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diff --git a/old/55935-0.txt b/old/55935-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4c994c0..0000000 --- a/old/55935-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,17055 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Municipal and Sanitary Engineer's -Handbook, by H. Percy Boulnois - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Municipal and Sanitary Engineer's Handbook - -Author: H. Percy Boulnois - -Release Date: November 11, 2017 [EBook #55935] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MUNICIPAL AND SANITARY *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - Text between _underscores_ represent texts printed in italics; text - between ~tildes~ represents text printed in a sans-serif font (to - indicate shape rather than letter). - - More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - - THE - MUNICIPAL AND SANITARY - ENGINEER’S HANDBOOK. - - - - - THE - MUNICIPAL AND SANITARY - ENGINEER’S HANDBOOK. - - BY - - H. PERCY BOULNOIS, M. INST. C.E., - M. SAN. INST. GT. BRITAIN; - - BOROUGH ENGINEER, PORTSMOUTH; LATE CITY SURVEYOR, EXETER; - AUTHOR OF “DIRTY DUST-BINS AND SLOPPY STREETS,” “ANNIHILATION OF SEWER - GASES,” ETC. - - “_SALUS POPULI SUPREMA LEX._” - - [Illustration] - - LONDON: - E. & F. N. SPON, 16, CHARING CROSS. - - NEW YORK: - 35, MURRAY STREET. - - 1883. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -In carrying out the many duties devolving upon a Borough Surveyor, it -has so often been my wish to turn to a practical book of reference upon -the many subjects connected with these duties, that I have written the -following pages; and I trust that they will form a useful Handbook. - - H. PERCY BOULNOIS. - - PORTSMOUTH, - _May, 1883_. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - THE TOWN SURVEYOR. - - Office of surveyor first legalised -- Clause of Public Health Act - 1875, making appointment -- Division of England into districts -- - Surveyor to Rural Authority -- Clauses of Act referring to surveyor -- - Title of “Surveyor” is an erroneous one -- List of subjects on which - he has often to advise -- Want of Government protection for surveyor - -- Mr. Lewis Angell on protection -- Reasons for Government refusal -- - Time will effect a change page 1 - - CHAPTER II. - THE APPOINTMENT OF SURVEYOR. - - Sub-committee to fix salary and duties -- Specimen report and list of - duties -- Test of merit necessary -- Examination by Sanitary Institute - of Great Britain -- Particulars of these examinations -- Syllabus of - subjects -- Specimens of examination papers -- Authoritative - examination, however, still necessary -- Methods to be adopted to - obtain appointment of surveyor -- Canvassing 10 - - CHAPTER III. - THE SURVEYOR’S DUTIES. - - Public Health Act and surveyors of highways -- List of duties - devolving upon surveyor in consequence -- Meetings of boards and - committees -- List of suitable names for committees -- Punctuality -- - Reports -- Methodical habits 20 - - CHAPTER IV. - TRAFFIC. - - Interests involved in construction and maintenance of streets -- - Requirements of a good roadway -- Wearing effect of traffic -- Mr. - Deacon’s standard -- Effect of horses’ hoofs on roadways -- Remarks on - shoeing -- Traction on roads -- Tables of resistance -- Forces tending - to destroy momentum -- Table of tractive force, etc. -- Another table - giving inclinations -- Proper gradients of roadways -- Table of - resistance by Crompton -- Wheel resistance -- Mr. Haywood and safety - of traffic -- Stopping and starting vehicles -- Safe width of roadways - -- Vehicles and pedestrians passing each other -- Sanctuaries -- - Danger of crossings 25 - - CHAPTER V. - MACADAMISED ROADWAYS. - - Laying out new roads -- Macadamised roads a luxury -- Telford and - Macadam -- Specification of roadway, fifty years ago -- Modern - specification of roadway -- Advantages of Telford’s system -- Hard - core -- Concrete -- Table of depths of materials -- Ellice Clarke’s - tables of comparative cost -- Further particulars of comparative cost - -- Streets of Paris -- Cross section of roadway -- Objections to - macadamised roadways -- Notes on maintenance -- Bituminous roadways 34 - - CHAPTER VI. - ROAD METAL AND BREAKING. - - Test of fitness of stone -- Primary investigations -- Qualities - necessary -- List of stones used as road metal -- Variety of materials - used -- Table of comparative efficiency of road metal in France -- - Hand-broken stone -- Gauging the size -- Quantity broken per diem -- - Machines for breaking stones -- Price of machines -- Work effected by - machinery -- Precautions necessary -- Objections to machinery -- - Weight of broken stone -- Specification for supply of road metal 48 - - CHAPTER VII. - ROAD ROLLING. - - First introduction of rollers -- Mr. Parry on steam rolling -- Cost - for repairs -- Number of men necessary -- Fuel used -- Other uses for - engine power -- Spikes for chequering -- Binding material -- Gradients - -- Work effected -- Description of manner in which roller should be - applied -- Method adopted in the United States -- Use of roller for - repairs of roads -- Method adopted at Gloucester -- Effect of weight - of roller on roads -- Advantages of steam rolling -- Mr. Paget on - rolling -- Disadvantages of steam rolling -- Horse rollers 60 - - CHAPTER VIII. - PITCHED PAVEMENTS. - - Economy under heavy traffic -- Noise and slipperiness -- Improvements - effected -- Size of setts -- Description of best class of stones -- - Mr. Walker and wear of stones -- The Euston pavement -- The Guidet - paving -- Manchester pavement -- Concrete foundations -- Grouting -- - Bituminous mixture -- Stone tram-tracks 73 - - CHAPTER IX. - WOOD PAVING. - - First introduced into metropolis -- Improvements since -- List and - description of many various modern methods -- Sanitary objections to - wood pavement -- Power of absorption of wood -- Preserving processes - -- Wear of wood paving -- Different estimates of life -- Woods - employed -- Advantages of this description of paving -- Objections to - it -- Cost of wood pavement -- Tables of cost and life -- - Specification of wood pavement 81 - - CHAPTER X. - COMPRESSED ASPHALTE ROADWAYS. - - Description of asphalte -- Mr. Deland’s test -- Percentage of bitumen - necessary -- Method of construction of compressed asphalte roadway -- - Advantages of this description of pavement -- Objections to it on - account of slipperiness -- Gradient -- Cost of asphalte pavement -- - Tables on the subject -- Specifications for a compressed asphalte - roadway -- Other descriptions of asphalte roadways -- Hints on the - success or the reverse of asphalte roadways 96 - - CHAPTER XI. - FOOTPATHS. - - Foundation -- List of materials for footpaths -- Mastic asphalte -- - Description of manner of laying -- Proportions of asphalte, bitumen, - and grit -- Yorkshire flagging -- Specification for York flagging -- - Caithness flagging -- Its advantages -- Blue lias flagging -- Concrete - footpaths -- Description of American concrete path -- Artificial stone - pavements -- Brick footpaths -- Granite slabs -- Artificial asphalte - paths -- Specification of tar pavement -- American tar pavement -- - Gravel footpaths -- Sections of paths -- Tarred paths 106 - - CHAPTER XII. - KERBING AND CHANNELLING, ETC. - - Necessity for kerb -- Section of granite kerb and channel -- Setting - kerb -- Cost of kerb and channelling -- Necessity for gutter or - channel crossings -- Gully gratings -- Objects to be attained -- - Drawing of a gully-pit -- Drawing of a buddle-hole -- Mr. Baldwin - Latham on the subject 123 - - CHAPTER XIII. - LIGHTING STREETS. - - Gas v. Electricity -- Public Health Act on lighting -- Different hours - at which public gas lamps are lighted -- Hints for a contract with a - gas company -- Supply by meter -- Objections to meters -- Regulators - -- Lamp-posts -- Lanterns -- Burners -- Numbering lamps -- Formula for - determining distance of lamps -- M. Servier on spreading light - uniformly -- Tables of different lights -- Points to be considered in - public lighting by electricity -- Motive power required -- Machinery - necessary -- Regulations as regards fire risks -- Lamps -- Value of - electric light -- Difficulty of photometrical measurement -- Cost of - electric light -- Mr. Shoolbred’s tables -- Comparative cost on Thames - embankment -- Value of these investigations -- Acme of all lighting - 129 - - CHAPTER XIV. - STREET NAMING AND NUMBERING. - - Necessity of naming and numbering streets -- Public Health Act on the - subject -- Different methods of naming -- Minton’s china letters -- - Cast iron plates -- Painted names -- Enamelled iron -- Wooden figures - -- Enamelled glass tablets -- Size of letters -- Association of names - -- Methods of numbering -- Forms of notice to number 149 - - CHAPTER XV. - BREAKING-UP STREETS. - - The law on the subject -- Water Works Clauses Act, 1847 -- - Consideration of the clauses -- What is meant by “plan” -- Specimen of - specification or plan -- Damage caused to roads by opening them -- - Private individuals breaking-up streets -- Clauses of the Public - Health Act -- Telegraphs Act, 1863 -- Clauses of this Act -- - Advantages and disadvantages of subways -- Power of individuals to - open streets for drains -- Clauses of the Public Health Act on the - subject -- Uncertainty on the subject -- Forms of notices necessary -- - Customs prevailing in different towns 157 - - CHAPTER XVI. - OBSTRUCTIONS IN STREETS. - - List of subjects discussed -- Improving line of frontages -- Assessing - value of compensation -- Removing projections of buildings -- What are - legal projections? -- Doors or gates opening outwards -- Forms of - notice necessary -- Vaults or cellar coverings -- Forms of notice - necessary -- Advantages of an “Easement book” -- Rain water from - shutes or down pipes -- Form of notice necessary -- Blinds or awnings - over paths -- Trees overhanging roadways -- Form of notice necessary - -- Surface water from premises -- Hoardings and scaffolds -- Dangerous - Buildings -- Tall chimney shafts -- Dangerous rock -- Forms of notice - necessary -- Temporary obstructions 174 - - CHAPTER XVII. - IMPROVEMENT OF PRIVATE STREETS. - - The 150th section of the Public Health Act -- Criticisms of this - section -- Duties of the surveyor in connection with it -- Specimen - forms of notices -- Carrying out the work -- Taking over private - streets -- Agreement to take over a road -- What is a “road”? -- Legal - definition of the term street 193 - - CHAPTER XVIII. - NEW STREETS AND BUILDINGS. - - Important duty of surveyor -- Clauses of the Public Health Act -- - Model bye-laws -- What is a new building? -- The term “ground floor” - -- Alteration of existing buildings -- Deposit of plans -- Clauses of - the Public Health Act -- Clauses necessary in the bye-laws with regard - to deposit -- Form of notice in respect of deposit of plans -- - Suggestions for town surveyor in connection with this duty and - examination of plans -- Supervision of buildings in course of erection - -- Stringency of bye-laws -- Protection of life from fire necessary -- - Party walls through roofs -- Space at back -- Fee for inspection 206 - - CHAPTER XIX. - SCAVENGING. - - The Public Health Act on the subject -- List of duties involved by the - clauses of the Act -- What is house refuse? -- Removal of trade or - garden refuse -- Position of dust bin -- Objections to fixed bin -- - Different methods of collection of refuse -- Public dust bins -- House - to house call -- Receptacles brought out into streets -- Carts - employed for scavenging -- Life and cost of wooden carts -- Improved - sanitary carts -- Disposal of refuse -- Methods adopted in various - towns -- Destruction by fire -- Cleansing of streets -- Machinery v. - hand labour -- Durability of brooms -- Scavenging at Liverpool -- - Quantity of material removed from roads -- Cleansing private courts - and alleys -- Removal of snow -- Mr. Hayward on the subject -- - Clarke’s apparatus -- Hints on removal of snow -- Street watering -- - Several methods described -- Brown’s system -- Mr. Parry on hand- - watering -- Headley’s machine -- Street watering in Paris -- Bayley’s - Hydrostatic Van -- Mr. Scott on watering and stand-pipes -- Advantage - of using disinfectant with water -- Cost of scavenging, &c. -- Heads - for a contract -- Administration of work without intervention of - contractor the best 221 - - CHAPTER XX. - SEWERAGE. - - Public Health Act on the subject -- Definition of sewer -- Definitions - of sewerage and sewage -- Requirements of good system of sewerage -- - Position of sewers should be at back of houses -- Form of notice to - carry sewer through private lands -- Hints for carrying out sewerage - -- Stamford’s joint -- Pipe sewers -- Drawing of various pipes -- - Causes of breakage -- Causes of chokage -- Separate system -- - Advantages of partial separation -- List of different methods of - sewerage -- Dry systems 251 - - CHAPTER XXI. - SEWAGE DISPOSAL. - - Magnitude of question -- Interception -- List of methods of disposal - -- Tidal outfalls -- Broad irrigation -- Crops for sewage -- - Intermittent filtration -- Action of earth on sewage -- Mechanical - subsidence -- Artificial filters -- Screening -- Precipitation -- List - of chemical processes -- List of chemical ingredients -- Disposal of - sludge -- Effect of plants on sewage 263 - - CHAPTER XXII. - VENTILATION OF SEWERS. - - Duty of dealing with noxious sewer vapours -- Germ theory and open - ventilation -- Open shafts and objections to them -- Shafts against - dwellings -- Use of rainwater pipes -- Use of lamp posts -- Charcoal - trays -- Use of chimney shafts -- Lofty shafts -- Failure of furnaces - -- List of methods tried -- Annihilation of sewer gas -- Composition - of sewer gas -- Direction of flow -- Importance of disconnecting house - drains 271 - - CHAPTER XXIII. - PUBLIC CONVENIENCES. - - Clause of Public Health Act empowering their erection -- Selection of - site -- Construction of Urinals -- Why iron is preferable -- - Description of urinals -- Public w. c. accommodation -- Description of - a simple w. c. -- Jennings and Macfarlane for urinals 280 - - CHAPTER XXIV. - ARTIZANS AND LABOURERS’ DWELLINGS. - - The Act of 1868 -- Mode of procedure under it -- Amendment of Act in - 1879 -- Further amendment in 1882 -- Importance of this amendment -- - Act of 1875 for improvement of dwellings of working classes -- Mode - of procedure under it -- Amended by Act of 1879 -- Further amended, - 1882 -- Duties of surveyor under these acts -- Health of model - dwellings -- Description of industrial dwellings -- Labouring classes’ - Lodging Houses Acts -- Copy of bye-laws under them -- Table of sizes - of rooms 284 - - CHAPTER XXV. - DEFECTS IN DWELLING-HOUSES, ETC. - - Cellar dwellings -- Clauses of the Public Health Act on the subject -- - Insufficient w. c. accommodation -- Clauses on the subject -- Forms of - notice to be served -- W. C. accommodation for factories -- Houses - without a proper supply of water -- Clauses on the subject -- Mode of - procedure -- Disadvantages of cistern storage 295 - - CHAPTER XXVI. - HOUSE DRAINAGE. - - Definition of drain -- Difficulty of always deciding what is a drain - -- Duties of surveyor in connection with house drainage -- Inspection - of new drains -- Form of “regulations” necessary by a local authority - -- Difficulty of efficient inspection -- Drains of new buildings -- - Inspection of defective drains -- Several clauses of the Public Health - Act on the subject -- Procedure necessary to carry them out -- List of - a few requirements of good house drainage -- Necessity of register of - all house drains 303 - - CHAPTER XXVII. - PUBLIC PLEASURE GROUNDS AND STREET TREES. - - Law empowering acquisition and maintenance of parks, &c. -- Duties of - surveyor in connection therewith -- Public playgrounds -- A few hints - -- List of a few useful shrubs -- Trees in gales -- Planting trees at - sides of streets -- Qualities necessary in trees for this purpose -- - List of suitable trees -- Precautions necessary -- Grating and grill - -- Description of Paris planting -- Cost of trees in Paris -- Damage - to street trees 318 - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - PUBLIC ABATTOIRS. - - Necessity and law for their establishment -- Defects of private - slaughter-houses -- Legal powers to close private slaughter-houses -- - Particulars of London private slaughter-houses -- Site of public - abattoir -- The Manchester abattoir -- Accommodation necessary -- - Lairs and pens -- The killing-house -- Floor, drainage, rings, pole- - axe, lighting, &c. -- Machinery for hoisting -- Plans of public - abattoir -- Condemned meat department -- Pig-killing department -- - Blood-house -- Tripery -- Tallow market -- Other accommodation -- Dr. - Chancellor on slaughter-houses -- Difference between public and - private slaughter-houses 328 - - CHAPTER XXIX. - MARKETS. - - Law authorizing their establishment -- Site for a cattle market -- - Accommodation necessary -- Paving -- Cattle enclosures -- Sheep pens - -- Dimensions of pens and lairs -- Weighing machine -- Markets for - general merchandise -- List of requirements -- A few hints on their - accommodation 344 - - CHAPTER XXX. - CEMETERIES. - - The surveyor’s duties in connection with these -- Some legal points to - be remembered -- Selection of site on sanitary grounds -- Mr. Eassie - on soils -- Dr. Parsons on requirements of cemeteries -- Unsuitability - of clay soil -- Amount of land necessary -- Points to be considered in - laying out a cemetery -- Division of cemetery -- Description of - sections -- Cemetery rules and regulations -- Suitable trees for - cemeteries -- Regulations by Secretary of State, 1863 -- Cremation -- - Its great advantages over burial -- Area of some existing cemeteries - -- Necessity for reliable information as to causes of death 350 - - CHAPTER XXXI. - MORTUARIES. - - Evils arising from keeping corpses -- Some clauses of the Public - Health Act on the subject -- List of different descriptions of - mortuaries -- A German Leichenhaus -- Requirements of a mortuary -- - The chapel -- The dead-house -- The post-mortem room -- The coroner’s - court -- Other accommodation necessary -- Plan of a model mortuary -- - Disinfection -- Apparatus necessary -- Dr. Ransom’s machine -- - Fetching infected clothing 365 - - CHAPTER XXXII. - BORROWING UNDER THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD. - - Clauses of the Public Health Act -- Stimulus to public works -- List - of time for which money can be borrowed -- Mr. Rawlinson on procedure - and plans, &c., necessary -- Responsibility of Local Government Board - -- Captain Galton on Government responsibility 375 - - CHAPTER XXXIII. - CONTRACTS. - - Clauses of Public Health Act -- Public contracts different from - private ones -- Specifications necessary -- Conclusion -- A list of - useful books 381 - - - - - MUNICIPAL - AND - SANITARY ENGINEERS’ - HANDBOOK. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE TOWN SURVEYOR. - - -The office of town surveyor was first legalised by the Towns Improvement -Clauses Act 1847 (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 7),[1] although for some -considerable period prior to this date similar appointments had been -made in several of the more important English towns, notably in the case -of Liverpool. In the following year the legal office of surveyor was -confirmed by the Public Health Act 1848 (11 & 12 Vic. c. 63, s. 37), and -it is now law under the Public Health Act 1875 (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55): -that comprehensive statute, under which all Sanitary Acts are now -included, and which Act will be frequently alluded to in the course of -this book. - -The clause which specially refers to the appointment of the surveyor is -as follows:-- - -“Every urban authority shall from time to time appoint fit and proper -persons to be medical officer of health, surveyor, inspector of -nuisances, clerk, and treasurer: Provided that if any such authority is -empowered by any other Act in force within their district to appoint -any such officer, this enactment shall be deemed to be satisfied by the -employment under this Act of the officer so appointed, with such -additional remuneration as they think fit, and no second appointment -shall be made under this Act. Every urban authority shall also appoint -or employ such assistants, collectors, and other officers and servants -as may be necessary and proper for the efficient execution of this Act, -and may make regulations with respect to the duties and conduct of the -officers and servants so appointed or employed . . .” (38 & 39 Vic. c. -55, s. 189), and these officers (except the medical officer of health -and the inspector of nuisances, when any portion of their salary is paid -out of moneys voted by Parliament _to the powers of the Local Government -Board_), may be removed by the urban authority at their pleasure, which -was not the case when the appointment was first made in 1847. - -Here it is necessary to state that for sanitary purposes England and -Wales are divided into two divisions--viz. urban sanitary districts and -rural sanitary districts, the former of these divisions being further -subdivided into boroughs, where the urban sanitary authority is the -mayor, aldermen, and burgesses acting by the council, and districts, -which are under the authority of improvement commissioners or local -boards; the rural sanitary districts are the areas of unions not -included in urban districts, and they are under the authority of the -guardians of the union. - -It is my intention to deal more particularly with the duties of a -surveyor acting under an urban authority, but the following section of -the Public Health Act 1875 relates apparently to the appointment of a -surveyor to a rural authority, although no mention is made in this or -any other clause of the Act directly of such an officer by name, except -that amongst the definitions of the Public Health Act the following -appears:-- - -“‘Surveyor’ includes any person appointed by a rural authority to -perform any of the duties of surveyor under this Act” (38 & 39 Vic. c. -55, s. 4). - -The clause I have above referred to is as follows:-- - -“Every rural authority shall from time to time appoint fit and proper -persons to be medical officer or officers of health and inspector or -inspectors of nuisances; they shall also appoint such assistants and -other officers and servants as may be necessary and proper for the -efficient execution of this Act . . .” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 190). - -The following clauses apply to officers of rural as well as urban -authorities:-- - -“The same person may be both surveyor and inspector of nuisances . . .” -(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 192). - -“Officers or servants appointed or employed under this Act by the local -authority shall not in any wise be concerned or interested in any -bargain or contract made with such authority for any of the purposes of -this Act . . .” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 193). - -“Before any officer or servant of a local authority enters on any office -or employment under this Act by reason whereof he will or may be -entrusted with the custody or control of money, the local authority by -whom he is appointed shall take from him sufficient security for the -faithful execution of such office or employment and for duly accounting -for all moneys which may be entrusted to him by reason thereof” (38 & 39 -Vic. c. 55, s. 194). - -In addition to these clauses there are several regulating the receipt of -money by officers, but these should not affect the town surveyor. -Although in many places he has the onerous duty of paying workmen, -certifying tradesmen’s accounts, and other financial transactions, he -ought under no circumstances to have anything to do with the receipt of -money. Unfortunately, in some of the smaller towns the surveyor is also -employed as rate collector; but as this is evidently a very improper -proceeding, I shall not further allude to it in any manner. - -It will be observed that in the foregoing clauses of the Public Health -Act the word “surveyor” is always used, and thus this is the legal title -of those holding such appointments. It is obvious, however, that, -although this title may have well suited the office up to the year 1847, -when it was made the legal title, the prodigious growth of municipal -work during the last 35 years has made it necessary that some change -should be made, and the title altered to that of “engineer,” or some -other similar suitable name. At the present time several different -meanings and occupations are attached to the word “surveyor,” as the -following list will show:--“land surveyor,” “district surveyor,” “county -surveyor,” “road surveyor,” “surveyor of taxes,” “surveyor of customs,” -“quantity surveyor,” “fire insurance surveyor,” “Lloyd’s surveyor,” and -a still more curious instance where an urban authority is itself dubbed -“surveyor of highways” by the 144th section of the Public Health Act -1875; and the title of town surveyor as now applied cannot but lead to -confusion and to perfectly erroneous impressions as to his work and -duties. - -Dr. Ackland, in a paper read before the Association of Municipal and -Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors, at a district meeting held at Oxford, -makes the following remarks on this point:--“In the Public Health Act -1875 (the summary of all health enactments) the name of ‘engineer’ does -not once occur in the 343 clauses. He is still the old ‘surveyor’ we all -remember, the plodding, energetic man of highways and byeways . . . but -then the surveyor of the present day may be called on to advise on -anything, from the form and cost of an earthen syphon trap to the -calculation of work to be done by engines which are to supply half a -million of persons with water; to be responsible for the construction of -sanitary mechanisms, from a housemaid’s sink to an intermittent downward -filtration farm.” - -There can be but little doubt that it is absolutely necessary for the -town surveyor of the present day to be a competent civil engineer of -great knowledge and varied experience, for he may at any moment be -called upon to advise his corporation upon any of the following -subjects, or to act in any one of the following capacities, in addition -to the multifarious ordinary duties legally devolving upon him as -surveyor under the Sanitary Acts:-- - -(1.) As engineer for sewerage and sewage works. - -(2.) As engineer for water and gas works. - -(3.) As engineer for canals, docks, harbour improvements, and river -navigation, or for the protection of coasts against the encroachments of -the sea, and the prevention of floods by rivers. - -(4.) As engineer for the construction and maintenance of roads and -bridges. - -(5.) As engineer for the construction and maintenance of lines of -tramways. - -(6.) As architect for the construction of lunatic asylums, municipal -offices, hospitals, abattoirs, mortuaries, baths and wash-houses, -cemetery chapels, stables, police stations, and other similar works. - -(7.) As landscape gardener for the laying out of public recreation -grounds, parks, and cemeteries. - -(8.) As quantity surveyor to make estimates of all works, and often -(very improperly) to furnish bills of quantities to intending -contractors. - -(9.) As surveyor and valuer to advise his employers on the values, &c., -of corporate or other property. - -(10.) As land surveyor to make surveys of any size that may be required. - -(11.) As accountant to examine and rectify the workmen’s wages sheets, -and all tradesmen’s accounts for work performed or goods supplied. - -The foregoing list is no exaggeration of the onerous duties of the town -surveyor, and it seems to be a grievous mistake that this officer, whose -importance in all practical sanitary work cannot be over-stated (as -without him no useful municipal work could go on) has been left -unprotected by the Public Health Act of 1875. - -In that Act both the medical officer of health and the inspector of -nuisances have received Government protection, whereas the surveyor, the -very officer of all others who necessarily is more likely to come into -collision and to be unpopular with his employers in the faithful -discharge of his duties, has been afforded no protection whatever, but -has been left to the tender mercies of an annually changing body of -municipal governors, “to be removable at their pleasure” (38 & 39 Vic., -c. 55, s. 189). - -On this highly important point I cannot do better than quote several -passages from Mr. Lewis Angell’s interesting address to the Association -of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors on the occasion of -their inauguration in the year 1873:[2] - -“The ‘town surveyor,’ according to his opportunities, has done the -country good service, but, surrounded as we have been with obstructions -and difficulties, cramped and restricted by popular prejudices and -private interest, subject to clamour and attack, without protection and -without appeal, it is indeed surprising that we have accomplished so -much. Had such officers been from the first judiciously selected, -adequately remunerated, properly supported, and duly protected, our -influence upon sanitary progress would have been more conspicuous and -our office better appreciated. - -“As engineers we do not pretend to a knowledge of medical science, but -it is equally within the knowledge of the average sanitary engineer as -of a medical officer of health that pure air, pure water, properly -constructed houses, and an unpolluted soil are the cardinal conditions -of health. These are mere sanitary axioms. The means by which such -conditions are attained are drainage, ventilation, water-supply, and -other matters entirely within the functions of the engineer. It is the -function of the sanitary engineer to prevent that which the medical -officer of health is called upon to detect. . . . - -“In many cases the unprotected surveyor may be required to report to a -protected medical officer the negligence of his own employers. No local -surveyor or engineer can be expected to give cordial and active -assistance in compulsory sanitary work when he is conscious that his -action would be opposed to the views or the interests of his employers, -the public upon whom he is dependent. The existence of such a -distinction between the medical officer and surveyor under the same -board will produce a want of harmony in interest, and must lead to a -divergence of action between the two departments. . . .” - -And speaking of the multifarious duties of the town surveyor, Mr. Angell -says: “Any one section of his duties would, under commercial -circumstances, command fair pay according to its importance; but where -cumulative duties are included in the same office, they demand constant -attention, special knowledge, professional experience, and -administrative ability; to which is added the anxiety which the -responsibilities of public office always involve. Such a position in a -commercial concern would receive high remuneration in proportion to the -extent of the undertaking, but unfortunately, our work does not pay a -dividend: it is all expenditure from which the town derives no return -excepting in health and comfort, matters which are neither fairly -assessed, nor duly appreciated; consequently, the municipal engineer is -paid less for his professional knowledge than the contractor’s agent -whose work he directs.” - -Speaking further on the subject of Government protection, Mr. Angell -says: “Surveyors appointed under the Towns Improvement Clauses Act were -protected during the existence of the General Board of Health. Sir C. -Adderley’s Public Health and Local Government Bill of 1872 proposed -similar protection. Officers employed under the Poor Laws are fully -protected as to position, emoluments, and superannuation. The -administration of the Poor Laws and the Public Health Acts is now united -in one department under the newly established Local Government Board: it -is therefore in my opinion equally due to Local Board officers, that -they also should be recognised and protected. Without such protection, -sanitary legislation cannot, in the words of the Royal Sanitary -Commission, be ‘active and effective,’ because local officers are too -dependent on their immediate employers to be thoroughly efficient. - -“In advocating protection let me not be misunderstood. I do not mean -centralisation or the removal of that proper control which every local -authority should maintain over its own officers. I would maintain intact -the great principle of local government, which has been the bulwark of -our social and political freedom. But local government may degenerate, -and in small towns deteriorate into littleness: local affairs are too -frequently avoided by those who are most fitted by intelligence and -social standing to take part therein. I would simply control in the most -constitutional manner the short-comings or excesses of local government -as is already done in various other departments. I would require that -local officers should be properly qualified and adequately remunerated; -that in the honest discharge of their duties and during good behaviour -they should be protected from the effects of ignorance, narrow -prejudices, and interested clamour, and that they should have an appeal -to a disinterested and judicial body, superior to local feeling. The -demand is reasonable--I ask no more. . . . .” - -To these admirable remarks by Mr. Angell on the present position of the -town surveyor I can add but little. - -I believe that the sole reason which is given why Government protection -is not granted to the surveyor is the argument used by those in -authority, that if a surveyor disagrees with the corporation he serves, -it is considered better that he should resign his appointment rather -than be protected by the Local Government Board or other central office; -but if this argument is sound, why does it not also apply in a similar -manner to the medical officer of health or the inspector of nuisances? -The real fact no doubt is, that in framing the Public Health Act of -1875, medical men were consulted and not engineers, and this is very -apparent in many of the clauses, which will be fully considered in their -proper places in this book. - -The time will no doubt come when the necessity for some change in the -position of the town surveyor will be apparent, and adequate protection -will be afforded him; in the meantime let him strive, by attention to -work, and by daily advancement in scientific knowledge, and in courtesy -to those with whom he is associated, to make the position and power of -the town surveyor felt and honoured as it should be throughout the -kingdom. - - [1] The section is as follows:--“The Commissioners shall appoint, - subject to the prescribed approval, or where no approval is - prescribed, subject to approval by one of Her Majesty’s principal - Secretaries of State, a person duly qualified to act as a local - surveyor of the paving, drainage, and other works authorized under the - provisions of this and the special Act . . . . . . and the - Commissioners with the like approval may remove any such surveyor.” - - [2] _Vide_ ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and - Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. i. p. 18. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE APPOINTMENT OF SURVEYOR. - - -Whenever a vacancy occurs in the office of surveyor to a town, or upon a -sanitary authority determining to make such an appointment, the question -is usually relegated to a committee or sub-committee to report upon the -subject, to fix the amount of salary proposed to be given, and frame the -duties of the office. - -The following report is one that has lately emanated from an important -English borough, and is given in full as a specimen of such reports, and -as a guide on which a report could be framed; altered, of course, to -such requirements as may be locally necessary:-- - -_Report of the Special Sub-Committee as to the Surveyor._ - -(1.) Your sub-committee report that they have, in compliance with the -resolution of the day of , carefully considered the steps to be -taken with reference to the vacancy caused by Mr. ------’s resignation, -and they have come to the unanimous conclusion that it is desirable that -the office of surveyor should be continued. - -(2.) Your sub-committee have also considered the duties which were -assigned to the office of Mr. ------’s appointment, and they beg now to -submit them, revised in accordance with the present circumstances of the -department, and with the recommendations contained in this report. - -(3.) Your sub-committee further recommend that the salary of the -surveyor be fixed at £ . . per annum, and that advertisements be issued -for candidates. - -_Duties of the Surveyor._ - -(1.) To have charge of the repairs of all highways, and to perform all -duties devolving on the council as surveyors of highways. - -(2.) To report from time to time to the committee superintending the -same, the state of the several highways and lines of tramway, and as to -the materials wanted or works necessary. - -(3.) To prepare all plans, specifications, or instructions necessary in -relation thereto, and as to the materials to be used therein, and to see -that all works are completed according to contracts entered into. - -(4.) To engage and dismiss under sanction of the committee all workmen -employed at daily and weekly wages.[3] - -(5.) To certify all accounts for work done, materials supplied, and -wages due. - -(6.) To have charge of all materials and implements. - -(7.) To purchase or contract for, or hire all horses, carts, tumbrils, -stones, flags, gravel, draining pipes, and proper implements and -materials, and all other matters and things, at such prices and in such -manner as the committee shall judge reasonable and expedient, and to -sell or otherwise dispose of the same as he may be directed. - -(8.) To have the entire charge and superintendence of the breaking up -and repairing of all streets, for the purpose of laying or replacing gas -and water pipes. - -(9.) To inspect and report, in conjunction with the medical officer of -health, upon slaughter-houses preliminary to licences being granted, and -to make the plans and superintend the construction of any -slaughter-houses which the council may hereafter erect. - -(10.) To take all levels and surveys which may be necessary for the -purpose of deciding on the best mode of draining the several districts, -or any part thereof, or for the purpose of fixing the levels and -inclinations of any streets or roads, or in anywise relating thereto. - -(11.) To carry out the scheme now in course of construction for the -interception of the sewage of the borough, and any future scheme, for -its precipitation, filtration, deodorization, or any other process which -the council may adopt, either within or without the borough. - -(12.) To superintend the construction and completion of all tramway -lines and sidings which may be required. - -(13.) To prepare, from time to time, schemes for the drainage of the -several districts or any part thereof. - -(14.) To prepare all such plans, sections, and specifications as may be -necessary for the due execution of any flagging, paving, sewering, or -other works required to be done, or for entering into any contracts in -relation thereto, and to see that all works are executed in accordance -therewith. - -(15.) To measure up and duly certify the execution of all works, and -apportion the cost to the parties chargeable therewith. - -(16.) To see that all house drains, which may from time to time be -carried into any public sewer, are made and connected in accordance with -the regulations. - -(17.) To give to the several contractors performing any works, orders -for the same in writing only, keeping duplicates thereof, duly entered -in a book to be kept by him for that purpose. - -(18.) To prepare all plans, drawings, and estimates required, and to -superintend the execution of all improvements. - -(19.) To see that no encroachments be made on any highway or public -place. - -(20.) To advise on, and execute, all engineering works, and prepare all -such plans, specifications, and estimates of, and take out quantities -for, such sewers, buildings, bridges, and works as may be required, and -to superintend the erection and execution thereof. - -(21.) To have in his charge, and be responsible for, the proper -management of all buildings and properties belonging to the corporation, -or for the repair and maintenance of which the corporation is liable, -except otherwise directed by the council. - -(22.) To examine and report upon all plans and elevations of buildings -proposed to be erected or altered upon land sold or leased by the -corporation. - -(23.) To inspect and report on plans of new streets to be laid out, of -houses to be built, and of buildings to be erected or altered. - -(24) To see that all streets are properly named, and that the name -plates are kept in good order. - -(25.) To act as building surveyor in all matters relating to the -execution of the Sanitary and Local Acts, and to examine and certify new -houses as fit for habitation. - -(26.) To examine all buildings in a condition dangerous to the public, -to report thereon, and to take such steps as may be necessary to prevent -accidents arising therefrom. - -(27.) To prepare all plans and sections for deposit, pursuant to -Standing Orders, with respect to all street improvements, tramways, -gasworks, waterworks, or other works, unless otherwise ordered by the -council, and to prepare all other surveys, plans, and sections required. - -(28.) To attend the meetings of the several committees when required. - -(29.) To prepare all returns relating to his office that may be required -by the Government. - -(30.) To attend in London or elsewhere when required, without extra -charge, excepting only his travelling and hotel expenses. - -(31.) To keep accurate permanent records and plans relating to all -properties purchased, leased, or sold, or in possession. - -(32.) To devote the whole of his time to the duties of his office, and -not to be engaged in any other office, business, or employment -whatever. - -(33.) To report from time to time all and every matter connected with -any branch of his office which, in his opinion, may require the -attention of any committee, and take their instructions thereon. - - * * * * * - -Clauses 18 and 20 in the above list of duties are very comprehensive, -and as a rule a town surveyor’s duties may be summed up in a very few -words--“to do anything that he is requested.” It is, however, better -that some definite instructions should be laid down, and those which I -have given may be taken as a fair specimen of what such duties may be. - -Unlike the medical officer of health, who by Act of Parliament is -required to hold a diploma of competency,[4] it is open to anyone to -apply for and obtain the appointment of a town surveyor. This is no -doubt unfortunate, as some test of merit is desirable, and of late years -the necessity of some examination as to competency has been much -discussed. - -In order to meet this requirement, the Sanitary Institute of Great -Britain has instituted examinations and granted certificates of -competency for both town surveyors and inspectors of nuisances. The -following particulars of these examinations, and the reasons given for -their necessity, may be of interest, and are given in full.[5] - - -_Examination of Local Surveyors and Inspectors of Nuisances._ - -The great and increasing importance of the duties devolving upon local -surveyors and inspectors of nuisances in connection with the various -statutes relating to Public Health and the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, -has led the council of the Institute to establish voluntary examinations -for local surveyors and inspectors of nuisances, and for persons -desirous of becoming such, or of obtaining the certificate of the -Institute. - -Each examination occupies a portion of two days. On the first day the -examination of surveyors is continued for four hours, viz. from 2 to 4 -and 6 to 8 P.M. and consists of written papers only. Inspectors of -nuisances have two hours’ written examination on the first day, viz. -from 4 to 6 P.M. On the second day the examination for both classes -commences at 11 A.M., and is _vivâ voce_; with one or more questions to -be answered in writing if deemed necessary. A certificate of competence -signed by the examiners is granted to successful candidates. - -As rural sanitary authorities are able under the Public Health Act 1875 -to obtain almost all the powers of urban sanitary authorities, it is not -considered advisable to make any distinction in the examination of the -two classes of surveyors. - -As one person may, under the Public Health Act 1875, be both local -surveyor and inspector of nuisances, candidates wishing to obtain the -double qualification may enter for both examinations on the same -occasion. - -Candidates are required to furnish to the council of the Institute -satisfactory testimonials as to personal character, and to give two -weeks’ notice to the secretary previous to presenting themselves for -examination, stating whether they wish to be examined as surveyors or -inspectors of nuisances, or as both. - -The fee for the examination must be paid to the secretary, by -post-office order or otherwise, at least six days before the the day of -examination. On receipt of the fee a ticket will be forwarded admitting -to the examination. - -The fees payable for the examination are as follows:-- - - For Surveyors £5 5 0 - For Inspectors of Nuisances 2 2 0 - -Unsuccessful candidates are allowed to present themselves a second time -for one fee. - - -_Syllabus of Subjects for Examination for Local Surveyors._ - - -_Laws and Bye-Laws._--A thorough knowledge of the Acts affecting -sanitary authorities, so far as they relate to the duties of local -surveyors; also of the model bye-laws issued by the Local Government -Board. - - -_Sewerage and Drainage._--The sanitary principles which should be -observed in the preparation of schemes for, and the construction of -sewerage works; the ventilating and flushing of sewers and drains; the -internal drainage and other sanitary arrangements of houses, privies, -water-closets, dry-closets, and the removal of refuse; the sanitary -details of builders’ and plumbers’ work. - - -_Water Supply of Towns and Houses._--The sanitary principles which -should be observed in the preparation of schemes for, and the -construction of water-works; the various ways in which water is likely -to become polluted and the best means of ensuring its purity. - - -_Regulations of Cellar Dwellings and Lodging Houses._--General -principles of ventilation; the amount of air and space necessary for men -and animals; the means of supplying air, and of ensuring its purity. - - -_Highways and Streets._--The sanitary principles which should be -observed in the construction and cleansing of streets and roads. - - -EXAMINATION PAPERS, NOVEMBER 6, 1879. - -_Questions for Surveyors, November 6, 1879, 2 to 4 o’clock._ - -1. Define street; state the law applicable to every description of -street in an urban sanitary authority district, and the rights and -obligations and duties of sanitary authorities, owners and occupiers -therein. - -2. What are the relative advantages of circular and egg-shaped sewers; -in what case are they respectively preferred? - -3. Give a specification of a water-tight sewer. Describe and give a -sketch of the form of man-hole which you consider best adapted for -ordinary town sewers, and state the rule which you adopt for determining -the amount of ventilation to be afforded in a main street sewer. - -4. In what way does the size and shape of the sewer affect the velocity -of sewage flowing through it? If a nine-inch pipe sewer, laid at an -inclination of 1 in 200, gives a velocity of 3 feet per second, what -velocity will it give when laid at an inclination of 1 in 800, the pipe -running full in each case? Will this velocity suffice to keep it clear -from deposits? Describe the various modes which may be resorted to for -flushing sewers. - -5. Give a description of the process termed intermittent downward -filtration. State what area of land you would require, with a gravelly -soil, for applying this method of purifying sewage to a town with a -population of 1000 inhabitants, and state the arrangements you would -adopt for dealing with the rain-water falling on the roofs, yards, and -streets. - -_November 6, 1879, 6 to 8 o’clock._ - -1. In reporting upon the source of water supply for a town, what are the -points to which you would direct your attention? - -2. Give a sketch of a ~D~ trap, an ~S~ trap, a ~P~ trap, and a pan water -closet (plan of a dwelling-house annexed). - -3. Criticise the arrangements of this residence as to position of rooms, -walls, doors, fire places, windows, &c., from a sanitary point of view. - -4. Describe the drainage arrangements shown on the plan. Say whether -they are satisfactory; if not, in what way are they faulty? - -5. Sketch on the plan any other system of drains which you would think -preferable. - -6. Describe in detail the arrangements necessary for the water supply -of the residence, a bath being fixed in the room over the serving room, -a W.C. on the first floor over that on the ground floor, and a -housemaid’s sink near. - - * * * * * - -It is, of course, open to consideration whether the Sanitary Institute -of Great Britain is the proper authority to hold these examinations or -not; but there is no doubt that some such examination is necessary, and -would be welcomed by nearly all town surveyors in order to more firmly -secure their positions; and the Sanitary Institute is entitled to every -credit for having taken the initiative step in the matter. - -Under the present system of appointment to the office of town surveyor -those seeking that office must be prepared to work hard to obtain it, -and to give up some considerable time to its acquisition. Tact, -patience, and perseverance are indispensable qualities when seeking such -appointments, and the following suggestions on this matter may be of -use. - -The appointment usually rests finally with the whole body of the town -council or corporation, even if a sub-committee or committee has been -appointed in the first case to make some selection of candidates. The -candidates thus selected by the committee are usually requested to -appear before the whole body of the town council, who then make the -appointment from amongst them. - -The first thing a candidate should do when he hears of a vacancy -occurring in the office of a town surveyor, or sees an advertisement -requiring a surveyor’s services, is to obtain fresh testimonials from -those persons of position and influence for whom he has worked or who -know him professionally. These testimonials, with any very good old ones -(but not too many of either), should be sent by post to the town clerk -or person mentioned in the advertisement, with a formal, -carefully-worded application for the appointment. - -If canvassing is not prohibited, a list of the members of the town -council, with their addresses, should then be procured, to whom printed -copies of the application and testimonials should be sent, accompanied -by an autograph letter asking that the application and testimonials -should be read. - -This should be followed up (if possible, immediately), by a journey to -the town and a personal visit to each member of the council or -corporation, not necessarily for the purpose of soliciting a vote, but -with a view to making the acquaintance of the members of the corporation -and to identify the applicant with his testimonials; and in these visits -great tact and patience are necessary. It is also of importance to seek -and obtain all the outside influence that is possible, in order to bear -upon the members of the corporation, by means of letters of -introduction, and informal testimonials as to eligibility for the -appointment, and personal character and position, &c. - -Canvassing on behalf of oneself is extremely unpleasant and harrassing -work; but wrong as the system may appear to be, it is not easy to see -how, in municipal government, any other method can be adopted, and the -visit of the candidate to each member gives the latter an opportunity of -asking him questions and satisfying himself as to his qualifications, -and thus he will not feel he is acting blindly when he gives his vote in -favour of that candidate whom he thinks, after a personal interview, the -most suitable for the appointment. - - [3] This seems to be an undue interference with the control which a - surveyor should always have over his men. - - [4] “A person shall not be appointed Medical Officer of Health under - this Act unless he is a legally qualified medical practitioner” (38 & - 39 Vic. c. 55, sec. 191). - - [5] _Vide_ ‘Calendar of the Sanitary Institution of Great Britain for - the year 1880.’ - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE SURVEYOR’S DUTIES. - - -It will be observed on reference to the list of the duties of the -surveyor, given in the preceding chapter, that the first on the list is -as follows:-- - -“To have charge of the repairs of all highways, and to perform all -duties devolving on the council as surveyors of highways.” - -The necessity for these duties are obvious when we turn to the Public -Health Act 1875, and read the following sections:--[6] - -“Every urban authority shall within their district, exclusively of any -other person, execute the office of and be surveyor of highways, and -have, exercise, and be subject to all the powers, authorities, duties, -and liabilities of surveyors of highways under the law for the time -being in force, save so far as such powers, authorities, or duties are -or may be inconsistent with the provisions of this Act; every urban -authority shall also have, exercise, and be subject to all the powers, -authorities, duties, and liabilities which by the Highway Act 1835, or -any Act amending the same, are vested in and given to the inhabitants in -vestry assembled of any parish within their district. - -“All ministerial acts required by any Act of Parliament to be done by or -to the surveyor of highways may be done by or to the surveyor of the -urban authority, or by or to such other person as they may appoint” (38 -& 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 144). - -“All streets being or which at any time become highways repairable by -the inhabitants at large within any urban district, and the pavements, -stones, and other materials thereof, and all buildings, implements, and -other things provided for the purposes thereof, shall vest in and be -under the control of the urban authority. The urban authority shall from -time to time cause all such streets to be levelled, paved, metalled, -flagged, channelled, altered, and repaired as occasion may require; they -may from time to time cause the soil of any such street to be raised, -lowered, or altered as they may think fit, and may place and may keep in -repair fences and posts for the safety of foot-passengers. Any person -who without the consent of the urban authority wilfully displaces, or -takes up, or who injures the pavement, stones, material, fences, or -posts of, or the trees in, any such street shall be liable to a penalty -not exceeding five pounds, and to a further penalty not exceeding five -shillings for every square foot of pavement, stones, or other materials -so displaced, taken up, or injured; he shall also be liable, in the case -of any injury to trees, to pay to the local authority such amount of -compensation as the court may award” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 149). - -The duties thus devolving upon the town surveyor by reason of these -sections and the orders of the council are very considerable. The -following table gives a list of the principal subjects which will -require his attention; all of which will be considered in due course in -this book. - - -_List of Duties devolving upon a Town Surveyor as “Surveyor of -Highways.”