsibility -ought to be clearly manifest; plans and details may be the -best possible, but the ultimate result depends on daily local -supervision, and this the Board does not give; neither local -action nor local responsibility is superseded.”</p> - -<p>Speaking on this point at the first meeting of the Sanitary -Institute of Great Britain held at Croydon in 1879, Captain -Douglas Galton, C.B., says:<a id="FNanchor251"></a><a href="#Footnote251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a></p> - -<p>“Where a loan is applied for, the plan upon which the -money is to be spent is submitted for Government approval. -The Government only lends the money after the approval -of the proposed scheme of expenditure by one of their -inspectors.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page380">[380]</span></p> - -<p>“The Local Authorities of the towns to be drained cannot -therefore be responsible for the plan selected, for the Local -Authorities must alter their plans to suit the views of the -inspector. The responsibility of the engineer is diminished, -because he may be compelled to modify his plan in a manner -in which he may not thoroughly approve, and the inspector -has no responsibility in the matter, because, after having -approved of the general scheme, he has no control over the -details or the execution of the work, nor can he be in any way -held responsible, if the result were a failure.”</p> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote248"></a><a href="#FNanchor248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> -The Local Government Board have held a steam roller, a steam fire-engine, -a disinfecting apparatus, and lamp columns to be permanent works.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote249"></a><a href="#FNanchor249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> -For asphalte pavements twelve years have been allowed.</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote250"></a><a href="#FNanchor250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> -“Details may be drawn to any scale larger than the dimensions named. -Engraved or lithographed diagrams, if clear and distinct, will be accepted. -A new plan of any town or district cannot be used for main sewering, water -supply, gas supply, pavements, footwalks, and other purposes without spoiling it; -consequently it had better be retained as a standard and be zincographed, there -may then be copies for all local purposes. The zinc plates to be the property of -the local authority.”</p> - -<p><a id="Footnote251"></a><a href="#FNanchor251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> -<i>Vide</i> ‘Transactions of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain,’ vol. i. p. 116.</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page381">[381]</span></p> - -<h2>CHAPTER XXXIII.<br /> -<span class="chapname">CONTRACTS.</span></h2> - -<p class="noindent">Contracts being principally a legal question, it is not my -intention to say much on the matter.</p> - -<p>In the Public Health Act 1875 will be found the following -clauses:</p> - -<p>“Any Local Authority may enter into any contracts -necessary for carrying this Act into execution (38 & 39 Vic. -c. 55, s. 173).</p> - -<p>“With respect to contracts made by an Urban Authority -under this Act, the following regulations shall be observed -(namely):</p> - -<p>“(1.) Every contract made by an Urban Authority -whereof the value or amount exceeds fifty pounds shall be in -writing, and sealed with the common seal of such authority:</p> - -<p>“(2.) Every such contract shall specify the work, materials, -matters or things to be furnished, had or done, the price to be -paid, and the time or times within which the contract is to be -performed, and shall specify some pecuniary penalty to be -paid in case the terms of the contract are not duly performed:</p> - -<p>“(3.) Before contracting for the execution of any works -under the provisions of this Act, an Urban Authority shall -obtain from their surveyor an estimate in writing, as well of the -probable expense of executing the work in a substantial -manner as of the annual expense of repairing the same; -also a report as to the most advantageous mode of contracting, -that is to say, whether by contracting only for the -execution of the work, or for executing and also maintaining -the same in repair during a term of years or otherwise:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page382">[382]</span></p> - -<p>“(4.) Before any contract of the value or amount of one -hundred pounds or upwards is entered into by an Urban -Authority ten days’ public notice at the least shall be given, -expressing the nature and purpose thereof, and inviting -tenders for the execution of the same; and such authority -shall require and take sufficient security for the due performance -of the same:</p> - -<p>“(5.) Every contract entered into by an Urban Authority -in conformity with the provisions of this section, and duly -executed by the other parties thereto, shall be binding on the -Authority by whom the same is executed and their successors, -and on all other parties thereto and their executors, administrators, -successors or assigns to all intents and purposes: -Provided that an Urban Authority may compound with any -contractor or other person in respect of any penalty incurred -by reason of the non-performance of any contract entered -into as aforesaid, whether such penalty is mentioned in any -such contract, or in any bond or otherwise, for such sums of -money or other recompense as to such Authority may seem -proper” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 174).</p> - -<p>In reading the numerous foot-notes that follow the above -clauses in Glen’s ‘Law of Public Health and Local Government,’ -it will be seen that contracts with corporations have -been held to be very different from ordinary ones between -individuals or companies. All contracts should be by deed -under the seal of the corporation, or “there is no safety or -security for anyone dealing with such a body on any other -footing,” and this applies also in “respect of any variation or -alteration in a contract which has been made.”</p> - -<p>“A committee of the corporation has no power to enter -into any contract” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 200).</p> - -<p>A member of a corporation may not be “concerned in -any bargain or contract” entered into by the corporation, -although this would not vitiate the contract (38 & 39 Vic. -c. 55, sch. 11, clause 64), neither may an officer of the corporation<span class="pagenum" id="Page383">[383]</span> -be “concerned or interested in any bargain or contract” -(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 193).</p> - -<p>It is, of course, necessary before any contract can be -entered into, that the town surveyor should prepare the specification, -schedule of prices and drawings where necessary; -this entails a considerable amount of work.</p> - -<p>In addition to ordinary specifications for works, the -town surveyor has often to prepare specifications and -schedules for the supply of the following goods:</p> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<ul class="goodslist"> - -<li>Ironmongery.</li> -<li>Paints, etc.</li> -<li>Disinfectants.</li> -<li>Castings.</li> -<li>Coals.</li> -<li>Harness.</li> -<li>Fodder.</li> -<li>Road metal.</li> -<li>Paving.</li> -<li>Clothing.</li> -<li>Stationery.</li> -<li>Horse hire.</li> - -</ul> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -<p class="noindent">and a host of other things too numerous to mention.</p> - -<p>A well-written, clear, and comprehensive specification is a -most difficult thing to write, but it should be “common -sense” from beginning to end, any legal phraseology being left -to the town clerk to introduce in his “deed” as required by -the Act.</p> - -<p>For sewer and drain work lump sum contracts are often -undesirable: it is better to work according to a schedule of -prices, and periodical measurements.</p> - -<p>It must not be forgotten that in all contracts the contractor -seeks to make a profit out of the work; if there is no intermediate -contractor this profit goes to the ratepayers. In most sanitary -works also the men employed by the local authority are -more skilled in that particular class of work than the chance -men employed by a contractor, and for this and many other -reasons, administration by the local authority is in most -cases preferable to contracts.<a id="FNanchor252"></a><a href="#Footnote252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page384">[384]</span></p> - -<p>Where tenders have been invited by advertisement or -otherwise, the successful person should be written to, apprising -him of the fact, and requesting him to call, sign the -necessary specification, deeds, and drawings; an intimation -should also be made to the unsuccessful competitors that their -tenders have not been accepted.</p> - -<p>In conclusion, let me thank the authors of the following -books for the useful information which I have gained in perusing -them for the purposes of this work, and, let me add, they can -be studied with advantage by every “Town Surveyor”:</p> - -<div class="centerblock"> - -<ul class="booklist"> - -<li>‘American Sanitary Engineering,’ by E. S. Philbrick.</li> - -<li>‘Annales des Ponts et Chaussées,’ published in Paris.</li> - -<li>‘Annual Reports of the Local Government Board,’ published in London.</li> - -<li>‘A Practical Guide for Inspectors of Nuisances,’ by F. R. Wilson.</li> - -<li>‘A Treatise on Roads,’ by Sir H. Parnell.</li> - -<li>‘Cremation of the Dead,’ by W. Eassie.</li> - -<li>‘Experience sur le tirage des Voitures,’ by M. Morin.</li> - -<li>‘Healthy Dwellings,’ by D. Galton.</li> - -<li>‘Health of Towns Commission,’ sundry reports.</li> - -<li>‘Law of Public Health and Local Government,’ by W. C. and A. Glen.</li> - -<li>‘Local Board Manual,’ by Owen Harris.</li> - -<li>‘New Mode of Constructing Streets,’ by J. Edgworth.</li> - -<li>‘Plumbing and House Draining,’ by W. P. Buchan.</li> - -<li>‘Practical Treatise on Roads,’ by A. Penfold.</li> - -<li>‘Repair of Main Roads,’ by W. H. Wheeler.</li> - -<li>‘Roads and Streets,’ by D. Kinnear Clark.</li> - -<li>‘Roads, Streets, and Pavements,’ by Q. A. Gillmore.</li> - -<li>‘Roads and Roadways,’ by G. W. Willcocks.</li> - -<li>‘Remarks on the Present System of Road Making,’ &c., by John Loudon -McAdam.</li> - -<li>‘Sanitary Engineering,’ by Baldwin Latham.</li> - -<li>‘Sanitary Engineering,’ by Bailey Denton.</li> - -<li>‘Sanitary Work,’ by Charles Slagg.</li> - -<li>‘Suggestions as to the Preparation of District Maps and of Plans for -Main Sewerage, Drainage, and Water Supply,’ by Robert Rawlinson, -C.B., &c.</li> - -<li>‘Street Pavements,’ by G. F. Crosby Dawson.</li> - -<li>‘Steam Road Rolling,’ by Fred. A. Paget.</li> - -<li>‘The Parks, Promenades, and Gardens of Paris,’ by W. Robinson.</li> - -<li>‘The Public Health and Local Government Act,’ by J. Vesey Fitzgerald.</li> - -<li>‘The Interments Act 1879,’ by T. Baker.</li> - -<li>‘The Plumber and Sanitary Houses,’ by S. S. Hellyer.</li> - -<li>‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roads,’ by Thomas Codrington.</li> - -<li>‘The true system of Wood Pavement,’ Anonymous.</li> - -<li>‘The Surveyor of Highways,’ by Alex. Glen.</li> - -<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page385">[385]</span></li> - -<li>‘Tree Pruning,’ by A. des Cars.</li> - -<li>Various papers in the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers.</li> - -<li>Various papers in the Proceedings of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain.</li> - -<li>Various papers in the Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and -Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors.</li> - -<li>Various papers from the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society.</li> - -<li>Various papers from the Reports on the Application of Science and Art to -Street Paving.</li> - -<li>Various reports by Mr. Haywood, Engineer to the Commissioners of Sewers -of the City of London.</li> - -<li>Various reports by Mr. Till, Surveyor of Birmingham.</li> - -<li>Various reports of Commissions, etc.</li> - -</ul> - -</div><!--centerblock--> - -<hr class="footnote" /> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote252"></a><a href="#FNanchor252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> Mr. Parry, C.E., Borough Surveyor of Reading, says, “My experience of -such works is that town authorities can obtain both labour and materials cheaper -than contractors, and with efficient supervision the work costs less money.” (<i>Vide</i> -‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and -Surveyors,’ vol. iv. p. 89.)</p> - -</div><!--footnote--> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page386">[386]</span></p> - -<h2>INDEX.