_ - -(1.) The construction and maintenance of highways or streets, -including-- - - (_a._) Roads formed of broken stones or “metal,” commonly called - macadamised roadways; - - (_b._) Streets paved with granite cubes or setts; - - (_c._) Streets paved with wood; - - (_d._) Streets paved with asphalte. - -(2.) The construction and maintenance of footwalks or footpaths, -including the different materials of which these are formed. - -(3.) The breaking of stone for road metal. - -(4.) Steam rolling. - -(5.) The necessary notices and specifications under the 150th Section of -the Public Health Act 1875, for the purpose of compelling private -streets to be properly sewered, levelled, paved, metalled, flagged, -channelled, lighted, and made good. - -(6.) The lighting, cleansing, and watering of streets. - -(7.) The naming and numbering of streets. - -(8.) The planting of trees along the sides of footwalks. - -(9.) Obstructions caused by builders’ rubbish or by hoardings and -scaffold poles; and also by dangerous or defective cellar coverings. - -(10.) The damage caused to footpaths by allowing water from private -premises to flow over them, and the nuisance caused by defective -rain-water gutters or shutes. - -(11.) The damage caused to roadways by the laying or removal of gas and -water mains and services, and the surveyor’s powers and duties in -connection therewith. - -(12.) The importance, especially in old towns, of laying down improved -building lines of frontage in the narrower or crooked streets. - -(13.) The examination of all plans of proposed new streets or buildings. - -(14.) The supervision of all new streets and buildings whilst their -construction is in progress. - -(15.) Dealing with all buildings in a condition dangerous to the public. - -Each of the foregoing list of duties will be dealt with in separate -chapters in addition to other matters which will be treated, but before -closing this chapter a few words upon the subject of “meetings” may be -of use. - -It will be observed upon reference to the list which I have given of -the duties of the surveyor, that there is one which says, “To attend all -meetings of the board, and committee meetings, except where his -attendance has been previously dispensed with; to attend upon the -chairman when so required.” - -The result of this order is that a very large percentage of the -surveyor’s time has to be devoted to attendances at long meetings of the -Board or town council, and at the numerous committee and sub-committee -meetings which are appointed under it. - -This work is doubled where, as in some towns, the corporation and their -committees sit in a dual capacity, viz. as the council proper, and the -council as the urban sanitary authority; this generally involves two -ordinary meetings of the whole body each month, and probably at least -six committee meetings a week, leaving the surveyor but scanty time to -look properly after his works. - -With regard to these committee meetings it is necessary that each should -have some distinguishing title descriptive of the class of work over -which it has jurisdiction, and in selecting names for them the following -list may be of some service:--Finance Committee, General Purposes -Committee, Law and Parliamentary Committee, Surveyor’s Committee, Land -and Estates Committee, Rates and Taxes Committee, Streets Committee, -Lighting and Cleansing Committee, Navigation of Port Committee, Public -Grounds Committee, Sanitary Committee, Drainage and Sewerage Committee, -Markets Committee, Properties for Sale Committee, Works Committee, Water -Committee, Gas Committee, Watch Committee, Health Committee, Library -Museum and Arts Committee, Baths Committee, Parks, Gardens, and -Improvement Committee, Streets Improvement Committee, etc. etc. - -The surveyor should always endeavour to be punctual in his attendance at -the council meetings and those of the committees, as to be late is -always looked upon with disfavour. His reports should as much as -possible be in writing, so that there should be no misunderstanding as -to what his advice is on any subject. To save trouble and expense it is -well that all drawings of new schemes should be first submitted to a -committee in pencil, as they are frequently much altered; this is very -vexing if they have been neatly and highly finished. It must not be -forgotten that the gentlemen who form municipal bodies give their time -gratuitously, and everything should be done to save it as much as -possible. It is an excellent plan and a great convenience, if a surveyor -will have a series of named and numbered pigeon holes in his office -corresponding to his committees, in which to place all papers, drawings, -correspondence etc., which he intends to bring up to the next meeting of -a committee; thus saving himself flurry at the last moment before the -meeting, in endeavouring to find the papers he wants. With his varied -duties, correspondence, interviews, meetings, inspections, -investigations, reports, drawings, and calculations, the motto of a -surveyor’s office should be “method.” - - [6] For full particulars and explanations of the various Highway Acts - see ‘The Powers and Duties of Surveyors of Highways and of other - Authorities with regard to the Management of the Public Highways,’ by - Alex. Glen, M.A., etc. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -TRAFFIC. - - -Before a surveyor can decide upon the best material with which the -streets of his town shall be paved, it will be well to consider the -question of the class of traffic they will have to bear. - -It must be remembered that three distinct interests have to be -considered in dealing with this question, viz. (1.) The rate-payers, -upon whom the cost of construction and maintenance of streets falls. -(2.) The owners and employers of horses and vehicles who principally use -the streets; and (3.) The inhabitants of the adjoining premises, who -would be annoyed if the material selected were unduly noisy or dirty. In -addition to these considerations, much depends upon local circumstances; -the class of trade upon which the welfare of a town is dependent must -not be lost sight of. A pavement suitable for a busy, pushing -manufacturing city may not be suitable for a quiet agricultural or -cathedral town, or for a town which is used as a health resort. Again, -the question of the most adaptable materials must be considered, and the -climate and physical character of a town should enter largely also into -this question. - -To condense the requirements of a good roadway into as small a compass -as possible, the following may be given as some of its principal -requisites:-- - -(1.) It must not be extravagantly costly in its first construction. - -(2.) It must be durable and require the least possible amount of repairs -at the least cost. - -(3.) It must be safe, firm and hard, with an even face and yet giving -sufficient foothold to horses. - -(4.) It must be as noiseless as possible. - -(5.) It must be so constructed as to be quickly laid down and repaired -when broken up for water, gas, drains, or other purposes. - -(6.) It must be of strong foundation, so as to carry the heaviest weight -without subsidence. - -(7.) It must be of such a shape as will throw off all surface water at -once. - -(8.) It must be of such materials as will make a minimum of dust or mud. - -(9.) It must be easily cleansed. - -(10.) It must be non-absorbent of impurities or moisture of any kind. - -(11.) It must give easy traction upon its surface. - -(12.) It must not cause jolting to the traffic. - -(13.) It must not injure horses’ legs or hoofs. - -Of the above requirements No. 1 affects the ratepayers alone; Nos. 3, -11, 12, 13, affect the traffic only, except that the occupiers of shops -are indirectly affected by them; No. 4 affects both traffic and -occupiers, and No. 10 affects the occupiers principally. The remainder -of the requirements affect all three interests. - -With reference to the wearing effect of traffic upon the surface of the -roadway, no standard has yet been arrived at by which this can be -determined with accuracy. In France a great number of observations and -experiments have been made from time to time by the engineers of the -Ponts et Chaussées, but their practice has been to count the number of -“collars” passing a given section of a roadway in a given time, -irrespective of the weights, speeds, or number of wheels such collars -may be drawing. Mr. Deacon, the former Borough Engineer of Liverpool, -has, however, reduced traffic to a standard of tons per yard width of -roadway per annum. This he effected by having the traffic in any street -carefully watched for a certain definite time, the number of vehicles, -their character and approximate weight being noted as well as the number -of horses by which they were drawn, and their number of wheels. - -The effect of the traffic thus tabulated, arranged, and reduced to ton -yards per annum, can be ascertained upon any roadway, and Mr. Deacon has -given the results of his observations in a valuable paper on the subject -of street carriage pavements which he read before the Institution of -Civil Engineers.[7] - -Sir John MacNeill has estimated that 80 per cent. of the total wear of a -road is due to traffic, the remaining 20 per cent. being due to -atmospheric causes. Of this 80 per cent. 60 per cent. he considers is -due to the action of horses’ hoofs where the traffic is fast, and 44·5 -per cent. where the traffic is slow. General Morin estimates the wear of -a road due to horses’ feet to be two-thirds of all causes. There can be -no doubt that the action of horses’ feet, shod as they are with heavy -iron shoes with long toe pieces and heels, must have a destructive -effect upon the surface of a carriage-way, and this may be easily -observed when watching the ruts formed by any continuous line of traffic -in a roadway. - -The following remarks from a report of the Society of Arts on this -subject may here be of interest. “It may be mentioned that as respects -the horses’ shoes, attention has long been called to its defects by Sir -Francis Head and others, but Sir Joseph Whitworth now points out the -achievement of a decided and important improvement, which will have a -large effect in road conservancy, as well as the reduction of noise. The -improvement consists in the fastening of a rim of hardened steel, of -about half-an-inch square, to the horses’ feet, and letting the frog -grow to its natural size. One effect is to reduce by five-sixths the -weight of the old shoe, or in other words to reduce by five-sixths the -weight of the iron hammers constituted by the common horses’ shoes, -pounding the road surface, and creating road dust and dirt, and -distributing it about. The saving in this respect, as well as the -reduction of noise by the reduction of the weight of rim, and also the -saving of road wear, would warrant the imposition of the stimulus of a -tax, or a toll upon heavy horses’ shoes to hasten this removal.”[8] - -Up to the present date, however (1883), no general change has been -effected in the manner of shoeing horses, notwithstanding these -admirable remarks of Sir Joseph Whitworth upon the subject. - -With reference to the question of traction upon roads General Morin, in -his ‘Expériences sur le Tirage des Voitures,’ states that the resistance -to the rolling of vehicles upon solid metalled roads and pavements is -proportional to the weight and inversely proportional to the diameter of -the wheels. On solid roads he states that the resistance is nearly -independent of the width of the tires when they exceed 3 or 4 inches, -but on a compressible face it decreases in proportion to the width of -the tire; the resistance further increases with the velocity on hard -roads, but does not do so when they are soft. - -The following table is almost universally now adopted as showing the -traction upon level roads formed of different materials, asphalte being -taken as the standard of excellence in this respect. - - Asphalted roadway 1·0 - Paved roadway, dry and in good order 1·5 to 2·0 - „ „ in fair order 2·0 „ 2·5 - „ „ but covered with mud 2·0 „ 2·7 - Macadamised roadway, dry and in good order 2·5 „ 3·0 - „ „ in a wet state 3·3 - „ „ in fair order 4·5 - „ „ but covered with mud 5·5 - „ „ with the stones loose 5·0 „ 8·2 - -There are four forces constantly at work tending to destroy the momentum -of vehicles passing along a roadway: they are gravity, collision, -friction, and the resistance of the air. - -The first of these is lessened by easy gradients in a road, the second -can be overcome to a great extent by evenness of surface, the third by -hardness, and the fourth, as well as all the others, by giving -sufficient foothold to the animal drawing the vehicle. - -Another excellent table[9] prepared from experiments made by Mr. Amos on -different descriptions of pavement in the City of London may be useful, -and is here given:-- - - -------------------+---------+-------+--------+-------------- - | Speed | | |Tractive Force - Road Material. |in Miles |Draught|Fraction| in Decimals - |per hour.|in lbs.|of Load.| of the Load. - -------------------+---------+-------+--------+-------------- - Gravelly Macadam in| 6·945 |126·6 | 1/45·3 | ·0219 - a side street | 3·45 |114·322| 1/50·3 | ·0197 - | | | | - | 5·15 | 70·963| 1/81·1 | ·0123 - Granite pitching by| 3·196 | 41·932| 1/137·3| ·0072 - side of tramway | 2·557 | 47·572| 1/121 | ·0082 - | | | | - Granite Macadam | 4·239 |262·886| 1/21·9 | ·0456 - “freshly laid” | 2·775 |242·726| 1/23·7 | ·0421 - | | | | - | 5·025 | 91·525| 1/64·9 | ·0158 - Asphalte Pavement | 3·56 | 69·753| 1/82·5 | ·0121 - | 5·687 | 84·268| 1/68·3 | ·0111 - | | | | - | 3·932 |118·163| 1/48·7 | ·0205 - Wood Pavement | 3·278 |102·412| 1/56·2 | ·0177 - | 3·827 |100·066| 1/57·5 | ·0173 - | | | | - Macadam road, very | | | | - good on Victoria | 6·65 |109·06 | 1/52·7 | ·0181 - Embankment | | | | - -------------------+---------+-------+--------+-------------- - -The following table from Law’s ‘Rudimentary Treatise on Civil -Engineering’ shows the force required to move a load of a ton weight on -different descriptions of roadway, the limiting angle of resistance, and -the greatest inclination which should be given to the road being also -stated. - - --------------------------------+--------+-----------+------------ - | Force | | Greatest - | in lbs.| Limiting |inclination - Description of the Road. |required| angle |which should - | to move| of | be given - | a ton. |resistance.|to the road. - --------------------------------+--------+-----------+------------ - | | ° ′ | - Well laid pavement | 33 | 0 50 | 1 in 68 - | | | - Broken stone surface on a bottom| 46 | 1 11 | 1 „ 49 - of rough pavement or concrete | | | - | | | - Broken stone surface laid on an | 65 | 1 40 | 1 „ 34 - old flint road | | | - | | | - Gravel road | 147 | 3 45 | 1 „ 15 - --------------------------------+--------+-----------+------------ - -As a matter of fact, however, the gradient of a macadamised road should -not, if possible, exceed 1 in 20,[10] experience having shown that a -horse, unless the hill is a very long one, is able to draw his ordinary -load for a level up such an inclination, whereas, if it is steeper he is -sometimes stopped altogether, even though the carter tries the zigzag -route so as to obtain an artificial ease of gradient. - -The table given in ‘Molesworth’ upon the same subject is too well known -to be repeated, and another table may be found in Sir Henry Parnell’s -work on roads, which gives a comparison between the draught necessary on -a well-paved road at 2, on a well-made, clean macadamised road at 5, -whereas on a wet and muddy gravel or flint road it rises to 32! - -Mr. T. D. Hope, of Liverpool, assuming the power of traction at 100, -gives the following table:-- - - Weight drawn. - Level macadamised road 27 cwt. - „ granite pavement 30·5 „ - „ wood „ 54·75 „ - -And Lieut. Crompton has given the resistance of wheels in lbs. per ton -on different surfaces as follows:-- - - Very good pavement 35 lbs. - Good macadam 60 „ - Ordinary ditto 90 „ - Newly-laid gravel 200 „ - Soft grass land 300 „ - Newly-laid metal 440 „ - -Here “newly-laid metal” comes out very badly, and points to the -necessity of rolling, of which I shall speak in a future chapter. - -Whilst on the question of wheel resistance, it may be well to note that -the small front wheels of a waggon cause considerably more harm to a -macadamised road than the larger hind wheels. In the smaller diameter -any loose stone or obstruction is pushed along in front for a -considerable distance, often tearing up the surface of the road, whereas -in the other case the stone is forced into its place or crushed as under -a roller. - -On the question of “safety” to traffic, Mr. Haywood, the eminent -Surveyor of the City of London, has caused several most complete -observations to be made from time to time, the results of such -observations being detailed by him in various reports. Amongst other -useful information compiled by him, he has ascertained that a horse will -travel 446 miles upon a roadway paved with blocks of wood without a -fall, 191 miles upon asphalte, and 132 miles upon granite setts. I -cannot do better than give verbatim his remarks upon this point:-- - -“Slight rain makes both asphalte and wood more slippery than they are at -other times. On asphalte the slipperiness begins almost immediately the -rain commences, wood requires more rain before its worst condition -ensues. The slipperiness lasts longer upon wood, on account of its -absorbent nature, than it does upon the asphalte; when dry weather comes -after the rain, when asphalte is in its most slippery state, and the -horses fall on it very suddenly, _on wood their efforts to save -themselves are more effectual_; wood also is frequently in that peculiar -condition of surface in which horses slip or glide along it without -falling. A small quantity of dirt upon asphalte makes it very slippery, -wood requires a large quantity. Slipperiness can be temporarily cured on -both pavements; on the asphalte by sprinkling it with sand, on the wood -by sprinkling it with gravel. The result in both cases is dirt. _The -sand thrown on asphalte helps to wear it out, the gravel thrown on wood -tends to preserve it._ When a horse falls on asphalte it has difficulty -in getting up; on wood it rises more readily.”[11] - -In streets crowded with traffic, the constant stopping and starting, -especially on any surface that is slippery, is very trying to horses. -Attention has lately been directed to this point with a view to the -storage of some power in a vehicle, either by the compression of a -spring in stopping or by some other mechanical means, in order that in -starting the driver may at will liberate this power so as to assist the -horse in overcoming the inertia of his load. These trials, however, have -not at present met with much success. - -Before closing this chapter on traffic, it will be well to point out -that nearly all vehicles travelling rapidly can pass each other safely -if allowed a clear space of eight feet; hence all roadways should, if -possible, be made of a width between the kerbs of some multiple of -eight: a convenient width for the footpaths, so far as foot-passenger -traffic is concerned, is found to be one-fifth of the entire width of -street. It is scarcely necessary to add that vehicles pass each other -on the left side, pedestrians on the right. It is not easy to assign a -cause for the former beyond custom, except that the whip is held in the -right hand, and in consequence free play is given for its use as the -driver sits on that side and can watch his wheels in passing. In France -and other countries the right side is the “rule of the road.” In the -case of pedestrians it is perhaps more convenient for many reasons to -pass on the right side, one being that the umbrella or parasol is always -carried in the right hand, which is also used to remove the hat when -bowing, and another because one’s tendency in passing any obstacle is to -give way with the left shoulder. For regulating the traffic and for the -protection of foot passengers, “sanctuaries,” as they are termed, have -often to be constructed by surveyors in broad streets or awkward centres -of traffic, and it is well to place a lamp-post on these sanctuaries, on -which may be advantageously fixed a notice, “Keep to the Left,” so as to -regulate vehicular traffic. On the lamp-posts at the edge of the -footpaths it is also sometimes customary to fix small enamelled iron -plates bearing the inscription on both sides, “Keep to the Right,” so as -to regulate the pedestrian traffic. - -Of the danger to life and limb to pedestrians in London much has -frequently been said, and no wonder, when we consider the number of -persons who are daily injured and sometimes killed according to the -Registrar-General’s returns. Some years ago it was proposed to erect -light iron bridges over the most dangerous crossings approached by -winding stairs, but “time is money” in the mighty metropolis, and the -scheme was abandoned because it was felt that most persons would prefer -the risk of being run over rather than spend the time in ascending and -descending the necessary steps for this purpose. - - [7] _Vide_ ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil - Engineers,’ vol. lviii. - - [8] _Vide_ Report of the Society of Arts on the application of Science - and Art to street paving and street cleansing of the metropolis, 1875. - - [9] Ibid. - - [10] Experiments made by the direction of the French Government on the - tramway between Sèvres and Versailles, showed that a horse on a level - tramway draws three-and-a-half times the weight, at the same speed and - with the same expenditure of power, that he can do on an ordinary - road. Up a gradient of 1 to 100, he is capable of drawing 2·25 times - the weight he can do up the same gradient on an ordinary road, and up - a gradient of 1 to 25 he can draw one-and-a-half times the load he can - do under similar circumstances on the ordinary road. - - [11] ‘Report on accidents to Horses on Carriageway Pavements,’ by - William Haywood (1874). - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -MACADAMISED ROADWAYS. - - -I do not propose in this work to speak of any of the engineering -operations necessary to lay out or construct long lines of connecting -roadways, as that is a duty which seldom falls to a town surveyor to -perform, and there are a great number of treatises and books upon the -subject already published. The object of this chapter will be to give -some information and hints upon the construction and maintenance of what -are known as macadamised roads, suitable for urban and suburban traffic. - -There can be little doubt that roadways of this description are -expensive luxuries where the cost of their maintenance, owing to -excessive traffic or other causes, exceeds 2_s._ per square yard per -annum, but they are often necessary luxuries when the requirements of -the locality are considered, a point to which I drew attention in the -preceding chapter upon “Traffic.” For purposes of what may be styled -“pleasure traffic,” macadamised roadways are unequalled when well -constructed and maintained, but there are many objections to them which -will be considered in their place in this chapter. - -The word macadamised is, as is well known, derived from one John Loudon -Macadam, who in the year 1816 first took up the question of putting -broken metal upon a road instead of the boulders previously used.[12] -His name, being rather a peculiar one, has been attached to this -description of road ever since. - -As a matter of fact, the “macadamised” roadways of the present day are -constructed after a method introduced by Thomas Telford as an -improvement upon Macadam’s principles, and a perusal of the two -following specifications will, I think, show that there is not very much -difference between the method introduced by Telford and that followed at -the present time. - - -_Specification of a Roadway as designed by Thomas Telford more than -fifty years ago._[13] - -“Upon the level bed prepared for the road materials, a bottom course or -layer of stones is to be set by hand in form of a close, firm pavement; -the stones set in the middle of the road are to be seven inches in -depth; at nine feet from the centre five inches; at twelve feet from the -centre four inches; and at fifteen feet three inches. They are to be set -on their broadest edges lengthwise across the road, and the breadth of -the upper edge is not to exceed four inches in any case. All the -irregularities of the upper part of the said pavement are to be broken -off by the hammer, and all the interstices to be filled with stone chips -firmly wedged or packed by hand with a light hammer, so that when the -whole pavement is finished there shall be a convexity of four inches in -the breadth of fifteen feet from the centre.[14] - -“The middle eighteen feet of pavement is to be coated with hard stones -to the depth of six inches. Four of these six inches to be first put on -and worked in by carriages and horses; care being taken to rake in the -ruts until the surface becomes firm and consolidated, after which the -remaining two inches are to be put on. - -“The whole of this stone is to be broken into pieces, as nearly cubical -as possible, so that the largest piece in its longest dimensions may -pass through a ring of two and a half inches inside diameter. - -“The paved spaces on each side of the eighteen middle feet are to be -coated with broken stones or well-cleaned stony gravel up to the foot -path or other boundary of the road, so as to make the whole convexity of -the road six inches from the centre to the sides of it, and the whole of -the materials are to be covered with a binding of an inch and a half of -good gravel free from clay or earth.” - -If the above specification, written more than fifty years ago, is -compared with one of the present date, it will be seen that there is a -strong resemblance between them. - - -_Specification of a Roadway as now executed._ - -The cross section of the roadway _when finished_ is to be an arc of a -circle, with a rise of 1 in 27 from kerb to the centre of the roadway -each way.[15] The roadway, when consolidated and finished, to be 12 -inches in depth at the gutters and 15 inches at the centre, diminishing -gradually from this point right and left to the depth named. The gutters -to be 2 feet in width, formed of stone setts 6 inches by 6 inches, and -laid in sand, on a firmly consolidated surface of small broken stone or -gravel. - -The earth road-bed on which the surface formation is to rest is to be -excavated to the required depth, and when graded and shaped to its -proper form, it is to be thoroughly and repeatedly rolled with a steam -roller, and all depressions which then appear are to be filled with the -same material as the road-bed, and rolled until the whole be uniformly -compact and firm. - -On the road-bed thus formed and compacted, a bottom layer of stone of a -depth of 8 inches at the centre of the road, and gradually diminishing -to 6 inches at the kerb, is to be set by hand, to form a close, firm -pavement. The stones are to be laid, with their largest side down, in -parallel lines across the street, breaking joint as much as -practicable.[16] The width of the upper part of the stone not to be more -than 8 inches, nor less than 6 inches. The stone not to exceed 15 inches -in length. After being set closely together, the stones are to be firmly -wedged by inserting a bar in all possible places, and placing between -them stones as nearly as possible of the depth of the pavement, until -the whole is bound in position. Projections of the upper part of this -course are to be broken off, care being taken not to loosen the -pavement; and no wedging is to be done within 20 feet of the face of the -work being laid. The small interstices are to be filled in with stone -chips firmly wedged with hammers. The whole is to be thoroughly rammed -and settled to place, and all undue irregularities of surface broken -off. - -On the foundation course must be laid an intermediate layer of broken -stones, varying in size from 3 inches in their greatest diameters to 1 -inch in their smallest diameters. These irregular-sized stones may be -either the “tailings” of the screened stones, or may be raked from the -quarry, and placed on the roadway without being machine-broken; but they -must nevertheless be so laid as to compact solidly, and must be clean -broken stone, free from dust and dirt, and within the dimensions given -above. This intermediate course must be 4 inches in depth at the centre -of the roadway, gradually decreasing to 3 inches in depth at the -gutters; it is to be thoroughly rolled with the steam roller until it be -firm, compact, and solid. On its upper surface it must be identical in -rise and form to the cross-section of the finished pavement, as -specified above. In the laying of this course of stone a small quantity -of binding material is to be used, sufficient only to fill up the -crevices, and render this portion of the pavement solid. Preferably the -binding is to be of fine screened gravel or sand, which is to be -sufficiently watered during the process of rolling, so that the “licking -up” of the road material, and its adherence to the rolling-wheels may be -prevented. - -On the intermediate course is to be laid the surface layer of broken -stone.[17] It must be 2¹⁄₂ inches in depth, and the stones must be -practically uniform in quality, and as near an approach to a cube in -form as possible. Each stone used in this layer must have passed through -a 2¹⁄₂-inch circular hole, and all stones that are wedge-shaped, and do -not approach uniformity of measurement on their sides, are to be taken -from the road with properly shaped rakes, and no stones allowed to -remain which are not sound, strong, and equable in size and quality of -material. The stones are to be raked into an even layer, and the steam -roller passed over them twice or thrice. After this a quantity of fine -screened gravel or sand is to be thrown on and sufficiently sprinkled to -moisten the mass without “licking up.” The rolling is then to be -continued (working the roller backwards and forwards, gradually from the -gutter to the crown), with an occasional light watering of the pavement, -until the cross-section be exact according to specification, the -interstices filled in, the roadway firmly compacted and solid, and all -excess of binding removed from the surface of the finished pavement.[18] - -Telford’s object was the complete separation of the road metal from the -subsoil by a firm and regular foundation, and this system has ever since -held its ground. The advantages to be gained in constructing a roadway -in this manner may be summed up as follows:-- - -(1.) Economy of construction, as a considerable quantity of metalling is -saved; only 3 inches of properly broken stone and a little binding -material being necessary, the foundation of the roadway (which really -carries the traffic) may be made of a quality of stone unsuitable for -road metal, or even of bricks or stones from old buildings that are -being pulled down. - -(2.) The prevention of the rising up or “spewing” of the clay or other -soft material on which the roadway rests. - -(3.) A solid foundation is secured which will successfully resist the -weight and percussion of the traffic. - -(4.) The increased facility for the drainage of the roadway water being -ruinous to it.[19] - -Instead of forming a paved or “pinned” foundation for macadamised -roadways, sometimes what is called “hard core” is placed at the bottom -of the road upon the surface formation. - -This “hard core” is made of very heterogenous materials, often the waste -products of the house refuse depôt, and consists of ashes, old pots and -pans, meat tins, old bottles, shells, and a variety of similar articles; -sometimes the core is made of burnt ballast, but in no case does it make -so good a foundation as stones set by hand. - -Concrete has also been employed as a foundation with great success, but -it is very expensive, and is seldom used except under streets paved with -either granite, wood, or asphalte, of which I shall speak hereafter; for -if the traffic was so great as to necessitate the use of concrete for a -foundation it would surely be better to give the roadway a more durable -surface than macadam. - -The following tables, showing the thickness of the foundation and -metalling of broken stone roads, is from a paper on roadways, read to -the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers, by Mr. James Hall, -Borough Surveyor of Stockton, and may be of use to those who would like -to know what proportions to use. - - -------------+-------------------------+---------------+------------ - | Pinned Foundations. | Broken Stones.| Concrete. - +--------+---------+------+-------+-------+-----+------ - |Pinning.|Covering.|Metal.| Under.| Upper.| Con-|Metal. - | | | | | |crete| - -------------+--------+---------+------+-------+-------+-----+------ - | in. | in. | in. | in. | in. | in. | in. - Country roads| 6 | 3 | 4 | 9 | 4 | 4 | 3 - Suburban „ | 9 | 3 | 5 | 9 | 6 | 6 | 5 - Town streets | 9 | 6 | 5 | 15 | 6 | 10 | 5 - -------------+--------+---------+------+-------+-------+-----+------ - -Chalk has sometimes been used for the bottom of a roadway, but where -this is likely to be affected by frost it is the worst material that can -be used, as it is likely to blow up the roadway. - -With regard to the annual outlay upon macadamised roadways, the -following comparative tables[20] prepared by Mr. Ellice Clark, the then -Surveyor of Derby, may be of interest. - - ---------------+-------+-------------------------------------------- - | | Annual Outlay. - +-------+----+------+--------+-------+-------+------- - | | | Sink-| | | | - | | | ing | | | | - | | |fund 3| | | | - | Ori- | | per | | | | - | ginal | | cent.| | | | - | cost | | com- | | | | - | per | In-| pound| | | | - Description of| square|ter-|inter-| Main- | Scav- | | - Pavement. | yard. |est.| est. |tenance.|enging.|Gravel.|Total. - ---------------+-------+----+------+--------+-------+-------+------- - |_s. d._|_d._| _d._ |_s. d._|_s. d._| _d._ |_s. d._ - Wood pavement |15 1·5| 7·5| 10·1 | 0 1·0| 0 2·7| 5·0 | 2 2·3 - | | | | | | | - Val de Travers | | | | | | | - compressed |18 0·0| 9·7| .. | 0 3·6| 0 0·4| .. | 1 1·7 - asphalte | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Granite setts | | | | | | | - 7 inches by | | | | | | | - 3 inches laid| | | | | | | - over a layer |17 9·0| 9·6| 0·5 | 0 1·3| 0 2·5| .. | 1 1·9 - of 12 inches | | | | | | | - of cement | | | | | | | - concrete | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Macadam in | | | | | | | - south of | 4 9·0| 2·1| .. | 3 6·0| 1 0·0| .. | 4 8·1 - England | | | | | | | - ---------------+-------+----+------+--------+-------+-------+------- - - -------------+------------------+------------------ - | Load of Mud |Traffic per Annum - Material. | per area. |per yard of width. - -------------+------------------+------------------ - |superficial yards.| tons. - | | - Macadam | 344 | 25,000 - Granite setts| 500 | 50,000 - Wood | 1666 | 25,000 - Asphalte | 4000 | 500,000 - -------------+------------------+------------------ - -The following is a table of the cost of streets in Paris per square yard -per annum.[21] - - ------------------------+------------+----------+--------- - Description of Pavement.|Maintenance.|Cleansing.| Total. - ------------------------+------------+----------+--------- - | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._|_s._ _d._ - Stone Pavement | 0 4·50 | 0 3·37| 0 7·87 - Macadam | 0 9·25 | 0 7·31| 1 5·26 - Asphalte | 0 10·20 | 0 4·17| 1 2·37 - ------------------------+------------+----------+--------- - -The cost of maintaining macadamised roadways as compared with that of -granite setts has been said to be as high as 5 to 1 and that this cost -if capitalised for 12 or 13 years will equal the first expense, interest -on money, and the necessary repairs for a granite paved roadway. - -The following table gives the cost per annum per square yard for the -maintenance of macadamised roadways in different places, so far as I -have been able to collect them: - - _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ - Bristol 4 to 1 0 - Charing Cross (London) 5 0 (now paved) - Exeter 6 „ 2 6 including - cleansing - Glasgow 8¹⁄₂ - Leeds 10 „ 1 2 - Liverpool 2 „ 2 6 - Manchester 6 „ 1 8 - Merthyr Tydfil 4¹⁄₂ - Newcastle 1 3 including - watering - Paris 9¹⁄₄ „ 10 9 - Parliament Street (London) 3 6 repairs only - Regent Street (ditto) 3 7 (now paved with - wood) - Stockton 9 „ 1 6 - Sheffield 1 8 „ 2 0 - Wakefield 1 0 all paved - streets now. - -In Birmingham the macadamised streets have worn down 6 inches in one -year, with a traffic of 2484 vehicles passing in 10 hours. - -With reference to the great cost of maintenance in Paris, the following -particulars[22] may here be given; - -“The surface of the street is picked by gangs of men, metal from 2¹⁄₂ to -9 inches in thickness is then laid on, a coating of sand is then spread -upon it, it is watered and rolled at per kilometre ton, that is, at per -ton weight of roller per kilometre travelled, at a cost of about -15·33_d._ per ton mile for the first 250,000 ton miles, and at reduced -rates for additional service. The materials used for the roads are -flints costing 4_s._ 6¹⁄₂_d._ per cubic yard for light traffic roads; -for medium traffic, hard millstone at 11_s._ 4_d._; and for the heaviest -and greatest traffic, porphyry at 15_s._ 9_d._ The average total cost of -maintenance of the streets is 1_s._ 8¹⁄₂_d._ per square yard per annum -for the first-class roads, and 1_s._ 1¹⁄₂_d._ for the lighter traffic; -the highest cost for maintenance is as high as 10_s._ 9_d._ per square -yard, the lowest 9¹⁄₄_d._ per annum.” - -It may be well to mention that 73 per cent. of the streets in Paris are -paved, 5 per cent. are coated with asphalte, and 22 per cent. are -macadamised. - -The contour, or best form of cross section that should be given to a -roadway, has often exercised the minds of engineers, but for all -practical purposes evenness of surface and regularity of section in a -macadamised roadway are of more importance than the slight difference -between straight lines and curves, which might only tend to confuse the -workmen. Formerly it was the practice to employ a complicated gauge in -the form of a straight-edge fitted with plummet or level and sliding -bars, but a good eye, assisted by a long straight-edge and spirit-level -and three boning rods, is generally found to be sufficient, and if the -centre of the roadway is kept level with the heel of the footpath, a -sightly cross-section is generally the result; or say 6 inches to 9 -inches higher in centre of a roadway 30 feet in width between the kerbs, -3 inches to 4 inches where it is from 18 to 20 feet in width. - -The following detailed section of a macadamised roadway is one which I -am in the habit of specifying for suburban districts, as it is easily -set out and constructed, and answers all purposes most admirably. - -[Illustration] - -The total width of street is 36 feet, of which the roadway takes 24, -leaving a footpath 6 feet in width on each side. - -The surface of the finished roadway is a segment of a circle, the crown -being level with the heels of the footpaths on each side; the formation -surface is parallel with it, and of course the depth of this and the -thickness of foundations and metal must depend upon local circumstances. -It will be seen that the haunches are drained with 3-inch common -drain-pipes. This may be omitted if the ground is thoroughly dry, but it -is often a great help to a road. - -The paths, kerbing, and channelling will be described in their -respective chapters. - -It must be borne in mind that on a perfectly level road a more convex -section is necessary than on a gradient. - -It is wrong to make the sides of a roadway weaker than the centre, -especially in streets with shops on each side, or on hills where drags -are likely to be used. On hills, too, be it remembered, the channels -should take the surface water; any ruts from wheel tracks acting as -watercourses are disastrous. Hauling timber on a macadamised roadway is -also very damaging. - -The great objections to macadamised roadways are as follows:-- - -(1.) They manufacture too much mud and dust.[23] - -(2.) They are too absorbent. - -(3.) They are very noisy and damaging to vehicles and horses when fresh -metalled. - -(4.) They constantly require mending, but never seem quite sound. - -(5.) They are frequently encumbered by men and carts engaged in either -repairs, cleansing, or watering. - -(6.) They are very expensive to maintain and cleanse. - -(7.) They are bad for a horse to fall upon, as such falls generally -damage the knees. - -The following notes upon the maintenance of macadamised roadways may -here be of service:-- - -(1.) Roads should be inspected in wet weather, as hollows and other -imperfections are then easily detected; a hollow place extends very -rapidly if neglected. - -(2.) All ruts should be filled in at once. If there are three parallel, -the centre rut should be first filled in; the traffic is thus slightly -diverted, as a horse will avoid new metal. - -(3.) Ruts should not be allowed to form; the surface of the road ought -never to lose its regular section. - -(4.) A road should be thoroughly repaired directly it shows the least -sign of being fairly worn all over. - -(5.) The right season of the year for repairs is the autumn, although -where a steam roller can be used almost any time will do. If the surface -of the road is very hard it should be “lifted”[24] previous to repairs. - -(6.) All loose stones should be picked off at once or put together in -hollow places upon the roadway, as, if allowed to remain, they are not -only dangerous to horses, but are liable to be crushed, or to be forced -through the skin of the roadway, thus causing it damage. - -(7.) Water lodging upon a road does great mischief, but it should not be -let off by digging a trench with a pickaxe to the side of roadway, as is -sometimes done. - -(8.) A roadway when very dry sometimes suffers through disintegration of -the surface. - -(9.) Scraping the mud off a roadway may damage it by loosening stones; -sweeping the surface when wet is best. - -(10.) A heavy shower does a road good by washing it; a continuous -drizzle, especially after frost, is very ruinous to a roadway. - -(11.) A good cleansing is sometimes worth a coat of metal.[25] - - -_Bituminous Roadways._ - -In some towns in England bituminous or asphalte macadamised roadways are -made. This consists in mixing ordinary coal tar with the road metal -ordinarily employed for macadamised roads, only it must be borne in mind -that the metal employed must be limestone or some other soft material, -otherwise it will not wear down evenly with the tar, and thus a lumpy -surface will be produced in course of time. - -The method of mixing is by heating the stone, which has of course been -previously broken to the required size, and then thoroughly mixing and -incorporating it with the tar. This is then carried to the roadway, is -spread in the ordinary manner and well rolled to the proper contour, a -surface being afterwards given to it by a coating of about 2 inches -thick, composed of a similar mixture, the stones of which are of much -smaller size. - -Another method is to place about 6 inches of the broken metal described -above upon the necessary foundation. Upon this a boiling mixture -composed of about 50 gallons of creosote oil and 1 ton of pitch is -poured until every interstice is filled with the mixture. Whilst this is -still warm, a thin layer of small broken stone is spread upon the -surface and well rolled; more small stones or chippings are added, and -the whole is rolled until the surface of the roadway has attained its -proper contour and presents a perfectly smooth and clean appearance, -little inferior to that of real asphalte. - -Dry weather is essential whilst this class of roadway is in course of -construction, and they require careful watching, as, upon the skin -becoming broken, the whole roadway soon breaks up. They have, however, -many advantages over ordinary macadamised roadways when finished, not -the least of them being their imperviousness to moisture, and the ease -with which they are cleansed. - - [12] The first road “engineer” in this country was John Metcalf of - Knaresborough, who was born in 1717, and who, although totally blind, - was the first person to introduce a methodical system of road repairs. - _Vide_ ‘Roads and Road Makers,’ by Henry Alexander Glass. - - [13] _Vide_ ‘A Treatise on Roads,’ by Sir H. Parnell (1833). - - [14] The total width of roadway being thirty feet. - - [15] It is necessary to give a new roadway more convexity than it will - have when finished, for however carefully it is raked or attended to - when being rolled, the top is sure to flatten and spread towards the - haunches. - - [16] Instead of parallel lines it is sometimes well to place these - stones diagonally from centre to kerb or “herring-bone” fashion, thus - greatly facilitating the under drainage. - - [17] In metalling a road it is better to put on the coats gradually, - than to give the whole thickness of metal at once. - - [18] The method adopted in Chicago, U.S.A., for forming their roadways - is as follows:--The road bed is prepared of the proper contour and - well-rolled with a 15-ton steam roller until it is even, firm, and - compact; on this bed rubble stone is carefully placed by hand with its - broadest surface downwards, then 12 inches of metal are added 6 inches - at a time, thoroughly rolled to bond it well, it is then topped with 4 - inches of crushed trap rock or some other equally hard stone, which - will not disintegrate through the action of the weather, nor pulverise - under the pressure and wear of vehicles upon it; this is again, - thoroughly well rolled so as to compact and bind it together. - - [19] “If roads be kept dry they will be maintained in a good state - with proportionally less expense. It has been well observed that the - statuary cannot saw his marble, nor the lapidary cut his jewels - without the assistance of the powder of the specific materials on - which he is acting; this, when combined with water, produces - sufficient attrition to accomplish his purpose. A similar effect is - produced on roads, since the reduced particles of the materials, when - wet, assist the wheels in rapidly grinding down the surface.” - Parnell’s ‘Treatise on Roads,’ 1883. More modern writers have likened - macadamised roadways to “stone mills on which the stones are ground - into dust when dry, or mud when wet.” - - [20] _Vide_ ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil - Engineers,’ vol. lx. - - [21] _Vide_ ‘Annales industrielles de Paris,’ Oct. 21st and Nov. 4th, - 1877. - - [22] _Vide_ ‘Annales industrielles de Paris.’ - - [23] A report of the Paddington Vestry on “wood and other pavements,” - (1878) states macadam as a mud producing material is twelve times - worse than wood, and six times worse than granite cubes. - - [24] This is also sometimes called “stocking” or “chequering,” and - consists of making furrows across a roadway with a sharp pickaxe, - about a couple of inches in depth, thus removing any irregularities, - and also allowing the new metal to bed properly. - - [25] In Birmingham, good cleansing is said to have reduced the amount - of metal necessary for the maintenance of the roadways from 20,000 - tons per annum to 13,000 tons. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -ROAD METAL AND BREAKING. - - -The only true test of the fitness of any stone for use as a road metal -is by an experimental trial upon a certain length of roadway; but in -making the first selection for such trials it is well to make the -following investigations:-- - -(1.) Ascertain from local persons, such as masons, quarrymen, and -others, their opinion of the qualities of the stones in the -neighbourhood. - -(2.) Make a trial of the stone for toughness. This can be done by -setting a good stone-breaker to work upon a heap of the stone as -quarried and carefully watching how much he can break in an hour.[26] - -(3.) Ascertain what power the stone has to resist abrasion. This is done -in France by putting the broken metal into a revolving cylinder and then -carefully noting by weight what the cubes lose by contact with each -other. Another plan may be adopted by pressing the stone against a -grindstone with a uniform pressure, and noting the loss caused by such -contact. - -(4.) The power to resist compression may be easily ascertained by -placing small cubes in an hydraulic press and noting under what -pressures each cube will crush. - -(5.) The effect of weather is not easily ascertained artificially, -although it is suggested that a good test may be made by soaking the -stone in a saturated solution of sulphate of soda; and then on exposure -to the air, if soft, it is said the stone will disintegrate as if under -the action of thaw succeeding frost.[27] - -The specific gravity of a stone is no criterion whatever as to its -fitness. Clay-slate has a higher specific gravity than a tough flint, -and yet the former is almost useless as a road metal; the latter, on the -contrary, often making excellent roadways. - -The qualities necessary for a really good road metal are hardness, -toughness, not easily decomposed or affected by the weather, and at the -same time the stone when broken ought to have some power of cohesion -without the necessity of much binding material. The question of cost I -put aside at once, as it is well known that the best road metal is -always the cheapest where there is much or heavy traffic. - -Local circumstances must to a great extent determine what stone to use -upon a roadway, but the following list may be of use:-- - - -_Syenite._--This is a granite in which hornblende takes the place of -mica, and is an excellent road material; the darker the colour the more -durable it is found to be. - - -_Granite._--This should have more felspar than quartz, and have as -little mica as possible; the closer the grain the better. Coarse-grained -granites soon decompose. - - -_Trappean Rocks._--Some of these are excellent for road metal. Basalts -of dark colour and close grain should be selected. Greenstones with -similar characteristics are good; as is also Whinstone. - - -_Gneiss._--Is inferior to granite; it has mica in layers and is not a -good road metal. - - -_Clay Slates._--These are useless, as they crumble on exposure or -degenerate into mud. - - -_Limestone._--The Metamorphic, Silurian, and Carboniferous limestones -may be used if crystalline in appearance, but the Lias and Oolitic are -of little use.[28] - - -_Sandstones._--Some of these, if cherty or containing a large percentage -of iron, may be used; but as a rule they are quite unfitted for use as a -road metal. - - -_Flints._--These, if tough, make excellent roadways; but unfortunately -they are sometimes too brittle for heavy traffic. Surface-picked flints -are better than those from a quarry.[29] - - -_Pebbles._--These are found on sea shores and river beds. They are -composed of very various rocks, and are much water-worn and rounded; -when broken they sometimes answer very well if mixed with gravel to bind -them. - - -_Gravel._--This, if of a flinty character, and not too much mixed with -earthy matter, makes good roads for light traffic, if carefully watched -or well rolled during formation. Pit gravel should always be screened -through wire screens of 1¹⁄₂ to 1³⁄₄ gauge, and the small can be used -for footpaths. - -In some places it is difficult to obtain any natural stone for the -purposes of road metal; in these cases slag from blast furnaces or -ordinary clinkers from furnaces are sometimes used. Oyster shells are -used on the roadways near the Gulf coasts[30] and charcoal in Michigan, -United States.[31] I have myself made a most excellent roadway with -coral on the coast of Jamaica, and no doubt many strange materials have -been, and still are, used for this purpose. - -“I never mix” is an adage that should be followed by surveyors as -regards road metal. Do not mix a soft material with one that is harder -for either construction or maintenance of a roadway; the effect is what -is known as a “bumpy” road, arising from the fact of the soft stone -wearing faster than the hard. The hardest metal should be kept for the -top or surface layer of the roadway. - -As an instance of the extreme difficulty besetting the question of the -best material for road metal, I will here give a table showing the -comparative coefficients of quality assigned to them by the engineers of -the French Department of the Ponts et Chaussées.[32] - -COEFFICIENTS OF QUALITY OF ROAD MATERIALS. - - Granitic gravel 23·8 - Quartz gravel 21·4 - Trap 20·0 - Quartz 10·0 to 25·0 (in one instance 4·8) - Basalt 12·0 „ 20·0 - Porphyry 10·0 „ 20·0 (in one instance 5·0) - Quartzite 11·0 „ 18·0 - Devonian schist 16·0 - Schist 4·0 to 12·0 - Sandstone 12·0 „ 16·0 - Granite 6·0 „ 20·0 (generally 10·0 to 12·0) - Syenite 12·0 - Gneiss 9·0 to 12·0 - Silicious pebbles and gravel 8·0 „ 19·0 (in one instance 6·0) - Silex 8·0 „ 16·0 - Chalk flints 7·0 „ 11·6 - Silicious limestone 6·0 „ 18·0 (generally about 10·0 to - 12·0) - Compact limestone 14·0 - Magnesian limestone 16·0 - Carboniferous limestone 9·0 - Oolitic limestone 5·0 to 12·0 - Lias limestone 5·0 „ 10·0 - Juranic limestone 5·0 „ 8·0 - Limestone 5·0 „ 12·0 - Mean of all France 10·63 - -It will be seen by the above table how different are the results -obtained from materials of the same character. - -Breaking stone for the purpose of using it as a road metal was, until -comparatively recent years, always effected by hand; now, as in other -cases, machinery has stept in and somewhat supplanted manual labour. -Hand-broken road metal, however, still finds favour with road surveyors; -it is better broken, and in some districts, the occupation finds -employment for persons who otherwise would be thrown on the rates for -support. - -In breaking stone by hand the breaker sits and strikes the stone with a -small cast-steel chisel-faced hammer, weighing about one pound, at the -end of a long, straight-grained but flexible ash stick.[33] The breaker -also has another hammer, weighing about five pounds, with which he -reduces the size of the large stones before breaking them into the -proper size for road metal. This latter size is often a matter of -choice, some engineers preferring it to be broken so small as will pass -through a ring of only 1¹⁄₂ inch in diameter; others are content with 3 -inches, especially where the roads are steam rolled. An old method of -gauging used to be “such a size as the stone breaker could put in his -mouth,” but this was unsatisfactory to all persons concerned, and “to -pass all ways through a ring of 2¹⁄₂ inches internal diameter” is now -the size most generally adopted. - -Mr. Codrington says[34] “a good stone breaker will break 2 cubic yards -of hard limestone to the ordinary gauge in a day, and some men will -break more. Hard silicious stones and igneous rocks can only be broken -at the rate of 1¹⁄₂ or of 1 cube yard per day; of some of the toughest, -such as Guernsey granite, a man can only break on an average half a cube -yard per day. River gravel, field stones, or flints, which are already -of a small size, can be broken at the rate of 3 or 4 cube yards per -day.” - -This may be taken as fairly representing a day’s work, the price for -breaking however must vary considerably in different localities on -account of the variety of the stones to be broken and the value of -labour; in some districts the road metal does not cost more than 1_s._ -per cube yard, in others 2_s._ 6_d._ and 2_s._ 8_d._ is not considered -too high, and it was to meet and reduce this great expense that steam -stone-breaking machines have been introduced. These machines are known -as “Ellison’s,” “Newall and Archer’s,” “Hope’s,” and “Blake’s,” the -latter being that which is best known and most generally used in this -country. - -[Illustration: “ARCHER’S” STONE BREAKER.] - -[Illustration: “BLAKE’S” STONE BREAKER.] - -[Illustration: “NEWALL AND ARCHER’S” STONE BREAKER.] - -The foregoing illustrations will give a general idea of the manner in -which the stone is broken or crushed between strong iron jaws; in all -cases a revolving perforated screen is necessary (not shown in the -drawings) to separate the stone broken to proper gauge from that which -is too large, and also from the spalls or chippings. - -The Blake’s or “Blake Marsden’s” machines are of various sizes and -weights; the following particulars with respect to them, as advertised, -may be of use.