</h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/chapline.png" alt="line" width="68" height="10" /> -</div> - -<ul class="index"> - -<li class="first">Abattoirs, <a href="#Page328">328</a></li> -<li>Abrasion of stone, <a href="#Page48">48</a></li> -<li>Accidents to horses, <a href="#Page31">31</a></li> -<li>Accommodation in Cattle Market, <a href="#Page345">345</a></li> -<li>Acland, Dr., on the surveyor, <a href="#Page4">4</a></li> -<li>Acquisition of sewers, <a href="#Page252">252</a></li> -<li>Acreage of sewage farms, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li> -<li>Action of earth on sewage, <a href="#Page266">266</a></li> -<li>Additions to old buildings, <a href="#Page210">210</a></li> -<li>Advantage of plants for sewage, <a href="#Page270">270</a></li> -<li>Advantages of asphalte, <a href="#Page99">99</a></li> -<li>—— public abattoirs, <a href="#Page343">343</a></li> -<li>—— separate system, <a href="#Page261">261</a></li> -<li>—— steam rolling, <a href="#Page70">70</a></li> -<li>—— wood paving, <a href="#Page89">89</a></li> -<li>Alleys and courts if cleansed, <a href="#Page238">238</a></li> -<li>Allotting numbers, <a href="#Page154">154</a></li> -<li>Alteration of old building to new, <a href="#Page209">209</a></li> -<li>American footpath, <a href="#Page114">114</a></li> -<li>—— paving, <a href="#Page77">77</a></li> -<li>—— road rolling, <a href="#Page65">65</a></li> -<li>Analysis of asphalte, <a href="#Page97">97</a></li> -<li>Angell Lewis on the surveyor, <a href="#Page6">6</a></li> -<li>Angles of roads, <a href="#Page30">30</a></li> -<li>Annihilation of sewer gases, <a href="#Page277">277</a></li> -<li>Application to borrow, <a href="#Page376">376</a></li> -<li>Appointment of surveyor, <a href="#Page1">1</a>, <a href="#Page3">3</a>, <a href="#Page10">10</a>, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li> -<li>Arc lights, <a href="#Page144">144</a></li> -<li>Area of cemeteries, <a href="#Page354">354</a>, <a href="#Page363">363</a></li> -<li>—— sewers, <a href="#Page253">253</a>, <a href="#Page254">254</a></li> -<li>Artificial asphalte, <a href="#Page117">117</a></li> -<li>—— stone pavements, <a href="#Page116">116</a></li> -<li>Artizans’ dwellings, <a href="#Page284">284</a>, <a href="#Page291">291</a></li> -<li>Ashpits, <a href="#Page226">226</a></li> -<li>Asphalte, Mac Adam, <a href="#Page46">46</a></li> -<li>—— mastic, <a href="#Page107">107</a></li> -<li>—— roadways, <a href="#Page96">96</a></li> -<li>Asphaltic wood pavement, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li> -<li>Automatic flushing, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li> -<li>Aveling and Porter’s roller, <a href="#Page68">68</a></li> -<li>Awnings over paths, <a href="#Page184">184</a></li> - -<li class="first">Bargains. See <a href="#IndRef1">Contracts</a></li> -<li>Bars opening outwards, <a href="#Page178">178</a></li> -<li>Bayley’s hydrostatic van, <a href="#Page245">245</a></li> -<li>Best stones for pitchers, <a href="#Page75">75</a></li> -<li>Bitumen, <a href="#Page96">96</a></li> -<li>Bituminous concrete, <a href="#Page78">78</a></li> -<li>—— mixture, <a href="#Page79">79</a></li> -<li>—— roadways, <a href="#Page46">46</a></li> -<li>Binding for roads, <a href="#Page62">62</a></li> -<li>Blinds over paths, <a href="#Page184">184</a></li> -<li>Blood-house, <a href="#Page341">341</a></li> -<li>Books on drainage, <a href="#Page315">315</a></li> -<li>—— useful, <a href="#Page384">384</a></li> -<li>Borrowing, <a href="#Page375">375</a></li> -<li>Borders for paths, <a href="#Page320">320</a></li> -<li>Bottles and brickbats, <a href="#Page225">225</a></li> -<li>Bottoming roadways, <a href="#Page37">37</a></li> -<li>Breakages in pipe sewers, <a href="#Page258">258</a></li> -<li>Breaking stone, <a href="#Page48">48</a>, <a href="#Page51">51</a></li> -<li>Breaking-up streets, <a href="#Page157">157</a></li> -<li>Brick footpaths, <a href="#Page116">116</a></li> -<li>Bridges over streets, <a href="#Page33">33</a></li> -<li>Broad irrigation, <a href="#Page265">265</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page387">[387]</span></li> -<li>Brown’s street watering, <a href="#Page243">243</a></li> -<li>Buildings, dangerous, <a href="#Page188">188</a></li> -<li>—— projections of, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li> -<li>—— new, <a href="#Page206">206</a></li> -<li>—— setting back, <a href="#Page175">175</a></li> -<li>Buddle hole, <a href="#Page128">128</a></li> -<li>Bullock lairs, <a href="#Page346">346</a></li> -<li>—— rollers, <a href="#Page60">60</a></li> -<li>Burial fees, <a href="#Page356">356</a></li> -<li>—— in clay, <a href="#Page354">354</a></li> -<li>Burners, gas, <a href="#Page140">140</a></li> -<li>Burning refuse, <a href="#Page233">233</a></li> -<li>Butchers, <a href="#Page329">329</a>, <a href="#Page334">334</a></li> -<li>Byelaws for new streets, &c., <a href="#Page206">206</a></li> - -<li class="first">Cage for trees, <a href="#Page325">325</a></li> -<li>Caithness flagging, <a href="#Page112">112</a></li> -<li>Caldrons, <a href="#Page107">107</a></li> -<li>Candle power, <a href="#Page136">136</a></li> -<li>Canvassing, <a href="#Page19">19</a></li> -<li>Capacities of surveyor, <a href="#Page5">5</a></li> -<li>Carcel power, <a href="#Page136">136</a></li> -<li>Carey’s wood pavement, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li> -<li>Cart for scavenging, <a href="#Page230">230</a></li> -<li>Cast-iron name plates, <a href="#Page151">151</a></li> -<li>Cattle lairs, <a href="#Page333">333</a></li> -<li>Cattle Market, <a href="#Page345">345</a></li> -<li>Causes of breakages in pipes, <a href="#Page258">258</a></li> -<li>Cellar coverings, <a href="#Page180">180</a></li> -<li>—— door projecting, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li> -<li>—— dwellings, <a href="#Page295">295</a></li> -<li>Cemeteries, <a href="#Page350">350</a></li> -<li>Channelling, <a href="#Page123">123</a></li> -<li>Chapel mortuary, <a href="#Page369">369</a></li> -<li>Chapels in cemeteries, <a href="#Page351">351</a></li> -<li>Charcoal sewer ventilators, <a href="#Page275">275</a></li> -<li>Chemical treatment of sewage, <a href="#Page268">268</a></li> -<li>Chesterfield lighting, <a href="#Page129">129</a></li> -<li>Chicago roads, <a href="#Page38">38</a></li> -<li>Chimney shafts, <a href="#Page190">190</a></li> -<li>—— —— ventilators, <a href="#Page275">275</a></li> -<li>Chloride of calcium for watering, <a href="#Page247">247</a></li> -<li>Choice of street names, <a href="#Page152">152</a></li> -<li>Chokages in pipe sewers, <a href="#Page260">260</a></li> -<li>Cisterns, objectionable, <a href="#Page302">302</a></li> -<li>Clarke’s apparatus, <a href="#Page240">240</a></li> -<li>Clay slate, <a href="#Page49">49</a></li> -<li>Cleansing of streets, <a href="#Page234">234</a></li> -<li>—— private courts, &c., <a href="#Page238">238</a></li> -<li>Climate and trees, <a href="#Page321">321</a></li> -<li>Clinkers, <a href="#Page225">225</a></li> -<li>Closing polluted well, <a href="#Page301">301</a></li> -<li>—— slaughter-houses, <a href="#Page330">330</a></li> -<li>Coal plates, <a href="#Page182">182</a></li> -<li>Coefficients of road metal, <a href="#Page51">51</a></li> -<li>Collection of house refuse, <a href="#Page228">228</a></li> -<li>Combined system of sewerage, <a href="#Page261">261</a></li> -<li>Committees, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li> -<li>Common line of frontage, <a href="#Page177">177</a></li> -<li>Compensation for setting back, <a href="#Page175">175</a></li> -<li>Composition of sewer gas, <a href="#Page278">278</a></li> -<li>Compressed asphalte, <a href="#Page96">96</a></li> -<li>Concrete, <a href="#Page78">78</a></li> -<li>—— footpaths, <a href="#Page113">113</a></li> -<li>—— pipes, <a href="#Page254">254</a></li> -<li>Condemned meat, <a href="#Page339">339</a></li> -<li>Connection with main sewers, <a href="#Page305">305</a></li> -<li>Construction of asphalte roads, <a href="#Page98">98</a></li> -<li>Contour of roadways, <a href="#Page43">43</a></li> -<li>Contract with Gas Company, <a href="#Page132">132</a></li> -<li id="IndRef1">Contracts, <a href="#Page381">381</a></li> -<li>—— for scavenging, <a href="#Page249">249</a></li> -<li>—— surveyor must not be interested in, <a href="#Page3">3</a>, <a href="#Page382">382</a></li> -<li>Conversion into new building, <a href="#Page210">210</a></li> -<li>Cost of asphalte, <a href="#Page101">101</a></li> -<li>—— chemical treatment, <a href="#Page264">264</a></li> -<li>—— electric light, <a href="#Page145">145</a></li> -<li>—— kerbing, <a href="#Page125">125</a></li> -<li>—— maintenance of macadamised roads, <a href="#Page34">34</a>, <a href="#Page41">41</a></li> -<li>—— melting snow, <a href="#Page241">241</a></li> -<li>—— pipes, <a href="#Page254">254</a></li> -<li>—— scavenging, <a href="#Page248">248</a></li> -<li>—— tree planting, <a href="#Page326">326</a></li> -<li>—— watering, <a href="#Page244">244</a></li> -<li>—— wood pavement, <a href="#Page91">91</a></li> -<li>—— working steam rollers, <a href="#Page61">61</a>, <a href="#Page63">63</a></li> -<li>Core hard, <a href="#Page39">39</a></li> -<li>Coroner’s court, <a href="#Page370">370</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page388">[388]</span></li> -<li>Cremation, <a href="#Page361">361</a></li> -<li>Crops for sewage farm, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li> -<li>Croskey’s wood pavement, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li> - -<li class="first">Damage to roads, <a href="#Page161">161</a></li> -<li>—— trees, <a href="#Page327">327</a></li> -<li>Dangerous buildings, <a href="#Page188">188</a></li> -<li>—— crossings, <a href="#Page33">33</a></li> -<li>Deacon on streets, <a href="#Page76">76</a></li> -<li>Dead-house, <a href="#Page367">367</a>, <a href="#Page369">369</a></li> -<li>Declaration of public streets, <a href="#Page204">204</a></li> -<li>Defacing numbers or names, <a href="#Page149">149</a></li> -<li>Defects in dwellings, <a href="#Page295">295</a></li> -<li>Defective cellar covers, <a href="#Page181">181</a></li> -<li>—— drains, <a href="#Page310">310</a></li> -<li>Definition of new building, <a href="#Page208">208</a></li> -<li>—— sewer, <a href="#Page252">252</a></li> -<li>—— street, <a href="#Page149">149</a>, <a href="#Page205">205</a></li> -<li>Demolition of premises, <a href="#Page285">285</a></li> -<li>Deposit of plans of streets, <a href="#Page210">210</a></li> -<li>Depth of sewers, <a href="#Page253">253</a></li> -<li>Diameter of drains, <a href="#Page315">315</a></li> -<li>Diary of water-cart, <a href="#Page247">247</a></li> -<li>Dimensions of lairs and pens, <a href="#Page347">347</a></li> -<li>Disadvantages of steam rolling, <a href="#Page72">72</a></li> -<li>Diseased meat, <a href="#Page339">339</a></li> -<li>Disinfection, <a href="#Page371">371</a></li> -<li>Disposal of refuse, <a href="#Page232">232</a></li> -<li>—— road scrapings, <a href="#Page237">237</a></li> -<li>—— sewage, <a href="#Page263">263</a></li> -<li>Distance of lamps, <a href="#Page135">135</a></li> -<li>—— trees, <a href="#Page324">324</a></li> -<li>Division of cemeteries, <a href="#Page355">355</a></li> -<li>—— England, <a href="#Page2">2</a></li> -<li>Doors opening outwards, <a href="#Page178">178</a></li> -<li>Down pipes, <a href="#Page183">183</a></li> -<li>Drainage, <a href="#Page303">303</a></li> -<li>—— definition of, <a href="#Page303">303</a></li> -<li>—— of cemeteries, <a href="#Page351">351</a></li> -<li>—— slaughter-house, <a href="#Page335">335</a></li> -<li>Drain-cleaning rods, <a href="#Page260">260</a></li> -<li>Drains under houses, <a href="#Page316">316</a></li> -<li>Draught on roads, <a href="#Page29">29</a></li> -<li>Dry systems, <a href="#Page263">263</a></li> -<li>Drying sludge, <a href="#Page269">269</a></li> -<li>Dust-bins, <a href="#Page226">226</a></li> -<li>Dusty streets, <a href="#Page234">234</a></li> -<li>Duties of surveyor, <a href="#Page5">5</a>, <a href="#Page7">7</a>, <a href="#Page11">11</a>, <a href="#Page20">20</a></li> -<li>Dwellings and cemeteries, <a href="#Page350">350</a></li> -<li>Dynamos, <a href="#Page141">141</a></li> - -<li class="first">Earth as a sewage filter, <a href="#Page266">266</a></li> -<li>Easements, <a href="#Page182">182</a></li> -<li>Eaves shuting, <a href="#Page183">183</a></li> -<li>Effect of traffic, <a href="#Page27">27</a></li> -<li>Elasticity of asphalte, <a href="#Page104">104</a></li> -<li>Electric lighting, <a href="#Page129">129</a>, <a href="#Page140">140</a></li> -<li>Enamelled name plates, <a href="#Page152">152</a></li> -<li>Entrance to cattle market, <a href="#Page346">346</a></li> -<li>Erection of hoardings or scaffolds, <a href="#Page187">187</a></li> -<li>Escape from fire, <a href="#Page218">218</a></li> -<li>Euston pavement, <a href="#Page77">77</a></li> -<li>Evasion of Building Acts, <a href="#Page209">209</a></li> -<li>Examination of surveyor, <a href="#Page14">14</a></li> - -<li class="first">Fees for burials, <a href="#Page356">356</a></li> -<li>Fences, <a href="#Page320">320</a></li> -<li>Filling-in over pipes, <a href="#Page317">317</a></li> -<li>Filters for sewage, <a href="#Page267">267</a></li> -<li>Filtration of sewage, <a href="#Page266">266</a></li> -<li>Fire protection, <a href="#Page218">218</a></li> -<li>Fitness of stone, <a href="#Page48">48</a></li> -<li>Flagging, York, <a href="#Page110">110</a></li> -<li>—— Caithness, <a href="#Page112">112</a></li> -<li>—— blue lias, <a href="#Page113">113</a></li> -<li>Flag poles, <a href="#Page177">177</a></li> -<li>Flints, <a href="#Page50">50</a></li> -<li>Float observations, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li> -<li>Flushing courts and alleys, <a href="#Page238">238</a></li> -<li>Footpaths, <a href="#Page106">106</a></li> -<li>—— and snow, <a href="#Page241">241</a></li> -<li>Force required on roads, <a href="#Page30">30</a></li> -<li>Forms of Notice. See Notice</li> -<li>Foundation of macadamised roads, <a href="#Page39">39</a></li> -<li>French burial, <a href="#Page356">356</a></li> -<li>Frontage of streets, <a href="#Page174">174</a></li> -<li>Fryer’s destructor, <a href="#Page233">233</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page389">[389]</span></li> -<li>Fuel for rollers, <a href="#Page61">61</a></li> -<li>Furnaces as sewer ventilators, <a href="#Page276">276</a></li> -<li>Furniture of mortuary, <a href="#Page369">369</a></li> - -<li class="first">Gales and trees, <a href="#Page321">321</a></li> -<li>Galton on borrowing, <a href="#Page379">379</a></li> -<li>Garden refuse, <a href="#Page225">225</a></li> -<li>Gas-burners, <a href="#Page140">140</a></li> -<li>—— lighting, <a href="#Page130">130</a></li> -<li>Gates opening outwards, <a href="#Page178">178</a></li> -<li>Gauge of stone, <a href="#Page52">52</a></li> -<li>General markets, <a href="#Page348">348</a></li> -<li>German dead-house, <a href="#Page368">368</a></li> -<li>Germ theory, <a href="#Page271">271</a></li> -<li>Glass name tablets, <a href="#Page152">152</a></li> -<li>Gneiss, <a href="#Page49">49</a></li> -<li>Good house drainage, <a href="#Page315">315</a></li> -<li>Goux system, <a href="#Page233">233</a></li> -<li>Gradients of house-drains, <a href="#Page316">316</a></li> -<li>—— roads, <a href="#Page30">30</a></li> -<li>—— sewers, <a href="#Page253">253</a></li> -<li>—— for rollers, <a href="#Page62">62</a></li> -<li>Granite, <a href="#Page49">49</a></li> -<li>—— foot-pavement, <a href="#Page117">117</a></li> -<li>—— kerb, <a href="#Page124">124</a></li> -<li>Grass, <a href="#Page320">320</a></li> -<li>Grating for trees, <a href="#Page324">324</a></li> -<li>Gravel footpaths, <a href="#Page121">121</a></li> -<li>—— <a href="#Page50">50</a></li> -<li>Grave spaces, <a href="#Page360">360</a></li> -<li>—— yards, <a href="#Page350">350</a></li> -<li>Green and Son’s roller, <a href="#Page69">69</a></li> -<li>Grill for trees, <a href="#Page325">325</a></li> -<li>Gritted asphalte, <a href="#Page108">108</a></li> -<li>Ground floor, <a href="#Page208">208</a></li> -<li>Grouting, <a href="#Page79">79</a></li> -<li>Gulley gratings, <a href="#Page126">126</a></li> - -<li class="first">Hammer-broken stone, <a href="#Page52">52</a></li> -<li>Hand or hose watering, <a href="#Page244">244</a></li> -<li>Hard core, <a href="#Page39">39</a></li> -<li>Harrison’s wood pavement, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li> -<li>Hayward on snow, <a href="#Page239">239</a></li> -<li>Hayward’s pavement lights, <a href="#Page181">181</a></li> -<li>Heads of scavenging, <a href="#Page224">224</a></li> -<li>Healey’s boilers, <a href="#Page80">80</a></li> -<li>Health of district, <a href="#Page288">288</a></li> -<li>Henson’s