[35] - - ------------+----------+---------+---------------+------------- - Size of | | | | - machine at | Approxi- | | Total weight | - mouth, | mate | | of machine | - showing what| quanti- | | with wheels, | - size of | ty of | Nominal | axles, horse | - stone each |road metal| horse- | shafts, auto- | Price of[36] - machine will| broken | power |matic screening| machine - take. | per hour.|required.|apparatus, etc.| complete. - ------------+----------+---------+---------------+------------- - inches. | cube | H.P. | tons cwt. qrs.| £ _s._ _d._ - | yards. | | | - 10 × 8 | 3¹⁄₃ | 3 | 5 6 0 |157 0 0 - 12 × 8 | 4 | 3 | 5 11 0 |167 0 0 - 15 × 8 | 5 | 5 | 6 19 0 |200 0 0 - 15 × 10 | 6 | 6 | 8 5 0 |220 0 0 - 20 × 10 | 8 | 8 | 10 2 0 |265 0 0 - 24 × 13 | 12 | 10 | 15 5 0 |390 0 0 - 24 × 17 | 13 | 14 | 16 2 0 |415 0 0 - 24 × 19 | 14 | 16 | 19 17 0 |440 0 0 - 30 × 13 | 14 | 16 | 16 2 0 |440 0 0 - ------------+----------+---------+---------------+------------- - -Mr. Till, the Borough Engineer of Birmingham, speaking of the work done -by one of Blake’s machines in 1874, says:[37] “The stone-breaking -machine at Holliday Street will break on an average 40 tons of ragstone -per day, at a cost, exclusive of wear and tear of machine, of 10¹⁄₂_d._ -per ton, but it produces 16 per cent. of dust or fine stone; of the -remainder one-fifth has to be rebroken by hand, the whole is very -irregular in size and very flaky in comparison with hand-broken stone. -The machine is much more efficient in breaking granites or pebbles. It -has, however, been found very useful during the last two years, in -consequence of the difficulty of obtaining labour.” - -Mr. Jacob, the Borough Engineer of Barrow in Furness, read an excellent -paper on the subject of stone-breaking machinery to the members of the -Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers, at their meeting in -Manchester in 1875,[38] giving a full description of one of Blake’s -machines, to which I will refer my readers. - -Mr. Codrington[39] gives the result of breaking whinstone in a 16-inch -by 9-inch Hope machine, from which it appears that the total cost, -including wages, coal, oil, cottonwaste, etc., wear and tear of -machinery, and, I presume, interest on first cost of machine, was about -1_s._ per cube yard. This effected a saving of 10_d._ per cube yard as -compared with the same stone broken by hand, and the machine broke 40 -tons of stone per diem. - -To make a stone-breaking machine pay, it is necessary: - -(1.) To give it nearly constant work. - -(2.) That the stone to be broken shall be too tough to break -economically by hand. - -(3.) That the machine shall be at the quarry, so as to save the expense -of much handling. - -(4.) To exercise care in feeding, to give it a sufficient supply without -allowing an undue quantity of stone to pass in at one time. - -(5.) As about 20 per cent. of grit or dust is produced, this must be -used for foot-paths, or as a binding material for roads, or in asphalte -or tar paving. - -In addition to the grit which is produced, a great many long and thin -pieces of stone pass through the machine, which have to be again broken -by it before they could be used as road metal; and having once taken -this form, they will frequently pass several times through the machine -before they get properly broken. - -The wear and tear of a stone-breaking machine is very considerable, as -can be easily imagined; it has been known to reach as high as 62·5 per -cent.[40] of the first cost of the machine in one year. The objections -to stone-breaking by machinery are principally: - -(1.) In some districts labour can be successfully employed in this -manner. - -(2.) Hand-broken stone is sharper in fracture, as it is done by a blow -and not by gradual pressure, whereas machine-broken stone is often flaky -or with rounded edges, and frequently each stone may be cracked and -shaken by the pressure. - -(3.) Want of uniformity in the size of the stones. - -The smaller the stone is broken the heavier a cubic yard of it will -weigh, as the percentage of vacant space between each stone will be -less. It has been found by experiment, however, that 55 per cent. of -ordinary road metal is solid, so that the weight of a cubic yard of it -can easily be ascertained in the following manner.[41] - -Multiply the weight of a cubic foot of any stone by 27 to bring it to a -cubic yard, and then multiply this by 0·55: the result will be the -weight of a cubic yard of the same stone when broken for metalling. - -A cubic yard of Guernsey granite broken to pass through a 2¹⁄₂ inch ring -has been weighed, and gives an average of 1 ton 3 cwt. 2 qrs. - - tons cwt. qrs. - A cube yard of flint weighed 1 1 3 - „ „ pit gravel weighed 1 4 3 - „ „ limestone weighed 1 3 0 - -A cubic yard of ordinary broken road metal will, when properly spread, -cover an area of about 30 square yards of surface of a roadway. - -The following specimen specification for the supply of stone either -unbroken or broken may be of use. - - -_Specification for the Supply of Road Metal._ - -(1.) The road metal must at all times be clean and free from clay or -other dirt, and fully equal to the sample; if required to be broken, -each cube must have a square face and sharp edges, and pass all ways -through a 2¹⁄₂ inch ring. - -(2.) The metal must be delivered in (_name of town_) free of all charge -to the corporation, either at a railway station or at one of the depôts -of the corporation, at the option of the contractor, such option to be -declared in the tender. - -(3.) The metal must be supplied on the order of the borough engineer in -such quantities as he may specify, and must be delivered within the time -specified in the order. The contractor shall not be required to supply -and deliver more than tons in any one week; but the corporation will -be at all times ready to take the metal in larger quantities. - -(4.) The bill of lading or railway invoice shall be taken as _primâ -facie_ evidence of the weight of metal supplied; but the corporation -retain the right to test the accuracy of such bill of lading or railway -invoice, by passing the metal over a weighbridge as it is received. - -(5.) Metal delivered at a depôt by carts shall be measured when broken -and paid for at the rate of cwt. per cubic yard. - -(6.) The corporation retain the right to reject all metal which shall -not be equal to the sample, or at their option to pay a reduced price -according to its value. - -(7.) Quarterly payments will be made by the corporation on the -certificate of the borough engineer, and within one month from the date -of such certificate. - -(8.) The borough engineer shall be the sole judge as to the fitness of -the metal supplied, and his certificate, in writing, shall be conclusive -evidence upon the point as between the corporation and the contractor. - -(9.) If the contractor shall make default in the supply and delivery of -road metal in accordance with the terms of this specification, and -within the time specified for the purpose in the order of the borough -engineer, the corporation shall be at liberty to obtain such road metal -as they may deem fit and necessary from another source, and any excess -in price or other loss they may consequently incur, shall be recoverable -by them from the contractor as liquidated and ascertained damages. - -(10.) Tenders must be sent in only on the prescribed form, and the -person tendering must insert in his tender the name of two persons who -will join him in a joint and several bond to the corporation in the sum -of _l._ for the due performance of the contract. - -(11.) Each person tendering must send to the office of the borough -engineer a sample of the road metal he offers, accompanied by a full -description, and the name and position of the quarry from which it is -produced; such sample to be not less that one cwt. in weight, and to be -retained by the corporation in the event of the tender being accepted. - -(12.) The corporation do not bind themselves to accept the lowest or any -tender; and they further retain the right to reject a contractor in the -event of his failing to find sureties to their satisfaction in -compliance with the 10th condition. - -(13.) The word “corporation” shall mean the mayor, aldermen and -burgesses, of in their capacity as the urban sanitary authority -for . The word “contractor” shall mean the person whose tender is -accepted, and who has signed these conditions; and the words “borough -engineer” shall mean the engineer to the said corporation for the time -being. - -Since writing this chapter my attention has been directed to a -stone-breaking machine which is said to substitute a “knapping” for that -of the usual crushing motion which is so generally the great defect in -these machines: I allude to that known as “Baxter’s patent -knapping-motion stone breaker,” by which a rapid jerk or blow is given -instead of the slow crushing movement, thus (it is contended) causing -less waste from dust and chippings, and also less strain of the -machinery and less power to drive it. - - [26] Toughness is not all that is required. Leather would be very - difficult to break with a hammer, but it would not make a good road - metal. - - [27] I have tried this experiment, but without success, except on such - soft stones as were evidently unfitted for use as a road metal. - - [28] Many hundreds of miles of roadways in this country are made with - limestones; they often make an excellent surface, as they possess a - considerable power of binding together, but weather and very heavy - traffic affect them considerably: as they all have a strong affinity - for water, their very power of thus cementing themselves together - causes a quantity of dust in dry, and mud in wet weather. - - [29] A flinty or quartzose stone seems to harden with exposure. This - is notably the case in pebbles; old pebble paving taken up and broken - makes a most hard and durable road metal. - - [30] ‘Roads, Streets and Pavements,’ by Q. A. Gillmore, p. 10. - - [31] _Ibid._ - - [32] _Vide_ ‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roadways,’ by Thomas - Codrington, p. 33, a most excellent work upon this subject. - - [33] Mr. W. Bold considered a hammer weighing 1¹⁄₄ lb. of an - elliptical form, pointed at the ends, the area of each end being about - ¹⁄₁₀₀th of a square inch, to be the most suitable to break hard - stones. _Vide_ ‘Minutes of Proceedings, Institution of Civil - Engineers,’ vol. i. (1840) p. 50. - - [34] ‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roads,’ by Thomas Codrington, p. - 38. - - [35, 36] No doubt the price of the machine varies with the price of - iron, etc. - - [37] _Vide_ ‘Report of the Borough Surveyor of Birmingham to the - Paving and Street Improvement Sub-Committee,’ p. 11. - - [38] _Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary - Engineers,’ vol. ii. p. 76. - - [39] _Vide_ ‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roadways,’ by Thomas - Codrington, p. 41. - - [40] _Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary - Engineers,’ vol. ii. p. 82. - - [41] _Vide_ ‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roadways,’ by Thomas - Codrington, p. 45. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -ROAD ROLLING. - - -The march of civilisation has decided that road rolling is a necessity -for macadamised roads, instead of allowing the stones of which they are -composed to be worn in by the traffic, as was formerly the custom. In -Calcutta bullock rollers were used so long ago as the year 1855, and it -was the cruelty of this operation that suggested to Mr. W. Clark the -necessity for a steam roller,[42] the outcome of which was the -well-known roller as manufactured and supplied by Messrs. Aveling and -Porter of Rochester, and now so generally used throughout this country, -as well as in American and other foreign towns.[43] - -Steam rolling saves money as well as suffering, and the legislature have -recognised the importance of a sanitary authority becoming possessed of -a steam roller by permitting money to be borrowed for the purchase of a -roller as for a permanent work. (Sect. 234 Glenn’s Public Health Act -1875, footnote to Sub. Sect. (1).) - -Mr. Albert W. Parry, the Borough Surveyor of Reading, has prepared some -tables on the subject of steam road rollers, from information he -received on this subject, in answer to some questions he addressed to -the surveyors of a number of towns a few years ago. It appears from this -tabulated statement that thirty-three 15-ton steam rollers were in use, -six 10-ton rollers, one 21-ton roller, one 8-ton roller, one 9¹⁄₂ ton -roller, one 14¹⁄₂-ton roller, one 17-ton roller, and one 25-ton roller; -this latter not being much used, as it was found to be too heavy. - -The average gross cost per annum of necessary repairs to the rollers, -other than those which could be effected by the men in charge of it, -amounted to 35_l._ 12_s._ The number of men employed to attend to the -roller and cost of labour per day varied considerably, from one case -(South Shields) where “one engine-man at 26_s._ per week, and an old -scavenger with the flag” were found to be sufficient; to another -(Gloucester) where the cost per day is stated as follows: “one man works -the engine at 5_s._ per day, one boy with signal flag, 1_s._ 8_d._, two -men spreading gravel or sand at 3_s._, two men watering and sweeping to -keep water from running off in channels.” - -Some of the older rollers require a steersman as well as a driver, and -the Locomotives Amendment Act requires two men with flags, but this is -seldom really necessary. The sweepers, spreaders and sprinklers should -be taken as irrespective of the actual cost of the roller, which may -therefore be assumed to be the wages of the engine-man, say 5_s._ per -diem, and a boy or old man with a flag at 2_s._, thus making a total for -labour of 7_s._ per diem. - -The fuel that is consumed by a 15-ton roller seems to be from 3 to 5 -cwt. of coke per diem, common gas coke being generally used, though -steam coal would no doubt answer equally well, some of the smokeless -Welsh descriptions being of course necessary. - -With regard to the question “When not used for rolling roads, to what -other use (if any) do you put the engine power?” there are not many -towns that use the machine for any other purpose than rolling, but the -following uses may be enumerated to which the machines have been -applied:--Driving a stone-breaker, a mortar-mill, a saw-bench, a -chaff-cutting machine, a bean-crusher, etc. It has also been used in -connection with pumping, and to produce the necessary power for the -electric light, and it is frequently employed as a traction engine. - -The driving rollers usually have provision by which spikes may be fitted -into holes in their faces, in order that they may be used for lifting or -chequering roads. These, however, apparently do not answer; the working -of a machine in this manner is said to shake and strain it considerably, -and the holes in the rollers, which are plugged with wood when not in -use, are objectionable, as these plugs wear out and the road metal gets -into the holes, and the surface of the road is picked up as the rolling -proceeds; besides this, the spikes seem to have no effect unless the -surface of the roadway being operated upon is soft. - -With reference to the use of binding material, the most commonly used -and that which receives most favour is road grit or scrapings,[44] sharp -sand is also employed, as well as gravel if clean, and also stone -chippings and screenings; these should be of the same material of which -the road is made, if possible, and no doubt _newly_ constructed roads -require more care in the binding material than simple repairs. The -steepest gradient upon which a roller will act appears to be 1 in 9 in -Blackburn, with a 15-ton roller, but this must require a very heavy -pressure of steam, and 1 in 14 seems to be a gradient that gives no -trouble to roll either up or down; in going down hill, of course it is a -mere question of sufficient break power. - -The number of superficial yards rolled per day must vary extremely with -circumstances: the class of material, the amount of binding and water -used, the gradient and pressure of steam maintained, and the amount of -rolling considered necessary,[45] being amongst the various influences. -From the above returns I find that the number of square yards rolled -varies from 500 to 3000 per diem, the average for 42 towns being 1105 -square yards per diem. - -The cost per square yard rolled, including all charges, may be assumed -to be between ¹⁄₂_d._ and 1_d._, and the cost of binding material about -3_d._ per square yard. With reference to the necessity of binding -material, the following, facts are interesting. - -Mr. Wm. H. Grant, Superintending Engineer of the New York Central Park, -in his report upon the park roads, says:[46] “At the commencement of the -macadam roads, the experiment was tried of rolling and compacting the -stone by a strict adherence to Macadam’s theory, that of carefully -excluding all dirt and foreign material from the stones, and trusting to -the action of the roller and the travel of teams to accomplish the work -of consolidation. The bottom layer of stone was sufficiently compacted -in this way to form and retain, under the action of the rollers (after -the compression had reached about its practical limit) an even and -regular surface; but the top layer, with the use of the heavy roller -loaded to its greatest capacity, it was found impracticable to solidify -and reduce to such a surface as would prevent the stones from loosening -and being displaced by the action of waggon-wheels and horses’ feet. No -amount of rolling was sufficient to produce a thorough binding effect -upon the stones or to cause such a mechanical union and adjustment of -their sides and angles together, as to enable them mutually to assist -each other in resisting displacement. The rolling was persisted in with -the roller adjusted to different weights up to the maximum load (12 -tons) until it was apparent that the opposite effect from that intended -was being produced. The stones became rounded by the excessive attrition -they were subjected to, their more angular parts wearing away, and the -weaker and smaller ones being crushed.” - -“The experiment was not pushed beyond this point. It was conclusively -shown, that broken stones of the ordinary sizes, and of the very best -quality for wear and durability, with the greatest care and attention to -all the necessary conditions of rolling and compression, would not -consolidate in the effectual manner required for the surface of a road -while entirely isolated from and independent of other substances. The -utmost efforts to compress and solidify them while in this condition -after a certain limit had been reached, were unavailing.” - -From the foregoing it is very evident that some description of binding -material is essential in making a road under a roller. Where traffic is -allowed to consolidate a road it is different, as then the stones are -knocked about and are sufficiently abraded against each other to form a -binding material for themselves. Too much binding material or too much -water should not be used in forming a road with a steam roller. It is -unfortunately frequently the case that a road is made quickly only to go -to pieces with the traffic in a few weeks. The surface of a -well-constructed macadamised roadway should after being rolled look -almost like an encaustic pavement. If there is too much binding material -in the joints of the stones, the first heavy rain washes it out and the -surface of the roadway quickly goes to pieces. - -The following description of the manner in which it is recommended that -the roller should be applied is taken from an excellent little pamphlet -on Steam Road Rolling, by Messrs. Aveling and Porter, the well-known -makers of steam-rollers, and although local circumstances must guide the -surveyor in all his works, the particulars may be of use:-- - -“In the best practice the roadway is excavated, graded, and properly -formed to a depth of 14 inches from the level of the gutters, with a -cross section conforming to the cross section of the road when finished; -it is then thoroughly and repeatedly rolled with the steam roller, all -depressions being carefully filled and rolled before the stone is put -on. On the bed thus formed and consolidated a layer of stones 8 inches -thick is set by hand, and rammed or settled to place by sledge hammers, -all irregularities of surface being broken off and the interstices -wedged with pieces of stone. The intermediate layer of broken stone, of -a size not exceeding 3 inches in diameter, is then evenly spread to a -depth of 4 inches and thoroughly rolled, and this is followed by rolling -in half-an-inch of sand. The surface layer of stone, broken to a size -not larger than 2 inches diameter, and to a form as nearly cubical as -possible, is then put on to a depth of 3 inches, thoroughly rolled, and -followed as before by sand, also rolled. Finally, a binding composed of -clean, sharp sand is then applied, well watered and most thoroughly -rolled with the steam roller, until the surface becomes firm, compact -and smooth, the superfluous binding material being swept off and -removed.” - -And the following account of the method adopted in the United States at -Hartford may also be of interest.[47] - -“The surface of the road is excavated to a suitable depth--say, 18 -inches; preparing the form for the pavement with the precautions as for -a common pavement; 4 inches of gravel and proper drainage where -required, provided blocks of stone of any irregular shape are selected -for the pavement, of about 7 inches in thickness. The blocks are set by -hand with great care, as closely in contact at their base as -practicable. The surface between the blocks is filled with chippings of -stone carefully laid in. A layer of broken stone, 4 inches thick, is -laid over this pavement. The road-covering thus prepared should be -rolled with the steam roller until the upper layer has become perfectly -compact and consolidated. The second layer, about 3 inches in depth, is -then laid on; a coating of clean coarse gravel, 1¹⁄₂ inch thick, termed -‘binding,’ is spread over the surface, and the whole well rolled as -before, and you have the requisites of a good road--viz., clean, hard, -and even at all seasons. No road should be considered made until it is -completely rolled. A road made in the manner above described, and kept -perfectly clean, hard, and even, with materials of a good tough quality, -would show extremely little wear on the surface; indeed, it has been -found in France to be less than ¹⁄₂ an inch in a year, on a road of -great traffic.” - -In the neighbourhood of New York the steam roller is used as follows:-- - -Two and a half inches of trap rock is laid and lightly rolled until the -stones have become a little compacted, then coarse screenings are added, -and it is again rolled; after this a layer of about 2 inches of stones -are added and rolled with coarse screenings as before. Fine screenings -or stone dust is then applied, and the roadway is then rolled until -every interstice is filled up; it is then well watered and again rolled. - -With reference to the employment of the steam roller in repairs of -roads, the following description is given of the method adopted by the -Surveyor to the Tottenham Local Board, near London.[48] - -“When a road becomes so full of holes or so worn as to require coating -throughout its entire length and width, it should be hacked completely -over and raked into a segmental form in its transverse section to remove -irregularities, and so that the road may have a fall from the crown to -the channel of not less than one inch to a yard. It should then be -coated with stone broken as nearly cubical as possible and to an uniform -gauge. When spread it should be slightly coated with gravel screenings, -or the grit sweepings from the roads, which are equally suitable for the -purpose when in proper condition. The road should then be watered and -rolled, beginning with the road at the channels, and ending at the crown -of the road, until a smooth surface is obtained, more stones being added -to fill up any inequalities that may exist, until the whole is -consolidated. By constantly sweeping the grit from the sides to the -crown of the road as the roller passes over, every stone is thoroughly -grouted into its bed.” - -Mr. R. Read, the Surveyor of Gloucester, says:[49] “The road should be -thoroughly well lifted and the metalling spread in three-inch layers -evenly, and rolled once or twice before the gravel or other binding -material is spread; then spread gravel or sand evenly and well watered -with fine distributor until the stone is entirely covered, and the sand -does not adhere to the roller. Dam up the road channels to prevent water -and sand running off into sewers and let men scoop up the water, and -throw it back on the road, as it collects in the gutters.” - -In all cases the sides should be rolled first to such a degree of -firmness that when the roller passes over the centre or crown of road, -its weight, which tends to spread the metal or make it work off towards -the sides, may be resisted by their consolidation. - -With reference to the effect of the weight of steam road rollers upon -roadways, it may be well here to compare that of a 15-ton roller with -other burdens that a road has to bear, taking each case at per inch of -width of tire. - -An ordinary loaded two-wheeled cart presses with a weight of about 9 -cwt. per inch width of tire, a loaded wagon about 7¹⁄₂ cwt., a 9-ton -traction engine about 3³⁄₄ cwt., and a 15-ton steam road roller about -3¹⁄₂ cwt. So that as far as the surface of the roadway is concerned, a -roller affects it the least of any of the above loads. - -It has, however, been found that where rollers of more weight than 15 -tons are used,[50] not only are they unwieldy, but, from their great -weight, the solidity of the foundation of the roadway may be interfered -with, and also there is great danger of damaging gas or water mains and -services, besides any cellars that may be constructed under the roadway. - -The steam rollers which are principally used in this country, are those -manufactured by Messrs. Aveling and Porter, and those by Messrs. Green -and Sons, drawings of both of which are here represented. - -[Illustration: MESSRS. AVELING AND PORTER’S 15-TON STEAM ROAD ROLLER.] - -[Illustration: MESSRS. GREEN AND SON’S 15-TON STEAM ROAD ROLLER AND -TRACTION ENGINE COMBINED.] - -In Paris the Gellerat steam roller is used, and another is also known, -which is manufactured by Messrs. Morland and Sons. - -A 15-ton steam roller costs about 650_l._ in the first place, the cost -of working it &c., has been given in the early pages of this chapter. - -The advantages of steam road rolling may be summed up as follows:-- - -(1.) The saving of wear and tear to vehicles and horses. Roads should be -made _for_ the traffic, and not _by_ it.[51] - -(2.) Economy; as it is said that a saving of from 30 to 50 per cent. is -effected by reason of the roads being better made thus obviating the -necessity for such frequent sweeping and scraping. - -(3.) The roads can be made or repaired at any season of the year. - -(4.) The avoidance of cruelty to horses, cattle, and sheep, as in the -case of newly metalled unrolled roads. - -(5.) A saving of road metal. (_a_) Because it need not be broken so -small. (_b_) Because there are no loose stones to be kicked about and -lost. (_c_) Because there is no abrasion of the stones, only one surface -of the stone being exposed. (_d_) Because no ruts can be formed in which -water can lie to rot the stone. (_e_) Because a thinner coating of metal -can be employed. - -(6.) The roller can be advantageously used for other purposes. - -(7.) Rolled streets have a better appearance, they are easier of traffic -as having more evenness of surface and superior hardness, and it is -contended that if steam rollers were more general there would not be -such an outcry for other descriptions of pavement for roadways. - -(8.) The steam roller soon finds out the good from the bad metal for -roads, it is also contended that it also does this with respect to the -gas and water mains, the latter, however may be looked upon as a rather -doubtful advantage. - -(9.) The avoidance of the necessity of the continued employment of men -raking the metal into the ruts. - -In Mr. Paget’s valuable little pamphlet upon the subject of steam -rolling[52] may be found the following remarks:-- - -“One of the main advantages attending the rolling of roads by -steam-power, consists in the diminished proportion of mud or soluble -matter which is then incorporated in the structure of the road surface. -If the surface of an ordinary road that has not been rolled is broken up -and the material washed, it is found that as much as half of it is -soluble matter, mud, dirt, and very fine sand; the stones, having only -been thrown loosely upon the road, have lain so long before becoming -consolidated by the traffic, and have undergone in the meantime such -extensive abrasion that the proportion of mud, dirt, and pulverised -material in the metalling is increased to that extent, and the stones -are really only stuck together by the mud. This accounts for the fact -that although an unrolled macadamised road may indeed, after long use, -have a surface that is pretty good and hard in dry weather, and may -offer then a very slight resistance to traction, yet it will quickly -become soft and muddy when there is any rain. By the employment, -however, of a steam roller upon the newly-laid metalling of a -macadamised road the stones are rolled in and well bedded at once, and -the surface is thus consolidated into a sort of stone felt, capable of -resisting most effectually the action of ordinary traffic, and -containing the smallest quantity of soluble matter to form mud in wet -weather.” - -Having given the advantages of steam road rolling, I will now proceed to -give the disadvantages. - -(1.) The first cost; this to a small borough or town is often the great -stumbling block. It is a pity that two or three of them could not join, -and procure one between them at joint cost, thus avoiding the -individually heavy burden. - -(2.) The risk of damage to gas and water mains and services; or even of -cellars under the streets in some of the older towns. - -(3.) The interference to traffic whilst the roller is at work; the -result is generally unsatisfactory if, to avoid this, the machine is -worked during the night. - -(4.) The noise and smoke. - -(5.) The risk of frightening horses. - -(6.) If too heavy a roller is used, the foundation of the roadway may be -injured or the metal may be crushed instead of bedded. - -(7.) The necessity of using so much binding material and water. - -Before closing this chapter it will be necessary to say a few words upon -rollers drawn by horses. - -These are always unsatisfactory: they are expensive to use, as a large -team of horses and a number of attendants are necessary; they are -difficult to turn, and the horses’ feet displace almost as many stones -as the roller compresses into their beds. - -They cannot be of greater weight than 10 tons, even when on the -hydrostatic principle, and they are clumsy and difficult of -manipulation. - -If a roller is to be used at all, let it be a steam road roller of the -most modern description, and of the best manufacture. - - [42] _Vide_ ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil - Engineers,’ vol. lviii. p. 95. (The first steam roller was made in the - year 1864.) - - [43] The first steam roller used in England was, I believe, in the - year 1872; in Paris about 1864. - - [44] This should be collected and “weathered” so as to get rid of mud - and any organic matter in it. - - [45] In Paris 3 to 3·75 ton miles of roller are applied to every cubic - yard of metal; in America 5 ton miles are thought necessary. - - [46] _Vide_ ‘Roads, Streets, and Pavements,’ by Q. A. Gillmore, p. 89. - - [47] _Vide_ Aveling and Porter’s pamphlet on ‘Steam Road Rolling,’ p. - 32. - - [48] _Vide_ Aveling and Porter’s pamphlet on ‘Steam Road Rolling,’ p. - 33. - - [49] _Vide_ ‘The Use of Steam Rollers,’ by A. W. Parry, Reading. - - [50] Some road surveyors contend that for gravelled roads 6-ton - rollers are heavy enough, for macadam roads 12-ton rollers. - - [51] Traffic in making a roadway is apt to grind off the sharp edges - and spoil the metal before it is set. - - [52] ‘Report on the Economy of Road Maintenance and Horse Draught - through Steam Rolling, with special reference to the Metropolis,’ by - Frederick A. Paget, C.E., etc. etc., London 1870, to which I refer my - readers for many scientific and useful facts upon this subject. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -PITCHED PAVEMENTS. - - -It has been asserted that where a roadway has a traffic exceeding 1000 -vehicles per diem, that to maintain it as a macadamised roadway is not -economical.[53] However that may be, it is unquestionable that for very -heavy traffic blocks of hammer-dressed stone, laid upon a concrete or -hard gravel bed, have been in use for a great number of years, and -indeed the Romans, who were great road makers, introduced the system -(the Archaic, as it is sometimes called) into this country more than -2000 years ago; the size of the paving stones was, however, much larger -than modern science finds necessary. - -There is no doubt that a roadway paved with granite or whinstone setts, -upon a hard concrete foundation, presents a most enduring pavement, -costing but a few pence per annum in repairs[54] and cleansing, and in -other respects it answers nearly all the requirements of traffic except -in two very important particulars--it becomes very greasy and slippery -under certain conditions of the weather after having been laid any time, -and it is an intolerable nuisance in any great thoroughfare, from the -incessant din and clatter arising from the wheels of vehicles and the -iron shoes of the horses striking upon it; so great is the noise in some -thoroughfares thus paved, that tradesmen are compelled to keep their -doors and windows tightly closed in order that they may be able to -conduct their business, and it is known to injuriously affect the nerves -and health of persons who are obliged to live in the vicinity of such -streets. It is a bad pavement too for horses to travel upon, the jar -upon the legs of the unfortunate animals soon telling upon them. - -Great improvements, however, have in recent years been introduced to -correct these faults. The setts are now made very narrow, about 3 inches -in width, or 4 setts to 14 inches including the joints: this gives a -better foothold for the horse, the hoof having but a little way to slip -before being arrested by a joint; it also lessens the noise, and helps -besides to prevent the edges of the stones becoming worn or the pavement -wearing unevenly. - -Running the joints with an asphaltic composition instead of ordinary -grouting has also materially conduced to deaden the noise. - -Taking the question of cost into account--and cost of this description -of paving, be it remembered, is considerably affected by weight, when -carriage of the stone has to be considered--the following sizes of -stones may be taken as satisfactory.[55] - - Depth 6 to 8 inches - Width 2¹⁄₂ „ 3 „ - Length 5 „ 9 „ - -The following table,[56] showing the number of square yards that 1 ton -in weight of different sizes of granite setts will cover, may be of -use, but this must vary with the specific gravity of the stone employed. - - Depth. Width. Square yards. - 5 inches × 3 inches covers 4¹⁄₃ - 6 „ × 3 „ „ 3²⁄₅ - 4 „ × 4 „ „ 5¹⁄₃ - 7 „ × 3 „ „ 3 - -The question of the best class of stones to employ as a paving material -must to a great measure depend upon local circumstances, but it is -important to select such stones as are very hard and durable, but which -will not wear smooth and slippery nor round by reason of the chipping -off of their edges. - -Nearly all granites are suitable for this work, but Carnarvonshire -syenite[57] is said to be the best material that can be used, although, -being denser than granite, it is heavier and consequently more -expensive. - -At one time large quantities of paving stones were used in London and -Liverpool which were brought from Bombay and China, as ballast for ships -trading between those ports. - -Mount Sorrel from Leicestershire and the Welsh stones are said to wear -slippery[58] as well as porphyry, whereas the presence of felspar in the -granite always keeps it rough under traffic. - -Of the granites, that from Dalbeattie in Scotland is said to be the -best. - -The table on the next page, prepared by Mr. Walker in 1831, showing the -wear of different stones, may be of interest. - -TABLE SHOWING THE RESULT OF EXPERIMENTS MADE BY MR. WALKER ON THE WEAR -OF STONES IN 1830-31, A PERIOD OF 17 MONTHS. - - ----------------+-------+---------------+-------+-----------+-------- - | Super-| |Loss of| | - | ficial| | weight| Loss per | - |area in| Original | by |superficial|Relative - Name of stone. | feet. | weight. | wear.| foot. | losses. - ----------------+-------+---------------+-------+-----------+-------- - | |cwt. qrs. lbs.| | | - Guernsey | 4·734 | 7 1 12·75| 4·50 | 0·951 | 1·000 - Herm | 5·250 | 7 3 24·25| 5·50 | 1·048 | 1·102 - Budle | 6·336 | 9 0 15·75| 7·75 | 1·223 | 1·286 - Peterhead (blue)| 3·484 | 4 1 7·50| 6·25 | 1·795 | 1·887 - Heytor | 4·313 | 6 0 15·25| 8·25 | 1·915 | 2·014 - Aberdeen (red) | 5·375 | 7 2 11·50| 11·50 | 2·139 | 2·249 - Dartmoor | 4·500 | 6 2 25·0 | 12·50 | 2·778 | 2·921 - Aberdeen (blue) | 4·823 | 6 2 16·0 | 14·75 | 3·058 | 3·216 - ----------------+-------+---------------+-------+-----------+-------- - -The Aberdeen granite as at present laid in the City of London, 3 inches -wide by 9 inches in depth, has a life of about 15 years.[59] In the City -of Durham whinstone setts of the same width last 17 or 18 years, in -Manchester similar granite setts last 15 to 20 years. On this subject -Mr. Deacon, the then Borough Engineer of Liverpool, has collected some -most valuable information, and I refer my readers to a paper read by him -before the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1879,[60] for a great deal -of useful information on this and other subjects connected with -roadways. - -Various methods have been adopted for constructing granite paved -streets, some of which I will proceed to describe. - -One of the first really good granite pavements introduced into London -was that known as the “Euston Pavement,” and it was constructed in the -following manner: The foundation was shaped to the intended surface of -the finished roadway; upon this a layer of coarse gravel was spread 4 -inches in thickness, this was well rammed,[61] and upon it was spread 4 -inches of gravel mixed with a small quantity of chalk to bind it; this -again being well rammed, upon it was placed a similar layer only -composed of finer gravel, and upon this foundation the stones were -placed, being bedded upon about an inch of fine sand. The stones used -were Mount Sorrel granite, which were hammer-dressed and squared, 3 -inches in width by 4 inches in depth; they were set close together at -right angles with the lines of the kerb, they were then thoroughly -rammed by the pavior. The whole surface was afterwards covered with -screened gravel which was allowed to find its way into the joints and -thus steady the entire pavement. - -The following section will explain this. - -[Illustration] - -In many cases the foundation is simply formed by shaping the soil to the -required contour, and covering this with 3 or 4 inches of gravel or -cinders, which is afterwards either rammed or consolidated by the -traffic; upon this the setts are placed as closely as possible, the -joints are then filled with fine gravel well worked in with a “cramming -iron,” the whole surface being then covered with a grouting of lime and -sand, which is brushed into the joints with a stumpy broom.[62] - -In Leeds, Manchester, Salford, and many other important cities, I -believe the foundations are formed in the manner just described, but of -greater depth, the grouting also is a bituminous mixture, which I will -presently describe, instead of the ordinary lime grouting. - -The paved streets of Manchester are proverbial for their excellence, -which is attributable to the manner in which the foundations of the -streets are consolidated by the traffic before any setts are placed on -them; in many cases the old macadamised surface of a street being -utilised as a foundation, this process being almost identical with that -recommended by Sir Henry Parnell fifty years ago.[63] - -Where the traffic is heavy, however, a firmer foundation even than this -is necessary, and up to the present time no better foundation has been -introduced than that of good Portland cement concrete. This should be at -least 9 inches in thickness, and be composed of one part of Portland -cement, two parts of clean sharp river sand, and four parts of clean -river ballast, or broken stones, or other suitable material. The surface -of the concrete, after having been placed in position, should be -smoothed over with the shovel, so as to present the proper convexity and -have an even surface for the granite setts to be bedded upon. - -Another description of foundation now very extensively used where the -traffic is heavy, is that known as “Bituminous Concrete,” which is made -as follows: - -The ground being excavated to the proper depth and contour, broken stone -as for macadam is spread for a depth of 6 or 9 inches; this is then -levelled and thoroughly rolled with a light roller, a boiling mixture of -pitch and tar, or creosote oil is then poured over the whole surface -until every interstice is filled, when a thin layer of small broken -stone is spread upon it, and then well rolled until it consolidates. - -It may be well to observe here that in all works involving concrete -foundations and paving in streets, the traffic should be entirely -stopped if at all possible. Streets paved half at a time are never quite -satisfactory, and the concrete should have at least a week to set before -the pavement is placed upon it. - -Upon a foundation of either Portland cement or bituminous concrete, the -granite setts themselves should be grouted with a bituminous mixture -instead of cement or lime grouting. This renders the pavement more -impervious to moisture, makes it less noisy, and adds considerably to -its strength; the mode of applying it is nearly similar to that of -ordinary grouting. The setts are placed on about an inch of sand and -well rammed, the boiling mixture is then poured over the whole surface, -which is then covered with a thin coating of small, sharp gravel. - -The following table of the proportions necessary for the bituminous -mixture may here be of use. - -PROPORTIONS FOR BITUMINOUS MIXTURE.[64] - - Creosote - Pitch. Tar. Pitch. oil. - For grouting in pavements 1 to 1 or 3 to 1 - - For foundations or lower layer 3 to 1 or 3¹⁄₂ to ¹⁄₂ - of asphalte macadam - - For upper layer of asphalte 2¹⁄₂ to 1¹⁄₂ or 3¹⁄₄ to ³⁄₄ - macadam and for foot paths - -The objections to this method of paving are only temporary: the nuisance -arising from the fumes of the boiling mixture whilst it is being -applied, and the necessity for dry weather to make the operation -successful. Healey’s Patent Pitch Boilers[65] are said to moderate, if -not entirely to do away with the former, and the latter can be arranged -by only doing the work at favourable seasons, or if the worst come to -the worst, to cover the work with tarpaulins raised on trestles. - -Before closing this chapter I should like to draw attention to the -question of provision for wheel tracks, or tramways paved with stone, -asphalte, or other hard material, and a track for horses giving a firmer -foot-hold, similar to those so highly spoken of in Milan and other -Italian cities. An excellent description is given of them by Mr. P. le -Neve Foster, Jun., in an appendix to a report on the Application of -Science and Art to Street Paving and Street Cleansing of the Metropolis -(1872). - -The roadway where stone tramways are employed cannot be of convex -section; on the contrary, it should be concave, with the channel, -gutter, or water table in the centre. This is in itself an obvious -advantage, and I trust that the question of these tramways may at some -future date receive more attention from English engineers; the great -objection to them in this country being that the smooth tram-track would -be very slippery and apt to throw horses down when passing on and off, -but they have many advantages which should not be passed over without -consideration.[66] - - [53] Birmingham in 1854 had not, I believe, a single mile of paved - streets; the principal ones are now nearly all paved with granite - setts, and over 20,000 square yards were so paved in 1880. - - [54] It is said that the cost per annum per square yard of granite - paved roadways is but 3_d._, whereas the same cost for macadamised - roadways under the same circumstances is 1_s._ 6_d._ - - [55] In Paris after considerable research into the question, the - engineers of the Ponts et Chausseés, decided that the size of the - paving stones, which used formerly to be 9 inches square should be 4 - inches wide by 6¹⁄₄ inches long by 6¹⁄₄ inches deep, the stone that is - used being a grit sandstone, from the forest of Fontainebleu. - - [56] _Vide_ ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil - Engineers,’ vol. lviii. p. 66. - - [57] Syenite is a hard, greenish-grey metamorphic rock, composed - principally of silica, alumina, and lime, in conjunction with - magnesia, iron, etc. Its specific gravity is 2·96. - - [58] Mr. Boyle, District Surveyor of Manchester, says: “I would - caution you against the use of the old blue Penmaenmawr stone as being - an extremely slippery stone, and one which makes a dangerous - pavement.” _Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and - Sanitary Engineers,’ vol. iii. p. 58. - - [59] The old granite paving of London used only to last eight years. - _Vide_ ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ - vol. ix. p. 222. - - [60] _Vide_ ‘Street Carriageway Pavements,’ by George Frederick - Deacon, M. Inst. C.E., ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of - Civil Engineers,’ vol. lviii. p. 1 _et seq._ - - [61] The pavior’s rammer is about 55 lb. in weight, with an iron ring - at its foot; this is swung with some dexterity between the legs, and - is allowed to fall with great force upon the earth or stones it is in - use upon. - - [62] The usual specifications for the Guidet paving blocks (in New - York) require that they shall be of granite, equal in hardness to the - Quincy granite, of durable and uniform quality, each measuring not - less than 3¹⁄₂ nor more than 4¹⁄₂ inches in width on the upper surface - or face, and not less than 10 nor more than 15 inches in length, and - not less than 8 nor more than 9 inches in depth. Blocks of 3¹⁄₂ inches - in width on the face to be not less than 3 inches in width at the - base; all other blocks to measure on the base not more than 1 inch - less in width or in length than on the face. The blocks are set - upright in close contact on their edges in courses, with the longest - dimensions and the continuous joints running across the street, - breaking joints lengthwise of the street. - - The ends of the blocks are dressed off so as to give close joints in - the direction of the draught, while the broad vertical sides of the - blocks are left rugged or uneven, or with the split rock-face so that - the continuous joints running across the street are somewhat open. - _Vide_ ‘Roads, Streets, and Pavements’ by Q. A. Gillmore, p. 157. - - [63] _Vide_ ‘A Treatise on Roads,’ by Sir Henry Parnell, p. 130. - - [64] As these ingredients often vary very much in their constitution, - the surveyor must use his judgment to a great extent as to these - proportions. - - [65] These boilers are now much used for such purposes, they hold from - 60 to 500 gallons and are light and portable; the temper of the - bituminous mixture also remains uniform whilst being drawn off, and - there is very little evaporation or waste arising from them. - - [66] Since writing the above, the Liverpool and Manchester tram-road - was designed I believe on this principle. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -WOOD PAVING. - - -In the year 1843 Mr. Charles Cochrane, the President of the ‘Association -for the promotion of Improved Street Paving, etc.,’ in a paper which he -read before the Institution of Civil Engineers, on the State of the -Streets of the Metropolis, said that there existed at that date 100,000 -yards of wood pavement.[67] He further states that it is said to be -slippery, but that he approves of it as the best material hitherto used, -“both as regards its general economy and durability as well as its -facility of traction, and more especially its extreme cleanliness.” - -Two years previous to this date, Mr. Edward Lomas condemned wood -pavement as slippery, and recommended granite pavement for horses with -wood tram-tracks for the wheels of vehicles.[68] - -Since these dates the question of wood paving has made giant strides, -many companies and private firms having started business as wood -paviors, with many various methods, which they strongly advocate as -being superior to the others; amongst them I will enumerate and describe -the following: - - -_The Improved Wood Pavement Company._--The ground being consolidated, a -layer of sand is made the basis of the pavement, and assumes the shape -the surface of the street is intended to take. Red-wood boards 1-inch in -thickness are then laid across the roadway, from kerb to kerb, placed -together so as to break joint; boards of the same material and -thickness are then laid longitudinally, and breaking joint in the same -manner.[69] On this foundation red-wood blocks are placed in rows, -taking the same direction as the under flooring. - -Between each row of blocks, a strip of wood ³⁄₄ × ³⁄₄ inch is nailed to -the block and flooring, the blocks in all cases breaking joint; the -spaces thus formed between the rows of blocks are then run with a thick -composition which fills all vacant spaces there may be between the strip -and the block, covering the strip about ¹⁄₈ of an inch. Gravel, dried -and sifted through ³⁄₄-inch mesh, is then put in, solidly rammed, and -composition poured in; the pavement is then covered to a depth of ¹⁄₂ an -inch with dried gravel and composition for the purpose of indurating the -surface, and filling the spaces flush with the top of the block, a -slight covering of sand is then spread, when the traffic may immediately -pass over. - - -_The Asphaltic Wood Pavement Company._--After the ground is properly -prepared, 6 or 9 inches of concrete is laid, on this is laid a bed of -asphalte not less than ¹⁄₂-inch in thickness; then wood blocks 3 by 8 by -5 inches or 3 by 9 by 5 inches, of good, sound, yellow Baltic timber are -laid with joints ¹⁄₂-inch in width, these joints are filled from 2 -inches up with heated asphalte, the remaining 3 inches being filled with -a grouting of hydraulic lime, and clean, sharp, fine river grit or sand, -the whole being covered with a top dressing of fine, sharp sand, which -wears in with the traffic. - - -_Croskey’s Wood Pavement._--Upon a bed of concrete, cross grained planks -were to be placed side by side and be forced together by pressure so as -to form a compact homogeneous surface of wood.[70] - - -_Lloyd’s Patent Keyed Wood Pavement._--The special feature of this -system is that _Pitch Pine_ blocks are used laid _direct_ upon the -concrete foundation, the blocks being grooved on each side so that the -grouting (composed of Portland cement) shall run in and form a key. - - -_Harrison’s Wood Pavement._--This system consists of a concrete -foundation, upon which strips of wood 2 inches wide by ¹⁄₂ an inch in -thickness are laid. Upon these, wood blocks 3 inches in breadth are -placed, and then hot asphalte is poured into the joints, which -conglomerates the whole. - - -_Henson’s Wood Pavement._--The main feature of this patent consists in -placing common felt on the concrete bed, and between the joints of the -wood blocks; thus, it is contended, giving elasticity and allowing for -the expansion and contraction of the blocks. The blocks are also -bevelled on the top and grooved in a particular manner. - - -_Carey’s Wood Pavement._--In this case the blocks are cut 4 inches wide -by 9 inches long, and 5 or 6 inches deep, according to the traffic; -these blocks are shaped with alternate convex and concave ends, and are -laid on a bed of sand about 2 inches thick, the joints between the -blocks, which have been left about ³⁄₈ inch wide, being filled with a -grouting of lime and sand. - - -_Messrs. Mowlem and Company’s_ method of laying wood paving is to form a -foundation of concrete, varying in thickness according to the nature of -the subsoil and the traffic; then to pave with blocks of yellow deal, 3 -inches wide and 6 or 7 inches deep; the joints, which vary from ³⁄₈ to -¹⁄₂ inch, are filled in with sand and lias lime, and the surface is -afterwards indurated by strewing it with shingle. - - -_Patent Ligno-Mineral Paving Company._--This company lays claim to the -speciality of using hard woods as well as pine, and that the pine blocks -they employ are preserved or mineralised so as to be more durable than -the wood in its natural state.[71] - - -_Nicholson’s Wood Pavement._--This is principally in use in the United -States, and consists of rectangular blocks of pine laid upon a close -flooring of pine boards, 1 inch thick, laid lengthwise with the line of -street, their ends resting on similar boards laid transversely from kerb -to kerb, the boards being thoroughly tarred and laid upon a bed of sand. -The joints of the wood blocks are run with an asphaltic mixture, and the -whole surface is finally covered with hot coal tar and sprinkled with -fine sand and gravel. - - -_Stowe’s Wood Pavement._--This is also American, the blocks resting -directly upon sand or gravel about 6 inches in thickness.[72] “The -blocks are set in courses transversely across the street, so as to break -joint lengthwise of the street, the courses being separated from each -other 1 inch by a continuous course of wooden wedges placed close -together edge to edge, and extending from kerb to kerb. These wedges are -set in the first instance with their tops flush with the top surface of -the blocks. After the whole pavement shall have been well rammed, so as -to give each block a firm bed, the wedges are driven down about 3 -inches, and the open joints thus formed above them between the courses -are filled in with a concrete composed of hot coal tar and fine roofing -sand and gravel. The surface of the pavement may then be coated with -coal tar prepared by boiling with pitch, and finished off with a thin -layer of sand.” - - -_Wood Paving in Norwich._--Mr. P. Marshall, the City Surveyor of -Norwich, states[73] that the wood pavement in that city is “simply laid -on the road formation levelled up with shingle. The blocks are grouted -in with blue lias lime and well rammed down. This makes a splendid road, -and is superior to any portion of the road that has been laid with -concrete. This wood paving, 5 inches deep, laid as described, costs -7_s._ per yard super. We have had some down here now for 2 years, and -have had no settlement whatever. It is a very important matter, for it -makes wood paving possible for country towns.” - - -_Shiel’s Composite Block Paving._--This pavement consists of composite -blocks 12 inches by 15 inches, cast in iron moulds with two rows of wood -placed at an equal distance from either side and each other, the vacant -spaces being filled with granite broken as for macadam; over all is -poured a boiling composition of pitch, chalk, and sand. The blocks are -thus treated at the works, and are, when cool, taken to the street, laid -on a concrete foundation, and grouted with cement grouting. - - -_Prosser’s Wood Pavement._--This is composed of blocks sawn at an angle -of 60°, the grain of the wood running in the same direction. Each end of -the block rests on the other, transversely to line of street. Between -the rows of blocks a plank, the same depth as the blocks, but with the -grain of the wood horizontal, is placed. The blocks, which on one side -of the plank lean in an opposite direction to those on the other, are -secured or dowelled together by wooden pins running through the plank -and piercing the blocks about an inch. - -In Chicago, U.S.A., cedar blocks 6 inches square, set on a composition -of tar and gravel, are used, and are said to make a very durable -pavement. - -The following sanitary objections to wood as a material for pavements -are made in the Report on the Application of Science and Art to Street -Paving and Street Cleansing of the Metropolis (1872) page 17. - -“The General Board of Health set aside wood as an ineligible material -for this amongst other reasons, that street surfaces ought to be -impermeable; and for roads of light traffic and cheap construction, they -looked to modifications of macadam, with bituminous binders of mineral -tar. Since then wood has been reproduced for the purpose, and strongly -pressed in improved forms for trial. It certainly offers the advantage -of a great gain in noiselessness over granite, more especially from the -horses’ feet, though with some disadvantage from a dead rumble and -vibration; and further it has the advantage of being more available than -smooth pavements for inclines. But hygienists object to its use on -grounds which, in the absence of sanitary science, are overlooked, but -which it is important to particularise as showing the dangerous state of -ignorance and incompetency of the authorities by whom they are not -entertained or are disregarded.” - -The sum total of these charges against wood as a pavement consists in -the following: “Wood is porous, it is composed of bundles of fibres, it -absorbs and retains wet, foul wet especially.” Why _foul_ wet should be -absorbed more than ordinary wet does not transpire. - -There is no doubt that wood in its natural state does absorb a large -quantity of water,[74] but this can be avoided in wood paving by -preserving the wood of which it is composed by one of the following -processes. - - (1) Burnetising Chloride of zinc is used in this process. - (2) Kyanising Corrosive sublimate is used. - (3) Renwickising Boiling in coal tar. - (4) Boucherising Sulphate of copper is used. - (5) Bethelising Creosote heated to 200° F. is used. - (6) Seelyising Creosote is also used, the wood being first boiled. - (7) Hayfordising Creosote is also used, wood being unseasoned. - -The fibres of the wood are also compressed, and no open joints between -the blocks are permitted, by paving the blocks transversely, with butt -joints closely packed together, and by filling the cross joints with an -asphaltic or other impervious grouting. - -Wood paving should, however, be laid in streets with moderate traffic, -and plenty of sun and air. In confined spaces such as courts, it soon -rots and becomes a source of much unhealthiness.[75] - -Many reports have been from time to time made on the advantages and -disadvantages of wood paving, and much has been said and written upon -the subject, so that I will only touch upon some of the principal -questions at issue. - -The first of importance is that of durability, and although the life of -a hard wood constantly exposed to attrition is amazing, as may be seen -on the stairs of the Metropolitan Railway Stations, and in many cog -wheels of old machinery, still some diversity of opinion exists as to -what may be fairly put down as the wear per annum of the surface of a -street paved with wood blocks. - -It must be remembered that to arrive at any fixed ratio of wear, a -standard of traffic should be fixed; but this unfortunately has not -hitherto been done, so that the results of observations are bound to -differ considerably. It must also not be lost sight of that the reason -of excessive wear in a wood pavement generally arises from wide joints -being the means of causing the edges of the blocks to abrade and become -worn. - -Mr. D. T. Hope, in a paper he laid before the Scottish Society of Arts, -upon some most careful investigations he had made on this subject, gives -the wear as ¹⁄₈ of an inch in 18 months on blocks laid with vertical -fibre, which he proved was the best manner of laying them to ensure the -longest life. - -Mr. Deacon estimated the wear at from 1³⁄₈ inch to 2⁵⁄₁₆ inches per -annum.[76] - -Mr. Copland estimated the wear at ³⁄₁₆ of an inch per annum.[77] - -Mr. Howorth estimates the life of wood paving at 25 years per inch of -wood, if an absolutely uniform quality of wood fibre could be -assumed.[78] - -Mr. Haywood says,[79] “Wood pavements with repairs have in this City -(London) had a life varying from 6 to 19 years, and that with repairs, -an average life of about 10 years may be obtained.” - -The life of wood is no doubt extended by being preserved by one of the -processes I have enumerated, but as its life may be taken as an average -of 8 to 10 years, and as the blocks are bound to wear unevenly, they -should be made as shallow as is consistent with stability; as it is an -undisputed fact that the foundation of a roadway is the important -carrier of the traffic, the surface material, of whatever it may be -constructed, only acting as a skin to preserve it. If the blocks are too -thick, unnecessary capital is locked up. - -Wood pavement was laid in Sunderland[80] in 1859 with strips of -creosoted red pine, creosoted beech wood, and unpreserved oak, the bulk -of the paving being unpreserved red deal, and this was replaced in 1867. - -In 1877, on renewing the pavement, it was found that the creosoted wood -suffered less from wear and tear than the unpreserved, so the whole was -done with creosoted red pine, the original strip of creosoted red pine -was left untouched, the strip of oak was turned, and the beech was -merely raised; and there is no doubt that the best wood pavement is that -which can be constructed in the simplest manner, as for instance deal -blocks 4 or 5 inches deep, laid with a close joint upon a Portland -cement concrete bed, the blocks being well grouted in with Portland -cement grouting, their surface being afterwards sprinkled or strewn with -sand or sharp gravel. - -The woods employed for paving are beech and oak, both of which are said -to be too slippery, elm, which is not durable, pitch pine and Baltic -fir. Memel and Dantzic timber is better than Riga, the best wood for the -purpose being said to be Wyborg or St. Petersburgh red deals. - -All sappy wood must be at once rejected as unsuitable. This is a great -objection to creosoting or other preserving processes, as it hides -defects in the wood. - -The advantages of wood paving may be summed up as follows:-- - -(1.) It is the quietest of all known pavements, wheels make scarcely any -noise upon it and there is no clatter of horses’ hoofs. - -(2.) It is much safer than either asphalte or granite pavements for -horses travelling upon it and if a horse falls he can rise more easily. - -(3.) The traction necessary upon it, though slightly greater than upon -asphalte, is compensated for by the better foothold given to horses. - -(4.) It is clean. If well constructed there should be no mud made upon -it; all that appears upon its surface should arise either from its being -imported upon it, or from the gravel with which it is sometimes -necessary to dress the surface. - -(5.) It presents a uniform and slight elasticity, which is of great -benefit to vehicles passing over it. - -(6.) It may be laid on a gradient of 1 in 20 with safety to the traffic. - -The principal objections to wood as a paving are:-- - -(1.) It is said to absorb moisture and to smell offensively, but this -has often been refuted.[81] (2.) It is said to be difficult to cleanse -without the aid of water, as dirt adheres to the wood, and lingers in -the joints. - -(3.) It is not easy to open it or repair it, for the purposes of gas and -water pipes, etc., and rather a large surface has to be removed for this -purpose, and it has to be left a little time after repairs before -traffic is again allowed on it. - -(4.) The wood swells if wet, and cases are on record of the side kerbs -of streets being raised, and lamp posts thrown down, by the pressure of -the wood thus swelling.[82] - -With regard to the cost of wood paving. This must vary in different -localities, according to the value of labour, of materials, and in the -manner in which the work is done. - -The practice of most of the companies engaged in this class of work is -to make a fixed charge per square yard for the pavement, including the -concrete but excluding the excavation, and they also guarantee to keep -the pavement in repair free of charge for one or two years, and then -for so many years after, at so much per yard per annum. - -About 14_s._ per square yard is generally the first charge for -constructing, and 1_s._ per square yard is the annual charge for -maintenance. - -Upon the subject of cost the following tables[83] may be useful. - -TABLE SHOWING THE ACTUAL DURATION AND COST OF CERTAIN WOOD PAVEMENTS IN -THE CITY OF LONDON. - - -----------+----------+----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - | | | | Total Cost| Average - | | | First Cost| of Repairs| Cost - | | | per | per Square| per Square - |Date when | | Square |Yard during| Yard per - Situation.|laid New. | Life. | Yard. | Life. | Annum. - -----------+----------+----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - | |Yrs. Mths.|£ _s._ _d._|£ _s._ _d._|£ _s._ _d._ - Cornhill |May, 1855 | 10 2 |0 12 2 |0 17 4¹⁄₂|0 2 11 - |July, 1865| 6 8 |0 11 6 |0 8 9³⁄₄|0 3 0¹⁄₂ - | | | | | - Gracechurch|Nov. 1853 | 11 7 |0 12 8 |0 17 1¹⁄₂|0 2 6³⁄₄ - Street |June, 1865| 6 0 |0 11 6 |0 6 11 |0 3 0³⁄₄ - | | | | | - Lombard |May, 1851 | 9 4 |0 9 6 |0 6 0 |0 1 7³⁄₄ - Street |Sept. 1860| 10 7 |0 9 2 |1 0 2 |0 2 9 - | | | | | - Lothbury |May, 1854 | 12 3 |0 12 6 |1 8 4³⁄₄|0 3 4 - |Aug. 1866 | 6 1 |0 12 6 |0 3 5³⁄₄|0 2 7¹⁄₂ - | | | | | - Mincing |July, 1841| 19 1 |0 14 4 |0 13 4 |0 1 5¹⁄₄ - Lane |Aug. 1860 | 13 0 |0 9 2 |1 2 6³⁄₄|0 2 5¹⁄₄ - | | | | | - Bartholomew|May, 1854 | 12 3 |0 12 6 |0 17 5³⁄₄|0 2 5¹⁄₄ - Lane |Aug. 1866 | 5 5 |0 12 6 |0 3 11¹⁄₄|0 3 0¹⁄₄ - -----------+----------+----------+-----------+-----------+----------- - Foundations are included, but no excavation. - -TABLE SHOWING FIRST COST, AND TENDERED COST PER ANNUM FOR MAINTAINING -CERTAIN WOOD CARRIAGEWAY PAVEMENTS IN THE CITY OF LONDON. - - -----------------+----------+-------------+------------+------------+ - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | |Years to be | | - | | | maintained | First Cost | - | Date when| Name of | by | per | - Situation. | Laid. | Contractor. |Contractor. |Square Yard.| - -----------------+----------+-------------+------------+------------+ - | | | | £ _s._ _d._| - King William |Feb. 1873 |Improved Wood| 16 | 0 18 0 | - Street | | Paving Co. | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - Ludgate Hill |Nov. 1873 | Ditto | 16 | 0 18 0 | - | | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - Portions of Great| | | | | - Tower Street and |Sept. 1873| Ditto | 16 | 0 16 0 | - | | | | | - Seething Lane | | | | | - | | | | | - Bartholomew Lane |Jan. 1872 | Carey |No agreement| 0 12 6 | - | | | | | - Ditto |Dec. 1871 |Improved Wood| 3 | 0 16 0 | - | | Paving Co. | | | - | | | | | - Duke Street |May, 1873 | Mowlem and | [84]5 | 0 15 0 | - | | Co. | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - Houndsditch | Not yet | Ditto | [84]7 | 0 17 0 | - | laid | | | | - | | | | | - | | | | | - Ditto | Ditto | Carey | [84]7 | 0 13 6 | - | | | | | - | | | | | - -----------------+----------+-------------+------------+------------+ - - -----------------+------------------------+------------+------------ - | | Total Cost | - | |of Pavements| - | | during | - | Agreed Cost of | Contract |Average Cost - | maintenance per | Term, | per Square - | Square Yard for the | per Square | Yard per - Situation. | Contract Term. | Yard. | Annum. - -----------------+------------------------+------------+------------ - | | £ _s._ _d._| £ _s._ _d._ - King William | 1 year free | 2 0 6 | 0 2 6¹⁄₄ - Street |15 years at 1_s._ 6_d._ | | - | = 1_l._ 2_s._ 6_d._ | | - | | | - Ludgate Hill | 1 year free | 2 0 6 | 0 2 6¹⁄₄ - |15 years at 1_s._ 6_d._ | | - | = 1_l._ 2_s._ 6_d._ | | - | | | - Portions of Great| 1 year free | 1 14 9 | 0 2 2 - Tower Street and |15 years at 1_s._ 3_d._ | | - | = 18_s._ 9_d._ | | - Seething Lane | | | - | | | - Bartholomew Lane | ---- | ---- | ---- - | | | - Ditto | 3 years free | 0 16 0 | ---- - | | | - | | | - Duke Street | 2 years free |{ - | 3 years at 1_s._ |{ - | = 3_s._ |{ - | |{These pavements - Houndsditch | 2 years free |{will no doubt last - | 5 years at 9_d._ |{some years longer - | = 3_s._ 9_d._ |{than the contract - | |{term of maintenance. - Ditto | 2 years free |{ - | 5 years at 1_s._ |{ - | = 5_s._ |{ - -----------------+------------------------+------------------------- - In the wood pavements the cost of the foundation is included, but no - excavation. - The pavements at the end of each financial year are to be in a good - sound condition. - -The following table[85] is also given as showing the comparative cost -of wood paving with macadam and bituminous concrete paving in -Liverpool. - - ----------+--------+----------------------------+-----------+--------- - | | Deductions from | | Sinking - | | First Cost to determine |Interest on| Fund - |Original| Cost of Renewal. | Original |invested - |Cost per+-------------+--------------+ Cost at |at 3 - Des- | Square | Cost of |Allowances for| 4¹⁄₂ per |per - cription | Yard at| Foundation |old Materials | cent. per |cent. - of | present|not requiring| at date |Square Yard|Compound - Pavement.| prices.| renewal. | of renewal. |per Annum. |Interest. - ----------+--------+-------------+--------------+-----------+--------- - | _s. d._| _s. d._ | _s. d._ | _d._ | _d._ - No. 6. | | | | | - Bituminous| | | | | - Concrete | 3 9 | Nil | Nil | 2·0 | Nil - Pavement | | | | | - | | | | | - No. 7. | | | | | - Wood |15 1·5| 2 0 | Nil | 7·5 | 4·3 - Pavement | | | | | - | | | | | - No. 8. | | | | | - Macadam | 6 9 | Nil | Nil | 3·4 | Nil - Pavement | | | | | - ----------+--------+-------------+--------------+-----------+--------- - - ----------+-----------+----------+----------+--------- - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | Total - Des- |Maintenance|Scavenging|Gravelling| Annual - cription |per Square |per Square|per Square|Cost per - of | Yard per | Yard per | Yard per | Square - Pavement.| Annum. | Annum. | Annum. | Yard. - ----------+-----------+----------+----------+--------- - | _s._ _d._ | _d._ | _d._ |_s._ _d._ - No. 6. | | | | - Bituminous| | | | - Concrete | 0 9 | 2·4 | .. | 1 1·4 - Pavement | | | | - | | | | - No. 7. | | | | - Wood | 0 1·0 | 2·7 | 5·0 | 1 8·5 - Pavement | | | | - | | | | - No. 8. | | | | - Macadam | 1 0 | 8·0 | Nil | 1 11·4 - Pavement | | | | - ----------+-----------+----------+----------+--------- - -In concluding this chapter upon wood paving, I will give a specimen -specification for work of this description. - - -_Excavation._--Excavate the ground to a depth of -- inches below the -level of the proposed finished surface of the roadway.[86] The formation -surface thus excavated must be well watered and rolled or punned if -found necessary, and any soft or made earth removed to such a depth as -may be found to be sufficient.[87] - - -_Foundation._--Upon the excavated formation surface a bed -- inches -thick of concrete is to be laid, composed of one part of good approved -Portland cement to two of fine, sharp river sand, and three of clean -river ballast or broken stone. The concrete to be finished off with an -even and smooth top surface conforming with the contour line of proposed -finished roadway. - - -_Wood Blocks._--Upon the concrete thus laid, and after it has -sufficiently set, wood blocks are to be laid.[88] These blocks must be -of the best description of Baltic red timber[89] (or such other timber -as shall be specified), sound and thoroughly well seasoned, free from -all sap, shakes, large and loose knots or other defects, and any that -may be rejected by the surveyor as unfitted for the work shall be at -once removed from the works or broken up. The blocks must not be less -than 6 inches or more than 12 inches in length by 3 inches in width and -6 inches in depth, they are to be carefully laid with the fibre of the -wood placed vertically, their ends must butt with close joints to each -other, and each course must be kept ³⁄₈ of an inch apart by means of -wooden laths, which are afterwards removed. - - -_Joints._--The joints are then to be carefully run with a grouting -composed of one part of best approved Portland cement to two parts of -fine, sharp, clean river sand. (In some cases a hot bituminous mixture -or asphalte is run between the joints as a grouting.) - - -_Top Dressing._--The whole surface of the pavement is then to be spread -with a coating, at least ¹⁄₂-inch in thickness, of fine sharp gravel or -chippings. - -The following heads of general conditions under such a contract may also -be useful. - -Alteration of gullies, sewer man-holes etc., will be done at the expense -of the sanitary authority. - -Contractor must make good at once any damage caused to gas or water -mains or services--time penalty for delay. - -Maintenance of work after completion for a specified time. - -Power must be reserved to surveyor to suspend work during bad weather or -from other causes. - -Heavy time penalties for non-completion of contract by a certain date. - -Payments to be made to contractor on surveyor’s certificate, up to 80 -per cent. of whole contract, remaining 20 per cent. to be paid at end of -(say) 2 years after completion. - -With the above specimen specification I conclude the chapter on Wood -Paving. - - [67] The first wood pavement laid in London was in front of the Old - Bailey, in 1839. - - [68] _Vide_ ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil - Engineers,’ vol. i. p. 131. - - [69] This specification is the company’s own, as advertised when they - first began business; for many reasons the boards have since been - discontinued, and other alterations introduced into the system. - - [70] I am unable to ascertain if this plan has ever been tried - anywhere. - - [71] It is also affirmed by the Borough Surveyor of Sunderland that - this process dispenses with watering. _Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the - Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. - iii. p. 72. - - [72] _Vide_ ‘A Practical Treatise on Roads, Streets, and Pavements,’ - by Q. A. Gillmore, p. 166, which see also for a good account of wood - pavements in the United States. - - [73] _Vide_ ‘Wood Pavements,’ by Henry Allnutt, 1880, p. 22. - - [74] The power of absorbing water by wood varies from 9·37 to 174·86 - per cent. in dry wood. In its ordinary state the power varies from - 4·36 to 150·64 per cent. The quantity of water contained in wood in - its natural state varies from 4·61 to 13·56 per cent. _Vide_ ‘Minutes - of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lvi. p. - 300. - - [75] _Vide_ ‘Roads and Roadways,’ by George Waller Wilcocks, 1879, p. - 34. - - [76] _Vide_ ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil - Engineers,’ vol. lviii. p. 82. - - [77] _Ibid_, vol. lx. p. 293. - - [78] _Ibid_, vol. lviii. p. 45. - - [79] ‘Report upon Asphalte and Wood Pavements,’ by William Haywood, - (1874) p. 44. - - [80] See ‘Paper on Wood Pavements,’ by R. S. Rounthwaite, Boro’ - Surveyor, Sunderland, ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and - Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. vii. p. 48. - - [81] The surveyor of the parish of St. George’s Hanover Square, - London, says, “My experience of wood, and I have laid down 25,000 - yards, is that it is perfectly free from smells, even on a cab rank.” - Report of a Committee of the Paddington Vestry on Wood and other - Pavements (1878) p. 30. - - [82] Mr. Allnutt says on this: “As to the swelling of the wood, it has - been remarked that even brick walls have been forced out. We do not - see what provision can be made for this; but leaving the channel by - the kerb stone for the last work may relieve the lateral pressure, and - perhaps it would be as well for the blocks not to be so dry when being - laid down.” _Vide_ ‘Wood Pavement as carried out on Kensington High - Road, Chelsea, etc.’ by Henry Allnutt (1880) p. 15. - - [83] _Vide_ ‘Report on Asphalte and Wood Pavements,’ by William - Haywood, 1874, pp. 38 and 41. - - [84] The Ligno-Mineral Paving Company and the Improved Wood Paving - Company offered to maintain their pavements, if laid, for terms of ten - years and fourteen years respectively; their tenders were not - accepted. - - [85] _Vide_ ‘Paper on Street Carriageway Pavements,’ by G. F. Deacon, - ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. - lviii. p. 23. - - [86] If the road material thus excavated is macadam, it may be - screened and used as concrete in the foundation, if approved by the - surveyor. The granite pitching of crossings, channel gutters, etc., - must remain the property of the sanitary authority, as well as the - surplus macadam. - - [87] It is important to give sufficient notice to gas and water - companies in order that they may attend to their mains and services - before the foundations are put in. - - [88] Sometimes about half an inch of fine sand is spread upon the - surface of the concrete upon which the wood blocks are bedded. - - [89] If the blocks are to be creosoted, the number of pounds of - creosote that should be absorbed in a cubic foot of the wood should be - specified; this is generally about 10 lb. of creosote to 1 cubic foot - of wood. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -COMPRESSED ASPHALTE ROADWAYS. - - -The word asphalte in its generally accepted sense implies a natural rock -consisting of pure carbonate of lime, intimately combined and -impregnated with mineral bitumen in very variable proportions; that used -for roads or footpaths should not contain less than 7 or more than 12 -per cent. of bitumen. - -The rock when broken takes an irregular fracture without definite -cleavage; it is principally derived from Val de Travers, Seyssel, -Sicily, Chieti, Auvergne, Lobsann, and Limmer. Its grain should be -regular and homogeneous, the finer the grain the better.[90] - -When exposed to the atmosphere asphalte gradually assumes a grey tint, -by reason of the bitumen evaporating from the surface leaving a thin -film of limestone behind. The stone is usually taken from open quarries, -but at Val de Travers shafts are sunk and the general treatment is -similar to a coal mine. - -Bitumen, it must be borne in mind, is itself a mineral product found in -Trinidad and some other places; it is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and -oxygen. - -The weight of a cubic yard of natural asphalte is about 3874 lbs., its -specific gravity is 2·114, but this of course varies with its percentage -of bitumen. - -The following is a test for asphalte given by Mr. Deland in a paper he -read before the Institution of Civil Engineers in the year 1880.[91] - -“A specimen of the rock freed from all extraneous matter, having been -pulverised as finely as possible, should be dissolved in sulphurate of -carbon, turpentine, ether or benzine, placed in a glass vessel and -stirred with a glass rod. A dark solution will result, from which will -be precipitated the pulverised limestone. The solution of bitumen should -then be poured off. The dissolvent speedily evaporates, leaving the -constituent parts of the asphalte, each of which should be weighed so as -to determine the exact proportion. The bitumen should be heated in a -lead bath and tested with a porcelain or Baumé thermometer to 428° Fahr. -There will be little loss by evaporation if the bitumen is good, but if -bituminous oil is present the loss will be considerable--gritted mastic -should be heated to 450° Fahr. The limestone should next be examined. If -the powder is white and soft to the touch it is a good component part of -asphalte, but if rough and dirty on being tested with reagents it will -be found to contain iron pyrites, silicates, clay, etc. Some asphaltes -also are of a spongy or hygrometrical nature. Thus, as an analysis which -merely gives so much bitumen and so much limestone may mislead, it is -necessary to know the quality of the limestone and of the bitumen. - -“For a good compressed roadway an asphalte composed of pure limestone -and 9 to 10 per cent. of bitumen, non-evaporative at 428° Fahr., is the -most suitable. Asphaltes containing much more than 10 per cent. of -bitumen get soft in summer and wavy, those containing much less have not -sufficient bind for heavy traffic, although asphalte containing 7 per -cent. of bitumen properly heated does well for court yards, as it sets -hard when cold.” - -For roadways “compressed” asphalte should be used and not “mastic,” -which is only fitted for footpaths, court-yards, etc. Compressed -asphalte roadways are constructed as follows: - -The asphalte rock is first crushed in a “Blake’s” or other suitable -crusher, then pulverised in what is known as a “Carr’s disintegrator,” -until it is reduced to a powder; this powder is then heated up to -between 212° and 250° Fahr. in revolving cylinders and is laid about -2¹⁄₂ inches in thickness upon a concrete foundation previously prepared -for its reception, the powder is carefully raked to the required contour -and then either rolled or punned with iron punners previously heated to -prevent the adhesion of the powder to them. - -A roadway thus prepared presents many advantages over macadam, granite -setts or wood, the following passage amply describing one of them:[92] - -“An indispensable feature of a weight-carrying pavement must be the -absolute exclusion of water at the surface as nearly as it can be -insured, and in this one respect it cannot be questioned that a surface -like asphalte has no equal, the absorption being so gradual as to be -inappreciable during any possible continuance of moisture.” - -In addition to this indisputable fact the advantage of durability is -claimed for asphalte, but this must vary considerably with the quality -of the material and of the work. Mr. Hayward estimates the life of an -asphaltic Val de Travers compressed roadway at 17 years, and it is -claimed for it that it will wear until it becomes quite thin, very heavy -traffic breaking it up when it is worn to about ³⁄₄ of an inch thick. -Another advantage claimed for asphalte is cleanliness, and this is -evidently indisputable, as, being impervious, none but imported mud or -dust can be formed upon it. - -In addition to the foregoing the following advantages are also claimed: - -Pedestrians can walk on asphaltic roadways as well as on the footways. - -It is comparatively noiseless under traffic, though in this case wood -is better, as the clatter of the iron-shod horses’ feet upon asphalte is -very apparent. - -It is expeditiously laid, and when repairs are necessary they can easily -be effected; no pavement shows less signs of openings being made in it -for gas and water-pipe repairs than asphalte. - -The rapid laying causes less inconvenience to traffic in the streets. - -Ease of traction; but here steps in the one great objection to asphalte -as a roadway paving, viz. danger to horses by slipping and falling, of -which I shall say more hereafter. - -Cellars and vaults under the streets are kept dry, by reason of its -impermeability to moisture. - -Easily cleansed, especially by mechanical sweeping, and snow is easily -removed. - -It is very pleasing to the eye, being so uniformly regular and of good -colour. - -There is no vibration or concussion in travelling over it, and apart -from the question of safety it is delightful to drive over it. - -It is a cool pavement at night; it does not absorb heat during the day, -and consequently none radiates from it after the sun has gone down.[93] - -The great objection to asphalte as a material for roadways arises from -the fact that it is extremely slippery when damp,[94] irrespective of -temperature, and this in the climate of England is frequently the case. -The result of this slipperiness is, that not only do horses frequently -fall upon it, but it is also difficult to stop a horse when drawing a -load, thus causing more risk to foot-passengers of being run over, and -straining the horse considerably in its efforts. Again, in thoroughfares -crowded with vehicular traffic, constant stoppages occur, and in -starting again it is painful to witness the struggles of the horses to -keep their footing and overcome the inertia of their load. When a horse -falls he has very great difficulty in rising, but on the other hand, -although he may be strained, a horse never breaks his knees upon this -class of pavement. How far this might be altered if _all_ the streets of -a town were paved with asphalte, is a fair matter for argument, as it is -asserted that horses are very nervous on going from one pavement to -another, and accidents frequently happen in consequence. - -The strewing of sand upon asphalte renders it less slippery, but in -addition to the interference of the traffic whilst this is being done, -there are the further objections, of the possible injury of the sand -cutting into the asphalte, the expense of labour and materials, and the -mud caused thereby which has afterwards to be removed. Another plan is -to frequently wash the asphalte with water, but this is expensive and -only of temporary benefit. - -Another objection to asphaltic roadways is that they cannot with safety -be constructed of greater gradient than 1 in 60, and it must also be -borne in mind that fine weather is necessary both for the construction -and repairs of a roadway of this description. - -Very little smell, and that not of an unpleasant character, arises from -the work when compressed asphalte is being used, the mastic is however -temporarily unpleasant to those who dislike the odour. - -With reference to the question of the cost of compressed asphalte for -roadways: it is of course a matter depending upon local circumstances as -to the first cost, but it must be remembered that the compressed -asphalte hitherto laid has been nearly all that of the Val de Travers -Company, who charge a fixed price per square yard for laying according -to thickness required, the distance of the locality from London, and -other local circumstances. With reference to maintenance, this is a -question dependent mainly upon traffic, but here again the company will -undertake to keep in repair at so much per square yard per annum for a -certain number of years. - -It would, however, perhaps be a better plan not to enter into such an -agreement, but to arrange for repairs under a schedule of prices, but -this must greatly depend upon the character of the work in the first -place, and other local considerations. - -Mr. Ellice Clarke gives the following as the cost of Val de Travers -compressed asphalte.[95] - -The cost is reduced to 100,000 tons per annum per yard of width. - - ----+-------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+---- - |Original Cost| Interest |Maintenance|Scavenging| | - | per Square |on original|per Square |per Square| | - | Yard. | Cost. | Yard. | Yard. | Total. | - +-------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+ - | _s._ _d._ | _d._ | _d._ | _d._ |_s._ _d._| - | 18 0 | 9·7 | 3·6 | 0·4 | 1 1·7| - ----+-------------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+---- - -Nothing is charged for renewal, as the annual sum for maintenance -provides the asphalte in perpetuity.[96] - -The following table[97] may here be of use: - -TABLE SHOWING THE AGREED COST PER ANNUM OF CERTAIN ASPHALTE CARRIAGEWAY -PAVEMENTS IN THE CITY OF LONDON. - - -----------+------------+--------+----------+-----------------------+ - | |Years to| First | Agreed Cost of | - | |be main-| Cost | maintenance | - | | tained | per | per Square | - |Description | by Con-| Square | Yard for the | - Situation.|of Asphalte.|tractor.| Yard. | Contract Term. | - -----------+------------+--------+----------+-----------------------+ - | | |£ _s. d._| | - Cheapside | Val de | 17 |0 18 0 | 2 years free | - and Poultry| Travers | | |15 years at 1_s._ 6_d._| - |(Compressed)| | | = £1 2_s._ 6_d._ | - | | | | | - Gracechurch| Ditto | 17 |0 17 0 | 2 years free | - Street | | | |15 years at 1_s._ | - | | | | = 15_s._ 0_d._ | - | | | | | - Finsbury | Ditto | 17 |0 16 0 | 2 years free | - Pavement | | | |15 years at 9_d._ | - | | | | = 11_s._ 3_d._ | - | | | | | - Moorgate | Ditto | 17 |0 16 0 | 2 years free | - Street | | | |15 years at 9_d._ | - | | | | = 11_s._ 3_d._ | - | | | | | - Ditto | Limmer | 17 |0 16 0 | 2 years free | - | (Mastic) | | |15 years at 9_d._ | - | | | | = 11_s._ 3_d._ | - | | | | | - Lombard | Ditto | 17 |0 16 0 | 2 years free | - Street | | | |15 years at 9_d._ | - | | | | = 11_s._ 3_d._ | - | | | | | - Cornhill | Ditto | 17 |0 15 0 | 2 years free | - | | | |15 years at 9_d._ | - | | | | = 11_s._ 3_d._ | - | | | | | - Mincing | Ditto | 17 |0 12 0 | 2 years free | - Lane | | | |15 years at 9_d._ | - | | | | = 11_s._ 3_d._ | - -----------+------------+--------+----------+-----------------------+ - - -----------+---------------+------------ - | Total Cost of | - | Pavements |Average Cost - |during Contract| per Square - | Term per | Yard per - Situation.| Square Yard. | Annum. - -----------+---------------+------------ - | £ _s._ _d._ | £ _s._ _d._ - Cheapside | 2 0 6 | 0 2 4¹⁄₂ - and Poultry| | - | | - | | - Gracechurch| 1 12 0 | 0 10 1¹⁄₂ - Street | | - | | - | | - Finsbury | 1 7 3 | 0 1 7¹⁄₄ - Pavement | | - | | - | | - Moorgate | 1 7 3 | 0 1 7¹⁄₄ - Street | | - | | - | | - Ditto | 1 7 3 | 0 1 7¹⁄₄ - | | - | | - | | - Lombard | 1 7 3 | 0 1 7¹⁄₄ - Street | | - | | - | | - Cornhill | 1 6 3 | 0 1 6¹⁄₂ - | | - | | - | | - Mincing | 1 3 3 | 0 1 4¹⁄₂ - Lane | | - | | - -----------+---------------+------------ - -The cost of foundations is included in this table, but their thickness -is not mentioned; the excavation was done for the contractors. - -With the one serious objection of slipperiness, compressed asphalte -seems a most suitable material for the surface of a roadway, but that -objection is of considerable weight when we reflect that the great -object of roadways is that of “traffic,” and it is for that purpose they -are constructed; still, in cities where a heavy _business_ traffic is -going on, this class of roadway has so many advantages that where cheap -horses are driven it might be used; where, however, valuable horses are -used for pleasure driving, as in the west end of London and the -corresponding better parts of cities, some other description of roadway -should be maintained. - -Mastic asphalte will be described in the chapter on footpaths. - - -_Specimen Specification for a Compressed Asphalte Roadway._ - - -_Excavation and Concrete._--The excavation and concrete[98] foundation -may be specified to be executed in a manner similar to that contained in -the specimen specification for wood paving,[99] except of course that -the excavation will be shallower in this case. - - -_Asphalte._--The asphalte to be used shall be the pure unadulterated -natural rock known as the Val de Travers, and be unmixed with any -foreign or other matter whatever. The rock after being properly broken, -shall be ground in a Carr’s disintegrator to a powder of such fineness, -that not more than per cent. shall be left on a sieve containing - meshes to the square inch and decrepitation by heat will not be -accepted. This powder shall be heated to 240° F. or such other -temperature as shall be found desirable, so as to eliminate all -moisture, and carefully transported to the street in covered iron carts, -in order that not more than 20° F. of heat shall be lost in transit. The -powder must be spread upon the concrete inches in thickness[100] and -carefully raked so as to have regularity of depth and surface. - - -_Ramming._--The powder must then be rammed with iron punners of not less -weight than 10 lb. heated so as to prevent the adhesion of the asphalte. -The ramming must be done lightly at first, so as to ensure equality of -thickness, and afterwards augmented to heavy blows. Where the rammers -are not available a T tool must be employed. - -To meet some of the objections to compressed asphalte as a material for -roadways the “Imperishable Stone Paving Blocks” have been introduced in -America; they consist of asphalte formed into rectangular blocks under -pressure of about one ton to the square inch, these are laid close -together without any grouting, and a pavement of this description is -said to combine all the advantages of wood and asphalte, though -sufficient time has not yet elapsed to prove this. - -In Salford, Manchester, etc., I believe “Woodward’s Patent Molten -Ironstone Blocks” are used with some success where there is not any very -exceptionally heavy traffic. - -One of the principal reasons of durability in asphalte pavement is its -elasticity, and it should be remembered that compressed asphalte does -not begin to “wear” until all compression has ceased; this is the case -with no other system of pavement--stone and wood both begin “wearing” -from the day the traffic commences. Under ordinarily heavy traffic it -may be estimated that it will take two years to complete the compression -of asphalte, and the weight of a square foot of this pavement will at -the expiration of that time be nearly the same as on the day it was -laid, though the thickness is reduced during the first two years as -much as it will be in the following eight. - -Much is said about the advisability of _good_ and _dry_ concrete, but it -may be as well to explain the reasons that necessitate so much care in -the foundation. First, it should be always borne in mind that asphalte -pavement is nothing more than a tough “carpet,” and has no power of -itself of offering resistance to heavy traffic; consequently, if the -substratum or concrete is not thoroughly solid and resisting, the weight -of traffic will crush it, and the asphalte will at once give way in all -directions. The concrete should be made strong enough to resist the -traffic, and the asphalte is a simple covering to protect the concrete -from direct contact with the wear and friction caused by the traffic. So -much for the strength, but the dryness is of even still greater -importance; for the best asphalte, laid by skilled workmen, on -thoroughly first-rate but damp concrete, will rapidly go to pieces--a -phenomenon takes place, which, although quite natural, is little -realised by most engineers. When the hot asphalte is laid, the water is -immediately sucked up and turned into steam, which tries to escape -through the heated powder, and the result is that although the surface -of the asphalte is smooth, the mass is really disintegrated from -underneath by its bitter enemy “water,” and as soon as the surface -begins to wear, the fissures formed by the passing of the steam appear -on the surface and the whole pavement falls to pieces: thus accounting -for some of the failures this description of roadway has met with under -unskilled treatment. - -This completes the subject of roadways; I will turn to that of footpaths -in the next chapter. - - [90] In this respect the Seyssel is the best, being of a very fine - grain. - - [91] _Vide_ ‘Minutes of Proceedings of Institution of Civil - Engineers,’ vol. lx. - - [92] _Vide_ Mr. Howarth’s paper on ‘Wood as a Paving Material under - Heavy Traffic,’ ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil - Engineers, vol. lviii. p. 35. - - [93] In Paris and other cities liable to civil war or internal - commotions, it is contended as an advantage of asphalte that it cannot - be used for the construction of barricades, breastworks, or rifle - pits. - - [94] _Vide_ Mr. Haywood’s Report upon Asphalte and Wood Pavements, - also Report on the Application of Science and Art to Street Paving and - Cleansing of the Metropolis,’ and numerous other pamphlets and reports - by eminent authorities upon the subject. - - [95] _Vide_ ‘Asphalte and its Application to Street Paving,’ by E. B. - Ellice Clarke, ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and - Sanitary Engineers,’ vol. vi. p. 52. - - [96] The asphaltic roadways of Paris, of which there were 290,000 - square yards in the year 1878, cost from 10_s._ to 12_s._ per square - yard to lay, and about 8·83 pence per square yard per annum to - maintain, including the charge for renewing ¹⁄₁₅th part of the surface - every year, which is the method adopted there. _Vide_ ‘Annales - Industrielles,’ 1878. - - [97] _Vide_ Mr. Haywood’s report on asphalte and wood pavements, 1874. - - [98] “Lime concrete ruins compressed work.” _Vide_ ‘Asphalte and its - Application to Street Paving,’ by B. Ellice Clarke. ‘Proceedings of - the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors,’ - vol. vi. p. 46. - - [99] See p. 94 _ante_. - - [100] It must be ²⁄₅ths more in thickness than that specified as - finished. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -FOOTPATHS. - - -As in the case of roadways, so with footpaths: the foundation is of -primary importance, whatever material may be used for the surface. Where -this material may be classed under the head of “Paving,” concrete[101] -makes the best foundation. For gravel, tar paving, or other similar -surface, a hard core bottom well drained is sufficient. The materials of -which a footpath can be formed are almost innumerable, but the following -may be given as embodying most of them: - -(1.) Natural asphalte, compressed and mastic. - -(2.) Yorkshire flagging--Caithness flagging. - -(3.) Blue lias, and Devonian limestone flagging. - -(4.) Concrete. - -(5.) Bricks. - -(6.) Granite slabs. - -(7.) Artificial asphaltes, including tar pavement. - -(8.) Gravel. - -First on the list stands natural asphalte, compressed and mastic. - -The compressed has been thoroughly described in the preceding chapter; -it is sometimes used for footpaths where there is a very heavy traffic, -and answers admirably. - -I will, however, now deal solely with mastic asphalte, which means the -rock ground to powder, mixed with a certain proportion of bitumen to act -as a flux, and then subjected to heat; this is sometimes used in -conjunction with fine sharp clean river sand, but more often with finely -crushed stone about the size of peppercorns, and is styled “gritted -asphalte.” - -As long ago as the year 1838, Mr. F. W. Simms speaks of asphalte mastic -from Pyrimont, near Seyssel, and says “it may be considered a species of -mineral leather”[102]--a very good description of its surprisingly -tough, hard, durable and pliant properties. - -The usual method of the preparation of the mastic is as follows:-- - -According to the amount of bitumen contained in the natural stone, from -5 to 8 per cent. of refined Trinidad bitumen[103] is placed in a large -caldron which is usually provided with agitators driven by steam power; -when this is thoroughly melted, the powdered asphalte is added little by -little, the heat being raised to between 390° and 480° F., the mixture -kept well stirred and “cooked” for about five hours. It is then turned -out into iron moulds, most companies having a special pattern with a -trade mark for this purpose. - -The caldrons generally used contain from 1¹⁄₂ to 2 tons of mastic. - -Some companies in large towns are provided with caldrons on wheels, -commonly called “Locomobiles,” in which case the grit is mixed with the -mastic in the fixed caldrons, and the whole mass run out into the -locomobiles (which are also provided with agitators worked by an endless -chain attached to the axle of the wheels), and transported direct to -where the work has to be done. This system, though undoubtedly the best, -is not practicable except in large towns; the more usual method of -laying mastic footpaths is to send the asphalte cakes to the works, -where they are remelted in small round street caldrons, containing from -8 to 12 cakes each, weighing from 40 to 50 lbs., the grit being -sometimes added in the fixed caldrons, sometimes in the street caldrons, -this amount of grit varying from 20 to 60 per cent. according to the -nature of the work. - -The grit makes the asphalte more difficult to spread, but it lessens the -cost and makes a very durable path. The affinity between the asphalte -and grit is so great that, in breaking a sample, the actual pieces of -grit will be found broken in half. - -The asphalte should be spread from ¹⁄₂ to ⁷⁄₈ of an inch in thickness -(if compressed 1 inch is the minimum), and should be brought hot on to -the works in covered caldrons on wheels, the test of its being ready and -fit to lay being made by plunging a wooden spatula into it, which should -come out without any of the asphalte adhering to it, and also by jets of -light smoke darting out of the mixture. - -The mastic should be taken from the caldron with a warmed ladle, and put -into buckets previously heated, then thrown out on the concrete (which -should be perfectly dry) near the spreader, who spreads it skilfully -with a wooden stave, spreader, or spatula. The surface should then be -floated and dusted over with fine sand, portland cement, or stone dust. - -Dishonest contractors sometimes substitute inferior materials for -natural asphalte, such imitations being made of ground chalk, fire-clay, -and pitch or gas tar, or ground limestone mixed with bitumen. - -A sample of the footpath after it is laid should be cut out (this is -easily effected by heating the surface with a piece of hot mastic), in -order to see that the proper thickness is given, and by applying a light -to the sample, the smell will readily tell if real asphalte or any -inferior material has been used. Stockholm tar or common pitch should -not be allowed to be substituted for Trinidad bitumen, or it will spoil -the mastic. - -Asphalte mastic footpaths are excellent in every way, the only -objections to them being the necessity for the grit, and the temporary -unpleasant smoke and smell whilst being laid. It is also necessary to -put stone sills round the cellar openings and coal shutes, etc., for it -to butt against, but it makes an invaluable pavement, especially for -courts, alleys, back yards, etc., for sanitary and other reasons. - -The proportions of asphalte, bitumen and grit are given as follows by -Mr. Delano in his translation of a paper by M. Ernest Chabrier, on the -applications of asphalte.[104] - -“One ton of sanded mastic requires 13 cwt. of pure block mastic, 2 qrs. -12 lb. of bitumen, 7 cwt. of grit or sand washed and dried,” and it -takes 2 cwt. of coal to heat it. He further says that one workman can -easily prepare 3 tons of material in 12 hours. - -The following table gives the number of square yards that a ton of -prepared Sicilian rock asphalte will spread. - - ----+--------------+---------------------+----------+---- - | | With about | | - |Without grit. |25 per cent. of grit.|Thickness.| - +--------------+---------------------+----------+ - |square yards. | square yards. | inches. | - | 63 | 80 | ³⁄₈ | - | 51 | 65 | ¹⁄₂ | - | 32 | 40 | ³⁄₄ | - | 26 | 33 | 1 | - | 16 | 20 | 1¹⁄₂ | - | 12¹⁄₂ | 16 | 2 | - ----+--------------+---------------------+----------+---- - -A skilled workman properly assisted can lay 140 to 180 square yards in a -day.[105] - -With regard to the price of asphalte mastic footpaths, this is quite a -local question, and is not worth while discussing. The life of a -footpath thus treated may be reckoned at about 15 years under ordinary -traffic; the concrete will remain untouched and what is left of the -asphalte may be remelted, so that a renewal is not so costly as the -first expense. - - -_Yorkshire Flagging._--This pavement is too well known to need any -description from me; it is an excellent pavement in many ways, and is -most pleasant to walk upon, there being a cling or foothold not -experienced in any other material. - -The objections to this description of pavement are:-- - -(1.) Its first cost, which is undoubtedly high as compared to its -durability. - -(2.) The fact of uneven wearing: one stone will be found soft next to a -hard one; the former wears, leaving a pit which forms a pool for water -in due course, and has to be removed. - -(3.) Unless very carefully bedded, a stone will see-saw; this is very -unpleasant in wet weather, water accumulates beneath, and as the -pedestrian treads on one end of the stone a squirt of dirty water up to -his knees, and a stumble, remind him that the stone is loose. - -(4.) Liability to crack when any heavy goods are thrown upon it. - -The following specimen specification for Yorkshire flagging pavement may -be of use. - - -_Specimen Specification for Yorkshire Flagging Foot Pavements._ - -The old flagging (where and when directed) to be taken up, refaced, -squared, and relaid. - -The new flagging is to be chisel-dressed to a fair face, true, out of -winding, and not less than 3 inches thick,[106] to be properly squared -and not pitched off only, or undercut, but to hold good to the square; -to have not more than fourteen pieces to the hundred superficial feet; -the joints must be set flush, and bedded and pointed with the best blue -lias mortar. - -The bed for the flagging both old and new, if any is required, to be -made with proper earth, gravel, or dry rubbish, and all surplus earth -and rubbish to be carted from the streets as it arises from the works. - -The flagging to be properly cut and rebated to receive all area -gratings, coal shoots, rain water troughs, &c. - -Any damage done to gas or water service pipes in digging for the -flagging, or in any way connected with the work, to be made good by the -contractor, as also all and every other damage to windows, wood, or -glass work; and the contractor will be held responsible for, and will -make compensation for any injury that the public may sustain through the -negligence of his workmen, or otherwise. - -The whole of the flags to be of the very best quality, from Halifax, the -quarries in the neighbourhood of Bradford or in Yorkshire, and subject -to the approval of the surveyor. - -The contractor to provide all lights and proper guards at night, and -when old paving is to be taken up the work is to be done under the -direction of the surveyor, and if considered necessary, the stones are -to be removed from the streets to be re-faced and squared. No stone to -be stacked in the streets. - -The flagging to be measured after the work is completed. - -The contractor to provide all stone, materials, tools, implements, horse -and cart hire, and pay all railway dues, freightages, etc., and also to -provide all labour of every kind for properly completing the work to the -full and entire satisfaction of the surveyor. Payment will be made as -the work proceeds, on the certificate of the surveyor. - -Should the contractor fail to perform the work to the satisfaction of -the surveyor, he then shall have power to execute the work and charge -the same to the contractor, and deduct the cost from any amount that may -be due to him; and in the event of the cost being more than the amount -due, or if there shall then be no sum due to the contractor, such cost -shall be paid by the contractor to the mayor, aldermen, and citizens, -and the same shall be recoverable from him as liquidated and ascertained -damages. - - -_Caithness Flagging_ is now used very largely instead of Yorkshire; it -comes from Thurso in Scotland, and it is contended for it that it -possesses many excellent qualities, amongst others may be enumerated the -following: - -(1). It is impervious to wet. - -(2.) It is not slippery nor does it wear so. - -(3.) It does not scale or flake. - -(4.) It dries rapidly after rain. - -(5.) Its appearance is cheerful. - -(6.) Great durability, as it does not abrade. - -(7.) Frost has no effect upon it. - -(8.) Can be re-used when half worn. - -(9.) Cleanliness; for, not being porous, no dirt or dust can adhere to -it. - -(10.) Vehicular traffic may be turned over it without injury to the -path. - -(11.) Economy; as natural forces can be used, thus saving labour, and it -can be laid from 1¹⁄₂ to 2 inches thick only. - -(12.) Having sawn edges, the joints are expeditiously and well made. - -(13.) Its whole surface wears evenly. - -The following table was compiled by the well-known firm of Kirkaldy, by -direction of Mr. Tarbotton the Borough Engineer of Nottingham, in order -to ascertain the resistance to a gradually increased bending stress upon -Yorkshire flagging as compared with Caithness. - - YORKSHIRE. - --------+-------+---------------------------+-------- - | | Dimensions. | - | +-------+--------+----------+Ultimate - Test No.|Weight.|Length.|Breadth.|Thickness.|Stress. - --------+-------+-------+--------+----------+-------- - K | lbs. |inches.| inches.| inches. | lb. - 1918 | 184 | 36 | 24·07 | 2·46 | 4·744 - 1919 | 163 | 36 | 24·03 | 2·22 | 3·398 - 1920 | 107 | 36 | 23·90 | 1·50 | 1·459 - +-------+-------+--------+----------+-------- - Mean | 151 | 36 | 24·00 | 2·06 | 3·200 - --------+-------+-------+--------+----------+-------- - CAITHNESS. - --------+-------+---------------------------+-------- - | | Dimensions. | - | +-------+--------+----------+Ultimate - Test No.|Weight.|Length.|Breadth.|Thickness.|Stress. - --------+-------+-------+--------+----------+-------- - K | lb. |inches.| inches.| inches. | lb. - 1921 | 215 | 36 | 24·06 | 2·59 | 17·274 - 1922 | 178 | 36 | 24·05 | 2·15 | 12·711 - 1923 | 114 | 36 | 23·90 | 1·38 | 6·211 - +-------+-------+--------+----------+-------- - Mean | 169 | 36 | 24·00 | 2·04 | 12·065 - --------+-------+-------+--------+----------+-------- - -By which it appears that the balance in favour of Caithness flagging is -8·865 lbs. - -The objection to this style of flagging is, that however varied the -sizes of the stones selected may be, as they have sawn edges and are -very hard to cut with a chisel, a difficulty sometimes arises in -finishing rounded corners of footpaths, and against uneven frontages of -shops or buildings abutting on the footpath; this is especially the case -in old towns. - - -_Blue Lias Flagging._--A blue lias flagging does not make a first-rate -pavement, as although it is very cheap, durable, clean, and has many -other good qualities, it sometimes wears slippery and is then dangerous -to pedestrians; but the Devonian limestone, which is much used in the -west of England, has not apparently this defect. - - -_Concrete Footpaths._--These have been tried in this country, but -generally without success; the concrete or cement cracks, and in -addition to this the paths wear slippery and greasy, and as some time is -necessary in order to allow the concrete to thoroughly set before the -traffic can be allowed on them, they have not found much favour. - -In the United States, however, concrete footpaths seem to be made -successfully; the following detail particulars of such a foot-pavement -will, I think, be of great interest and use.