wood pavement, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li> -<li>Hide store, <a href="#Page341">341</a></li> -<li>Highways, surveyor of, <a href="#Page20">20</a></li> -<li>Hoardings, <a href="#Page187">187</a></li> -<li>Hoisting machinery, <a href="#Page337">337</a></li> -<li>Horse-shoes, <a href="#Page27">27</a></li> -<li>House, definition of, <a href="#Page311">311</a></li> -<li>—— drainage, <a href="#Page303">303</a></li> -<li>—— refuse collection, <a href="#Page228">228</a></li> -<li>—— —— disposal, <a href="#Page232">232</a></li> -<li>—— —— destruction, <a href="#Page233">233</a></li> -<li>—— —— removed, <a href="#Page223">223</a></li> -<li>Houses unfit for habitation, <a href="#Page284">284</a></li> -<li>Hydrostatic van, <a href="#Page245">245</a></li> - -<li class="first">Illuminating power, <a href="#Page135">135</a></li> -<li>Imperishable stone-paving blocks, <a href="#Page104">104</a></li> -<li>Importation of trees, <a href="#Page322">322</a></li> -<li>Improper water supply, <a href="#Page300">300</a></li> -<li>Improved wood pavement, <a href="#Page81">81</a></li> -<li>Improvement of courts and alleys, <a href="#Page287">287</a></li> -<li>—— streets, <a href="#Page174">174</a></li> -<li>—— private streets, <a href="#Page193">193</a></li> -<li>Incandescent lamps, <a href="#Page144">144</a></li> -<li>Inclination of roads, <a href="#Page30">30</a></li> -<li>Individuals breaking-up streets, <a href="#Page169">169</a></li> -<li>Industrial dwellings, <a href="#Page290">290</a></li> -<li>Inertia of load, <a href="#Page32">32</a></li> -<li>Ingredients used for precipitation, <a href="#Page269">269</a></li> -<li>Inlets for fresh air into sewers, <a href="#Page273">273</a></li> -<li>Inspection of drains, <a href="#Page305">305</a>, <a href="#Page314">314</a></li> -<li>—— buildings, <a href="#Page217">217</a>, <a href="#Page219">219</a></li> -<li>Insufficient w.c. accommodation, <a href="#Page297">297</a></li> -<li>Interception or dry systems, <a href="#Page263">263</a></li> -<li>Intermittent filtration, <a href="#Page266">266</a></li> -<li>Intersection of sewers, <a href="#Page254">254</a></li> -<li>Iron name plates, <a href="#Page151">151</a></li> -<li>Irrigation, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li> - -<li class="first">Joints of pipe drains, <a href="#Page316">316</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page390">[390]</span></li> -<li>Junction of drains, <a href="#Page307">307</a></li> -<li>—— sewers, <a href="#Page254">254</a></li> - -<li class="first">Keeping sewers clean, <a href="#Page251">251</a></li> -<li>Kerbing and channelling, <a href="#Page123">123</a></li> -<li>Killing rings, <a href="#Page336">336</a></li> - -<li class="first">Labourers’ dwellings, <a href="#Page284">284</a>, <a href="#Page291">291</a></li> -<li>Lairs for cattle, <a href="#Page333">333</a>, <a href="#Page346">346</a></li> -<li>Lamp-posts, <a href="#Page134">134</a></li> -<li>—— —— as sewer ventilators, <a href="#Page274">274</a></li> -<li>Land necessary for cemetery, <a href="#Page354">354</a></li> -<li>Latrines, <a href="#Page282">282</a></li> -<li>Laying out a cemetery, <a href="#Page354">354</a></li> -<li>Leaky drains, <a href="#Page309">309</a></li> -<li>Leaves as refuse, <a href="#Page225">225</a></li> -<li>Letters for names, <a href="#Page152">152</a></li> -<li>Lias flagging, <a href="#Page113">113</a></li> -<li>Licence to break-up street, <a href="#Page172">172</a></li> -<li>Lieurner system, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li> -<li>Life of brooms, <a href="#Page235">235</a></li> -<li>—— carts, <a href="#Page231">231</a></li> -<li>—— paving stones, <a href="#Page76">76</a></li> -<li>—— wood, <a href="#Page88">88</a></li> -<li>Lighting of slaughter-house, <a href="#Page336">336</a></li> -<li>—— streets, <a href="#Page129">129</a></li> -<li>Ligno mineral pavement, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li> -<li>Limestone, <a href="#Page49">49</a></li> -<li>Lime-tree, <a href="#Page322">322</a></li> -<li>Line of frontage, <a href="#Page177">177</a></li> -<li>Lining of slaughter-house, <a href="#Page335">335</a></li> -<li>List of borrowing powers, <a href="#Page376">376</a></li> -<li>—— chemical processes for sewage, <a href="#Page268">268</a></li> -<li>—— duties of surveyor, <a href="#Page5">5</a>, <a href="#Page21">21</a></li> -<li>—— persons called surveyors, <a href="#Page4">4</a></li> -<li>—— road metal, <a href="#Page49">49</a></li> -<li>—— shrubs, <a href="#Page320">320</a></li> -<li>—— trees, <a href="#Page322">322</a></li> -<li>—— useful books, <a href="#Page384">384</a></li> -<li>Liverpool scavenging, <a href="#Page235">235</a></li> -<li>Lloyd’s wood pavement, <a href="#Page82">82</a></li> -<li>Locomobiles, <a href="#Page107">107</a></li> -<li>Loose stones on road, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li> - -<li class="first">Macadamised roadways, <a href="#Page34">34</a></li> -<li>Machinery for electricity, <a href="#Page141">141</a></li> -<li>—— in slaughter-house, <a href="#Page337">337</a></li> -<li>Machines for sweeping, <a href="#Page234">234</a></li> -<li>—— stone-breaking, <a href="#Page53">53</a></li> -<li>Management of cemetery, <a href="#Page358">358</a></li> -<li>Manchester abattoir, <a href="#Page333">333</a></li> -<li>—— pavement, <a href="#Page78">78</a></li> -<li>Manholes for sewers, <a href="#Page253">253</a></li> -<li>Manufacturers’ refuse, <a href="#Page253">253</a></li> -<li>Markets, <a href="#Page344">344</a></li> -<li>Mastic asphalte, <a href="#Page107">107</a></li> -<li>Materials of sewage filters, <a href="#Page267">267</a></li> -<li>Mechanical subsidence of sewage, <a href="#Page267">267</a></li> -<li>Meetings of committees, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li> -<li>Melting snow, <a href="#Page240">240</a></li> -<li>Merit, test of, <a href="#Page14">14</a></li> -<li>Metal road, <a href="#Page48">48</a></li> -<li>Meters for public lamps, <a href="#Page133">133</a></li> -<li>Method of appointment, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li> -<li>Methods of disposal of sewage, <a href="#Page264">264</a></li> -<li>—— lighting, <a href="#Page131">131</a></li> -<li>—— numbering, <a href="#Page153">153</a></li> -<li>—— sewerage, <a href="#Page261">261</a></li> -<li>—— sewer ventilation, <a href="#Page276">276</a></li> -<li>Minton’s name plates, <a href="#Page151">151</a></li> -<li>Model bye-laws, <a href="#Page207">207</a></li> -<li>—— lodging-houses, <a href="#Page291">291</a></li> -<li>Metropolitan slaughter-house, <a href="#Page339">339</a></li> -<li>Money, receipt of, <a href="#Page3">3</a></li> -<li>Mortuaries, <a href="#Page365">365</a></li> -<li>Mount Sorrel, <a href="#Page75">75</a></li> -<li>Mowlem’s wood pavement, <a href="#Page83">83</a></li> -<li>Muddy streets, <a href="#Page234">234</a></li> - -<li class="first">Names of committees, <a href="#Page23">23</a></li> -<li>Naming and numbering streets, <a href="#Page149">149</a></li> -<li>Necessity for kerb, <a href="#Page123">123</a></li> -<li>—— slaughter-house, <a href="#Page328">328</a></li> -<li>Newcastle lighting, <a href="#Page147">147</a></li> -<li>New streets and buildings, <a href="#Page206">206</a></li> -<li>Nicholson’s wood pavement, <a href="#Page84">84</a></li> -<li>Norwich wood pavement, <a href="#Page84">84</a></li> -<li>Notices to repair private streets, <a href="#Page198">198</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page391">[391]</span></li> -<li>—— of assessment of cost of ditto, <a href="#Page201">201</a></li> -<li>—— of defective drainage, <a href="#Page313">313</a></li> -<li>—— for breaking-up streets, <a href="#Page158">158</a></li> -<li>—— cellar coverings, <a href="#Page181">181</a></li> -<li>—— for dangerous building, <a href="#Page190">190</a></li> -<li>—— defective shuting, <a href="#Page183">183</a></li> -<li>—— doors and gates opening outwards, <a href="#Page179">179</a></li> -<li>—— insufficient w.c. accommodation, <a href="#Page298">298</a></li> -<li>—— numbering, <a href="#Page155">155</a></li> -<li>—— overhanging trees, <a href="#Page185">185</a></li> -<li>—— permission to break-up streets, <a href="#Page172">172</a></li> -<li>—— to construct sewers on private lands, <a href="#Page256">256</a></li> -<li>—— to erect buildings, <a href="#Page214">214</a></li> -<li>—— to open slaughter-house, <a href="#Page321">321</a></li> -<li>—— signature of, <a href="#Page313">313</a></li> -<li>Number of graves in cemetery, <a href="#Page354">354</a></li> - -<li class="first">Objections to asphalte, <a href="#Page100">100</a></li> -<li>—— macadamised roadways, <a href="#Page44">44</a></li> -<li>—— steam rolling, <a href="#Page72">72</a></li> -<li>—— York flagging, <a href="#Page110">110</a></li> -<li>Observations of tides, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li> -<li>Obstruction in streets, <a href="#Page174">174</a></li> -<li>Obstructive buildings, <a href="#Page286">286</a></li> -<li>Old tins, <a href="#Page225">225</a></li> -<li>Opening graves, <a href="#Page356">356</a>, <a href="#Page361">361</a></li> -<li>Open space at back of buildings, <a href="#Page218">218</a></li> -<li>—— ventilating shafts, <a href="#Page272">272</a></li> -<li>Ornamental shrubs, <a href="#Page320">320</a></li> -<li>Outfalls of sewers, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li> -<li>Overhanging trees, <a href="#Page185">185</a></li> - -<li class="first">Paget on steam rolling, <a href="#Page71">71</a></li> -<li>Pail system, <a href="#Page234">234</a></li> -<li>Pails, <a href="#Page263">263</a></li> -<li>Painted names, <a href="#Page151">151</a></li> -<li>Painting urinals, <a href="#Page282">282</a></li> -<li>Pamphlet on steam rolling, <a href="#Page65">65</a></li> -<li>Papers, examination, <a href="#Page16">16</a></li> -<li>Paris lighting, <a href="#Page135">135</a></li> -<li>—— roadways, cost of, <a href="#Page41">41</a></li> -<li>—— tree planting, <a href="#Page326">326</a></li> -<li>Parks, <a href="#Page318">318</a></li> -<li>Parry on contracts, <a href="#Page383">383</a></li> -<li>—— watering, <a href="#Page244">244</a></li> -<li>Party walls through roofs, <a href="#Page218">218</a></li> -<li>Paths in cemeteries, <a href="#Page355">355</a></li> -<li>Partially separate system, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li> -<li>Paving of Cattle Market, <a href="#Page346">346</a></li> -<li>—— lairs, <a href="#Page333">333</a>, <a href="#Page346">346</a></li> -<li>Pebbles, <a href="#Page50">50</a></li> -<li>Pedestrian traffic, <a href="#Page33">33</a></li> -<li>Pens for sheep, <a href="#Page333">333</a>, <a href="#Page346">346</a></li> -<li>Permission to break-up streets, <a href="#Page172">172</a></li> -<li>—— construct cellar, <a href="#Page182">182</a></li> -<li>Persons called surveyor, <a href="#Page4">4</a></li> -<li>Pig killing, <a href="#Page340">340</a></li> -<li>Pinned roadways, <a href="#Page36">36</a>, <a href="#Page39">39</a></li> -<li>Pipe drains, <a href="#Page315">315</a></li> -<li>—— sewers, thickness, &c., <a href="#Page258">258</a></li> -<li>—— —— diagrams, <a href="#Page259">259</a></li> -<li>Pitch boilers, <a href="#Page80">80</a></li> -<li>Pitched pavements, <a href="#Page73">73</a></li> -<li>Plan for breaking-up streets, <a href="#Page160">160</a></li> -<li>Plans of new streets or buildings, <a href="#Page210">210</a></li> -<li>—— of house drains, <a href="#Page317">317</a></li> -<li>—— for borrowing, <a href="#Page377">377</a></li> -<li>—— slaughter-house, <a href="#Page338">338</a></li> -<li>Plane tree, <a href="#Page322">322</a></li> -<li>Plants for sewage, <a href="#Page270">270</a></li> -<li>Plaster not house refuse, <a href="#Page225">225</a></li> -<li>Plates, name, <a href="#Page151">151</a></li> -<li>Playgrounds, <a href="#Page318">318</a></li> -<li>Pleasure grounds, <a href="#Page318">318</a>, <a href="#Page350">350</a></li> -<li>Paving of slaughter-house, <a href="#Page334">334</a></li> -<li>Pole-axe, <a href="#Page336">336</a></li> -<li>Polluted water supply, <a href="#Page291">291</a></li> -<li>Porch, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li> -<li>Portable dust-bins, <a href="#Page227">227</a></li> -<li>Position of sewer, <a href="#Page254">254</a></li> -<li>Post-mortem room, <a href="#Page370">370</a></li> -<li>Powers to close slaughter-houses, <a href="#Page330">330</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page392">[392]</span></li> -<li>Power to borrow, <a href="#Page375">375</a></li> -<li>—— make contracts, <a href="#Page381">381</a></li> -<li>Precipitation of sewage, <a href="#Page268">268</a></li> -<li>Preservation of wood, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li> -<li>Private lands and sewer, <a href="#Page255">255</a></li> -<li>—— roads improvements, <a href="#Page204">204</a></li> -<li>—— slaughter-houses, <a href="#Page329">329</a></li> -<li>—— street improvements, <a href="#Page193">193</a></li> -<li>Privies, <a href="#Page263">263</a></li> -<li>Processes of chemical treatment, <a href="#Page268">268</a></li> -<li>Projections, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li> -<li>Proportions for asphalte, <a href="#Page109">109</a></li> -<li>Prosser’s wood pavement, <a href="#Page85">85</a></li> -<li>Protection of surveyor, <a href="#Page6">6</a>, <a href="#Page8">8</a></li> -<li>Pruning trees, <a href="#Page321">321</a></li> -<li>Public abattoirs, <a href="#Page328">328</a></li> -<li>—— conveniences, <a href="#Page280">280</a></li> -<li>—— dust-bins, <a href="#Page228">228</a></li> -<li>—— lighting, <a href="#Page131">131</a></li> -<li>—— mortuaries, <a href="#Page365">365</a></li> -<li>—— works, <a href="#Page376">376</a></li> -<li>Punctuality, <a href="#Page24">24</a></li> - -<li class="first">Qualities of road metal, <a href="#Page49">49</a>, <a href="#Page51">51</a></li> -<li>Quantity of land for sewage farm, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li> - -<li class="first">Rain-water pipes as ventilators, <a href="#Page274">274</a></li> -<li>—— —— shutes, <a href="#Page183">183</a></li> -<li>Rate collecting by surveyor, <a href="#Page3">3</a></li> -<li>Rawlinson on borrowing, <a href="#Page377">377</a></li> -<li>Receipt of money, <a href="#Page3">3</a></li> -<li>Refuse, disposal of, <a href="#Page232">232</a></li> -<li>—— from manufactories, <a href="#Page253">253</a></li> -<li>—— receptacles, <a href="#Page229">229</a></li> -<li>—— trade and garden, <a href="#Page225">225</a></li> -<li>Register of drains, <a href="#Page317">317</a></li> -<li>—— graves, <a href="#Page360">360</a></li> -<li>Regulation of traffic, <a href="#Page33">33</a></li> -<li>Regulations of cemeteries, <a href="#Page358">358</a>, <a href="#Page360">360</a></li> -<li>—— connections with sewers, <a href="#Page305">305</a></li> -<li>Regulations for breaking-up streets, <a