[107] - -“Concrete footpaths should be laid upon a form of well-compacted sand, -or fine gravel, or a mixture of sand, gravel and loam. The natural soil, -if sufficiently porous to provide thorough sub-drainage, will -answer.[108] - -“It is not usual to attempt to guard entirely against the lifting -effects of frost, but to provide for it by laying the concrete in -squares or rectangles, each containing from 12 to 16 superficial feet, -which will yield to upheaval individually, like flagging stones, without -breaking and without producing extensive disturbance in the general -surface. - -“When a case arises, however, where it is deemed necessary to prevent -any movement whatever, it can be done by underlying the pavement with a -bed of broken stone, or a mixture of broken stone and gravel, or with -ordinary pit gravel containing just enough of detritus and loam to bind -it together. In high latitudes this bed should be 1 foot and upwards in -thickness, and should be so thoroughly subdrained that it will always be -free from standing water. It is formed in the usual manner of making -broken stone or gravel roads already described, and finished off on top -with a layer of sand or fine gravel, about 1 inch in depth, for the -concrete to rest upon. - -“The concrete should not be less than 3¹⁄₂, and need rarely exceed 4 to -4¹⁄₂ inches in thickness, the upper surface to the depth of ¹⁄₂ an inch -should be composed of hydraulic cement and sand only. Portland cement is -best for this top layer. For the rest, any natural American cement of -standard quality will answer. The following proportions are recommended -for this bottom layer. - - Rosendale or other American cement 1 measure - Clean sharp sand 2¹⁄₂ „ - Stone and gravel 5 „ - -“It is mixed from time to time as required for use, and is compacted -with an iron-shod rammer in a single layer to a thickness less by ¹⁄₂ an -inch than that of the required pavement. As soon as this is done and -before the cement has had time to set, the surface is roughened by -scratching, and the top layer, composed of, - - 1 volume of Portland cement, and - 2 to 2¹⁄₂ volumes of clean fine sand, - -is spread over it to a uniform thickness of about 1¹⁄₂ inch, and then -compacted by rather light blows, with an iron-shod rammer. By this means -its thickness is diminished to ¹⁄₂ an inch. It is then smoothed off and -polished with a mason’s trowel and covered up with hay, grass, sand, or -other suitable material to protect it from the rays of the sun, and -prevent its drying too rapidly. - -“It should be kept damp and thus protected for at least 10 days, and -longer if circumstances will permit; and even after it is opened to -travel, a layer of damp sand should be kept upon it for two or three -weeks, to prevent wear while tender. - -“At the end of one month from the date of laying, the Portland cement -mixture forming the top surface will have attained nearly one-half its -ultimate strength and hardness, and may then be subjected to use by -foot-passengers without injury. - -“The rammers for compacting the concrete should weigh from 15 to 20 lb., -those used on the surface layer from 10 to 12 lb. They are made by -attaching rectangular blocks of hard wood shod with iron to wood handles -about 3 feet long, and are plied in an upright position. Certain -precautions are necessary in mixing and ramming the materials in order -to secure the best results. Especial care should be taken to avoid the -use of too much water in the manipulation. The mass of concrete, when -ready for use, should appear quite incoherent, and not wet and plastic, -containing water however in such quantities that a thorough ramming with -repeated though not hard blows will produce a thin film of moisture upon -the surface under the rammer, without causing in the mass a gelatinous -or quicksand motion.” - -Under the head of Concrete may be included many artificial stone -pavements, such as “Bucknell’s Granite Breccia” “Ransome’s Artificial -Stone,” “Eureka Concrete,” “Granolithic,” and the “Silicated Victoria -Stone,” this last being worth a description. The stone is really a -concrete, formed by mixing very superior Portland cement with crushed -Thames gravel, furnace or iron slag, Kentish rag-stone, granite -chippings, or other suitable material carefully washed. This fine -concrete, after being mixed in the moulds forming the slabs, is -thoroughly incorporated by being rocked or jiggled in a trembling -machine; this motion, as can be easily understood, making the whole mass -even and homogeneous when it sets. The cost of the slabs is about 9_d._ -per square foot, 3 inches in thickness, and they make an excellent -footpath. - - -_Brick Footpaths._--These are sometimes constructed of ordinary bricks -laid on their sides, but soon wear, and are unsuitable for the -purpose.[109] Staffordshire blue paving bricks make an excellent -footpath. These are bricks made of stoneware highly vitrified; they -should be about 12 inches in length by 6 inches wide, by about 2⁷⁄₈ -inches in thickness, their surface being chequered with a diamond -pattern so as to prevent their being slippery. They are exceedingly -hard and durable if well burnt, and to ascertain this a brick should be -broken across and the colour, etc., noted. - -They should be laid in cement mortar upon a bed of concrete or sand. The -objections to this class of pavement are as follows: - -(1.) The colour is objectionable; being very dark, the footpaths give a -street the appearance of mourning. - -(2.) The difficulty of breaking up the path for gas or water services, -or for other purposes. - -(3.) The hardness of the bricks makes them awkward to cut to rounded -corners, or for water trunks, coal-holes, etc. - -(4.) A loaded hand-barrow driven over them will sometimes break off the -chequered pattern. - -(5.) They are slippery in a frost after snow. - -But notwithstanding these disadvantages, they make a most wonderfully -durable and useful pavement for back streets. - - -_Granite Slab Pavement._--This is sometimes adopted, large granite -slabs, 6 inches in thickness being laid; they are very useful when there -are cellars underneath, or where heavy vehicular traffic is intended to -cross the foot pavement. Granite is of course excessively durable, but -it wears very slippery with traffic and must then be tooled or axed; in -process of time this wears it out, and its first cost is heavy. - -This description of pavement can be laid with advantage in front of -markets or similar buildings. - - -_Artificial Asphalte Pavements._--The cost of obtaining natural rock -asphalte from the mines, and the knowledge that it is composed of two -very simple ingredients, limestone and bitumen, has led to a great -number of artificial asphaltes being introduced, especially for foot -pavements. “British Rock Asphalte” is a name by which many of the -compositions are known; “Beauchamp’s Mendip Mountain Machine-made -Granite Asphalte” is a high-sounding title; “Prentice’s Mineral Foreign -Rock Asphalte” is another. - -All these, and many more of the same description, are really what may be -better and more correctly described as “tar concrete” or “tar paving,” -and consist of different modifications of the homely coal-tar and -limestone. - -So long ago as the year 1840, “Lord Stanhope’s Composition” was well -known; it was made as follows: - -Three gallons of Stockholm tar, 2 bushels of well-dried chalk, 1 bushel -of fine, sharp, clean sifted sand, the whole being boiled in an iron -caldron. - -Tar paving is now made in many and various ways by different surveyors -of towns, some making it with hot compositions, some with cold. A -description will be found in the chapter on Macadamised Roadways, page -46, of one method of making it, a modification of this being all that is -necessary for foot pavements. - -The best paths of this description that I have seen are to be found at -Torquay, and by the kind permission of Mr. John Little, County Surveyor -of Devon, and late Surveyor of Torquay, I give his useful specification -in detail, as follows: - - -_Tar Concrete for Footpaths._ - -PROPORTIONS OF MATERIALS. - - 12 barrow loads of engine ashes. - 4 „ „ screened slaked blue lias lime. - 4 „ „ small spar or sharp grit. - 34 gallons of best gas tar. - 20 bucketsful, say 70 to 80 gallons of water. - - -_Method of Mixing._--On a clean flagged or wooden floor spread three -barrow-loads of ashes, then about one barrow-load of lime, and so on -until the whole of the dry materials (or one mixing) has been spread; -then throw over them about three bucketfuls of tar, and before mixing it -with them add (say) six bucketfuls of water; then mix as for concrete, -and when the liquids are pretty well absorbed add a similar quantity, -mix again, and so on until all the liquids have been absorbed; the mass -will then be something of the consistency of ordinary mortar. Next pass -the whole three times _at least_ through a pug mill: if this be not done -the concrete will be a failure. An ordinary hand pug-mill will not be -sufficient; the knives are not strong enough, nor will it incorporate -the materials thoroughly, but an upright pug-mill, worked by steam power -where practicable, or by at least one horse, should be used. - -It will be found that as the mass emerges from the pug-mill a large -proportion of the water will run from it; means should therefore be -provided for allowing the water to escape freely from the floor. - - -_Method of Laying._--Prepare the path for a layer of concrete 3 inches -in thickness, on a hard dry bottom, inclining from the inside to the -kerb, at the rate of ¹⁄₂ an inch to a foot for pathways not more than 6 -or 7 feet wide, but for wider pathways an inclination of ³⁄₈ of an inch -to a foot will be sufficient. - -A template the full width of the path having been provided, lay concrete -with a shovel on the inner side of the path for a length of (say) 15 -feet and a width of 1 foot, at such a height that when it has been well -rammed and patted with shovels it shall be the exact height intended for -the path; this is to form a resting-place for one end of the template, -the kerb forming that for the other end; then fill the intervening space -with concrete up to the template, treading and ramming it solidly for -about twenty minutes, and as it gets into shape, patting it with shovels -and smoothing with a trowel; then, with an iron (not stone) roller -weighing about 5 cwts., roll for two hours, trimming and filling up -hollows where necessary; then go on with another length, and -occasionally roll the first for half-an-hour, and so on. Experience -alone will decide the quantity of rolling necessary after the first day -or two, as weather and other causes tend to a more rapid solidification -of the concrete at some times than at others. - -On the third day, sprinkle a small quantity of sea or other very fine -sand on the concrete, and allow it to remain for two or three days after -the path has been in use--it should then be removed. - - -_General Remarks._--The ashes should not be those from a saw-mill or -other place where wood ashes would be mixed with them. All ashes, spar -or grit, and lime, should be passed through a screen of ³⁄₈-inch mesh. -The lime should be the best blue lias, slaked under cover; it should be -allowed to lie for at least four days, but not more than six days, -before it is used. The spar or grit should be sharp and angular. - -Great care should be taken to keep the concrete free from mud or dust; -it should be tipped from the carts or barrows, either directly into -place, or, if this cannot be done, a few slabs or boards should be laid -down, on which it may be tipped. - -The path should not be used until the concrete is sufficiently solid to -bear a man’s weight without taking the impression of his boots. - -It has been found by experience that the laying of this concrete should -not be commenced before May, and that it should not be continued beyond -the end of September (or middle of October, if the weather is very -fine). Frost is fatal to it before it has become hard, and continuous -cold wet weather retards considerably the hardening. - -There can be no doubt that a pavement of this description for traffic -that is not too heavy answers every requirement; for streets of greater -traffic, genuine mastic asphalte should be used. - -Before closing my remarks on artificial asphalte pavements, the -following description of an American method may be interesting: - -On a dry foundation is placed a coat of rough clinkers from anthracite -coal or iron clinkers from a foundry, mixed with sand and tar in the -proportions of 15 cubic feet of fine sifted ashes, 14¹⁄₂ cubic feet of -pit sand, and 1¹⁄₂ cubic feet or 9 gallons of tar. This is laid about 3 -to 4 inches thick and well rolled. Over this is placed a coating from 1 -inch to 1¹⁄₂ inch thick, composed of 15 cubic feet of coarse sifted -ashes, 15 cubic feet of clinkers, and 1¹⁄₄ cubic feet or 8 gallons of -tar. It must be then well rolled and sanded, care having been taken that -the materials are thoroughly mixed. - - -_Gravel Footpaths._--For the suburbs of a town and in the country, -nothing looks so pretty as a gravel footpath. - -The same rules that apply to a macadamised roadway apply to a gravel -footpath. They must be well “bottomed,” and well drained and well -rolled. Limestone or other stone chippings may with advantage be used -with a pit gravel for constructing paths of this description, and a -barrelled surface looks better and is more enduring than a hanging path. -The following cross sections of footpaths will explain themselves better -than any long description: - -[Illustration] - -Gravel footpaths are sometimes tarred over when thoroughly consolidated. -This must be done only when the weather is quite settled and fine: the -least rain will spoil the whole operation; it consists in simply tarring -over the surface of the footpath in the same manner that a gate or wall -or any other substance would be tarred. The surface of the path must -previously have been swept perfectly clean, and immediately as the -tarring is completed, fine stone dust must be sprinkled on its surface; -the traffic should be diverted from it for a few hours, and it is then -ready. - -Care must be taken that the tar is not too thin in consistency, and that -the coat is not put on too thick. Treating a path in this manner saves -gravel, which is washed or kicked off it if left with an ordinary -surface; but a cold night, a slight shower, or inferior tar will make -the whole process abortive, and the path will be in a fearful mess in -the winter. - - [101] Concrete is especially necessary as a foundation for asphalte, - as it has little or no power of resistance to vertical pressure in - itself, and indentations in its surface would be very unsightly as - well as hold water. The concrete should be perfectly dry and - thoroughly set before the asphalte is laid on it. - - [102] _Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. - i. p. 6. - - [103] Trinidad bitumen is best, but it has to be refined before it can - be used. This is done by cooking it with shale oil, then straining it - and decanting it, which is a troublesome and tedious process, and - there is great danger of fraud being practised. Good bitumen can be - detected by its elasticity and softness when rolled between the finger - and thumb, and also by its smell. - - [104] _Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. - xliii. p. 293. - - [105] _Ibid_, vol. xliii. p. 293. - - [106] A rule is sometimes made that York flags should be ¹⁄₂-inch - thick for every square foot of surface, but they should never be less - than 2 inches thick. - - [107] _Vide_ ‘Roads, Streets, and Pavements,’ by Q. A. Gillmore, p. - 208. - - [108] Sawdust 2 feet in thickness has sometimes been used, well rammed - and rolled. - - [109] The town of Brighton is an instance of this. Ordinary red bricks - used to be laid as a footpath, no doubt to give a rural appearance for - the eye of the jaded Londoner, but these are giving place to more - modern materials. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -KERBING AND CHANNELLING, ETC. - - -For all footpaths both urban and sub-urban a kerb of some description is -necessary to be fixed on the outside of the footpath, for the following -reasons: - -(1.) It acts as a sill against which the material of which the footpath -is paved may butt. - -(2.) It retains both the foundation and surface of the footpath. - -(3.) Whether there is a paved channel gutter or not, a kerb is necessary -in order to finish the haunches of the roadway. - -(4.) The appearance of a footpath without kerbing is very unsightly. - -(5.) Unless a footpath is raised above the roadway it is liable to be -flooded. - -Many materials are used for kerb, of which granite being the best is -generally used in streets where there is much traffic, as the kerb is -often subjected to severe blows from the passing vehicular traffic as -well as a grinding action from the wheels of waggons and other heavy -vehicles, especially on gradients where “hugging” the kerb acts as a -drag or break. In such cases granite, although the most expensive in the -first case, is certainly the most economical, and no other material -should ever be used. - -Granite kerb varies in dimensions considerably in different localities -and according to the width of the footpaths, the wider the path the -wider should be the kerb. It should however never be of less depth than -9 inches, nor narrower than 4 inches; depth is necessary to prevent the -kerb turning over towards the channel gutter, or water table as it is -sometimes termed, and the filling in on the gutter side must also be -well rammed with a bar to prevent this. Kerb should never be in less -lengths than 3 feet, and when 8 inches and broader it is better that the -top surface should be bevelled off to conform with the slope of the -footpath, but in narrower kerbing such a practice is unnecessary, and if -carried to an extreme may even be dangerous. - -The kerb should be drafted about 1 inch along both top edges and hammer -dressed about 5 inches on the face, in addition to the whole surface of -the top and for 3 inches at the back, in order that there may be a -smooth surface visible against the channel gutter, and also for the -flagging or other paving to butt fair against, besides giving a clean -appearance to the aris of kerb both inside and out. - -The following section of an 8-inch granite kerb will explain this: - -[Illustration] - -The top surface should always be tooled or axed whenever it has worn -smooth and slippery, as a slip from a kerbstone often causes a very bad -fall to a pedestrian. - -Setting kerb requires a very experienced hand, for as it is set dry -great care must be shown, or it will sink, turn slightly over, or move -even months after it has been set. In addition to this it is heavy stuff -to handle, but unless the line is accurate both as regards level and -contour, the appearance will be exceedingly bad. Of course the skillet -line and boning rods are freely used in setting kerb, but even with -these helps one mason will set kerb in a pleasing manner, whilst -another, with even more care, does not seem able to make it appear -graceful. - -Deep and narrow kerb should be bedded on good clean river gravel, and -beaten into its place with hard blows from a heavy wooden setting maul -or beetle weighing not less than 50 lbs. - -Broader and shallower kerb should be bedded on concrete. - -In addition to granite, kerbing is also made of Endon or Yorkshire -stone, limestone, and for brick pavements a kerb specially made of the -same material is generally used; it is also, though not often in this -country, constructed of wood, old railway sleepers being used for the -purpose. In the more rural districts grass sods are used with good -effect for gravel paths. - -It is difficult to estimate the cost of kerbing, as local questions must -interfere, carriage of the material and value of labour entering so -largely into the question. - -Mr. Codrington[110] states that “A limestone kerb about 1 foot deep and -4 inches wide costs from 2_s._ 6_d._ to 3_s._ 6_d._ per lineal yard, and -a channel 10 inches wide by 6 inches thick rather more. - -“Granite kerbs 12 inches wide by 9 inches deep, 6_s._ 6_d._ to 7_s._ per -yard run. - -“Granite channel 12 inches wide by 6 inches deep, 4_s._ 6_d._ per lineal -yard. - -“A channel 12 inches wide, formed of granite cubes 4 inches by 7 inches, -costs about the same.” - -I have found that granite kerb 6 by 12 inches could be fixed “_in situ_” -at 3_s._ 3_d._ per yard run, and 8 by 12 inches at 4_s._ 6_d._ per -lineal yard. - -Granite channelling composed of 3 courses of granite pitchers 6 by 8 -inches, costing 5_s._ 6_d._ per lineal yard. - -Limestone channelling 15 inches in width by 3 inches in depth, costing -3_s._ per lineal yard. - -A paved channel, gutter, or water table is of the greatest use to a -roadway, besides adding greatly to its appearance. Without such a -channel the haunches of a road become sadly damaged by the wash of the -surface water, which is sometimes so extreme as to undermine the kerb -and cause it to fall out. - -These channel gutters are made of different materials for macadamised -roads, granite setts laid in the direction of the gutter being the best. -A channel gutter should not be less than 18 inches wide, so that if made -with ordinary 3-inch setts, 6 courses will be necessary; they should be -bedded on gravel and well grouted in with lime or cement grouting. -Sometimes granite slabs 18 inches wide by 3 or 4 inches thick are used -and make an excellent gutter, they are however liable to tip under heavy -loads. Limestone slabs can also be used in roads of light traffic with -advantage. - -In streets paved with granite setts, wood blocks or asphalte, the same -material is used for the channelling, the setts or blocks being however -bedded in line with the channel instead of transversely as in the street -itself. - -The channel gutter should take the slope of the roadway and the granite -kerb should show from 3 to 5 inches above it. At paved crossings it is -well to keep them level with the kerb so that pedestrians may step off -the path on to the crossing without any drop, or if there is any water -in them at such points, it is a good plan to let the edge of the -crossing drop rather suddenly towards the kerb, so that the ordinary -stride of the pedestrian carries him on to the level. - -Gulley gratings or buddle holes should be placed along the line of -channel at such intervals as may be found necessary. A great number of -different forms have been from time to time introduced for this purpose, -the objects to be considered being: - -(1.) Sufficient area to carry off all the water. - -(2.) Not easily choked on surface by leaves or other debris. - -(3.) Sufficiency of pit to retain all sand or road detritus and prevent -it being washed into the sewer. - -(4.) The least possible obstruction to the traffic. - -(5.) Constructed so that the pit may easily be cleaned out. - -(6.) Trapped so as to prevent the escape of sewer gas.[111] - -(7.) The drain from it should be easily freed of any obstruction. - -One of the best forms of gully pit is that manufactured by Messrs. Oates -and Green of Halifax, as it meets nearly all the requirements which I -have summarised as being necessary for this description of work. The -following drawing will explain itself: - -[Illustration] - -What is called a “buddle hole,” which is an opening under the kerb, has -much to recommend it as giving a free unobstructed waterway and at the -same time avoiding the necessity of a grating in the street itself. The -following drawing will explain the general features of this -“buddle-hole:” - -[Illustration] - -A great number of different descriptions and forms of gully pits are -shown in Mr. Baldwin Latham’s excellent book on sanitary engineering, to -which I refer my readers for any further information upon this subject. - - [110] ‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roads,’ by Thomas Codrington, p. - 18. - - [111] In many towns the gully gratings are purposely in direct - communication with the sewers, so as to act as ventilators. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -LIGHTING STREETS. - - -At the present moment the question of lighting streets by electricity is -gaining so much attention, that it must necessarily be first considered -in connection with the subject of lighting streets: but to enter fully -into all the details and comparative merits of electricity and gas as -applied to street lighting would entail more space than can be afforded -in this work. It may however be of some use, even under the present -state of uncertainty, if I attempt to condense as much information upon -this necessary part of a surveyor’s duty into as small a compass as -possible. Nor must it be forgotten that electric lighting will not -easily be adapted in old cities and towns, where, in addition to the -main streets being narrow and crooked, there are few large open spaces -suitable for intense lights, and there are numerous small courts and -alleys which require lighting, and this for a long time to come will -probably be effected with gas.[112] - -Section 161 of the Public Health Act 1875 enacts as follows: - -“Any urban authority may contract with any person for the supply of gas -or other means of lighting the streets, markets, and public buildings in -their district, and may provide such lamps, lamp-posts and other -materials and apparatus as they may think necessary for lighting the -same. . . .” (38 and 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 161.) - -I do not propose to entertain the question of lighting where the gas -works are the property of the corporation, but only to give information -that may be of use where a contract has to be entered into between the -corporation and a company. These contracts are based nearly always upon -the length of time at which the public lamps are to be kept lighted, and -may be summarised as follows: - -(1.) The public lamps are lighted from sunset to sunrise every night -throughout the year; this averages 12 hours per diem, or about 4000 -hours per annum. - -(2.) The public lamps are not lighted on the nights of full moon, nor -for two or three nights before and after this period; the rest of the -year they are lighted at sunset. - -(3.) Similar to the preceding, except that the public lamps are not -lighted during the five nights of full moon, the night after they are -lighted for one hour and extinguished on the rising of the moon; this -lighting increases from night to night about three quarters of an hour -until the moon has entirely disappeared, when the lamps are lighted -during the whole of the night for five consecutive nights. Then again on -the appearance of the new moon the lamps are extinguished the first -night for about an hour that the moon is visible, and this extension -increases nightly about three quarters of an hour according as the moon -appears until the period of full moon, the intention being to profit by -every hour of the moon’s light. - -By this arrangement the lighting is about 2000 hours per annum, instead -of 4000 hours, when it is continued throughout the night during the -whole of the year. - -(4.) Sometimes, in addition to the foregoing, the lamps are not lighted -at all during the summer months. - -(5.) Occasionally the public lamps are extinguished at midnight all the -year round, if not for the whole, for some portions of the district, it -being assumed that all respectable citizens being in bed, no light is -required. - -(6.) In some cases every other lamp only is lighted in the summer -months, and many other similar variations for the sake of economy may be -practised. - -(7.) The public lamps are sometimes supplied by gas through meters, -which is then paid for at so much per 1000 cubic feet consumed. - -Of all the above methods the first is undoubtedly the most satisfactory -to the inhabitants, the urban authority, their officers, and the gas -company; it is the least likely to introduce disputes, and although -something may be saved by adopting the more parsimonious methods -enumerated, it is found in practice that the first is the best. - -In drawing up an agreement with the gas company to light the public -street lamps for any length of time, the following points must be -considered. - - -_Hints for a Contract with a Gas Company._ - -The company to provide a sufficient supply of gas of the full -illuminating power and quality as provided by their Act. - -Payment to be at so much per lamp, or per 1000 cubic feet consumed, or -at per hour, or whatever may be determined on. - -Payment to be made by urban authority for lighting, extinguishing, -cleaning, repairing, etc., as may be agreed, such payments to be made -quarterly, or at such times as may be agreed upon. - -The hours or times throughout the year during which the lamps shall be -lighted to be determined by a table, every lamp to be fully lighted -within one hour of the time named, and not extinguished before that -named for extinguishing. The consumption of the gas to be regulated and -determined by Sugg’s or Borradaile’s street lamp governors, or such -other mode as is agreed upon. - -The company to keep the governors and burners in repair, and also the -lanterns, at a fixed sum per lamp per annum. - -The company to light and extinguish, and keep all lanterns clean, and -all pipes, valves, etc., in repair. - -The company to keep the lamp posts etc., properly painted after they are -fixed by the urban authority. Lamps may be shifted or fresh lamps -erected by the urban authority, on their paying the cost. - -The company not to be compelled to supply gas to lamps which are beyond -a certain distance of their existing mains, without compensation. - -A certain pressure of gas must be maintained, to be ascertained by water -gauges fixed at certain public places, or at such points as may be -determined. - -Any lamps burning under size or out, shall be immediately attended to by -the company. A deduction in payment for gas by the urban authority to be -made if neglect can be proved. An arbitration clause is necessary for -this or other matters that may be disputed, and also a clause for -determining the agreement upon notice being given. - -In supplying gas to the public lamps by meter, either wet or dry meters -may be employed, and these are fixed either in the lamp posts themselves -or under the footpath. Sometimes each lamp has a separate meter, but in -the generality of cases one meter fixed to a lamp gives the average of -gas consumed by ten or a dozen of its fellows at the same level, and in -the same neighbourhood. The difficulties arising from this system are: - -(1.) The liability of the meters to get out of repair, especially in -times of severe frost, or by vibration of traffic. - -(2.) The first cost of providing and fixing the meters, and subsequent -cost of repairs. - -(3.) The trouble and cost of inspection and keeping the accounts. - -And it is found that by employing either “Borradaile’s,” “Sugg’s,” or -other regulators the consumption of the gas can be readily adjusted to -consume from 3 to 6 cubic feet per hour, according to the requirements -of the situation of the lamp.[113] - -Lamp posts and lanterns are of innumerable sizes, shapes, and patterns, -but the following hints in connection with them may be of some service. - -The lamp must not only be ornamental by day, but useful by night. - -The light must not be placed either too high or too low. - -The post must not be too clumsy so as to interfere with the pedestrian -traffic, nor too fragile so as to be easily broken if driven against. -Bracket lamps have advantages in these respects, and also in the very -important one of throwing no downward shadow,[114] as well as being -cheaper. - -The lantern should be made with the lightest possible amount of metal -frame compatible with sufficient strength, the angle bars should be very -narrow to avoid shadow, trap doors of perforated zinc or glass should be -provided at the bottom for the admission of the torch, and a good outlet -at the top is essential for the escape of the heated air. Flat glass is -much cheaper and easier of repair than curved. The top of the lantern -should be furnished with a reflector cover, otherwise a large percentage -of the light is lost: this is very observable on approaching a large -city, by the glare which is thrown upwards. Some hundreds of different -patterns of lanterns for street lamps have been designed from time to -time, and it is not necessary, nor have I space, to describe them. - -The burners should have steatite tips and be of varying size to suit the -requirements of the locality, the regulators which I have previously -mentioned must be kept in good repair. A lever tap is indispensable with -the torch for lighting, as well as the trap door or opening in the -bottom of the lantern through which the torch is inserted. - -Each public lamp post should be legibly numbered, and the surveyor -should keep a register in his office of all the public lamps in his -town. - -In order to determine the distance apart of the public lamps in a -street, it must be remembered that the intensity of light is directly -proportional to the illuminating power of the light, and inversely -proportional to the square of the distance of the light, if unreflected. -For instance, the illumination of any point between lamps may be arrived -at by adding all the quotients obtained by dividing the illuminating -power in standard sperm candles of each lamp, by the square of its -distance in yards from the point. - -Thus a point midway between two lamps of 15 candles each, 20 yards -apart, would be reckoned thus: - - 15 15 - X = --- + --- = ·30 - 100 100 - -In this country, the rule has generally been adopted that public street -lamps burning 5 cube feet per hour of 15 candle gas should not be placed -at a greater distance than 60 yards apart, the average distance in most -English towns being about 40 yards. - -On this question, the following interesting particulars by Monsieur -Servier will be of special interest.[115] - -It appears to M. Servier that up to the present there has been too much -straining after intensity, with insufficient care for the object of -obtaining a proper quantity of light uniformly spread over the surface -of the ground. The paper in question is therefore intended in the first -place to elucidate this latter subject, so as to determine beforehand -the necessary intensity for luminous centres, gas or electric, and also -their height from the ground and distance from each other required to -produce a certain effect. With this purpose M. Servier proposes to -determine for any point of the road-surface, by the law of the squares -of the distances, the intensity of light, in terms of the Carcel -standard, which is spread at that point by one or more lights of given -power. Representing these intensities by proportional ordinates, the -extremities of these ordinates form an irregular surface, and the volume -contained between this surface and that of the roadway represents a -specific value equivalent to the total luminous intensity distributed -over the soil. In default of a better term, M. Servier calls this a -volume of _cubic Carcels_, a cubic Carcel being the intensity of a -Carcel (9·5 standard candles) multiplied by a square mètre of surface. -The different cases capable of being valued in this manner are as -follows: - -1. A burner consuming 140 litres (5 cubic feet nearly), and of 1·1 -Carcels (10·45 candles) illuminating power, placed at the height of 3 -mètres (9 feet 6 inches). This burner gives at the foot of the -lamp-pillar a maximum intensity of 0·122 Carcel (1·159 candles), and at -10 mètres (32·8 feet) away the illuminating power is reduced to 0·01 -Carcel (0·095 candle). The distance of 20 to 30 mètres kept between the -street lamps, even in the best-lighted towns, is therefore excessive, -for these should not be more than 13 mètres (14 yards) apart in order to -obtain between them the minimum illuminating power of 0·05 Carcel (0·475 -candle), sufficient for enabling passengers to read. - -2. The second case is that of a burner consuming 1400 litres (50 cubic -feet nearly) of gas, with an illuminating intensity of 14 Carcels (133 -candles), placed at the height of 3·20 mètres; this being the class of -burner fixed in the Rue du Quatre Septembre. The intensity of light at -the foot of the lamp-pillar is 1·367 Carcels (13 candles nearly), and to -obtain the light of 0·05 Carcel (0·475 candle) already mentioned as the -least intensity enabling one to read, a point must be fixed in a circle -of 16 mètres radius from the lamp as a centre. Taking now a group of six -lamp-columns, three on each side of the street, and overlapping, as in -the Rue du Quatre Septembre, it will be found that the distribution of -light is defective. The most brilliantly lighted point at the foot of -the column has an intensity of 1·367 Carcels (13 candles), or more than -triple that of the darkest point, which has an intensity of 0·5 Carcel -(4·75 candles) at 4·58 mètres distance. - -3. A lamp of 50-Carcel (475-candle) power, gas or electric, fixed at the -height of 8 mètres (26·24 feet). The illuminating intensity at the point -vertically under the light is reduced to 0·7 Carcel (6·65 candles); but -the light of 0·5 Carcel (4·75 candles) is to be found in a circle of 6 -mètres radius from this point. It will therefore be observed that _the -distribution of light over the ground is better in proportion as the -luminous centre is higher_; but conversely also, _the amount of light -thrown on the ground is greater as the luminous centre is lower_. It -consequently results that the power of the light and its height should -be determined in every case with reference to the effect desired. The -method shortly described shows that, in the case of the lighting of the -Rue du Quatre Septembre, the mean amount of light per square mètre of -the roadway is 855 _décicarcel-cubes_, the best lighted parts having an -intensity of 1·62 cubic Carcels, and the darkest portions an intensity -of 0·50 cubic Carcel. - -M. Servier has examined the question of lighting a street 20 mètres wide -and one or more kilomètres long, with the condition that the -illumination of the ground shall present a mean determinate quantity of -light per square mètre, or a given intensity at the darkest points. Some -interesting results are thus obtained. Thus, by substituting for the -14-Carcel (133-candle) lamps in the Rue du Quatre Septembre, burners of -50-Carcel (475-candle) power, with the condition of giving the same -intensity of 0·5 Carcel (4·75 candles) to the darkest points, a quantity -of light more considerable than before will be required. That is, a -greater number of Carcels (3000 as against 1848 per kilomètre in length) -will be necessary in the larger burners than were required in the -original smaller lamps. It is therefore imperative, in order that the -lighting shall be equally economical, that the unit of intensity--the -Carcel or candle power--shall be less costly in a lamp of 50 Carcel (or -475-candle power) than in the smaller lamps. By fixing lamps of -50-Carcel (475-candle) power in the centre of the street, instead of -along the side walks, maintaining the condition of giving the light of -0·5 Carcel (4·75 candles) in the darkest parts of the thoroughfares, it -is found that the pillars must be 8 mètres high and 20 mètres apart. The -best-lighted part of the road would then have the intensity of 1 Carcel -(9·5 candles), and would therefore be only twice as brilliantly lighted -as the darkest corner; the mean quantity light per square mètre would be -755 _décicarcel-cubes_. - -Lastly, the same method of lighting has been applied to the “ordinary,” -as distinguished from the “luxurious” lighting of the public -thoroughfares, assumed to be 20 mètres wide, giving a light of 0·05 -Carcel (0·475 candle) at the darkest points. With ordinary street -burners consuming 200 litres (7 cubic feet) of gas per hour, and giving -1·72-Carcel (16·34-candle) power, it is found that the lamps should be -18 mètres (20 yards nearly) apart, the burners being 3 mètres (9 feet 10 -inches) high. With burners of 14-Carcel (133-candle) power placed at the -height of 3·20 mètres (10 feet 6 inches), the lamp-pillars would be 106 -mètres (115 yards) apart. Or with lamps of 50-Carcel (475-candle) power -placed at a height of 8 mètres (26·24 feet), the distance between the -pillars may be increased to 270 mètres (494 yards). - -In the case of electric lighting M. Servier has studied two -examples--the Jablochkoff candle, and an arc light (system not stated). -The former is credited with the illuminating power of 16 Carcels (152 -candles), and is fixed at the height of 5 mètres (16 feet 3 inches), on -pillars 110 mètres (120 yards) apart. This would give a light of 0·65 -Carcel (6·27 candles) at the foot of the pillar, and a minimum intensity -of 0·05 Carcel (0·475 candle) midway between the lights. The arc light -is purposely made exactly equal in computed efficiency to the larger -Siemens burner of 50 Carcels (475 candles). In the matter of expense, -however, using the data applicable to Paris, with 12-candle gas at 6_s._ -6_d._ per 1000 cubic feet, M. Servier makes a striking comparison. The -cost of lighting a kilomètre of road in the “ordinary” manner last -described varies very little for the three classes of gas lamps--small, -large, and very powerful--included in the calculation, and ranges from -3·33 frs. to 3·96 frs. per hour. The cost of the same work done by the -Jablochkoff candle is estimated at about double, or 6·91 frs. per hour; -and with the arc light the cost would be 4 frs., or still higher than -with the most costly system of gas lighting, although less than the -expense of the Jablochkoff electric light. - -The following table will show the particulars of different lights so -placed that persons may see to read ordinary print in any part of the -street, which may be taken as then being a well-lighted street. - - ----------------------+------------+---------+--------+---------+ - | | |Distance| | - | | | of |Number of| - |Illuminating|Height of| Lamps |Lamps per| - Description of Light. | Power. | Lamps. | apart. | Mile. | - ----------------------+------------+---------+--------+---------+ - _Gas._ | candles. | ft. in. | yards. | | - Batswing, 7 cubic feet| 16·34 | 9 10 | 20 | 176 | - Cluster, 50 „ „ | 133·00 | 10 6 | 115 | 29 | - Siemens, 100 „ „ | 475·00 | 26 3 | 294 | 10 | - | | | | | - _Electricity_ | | | | | - Jablochkoff candle | 152·00 | 16 3 | 120 | 29 | - Arc light | 475·00 | 26 3 | 294 | 10 | - ----------------------+------------+---------+--------+---------+ - - ----------------------+------------+-----------+----------+---------- - | | | Greatest | Least - | Total |Consumption|Intensity |Intensity - |Illuminating|of Gas per | of Light | of Light - Description of Light. | Power. | Mile. |on Ground.|on Ground. - ----------------------+------------+-----------+----------+---------- - _Gas._ | candles. | cub. ft. | candles. | candles. - Batswing, 7 cubic feet| 2876 | 1232 | 2·15 | 0·47 - Cluster, 50 „ „ | 3857 | 1450 | 13·10 | 0·47 - Siemens, 100 „ „ | 4750 | 1000 | 7·46 | 0·47 - | | | | - _Electricity_ | | | | - Jablochkoff candle | 4408 | .. | 6·18 | 0·47 - Arc light | 4750 | .. | 7·46 | 0·47 - ----------------------+------------+-----------+----------+---------- - -It must not be lost sight of, that the illuminating power of the gas in -Paris is very low, and is thus fixed. Under a pressure of 12 hundredths -of an inch, gas burning at the rate of 4·05 cubic feet per hour (or 115 -litres) shall give a light of 9·5 standard sperm candles (or a “Carcel” -lamp burning 42 grammes of pure colza oil) per hour. - -The competition which has been started by the electric lighting -companies has given a great impetus to gas lighting. A large number of -improved street gas lamp burners and lanterns having been invented and -brought into general use, the following particulars with reference to -some of those which were tried in the City of Exeter may be of use as a -comparison. - - --------------------+------------+-----------+------------------ - | |Consumption| Cost per Hour, - | | of gas in |gas being supplied - |Candle Power| cubic feet|at 3_s._ per 1000 - Description of Lamp.| of Light. | per hour. | cubic feet. - --------------------+------------+-----------+------------------ - | | | pence. - Ordinary street lamp| 15 | 5 | ³⁄₁₆ - with batswing burner| | | - Siemens’ | 330 | 50 | 1³⁄₄ - Ditto | 130 | 25 | ⁷⁄₈ - Ditto | 45 | 10 | ³⁄₈ - Sugg’s | 50 | 16 | ⁵⁄₈ - Ditto | 30 | 10 | ³⁄₈ - Bray’s | 80 | 20 | ³⁄₄ - --------------------+------------+-----------+------------------ - -Having thus far given a few facts upon lighting streets with coal gas, I -will now turn to the question of lighting them by means of electricity, -and in doing this the following points will be considered: - -(1.) The motive-power to be employed in producing electricity and its -applicability for the purpose. - -(2.) The description of machinery to be employed. - -(3.) The value of the light produced, and its adaptability to the -requirements of any town. - -(4.) The comparative cost of the electric light as compared with gas. - -(1.) Whatever motive power is employed, whether water-power, steam or -gas, it is essential that it should be steady and unfailing; steady, -because the regularity and uniformity of the light depends upon the -evenness of the speed with which the power works, and unfailing, because -a stoppage means the immediate extinguishment of the lights: -electricity, unlike gas, is not stored after manufacture, but is used as -fast as it emanates from the producing power.[116] - -Sensitive governors and careful bedding of the machinery greatly tend to -lessen unsteadiness, and are points of considerable importance. - -(2.) The machinery consists of the dynamo machines, the conducting wires -and the lamps. - -I will not here enter into the question of which is the best dynamo -machine to employ, as to discuss the merits of them all would involve a -large amount of space; but for this and other valuable information upon -the subject of electric lighting I will refer my readers to Mr. Hedges’ -excellent little book entitled ‘Useful Information on Electric -Lighting,’[117] but the following points should be attended to. The -dynamo machine should be fixed in a dry place, and not be exposed to -dust or flyings, it should be kept perfectly clean, and its bearings -well oiled, its coils and conductors should be perfectly insulated, and -it should, where practicable, be fixed on an insulated bed. With regard -to the wires, the following ‘Regulations for the prevention of Fire -Risks arising from Electric Lighting,’ published by the Society of -Telegraph Engineers and of Electricians, are given in full, as they -leave nothing to be desired in the way of their careful selection and -fixing: - -“(7.) Every switch or commutator used for turning the current on or off -should be constructed so that when it is moved and left to itself it -cannot permit of a permanent arc or of heating, and its stand should be -made of slate, stoneware, or some other incombustible substance. - -“(8.) There should be in connection with the main circuit a safety fuse -constructed of easily fusible metal which would be melted if the current -attain any undue magnitude, and would thus cause the circuit to be -broken. - -“(9.) Every part of the circuit should be so determined that the gauge -of wire to be used is properly proportioned to the currents it will have -to carry, and changes of circuit, from a larger to a smaller conductor, -should be sufficiently protected with suitable safety fuses, so that no -portion of the conductor should ever be allowed to attain a temperature -exceeding 150° F. - -“N.B.--These fuses are of the very essence of safety. They should always -be enclosed in incombustible cases. Even if wires become perceptibly -warmed by the ordinary current, it is a proof that they are too small -for the work they have to do and that they ought to be replaced by -larger wires. - -“(10.) Under ordinary circumstances complete metallic circuits should be -used, and the employment of gas or water pipes should in no case be -allowed. - -“(11.) Where bare wire out of doors rests on insulating supports, it -should be coated with insulating material, such as india-rubber tape or -tube, for at least two feet on each side of the support. - -“(12.) Bare wires passing over the tops of houses should never be less -than seven feet clear of any part of the roof, and they should -invariably be high enough, when crossing thoroughfares, to allow -fire-escapes to pass under them. - -“(13.) It is most essential that the joints should be electrically and -mechanically perfect. One of the best joints is that shown in the -annexed sketches. The joint is whipped around with small wire, and the -whole mechanically united by solder. - -[Illustration] - -“(14.) The position of wires when underground should be efficiently -indicated, and they should be laid down so as to be easily inspected and -repaired. - -“(15.) All wires used for indoor purposes should be efficiently -insulated. - -“(16.) When these wires pass through roofs, floors, walls, or -partitions, or where they cross or are liable to touch metallic masses, -like iron girders or pipes, they should be thoroughly protected from -abrasion with each other, or with the metallic masses, by suitable -additional covering; and where they are liable to abrasion from any -cause or to the depredations of rats or mice, they should be efficiently -encased in some hard material. - -“(17.) Where wires are put out of sight, as beneath flooring, they -should be thoroughly protected from mechanical injury, and their -position should be indicated. - -“N.B.--The value of frequently testing the wires cannot be too strongly -urged. It is an operation skill in which is easily acquired and applied. -The escape of electricity cannot be detected by the sense of smell as -can gas, but it can be detected by apparatus far more certain and -delicate. Leakage not only means waste, but in the presence of moisture -it means destruction of the conductor and its insulating covering by -electric action.” - -The lamps may take either the “arc” form, or the “incandescent.” The -former is produced by the electric current passing between carbon -points, and requires considerable electrical pressure; they give a light -of from 1500 to 4000 candle power; the mechanism of arc lamps has to be -of the most delicate kind to ensure the proper distance of the carbon -points being maintained. The lamps should be guarded by globes of -frosted glass, not only to prevent incandescent pieces of carbon from -falling, but to lessen the glare of the light. “Incandescent” lamps are -of small size, giving a light of from 8 to 50-candle power, which is -produced by the heating of a filament of carbon in a vacuum owing to the -resistance caused to the electric current by this contraction of the -conductor. - -(3.) With regard to the value of the light produced, and its -adaptability to the requirements of any town, it will be seen on -reference to the opening of this chapter that at present considerable -doubt exists as to its adaptability for general public lighting, and as -each town varies in the length, straightness, and width of its streets, -the number of its large squares or confined courts and alleys, the -surveyor must use his own judgment as to the suitability of the light -before recommending his corporation to adopt it. - -As to the value of the electric light, there can be no doubt that a most -brilliant and powerful light is produced by the voltaic arc: so -brilliant indeed, as to render it necessary to screen it nearly always -behind frosted or opalescent glass globes, the former being found to be -much the best for many reasons. - -As to the photometrical value of the light, some considerable difficulty -has hitherto been experienced in obtaining accurate observations, -principally owing to the peculiar colour of the electric light, and also -from its fluctuating character; but these difficulties are being -steadily overcome, and with a photometer mounted on a light frame with -wheels, some excellent experiments have been made in the public streets -upon the comparative values of different lights. - -(4.) The last and really one of the most important questions remaining -to be discussed is that of the cost of the electric light as compared -with gas. - -With reference to the cost of the electric light, the following table -may be of use; it is compiled from an excellent paper on electric -lighting, by Mr. James N. Shoolbred:[118] - -TABLE OF COMPARATIVE ESTIMATES OF FIRST OUTLAY AND OF WORKING EXPENSES -OF SOME SYSTEMS OF ELECTRIC LIGHTING. - - ----------------+------------------------------+ - | First Cost, including Engine | - | to drive it. | - +------+-------+-------+-------+ - | One | Two | Three | Five | - Name of Machine.|light.|lights.|lights.|lights.| - ----------------+------+-------+-------+-------+ - | £ | £ | £ | £ | - Gramme single | | | | | - light “A” with| 330 | 535 | 725 | 935 | - Siemens lamp | | | | | - | | | | | - Cost per light | -- | -- | -- | -- | - per hour | | | | | - | | | | | - Siemens single | | | | | - light “medium”| | | | | - with Siemens | 365 | 611 | 835 | 1185 | - small-sized | | | | | - lamp | | | | | - | | | | | - Cost per light | -- | -- | -- | -- | - per hour | | | | | - ----------------+------+-------+-------+-------+ - | Six lights. | Twenty lights.| - +--------------+---------------+ - | £ | £ | - Gramme “many | | | - light” machine| 576 | 1155 | - with candles | | | - | | | - Cost per light | -- | -- | - per hour | | | - ----------------+--------------+---------------+ - - ----------------+----------------------------------------- - | - | Working Expenses per hour. - +-----------+---------+---------+--------- - | One | Two | Three | Five - Name of Machine.| light. | lights. | lights. | lights. - ----------------+-----------+---------+---------+--------- - |_s._ _d._ |_s._ _d._|_s._ _d._|_s._ _d._ - Gramme single | | | | - light “A” with| 1 6 | 2 1 | 2 7 | 3 0 - Siemens lamp | | | | - | | | | - Cost per light | 1 11·4 | 1 4·8 | 1 2·2 | 0 10·2 - per hour | | | | - | | | | - Siemens single | | | | - light “medium”| | | | - with Siemens | 1 7¹⁄₂[119]| 2 4 | 2 10 | 3 9 - small-sized | | | | - lamp | | | | - | | | | - Cost per light | 2 1·4 | 1 6·8 | 1 3·84| 1 0·8 - per hour | | | | - ----------------+-----------+---------+---------+--------- - | Six lights. | Twenty lights. - +---------------------+------------------- - | _s._ _d._ | _s._ _d._ - Gramme “many | | - light” machine| 2 8 | 6 3 - with candles | | - | | - Cost per light | 0 6·4 | 0 4·2 - per hour | | - ----------------+---------------------+------------------- - -Mr. Shoolbred has also given another table[120] of street lighting -which partly deals with the question of cost, it is as follows: - - -------------+--------+------+-------+------+--------+--------------- - | | | | |Illumi- | - | | | | | nating | - | Cost to| | Annual| | Power | - | Munic- |Length| Cost | | of | - | ipal | of | per | No. |each (on| - Date of | Author-|Street|mile of| of |hori- | - Lighting. | ity. | Lit. |street.|Lamps.|zontal).| Remarks. - -------------+--------+------+-------+------+--------+--------------- - | | yards| | | | - | | line-| | | can- | - | £ | al. | £ | | dles. | - - CITY OF LONDON. - _District No. 1._ (Ludgate Hill, &c.).