href="#Page171">171</a></li> -<li>Reinstating trenches, <a href="#Page162">162</a></li> -<li>Removal of snow, <a href="#Page239">239</a></li> -<li>—— house refuse, <a href="#Page223">223</a></li> -<li>Removing projections, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li> -<li>Requirements of artizans’ dwellings, <a href="#Page291">291</a></li> -<li>—— drains, <a href="#Page317">317</a></li> -<li>—— roadways, <a href="#Page25">25</a></li> -<li>Remuneration of surveyor, <a href="#Page7">7</a></li> -<li>Reports, <a href="#Page24">24</a></li> -<li>—— on duties of surveyor, <a href="#Page10">10</a></li> -<li>Resistance of wheels, <a href="#Page31">31</a></li> -<li>Roads, private, improvement of, <a href="#Page204">204</a></li> -<li>—— in cemeteries, <a href="#Page355">355</a></li> -<li>Roadway, specifications of, <a href="#Page35">35</a>, <a href="#Page36">36</a></li> -<li>Road metal, <a href="#Page48">48</a></li> -<li>—— —— list of, <a href="#Page49">49</a></li> -<li>—— —— specification of, <a href="#Page57">57</a></li> -<li>—— —— weight of, <a href="#Page56">56</a></li> -<li>—— repairs, <a href="#Page66">66</a></li> -<li>—— rolling, <a href="#Page60">60</a></li> -<li>—— Roman, <a href="#Page73">73</a></li> -<li>Ruts in roads, <a href="#Page45">45</a></li> - -<li class="first">Safety in traffic, <a href="#Page31">31</a></li> -<li>Sale rooms, <a href="#Page341">341</a></li> -<li>Sanctuaries, <a href="#Page33">33</a></li> -<li>Sandstone, <a href="#Page50">50</a></li> -<li>Sanitary Institute of Great Britain, <a href="#Page14">14</a></li> -<li>Scaffolds, <a href="#Page187">187</a></li> -<li>Scavenging, <a href="#Page221">221</a></li> -<li>—— cart, <a href="#Page230">230</a></li> -<li>Sea-water for watering, <a href="#Page247">247</a></li> -<li>Section of roadway, <a href="#Page43">43</a></li> -<li>—— footpaths, <a href="#Page121">121</a></li> -<li>Sections of cemetery, <a href="#Page356">356</a></li> -<li>Security to be entered into, <a href="#Page3">3</a></li> -<li>Selection of trees, <a href="#Page321">321</a>, <a href="#Page322">322</a></li> -<li>Separate system, <a href="#Page260">260</a>, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li> -<li>Setting back buildings, <a href="#Page175">175</a></li> -<li>—— kerb, <a href="#Page124">124</a></li> -<li>Sewerage, <a href="#Page251">251</a></li> -<li>Sewerage, system of, <a href="#Page253">253</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page393">[393]</span></li> -<li>Sewer through private lands, <a href="#Page255">255</a></li> -<li>Sewered, <a href="#Page195">195</a></li> -<li>Sewage and plants, <a href="#Page270">270</a></li> -<li>—— crops for, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li> -<li>—— disposal, <a href="#Page263">263</a></li> -<li>—— filtration, <a href="#Page266">266</a>, <a href="#Page267">267</a></li> -<li>—— irrigation, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li> -<li>—— mechanical subsidence, <a href="#Page267">267</a></li> -<li>—— precipitation, <a href="#Page268">268</a></li> -<li>—— screening, <a href="#Page267">267</a></li> -<li>—— value of, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li> -<li>Sewer gas, <a href="#Page277">277</a></li> -<li>—— ventilation, <a href="#Page271">271</a></li> -<li>Shafts for ventilation, <a href="#Page273">273</a></li> -<li>Shed, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li> -<li>Sheep pens, <a href="#Page333">333</a>, <a href="#Page346">346</a></li> -<li>Shiel’s composite pavement, <a href="#Page85">85</a></li> -<li>Shone’s system, <a href="#Page262">262</a></li> -<li>Shop blinds, <a href="#Page184">184</a></li> -<li>Shrubs projecting, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li> -<li>—— <a href="#Page320">320</a></li> -<li>—— in cemeteries, <a href="#Page360">360</a></li> -<li>Shutes, <a href="#Page183">183</a></li> -<li>Shutter projecting, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li> -<li>Sight rails, <a href="#Page257">257</a></li> -<li>Sign projecting, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li> -<li>Site for abattoir, <a href="#Page332">332</a></li> -<li>—— of Cattle Market, <a href="#Page345">345</a></li> -<li>—— for cemetery, <a href="#Page351">351</a></li> -<li>Size of cellar covers, <a href="#Page181">181</a></li> -<li>—— drains, <a href="#Page316">316</a></li> -<li>—— graves, <a href="#Page356">356</a></li> -<li>—— pitchers, <a href="#Page74">74</a></li> -<li>—— rooms, <a href="#Page294">294</a></li> -<li>—— trees, <a href="#Page323">323</a></li> -<li>Slaughter-houses, <a href="#Page328">328</a>, <a href="#Page334">334</a></li> -<li>Slaughtering, <a href="#Page342">342</a></li> -<li>Slippery roads, <a href="#Page32">32</a></li> -<li>Sludge, treatment of, <a href="#Page269">269</a></li> -<li>Snow, removal of, <a href="#Page239">239</a>, <a href="#Page241">241</a></li> -<li>—— on footpaths, <a href="#Page241">241</a></li> -<li>Soil for cemetery, <a href="#Page352">352</a></li> -<li>Soot on trees, <a href="#Page321">321</a></li> -<li>Specific gravity of road metal, <a href="#Page49">49</a></li> -<li>Specifications of roadway, <a href="#Page35">35</a>, <a href="#Page36">36</a></li> -<li>Specification for asphalte, <a href="#Page103">103</a></li> -<li>—— flagging, <a href="#Page110">110</a></li> -<li>—— for breaking-up streets, <a href="#Page161">161</a></li> -<li>—— of wood pavement, <a href="#Page94">94</a></li> -<li>—— road metal, <a href="#Page57">57</a></li> -<li>—— scavenging, <a href="#Page249">249</a></li> -<li>—— tar pavement, <a href="#Page118">118</a></li> -<li>Stalls in markets, <a href="#Page349">349</a></li> -<li>Stanford’s joint, <a href="#Page257">257</a></li> -<li>Step projecting, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li> -<li>Stone breaking, <a href="#Page48">48</a></li> -<li>Store for hides, <a href="#Page341">341</a></li> -<li>Stowe’s wood pavement, <a href="#Page84">84</a></li> -<li>Street, breaking-up, <a href="#Page155">155</a></li> -<li>—— cleansing, <a href="#Page234">234</a></li> -<li>—— definition of, <a href="#Page149">149</a>, <a href="#Page205">205</a></li> -<li>—— lighting, <a href="#Page129">129</a></li> -<li>—— lines, <a href="#Page174">174</a></li> -<li>—— private, improvements, <a href="#Page193">193</a></li> -<li>—— trees, <a href="#Page318">318</a></li> -<li>—— watering, <a href="#Page242">242</a></li> -<li>Streets, new, <a href="#Page206">206</a></li> -<li>Stringent bye-laws, <a href="#Page219">219</a></li> -<li>Subjects requiring attention, <a href="#Page21">21</a></li> -<li>Subways, <a href="#Page168">168</a></li> -<li>Sugg’s regulator, <a href="#Page133">133</a></li> -<li>Supervision of new buildings, <a href="#Page217">217</a></li> -<li>Surface water over paths, <a href="#Page186">186</a></li> -<li>Subsoil water, <a href="#Page261">261</a></li> -<li>Surveyor, office first legalised, <a href="#Page1">1</a></li> -<li>—— appointment of, <a href="#Page1">1</a>, <a href="#Page3">3</a>, <a href="#Page10">10</a>, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li> -<li>—— and private streets, <a href="#Page194">194</a></li> -<li>—— as rate collector, <a href="#Page3">3</a></li> -<li>—— duties of, <a href="#Page5">5</a>, <a href="#Page7">7</a>, <a href="#Page11">11</a>, <a href="#Page20">20</a></li> -<li>—— examination of, <a href="#Page14">14</a></li> -<li>—— entry of, to see if new building, <a href="#Page209">209</a></li> -<li>—— may be also inspector of nuisances, <a href="#Page3">3</a></li> -<li>—— must not be interested in contracts, <a href="#Page3">3</a></li> -<li>—— of highways, <a href="#Page20">20</a></li> -<li>—— protection of, <a href="#Page6">6</a>, <a href="#Page8">8</a></li> -<li>Sweeping machines, <a href="#Page234">234</a></li> -<li>Syenite, <a href="#Page49">49</a>, <a href="#Page75">75</a></li> - -<li class="first">Tables of cost of roadways, <a href="#Page41">41</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page394">[394]</span></li> -<li>Table of scavenging, <a href="#Page236">236</a></li> -<li>—— watering, <a href="#Page246">246</a></li> -<li>Tallow market, <a href="#Page341">341</a></li> -<li>Tar paving, <a href="#Page118">118</a></li> -<li>Telegraphs under or across roads, <a href="#Page164">164</a></li> -<li>Telford, Thomas, <a href="#Page35">35</a></li> -<li>Tell-tale on water-cart, <a href="#Page247">247</a></li> -<li>Temporary obstructions, <a href="#Page192">192</a></li> -<li>Testimonials, <a href="#Page18">18</a></li> -<li>Test for asphalte, <a href="#Page97">97</a></li> -<li>—— brooms, <a href="#Page235">235</a></li> -<li>—— of good drains, <a href="#Page316">316</a></li> -<li>—— merit, <a href="#Page14">14</a></li> -<li>Thames Embankment, lighting, <a href="#Page147">147</a></li> -<li>Tides and outfalls, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li> -<li>Tins as refuse, <a href="#Page225">225</a></li> -<li>Title of surveyor, <a href="#Page4">4</a></li> -<li>Town surveyor. See Surveyor</li> -<li>Traction on roads, <a href="#Page28">28</a></li> -<li>Trade refuse, <a href="#Page225">225</a></li> -<li>Traffic, <a href="#Page25">25</a></li> -<li>Tram track, <a href="#Page80">80</a></li> -<li>Trap for drain, <a href="#Page317">317</a></li> -<li>Trappean rock, <a href="#Page49">49</a></li> -<li>Treatment of sludge, <a href="#Page269">269</a></li> -<li>—— wood, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li> -<li>Trees, <a href="#Page318">318</a></li> -<li>—— in cemeteries, <a href="#Page360">360</a></li> -<li>—— overhanging, <a href="#Page185">185</a></li> -<li>Trenches cut in roads, <a href="#Page161">161</a></li> -<li>Toughness of stone, <a href="#Page48">48</a></li> -<li>Tripery, <a href="#Page341">341</a></li> -<li>Troughs for pig-dressing, <a href="#Page340">340</a></li> - -<li class="first">Unhealthy areas, <a href="#Page288">288</a></li> -<li>Urinals, <a href="#Page280">280</a></li> -<li>Useful books, <a href="#Page384">384</a></li> -<li>Use of steam rollers, <a href="#Page61">61</a></li> - -<li class="first">Vacancy in office of surveyor, <a href="#Page10">10</a></li> -<li>Value of sewage, <a href="#Page265">265</a></li> -<li>Vans for watering, <a href="#Page245">245</a></li> -<li>Vault or cellar coverings, <a href="#Page180">180</a></li> -<li>—— —— under-path, <a href="#Page182">182</a></li> -<li>Velocity in sewers, <a href="#Page254">254</a></li> -<li>Ventilation of house drain, <a href="#Page317">317</a></li> -<li>—— mortuaries, <a href="#Page369">369</a></li> -<li>—— sewers, <a href="#Page271">271</a></li> -<li>Vigilance of drain inspection, <a href="#Page309">309</a></li> -<li>Visit of scavengers, <a href="#Page230">230</a></li> - -<li class="first">Walls of cemeteries, <a href="#Page351">351</a></li> -<li>—— mortuaries, <a href="#Page369">369</a></li> -<li>Wall projecting, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li> -<li>—— slaughter-house, <a href="#Page335">335</a></li> -<li>Water and asphalte, <a href="#Page105">105</a></li> -<li>—— companies and streets, <a href="#Page157">157</a></li> -<li>—— for slaughter-house, <a href="#Page337">337</a></li> -<li>—— over footpaths, <a href="#Page186">186</a></li> -<li>—— supply to dwellings, <a href="#Page300">300</a></li> -<li>W.C. accommodation, <a href="#Page280">280</a>, <a href="#Page297">297</a></li> -<li>—— in factories, <a href="#Page299">299</a></li> -<li>Watering streets, <a href="#Page242">242</a></li> -<li>Wear of paving stones, <a href="#Page76">76</a></li> -<li>Wearing effect of traffic, <a href="#Page27">27</a></li> -<li>Weather on stone, <a href="#Page48">48</a></li> -<li>Wheels, resistance of, <a href="#Page31">31</a></li> -<li>Weighing machines, <a href="#Page348">348</a></li> -<li>Weight of asphalte, <a href="#Page96">96</a></li> -<li>—— road metal, <a href="#Page56">56</a></li> -<li>—— rollers, <a href="#Page67">67</a></li> -<li>—— snow, <a href="#Page239">239</a></li> -<li>Widening streets, <a href="#Page174">174</a></li> -<li>Width of roadways, <a href="#Page32">32</a></li> -<li>Window projecting, <a href="#Page176">176</a></li> -<li>Wires for electricity, <a href="#Page141">141</a></li> -<li>Wooden name plates, <a href="#Page152">152</a></li> -<li>Wood paving, <a href="#Page81">81</a></li> -<li>—— treatment, <a href="#Page86">86</a></li> -<li>—— wear of, <a href="#Page88">88</a></li> - -<li class="first">Yards behind buildings, <a href="#Page218">218</a></li> -<li>York flagging, <a href="#Page110">110</a></li> - -</ul> - -<p class="center fsize70 blankbefore2"><span class="bt">LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,</span><br /> -STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage1">[Cat. 1]</a></span></p> - -<h2 class="catalogue"><span class="fsize125">BOOKS RELATING</span><br /> -<span class="fsize70">TO</span><br /> -<span class="fsize150 gesp2"><b>APPLIED SCIENCE</b></span><br /> -<span class="fsize70">PUBLISHED BY</span><br /> -<span class="fsize150 sstype">E. & F. N. SPON,</span><br /> -LONDON: 16, CHARING CROSS.<br /> -<span class="fsize80">NEW YORK: 44, MURRAY STREET.</span></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/catline.png" alt="line" width="68" height="10" /> -</div> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Pocket-Book for Chemists, Chemical Manufacturers, -Metallurgists, Dyers, Distillers, Brewers, Sugar Refiners, Photographers, -Students, etc., etc.</i> By <span class="smcap">Thomas Bayley</span>, Assoc. R.C. Sc. Ireland, Analytical -and Consulting Chemist and Assayer. Second edition, with -additions, 437 pp., royal 32mo, roan, gilt edges, 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="center fsize80 highline2"><span class="smcap">Synopsis of Contents</span>:</p> - -<p class="synopsis">Atomic Weights and Factors — Useful Data — Chemical Calculations — Rules for Indirect -Analysis — Weights and Measures — Thermometers and Barometers — Chemical Physics — Boiling -Points, etc. — Solubility of Substances — Methods of Obtaining Specific Gravity — Conversion -of Hydrometers — Strength of Solutions by Specific Gravity — Analysis — Gas Analysis — Water -Analysis — Qualitative Analysis and Reactions — Volumetric -Analysis — Manipulation — Mineralogy — Assaying — Alcohol — Beer — Sugar — Miscellaneous -Technological matter relating to Potash, Soda, Sulphuric Acid, Chlorine, Tar Products, Petroleum, Milk, Tallow, -Photography, Prices, Wages, Appendix, etc., etc.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Mechanician</i>: A Treatise on the Construction -and Manipulation of Tools, for the use and instruction of Young Engineers -and Scientific Amateurs, comprising the Arts of Blacksmithing and Forging; -the Construction and Manufacture of Hand Tools, and the various -Methods of Using and Grinding them; the Construction of Machine Tools, -and how to work them; Machine Fitting and Erection; description of -Hand and Machine Processes; Turning and Screw Cutting; principles of -Constructing and details of Making and Erecting Steam Engines, and the -various details of setting out work, etc., etc. By <span class="smcap">Cameron Knight</span>, -Engineer. <i>Containing 1147 illustrations</i>, and 397 pages of letter-press. -Third edition, 4to, cloth, 18<i>s.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage2">[Cat. 2]</a></span></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>On Designing Belt Gearing.</i> By <span class="smcap">E. J. Cowling -Welch</span>, Mem. Inst. Mech. Engineers, Author of ‘Designing Valve -Gearing.’ Fcap. 8vo, sewed, 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Handbook of Formulæ, Tables, and Memoranda, -for Architectural Surveyors and others engaged in Building.</i> By <span class="smcap">J. T. -Hurst</span>, C.E. Thirteenth edition, royal 32mo, roan, 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="synopsis">“It is no disparagement to the many excellent publications we refer to, to say that in our -opinion this little pocket-book of Hurst’s is the very best of them all, without any exception. -It would be useless to attempt a recapitulation of the contents, for it appears to contain almost -<i>everything</i> that anyone connected with building could require, and, best of all, made up in a -compact form for carrying in the pocket, measuring only 5 in. by 3 in., and about ¹⁄₄ in. thick, -in a limp cover. We congratulate the author on the success of his laborious and practically -compiled little book, which has received unqualified and deserved praise from every professional -person to whom we have shown it.”—<i>The Dublin Builder.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Cabinet Maker</i>; being a Collection of the most -approved designs in the Mediæval, Louis-Seize, and Old English styles, -for the use of Cabinet Makers, Carvers, &c. By <span class="smcap">R. Charles</span>. <i>96 plates</i>, -folio, half-bound, 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Quantity Surveying.</i> By <span class="smcap">J. Leaning</span>. With 42 illustrations, -crown 8vo, cloth, 9<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="center fsize80 highline2"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:</p> - -<table class="bookcontents" summary="Contents"> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">A complete Explanation of the London Practice.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">General Instructions.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Order of Taking Off.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Modes of Measurement of the various Trades.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Use and Waste.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Ventilation and Warming.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Credits, with various Examples of Treatment.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Abbreviations.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Squaring the Dimensions.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Abstracting, with Examples in illustration of each Trade.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Billing.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Examples of Preambles to each Trade.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="data w4m">Form for a</td> -<td class="left">Bill of Quantities.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">Do.</td> -<td class="left">Bill of Credits.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="center">Do.</td> -<td class="left">Bill for Alternative Estimate.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Restorations and Repairs, and Form of Bill.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Variations before Acceptance of Tender.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Errors in a Builder’s Estimate.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Schedule of Prices.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Form of Schedule of Prices.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Analysis of Schedule of Prices.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Adjustment of Accounts.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Form of a Bill of Variations.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Remarks on Specifications.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Prices and Valuation of Work, with Examples and Remarks upon each Trade.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">The Law as it affects Quantity Surveyors, with Law Reports.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Taking Off after the Old Method.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Northern Practice.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">The General Statement of the Methods recommended by the -Manchester Society of Architects for taking Quantities.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Examples of Collections.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Examples of “Taking Off” in each Trade.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="data">Remarks on the Past and Present Methods of Estimating.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Practical Treatise on Heat, as applied to the -Useful Arts</i>; for the Use of Engineers, Architects, &c. By <span class="smcap">Thomas -Box</span>. <i>With 14 plates.</i> Third edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Descriptive Treatise on Mathematical Drawing -Instruments</i>: their construction, uses, qualities, selection, preservation, -and suggestions for improvements, with hints upon Drawing and Colouring. -By <span class="smcap">W. F. Stanley</span>, M.R.I. Fifth edition, <i>with numerous illustrations</i>, -crown 8vo, cloth, 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage3">[Cat. 3]</a></span></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Spons’ Architects and Builders’ Pocket-Book of Prices -and Memoranda.</i> Edited by <span class="smcap">W. Young</span>, Architect. Royal 32mo, roan, -4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>; or cloth, red edges, 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> <i>Published annually.</i> Tenth edition. -<i>Now ready.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Long-Span Railway Bridges</i>, comprising Investigations -of the Comparative Theoretical and Practical Advantages of the -various adopted or proposed Type Systems of Construction, with numerous -Formulæ and Tables giving the weight of Iron or Steel required in -Bridges from 300 feet to the limiting Spans; to which are added similar -Investigations and Tables relating to Short-span Railway Bridges. Second -and revised edition. By <span class="smcap">B. Baker</span>, Assoc. Inst. C.E. <i>Plates</i>, crown 8vo, -cloth, 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Elementary Theory and Calculation of Iron Bridges -and Roofs.</i> By <span class="smcap">August Ritter</span>, Ph.D., Professor at the Polytechnic -School at Aix-la-Chapelle. Translated from the third German edition, -by <span class="smcap">H. R. Sankey</span>, Capt. R.E. With 500 <i>illustrations</i>, 8vo, cloth, 15<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Builder’s Clerk</i>: a Guide to the Management -of a Builder’s Business. By <span class="smcap">Thomas Bales</span>. Fcap. 8vo, cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Elementary Principles of Carpentry.</i> By -<span class="smcap">Thomas Tredgold</span>. Revised from the original edition, and partly -re-written, by <span class="smcap">John Thomas Hurst</span>. Contained in 517 pages of letter-press, -and <i>illustrated with 48 plates and 150 wood engravings</i>. Third -edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 18<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="synopsis">Section I. On the Equality and Distribution of Forces — Section II. Resistance of -Timber — Section III. Construction of Floors — Section IV. Construction of Roofs — Section -V. Construction of Domes and Cupolas — Section VI. Construction of Partitions — Section -VII. Scaffolds, Staging, and Gantries — Section VIII. Construction of Centres for -Bridges — Section IX. Coffer-dams, Shoring, and Strutting — Section X. Wooden Bridges -and Viaducts — Section XI. Joints, Straps, and other Fastenings — Section XII. Timber.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Our Factories, Workshops, and Warehouses</i>: their -Sanitary and Fire-Resisting Arrangements. By <span class="smcap">B. H. Thwaite</span>, Assoc. -Mem. Inst. C.E. <i>With 183 wood engravings</i>, crown 8vo, cloth, 9<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Gold</i>: Its Occurrence and Extraction, embracing the -Geographical and Geological Distribution and the Mineralogical Characters -of Gold-bearing rocks; the peculiar features and modes of working -Shallow Placers, Rivers, and Deep Leads; Hydraulicing; the Reduction -and Separation of Auriferous Quartz; the treatment of complex Auriferous -ores containing other metals; a Bibliography of the subject and a Glossary -of Technical and Foreign Terms. By <span class="smcap">Alfred G. Lock</span>, F.R.G.S. <i>With -numerous illustrations and maps</i>, 1250 pp., super-royal 8vo, cloth, -2<i>l.</i> 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage4">[Cat. 4]</a></span></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Progressive Lessons in Applied Science.</i> By <span class="smcap">Edward -Sang</span>, F.R.S.E. Crown 8vo, cloth, each Part, 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="synopsis">Part 1. Geometry on Paper — Part 2. Solidity, Weight, and Pressure — Part 3. Trigonometry, -Vision, and Surveying Instruments.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Practical Treatise on Coal Mining.</i> By <span class="smcap">George -G. André</span>, F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Member of the Society of Engineers. -<i>With 82 lithographic plates.</i> 2 vols., royal 4to, cloth, 3<i>l.</i> 12<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Sugar Growing and Refining</i>: a Comprehensive -Treatise on the Culture of Sugar-yielding Plants, and the Manufacture, -Refining, and Analysis of Cane, Beet, Maple, Milk, Palm, Sorghum, -and Starch Sugars, with copious statistics of their production and commerce, -and a chapter on the distillation of Rum. By <span class="smcap">Charles G. -Warnford Lock</span>, F.L.S., &c., and <span class="smcap">G. W. Wigner</span> and <span class="smcap">R. H. Harland</span>, -FF.C.S., FF.I.C. <i>With 205 illustrations</i>, 8vo, cloth, 30<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Spons’ Information for Colonial Engineers.</i> Edited -by <span class="smcap">J. T. Hurst</span>. Demy 8vo, sewed.</p> - -<p class="bookdata volumes">No. 1, Ceylon. By <span class="smcap">Abraham Deane</span>, C.E. 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:</p> - -<p>Introductory Remarks — Natural Productions — Architecture and Engineering — Topography, -Trade, and Natural History — Principal Stations — Weights and Measures, etc., etc.</p> - -<p class="bookdata volumes">No. 2. Southern Africa, including the Cape Colony, Natal, and the -Dutch Republics. By <span class="smcap">Henry Hall</span>, F.R.G.S., F.R.C.I. With -Map. 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="center fsize80 highline2"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:</p> - -<p class="synopsis">General Description of South Africa — Physical Geography with reference to Engineering -Operations — Notes on Labour and Material in Cape Colony — Geological Notes on Rock -Formation in South Africa — Engineering Instruments for Use in South Africa — Principal -Public Works in Cape Colony: Railways, Mountain Roads and Passes, Harbour Works, -Bridges, Gas Works, Irrigation and Water Supply, Lighthouses, Drainage and Sanitary -Engineering, Public Buildings, Mines — Table of Woods in South Africa — Animals used for -Draught Purposes — Statistical Notes — Table of Distances — Rates of Carriage, etc.</p> - -<p class="bookdata volumes">No. 3. India. By <span class="smcap">F. C. Danvers</span>, Assoc. Inst. -C.E. With Map. 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="center fsize80 highline2"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:</p> - -<p class="synopsis">Physical Geography of India — Building -Materials — Roads — Railways — Bridges — Irrigation — River -Works — Harbours — Lighthouse Buildings — Native Labour — The Principal -Trees of India — Money — Weights and Measures — Glossary of Indian Terms, etc.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Practical Treatise on Casting and Founding</i>, -including descriptions of the modern machinery employed in the art. By -<span class="smcap">N. E. Spretson</span>, Engineer. Third edition, with 82 <i>plates</i> drawn to -scale, 412 pp., demy 8vo, cloth, 18<i>s.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage5">[Cat. 5]</a></span></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Clerk of Works</i>: a Vade-Mecum for all engaged -in the Superintendence of Building Operations. By <span class="smcap">G. G. Hoskins</span>, -F.R.I.B.A. Third edition, fcap. 8vo, cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Tropical Agriculture</i>; or, the Culture, Preparation, -Commerce, and Consumption of the Principal Products of the Vegetable -Kingdom, as furnishing Food, Clothing, Medicine, etc., and in their -relation to the Arts and Manufactures; forming a practical treatise and -Handbook of Reference for the Colonist, Manufacturer, Merchant, and -Consumer, on the Cultivation, Preparation for Shipment, and Commercial -Value, etc., of the various Substances obtained from Trees and Plants -entering into the Husbandry of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Regions. By -<span class="smcap">P. L. Simmonds</span>. Second edition, revised and improved, 515 pages, -8vo, cloth, 1<i>l.</i> 1<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Steel: its History, Manufacture, and Uses.</i> By -<span class="smcap">J. S. Jeans</span>, Secretary of the Iron and Steel Institute. 860 pages and -24 <i>plates</i>, 8vo, cloth, 36<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>American Foundry Practice</i>: Treating of Loam, -Dry Sand, and Green Sand Moulding, and containing a Practical Treatise -upon the Management of Cupolas, and the Melting of Iron. By <span class="smcap">T. D. -West</span>, Practical Iron Moulder and Foundry Foreman. Second edition, -<i>with numerous illustrations</i>, crown 8vo, cloth, 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Maintenance of Macadamised Roads.</i> By <span class="smcap">T. -Codrington</span>, M.I.C.E, F.G.S., General Superintendent of County Roads -for South Wales. 8vo, cloth, 6<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Hydraulic Steam and Hand Power Lifting and -Pressing Machinery.</i> By <span class="smcap">Frederick Colyer</span>, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. M.E. -<i>With 73 plates</i>, 8vo, cloth, 18<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Pumps and Pumping Machinery.</i> By <span class="smcap">F. Colyer</span>, -M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. <i>With 23 folding plates</i>, 8vo, cloth, 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Tables of the Principal Speeds occurring in Mechanical -Engineering</i>, expressed in metres in a second. By <span class="smcap">P. Keerayeff</span>, Chief -Mechanic of the Obouchoff Steel Works, St. Petersburg; translated by -<span class="smcap">Sergius Kern</span>, M.E. Fcap. 8vo, sewed, 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Girder Making and the Practice of Bridge Building -in Wrought Iron</i>, illustrated by Examples of Bridges, Piers, and Girder -Work, etc., constructed at the Skerne Iron Works, Darlington, by -<span class="smcap">Edward Hutchinson</span>, M. Inst. M.E. <i>With 35 plates</i>, demy 8vo, -cloth, 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage6">[Cat. 6]</a></span></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Spons’ Dictionary of Engineering, Civil, Mechanical, -Military, and Naval</i>; with technical terms in French, German, Italian, -and Spanish, 3100 pp., and <i>nearly 8000 engravings</i>, in super-royal 8vo, -in 8 divisions, 5<i>l.</i> 8<i>s.</i> Complete in 3 vols., cloth, 5<i>l.</i> 5<i>s.</i> Bound in a -superior manner, half-morocco, top edge gilt, 3 vols., 6<i>l.</i> 12<i>s.</i> -<span class="righttext"><i>See <a href="#CatPage15">page 15</a>.</i></span></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Treatise on the Origin, Progress, Prevention, and -Cure of Dry Rot in Timber</i>; with Remarks on the Means of Preserving -Wood from Destruction by Sea-Worms, Beetles, Ants, etc. By <span class="smcap">Thomas -Allen Britton</span>, late Surveyor to the Metropolitan Board of Works, -etc., etc. <i>With 10 plates</i>, crown 8vo, cloth, 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Metrical Tables.</i> By <span class="smcap">G. L. Molesworth</span>, M.I.C.E. -32mo, cloth, 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="center fsize80 highline2"><span class="smcap">Contents.</span></p> - -<p>General — Linear Measures — Square Measures — Cubic Measures — Measures of -Capacity — Weights — Combinations — Thermometers.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Handbook of Electrical Testing.</i> By <span class="smcap">H. R. -Kempe</span>, Member of the Society of Telegraph Engineers. New edition, -revised and enlarged, <i>with 81 illustrations</i>. Crown 8vo, cloth, 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Electro-Telegraphy.</i> By <span class="smcap">Frederick S. Beechey</span>, -Telegraph Engineer. A Book for Beginners. <i>Illustrated.</i> Fcap. 8vo, -sewed, 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Handrailing: by the Square Cut.</i> By <span class="smcap">John Jones</span>, -Staircase Builder. Fourth edition, <i>with seven plates</i>, 8vo, cloth, 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Handrailing: by the Square Cut.</i> By <span class="smcap">John Jones</span>, -Staircase Builder. Part Second, <i>with eight plates</i>, 8vo, cloth, 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Gas Consumer’s Handy Book.</i> By <span class="smcap">William -Richards</span>, C.E. <i>Illustrated.</i> 18mo, sewed, 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Steam Heating for Buildings</i>; or, Hints to Steam -Fitters, being a description of Steam Heating Apparatus for Warming -and Ventilating Private Houses and large Buildings; with Remarks on -Steam, Water, and Air in their relation to Heating; to which are added -miscellaneous Tables. By <span class="smcap">J. W. Baldwin</span>, Steam Heating Engineer. -<i>With many illustrations.</i> Second edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage7">[Cat. 7]</a></span></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Pocket-Book of Useful Formulæ and Memoranda -for Civil and Mechanical Engineers.</i> By <span class="smcap">Guilford L. Molesworth</span>, -Mem. Inst. C.E., Consulting Engineer to the Government of India for -State Railways. <i>With numerous illustrations</i>, 744 pp. Twenty-first -edition, revised and enlarged, 32mo, roan, 6<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="center fsize80 highline2"><span class="smcap">Synopsis of Contents</span>:</p> - -<p class="synopsis">Surveying, Levelling, etc. — Strength and Weight of Materials — Earthwork, Brickwork, -Masonry, Arches, etc. — Struts, Columns, Beams, and Trusses — Flooring, Roofing, and Roof -Trusses — Girders, Bridges, etc. — Railways and Roads — Hydraulic Formulæ — Canals, Sewers, -Waterworks, Docks — Irrigation and Breakwaters — Gas, Ventilation, and Warming — Heat, -Light, Colour, and Sound — Gravity: Centres, Forces, and Powers — Millwork, Teeth of -Wheels, Shafting, etc. — Workshop Recipes — Sundry Machinery — Animal Power — Steam and -the Steam Engine — Water-power, Water-wheels, Turbines, etc. — Wind and Windmills — Steam -Navigation, Ship Building, Tonnage, etc. — Gunnery, Projectiles, etc. — Weights, -Measures, and Money — Trigonometry, Conic Sections, and Curves — Telegraphy — Mensuration — Tables -of Areas and Circumference, and Arcs of Circles — Logarithms, Square and -Cube Roots, Powers — Reciprocals, etc. — Useful Numbers — Differential and Integral Calculus — Algebraic -Signs — Telegraphic Construction and Formulæ.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Spons’ Tables and Memoranda for Engineers</i>; -selected and arranged by <span class="smcap">J. T. Hurst</span>, C.E., Author of ‘Architectural -Surveyors’ Handbook,’ ‘Hurst’s Tredgold’s Carpentry,’ etc. Fifth edition, -64mo, roan, gilt edges, 1<i>s.</i>; or in cloth case, 1<i>s</i>. 6<i>d</i>.</p> - -<p class="synopsis">This work is printed in a pearl type, and is so small, measuring only -2¹⁄₂ in. by 1³⁄₄ in. by -¹⁄₄ in. thick, that it may be easily carried in the waistcoat pocket.</p> - -<p class="synopsis">“It is certainly an extremely rare thing for a reviewer to be called upon to notice a volume -measuring but 2¹⁄₂ in. by 1³⁄₄ in., yet these dimensions faithfully represent the size of the handy -little book before us. The volume—which contains 118 printed pages, besides a few blank -pages for memoranda—is, in fact, a true pocket-book, adapted for being carried in the waistcoat -pocket, and containing a far greater amount and variety of information than most people -would imagine could be compressed into so small a space. . . . . The little volume has been -compiled with considerable care and judgment, and we can cordially recommend it to our -readers as a useful little pocket companion.”—<i>Engineering.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Analysis, Technical Valuation, Purification and Use -of Coal Gas.</i> By the Rev. <span class="smcap">W. R. Bowditch</span>, M.A. <i>With wood engravings</i>, -8vo, cloth, 12<i>s</i>. 6<i>d</i>.</p> - -<p class="synopsis">Condensation of Gas — Purification of Gas — Light — -Measuring — Place of Testing Gas — Test -Candles — The Standard for Measuring Gas-light — Test Burners — Testing Gas for -Sulphur — Testing Gas for Ammonia — Condensation by Bromine — Gravimetric Method of -taking Specific Gravity of Gas — Carburetting or Naphthalizing Gas — Acetylene — Explosions -of Gas — Gnawing of Gaspipes by Rats — Pressure as related to Public Lighting, etc.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Practical Treatise on Natural and Artificial -Concrete, its Varieties and Constructive Adaptations.</i> By <span class="smcap">Henry Reid</span>, -Author of the ‘Science and Art of the Manufacture of Portland Cement.’ -New Edition, <i>with 59 woodcuts and 5 plates</i>, 8vo, cloth, 15<i>s</i>.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Hydrodynamics</i>: Treatise relative to the Testing of -Water-Wheels and Machinery, with various other matters pertaining to -Hydrodynamics. By <span class="smcap">James Emerson</span>. <i>With numerous illustrations</i>, -360 pp. Third edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 4<i>s</i>. 6<i>d</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage8">[Cat. 8]</a></span></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Gas Analyst’s Manual.</i> By <span class="smcap">F. W. Hartley</span>, -Assoc. Inst. C.E., etc. <i>With numerous illustrations.</i> Crown 8vo, -cloth, 6<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Gas Measurement and Gas Meter Testing.</i> By -<span class="smcap">F. W. Hartley</span>. Fourth edition, revised and extended. <i>Illustrated</i>, -crown 8vo, cloth, 4<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The French-Polishers Manual.</i> By a French-Polisher; -containing Timber Staining, Washing, Matching, Improving, -Painting, Imitations, Directions for Staining, Sizing, Embodying, -Smoothing, Spirit Varnishing, French-Polishing, Directions for Repolishing. -Third edition, royal 32mo, sewed, 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Hops, their Cultivation, Commerce, and Uses in -various Countries.</i> By <span class="smcap">P. L. Simmonds</span>. Crown 8vo, cloth, 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Distribution -of Coal Gas.</i> By <span class="smcap">William Richards</span>. Demy 4to, with <i>numerous -wood engravings and 29 plates</i>, cloth, 28<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="center fsize80 highline2"><span class="smcap">Synopsis of Contents</span>:</p> - -<p class="synopsis">Introduction — History of Gas Lighting — Chemistry of Gas Manufacture, by Lewis -Thompson, Esq., M.R.C.S. — Coal, with Analyses, by J. Paterson, Lewis Thompson, and -G. R. Hislop, Esqrs. — Retorts, Iron and Clay — Retort -Setting — Hydraulic Main — Condensers — Exhausters — Washers -and Scrubbers — Purifiers — Purification — History of Gas -Holder — Tanks, Brick and Stone, Composite, Concrete, Cast-iron, Compound Annular -Wrought-iron — Specifications — Gas Holders — Station -Meter — Governor — Distribution — Mains — Gas -Mathematics, or Formulæ for the Distribution of Gas, by Lewis Thompson, Esq. — Services — Consumers’ -Meters — Regulators — Burners — Fittings — Photometer — Carburization -of Gas — Air Gas and Water Gas — Composition of Coal Gas, by Lewis Thompson, Esq. — Analyses -of Gas — Influence of Atmospheric Pressure and Temperature on Gas — Residual -Products — Appendix — Description of Retort Settings, Buildings, etc., etc.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Practical Geometry and Engineering Drawing</i>; a -Course of Descriptive Geometry adapted to the Requirements of the -Engineering Draughtsman, including the determination of cast shadows -and Isometric Projection, each chapter being followed by numerous -examples; to which are added rules for Shading, Shade-lining, etc., -together with practical instructions as to the Lining, Colouring, Printing, -and general treatment of Engineering Drawings, with a chapter on -drawing Instruments. By <span class="smcap">George S. Clarke</span>, Lieut. R.E., Instructor -in Mechanical Drawing, Royal Indian Engineering College. 20 <i>plates</i>, -4to, cloth, 15<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Elements of Graphic Statics.</i> By Professor -<span class="smcap">Karl Von Ott</span>, translated from the German by <span class="smcap">G. S. Clarke</span>, Lieut. -R.E., Instructor in Mechanical Drawing, Royal Indian Engineering -College. <i>With 93 illustrations</i>, crown 8vo, cloth, 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Principles of Graphic Statics.</i> By <span class="smcap">George -Sydenham Clarke</span>, Lieut. Royal Engineers. <i>With 112 illustrations</i>. -4to, cloth, 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage9">[Cat. 9]</a></span></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The New Formula for Mean Velocity of Discharge -of Rivers and Canals.</i> By <span class="smcap">W. R. Kutter</span>. Translated from articles in -the ‘Cultur-Ingenieur,’ by <span class="smcap">Lowis D’A. Jackson</span>, Assoc. Inst. C.E. -8vo, cloth, 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Practical Hydraulics</i>; a Series of Rules and Tables -for the use of Engineers, etc., etc. By <span class="smcap">Thomas Box</span>. Fifth edition, -<i>numerous plates</i>, post 8vo, cloth, 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Practical Treatise on the Construction of Horizontal -and Vertical Waterwheels</i>, specially designed for the use of operative -mechanics. By <span class="smcap">William Cullen</span>, Millwright and Engineer. <i>With -11 plates.</i> Second edition, revised and enlarged, small 4to, cloth, 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Aid Book to Engineering Enterprise Abroad.</i> By -<span class="smcap">Ewing Matheson</span>, M. Inst. C.E. The book treats of Public Works -and Engineering Enterprises in their inception and preliminary arrangement; -of the different modes in which money is provided for their -accomplishment; and of the economical and technical considerations by -which success or failure is determined. The information necessary to -the designs of Engineers is classified, as are also those particulars by -which Contractors may estimate the cost of works, and Capitalists the -probabilities of profit. <i>Illustrated</i>, 2 vols., 8vo, 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Essential Elements of Practical Mechanics; -based on the Principle of Work</i>, designed for Engineering Students. By -<span class="smcap">Oliver Byrne</span>, formerly Professor of Mathematics, College for Civil -Engineers. Third edition, <i>with 148 wood engravings</i>, post 8vo, cloth, -7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="center fsize90 highline2"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:</p> - -<p class="synopsis">Chap. 1. How Work is Measured by a Unit, both with and without reference to a Unit -of Time — Chap. 2. The Work of Living Agents, the Influence of Friction, and introduces -one of the most beautiful Laws of Motion — Chap. 3. The principles expounded in the first and -second chapters are applied to the Motion of Bodies — Chap. 4. The Transmission of Work by -simple Machines — Chap. 5. Useful Propositions and Rules.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Practical Millwright’s and Engineer’s Ready -Reckoner</i>; or Tables for finding the diameter and power of cog-wheels, -diameter, weight, and power of shafts, diameter and strength of bolts, etc. -By <span class="smcap">Thomas Dixon</span>. Fourth edition, 12mo, cloth, 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Breweries and Maltings</i>: their Arrangement, Construction, -Machinery, and Plant. By <span class="smcap">G. Scamell</span>, F.R.I.B.A. Second -edition, revised, enlarged, and partly rewritten. By <span class="smcap">F. Colyer</span>, M.I.C.E., -M.I.M.E. <i>With 20 plates</i>, 8vo, cloth, 18<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Starch, -Glucose, Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine</i>, based on the German of L. <span class="smcap">Von -Wagner</span>, Professor in the Royal Technical School, Buda Pesth, and -other authorities. By <span class="smcap">Julius Frankel</span>; edited by <span class="smcap">Robert Hutter</span>, -proprietor of the Philadelphia Starch Works. <i>With 58 illustrations</i>, -344 pp., 8vo, cloth, 18<i>s.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage10">[Cat. 10]</a></span></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Practical Treatise on Mill-gearing, Wheels, Shafts, -Riggers, etc.</i>; for the use of Engineers. By <span class="smcap">Thomas Box</span>. Third -edition, <i>with 11 plates</i>. Crown 8vo, cloth, 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Mining Machinery</i>: a Descriptive Treatise on the -Machinery, Tools, and other Appliances used in Mining. By <span class="smcap">G. G. -André</span>, F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Mem. of the Society of Engineers. -Royal 4to, uniform with the Author’s Treatise on Coal Mining, containing -182 <i>plates</i>, accurately drawn to scale, with descriptive text, in -2 vols., cloth, 3<i>l.</i> 12<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="center fsize80 highline2"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:</p> - -<p class="synopsis">Machinery for Prospecting, Excavating, Hauling, and Hoisting — Ventilation — Pumping — Treatment -of Mineral Products, including Gold and Silver, Copper, Tin, and Lead, Iron, -Coal, Sulphur, China Clay, Brick Earth, etc.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Tables for Setting out Curves for Railways, Canals, -Roads, etc.</i>, varying from a radius of five chains to three miles. By <span class="smcap">A. -Kennedy</span> and <span class="smcap">R. W. Hackwood</span>. <i>Illustrated</i>, 32mo, cloth, 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Science and Art of the Manufacture of Portland -Cement</i>, with observations on some of its constructive applications. <i>With -66 illustrations.</i> By <span class="smcap">Henry Reid</span>, C.E., Author of ‘A Practical -Treatise on Concrete,’ etc., etc. 8vo, cloth, 18<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Draughtsman’s Handbook of Plan and Map -Drawing</i>; including instructions for the preparation of Engineering, -Architectural, and Mechanical Drawings. <i>With numerous illustrations -in the text, and 33 plates (15 printed in colours).</i> By <span class="smcap">G. G. André</span>, -F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E. 4to, cloth, 9<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="center fsize80 highline2"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:</p> - -<p class="synopsis">The Drawing Office and its Furnishings — Geometrical Problems — Lines, Dots, and their -Combinations — Colours, Shading, Lettering, Bordering, and North Points — Scales — Plotting — Civil -Engineers’ and Surveyors’ Plans — Map Drawing — Mechanical and Architectural -Drawing — Copying and Reducing Trigonometrical Formulæ, etc., etc.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Boiler-maker’s and Iron Ship-builder’s Companion</i>, -comprising a series of original and carefully calculated tables, of the -utmost utility to persons interested in the iron trades. By <span class="smcap">James Foden</span>, -author of ‘Mechanical Tables,’ etc. Second edition revised, <i>with illustrations</i>, -crown 8vo, cloth, 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Rock Blasting</i>: a Practical Treatise on the means -employed in Blasting Rocks for Industrial Purposes. By <span class="smcap">G. G. André</span>, -F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E. <i>With 56 illustrations and 12 plates</i>, 8vo, cloth, -10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Surcharged and different Forms of Retaining Walls.</i> -By <span class="smcap">J. S. Tate</span>. <i>Illustrated</i>, 8vo, sewed, 2<i>s.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage11">[Cat. 11]</a></span></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Treatise on Ropemaking as practised in public and -private Rope-yards</i>, with a Description of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables -of Weights, etc., adapted to the Trade, Shipping, Mining, Railways, -Builders, etc. By <span class="smcap">R. Chapman</span>, formerly foreman to Messrs. Huddart -and Co., Limehouse, and late Master Ropemaker to H.M. Dockyard, -Deptford. Second edition, 12mo, cloth, 3<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Laxton’s Builders’ and Contractors’ Tables</i>; for the -use of Engineers, Architects, Surveyors, Builders, Land Agents, and -others. Bricklayer, containing 22 tables, with nearly 30,000 calculations. -4to, cloth, 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Laxton’s Builders’ and Contractors’ Tables.</i> Excavator, -Earth, Land, Water, and Gas, containing 53 tables, with nearly -24,000 calculations. 4to, cloth, 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Sanitary Engineering</i>: a Guide to the Construction -of Works of Sewerage and House Drainage, with Tables for facilitating -the calculations of the Engineer. By <span class="smcap">Baldwin Latham</span>, C.E., M. Inst. -C.E., F.G.S., F.M.S., Past-President of the Society of Engineers. Second -edition, <i>with numerous plates and woodcuts</i>, 8vo, cloth, 1<i>l.</i> 10<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Screw Cutting Tables for Engineers and Machinists</i>, -giving the values of the different trains of Wheels required to produce -Screws of any pitch, calculated by Lord Lindsay, M.P., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., -etc. Royal 8vo, cloth, oblong, 2<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Screw Cutting Tables</i>, for the use of Mechanical -Engineers, showing the proper arrangement of Wheels for cutting the -Threads of Screws of any required pitch, with a Table for making the -Universal Gas-pipe Threads and Taps. By <span class="smcap">W. A. Martin</span>, Engineer. -Second edition, royal 8vo, oblong, cloth, 1<i>s.</i>, or sewed, 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Treatise on a Practical Method of Designing Slide-Valve -Gears by Simple Geometrical Construction</i>, based upon the principles -enunciated in Euclid’s Elements, and comprising the various forms of -Plain Slide-Valve and Expansion Gearing; together with Stephenson’s, -Gooch’s, and Allan’s Link-Motions, as applied either to reversing or to -variable expansion combinations. By <span class="smcap">Edward J. Cowling Welch</span>, -Memb. Inst. Mechanical Engineers. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Cleaning and Scouring</i>: a Manual for Dyers, Laundresses, -and for Domestic Use. By <span class="smcap">S. Christopher</span>. 18mo, sewed, 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Handbook of House Sanitation</i>; for the use of all -persons seeking a Healthy Home. A reprint of those portions of Mr. -Bailey-Denton’s Lectures on Sanitary Engineering, given before the -School of Military Engineering, which related to the “Dwelling,” -enlarged and revised by his Son, <span class="smcap">E. F. Bailey-Denton</span>, C.E., B.A. -<i>With 140 illustrations</i>, 8vo, cloth, 8<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage12">[Cat. 12]</a></span></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Treatise on Valve-Gears</i>, with special consideration -of the Link-Motions of Locomotive Engines. By Dr. <span class="smcap">Gustav Zeuner</span>. -Third edition, revised and enlarged, translated from the German, with the -special permission of the author, by <span class="smcap">Moritz Müller</span>. <i>Plates</i>, 8vo, -cloth, 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Pocket-Book for Boiler Makers and Steam Users</i>, -comprising a variety of useful information for Employer and Workman, -Government Inspectors, Board of Trade Surveyors, Engineers in charge -of Works and Slips, Foremen of Manufactories, and the general Steam-using -Public. By <span class="smcap">Maurice John Sexton</span>. Second edition, royal -32mo, roan, gilt edges, 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Strains upon Bridge Girders and Roof Trusses</i>, -including the Warren, Lattice, Trellis, Bowstring, and other Forms of -Girders, the Curved Roof, and Simple and Compound Trusses. By -<span class="smcap">Thos. Cargill</span>, C.E.B.A.T., C.D., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Member of the -Society of Engineers. <i>With 64 illustrations, drawn and worked out to scale</i>, -8vo, cloth, 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Practical Treatise on the Steam Engine</i>, containing -Plans and Arrangements of Details for Fixed Steam Engines, -with Essays on the Principles involved in Design and Construction. By -<span class="smcap">Arthur Rigg</span>, Engineer, Member of the Society of Engineers and of -the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Demy 4to, <i>copiously illustrated -with woodcuts and 96 plates</i>, in one Volume, half-bound morocco, 2<i>l.</i> 2<i>s.</i>; -or cheaper edition, cloth, 25<i>s</i>.</p> - -<p class="synopsis">This work is not, in any sense, an elementary treatise, or history of the steam engine, but -is intended to describe examples of Fixed Steam Engines without entering into the wide -domain of locomotive or marine practice. To this end illustrations will be given of the most -recent arrangements of Horizontal, Vertical, Beam, Pumping, Winding, Portable, Semi-portable, -Corliss, Allen, Compound, and other similar Engines, by the most eminent Firms in -Great Britain and America. The laws relating to the action and precautions to be observed -in the construction of the various details, such as Cylinders, Pistons, Piston-rods, Connecting-rods, -Cross-heads, Motion-blocks, Eccentrics, Simple, Expansion, Balanced, and Equilibrium -Slide-valves, and Valve-gearing will be minutely dealt with. In this connection will be found -articles upon the Velocity of Reciprocating Parts and the Mode of Applying the Indicator, -Heat and Expansion of Steam Governors, and the like. It is the writer’s desire to draw -illustrations from every possible source, and give only those rules that present practice deems -correct.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Barlow’s Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, -Cube Roots, Reciprocals of all Integer Numbers up to 10,000.</i> Post 8vo, -cloth, 6<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Camus (M.) Treatise on the Teeth of Wheels</i>, demonstrating -the best forms which can be given to them for the purposes of -Machinery, such as Mill-work and Clock-work, and the art of finding -their numbers. Translated from the French, with details of the present -practice of Millwrights, Engine Makers, and other Machinists, by -<span class="smcap">Isaac Hawkins</span>. Third edition, <i>with 18 plates</i>, 8vo, cloth, 5<i>s.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage13">[Cat. 13]</a></span></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Practical Treatise on the Science of Land and -Engineering Surveying, Levelling, Estimating Quantities, etc.</i>, with a -general description of the several Instruments required for Surveying, -Levelling, Plotting, etc. By <span class="smcap">H. S. Merrett</span>. Third edition, <i>41 plates -with illustrations and tables</i>, royal 8vo, cloth, 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="center fsize80 highline2"><span class="smcap">Principal Contents</span>:</p> - -<p class="synopsis">Part 1. Introduction and the Principles of Geometry. Part 2. Land Surveying; comprising -General Observations — The Chain — Offsets Surveying by the Chain only — Surveying -Hilly Ground — To Survey an Estate or Parish by the Chain only — Surveying with the -Theodolite — Mining and Town Surveying — Railroad Surveying — Mapping — Division and -Laying out of Land — Observations on Enclosures — Plane Trigonometry. Part 3. Levelling — Simple -and Compound Levelling — The Level Book — Parliamentary Plan and Section — Levelling -with a Theodolite — Gradients — Wooden Curves — To Lay out a Railway Curve — Setting -out Widths. Part 4. Calculating Quantities generally for Estimates — Cuttings and -Embankments — Tunnels — Brickwork — Ironwork — Timber Measuring. Part 5. Description -and Use of Instruments in Surveying and Plotting — The Improved Dumpy Level — Troughton’s -Level — The Prismatic Compass — Proportional Compass -— Box Sextant — Vernier — Pantagraph — Merrett’s -Improved Quadrant — Improved Computation Scale — The Diagonal Scale — Straight -Edge and Sector. Part 6. Logarithms of Numbers — Logarithmic Sines and -Co-Sines, Tangents and Co-Tangents — Natural Sines and Co-Sines — Tables for Earthwork, -for Setting out Curves, and for various Calculations, etc., etc., etc.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Saws: the History, Development, Action, Classification, -and Comparison of Saws of all kinds.</i> By <span class="smcap">Robert Grimshaw</span>. -<i>With 220 illustrations</i>, 4to, cloth, 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Supplement to the above</i>; containing additional -practical matter, more especially relating to the forms of Saw Teeth for -special material and conditions, and to the behaviour of Saws under -particular conditions. <i>With 120 illustrations</i>, cloth, 9<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Guide for the Electric Testing of Telegraph Cables.</i> -By Capt. <span class="smcap">V. Hoskiœr</span>, Royal Danish Engineers. <i>With illustrations</i>, -second edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Laying and Repairing Electric Telegraph Cables.</i> By -Capt. <span class="smcap">V. Hoskiœr</span>, Royal Danish Engineers. Crown 8vo, cloth, -3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>A Pocket-Book of Practical Rules for the Proportions -of Modern Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine purposes.</i> By <span class="smcap">N. P. -Burgh</span>. Seventh edition, royal 32mo, roan, 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Table of Logarithms of the Natural Numbers, from -1 to 108,000.</i> By <span class="smcap">Charles Babbage</span>, Esq., M.A. Stereotyped edition, -royal 8vo, cloth, 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="synopsis">To ensure the correctness of these Tables of Logarithms, they were compared with Callett’s, -Vega’s, Hutton’s, Briggs’, Gardiner’s, and Taylor’s Tables of Logarithms, and carefully read -by nine different readers; and further, to remove any possibility of an error remaining, the -stereotyped sheets were hung up in the Hall at Cambridge University, and a reward offered -to anyone who could find an inaccuracy. So correct are these Tables, that since their first -issue in 1827 no error has been discovered.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage14">[Cat. 14]</a></span></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Steam Engine considered as a Heat Engine</i>: a -Treatise on the Theory of the Steam Engine, illustrated by Diagrams, -Tables, and Examples from Practice. By <span class="smcap">Jas. H. Cotterill</span>, M.A., -F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics in the Royal Naval College. -8vo, cloth, 12<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>The Practice of Hand Turning in Wood, Ivory, Shell, -etc.</i>, with Instructions for Turning such Work in Metal as may be required -in the Practice of Turning in Wood, Ivory, etc.; also an Appendix on -Ornamental Turning. (A book for beginners.) By <span class="smcap">Francis Campin</span>. -Second edition, <i>with wood engravings</i>, crown 8vo, cloth, 6<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="center fsize80 highline2"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:</p> - -<p class="synopsis">On Lathes — Turning Tools — Turning Wood — Drilling — Screw Cutting — Miscellaneous -Apparatus and Processes — Turning Particular -Forms — Staining — Polishing — Spinning Metals — Materials — Ornamental -Turning, etc.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Health and Comfort in House Building, or Ventilation -with Warm Air by Self-Acting Suction Power</i>, with Review of the -mode of Calculating the Draught in Hot-Air Flues, and with some actual -Experiments. By <span class="smcap">J. Drysdale</span>, M.D., and <span class="smcap">J. W. Hayward</span>, M.D. -Second edition, with Supplement, <i>with plates</i>, demy 8vo, cloth, 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Treatise on Watchwork, Past and Present.</i> By the -Rev. <span class="smcap">H. L. Nelthropp</span>, M.A., F.S.A. <i>With 32 illustrations</i>, crown -8vo, cloth, 6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="center fsize80 highline2"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:</p> - -<p class="synopsis">Definitions of Words and Terms used in Watchwork — Tools — Time — Historical Summary — On -Calculations of the Numbers for Wheels and Pinions; their Proportional Sizes, -Trains, etc. — Of Dial Wheels, or Motion Work — Length of Time of Going without Winding -up — The Verge — The Horizontal — The Duplex — The Lever — The Chronometer — Repeating -Watches — Keyless Watches — The Pendulum, or Spiral Spring — Compensation — Jewelling of -Pivot Holes — Clerkenwell — Fallacies of the Trade — Incapacity of Workmen — How to Choose -and Use a Watch, etc.</p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Spons’ Engineers’ and Contractors’ Illustrated Book -of Prices of Machines, Tools, Ironwork, and Contractors’ Material; -and Engineers’ Directory.</i> Third edition, 4to, cloth, 6<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="bookdata"><i>Algebra Self-Taught.</i> By <span class="smcap">W. P. Higgs</span>, M.A., -D.Sc., LL.D., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Author of ‘A Handbook of the Differential -Calculus,’ etc. Second edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> - -<p class="center fsize80 highline2"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:</p> - -<p class="synopsis">Symbols and the Signs of Operation — The Equation and the Unknown Quantity — Positive -and Negative Quantities — Multiplication — Involution — Exponents — Negative Exponents — Roots, -and the Use of Exponents as Logarithms — Logarithms — Tables of Logarithms -and Proportionate Parts — Transformation of System of Logarithms — Common Uses of -Common Logarithms — Compound Multiplication and the Binomial Theorem — Division, -Fractions, and Ratio — Continued Proportion — The Series and the Summation of the Series — Limit -of Series — Square and Cube Roots — Equations — List of Formulæ, etc.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage15">[Cat. 15]</a></span></p> - -<p class="center highline2 fsize150 sstype">JUST PUBLISHED.</p> - -<p class="center fsize80">In super-royal 8vo, 1168 pp., <i>with 2400 illustrations</i>, in 3 Divisions, -cloth, price 13<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> -each; or 1 vol., cloth, 2<i>l.</i>; or half-morocco, 2<i>l.</i> 8<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="center highline2 blankbefore15"><span class="fsize150 gesp2">A SUPPLEMENT</span><br /> -<span class="fsize70">TO</span><br /> -<span class="fsize125">SPONS’ DICTIONARY OF ENGINEERING,</span><br /> -<span class="oldtype fsize110">Civil, Mechanical, Military, and Naval.</span><br /> -<span class="smcap fsize90">Edited by ERNEST SPON, Memb. Soc. Engineers</span>.</p> - -<p class="noindent fsize90 blankbefore1">The success which has attended -the publication of ‘<span class="smcap">Spons’ Dictionary of -Engineering</span>’ has encouraged the Publishers to use every effort tending to -keep the work up to the standard of existing professional knowledge. As the -Book has now been some years before the public without addition or revision, -there are many subjects of importance which, of necessity, are either not -included in its pages, or have been treated somewhat less fully than their -present importance demands. With the object, therefore, of remedying these -omissions, this Supplement is now being issued. Each subject in it is treated -in a thoroughly comprehensive way; but, of course, without repeating the -information already included in the body of the work.</p> - -<p class="fsize90">The new matter comprises articles upon</p> - -<ul class="sponbooks"> - -<li>Abacus, Counters, Speed Indicators, and Slide Rule.</li> -<li>Agricultural Implements and Machinery.</li> -<li>Air Compressors.</li> -<li>Animal Charcoal Machinery.</li> -<li>Antimony.</li> -<li>Axles and Axle-boxes.</li> -<li>Barn Machinery.</li> -<li>Belts and Belting.</li> -<li>Blasting.</li> -<li>Boilers.</li> -<li>Brakes.</li> -<li>Brick Machinery.</li> -<li>Bridges.</li> -<li>Cages for Mines.</li> -<li>Calculus, Differential and Integral.</li> -<li>Canals.</li> -<li>Carpentry.</li> -<li>Cast Iron.</li> -<li>Cement, Concrete, Limes, and Mortar.</li> -<li>Chimney Shafts.</li> -<li>Coal Cleansing and Washing.</li> -<li>Coal Mining.</li> -<li>Coal Cutting Machines.</li> -<li>Coke Ovens.</li> -<li>Copper.</li> -<li>Docks.</li> -<li>Drainage.</li> -<li>Dredging Machinery.</li> -<li>Dynamo—Electric and Magneto-Electric Machines.</li> -<li>Dynamometers.</li> -<li>Electrical Engineering, Telegraphy, Electric Lighting and its practical details, Telephones.</li> -<li>Engines, Varieties of.</li> -<li>Explosives.</li> -<li>Fans.</li> -<li>Founding, Moulding and the practical work of the Foundry.</li> -<li>Gas, Manufacture of.</li> -<li>Hammers, Steam and other Power.</li> -<li>Heat.</li> -<li>Horse Power.</li> -<li>Hydraulics.</li> -<li>Hydro-geology.</li> -<li>Indicators.</li> -<li>Iron.</li> -<li>Lifts, Hoists, and Elevators.</li> -<li>Lighthouses, Buoys, and Beacons.</li> -<li>Machine Tools.</li> -<li>Materials of Construction.</li> -<li>Meters.</li> -<li>Ores, Machinery and Processes employed to Dress.</li> -<li>Piers.</li> -<li>Pile Driving.</li> -<li>Pneumatic Transmission.</li> -<li>Pumps.</li> -<li>Pyrometers.</li> -<li>Road Locomotives.</li> -<li>Rock Drills.</li> -<li>Rolling Stock.</li> -<li>Sanitary Engineering.</li> -<li>Shafting.</li> -<li>Steel.</li> -<li>Steam Navvy.</li> -<li>Stone Machinery.</li> -<li>Tramways.</li> -<li>Well Sinking.</li> - -</ul> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="CatPage16">[Cat. 16]</a></span></p> - -<p class="center highline15 fsize150">NOW COMPLETE.</p> - -<p class="center fsize80"><i>With nearly 1500 illustrations</i>, in super-royal 8vo, in 5 Divisions, cloth. -Divisions 1 to 4, 13<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each; Division 5, 17<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>; or 2 vols., cloth, £3 10<i>s.</i></p> - -<p class="center blankbefore1"><span class="fsize150 gesp2">SPONS’ ENCYCLOPÆDIA</span><br /> -<span class="fsize70">OF THE</span><br /> -<span class="fsize125 sstype smcap">INDUSTRIAL ARTS, MANUFACTURES, and COMMERCIAL -PRODUCTS</span>.<br /> -<span class="smcap fsize90">Edited by C. G. WARNFORD LOCK, F.L.S.</span></p> - -<p class="fsize80 blankbefore1">Among the more important of the subjects treated of, are the -<span class="nowrap">following:—</span></p> - -<ul class="sponbooks"> - -<li>Acids, 207 pp. 220 figs.</li> -<li>Alcohol, 23 pp. 16 figs.</li> -<li>Alcoholic Liquors, 13 pp.</li> -<li>Alkalies, 89 pp. 78 figs.</li> -<li>Alloys.</li> -<li>Alum.</li> -<li>Asphalt.</li> -<li>Assaying.</li> -<li>Beverages, 89 pp. 29 figs.</li> -<li>Blacks.</li> -<li>Bleaching Powder, 15 pp.</li> -<li>Bleaching, 51 pp. 48 figs.</li> -<li>Candles, 18 pp. 9 figs.</li> -<li>Carbon Bisulphide.</li> -<li>Celluloid, 9 pp.</li> -<li>Cements.</li> -<li>Clay.</li> -<li>Coal-tar Products, 44 pp. 14 figs.</li> -<li>Cocoa, 8 pp.</li> -<li>Coffee, 32 pp. 13 figs.</li> -<li>Cork, 8 pp. 17 figs.</li> -<li>Cotton Manufactures, 62 pp. 57 figs.</li> -<li>Drugs, 38 pp.</li> -<li>Dyeing and Calico Printing, 28 pp. 9 figs.</li> -<li>Dyestuffs, 16 pp.</li> -<li>Electro-Metallurgy, 13 pp.</li> -<li>Explosives, 22 pp. 33 figs.</li> -<li>Feathers.</li> -<li>Fibrous Substances, 92 pp. 79 figs.</li> -<li>Floor-cloth, 16 pp. 21 figs.</li> -<li>Food Preservation, 8 pp.</li> -<li>Fruit, 8 pp.</li> -<li>Fur, 5 pp.</li> -<li>Gas, Coal, 8 pp.</li> -<li>Gems.</li> -<li>Glass, 45 pp. 77 figs.</li> -<li>Graphite, 7 pp.</li> -<li>Hair, 7 pp.</li> -<li>Hair Manufactures.</li> -<li>Hats, 26 pp. 26 figs.</li> -<li>Honey.</li> -<li>Hops.</li> -<li>Horn.</li> -<li>Ice, 10 pp. 14 figs.</li> -<li>Indiarubber Manufactures, 23 pp. 17 figs.</li> -<li>Ink, 17 pp.</li> -<li>Ivory.</li> -<li>Jute Manufactures, 11 pp., 11 figs.</li> -<li>Knitted Fabrics—Hosiery,</li> -<li>15 pp. 13 figs.</li> -<li>Lace, 13 pp. 9 figs.</li> -<li>Leather, 28 pp. 31 figs.</li> -<li>Linen Manufactures, 16 pp. 6 figs.</li> -<li>Manures, 21 pp. 30 figs.</li> -<li>Matches, 17 pp. 38 figs.</li> -<li>Mordants, 13 pp.</li> -<li>Narcotics, 47 pp.</li> -<li>Nuts, 10 pp.</li> -<li>Oils and Fatty Substances, 125 pp.</li> -<li>Paint.</li> -<li>Paper, 26 pp. 23 figs.</li> -<li>Paraffin, 8 pp. 6 figs.</li> -<li>Pearl and Coral, 8 pp.</li> -<li>Perfumes, 10 pp.</li> -<li>Photography, 13 pp. 20 figs.</li> -<li>Pigments, 9 pp. 6 figs.</li> -<li>Pottery, 46 pp. 57 figs.</li> -<li>Printing and Engraving, 20 pp. 8 figs.</li> -<li>Rags.</li> -<li>Resinous and Gummy Substances, 75 pp. 16 figs.</li> -<li>Rope, 16 pp. 17 figs.</li> -<li>Salt, 31 pp. 23 figs.</li> -<li>Silk, 8 pp.</li> -<li>Silk Manufactures, 9 pp. 11 figs.</li> -<li>Skins, 5 pp.</li> -<li>Small Wares, 4 pp.</li> -<li>Soap and Glycerine, 39 pp. 45 figs.</li> -<li>Spices, 16 pp.</li> -<li>Sponge, 5 pp.</li> -<li>Starch, 9 pp. 10 figs.</li> -<li>Sugar, 155 pp. 134 figs.</li> -<li>Sulphur.</li> -<li>Tannin, 18 pp.</li> -<li>Tea, 12 pp.</li> -<li>Timber, 13 pp.</li> -<li>Varnish, 15 pp.</li> -<li>Vinegar, 5 pp.</li> -<li>Wax, 5 pp.</li> -<li>Wool, 2 pp.</li> -<li>Woollen Manufactures, 58 pp. 39 figs.</li> - -</ul> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="center fsize110"><b>London: E. & F. N. SPON, 16, Charing Cross.<br /> -New York: 44, Murray Street.</b></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="tnbot" id="TN"> - -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Depending on the hard- and software used and their settings, not all elements may display as intended; -some of the larger tables are best viewed on a wide screen in a wide window.</p> - -<p>Inconsistent spelling, hyphenation, lay-out and use of accents and thousands separators have been retained except as listed below.</p> - -<p>The (inconsistent) use of spaces, underscores, hyphens etc. to indicate blanks where names, data etc. need to be inserted -has not been standardised.</p> - -<p>page 4, Dr. Ackland: possibly Henry Acland.</p> - -<p>page 137, 855 décicarcel-cubes: probably the decimal point is missing.</p> - -<p>page 372, Ranson’s: should possibly be Ransom’s (cf. Table of Contents) or vice versa.</p> - -<p>Index: not all items are given in alphabetical order, this has not been corrected.</p> - -<p class="blankbefore15">Changes made:</p> - -<p>Footnotes have been moved to the end of each chapter.</p> - -<p>Some obvious minor punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected silently.</p> - -<p>Vide has been standardised to <i>Vide</i>.</p> - -<ul class="tnlist"> - -<li>page xv: Leichenhauser changed to Leichenhaus</li> -<li>page 1: c. 63 <i>s.</i> 37 changed to c. 63 s. 37</li> -<li>page 14: closing quotes removed from after ... instructions thereon.</li> -<li>page 16: opening quotes removed from before Syllabus of Subjects ...</li> -<li>page 38: closing quote removed from after ... finished pavement.</li> -<li>page 52: Ellisons changed to Ellison’s</li> -<li>page 85, footnote [73]: Henry Allnut changed to Henry Allnutt</li> -<li>page 93: 5 0 changed to 5·0</li> -<li>page 137: décicarcel-tubes changed to décicarcel-cubes</li> -<li>page 164: closing quote removed from after ... is broken up.</li> -<li>page 184: nor exceeding changed to not exceeding</li> -<li>page 233: depot changed to depôt as elsewhere</li> -<li>page 247, footnote [172]: Beaumé changed to Baumé</li> -<li>page 322: Oilantus changed to Ailantus</li> -<li>page 334: (2.) added before <i>The slaughter-houses.</i></li> -<li>page 357: footnote anchor [227] inserted</li> -<li>page 368: LEICHENHAUSER changed to LEICHENHAUS</li> -<li>page 371: closing quote added after ... ss. 120 and 121.</li> -<li>page 379: closing quotes added after ... nor any name. and after ... one of their inspectors.</li> -<li>catalogue page 11: Lord Lindsay changed to <span class="smcap">Lord Lindsay</span> as other authors</li> -<li>catalogue page 15 and 16: several list items moved to new lines as the other list items.</li> - -</ul> - -</div><!--tnbot--> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Municipal and Sanitary Engineer's -Handbook, by H. 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