--“Brush” Electric Light Co. - - Mar. 31, 1881| 660[A]| 1750 | 660 |32 arc| 9506 |1 40-light Brush - to | | | | | |machine. - Mar. 30, 1882| | | | | |[A] Add £750 to - | | | | | |cost, for fixing - | | | | | |and final - | | | | | |removal of - | | | | | |apparatus. - - _District No. 2._ (King William Street, &c.). - --Siemens Bros. & Co., Ld. - - Mar. 31, 1881| 2270[B]| 1960 | 2026 | 6 arc| 4000 |6 continuous - to | | | |23 arc| 330 |current ma- - Mar. 30, 1882| | | | | |chines. - | | | | | |2 alternating - | | | | | |ditto. - | | | | | |[B] Add £1450 to - | | | | | |cost, for fixing - | | | | | |and removal of - | | | | | |apparatus. - - _Metropolitan Board of Works_ (Thames Embankment).--“Jablochkoff” Co. - - Dec. 13, 1878|2¹⁄₂_d._| 2540 | 1131 | 60 | 380 |3 Gramme double- - to | per | | | can- | |machine (“A” and - June 30, 1881| light | | | dles | |divider). - | per | | | | |1 Ransome’s - | hour. | | | | |steam engine. 20 - | | | | | |HP nominal. - July 1, 1881 |1¹⁄₂_d._| .. | 753 | | | - to | per | | | | | - June 30, 1884| light | | | | | - | per | | | | | - | hour. | | | | | - - CITY OF NORWICH (Prince of Wales’ Road, &c.).--R. E. Crompton & Co. - - Aug. 15, 1881| 710 | 1700 | 531 | 5 arc| 2000 |4 Bürgin - to | | | | 9 arc| 500 |machines. - Jan. 31, 1883| | | | | |1 Ransome’s - | | | | | |steam engine, 20 - | | | | | |HP nominal. - - _Chesterfield_ (Market Place, &c.). - --Brush (Hammond) Electric Light Co. - - Nov. 1, 1881 | 855 | 3500 | |22 arc| 950 |2 40-Light - to | | | .. |100 | 16 |“Brush” ma- - Oct. 31, 1882| | | |Incan-| |chines. - | | | |des- | |2 Fowler’s semi- - | | | |cent. | |portable com- - | | | | | |pound engines 20 - | | | | | |HP nominal. - -------------+--------+------+-------+------+--------+---------------- - -As to the comparison of cost between the electric light and gas, this -has only, I believe, been properly estimated on the Thames Embankment, -London, by Sir Joseph Bazalgette, the results of whose investigations -upon this important point I shall give presently; it has, however, been -stated generally, and without contradiction, that arc lights can be -produced of about 2000 candle power, with 1 HP at a cost of from 3_d._ -to 6_d._ per candle per annum of 4000 hours, gas costing from 1_s._ -9_d._ to 3_s._ 6_d._ per candle according to the price of the gas. - -Incandescent lamps cost 3_s._ to 4_s._ per candle per annum, as their -life is short, and only 200 candle power can be got from 1 HP.[121] - -The latest investigations into the comparative cost of lighting by gas -and electricity upon the Victoria Embankment and Waterloo Bridge in -London, show that the lighting as effected by 96 gas burners for an -average of 12 hours burning all night, and 121 gas burners for 6 hours -lighted after the electric lights are put out, together with the -electric lighting 40 lights on the parapet of Embankment, and 10 on the -bridge, costs 834_l._ for the gas and 663_l._ for the electric light per -annum. Gas costing 3_s._ 2_d._ per 1000 cubic feet showed a cost of -nearly 1_s._ per hour for every 1000 candle power of light. The electric -lights cost 1¹⁄₂_d._ per light per hour, which is stated to represent -5·66 pence per 1000 candle power of light; each electric light as now -used, it is said, gives a photometric light of 265 candles, frosted -glass globes being found to pass much more light than the opalescent -globes. - -These are by far the most important and reliable comparisons that have -hitherto been made, and it will be seen that the cost is in favour of -the electric light. - -There is no doubt that the acme of all artificial lighting is the -prolongation of the light of day, and whether this is proposed to be -effected by electricity or gas, it should be the goal aimed at by all -who make this question their study. - - [112] Since writing these lines the following letter has appeared in - the Standard and has never been refuted, which shows that electric - lighting for streets is not yet all that can be desired: - - ELECTRIC LIGHTING. - - _To the Editor of the_ STANDARD. - - SIR,--At this time, when the question of lighting by means of - electricity is receiving so much attention, and as Chesterfield is the - only town in England whose lighting is done throughout by electricity, - it may be interesting to your readers to know what our experience has - been. - - I need not detail the stages which led to our abandoning gas, and - taking up the electric light after being in darkness some months. I - may briefly state that, after going carefully into the question, we - decided to adopt the system whose praise was in everyone’s mouth a - year ago, namely, “The Brush,” and, though we were applied to by other - companies, we placed the execution of the work in the hands of the one - that we considered the most suitable--the Hammond Company. During the - negotiations of the contract, Mr. Hammond particularly pressed us not - to stipulate for incandescent lamps, as he acknowledged that their - Company were not in a position to cope with incandescent lighting for - public purposes. We, however, decided upon the town being lighted with - the Lane-Fox Incandescent Lamps, as well as the Brush Arc Lights. - - After waiting many weary months for the completion of the incandescent - lighting, it is now, when declared by the contractors complete, in my - opinion a decided failure. The Lane-Fox lamps, which have been - supplied by the Brush Company, are most variable in their lighting - power; whilst some are good, others only give a feeble light instead - of a light equal to that of fifteen candles, as expected. The arc - lights are doing good service in some of the large streets, but as a - whole I think it has been fully demonstrated in a year’s trial in - Chesterfield, that the field for arc lighting is very limited indeed. - - Though the tradesmen have been canvassed by the Hammond Company with a - view to introducing the arc lights into their shops and hotels, in not - one single case has the light been adopted. Indeed, it is evident to - us who have them under our eyes every night, that they are only fit - for lighting works and large, open spaces. The experience that has - been thus gained at Chesterfield at the present juncture must be of - value to all towns intending to adopt the electric light, and is my - reason for troubling you with this letter, although I believe the time - will shortly come when lighting by electricity may be advantageously - adopted, both for public and private purposes. - - I am, Sir, your obedient servant, - - GEO. EDWD. GEE, - _Alderman of the Borough of Chesterfield_. - - HIGH STREET, CHESTERFIELD, _October 10, 1882_. - - [113] The Surveyor of Folkestone says: “Sugg’s self-acting regulator - is used, adjusted as nearly as may be practicable to consume 4 feet - per hour, and so very satisfactory is this apparatus that for the last - two years, after burning 7294 hours, it is found by the average meter - to have consumed 29,227 feet, as against 29,176 feet as per regulator, - being only 51 feet in excess of that which the apparatus is adjusted - to consume.” _Vide_ Ellice Clark on gas in Public Streets, - ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers - and Surveyors,’ vol. ii. P. 193. - - [114] Bracket lamps may not be fixed by an urban authority to houses - within their district without the previous consent of the owners of - such houses. _Vide_ ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health Act,’ third edition, - p. 182. - - [115] Meeting of the ‘Société Technique de l’lndustrie du Gaz en - France’ in 1882. - - [116] “Faure’s” batteries can store electricity, but at present this - cannot be manipulated on a very large scale. - - [117] Published by Messrs. Spon, 16 Charing Cross, London. - - [118] _Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary - Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. vi. p. 9 _et seq._ - - [119] Siemens’ light at Blackburn cost 2_s._ per hour per lamp of 6000 - candle power. - - [120] _Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary - Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. viii. p. 171, &c. - - [121] On this point Mr. W. G. Laws, Borough Engineer, - Newcastle-upon-Tyne, says: “Taking as an example a street a mile long, - lighted by the arc system, the arrangement would probably be lamps 60 - yards apart, placed alternately on either side, giving 30 lamps or - 60,000 candles at a cost of about 800_l._ per annum. If lighted by - ‘incandescent lamps’ we should have them placed about 30 yards apart - on both sides: that is, 120 lamps giving 2400 candles at a cost of - about 420_l._ per annum. The number of gas lamps for the same distance - might be 150, giving about 2250 candles at a cost of 300_l._ per - annum.” (‘Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and Sanitary - Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. viii. p. 65.) - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -STREET NAMING AND NUMBERING. - - -It was not until the commencement of the present century that -inconvenience was apparently felt from the want of any distinguishing -names of streets, or numbers to houses, either in London or provincial -towns; the first Act of Parliament on the subject being one passed in -the year 1819, which gave powers to vestries and district boards to put -up the names of streets, and even then for some considerable period -afterwards houses or premises were not marked with numbers, but with -distinguishing trade signs or names. - -The Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, however, contains the following -clauses which are incorporated with the Public Health Act 1875, by the -160th section of that act: - -“The commissioners shall from time to time cause the houses and -buildings in all or any of the streets[122] to be marked with numbers as -they think fit, and shall cause to be put up or painted on a conspicuous -part of some house, building or place at or near each end, corner, or -entrance of every such street the name by which such street is to be -known; and every person who destroys, pulls down, or defaces any such -number or name, or puts up any number or name different from the number -or name put up by the commissioners, shall be liable to a penalty not -exceeding 40_s._ for every such offence” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, sec. 64). - -“The occupiers of houses and other buildings in the streets shall mark -their houses with such numbers as the commissioners approve of, and -shall renew such numbers as often as they become obliterated, or -defaced; and every such occupier who fails within one week after notice -for that purpose from the commissioners to mark his house with a number -approved of by the commissioners, or to renew such number when -obliterated, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding 40_s._; and the -commissioners shall cause such numbers to be marked or to be renewed as -the case may require, and the expense thereof shall be repaid to them by -such occupier, and shall be recoverable as damages” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, -s. 65). - -Some difference even now exists as to the manner in which streets are -named, there being considerable diversity in the sizes, colours, and -materials of the name plates, as well as in the spaces allowed for the -letters. The following list is given to show how this diversity existed -in the metropolis even so late as the year 1870. - -Table taken from a “Memorandum by the Superintending Architect of the -Metropolitan Board of Works, relative to the enforcement of the Law -regulating the naming of Streets and numbering of Houses in the -Metropolis” (1871): - - Parish A. Parish B. - Names on houses at corners of streets 237 281 - „ on piers of railings 24 36 - „ on iron plates 6 44 - „ on wooden boards 18 36 - „ on enamelled plates 1 2 - „ impressed in terra cotta 2 3 - „ in cement letters 14 9 - „ in Minton’s china letters 2 1 - „ engraved on stone 5 13 - „ on porcelain plates 1 1 - „ with raised letters on iron girder 1 - „ on board on posts 11 - „ on zinc 2 - -And to this table are added the words “Some names are completely hidden -by vines, names given for ‘streets’ are put up as ‘roads.’” Since this -table was prepared however, the confusion has been rectified by the -energetic action of the Metropolitan Board of Works. - -It is no doubt essential that for postal, telegraphic, and social -reasons there should be uniformity in the manner in which the naming and -numbering of streets is carried out, and the following particulars and -suggestions may be of use. - -Names of streets should be marked up in such a manner as to be legible -both by day and lamp light, and the materials of which the name-plates -are composed should be of sufficient strength to prevent any damage -accruing to them from stone-throwing or other wilful or accidental -injury, or from the action of changes of temperature or climatic -influences of any kind, and the following list is given descriptive of -some of the modern methods of effecting this: - - -_Minton’s China Tiles._--These are white glazed china tiles 6 inches -square, on which either blue or black letters are burnt in, one letter -on each tile (except in the case of St. which is on one tile); they are -fixed by chasing them into walls of buildings, and setting them in -cement. They are the best description of name-plate with which I am -acquainted, their cost being only 6_d._ each, with the additional -advantages of being not easily broken, they can be removed and re-used -with facility, weather has no effect upon them, and they require no -attention whatever after they are once fixed. - - -_Cast-iron Plates with Embossed Letters._--These are generally painted -with a white ground, and black letters; they are liable to become -broken, and as they are fixed with screws these rust through in course -of time, when the plate may suddenly fall in a dangerous manner into the -street; another disadvantage is that they require to be painted about -once every three years. - - -_Painted Names on Walls of Buildings._--This method requires no special -mention; it is an economical plan and is more adopted than any other, -but the letters must be painted every three years at least, and they -are apt to be defaced if the premises are painted by the owner or -occupier. - - -_Enamelled Iron Plates._--These look very well, but they are apt to get -loose, and a blow from a stone will shiver them. - - -_Wooden or Metal Figures cut out and fastened on to Boards or against -Walls._--The same objection holds good with this method as with others -of the same description, the fastenings fail in time, and the name -disappears. - - -_Enamelled Glass Tablets in Street Lamps._--This is an excellent method -of recent introduction, and has many advantages. The name can be seen -very plainly either by day or night, no private premises have to be -interfered with in fixing them,[123] a uniformity of position or “where -to look” for the name of the street is secured, and there is no limit to -the number of times the name may be repeated. - -Where the names of streets are placed against buildings the letters -which compose the name should not be less than 4 inches in height by 2 -inches in breadth, with a space between each letter of not less than 1 -inch; a light colour should always where practicable be used for the -back ground, and black or blue for the letters. One great objection to -painted letters is that they must be frequently repainted, and in order -to do this, ladders have to be raised against the building, which the -occupiers naturally object to without previous notice: it is always very -annoying to any citizen to have the head of a painter appearing outside -his bed-room window at any time, and more especially at an inconvenient -hour in the morning. - -In selecting names for streets it is very important that they should not -be duplicated in a town, and also that there should be some sense in -their nomenclature; generally some local association can be found with -a family or historical name which is suitable for the street. Nothing is -more ridiculous than to see such names as Bath Street or York Road given -to streets which have as much association with such places as with -Jericho. - -The street having been properly and conspicuously named, the next point -to consider is that of the manner in which it shall be numbered, there -being three methods in vogue by which this can be effected. - -(1.) By allotting even numbers on one side of the street and odd numbers -on the other side. - -(2.) By allotting consecutive numbers up one side of the street, and -down the other side. - -(3.) By allotting corresponding numbers to both sides of the street, -which are distinguished by a prefix of north and south, or east and -west, as the case may require. - -The first is by far the best method to pursue, for the following -reasons: - -If the street is ever extended after being numbered, the sequence is in -no way disturbed. By this method any house can be more easily found, as -on reference to a directory it will at once be seen at which end of the -street it is situated. If the second method had been adopted this would -be impossible, except for the first few numbers, and where a street is -of considerable length with branch streets running into it this is of -the greatest importance. It is the best method also for the Post-Office -officials, as it facilitates the district sorting of the letters. - -Giving each side of the street distinctive prefixes to its name, such as -north and south, &c., is evidently a bad plan, and leads to much -confusion. - -In allotting numbers to premises in a street, if it has been already -numbered care should be taken to disturb existing numbers as little as -possible, for an altered number involves considerable expense as well as -inconvenience to the occupier of business or trade premises, owing to -the necessity of altering bill heads, letter paper, &c., and sometimes -even considerable trouble and expense in order to secure the validity of -the title. - -Avoid numbering from right to left, and take care to allot sufficient -numbers to vacant spaces which may eventually be built upon, and to do -this the length of frontage may be divided into such lengths as (in the -surveyor’s judgment) will represent the new frontages. In any case it is -better to have too many numbers in a street than too few, and large -premises, and any public or other buildings which may be removed, and -other buildings substituted should have numbers allotted to them, -although it will not be necessary to serve the notices to have them -affixed. Most large shops prefer to have more than one number, although -I have heard the rather far-fetched contention urged, that more than one -number means extra rating. - -Considerable care must be exercised to ensure that no separate premises -are passed over in allotting the numbers, often only a door or side -passage denoting the existence of another claimant for a number. Nothing -looks worse in a freshly numbered street than to see such numbers as 37A -or 96¹⁄₂ placed upon premises that should have had a distinct numeral, -and thus showing that they must have been left out. - -The manner in which streets are numbered is generally as follows: - -The town surveyor or one of his assistants walks through the street, and -with a piece of chalk legibly marks each house with its correct number, -taking care to observe the precautions I have enumerated; having done -this throughout its entire length, these numbers must be entered in a -book with the name of the occupier written opposite to the number. Upon -returning to the office the surveyor must then fill up and serve the -necessary notice upon each of these occupiers, the following being given -as a specimen of such notice: - - _Urban Sanitary Authority for the_ . - - TOWN SURVEYOR’S OFFICE, 188 . - - ____________ - - I beg leave to give you notice, that the Town Council of , as - the Urban Sanitary Authority, have approved of the number for - the house in your occupation, in . - - You are therefore required, within one week from the date of this - notice [to obliterate the present number, and][124] to mark the said - house with the number so approved of, and to renew the same from time - to time in the case of its becoming obliterated. - - A penalty of 40_s._ will be incurred in the event of default in - compliance with this notice. - - I am, - - Your obedient Servant, - - _________________________ - _Town Surveyor_. - - _To_ __________________ - - _No._ __________________ - -In the event of the old number with which any premises were marked not -being obliterated by the occupier, the following notice may be served: - - _Urban Sanitary Authority for the_ . - - TOWN SURVEYOR’S OFFICE, 188 . - - ________________ - - It has been reported to the Town Council that you have neglected to - obliterate the old number of your premises, No. - Street, after receiving notice of a new number being allotted to such - premises by the Town Council, whereby you have incurred a penalty of - 40_s._ - - The duplication of numbers in the same street was found to be the - occasion of so much inconvenience, that the Council were obliged to - re-number the street in question, and it is manifest that if a number - allotted to another house is retained by you, the inconvenience sought - to be removed will still remain. - - I am therefore instructed to inform you that unless the old number of - your premises is obliterated within seven days from the date of this - notice, proceedings will be taken against you for the recovery of the - penalty incurred. - - Yours faithfully, - - ______________________ - _Town Surveyor_. - -Of course, if nothing is done after service of this second notice, it -only remains to summon the offender as provided by the sections of the -Act, which I have given in the early part of this chapter. - - [122] “Street” includes any highway (not being a turnpike road), and - any public bridge (not being a county bridge), and any road, lane, - footway, square, court, alley, or passage, whether a thoroughfare or - not. (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 4.) - - [123] The law apparently gives the Sanitary Authority power to fix - names of streets against any premises they may choose, without first - applying for or obtaining any consent from either the occupier or - owner of such premises. (_Vide_ 10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 64.) - - [124] If the premises have no existing number, these words can be left - out. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -BREAKING UP STREETS. - - -In nearly every city and town of the United Kingdom, except those where -the gas and water undertakings are the property of the urban authority, -the town surveyor is constantly annoyed by having some portions of his -streets broken up and greatly damaged by the action of the gas or water -companies of the district. - -With regard to the lasting character of the damage caused to the street -by this disturbance of its surface, I shall have something to say in -this chapter, but it is first necessary to see what legal powers the -companies have to break up the streets, and what powers the surveyor has -to enforce the work being properly carried out. - -It will be found that the sections bearing upon this point are almost -precisely similar in their wording in the following Acts: - -“The Gas Works Clauses Act 1847” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 15). - -“The Water Works Clauses Act 1847” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17). - -“The Electric Lighting Act 1882” (45 & 46 Vic. c. 56). - -but with regard to the powers of the Government to lay telegraph and -telephone wires, &c., the clauses are different, and are contained in, - -“The Telegraphs Act 1863” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112). - -As the clauses on this subject of “the Water Works Clauses Act” are -those which are incorporated with the Public Health Act 1875, I shall -select the sections from that Act, the first of importance being as -follows: - -“The undertakers, under such superintendence as is hereinafter -specified, may open and break up the soil and pavement of the several -streets and bridges within the limits of the special Act, and may open -and break up any sewers, drains, or tunnels, within or under such -streets or bridges, and lay down and place within the same limits pipes, -conduits, service pipes, and other works, and engines, and from time to -time repair, alter, or remove the same, and for the purposes aforesaid -remove and use all earth and materials in and under such streets and -bridges, and do all other acts which the undertakers shall from time to -time deem necessary for supplying _water_[125] to the inhabitants of the -district included within the said limits; doing as little damage as can -be[126] in the execution of the powers hereby or by the special Act -granted, and making compensation for any damage which may be done in the -execution of such powers” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17 s. 28). - -The next clause deals only with the powers of laying pipes, &c., in -private property, and here it will be well to remark that if the water -undertaking is in the hands of the urban authority they have much more -power of entry for these purposes than companies possess (_Vide_ ss. 16, -18, 32, and 54, 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55), but this is a matter which does not -affect the questions dealt with in this chapter. - -The next clause is upon the subject of giving the necessary notices, and -is as follows: - -“Before the undertakers[127] open or break up any street, bridge, sewer, -drain, or tunnel, they shall give to the persons under whose control or -management the same may be, or to their clerk, surveyor, or other -officer, notice in writing of their intention to open or break up the -same, not less than three clear days before beginning such work, except -in cases of emergency arising from defects in any of the pipes or other -works, and then so soon as is possible after the beginning of the work -or the necessity for the same shall have arisen” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17, s. -30). - -The next clause is of great importance, as it gives the surveyor the -necessary powers to dictate the manner in which the interference with -his streets is to be conducted. - -“No such street, bridge, sewer, drain, or tunnel shall, except in the -cases of emergency aforesaid, be opened or broken up except under the -superintendence of the persons having the control or management thereof, -or of their officer, and according to such plan[128] as shall be -approved of by such persons or their officer, or in case of any -difference respecting such plan, as shall be determined by two justices; -and such justices may, on the application of the persons having the -control or management of any such sewer or drain, or their officer, -require the undertakers to make such temporary or other works as they -may think necessary for guarding against any interruption of the -drainage during the execution of any works which interfere with any such -sewer or drain. Provided always, that if the persons having such control -or management as aforesaid, and their officer fail to attend at the time -fixed for the opening of any such street, bridge, sewer, drain, or -tunnel, after having such notice of the intention of the undertakers as -aforesaid, or shall not propose any plan for breaking up or opening the -same, or shall refuse or neglect to superintend the operation, the -undertakers may perform the work specified in such notice without the -superintendence of such persons or their officer” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17, -s. 31). - -There are several points to which it is necessary to draw attention -whilst considering the above clause. I am afraid that the “attendance” -of the surveyor “at the time fixed for the opening” or even of one of -his assistants could not always be managed, nor would it be practicable -to prepare a “plan” for every opening that might be made by a gas or -water company for new services, leaks in mains, &c.; but where it is -proposed to carry out any extensive works, such as laying a considerable -length of new main or removing an old one, it is certainly necessary -that there should be some “plan” of the manner in which such work is -proposed to be carried out by the company. - -On referring to the clause it is evident that the first “plan” mentioned -must be prepared by and on behalf of the company proposing to carry out -the work, and this plan must show the exact position on each street of -the proposed excavations, and their depth, &c., which “shall be approved -of by such persons (having the control of the streets) or their -officer,” their officer really being the surveyor. - -Lower down in the clause another “plan” is referred to in the following -words: “or shall not propose any plan for breaking up or opening the -same.” This plan, or more correctly speaking, a specification of the -manner in which the company shall proceed with the work, must be -prepared by the surveyor, and if it meets with the approval of his -corporation it can be enforced. - -In order to assist town surveyors who may be required to act under this -clause, I now give a verbatim copy of a “plan” or specification under -which I compelled a gas company to work after they had given me the -usual statutory notice of their intention to break up certain -macadamised streets for the purpose of removing some disused mains. - - _Plan of the manner in which the Gas Light and Coke - Company shall take up and remove the old mains in street, - commencing at or near street._ - -A trench to be excavated of not greater width than inches and of no -greater length than feet at a time. - -Great care must be taken to keep the top facing metal separate from the -lower formation of the roadway, so that they may not become mixed -together; no metal is on any account to be removed from the street. - -The mains must be taken up with all possible speed and instantly -conveyed away, without being allowed to remain at the sides of the -streets.[129] - -The trench to be then at once filled in, care being taken to replace all -the materials of which the roadway is formed in their proper positions. -All extra filling in that may be required owing to the removal of the -mains shall be done on the surface with the best stone, broken -so as to pass all ways through a ring of 2¹⁄₂ inches internal diameter, -the top of the trench being always kept flush with the surface contour -of the roadway. No earth, rubbish, or other material shall be allowed to -be brought on to the ground by the gas company for the purpose of -filling in, nor shall any material of any kind be allowed to be brought -from any other excavations that may be being made by the gas company in -other parts of the town for the purpose of laying or removing mains. - -The filling in to be done in the proportion of one man filling to two -men ramming with punners of not less weight than lbs. each. During -dry weather a plentiful supply of water must be allowed to run into the -trench whilst the filling in is in progress, for the purpose of -consolidating the ground. - -The traffic must not in any case be impeded, and planks must be placed -across the excavations, where necessary, for the convenience of foot -passengers. - -The work shall if necessary be suspended on market days, or any other -days that the surveyor may deem proper for the convenience of the -public. - - * * * * * - -The next clause of the Act deals with the manner in which the companies -shall reinstate and make good the road or pavement, and is as follows: - -“When the undertakers open or break up the road or pavement of any such -street, or bridge, or any sewer, drain, or tunnel, they shall with all -convenient speed complete the work for which the same shall be broken -up, and fill in the ground and reinstate and make good the road or -pavement, or the sewer, drain, or tunnel so opened or broken up, and -carry away the rubbish occasioned thereby; and shall at all times whilst -any road or pavement shall be so opened or broken up cause the same to -be fenced and guarded, and shall cause a light sufficient for the -warning of passengers to be set up, and kept there against every night -during which such road or pavement shall be continued open or broken up, -and shall after replacing and making good the road or pavement which -shall have been so broken up, keep the same in good repair for three -months thereafter, and such further time, if any, not being more than -twelve months in the whole, as the soil so broken up shall continue to -subside” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 17, s. 32). - -The conditions embodied in the above clause are easier written than -carried out. - -It is well known that a trench cut longitudinally through a street takes -a very long time to heal. Asphalte shows it the least if there is a good -backing of concrete, but all other pavements suffer considerably in the -process, as it is almost impossible to maintain their strict contour, -and with macadamised roadways the result is simply disastrous. - -Opening a macadamised roadway does it more harm than the heaviest and -most persistent traffic, and it is surprising for what a length of time -the surface will show the treatment it has received. - -It is unfortunately the practice generally for the men in the employ of -a gas or water company, after laying a pipe, to try and ram into the -trench all the material they have removed, without allowing for the -cubical contents taken up by the pipe, or if they do condescend to cart -anything away it is generally the metal, which they think will come in -nicely for the repairs of the trench during their liability for such -repairs. What ought to be done is that no filling of ordinary earth, -&c., should be allowed to come within at least six inches of the top of -the trench, which should then be filled in with good road metal, and as -this wears down it should be brought up to the proper level with more -metal. In the former plan a hump is seen over the trench, and this hump -is a mass of mixed dirt and road-metal for which there is no cure but -its entire removal to a depth of at least six inches, and the -substitution of good clean road-metal, which would have been the best -and most economical plan in the first place. - -The clauses following those I have quoted are “penalty clauses” for -non-compliance with the provisions of the Act, and need not be here -given, but there is one more clause of the Water Works Clauses Act 1847, -dealing with the powers of private individuals to break up streets for -the purpose of laying service pipes, which it is necessary to give _in -extenso_. - -On the question of similar powers to private individuals to break up -streets for drains, &c., I shall speak later on in this chapter: - -“Any such owner or occupier may open or break up so much of the pavement -of any street as shall be between the pipe of the undertakers and his -house, building or premises, and any sewer or drain therein, for any -such purpose as aforesaid, doing as little damage as may be and making -compensation for any damage done in the execution of any such work; -provided always, that every such owner or occupier desiring to break up -the pavement of any street or any sewer or drain therein, shall be -subject to the same necessity of giving previous notice, and shall be -subject to the same control, restrictions, and obligations in and during -the time of breaking up the same, and also reinstating the same, and to -the same penalties for any delay in regard thereto, as the undertakers -are subject to by virtue of this or the special Act” (10 & 11 Vic. c. -17, s. 52). - -It would also seem that the _consent_ of the urban authority must be -obtained (as well as notice given to them) before a street is broken up -(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 149). - -Very often, however, the companies prefer to execute all this work -themselves, as they do not like anyone else to interfere with their -mains or put in services which may be unfitted for the purpose; -consequently they give the necessary notices, execute the work -themselves, and charge the owner or occupier with the expense. - -The powers under which streets are broken up for telegraphic or -telephonic purposes are, as I have previously stated, contained in the -“Telegraphs Act 1863,” the following being the clauses which refer to -this subject: - -“The company shall not place a telegraph under any street within the -limits of the district over which the authority of the Metropolitan -Board of Works extends, or of any city or municipal borough or town -corporate, or of any town having a population of thirty thousand -inhabitants or upwards (according to the latest census), except with the -consent of the bodies having the control of the streets within such -respective limits” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, s. 9). - -“Where the company has obtained consent to the placing, or by virtue of -the powers of the company under this Act intends to proceed with the -placing of a telegraph under a street or public road, the depth, course -and position at and in which the same is to be placed shall be settled -between the company and the following bodies: - -“The body having the control of the street or public road. - -“The body having the control of the sewerage or drainage thereunder. - -“But if such settlement is not come to with any such body, the following -provisions shall take effect: - -“(1.) The company may give to such body a notice specifying the depth, -course and position which the company desires. - -“(2.) If the body to whom such notice is given does not, within 28 days -after the giving of such notice, give to the company a counter-notice -objecting to the proposal of the company, and specifying the depth, -course and position which such body desires, they shall be deemed to -have agreed to the proposal of the company. - -“(3.) In the event of ultimate difference between the company and such -body, the depth, course and position shall be determined in England or -Ireland by two Justices, and in Scotland by two Justices or the Sheriff” -(26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, s. 10). - -“Subject to any special stipulations made with a company by the body -having the control of a street or public road, and to any -determinations, orders, or directions of the Justices, or Sheriff, as -aforesaid, where the company proceeds to open or break up a street or -public road, the following provisions shall take effect. - -“(1.) The company shall give to the bodies between whom respectively and -the company the depth, course and position of a telegraph under such -street or public road are hereinbefore required to be settled or -determined, notice of their intention to open or break up such street or -public road, specifying the time at which they will begin to do so, such -notice to be given in the case of an underground work ten days at least, -and in the case of an above-ground work five days at least before the -commencement of the work, except in case of emergency, in which case -notice of the work proposed shall be given as soon as may be after the -commencement thereof. - -“(2.) The company shall not (save in case of emergency) open or break up -any street or public road except under the superintendence of the bodies -to whom respectively notice is by the present section required to be -given, unless such bodies respectively refuse or neglect to give such -superintendence at the time specified in the notice for the commencement -of the work or discontinue the same during the work. - -“(3.) The company shall pay all reasonable expenses to which such bodies -respectively may be put on account of such superintendence” (26 & 27 -Vic. c. 112, s. 17). - -It will be seen by the above section that the time required before the -work is commenced after service of the notice is considerably longer -than that for gas or water mains or for electric lighting wires, and -subsection 3 authorises a payment for the services of the surveyor or -other officer attending to superintend the work, which is not the case -in the other Acts. - -The next clauses are as follows: - -“Subject to any such special stipulations as aforesaid, after the -company has opened or broken up a street or public road they shall be -under the following further obligations: - -“(1.) They shall with all convenient speed complete the work on account -of which they opened or broke up the same, and fill in the ground and -make good the surface, and generally restore the street or public road -to as good a condition as that in which it was before being opened or -broken up, and carry away all rubbish occasioned thereby: - -“(2.) They shall in the meantime cause the place where the street or -public road is opened or broken up to be fenced and watched, and to be -properly lighted at night: - -“(3.) They shall pay all reasonable expenses of keeping the street or -public road in good repair for six months after the same is restored, -so far as such expenses may be increased by such opening or breaking up” -. . . (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, s. 18). - -“Whenever the permanent surface or soil of any street or public road is -broken up or opened by the company it shall be lawful for the body -having the control of the street or road, in case they think it -expedient so to do, to fill in the ground, and to make good the pavement -or surface or soil so broken up or opened, and to carry away the rubbish -occasioned thereby, instead of permitting such work to be done by the -company; and the cost and expenses of filling in such ground and making -good the pavement or soil so broken up or opened, shall be repaid on -demand to the body having the control of the street or road by the -company, and in default thereof may be recovered by the body having the -control of the street or road from the company, as a penalty is or may -be recoverable from the company” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, s. 19). - -“The company shall not stop or impede traffic in any street or public -road, or into or out of any street or public road, further than is -necessary for the proper execution of their works. They shall not close -against traffic more than one third in width of any street or public -road or of any way opening into any street or public road at one time; -and in case two-thirds of such street or road are not wide enough to -allow two carriages to pass each other, they shall not occupy with their -works at one time more than fifty yards in length of the one-third -thereof except with the special consent of the body having the control -thereof” (26 & 27 Vic. c. 112, s. 20). - -It will be seen that these are much more elaborate clauses, restricting -the rights of the telegraph companies than those of the gas and water -companies, &c., and as the Telegraphs Act containing these strict -clauses was passed in the year 1863 and the Water Works Clauses Act in -1847, it is fair to assume that the clauses of the Telegraphs Act 1863 -were framed to meet certain objections to these clauses and upon -experience of their working, and are consequently better and more -adapted for the case in point. - -To obviate all the difficulties and complications arising out of this -constant breaking up of streets, with the attendant inconvenience to the -public and damage to the surfaces of the roadways, it was suggested many -years ago that subways should be constructed under the surface of the -principal streets, in which should be placed all the gas and water mains -then existing. - -There is no doubt that there are many advantages in this plan as well as -some disadvantages. It must be recollected that probably the subways -would have been constructed of sufficient capability to carry all the -mains and wires then existing, with a margin for future extensions of -size, but when we see the enormous growth of many towns, notably that of -the metropolis, and the consequent increase necessary in the number and -diameters of the mains, it is to be feared that sufficient space would -not have been left, and competition between rival gas and water -companies might consequently have been crippled. - -Still there would be great convenience in many respects if all water and -gas mains, telegraph and telephone wires could be carried in subways, as -they would be easily accessible for repairs, and hidden leaks would be -unknown. With regard to the one great objection so constantly urged, -that in the case of a leaky gas main or service a most terrible and -damaging explosion might take place, it is true that this is a very -grave and serious objection, but it must also be recollected that -although this danger may be enhanced by the necessarily solid masonry of -which the subway is constructed, still there would be every precaution -taken to prevent leakage of gas, and in the present system liability to -explosion is not altogether remote. In Percy Street, Tottenham Court -Road, only a year or two ago, there was a terrible explosion in -trenches and mains which had become full of gas and atmospheric air in -the proportions of one volume of gas to fifteen volumes of air, and if -gas mains were laid in subways greater precautions would no doubt be -taken. - -There would be also great danger in conveying the wires used for -electric lighting purposes in these subways, as they might fuse and thus -cause danger, and at all events they would have some considerably -disturbing influence upon the wires of the telegraph and telephone -systems, if laid too near. - -I will now pass on to consider the powers of individuals to break the -surface of public streets for the purpose of putting new drains to their -premises or of repairing existing drains. - -With regard to the former question I have given full particulars with -regard to new drains or connections with sewers in the chapter upon -“house drainage,” but with regard to the latter question it will be -necessary to make a few remarks. - -There is no doubt that the public streets vest in the urban authority, -and it is contended that the following clause of the Public Health Act -1875 prevents any person from breaking up any street without their -permission, although it is sometimes questioned whether the words -“wilfully displaces” do not mean the doing of an illegal act, such as -taking up a stone in a street to annoy or injure a neighbour or from -sheer mischief, rather than that of a legal act for a proper purpose; -the clause in question is as follows: - -“All streets being or which at any time become highways repairable by -the inhabitants at large within any urban district, and the pavement -stones and other materials thereof and all building implements and other -things provided for the purposes thereof, shall vest in and be under the -control of the urban authority. . . . Any person who without the consent -of the urban authority wilfully displaces or takes up, or who injures -the pavement, stones, materials, fences or posts of or the trees in any -such street, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five shillings -for every square foot of pavement, stones or other materials so -displaced taken up or injured; he shall also be liable in the case of -any injury to trees to pay to the local authority such amount of -compensation as the court may award” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 149). - -Even, however, granting that application must be made before any -individual can break up a street, the urban authority would not be -likely to withhold their consent if it was for a legitimate purpose, and -having disturbed the street, a person must light and guard the opening, -and the “hole,” as it is called in the clauses following must be “filled -up or otherwise made secure;” but it is very doubtful if he can be -called upon to keep the surface of the road in repair for any length of -time, as can be done in the case of water and gas companies, &c.; the -following are the clauses in question: - -“When any building materials, rubbish or other things are laid or any -hole made in any of the streets, whether the same be done by order of -the commissioners or not, the person causing such materials or other -things to be so laid or such hole to be made, shall at his own expense -cause a sufficient light to be fixed in a proper place upon or near the -same, and continue such light every night from sun-setting to sun-rising -while such materials or hole remain. And such person shall at his own -expense cause such materials or other things and such hole to be -sufficiently fenced and enclosed until such materials or other things -are removed or the hole filled up or otherwise made secure” . . . (10 & -11 Vic. c. 34, s. 81). - -“In no case shall any such building materials or other things or such -hole be allowed to remain for any unnecessary time.” . . . (10 & 11 Vic. -c. 34, s. 82). - -“If any building, or hole, or any other place near any street be for -want of sufficient repair, protection or inclosure, dangerous to the -passengers along such street, the commissioners shall cause the same to -be repaired, protected, or inclosed, so as to prevent danger therefrom, -and the expenses of such repair, protection, or inclosure shall be -repaid to the commissioners by the owner of the premises so repaired, -protected or inclosed, and shall be recoverable from him as damages” (10 -& 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 83). - -These three sections are incorporated in the Public Health Act 1875, by -38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 160, and the last clause undoubtedly gives power -to the urban authority to repair a “hole” which for want of “sufficient -repair” is “dangerous to passengers” but not otherwise, in however -unsightly a manner the trench may have been repaired. - -The result of this uncertainty has been that a great many towns have -inserted in their private improvement Acts, clauses making it compulsory -upon all persons to give them from 3 to 7 days’ notice of their -intention to break up the streets, specifying the manner in which the -work shall be done, and also compelling them to deposit a sum of money -in order to secure that the repairs of the street are properly -executed.[130] A better method than this is to insert in any private -improvement Act a clause giving powers to the urban authority to execute -all drain-work themselves and charge it upon the owners of the property, -thus ensuring that any interference with the surface of the street shall -be done in a proper manner by men accustomed to the work, and also that -the drain itself shall be of perfect workmanship. - -Where the town surveyor has no private improvement Act dealing with this -question, it is well to frame some regulations as to the manner in which -the notice of intention to break up the surface of the street shall be -given to him by the person intending to do the work, and if possible to -obtain a deposit of a few shillings as a guarantee that the surface of -the street shall be kept in something like decent repair. Although this -may not be strictly legal, it is a very universal practice amongst town -surveyors. - -The following forms of notices are given as specimens of the description -of notice now in use, and are copied verbatim from those which are now -enforced in a very large borough in this country: - - _Borough of_ . - - TO THE BOROUGH SURVEYOR, - - I hereby apply for permission to break up the footway or roadway, and - make excavations in for the purpose of , and I - hereby undertake to light, watch and fence the place during the - progress of the works, to temporarily make good the surface of the - footway or roadway, to remove all rubbish, and to execute and complete - the work to the satisfaction of the borough surveyor. I also deposit - the sum of five shillings for the repair of the surface, and agree to - pay the balance if it should cost more than that sum. - - (Signature) - - (Address) - - Witness and receiver . - - Received by accountant 188 . - - Surface repaired 188 . - - At a cost of . - - _Borough of_ . - - 188 . - - To Mr. - - This is to certify that you have paid a deposit of five shillings, and - that you are hereby permitted to take up the footway or roadway and - make excavations in for the purpose of on the - undertaking you have given to light, watch and fence the place during - the progress of the works, to temporarily make good the surface of the - footway or roadway, to remove all rubbish, and to execute and complete - the work to the satisfaction of the borough surveyor; also that you - will pay the balance if the surface repairs should cost more than the - aforesaid sum of five shillings. - - ______________________________ - _Borough Surveyor._ - - NOTE.--If the surface repairs should cost less than the deposited sum, - the balance will be returned to you by the accountant, who will notify - you of the fact. - - Notice must be given to the Building Inspector when the work is ready - for inspection, and no drainage work must be covered up until it has - been examined by the Inspector. - -It may be well to add to this authority to break up the streets, the -following words-- - -“This authority may be revoked at any time if found necessary, and it -does not in any way relieve the person to whom it is granted from any -liabilities he may incur in respect of accidents from anything done in -pursuance thereof.” - -In some towns the following custom prevails in regard to this question. - -The person desirous of opening the street for the execution of any work -has to apply to the surveyor for a licence, and at the same time deposit -a sum sufficient to cover the expense of the work, such sum being -estimated and fixed by the surveyor. The corporation then supply one -labourer whilst the job is in hand, who, whilst working, takes care that -the soil is properly rammed and the surface made good; a mason is also -supplied to make any drainage or sewer connections. The deposit is kept -for about 3 months, and the cost of the labourer and mason, and of any -subsequent making good the surface of the street, is then deducted, and -the balance returned to the person who made the deposit. - -This arrangement seems an excellent plan, and is said to work remarkably -well where it is in vogue, but whether it is strictly legal is open to -considerable question. - - [125] Or gas or electricity, as the case may be. - - [126] These words apply only to the manner of doing the work, not to - alternative ways of doing it. (_Vide_ ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health and - Local Government Act, 1875,’ 3rd edition, p. 45.) - - [127] In the “Electric Lighting Act 1882,” the words “proceed to” have - been inserted before the word open, which is an obvious improvement. - - [128] It is incumbent upon the undertakers intending to break up a - road to communicate beforehand their proposed plan or method of - executing the work to the road authority, and this in a sufficient - manner to enable the road authority to judge whether what is proposed - ought to be done without modification. The plan should, therefore, - show the position on the road of the proposed excavation, and its - depth. (Edgware Highway Board _v._ Colne Valley Water Company, 46 L. - J. ch. 889.) - - [129] This precaution was necessary, as the smell of the old mains was - naturally very offensive and a nuisance. - - [130] In some towns it is the practice to give the builder a junction - pipe or block for nothing, thus ensuring his calling to give notice, - but this is only successful in the case of new attachments to sewers, - in which case the law is much more strict. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -OBSTRUCTIONS IN STREETS. - - -For convenience, I propose to treat in this chapter some subjects which, -strictly speaking, do not come under the head of “obstructions,” but -they are all questions which have to be considered by the town surveyor; -temporary obstructions and other offences with which it is the province -of the police to deal are omitted. - -The following subjects will therefore be discussed: - -(1.) Improving the line of frontages of streets. - -(2.) Removing projections. - -(3.) Doors and gates opening outwards. - -(4.) Vault or cellar coverings. - -(5.) Rain-water shutes and down-pipes. - -(6.) Blinds or awnings over footpaths. - -(7.) Trees over-hanging roadways. - -(8.) Surface water from private premises running over footpaths. - -(9.) Hoardings and scaffolds. - -(10.) Dangerous buildings. - -(1.) _Improving the Line of Frontages of Streets._--By the Towns -Improvement Clauses Act 1847, certain powers were granted which enabled -the commissioners to agree with owners of property to set back for the -purpose of widening any street,[131] but this was often found to be -difficult and wearisome of accomplishment, consequently in the Public -Health Act 1875, the following important clause bearing upon this point -was inserted. - -“Where any house or building situated in any street in an urban -district, or the front thereof, has been taken down in order to be -rebuilt or altered, the urban authority may prescribe the line in which -any house or building, or the front thereof, to be built or rebuilt in -the same situation shall be erected, and such house or building or the -front thereof shall be erected in accordance therewith. The urban -authority shall pay or tender compensation to the owner or other person -immediately interested in such house or building for any loss or damage -he may sustain in consequence of his house or building being set back or -forward, the amount of such compensation in case of dispute to be -settled by arbitration in manner provided by this Act” (38 & 39 Vic. c. -55, s. 155). - -This clause gives an excellent power to the sanitary authority, -especially in older towns, to lay down improved building lines upon the -plan of their town, and thus set back the line of buildings as -opportunity offers. - -In assessing the value of compensation to be paid to the owner for -setting back his property, the following points should be considered: - -(1.) The value of the area of the land given up to the public. - -(2.) The loss of available and useful space to the premises. - -(3.) If any use is made by the owner of the land given up to the public -by constructing cellars underneath, the amount of compensation should be -less. - -(4.) The amount the owner will have to expend to make good the sides of -the neighbouring premises thus exposed by his setting back must be -considered. - -A surveyor should be very careful to recollect if any building line has -been laid down in any street when the plans of new buildings are -deposited with him for approval. If these plans are approved without any -notice being given to the owner to set back, it is questionable whether -he can afterwards be called upon to do so.[132] - -(2.) _Removing Projections of Buildings._--The Towns Improvement Clauses -Act 1847 made provision for setting back any house or building, or any -part which projected beyond the regular line of street when taken down, -on payment of compensation,[133] and this and the following sections -were incorporated in the general Public Health Act 1875.[134] - -“The commissioners may give notice to the occupier[135] of any house or -building to remove or alter any porch, shed, projecting window, step, -cellar, cellar-door, or window, sign, sign-post, sign-iron, show-board, -window shutter, wall, gate, or fence, or any other obstruction or -projection erected or placed after the passing of the special Act, -against or in front of any house or building within the limits of the -special Act, and which is an obstruction to the safe and convenient -passage along any street, and such occupier shall within fourteen days -after the service of such notice upon him, remove such obstruction or -alter the same in such manner as shall have been directed by the -commissioners, and in default thereof shall be liable to a penalty not -exceeding forty shillings; and the commissioners in such case may remove -such obstruction or projection, and the expense of such removal shall be -paid by the occupier so making default, and shall be recoverable as -damages; provided always, that except in the case in which such -obstructions or projections were made or put up by the occupier, such -occupier shall be entitled to deduct the expense of removing the same -from the rent payable by him to the owner of the house or building.” - -The wall of a garden in front of a house, and shrubs in the garden, -which encroach on the street, come within the words “any other -obstruction” in this section.[136] - -It is doubtful, however, if trade signs projecting at such a height as -not to be “an obstruction to the safe and convenient passage along any -street” can be removed under this section, however unsightly they may -be, nor does it appear that flag poles or flags can be ordered to be -removed when at such a height as to cause no obstruction. - -The following clause, however, of the Public Health Act 1875 affects the -question of new projections much more closely. - -“It shall not be lawful in any urban district, without the written -consent of the urban authority, to bring forward any house or building -forming part of any street or any part thereof, beyond the front wall of -the house or building on either side thereof, nor to build any addition -thereto beyond the front of the house or building on either side of the -same. Any person offending against this enactment shall be liable to a -penalty not exceeding 40_s._ for every day during which the offence is -continued after written notice in this behalf from the urban authority” -(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 156). - -Here some difficulty is frequently experienced as to the question if the -building has really been brought beyond the common line of neighbouring -buildings, especially where the houses are detached; but it is -apparently left to the tribunal before whom the case is heard to decide -this point, and the surveyor can only give his evidence, as in many -other cases, to the best of his ability and knowledge, and trust to -obtaining a verdict in his favour. - -With regard to obstructions erected before the passing of the special -Act, the commissioners may cause the same to be removed or altered as -they think fit-- - -“Provided that they give notice of such intended removal or alteration -to the occupier[137] of the house or building against or in front of -which such alteration or removal is begun; and if such obstructions or -projections shall have been lawfully made, they shall make reasonable -compensation to every person who suffers damage by such removal or -alteration.”[138] - -Here the words “_reasonable_ compensation” are difficult of construction -and lead frequently to long litigation. - -(3.) _Doors or Gates opening outwards._-- - -Section 71 of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847 enacts that “All -doors, gates and bars put up after the passing of the special Act within -the limits thereof, and which open upon any street, shall be hung or -placed so as not to open outwards, except when in the case of public -buildings the commissioners allow such doors, gates or bars to be -otherwise hung or placed; and if (except as aforesaid) any such door, -gate or bar be hung or placed so as to open outwards on any street, the -occupier of such house, building, yard or land shall, within eight days -after notice from the commissioners to that effect, cause the same to be -altered so as not to open outwards; and in case he neglect so to do the -commissioners may make such alteration, and the expenses of such -alteration shall be paid to the commissioners by such occupier, and -shall be recoverable from him as damages, and he shall in addition be -liable to a penalty not exceeding 40_s._” - -Section 72 of the same Act further enacts, “If any such door, gate or -bar was before the passing of the special Act hung so as to open -outwards upon any street, the commissioners may alter the same so that -no part thereof when open shall project over any public way.” - -It is naturally necessary that doors or gates of all public buildings -should hang so as to open outwards, so as to give a free and easy exit -in case of panic, many serious accidents having arisen from a want of -this precaution; but with regard to private premises the case is -altogether different, and if doors and gates were allowed to open -outwards, they would soon become a dangerous and intolerable nuisance. - -It will be seen that there are two courses to be pursued in connection -with this offence. - -The first is where the door, gate or bar has been placed before the -passing of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act in 1847, in which case the -“commissioners may alter the same, so that no part thereof when open -shall project over any public way.” This duty of course rests with the -town surveyor, and in many cases it is not easy of execution, as -structural difficulties may have to be encountered and overcome. - -In the second case, where the door, gate or bar has been placed since -the passing of the Act in 1847, certain penalties are incurred by the -occupier or owner, and the commissioners may also alter the door, gate -or bar at his expense. - -The following specimen form of notice to be served in connection with a -case of this description may be of use: - - ____________ TOWN SURVEYOR’S OFFICE. - - SIR, - - I beg leave to give you notice that of the premises in your - occupation opens outwards, and when open, projects into the street - called or known as . - - I have therefore to require that you will be good enough to have such - altered so that it shall not open outwards into the said - street, within eight days next after your receipt of this notice. - - I beg leave also to give you notice that if you neglect to make the - alteration required within the period specified by this notice, you - render yourself liable to a penalty of 40_s._, and I shall proceed to - make the necessary alterations, and recover the costs and penalties - from you as the law directs. - - I am, Sir, your obedient Servant, - - ______________________________ - _Town Surveyor._ - - To _______________ - -(4.) _Vault or Cellar Coverings._-- - -Section 73 of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847 enacts, “When any -opening is made in any pavement or footpath within the limits of the -special Act, as an entrance into any vault or cellar, a door or covering -shall be made by the occupier[139] of such vault or cellar, of iron, or -such other materials, and in such manner as the commissioners direct, -and such door or covering shall from time to time be kept in good repair -by the occupier of such vault or cellar: and if such occupier do not -within a reasonable time make such door or covering, or if he make any -such door or covering contrary to the directions of the commissioners, -or if he do not keep the same when properly made in good repair, he -shall for every such offence be liable to a penalty not exceeding five -pounds.” - -Besides the penalty, the person negligently leaving the covering in a -dangerous condition would be liable to an action for damages at the suit -of anyone who had sustained an injury in consequence of the covering -being so kept.[140] - -There is another clause incorporated in the Public Health Act 1875 from -the Towns Police Clauses Act 1847 upon this subject, which is as -follows: - -“Every person who leaves open any vault or cellar, or the entrance from -any street to any cellar or room underground, without a sufficient fence -or hand rail, or leaves defective the door, window or other covering of -any vault or cellar . . . . shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding -40_s._ for each offence, or in the discretion of the justice before whom -he is convicted may be committed to prison, there to remain for a period -not exceeding 14 days” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 89, s. 28). - -But the former section I have quoted is that upon which the town -surveyor generally acts. - -In connection with this duty the following is given as a specimen -notice: - - SIR, - - I beg to call your attention to the fact that the door or covering to - the vault or cellar in your occupation, No. Street, is - not in good repair (and is slippery and dangerous to - foot-passengers),[141] you are in consequence liable to a penalty of - 5_l._ - - I must request you will be good enough to have such door or covering - properly repaired and made good in accordance with the construction - required by law, within days from the date hereof, and in the event of - your failing to do so, proceedings will be taken to enforce the - penalty to which you are liable without further notice. - - I am, your obedient Servant, - ______________________________ - _Town Surveyor_. - - To _______________ - -In accordance with the provisions contained in the section of the Towns -Improvement Clauses Act 1847 which I have quoted, that the “door or -covering shall be made by the occupier of such vault or cellar of iron -or such other materials, and in such manner as the commissioners -direct,” most towns in this country have prescribed the size and -materials of which they shall be made, the size being often limited to 6 -feet in length, by 20 inches projection, from the line of plynth of the -building, for cellar coverings or pavement lights as they are sometimes -called, and 12 inches in diameter for coal plates. - -Hayward’s patent hexagonal and semiprismatic pavement lights, however, -have obviated the danger of slipping upon this description of covering, -and consequently little or no inconvenience is experienced, even if the -greater portion of the foot pavement is covered by them.[142] - -Coalhole plates should be so firmly fixed as to prevent the possibility -of their shifting, even when the rebate of the flag stone into which -they are dropped is worn, and also to prevent mischievous persons from -raising them. - -Here let me state that no person can without the written consent of the -urban authority cause “any vault, arch or cellar to be newly built or -constructed under the carriageway of any street” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. -26); but from this section it does not appear illegal to construct a -vault, arch or cellar under the footpath, which would generally be the -extent to which such constructions would be extended. However, the more -general powers contained in section 149 of the same Act, by which all -“streets and the pavement stones and other materials thereof” vest in -and are under the control of the urban authority, give the necessary -powers to prevent the construction of cellars under any portion of the -foot-pavement without the consent of the urban authority. - -The usual practice adopted is for any person who requires to construct a -cellar under the foot-pavement or carriageway of any street, to apply to -the urban authority for the necessary permission to do so. In granting -the permission, the urban authority call upon the owner of the premises -to which the proposed vault or cellar is attached, to enter into an -agreement acknowledging that the cellar or vault is only an easement, -and agreeing to remove the encroachment whenever called upon by the -urban authority to do so. - -These agreements and any other similar easements should be kept together -in a book, which may be called the “Easement Book,” and indexed in such -a manner that a reference can be easily made at any time to any -easement that has been granted. - -(5.) _Rain-water from Shutes or Down Pipes._-- - -Water may not be allowed to drip on to the pavements of the streets from -the adjoining houses, and the following clause from the Towns -Improvement Clauses Act 1847 has been incorporated with the Public -Health Act 1875: - -“The occupier of every house or building in, adjoining, or near to any -street shall, within seven days next after service of an order of the -commissioners for that purpose, fit up and keep in good condition a -shoot or trough of the whole length of such house or building, and shall -connect the same either with a similar shoot on the adjoining house, or -with the pipe or trunk to be fixed to the front or side of such building -from the roof to the ground, to carry the water from the roof thereof in -such a manner that the water from such house or any portico or -projection therefrom shall not fall upon the persons passing along the -street or flow over the footpath; and in default of compliance with any -such order within the period aforesaid, such occupier shall be liable to -a penalty not exceeding 40_s._ for every day that he shall so make -default” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 74). - -In many private Town Improvement Acts, the cost of the repair necessary -under an order to do so from the urban authority may be deducted by the -occupier from the rent payable to the owner of the premises, thus -ensuring the work being done more quickly. - -The following is a specimen notice to be served upon the occupier to -repair or put new shuting to his house: - - I beg to give you notice that the eaves, shuting, or projecting - cornice[143] to the house or building No. in your occupation, - is out of repair. A penalty of 40_s._ will be incurred if this - shuting be not repaired within seven days from the date of this notice - (and under the Special Improvement Act the cost of such repair may be - deducted from the rent payable to the owner).[144] - - I am, your obedient Servant, - - ______________________________ - _Town Surveyor_. - - To _______________ - -It is a common practice in most towns for the urban authority to provide -and fix trunks or troughs across their footpaths into which the down -pipes from the rain-water shutes can empty their contents. - -(6.) _Blinds or Awnings over Footpaths._-- - -These may be dealt with as obstructions under sec. 69 of the Towns -Improvement Clauses Act 1847, which I have already quoted,[145] but they -are more particularly alluded to in the Police Clauses Act 1847 in the -following section: - -“Every person who . . . places any blind, shade, covering, awning, or -other projection over or along any such footway, unless such blind, -shade, covering, awning or other projection is 8 feet in height at least -in every part thereof from the ground, shall be liable to a penalty not -exceeding 40_s._ for each offence, &c.” . . . (10 & 11 Vic. c. 89, s. -28). - -Thus legalising the fixing of shop-blinds, &c., provided they are at -least 8 feet in height and consequently no obstruction to the traffic. - -In order to make the blinds or awnings sufficiently secure where they -are of large dimensions, it is very usual for the owner or occupier of -the premises to which the blind or awning is to be attached, to seek and -obtain the consent of the local authority to fix iron sockets in the -kerb of the footpath into which iron or wood standards are inserted for -the purpose of supporting the outer part of the blind or awning, and -there can be no objection to this practice provided that the work is -efficiently performed and to the satisfaction of the town surveyor. - -(7.) _Trees overhanging Roadways._-- - -It used formerly to be considered by road surveyors and others[146] that -great injury was caused to roadways by overhanging branches of trees or -bushes, which were supposed to exclude the light and air from the -roadway and thus damage it, hence powers were given to local -authorities, as surveyors of highways, to compel occupiers of premises -adjoining the roadways to cut back and prune their trees or hedges in -order to prevent this damage. The following being the form of notice -usually adopted for this purpose: - - To ______________________________ - - You are hereby required to cut, prune, and trim your hedges adjoining - the highway leading from to and also to cut down, prune, or lop - the branches of trees, bushes and shrubs growing in or near such - hedges and other fences adjoining thereto, in such manner that the - said highway shall not be prejudiced by the shade thereof, and that - the sun and wind may not be excluded therefrom. And you will further - take notice, that if you shall neglect so to do within five days of - the delivery hereof, I shall proceed to have the said hedges, trees, - and bushes cut and pruned, according to the power and provisions of - the various Acts of Parliament relating thereto. And further, that I - shall also proceed to recover from you the penalties in this respect - imposed by the said Acts of Parliament. - - Dated this day of - - ____________________ - _Surveyor_. - -It is however now very seldom that overhanging branches of trees or -hedges cause any damage to the roadways within an urban district, and -unless they are an actual obstruction to the traffic, the growth of -trees near urban roads and streets should be encouraged; indeed it is -now a common practice to plant trees close alongside the roadway, the -branches of which must of necessity hang over it, and cause no damage if -the roadway is properly formed and attended to. - -(8.) _Surface Water from Private Premises running over Footpaths._-- - -It frequently happens that the rain-water which falls upon a front -garden or courtyard finds its way, for want of a sufficient drain, out -of the gate and across or along the public footpath, thus causing -annoyance to pedestrians even if it does no injury to the path. There -does not seem to be any clause in the Public Health Act 1875 to meet -this objection, for the section which I have given with reference to -rain-water shutes and down pipes (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 74), does not -apply to such cases, as it only refers to water from the “roof or any -portico or projection” and not to water falling upon the surface of a -garden or courtyard, nor is there anything in the Highways Acts which -can be brought to bear upon the subject. - -If, however, any injury is caused to the footpath, no doubt the cause of -offence may be stopped or the perpetrator prosecuted or indicted in -default. - -(9.) _Hoardings and Scaffolds._-- - -When buildings are in course of erection, or repairs are being carried -out to them, it is generally necessary that the person engaged in the -work should construct either a hoarding or inclosure, or at all events a -scaffold, so as to execute the work properly. Upon this point the -following clause of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act has been -incorporated with the Public Health Act 1875: - -“Every person intending to build or take down any building within the -limits of the special Act, or to cause the same to be so done, or to -alter or repair the outward part of any such building, or to cause the -same to be so done, where any street or footway will be obstructed or -rendered inconvenient by means of such work, shall, before beginning the -same, cause sufficient hoards or fences to be put up in order to -separate the building where such works are being carried on from the -street, with a convenient platform and handrail if there be room enough, -to serve as a footway for passengers, outside of such hoard or fence, -and shall continue such hoard or fence with such platform and handrail -as aforesaid standing and in good condition, to the satisfaction of the -commissioners, during such times as the public safety or convenience -requires, and shall, in all cases in which it is necessary in order to -prevent accidents, cause the same to be sufficiently lighted during the -night.[147] And every such person who fails to put up such fence or -hoard or platform with such handrail as aforesaid, or to continue the -same respectively standing and in good condition as aforesaid, or who -does not, while the said hoard or fence is standing, keep the same -sufficiently lighted in the night, or who does not remove the same when -directed by the commissioners within a reasonable time afterwards, shall -for every such offence be liable to a penalty not exceeding 5_l._, and a -further penalty not exceeding 40_s._ for every day while such default is -continued” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 80). - -Hoardings and scaffoldings are now so scientifically erected as to be -little or no inconvenience to foot-passengers. Care must, however, be -taken to see that in the erection of a hoarding the doors or gates in it -shall not open outwards, and the police should be instructed to prevent -carts being backed in and left standing across the footpath. - -The surveyor must exercise great discretion in the length of time he -allows a hoarding to remain; without undue hardship on the builder, he -must study at the same time the more important question of the public -convenience. - -(10.) _Dangerous Buildings._-- - -This is the last, although by no means the least, of the series of -“obstructions” I have enumerated. Here, again, very grave responsibility -rests with the surveyor to determine what is a dangerous building, and -in what manner it shall be rendered safe and secure, for his opinion is -apparently legally conclusive on this matter. - -The following is the clause of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act which -deals with ruinous or dangerous buildings: - -“If any building or wall, or anything affixed thereon, within the limits -of the special Act, be deemed by the surveyor of the commissioners to be -in a ruinous state and dangerous to passengers or to the occupiers of -the neighbouring buildings, such surveyor shall immediately cause a -proper hoard or fence to be put up for the protection of -passengers,[148] and shall cause notice in writing to be given to the -owner of such building or wall, if he be known and resident within the -said limits, and shall also cause such notice to be put on the door or -other conspicuous part of the said premises, or otherwise to be given to -the occupier thereof, if any, requiring such owner or occupier forthwith -to take down, secure or repair such building, wall or other thing, as -the case shall require. And if such owner or occupier do not begin to -repair, take down or secure such building, wall or other thing, within -the space of three days after any such notice has been so given or put -up as aforesaid, and complete such repairs or taking down or securing as -speedily as the nature of the case will admit, the said surveyor may -make complaint thereof before two justices to order the owner, or in his -default the occupier (if any) of such building, wall, or other thing, to -take down, rebuild, repair or otherwise secure, to the satisfaction of -such surveyor, the same, or such part thereof as appears to them to be -in a dangerous state, within a time to be fixed by such justices. And in -case the same be not taken down, repaired, rebuilt or otherwise secured -within the time so limited, or if no owner or occupier can be found on -whom to serve such order, the commissioners shall with all convenient -speed cause all or so much of such building, wall, or other thing as -shall be in a ruinous condition and dangerous as aforesaid, to be taken -down, repaired, rebuilt or otherwise secured in such manner as shall be -requisite, and all the expenses of putting up every such fence, and of -taking down, repairing, rebuilding or securing such building, wall or -other thing shall be paid by the owner thereof” (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. -75). - -Great care must be observed in seeing that the notices are properly -prepared and served in accordance with sections 266 and 267 of the -Public Health Act 1875, and the town clerk, as the legal adviser of the -sanitary authority, should be consulted (in this as in all cases -requiring notices) by the surveyor. - -It sometimes happens that a tall chimney shaft, wall, or other erection -may apparently be perfectly safe, whereas in a high gale of wind it may -be blown down. - -Many tall chimney shafts rock in an alarming manner in a high wind,[149] -but he would be a bold surveyor who would order some of these expensive -structures to be pulled down in the face of the opposition he would -receive.[150] - -A curious case of some difficulty in connection with dangerous buildings -has come under my notice, where a house was built with the approval of -the urban authority, and after completion and occupation the attention -of the surveyor was called to the fact that a large piece of rock at the -back of the house, from which the site had been excavated for the -purpose of its erection, was in a dangerous condition and likely to fall -at any moment and cause great damage to property, or even loss of life. -The clerk to the urban authority, when consulted, was of opinion that -the surveyor could do nothing in the matter, as the case was not met in -any way by the Act. - -The following is given as a specimen notice to serve with reference to a -dangerous structure: - - NOTICE. - - _To_ (A) _the Owner of the ruinous and - dangerous_ (B) _under-mentioned and the - occupier thereof._ - - Whereas a certain (B) situated at within the borough - of , in the county of , is deemed by me, the - undersigned, the surveyor of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of the - said borough of , acting by the council as the urban sanitary - authority for the same, to be in a ruinous state and dangerous to - passengers or to the occupiers of neighbouring buildings: - - Therefore take notice, that you are hereby required, in pursuance of - the provisions in that behalf of the Public Health Act 1875, and the - Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, to take down, repair or secure the - said (B). - - And that if you do not or if neither of you does begin to take down, - repair, or secure the said (B) within the space of three days - after this notice has been served upon you or put upon the said - premises, and complete such taking down, repairing or securing as - speedily as the nature of the case will admit, I shall cause complaint - thereof to be made before two justices in accordance with the - provisions of the statutes aforesaid. - - Dated this day of 18 . - - ____________________ - _Surveyor of the said Urban Sanitary Authority._ - - A. The name and description of the owner or occupier, or the names, - &c., of both should be here inserted. - - B. Building, wall, or anything affixed thereon. - -Before closing this chapter upon “Obstructions in Streets” I give the -following clause from the “Towns Improvement Clauses Act,” which comes -after two other sections of the same Act principally dealing with -building materials, rubbish, or holes in streets, and although in this -clause the word “building” is used, the section cannot be taken as -referring to dangerous buildings, although it may undoubtedly be used -where it is required on account of waste land, &c., being left in an -unprotected and dangerous state:-- - -“If any building or hole or any other place near any street be, for want -of sufficient repair, protection or inclosure, dangerous to the -passengers along such street, the commissioners shall cause the same to -be repaired, protected or inclosed so as to prevent danger therefrom; -and the expense of such repair, protection or inclosure shall be repaid -to the commissioners by the owner of the premises so repaired, -protected or inclosed, and shall be recoverable from him as damages” (10 -& 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 83). - -I have purposely omitted any reference to temporary obstructions in the -streets, which are naturally subjects for the interference of the -police, but I think I have enumerated all those which require the -attention of the town surveyor. - - [131] _Vide_ 10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 67. - - [132] _Vide_ Fitzgerald’s ‘Public Health and Local Government Act - 1875,’ 3rd edition, p. 166. - - [133] _Vide_ 10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 68. - - [134] _Ibid._ ss. 69 and 70. - - [135] Or _Owners_, see s. 160, 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55. - - [136] _Vide_ Fitzgerald’s ‘Public Health and Local Government Act - 1875,’ 3rd edition, p. 174. - - [137] Or owner, see 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 160. - - [138] Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, s. 70. - - [139] Or owner. - - [140] _Vide_ ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health and Local Government Act - 1875,’ 3rd edition, p. 175. - - [141] Care must be taken that the mode of construction “directed by - the commissioners” authorises this part of the notice. - - [142] In the City of London these patent lights have been fixed in the - pavement round the whole of the frontage of Mansion House Buildings, - at the corner of Queen Victoria Street, and also over the whole of the - pavements in Draper’s Gardens, besides many other equally crowded - thoroughfares, without the least inconvenience being experienced. - - [143] In the Act the words used are “shoot” and “trough.” - - [144] These words must be omitted if there is no special Improvement - Act. - - [145] _Vide_ p. 176. - - [146] Sir Fred. Parnell in his celebrated work upon roads has the - following paragraph upon this subject:-- - - The great advantage of having a road perfectly exposed to the action - of the sun and wind will be more accurately conceived by referring to - writers of science on evaporation. Dr. Hailey states that one-tenth of - an inch of the surface of the sea is raised per diem in vapour. He - also says that the winds lick up the water somewhat faster than it - exhales by the heat of the sun. Other writers say the dissipation of - moisture is much accelerated by the agency of sweeping winds, the - effects being sometimes augmented five to ten times. - - Trees are particularly injurious by not allowing the sun and wind to - have free action on the surface of roads producing evaporation. - Besides the benefit which a road receives from its drying rapidly by - an open exposure to the atmosphere, there is another of great - importance, namely, that of affording to horses the advantage of free - respiration; for it is well known that the powers of a horse to - perform work with ease, particularly when moving rapidly, depends upon - the quantity of cool and fresh air that he can pass through his lungs. - If the cause of horses tiring or becoming ill under their work be - carefully examined into, it will often be found that it is not their - muscles or limbs that fail them, but their wind; and therefore, it is - particularly important to have a road so circumstanced that a horse - may on all parts of it have the benefit of a free current of air. - - [147] No person can put up hoards or scaffolds in the streets without - first obtaining the consent of the urban authority, _vide_ sections - 144 and 149 of the Public Health Act 1875. Many towns also have - private improvement Acts with very binding clauses on this subject, - empowering the surveyor to demand a fee for a licence to erect a - hoarding, and empowering him to remove these after notice, &c. - - [148] This is scarcely ever feasible, or of the slightest use if done. - - [149] Mr. Cooper states that “a tall chimney will rock 1 inch in a - moderate wind, and even to an extent of ¹⁄₈th of an inch at a distance - of only 16 feet up from its base, and yet be safe.” (_Vide_ ‘Minutes - of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. xxvii. p. - 100.) - - [150] Whilst this work was in the press the terrible disaster arising - from the falling of an immense chimney shaft at Bradford took place, - the result of which was the death of upwards of forty persons and - great destruction of property. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -IMPROVEMENT OF PRIVATE STREETS. - - -Prior to the passing of the Public Health Act 1875 the improvement of -private roads and streets was dealt with under section 69 of the Public -Health Act 1848, but the clause under which the town surveyor now works -is that which is so well known as the 150th section of the Public Health -Act 1875, and is as follows: - -“Where any street within any urban district (not being a highway -repairable by the inhabitants at large) or the carriageway, footway, or -any other part of such street is not sewered, levelled, paved, metalled, -flagged, channelled and made good, or is not lighted to the satisfaction -of the urban authority, such authority may, by notice addressed to the -respective owners or occupiers of the premises fronting, adjoining or -abutting on such parts thereof as may require to be sewered, levelled, -paved, metalled, flagged or channelled, or to be lighted, require them -to sewer, level, pave, metal, flag, channel or make good, or to provide -proper means for lighting the same within a time to be specified in such -notice. - -“Before giving such notice the urban authority shall cause plans and -sections of any structural works intended to be executed under this -section, and an estimate of the probable cost thereof, to be made under -the direction of their surveyor, such plans and sections to be on a -scale of not less than one inch for eighty-eight feet for a horizontal -plan, and on a scale of not less than one inch for ten feet for a -vertical section, and, in the case of a sewer, showing the depth of such -sewer below the surface of the ground: such plans, sections and -estimate shall be deposited in the office of the urban authority, and -shall be open at all reasonable hours for the inspection of all persons -interested therein during the time specified in such notice; and a -reference to such plans and sections in such notice shall be sufficient -without requiring any copy of such plans and sections to be annexed to -such notice. - -If such notice is not complied with, the urban authority may, if they -think fit, execute the works mentioned or referred to therein; and may -recover in a summary manner the expenses incurred by them in so doing -from the owners in default, according to the frontage of their -respective premises, and in such proportion as is settled by the -surveyor of the urban authority, or (in case of dispute) by arbitration -in manner provided by this Act; or the urban authority may by order -declare the expenses so incurred to be private improvement expenses. - -“The same proceedings may be taken and the same powers may be exercised -in respect of any street or road of which a part is or may be a public -footpath or repairable by the inhabitants at large, as fully as if the -whole of such street or road was a highway not repairable by the -inhabitants at large” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 150). - -One has only to look at the number of footnotes that follow this clause -both in “Glenn” and “Fitzgerald” to see that it requires some -considerable interpretation. I propose in this chapter to call attention -to some of its engineering discrepancies and to point out the duties of -the town surveyor in connection with its enforcement. - -First then, I conclude that it is the duty of the surveyor to call the -attention of the urban authority to the fact that any street within his -district (not being a highway repairable by the inhabitants at large) is -not “sewered, levelled, paved, &c.” but there is no express order for -him to do so, but with whoever this duty rests, it is no doubt the -surveyor’s duty to be certain that the street in question has never been -dedicated to the public or repaired at the cost of the rates, but is -really a private street within the meaning of the Act. - -Before proceeding to give the manner of putting the 150th section into -force, it is necessary to draw attention to some of its wording. - -The word “sewered” no doubt is also meant to include all drains both for -house sewage and surface water falling on the street, &c., and may be -used in the same comprehensive manner that the word “sewerage” is -generally employed. - -“Levelled” is also rather a vague term, but it has been held to refer -only to the level or cross section of the street itself, there being no -power to charge the adjacent owners with the expense of altering the -level of the street so as to make it conform to a street with which it -connects. The word “formed” would in this case have therefore been a -more appropriate phrase. - -“Paved, metalled, flagged, channelled and made good” are very precise -directions, but why both the words “paved” and “metalled” are used is -not clear. Is the paving to be placed on the top of the metalling or -vice versâ? It seems ludicrous to have used both words. The word -“kerbed” also ought no doubt to have been inserted, as no street either -urban or suburban can be formed without this necessary adjunct. - -These very precise directions, if carried out in their entirety, would -cause great injustice to the adjacent owners of the property who had to -bear the expense, for although “paving” and “flagging” may be necessary -for streets situated in a town itself, they would be perfectly -unnecessary for a suburban road, and it is to this latter class of work -that the section is more frequently applied. There are generally very -few badly maintained private streets in the heart and busiest parts of a -town, much difference of opinion consequently exists in different -localities as to what the requirements shall be. - -Some urban authorities insist that the roadways shall be paved with -granite setts or wood blocks, the footpaths being flagged or paved with -asphalte, while others are content with ordinary macadamised roadways -and gravelled paths. - -There can be no doubt that the town surveyor must use considerable -discretion in deciding what class of work should be demanded, and he -must be greatly guided by the situation and requirements of the street -in question and the description and value of the adjoining property. - -With reference to the words “or is not lighted,” my opinion is that -nearly all private streets are at once lighted by the urban authority -out of the rates, so soon as buildings are erected at its sides or it is -found necessary for the public convenience to do so. A reference to -section 161 of the Public Health Act 1875 will show that there is no -exclusion of private streets for that purpose, and for many obvious -reasons it is better that the urban authority should themselves -undertake this duty rather than throw it upon private individuals. - -Having thus far drawn attention to some of the wording of the clause, it -is now necessary to discuss the duties of the town surveyor in -connection with it. - -It will be seen that notice has to be addressed to the owners or -occupiers of “premises fronting, adjoining or abutting _on such parts -thereof_ as may require to be sewered, levelled, paved, &c.” It is often -found that although the greater portion of a certain private street may -be in a shocking state of repair, perhaps just a small length here and -there opposite portions of different frontages may not be so bad: for -instance, the path may be well gravelled and kerbed and a narrow channel -gutter inserted against a wretchedly constructed roadway. It is often -open to question if the owners of these properties against which these -partial improvements have been effected can expect to escape their -liability. If they can, it complicates still more the working of an -already greatly complicated clause. - -“Before giving such notice the urban authority shall cause plans and -sections . . . to be made under the direction of their surveyor.” - -This order involves some considerable amount of work. Very accurate -surveys must be made and plotted to a large scale, levels must be taken, -and where sewers have to be included in the notice it is often necessary -to extend the survey considerably, in order to make provision for future -extensions of streets or buildings or for the existing sewerage system. -The clause is very particular in stating that the “depth of such sewer -below the surface of the ground” must be shown, but no mention is made -about the size. The latter point being of quite as great importance it -would be thought as the depth, the question also at once arises, whether -the new sewer must be specified of such a size as only to meet the -requirements of the street alone, or may it be made of such an area as -will carry the sewage of a considerable district? It would be most -unjust to expect the owners of property to pay for a sewer larger than -was required for the street in respect of which they were responsible, -and if legal, the better plan would be for them to be charged with the -cost of such a sewer as would be sufficient for their purpose and let -any extra size that the surveyor found was requisite be paid for out of -the public rates. - -It should be noted that in addition to the plans and sections “an -estimate of the probable cost” must also be prepared by the surveyor, -and this must be very carefully prepared, for it has been held to be a -“condition precedent to the recovery of the expenses, that such estimate -should have been properly made” (_Vide_ ‘Fitzgerald’ p. 160, 3rd -edition). - -No mention is however made in the Act of a specification, which is of -course absolutely essential. - -It may here be of use if I give a specimen form of notice to be served -in connection with carrying out the duties involved by this clause; of -course each town surveyor must alter the work specified to meet the -requirements of the case; - - _To the Owner or Owners of certain premises fronting, adjoining, or - abutting upon a certain street, called in the parish of - in the borough of in the county of _ - - Whereas the said street is not levelled, paved, metalled, channelled - and made good to the satisfaction of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses - of , the urban sanitary authority of the above-named borough: - - And whereas your said premises front, adjoin, or abut on certain parts - of the said street which requires to be levelled, paved, metalled, - channelled and made good as aforesaid: - - Now therefore, the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of , the - urban sanitary authority of the said borough as aforesaid, hereby give - you notice (in pursuance of the statute in that case made and - provided) to level, pave, metal, channel and make good the portion of - the said street in which your said premises front, adjoin, or abut as - aforesaid, within the space of one month from the date hereof, in - manner following, that is to say: - - (_If a sewer is to be formed, fill in this first._) - - The carriage-way and water tables thereof to be formed in the mode, - according to the sections, and on the levels and at the rates of - inclination shown upon the plan, sections, and in accordance with the - specification of the work prepared by the surveyor to the said urban - sanitary authority, and now open for public inspection at his office, - during the usual office hours. - - The carriage-way to be bottomed, formed, and carefully levelled up to - the form shown by the said sections; and in the following manner: - - (_Here fill in specification of method._) - - Construct gullies, fitted with five-bar cast-iron gratings and - frames of the form and pattern to be seen at , these gullies - to be placed in such positions as are shown on the aforesaid plan and - sections; each gully to have a six-inch glazed stoneware socket-pipe - drain connecting it with the sewer, to be laid on a solid bed, and at - an uniform inclination from gully to sewer, with joints made of neat - Portland cement. - - The existing kerb to be taken up and replaced by inches by - inches granite kerb in lengths of not less than inches, - to the lines shown on plan, and to the levels marked on sections. - - The water-tables or gutter to be channelled with properly laid, - and bedded on fine gravel to the levels and inclinations marked on - sections. - - The footpaths shall be properly formed, bottomed, and drained where - required; the formation level made to the inclination shown on - section, and afterwards coated with . - - The whole of the above-mentioned works to be executed by you in - accordance with the plan and sections hereinbefore referred to and now - open for inspection at the surveyor’s office as aforesaid, and of the - dimensions, widths and levels shown thereon, and to be done in a good, - workmanlike and substantial manner, to the satisfaction of the said - urban sanitary authority and of their surveyor. - - An estimate of the probable cost of the said work, prepared under the - direction of the surveyor to the said urban sanitary authority, is - also lying for inspection at the office of the said surveyor, in - manner required by section 150 of the Public Health Act 1875. - - Dated this day of 18 . - - ____________________ - _Town Clerk_. - -The clause then goes on to say “If such notice is not complied with.” - -It would be a most difficult and costly proceeding for any individual -owner of property to execute the work for half the width of the street -opposite his length of frontage, and the result would be anything but -satisfactory if the owners of the properties were to comply with the -notices in this manner. - -If the owners do intend to comply with the notice, and carry out the -work themselves, the best method for them to adopt is to hold a meeting -and decide upon having it done, then to appoint one of their number, or -some other person to superintend or carry out the work, and afterwards -collect the money, but this is very seldom done, and the wisest course -(which is generally adopted) is not to comply with the notice, but let -the urban authority execute the work themselves. This again entails -considerable labour upon the town surveyor, who has to superintend the -work and see that all the details contained in the statutory notices are -properly carried out, but his labour does not end here. Upon the -completion of the work the amount expended has to be recovered “from the -owners in default according to the frontage of their respective -premises, and in such proportion as is settled by the surveyor of the -urban authority, or (in case of dispute) by arbitration.” - -It is scarcely necessary to point out what an immense amount of -responsible work this involves. First, a separate account of all the -labour and materials employed on the street must be most carefully kept -and totalled at the end of the work, with such additional sum for -supervision, &c., as the urban authority may think necessary.[151] The -exact length of each property “fronting, adjoining or abutting” on the -street, must be most carefully measured. A proportionate sum has then to -be calculated for each of these, and this sum is often complicated by -cross roads, cul-de-sacs, narrow passages, strips of land intervening -between the street and the properties, and many other perplexing -intricacies, in addition to those persons who are legally exempted from -any payment under the following clause of the Public Health Act 1875: - -“The incumbent or minister of any church, chapel, or place appropriated -to public religious worship, which is now by law exempt from rates for -the relief of the poor, shall not be liable to any expenses under the -last preceding section as the owner or occupier of such church, chapel, -or place, or of any churchyard or burial ground attached thereto, nor -shall any such expenses be deemed to be a charge on such church, chapel -or other place, or on such churchyard or burial ground . . .” (38 & 39 -Vic. c. 55, s. 151.). - -The town surveyor, having ascertained what is the amount of the sum due -from each owner, shall proceed to fill in the amount upon a form a -specimen of which is now given: - - _To the Owner of certain premises fronting, adjoining or abutting upon - a certain street called in the parish of in the - borough of in the county of _ - - Whereas the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of the urban sanitary - authority for the said , by a notice in writing pursuant to - the statute in that behalf made and provided, dated the day of - , 18 , required you being the owner of certain premises - fronting, adjoining or abutting upon a street or highway called - , within the said (and not being a street or highway - repairable by the inhabitants at large) to level, pave, metal, channel - and make good the said street or highway within the time and in the - manner specified in the said notice, and according to the plans and - sections deposited at the office of the surveyor to the said urban - sanitary authority at : - - And whereas the said notice not having been complied with by you - within the time limited by the said notice, the said urban sanitary - authority have executed the works mentioned or referred to therein: - - And whereas the expenses incurred by the said urban sanitary authority - in levelling, paving, metalling, channelling and making good the said - street, amount to pounds shillings and pence: - - Wherefore take notice that I the undersigned, being the surveyor of - the said urban sanitary authority, in pursuance of the statutes in - that case made and provided, do hereby apportion the sum of - pounds, shillings and pence as the proportion of the - said sum of pounds, shillings and pence, to be - paid by you as such owner aforesaid, such apportionment being - according to the frontage of your said premises, fronting, adjoining - or abutting upon the said street or highway. - - Further take notice that the aforesaid apportionment will be binding - and conclusive upon you unless within the period of three months from - the day of the date of this notice you shall by written notice to the - said urban sanitary authority dispute the same. - - Dated this day of , 18 . - - ______________________________ - _Surveyor to the said Urban Sanitary Authority._ - - ______________________________ - _Clerk of the said Urban Sanitary Authority._ - -There seems to be no power on the part of any owner to dispute the -question as to whether the works carried out have been necessary or not, -or whether the cost of the works have been excessive; the only point -upon which they can go to arbitration is that as to whether the -proportion settled by the surveyor is accurate or not, and this point -the arbitrator is left to decide. - -It must not be lost sight of that there is a clause in the Public Health -Act 1875, which makes the expenses so settled by the surveyor very -binding upon the owner of the property in question, unless he appeals -within three months from the service of the notice, as the following -extract from the clause will show: - -. . . “Where such expenses have been settled and apportioned by the -surveyor of the local authority as payable by such owner, such -apportionment shall be binding and conclusive on such owner, unless -within three months from service of notice on him by the local authority -or their surveyor of the amount settled by the surveyor to be due from -such owner, he shall by written notice dispute the same” . . . (38 & 39 -Vic. c. 55, s. 257)[152] and it must also be borne in mind that the -person from whom these expenses may be recovered “is the owner of the -premises at the time when the work was done, not the owner to whom -notice requiring the work to be done may be given” (_vide_ Fitzgerald’s -Public Health Act, p. 301, 3rd edition); so that the town surveyor must -be very careful to make sure that any of the property abutting on the -street has not changed hands before he commences the work. - -After the 150th section of the Public Health Act has been carried out -and a private street has been thus put into thorough repair, the urban -authority may take possession of it and declare it to be a highway -repairable by the inhabitants at large; the following section of the Act -gives the modus operandi necessary to effect this: - -“When any street within any urban district, not being a highway -repairable by the inhabitants at large, has been sewered, levelled, -paved, flagged, metalled, channelled and made good and provided with -proper means of lighting to the satisfaction of the urban authority, -such authority may if they think fit, by notice in writing put up in any -part of the street, declare the same to be a highway, and thereupon the -same shall become a highway repairable by the inhabitants at large, and -every such notice shall be entered among the proceedings of the urban -authority. - -“Provided that no such street shall become a highway so repairable if -within one month after such notice has been put up, the proprietor or -the majority in number of proprietors of such street, by notice in -writing to the urban authority, object thereto, and in ascertaining such -majority, joint proprietors shall be reckoned as one proprietor” (38 & -39 Vic. c. 55, s. 152). - -The necessary notices in conformity with this section are usually -prepared by the town clerk, so that the town surveyor has nothing to do -with this proceeding except to maintain the street after it has been -declared a highway repairable by the inhabitants at large, in the same -manner as he does the rest of the public streets within his district. - -There is still one other clause of the Public Health Act 1875, which -deals with the question of private roads, and it is as follows: - -“Any urban authority may agree with any person for the making of roads -within their district for the public use through the lands and at the -expense of such person, and may agree that such roads shall become and -the same shall accordingly become on completion, highways maintainable -and repairable by the inhabitants at large within their district; they -may also with the consent of two-thirds of their number agree with such -person to pay and may accordingly pay any portion of the expenses of -making such roads” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 146). - -This clause is very explicit and requires no comment, it would however -be much better for the urban authority in contemplating a case of this -description to execute the necessary works themselves and agree with the -person about the expense, for if they are intended to be afterwards -taken over it is to be feared that the roads would be very improperly -constructed in the first place by the person intending to hand them -over. It must be noted that the word “roads” is used in the above clause -instead of “streets” as in the other clauses I have quoted, and also -that the word “maintainable” is added to repairable. - -Street is the term legally used in the Public Health Act 1875, and is -thus defined: - -“Street includes any highway (not being a turnpike road) and any public -bridge (not being a county bridge), and any road, lane, footway, square, -court, alley or passage, whether a thoroughfare or not” (38 & 39 Vic. c. -55, s. 4.) so that whereas in the 150th section of the Public Health Act -1875, any of the above can be dealt with, it is only open for the urban -authority to deal with roads under the 146th section of the Act, and it -is sometimes rather difficult to define a road for the purposes of the -latter section. - - [151] In some districts the urban authority make an additional charge - of 5 per cent. upon the total outlay to cover the cost of preliminary - surveys and supervision of the work by their surveyor; this 5 per - cent., however, is not paid to him, but is paid to the city treasurer, - and thus becomes a set off against his salary. - - [152] See also 38 & 39 Vict. c. 55, s. 268, where a person who deems - himself aggrieved may memorialise the Local Government Board, &c. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -NEW STREETS AND BUILDINGS. - - -One of the most important duties devolving upon a “town surveyor” is -that of exercising control over any new streets that may be constructed, -or any new buildings that may be erected, within the limits of his -jurisdiction. - -This duty is imposed on him by the following clause of the Public Health -Act 1875: - -“Every urban authority may make byelaws with respect to the following -matters; (that is to say,) - -“(1.) With respect to the level, width and construction of new streets, -and the provisions for the sewerage thereof; - -“(2.) With respect to the structure of walls, foundations, roofs, and -chimneys of new buildings, for securing stability and the prevention of -fires, and for purposes of health; - -“(3.) With respect to the sufficiency of the space about buildings to -secure a free circulation of air, and with respect to the ventilation of -buildings; - -“(4.) With respect to the drainage of buildings, to waterclosets, earth -closets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools, in connexion with buildings, -and to the closing of buildings or parts of buildings unfit for human -habitation, and to prohibition of their use for such habitation; - -“And they may further provide for the observance of such byelaws by -enacting therein such provisions as they think necessary as to the -giving of notices; as to the deposit of plans and sections by persons -intending to lay out streets or to construct buildings; as to inspection -by the urban authority, and as to the power of such authority (subject -to the provisions of this Act) to remove, alter, or pull down any work -begun or done in contravention of such byelaws. Provided that no byelaw -made under this section shall affect any building erected in any place -(which at the time of the passing of this Act is included in an urban -sanitary district) before the Local Government Acts came into force in -such place, or any building erected in any place (which at the time of -the passing of this Act is not included in an urban sanitary district) -before such place becomes constituted or included in an urban district, -or by virtue of any order of the Local Government Board subject to this -enactment. - -“The provisions of this section, and of the two last preceding sections, -shall not apply to buildings belonging to any railway company, and used -for the purposes of such railway under any Act of Parliament” (38 & 39 -Vic. c. 55, s. 157). - -The result of this power having been so given to urban authorities, is -that they have all framed sets of byelaws, which having received the -sanction of the Local Government Board, are now law in the several -districts. - -In the year 1877, it being found that considerable variation existed in -the requirements set forth in the byelaws, according to the districts -from which they emanated, and experience having shown that the forms of -byelaws previously issued by the Local Government Board were inadequate, -the Local Government Board in order to assist urban authorities issued a -series of model byelaws; amongst the series being a set of byelaws -regulating the manner in which new streets should be constructed and -buildings erected.[153] - -These model byelaws are too extensive to give in detail, as they contain -99 clauses, but every town surveyor should at once procure a copy, even -if his corporation have not adopted them, nor intend to do so. - -One of the first difficulties that often presents itself to those who -have to enforce the observance of the necessary “giving of notices and -deposit of plans and sections by persons intending to construct new -buildings” is to prove that the building is “new” so as to bring it -under the operations of the Act. - -In many cases, of course, there can be no doubt where bare land is being -built upon, but often after buildings have been partially destroyed by -fire, or where extensive alterations are being carried out, some -considerable elements of uncertainty as to what is a “new building” are -introduced. - -The law attempts to settle the question as follows: - -“For the purposes of this Act, the re-erecting of any building pulled -down to, or below the ground floor, or of any frame-building of which -only the frame-work is left down to the ground floor, or the conversion -into a dwelling house of any building not originally constructed for -human habitation, or the conversion into more than one dwelling house of -a building originally constructed as one dwelling house only, shall be -considered the erection of a new building” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 159). - -But the difficulty at once presents itself as to what is meant by the -words “ground floor.” Does this mean the actual floor level, or the -cubical space contained by the walls, floor and ceiling of the “ground -floor” (or as it is sometimes called “ground story”) of the building? -The latter may be assumed to be the correct interpretation, for if we -order a man to hang a picture, or to fix a chandelier on the “ground -floor,” we certainly do not expect to find them placed upon the floor. - -It is important that this point should be settled definitely, or some -more explanatory term employed in the Act in order to determine what is -a new building, for in the present state of uncertainty it may be urged -that the whole building must be razed to the ground, whereas if the -proper meaning of “ground floor” is taken, would the removal of the -superstructure and destruction of the ceiling only of the “ground -floor” bring the new work under the definition of a new building and -within the operation of the byelaws? - -This uncertainty is now taken advantage of by builders and others, who -sometimes find it irksome and inconvenient to be obliged to construct a -building in accordance with the byelaws of any town. Somewhat sharp -practices are consequently resorted to in order to evade the law, and -old buildings are converted into new ones without any powers of -interference by the urban authority or their surveyor. This is greatly -to be regretted, as unless the building comes within the operation of -the byelaws, it is frequently erected without any sanitary precautions -or even stability. - -Sometimes a so-called repair of a building is commenced by adding a new -roof perhaps, at a higher level than the old one; when sufficient time -has elapsed to allay suspicion, a new front is erected, and then new -back and side walls in due course, the alteration of the interior floors -not attracting much attention. - -Cases of this description are very troublesome to the town surveyor, as -if legal proceedings are to be taken against the offender, it is -necessary for the surveyor to make surveys and drawings of the works as -they are in progress in order to prove his case, and these might extend -over a considerable period of time.[154] In order to make these surveys -it would be necessary for him to enter the premises whilst the works -were in progress, but there does not seem to be any powers conferred on -him by any Act of Parliament for such a purpose, so that really he has -no power to prevent the occurrences I have mentioned. - -It must also not be forgotten that what may sometimes appear to be an -entirely new building, may only be an addition to one that existed -before the passing of the Act, and although the new work may be ten -times as large as the old, still much conflicting evidence may be -brought to bear before it can be proved to be a “new building” within -the meaning of the Act. - -Turning again to section 159 of the Public Health Act 1875, these words -will be found as defining also what is a new building: “or the -conversion into a dwelling house of any building not originally -constructed for human habitation.” - -It would have been better in the interests of sanitation if the Act had -prohibited the conversion of any building at all into a dwelling house -without the approval of the urban authority, for as the law stands at -present, it is open for an owner of property to convert stables or -warehouses, &c., into dwelling houses, by simply asserting and bringing -witnesses or other evidence to prove that they were “originally -constructed for human habitation” irrespective of whether they are -adapted for the purpose or not, thus defeating the intention of the -Public Health Act to secure a better description of dwellings than those -that were erected before the passing of the Act. - -When a dispute does arise with anyone as to whether a building comes -within the definition of “new” or not, it is well if possible to agree -upon certain points of fact and upon plans, &c., before the case comes -into court, and then to endeavour to get the magistrates to “view.” This -course if pursued often saves lengthy litigation, and a great waste of -time and money. - -With reference to the deposit of plans of new streets or buildings, the -following clause of the Public Health Act 1875 provides that this shall -be done: - -“Where a notice, plan or description of any work is required by any -byelaw made by an urban authority to be laid before that authority, the -urban authority shall, within one month after the same has been -delivered or sent to their surveyor or clerk,[155] signify in writing -their approval or disapproval of the intended work to the person -proposing to execute the same; and if the work is commenced after such -notice of disapproval, or before the expiration of such month without -such approval, and is in any respect not in conformity with any byelaw -of the urban authority, the urban authority may cause so much of the -work as has been executed to be pulled down or removed” . . . (38 & 39 -Vic. c. 55, s. 158.). - -The result of these clauses of the Act with reference to new streets and -buildings is, that some of the most arduous and irksome duties of the -town surveyor are embodied in the few words they contain. These duties -consist of, first, the careful examination of, and report upon all plans -of new streets and buildings; secondly, the constant supervision of -these streets and buildings whilst the works are in progress; and each -of these duties will be considered in the course of this chapter. - -First then, as to the deposit and examination of the plans of new -streets or buildings. - -The byelaws of which I have already made mention should contain some -such clause as the following: - -“Every person who shall intend to make or lay out any new street, -whether the same shall be intended to be used as a public way or not, -shall give notice to the urban authority of such intention, by writing -delivered to them at their office, or at the office of their surveyor, -and shall at the same time leave or cause to be left at the office of -the urban authority, or of their surveyor, a plan and section of such -intended new street, drawn to a scale of not less than 1 inch to every -44 feet, and shall show on every such plan the names of the owners of -the land through or over which such street shall be intended to pass, -the level, width, direction, the proposed mode of construction, the -proposed name of such intended new street, and its position relatively -to the streets nearest thereto; the size and number of the intended -building lots, and the proposed sites, height, class, and nature of the -buildings to be erected therein, and the proposed height of the division -and fence walls thereon; and the name and address of the person -intending to lay out such new street, and he shall himself sign such -plan, or cause the same to be signed by his duly authorised agent. - -“Such person shall show on every such section the level of the present -surface of the ground above some known fixed datum, the level and rate -or rates of inclination of the intended new street, the level and -inclination of the streets with which it will be connected, and the -level of the lowest floors of the intended new buildings. - -“Every person who shall intend to erect any new building shall give -notice to the urban authority of such intention by writing delivered to -them at their office or at the office of their surveyor, and shall at -the same time leave or cause to be left at the said office detail plans -and sections of every floor of such intended new building, drawn to a -scale of not less than 1 inch to every 8 feet, showing the position, -form and dimensions of the several parts of such building, and of the -watercloset, earth closet, privy, cesspool, ashpit, well, and all other -appurtenances; and together with such plans and sections he shall leave -or cause to be left at the office of the urban authority, or of their -surveyor, a description of the materials of which the building is -proposed to be constructed, of the intended mode of drainage, and means -of water supply. - -“Such person shall at the same time leave or cause to be left at the -office of the urban authority, or of their surveyor, a block plan drawn -to a scale of not less than 1 inch to every 44 feet, and shall show the -position of the buildings and appurtenances of the properties -immediately adjoining, the width and level of the street in front, and -of the street, if any, at the rear of such building, the level of the -lowest floor of such building, and of any yard or ground belonging -thereto. - -“Such person shall likewise show on such plan the intended lines of -drainage of such building, and the intended size, depth and inclination -of each drain; and the details of the arrangement proposed to be adopted -for the ventilation of the drains.” - -With reference to the deposit of plans as required by the above byelaw, -the following suggestions as to the best manner of effecting this may be -of some use: - -(1.) The town surveyor should see that the person, or his agent, -intending to carry out the work, deposits tracings of the proposed -street or building signed by himself, so that there should be no after -dispute as to what really has been deposited; these tracings should be -on good paper properly inked in and coloured so as to be indelible. In -some towns it is the practice for original plans to be deposited -temporarily with the surveyor, who is expected to have them traced and -then returned to the owner, but this not only tends to the possibility -of dispute as to the correctness of the tracings, but it also takes up a -large amount of the surveyor’s time, or of such other officer as may -have charge of this branch of the duties. - -In order to insure that the plans deposited shall not be afterwards -claimed by the person making the deposit, it might be well to add these -words to the clause of the byelaws which I have quoted: - -“All such plans and sections so left at the office of the urban -authority or of their surveyor, shall remain the property of the urban -authority.” - -(2.) It is advisable for the town surveyor to have in his possession a -number of printed forms on which application should be made by the -person intending to erect a new building and filled in and signed by him -or his duly authorised agent. The following is given as a specimen form -for this purpose: - - _To the Surveyor of the Urban Authority of _ - - I hereby give you notice that it is my intention to erect certain - buildings in street, and that the following particulars relate - thereto: - - ---+-----------------------------------++---+------------------------- - No.| Questions. ||No.| Answers. - ---+-----------------------------------++---+------------------------- - 1 |Christian and Surname _in full_, || 1 | - |Address and Occupation of || | - |persons for whom buildings to || | - |be erected. || | - | || | - 2 |Number of drawings deposited. || 2 | - | || | - 3 |Name of architect, if any. || 3 | - | || | - 4 |Description of buildings and of || 4 | - |the materials to be used in || | - |construction of same. || | - | || | - 5 |Situation of buildings. || 5 | - | || | - 6 |Level, or intended level of cellar,|| 6 | - |or ground floor, with reference || | - |to surface of street. || | - | || | - 7 |Thickness of walls. || 7 | - | || | - 8 |Height of building in stories. || 8 | - | || | - 9 |Area of clear open space at rear || 9 | - |or side of buildings exclusively || | - |belonging thereto. || | - | || | - 10 |Distance across such open space. ||10 | - | || | - 11 |Description of ventilation. ||11 | - | || | - 12 |Width of street or open space ||12 | - |opposite buildings. || | - | || | - 13 |Size and description of drains, ||13 | - |and traps, and if ventilated. || | - | || | - 14 |Inclination of drains. ||14 | - | || | - 15 |Description of outlet to drains. ||15 | - | || | - 16 |How supplied with water. ||16 | - | || | - 17 |Situation, dimensions, and ||17 | - |particulars of apparatus of w.c.’s.|| | - ---+-----------------------------------++---+------------------------- - - And I herewith leave detail plans and sections of every floor of such - intended new buildings, drawn to a scale of not less than 1 inch to - every 8 feet, showing the position, form, and dimensions of the - several parts of such buildings, and of the watercloset, privy, - cesspool, earthcloset, ashpit, well, and all other appurtenances; and - also, a block plan drawn to a scale of not less than 1 inch to every - 44 feet, showing the position of the buildings and appurtenances of - the properties immediately adjoining, the width and level of the - street, the level of the lowest floor of the intended building, and of - the yard or ground belonging thereto. - - Dated this day of 18 - - Signature in full, - Address, - Occupation, - -A similar form may be prepared relating to plans of proposed new -streets, but of course the number of the questions contained in it will -be less. - -(3.) When the necessary notices have been given and the tracings -properly deposited with the surveyor, he should carefully examine them -to see if they are in accordance with the byelaws which are in force in -his district. They should then be folded and placed in a large envelope, -which should be endorsed with the name of the person proposing to carry -out the work, the description of the work proposed, the name of the -architect, if any, the name of the builder, if any, the date of the -deposit, and a blank left for the date of approval. Each envelope should -also have a large number stamped upon it. - -(4.) These particulars should be entered in a book of reference against -a corresponding number, so that at any future date it may be easy to -find and refer to any plans that have been deposited by means of an -index and the number on the envelope. - -(5.) If on examining the plans the surveyor finds anything in them -which does not conform to the byelaws, he should be empowered by the -urban authority to return them at once to the person depositing them, -without having to wait to lay them before a committee, as this is a -great saving of time. In returning the plans the surveyor should write a -letter setting forth a schedule of his objections and the particulars of -the manner in which the plans and sections fail to comply with the -requirements of the byelaws. - -(6.) If the plans are redeposited unaltered or showing still some -non-compliance with the byelaws, the surveyor must lay them before his -committee and explain in what respects they are defective, leaving it to -the committee to decide whether they shall be approved or not. - -(7.) If the plans are in accordance with the byelaws, the surveyor -reports the fact to the committee, whereupon the plans should be at once -signed by the chairman of the committee. - -(8.) All plans which the committee decline to approve of should be at -once returned to the person who deposited them with a written -notification of the reasons. - -(9.) Plans which are approved of by the committee and afterwards -ratified by the general meeting of the urban authority, should be -carefully put away in pigeon-holes, so that by means of the reference -book previously described they can be easily found at any future time. -This is very important, as no extension of a building the plans of which -have been thus approved by the urban authority can ever afterwards be -carried out without their consent; and the plans of any alteration which -would not involve building upon an increased area must be deposited as -in the case of a new building. - -(10.) A notification in writing should be sent to the person who has -deposited the plans when they have been approved by the urban authority; -and in sending this notification it is well to draw his attention to the -fact that notice must be given to the surveyor of the commencement of -the work, in order that the foundations, drains, &c., may be examined -by him before the ground is filled in. - -The importance and necessity for the deposit of plans with a sanitary -authority cannot be over-estimated, but this deposit is of but little -practical good unless it can be insured that all the buildings are -erected strictly in conformity with these plans, and this, according to -the Act, is the duty also of the town surveyor. As a matter of fact, it -is quite impossible for any single person in any large town to perform -this duty, and a staff of assistants is consequently necessary if the -sanitary authority really wish their byelaws to be enforced. - -Anyone who is practically acquainted with the difficulties that even -architects experience in superintending buildings they have _themselves_ -designed, and how much they have to trust to the clerk of works (of -which there is generally one to every building), will readily see what -an absurdity it is to suppose that a town surveyor, with his multitude -of other duties and attendances at committees and meetings, can even -pretend to see that the 99 detail clauses of such byelaws as those -emanating from the Local Government Board Office, or even those of a -less stringent character, can possibly be enforced, especially when it -is remembered that many of the buildings he has to inspect have no -superintending architect, but are being erected for purposes of -speculation by what are commonly known as jerry builders. - -Laws may be passed, books on sanitary questions may be written, but -until a change is made in the machinery and manner of the inspection of -buildings in the course of erection, and a large staff of inspectors or -sanitary police or some such officials are kept by a sanitary authority, -very little real advancement will be made with the poorer classes of -buildings. - -It must in fairness to the builder be stated that to erect houses in -strict accordance with the model byelaws would probably mean loss of -money to him, as they could not possibly be built with any prospect of -a reasonable return upon the outlay. This partly arises from the -stringent clauses inserted with respect to the structure of walls and -other precautions for the prevention of fires. I cannot help thinking -that too much interference is now made by sanitary authorities for the -protection of property from fire.[156] It is not a sanitary question, -and is certainly one which chiefly affects insurance companies. Every -one should be able to pay his small insurance premium and the companies -should look after their own interests, and not expect it to be done by -others. If the sanitary authority wish to interfere in the question of -fire, why should not the protection of _life_ be considered as much as -property? Yet no clause can be discovered in the model byelaws rendering -it compulsory to make some provision in dwelling-houses or factories for -the easy escape of the inmates in case of fire. Indeed, as the Public -Health Act does not authorise the enactment of a byelaw for such a -purpose, such a clause would most probably be held to be _ultra vires_. - -Another cause of expense to builders is the necessity imposed on them to -provide a comparatively large open space at the back or sides of new -dwelling-houses, thus sacrificing land, and sometimes making it almost -impossible to build at all. This necessity for open gardens or yards at -the back of even small labourers’ dwellings is in some towns pushed to -an extreme. If such houses are erected in a thoroughly sanitary manner -in all points of detail, it is questionable if this open space is really -beneficial. My experience has shown me that the space is often misused, -animals, such as rabbits, chickens, pigeons, &c., being kept there, or -it is made into a so-called garden, really a refuse heap which is a -receptacle for all the garbage and filth of the house, soon becoming a -fruitful source of disease to the occupants of the house itself and the -neighbours. It is also difficult to ensure that the space thus provided -and approved of in the deposited plans shall not be built upon at some -future period. It would be better if the streets in front of such -dwellings were wide, and a narrow street or “drangway” constructed at -the back for the dust-cart service, supply of coals, &c. The houses -themselves should have their rooms properly and thoroughly ventilated; -underground kitchens or living rooms should be prohibited. The drainage, -water-supply, and all the apparatus in connection with them, should be -perfect but simple. At the back of the house should be a small yard or -court well paved with asphalte or other impervious material, in which -should be placed the wash-house, w.c., &c. These and public parks and -plenty of fresh air in the streets and in the dwelling-houses themselves -should take the place of the large open spaces at the back of small -dwelling-houses, which, as I have already stated, are generally so much -misused. - -The model byelaws with regard to new streets and buildings issued by the -Local Government Board contain most admirable clauses--valuable -suggestions which should receive attention from any town surveyor who -has to advise his corporation upon the subject of framing a set of -byelaws for his district--but they necessarily contain many clauses -which are not suitable equally well for towns in the north, south, east, -and west of England. - -Many of the clauses are too stringent to be enforced, but this arises -not from any fault in the byelaws themselves, but rather from the -machinery employed in carrying them into effect. To secure all that they -require adequate inspection is needed, and this might be effected if -there was a fee charged by the urban authority of any town for the -purposes of proper inspection of buildings in course of construction; -and although it must be admitted that any provision which increases the -cost of construction of small dwelling-houses which shall be complete -in all sanitary requisites is undesirable, the extra cost of such -inspection would be too small to be appreciable, while the advantages -arising from such improved supervision would, even from a pecuniary -point of view, be of immense advantage not only to the community as -tending to improve the public health, but also to the owner as ensuring -good honest work in return for his money. In larger and more expensive -buildings this supervision is exercised by the architect, but as a rule -there is no architect employed in the case of small houses, and the -builder is accordingly left to his own devices, with frequently -unfortunate results. - - [153] ‘Model Bye-laws issued by the Local Government Board for the use - of sanitary authorities. New Streets and Buildings, IV.’ Printed by - George E. Eyre and William Spottiswoode, 1877. - - [154] It is open also to question whether in the case of an old - building being gradually altered into a new one, it would be possible - to prosecute, as there is the following limitation as to proceedings - in the Public Health Act 1875: “Any complaint or information made or - laid in pursuance of this Act shall be made or laid within six months - from the time when the matter of such complaint or information - respectively arose” . . . (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 252). The complaint - could not be made when the work was first commenced, as no offence - would have been committed, and if made after the work was finished, it - might be urged that the offence was commenced more than six months - prior, and that the complaint should have been made “when the matter - of such complaint or information respectively arose.” - - [155] Plans are usually deposited with the surveyor as being the - officer who would be most likely to understand them. - - [156] Nothing can be more vexatious than the bye-law compelling the - party walls of new buildings to be carried up above the roof to at - least 12 inches; not only does this frequently spoil the architectural - appearance of a building, but it causes great expense in order to keep - the wet out: a very difficult thing with a wall treated in this - manner. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -SCAVENGING. - - -In a great number of towns in this country the town surveyor has charge -of the unostentatious, though very necessary sanitary work of the -scavenging of the district over which he has charge, and the following -are the clauses of the Public Health Act 1875, under which he carries -out his duties: - -“Every local authority may, and when required by order of the Local -Government Board shall, themselves undertake or contract for-- - -“The removal of house refuse from premises; - -“The cleansing of earthclosets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools; - -either for the whole or any part of their district: Moreover every urban -authority and any rural authority invested by the Local Government Board -with the requisite powers may, and when required by the said board -shall, themselves undertake or contract for the proper cleansing of -streets, and may also themselves undertake or contract for the proper -watering of streets for the whole or any part of their district. - -“All matters collected by the local authority or contractor in pursuance -of this section may be sold or otherwise disposed of, and any profits -thus made by an urban authority shall be carried to the account of the -fund or rate applicable by them for the general purposes of this Act; -and any profits thus made by a rural authority in respect of any -contributory place shall be carried to the account of the fund or rate -out of which expenses incurred under this section by that authority in -such contributory place are defrayed. - -“If any person removes or obstructs the local authority or contractor in -removing any matters by this section authorised to be removed by the -local authority, he shall for each offence be liable to a penalty not -exceeding five pounds: Provided that the occupier of the house within -the district shall not be liable to such penalty in respect of any such -matters which are produced on his own premises and are intended to be -removed for sale or for his own use, and are in the meantime kept so as -not to be a nuisance” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 42). - -The next clause imposes a penalty on the local authority if they fail -“without reasonable excuse after notice in writing from the occupier of -any house” to cleanse the ashpit, &c., within seven days if they have -“themselves undertaken or contracted for the removal of house refuse” -&c., and the next clause is as follows: - -“Where the local authority do not themselves undertake or contract for, - -“The cleansing of footways and pavements adjoining any premises; - -“The removal of house refuse from any premises; - -“The cleansing of earthclosets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools -belonging to any premises; - -“They may make byelaws imposing the duty of such cleansing or removal, -at such intervals as they think fit, on the occupier of any such -premises. - -“An urban authority[157] may also make byelaws for the prevention of -nuisances arising from snow, filth, dust, ashes, and rubbish, and for -the prevention of the keeping of animals on any premises so as to be -injurious to health”[158] (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 44). - -There is also another clause in the Public Health Act 1875, which is as -follows: - -“Any urban authority may, if they see fit, provide in proper and -convenient situations receptacles for the temporary deposit and -collection of dust, ashes, and rubbish; they may also provide fit -buildings and places for the deposit of any matters collected by them in -pursuance of this part of this Act” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 45). - -The result of the above comprehensive clauses upon the subject of -scavenging is that the following duties fall upon the town surveyor -where that officer is responsible for such work: - -(1.) “The removal of house refuse from premises.” - -This work, like all the rest which follows, can be done either by the -local authority themselves or by contract, the former method, as I hope -presently to show, being much the best system. - -In connection with this first duty of the removal of house refuse, the -following points will have to be considered: - -(_a._) What is house refuse? - -(_b._) What is the best manner of storing it on the premises pending the -visit of the scavenger? - -(_c._) Which are the best methods for its collection? - -(_d._) Which are the best methods for its disposal? - -(2.) “The cleansing of earthclosets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools.” - -This work where necessary (owing to the want of a system of sewerage) -can be carried out simultaneously with the collection of house refuse -and in almost the same manner. - -(3.) “The proper cleansing of streets.” - -In connection with this duty the following points must be considered: - -(_a._) The best methods for sweeping and cleansing streets. - -(_b._) If machinery effects such work better and more economically than -hand labour. - -(_c._) The extra work involved by the bad construction of streets, or -the ill chosen materials of which they are formed. - -(_d._) Whether private streets, courts and alleys, “not repairable by -the inhabitants at large,” should be swept and cleansed by the local -authority? - -(_e._) The ultimate disposal of excessive accumulations of mud. - -(_f._) The removal and disposal of snow. - -(4.) “The proper watering of streets for the whole or any part of their -district.” - -In considering this question it is necessary to note: - -(_a._) The best form of vehicle for carrying and spreading the water. - -(_b._) The number, position, and description of standpipes. - -(_c._) Whether vehicles, or fixed standpipes and hose are best. - -(5.) If the local authority do not impose a byelaw they must themselves -cleanse the “footways and pavements adjoining any premises;” and this in -excessively muddy weather, or after a heavy fall of snow, is no -inconsiderable work. - -(6.) An _urban authority_ may make provision for the “temporary deposit -and collection of dust, ashes and rubbish.” - -This involves public dust-bins being placed in suitable positions in the -town, the points in connection with this work being, - -(a.) The most suitable sites for such accommodation. - -(b.) The materials and form of which they shall be constructed. - -Having thus stated all the heads under which the work of scavenging may -be grouped, it is necessary to decide what is “house refuse;” for unless -this is satisfactorily settled, considerable onus and expense will be -put upon the local authority if they are to include in the removal -trade, garden, and other similar refuse.[159] - -It may be assumed that all house refuse which it is the duty of the -scavenger to remove, is really so removed by the direction of the local -authority without dispute, but that the following articles, which -frequently find their way into a domestic dust-bin, are not in the -strict terms of the Act expected to be removed by him. (1) Plaster from -walls and brick bats, (2) Large quantities of broken bottles and flower -pots, (3) Clinkers and ashes from foundries and green-houses, (4) Wall -paper torn from the rooms of a house, (5) Scrap tin (but not old tins -which have contained meats, &c., and which, although very useless and -bulky, may be fairly assumed to be house refuse), (6) All garden refuse -such as grass cuttings, dead leaves, and the loppings from trees and -shrubs.[160] - -As a matter of fact, out of ninety towns with which I communicated on -this subject only thirteen of them directed the removal of both trade -and garden refuse without any special extra payment being made by the -householder, and this is only done when these materials are placed in -the ordinary dustbin or ashpit attached to a house. Several towns, -however, it appears remove such materials on special payments being made -of sums varying from 1_s._ 6_d._ to 3_s._ per load. - -Disputes frequently arise between the men employed in scavenging and the -householder on these vexed questions as to the difference between house, -trade or garden refuse: a dispute often raised by the scavengers -themselves, in the hope of obtaining a gratuity or reward for the -clearance of a dustbin, which no doubt, legally, they are perfectly -justified in refusing to empty; and in order to lessen the chance of -such disputes and to attempt to settle this question, the following -suggestions may be of value. - -It would no doubt be vexatious if any sanitary authority were to -absolutely refuse to remove the “garden” refuse from those houses to -which a small flower garden was attached, whilst it would on the -contrary be an unfair tax upon the general community if the refuse of -large gardens was removed without payment. A good rule would therefore -be to remove only such _garden_ refuse as was contained in the ordinary -dustbin or ashpit attached to a house, and that as the removal of any -kind of _trade_ refuse would no doubt lead to abuses if done -gratuitously by the sanitary authority, that this material should only -be removed on payment of some sum, which should be previously fixed by -the local authority, and each case should be reported to the officer -superintending the work before it was removed. - -The next question is the important one of the manner and place in which -house refuse shall be temporarily stored pending the visit of the -scavenger. - -The Public Health Act of 1875 enacts that: “Every local authority shall -provide that all drains, waterclosets, earthclosets, privies, _ashpits_, -and cesspools within their district be constructed and kept so as not to -be a nuisance or injurious to health” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 40). - -And section 35 of the above Act states, “It shall not be lawful newly to -erect any house or to rebuild any house pulled down to or below the -ground floor without a sufficient watercloset, earth closet, privy, and -an _ashpit_ furnished with proper doors and coverings. Any person who -causes any house to be erected or rebuilt in contravention of this -enactment shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds” (38 -& 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 35). - -The same Act also gives power to local authorities to enforce provision -of ashpit accommodation for houses where such accommodation does not -already exist, and to frame byelaws with respect to ashpits. - -There can be no doubt that the position of the dustbin or ashpit, as -regards its site with reference to the main dwelling-house, is of -primary sanitary importance, for if the garbage and domestic -accumulations therein are allowed to remain for a few days, especially -when the weather is close, damp, and warm, they become very offensive, -and the emanations therefrom may even be highly deleterious and -dangerous to health; this effect is aggravated by persons emptying -vegetable refuse and other matters which are _wet_ into the dustbin, as -decomposition of these matters is greatly assisted by this addition, and -it would be well that all such matters should be burnt on the kitchen or -scullery fire along with a large percentage of the ashes which could be -sifted and saved from those which too readily find their way into the -dustbin, and are thus wasted. Care would of course have to be taken in -this process that no smell or nuisance was caused by the process of -burning. - -It is open to considerable doubt if the fixed dustbin or ashpit is the -best or most sanitary receptacle for the house refuse; they may be -necessary and suitable for Public Institutions, or for large isolated -private dwellings, or for schools or any places where excessive -quantities of refuse may accumulate, but where this refuse is -systematically and properly removed by the order of the local authority, -at such times and in such manner as will be hereafter pointed out, -moveable or portable dustbins, boxes or baskets are far preferable to -the large immoveable, inconvenient fixed ashpit, recommended and -enforced under the Act. - -The next point to consider is that of the collection of the house -refuse, which should be effected satisfactorily, economically and -expeditiously. - -The following are the three methods by which this is attempted: - -(1.) By a house to house call at intermittent periods. - -(2.) By the scavengers giving notice of their approach by ringing a bell -or by other signal, and requiring the householder to bring out the -refuse to the cart. - -(3.) By placing public dustbins in different localities, and expecting -householders in their vicinity to place the house refuse in these -dustbins, which are then cleared from time to time by the local -authority. - -Experience alone can teach which of these is the best method to adopt in -any district, and it is usually found that some modification of all -three is necessary. - -It is, however, difficult sometimes to adopt public dustbins not only on -account of their first cost, but from the objections raised by the -occupiers of adjacent houses to their being fixed in their -neighbourhood. - -If these dustbins were constructed with properly balanced self-closing -lids, these objections might be overcome, and their first cost would be -but trifling when compared with the benefit to be derived by placing -them in some of the thickly populated courts and alleys which are -unfortunately to be found in nearly every town. Where there are no -public dustbins the inhabitants of these courts throw their waste -products upon the surface of the streets or courts, from time to time -throughout the day, as it cannot be expected nor desired that such -materials should remain, even for twenty-four hours, in their one living -room, which is frequently over crowded, and has but little spare space -even for the common necessities of life; but that these waste products -should be thus strewn over the surface of the street or court is almost -equally objectionable, and points to the advantage to be gained by -placing in convenient situations covered dustbins which could be easily -emptied once a day. - -Undoubtedly the best method for the removal of refuse is the house to -house call, but except in suburban districts and for the collection of -refuse from the better class of dwelling-houses and public institutions, -the expense, delay and difficulty which would be incurred in calling at -every house throughout a town, would make it almost impracticable, and -consequently this system is universally combined with that which is -known as the bell or signal system, which simply means that the -scavenging cart in going its rounds has a bell attached to it, or the -horse, which bell rings automatically as the cart proceeds on its way; -or the man in charge blows a trumpet, or calls in stentorian tones, -“Dust oh!” On hearing this signal, _but not before_, the householder is -expected to bring out the refuse in some convenient receptacle, which is -then emptied into the cart by the scavenger. - -As a matter of fact, the receptacles containing all the waste products -of these householders are brought out and are placed in the gutter of -the street close to the kerb, long before the cart makes its appearance -or can be reasonably expected to do so. - -The result of these (generally inappropriate) receptacles filled with -heterogenous collections of house refuse being left unprotected in the -public streets, is that their contents are quickly strewn about the -surface of the street, by their being upset accidentally, or purposely, -and the appearance of the street, which has probably been carefully -swept and garnished during the night or early in the morning, quickly -assumes, especially in a high wind, a very offensive character, and -probably has to be entirely re-swept and cleansed before the ordinary -traffic of the day commences. - -To obviate this evil I must refer my readers to a small book on the -subject of scavenging, entitled ‘Dirty Dustbins and Sloppy Streets,’ -published by Messrs. Spon & Co., written by myself, in which I have -suggested moveable iron cylinders being placed in the streets for the -reception of the house refuse. - -The “house to house” call system in the suburbs of a town may be greatly -assisted by a very simple remedy, which has already been tried in some -towns with considerable success. It consists in the householder placing -a card bearing the letter D, or some other distinguishing mark, in a -conspicuous place in a window, when the services of the scavengers are -required; these cards should be printed and circulated by the Sanitary -Authority of the district, who should state on the back of the card the -days on which the scavengers would visit each neighbourhood, with the -approximate hour of the day in which they would appear, in order that -the householder may not be unnecessarily inconvenienced by being obliged -to keep the card for any length of time in his window. - -The scavengers in passing observe the signal, and call at the house; -otherwise they pass on, unless specially called in by the occupants, -thus avoiding any unnecessary delay in their rounds. - -A visit from the scavengers either before seven or after ten in the -morning is generally very inconvenient for households of a superior -class, and should be, if possible, carefully avoided by the sanitary -authority. - -The cart usually employed for scavenging is that known as the ordinary -“tip cart,” strongly, if not clumsily, constructed of an oak frame, with -elm or deal sides of considerable height; it holds about a couple of -cubic yards of material, and costs from sixteen to twenty pounds. - -These carts are not only clumsy and heavy, but they give an overweighted -diminutive appearance to the horse between the shafts, especially as the -quality of horses employed for work of this character is frequently none -of the best. The height, too, of the cart is often so great as to -necessitate the use of a short ladder, up which the scavenger has to -climb, the result being a shower of dust when it is being loaded with -house refuse, and spatterings of mud, when it is being used as a slop -cart. - -It is difficult also to effectually cover a cart of this description. -The imperfect mode at present adopted is to cover it with a tarpaulin, -which is tied down as tightly as the circumstances of the case will -admit, but which as a rule does not effectually answer the purpose for -which it is intended. In towns where the house refuse is not collected -separately from the road scrapings, a judicious mixture of the two in -the cart considerably assists in preventing any mud from splashing over -or the dust from blowing about. - -The employment of wooden carts for this work is bad economy, their rough -usage, and the mode adopted for emptying them by “tipping,” renders -their life a short one; a cart in constant work frequently costs from -4_l._ to 5_l._ per annum in repairs, and having but little of the -original material of which it was constructed left in it at the end of -six years. They are also difficult to cleanse or disinfect. - -With a view to obviate these and other objections, several improved -carts and waggons have been introduced by different makers, who have -styled them by a variety of names. Amongst others they are called dust -carts, general purpose carts, sanitary carts, slush carts, tumbler -carts, mud waggons, tip waggons, slop waggons, &c. These are constructed -with iron bodies fixed upon wooden frames and wheels; they are of -various forms and designs, the principal objects aimed at being -lightness of construction combined with strength, so balanced as to bear -with a minimum of weight upon the horse; economy in their cost has not -been lost sight of, and they are usually provided with some special -means for emptying, either by being tipped by a chain and windlass, or -by some mechanical arrangement of the tailboard; they are built very low -upon their axles, so as to be easily filled, are either completely -covered over with a moveable lid, or are fitted with hinged side boards, -so as to prevent any splashing over of their contents, and as they are -nearly all constructed with iron; they are easily cleansed and -disinfected whenever it is thought necessary to do so. - -With reference to the important question of the ultimate disposal of -house refuse, street sweepings &c., no rules can be laid down, as so -much depends upon the position of every town and the character of the -district in which it is situated, as the following replies to some -questions which I addressed to several English towns will show. - -In many towns it is stated that the whole of the refuse is used by brick -makers, in others it is simply “tipped to waste.” In one case the answer -is, “Sold by auction twice a year,” but to whom it is sold, and for what -purpose, does not transpire. In some towns it appears to be mixed with -lime and used as manure upon the fields, and in others it is mixed with -the sludge of the sewage farms, and is then ploughed or dug into the -soil of the farm. This seems a better plan than that of another town, -where it is “given or thrown away,” although the difficulty of disposing -of the old iron, tins, &c., is not touched upon in any of the foregoing -answers. The next reply states that “it is riddled, and the cinders and -vegetable refuse are burnt to generate steam, the fine dust is used with -the manure manufactory (tub system), the old iron is sold, and the pots, -&c., used for the foundations of roads.” In one case the whole of the -refuse is taken out to sea in hopper barges, and sunk in deep -water.[161] In a great number of towns it is sold by tender for the -year, but what eventually becomes of it does not transpire. But the most -favoured methods, where it cannot be sold as manure to farmers, seem to -be either that of carting it away to some spot outside the town, and -there using it for the purpose of filling up hollows and depressions, or -that of giving or selling it to brick-makers. - -The practice of filling up hollow places with such materials cannot be -too strongly deprecated if there is any chance of dwelling houses being -erected on them, as the unsanitary condition of sites thus formed has -been frequently demonstrated. - -Where towns are unable to dispose of their refuse by sale to farmers or -market gardeners, the best method, and one which is gaining in -popularity every day, is that of its destruction by fire. - -With this object in view a Mr Fryer has invented an apparatus which he -styles a “Patent Carboniser, for the conversion of garbage, street, and -market sweepings, also other vegetable refuse, into charcoal.” This -apparatus consists of a structure somewhat resembling, externally, a -brick kiln. It is divided into hopper-shaped compartments, which at the -bottom are furnished with a furnace, fitted with a reverberatory arch. A -fire is lighted in this furnace, the necessary combustion being -obtained, and the heat maintained, by burning the cinders, which are -sifted out of the house refuse for this purpose. All the street -sweepings, refuse, garbage, &c., is then thrown in at the top of the -kiln, and it is there and then completely destroyed by the action of the -fire, and converted into charcoal, which is withdrawn through a sliding -door fixed at the bottom of the kiln.[162] - -The next point which has to be considered, and which is the second in -order of the list of duties I have given at the commencement of this -chapter, is “the cleansing of earth closets, privies, ash-pits, and -cesspools.” - -This is generally effected in conjunction with the collection of the -house refuse and the work is carried out at night. Under the Goux-tub -system the ashes of the house refuse are largely used as a deodorant or -absorbent as a lining for the tub,[163] but in the pail systems this -mixture is not effected until the tubs and refuse arrive together at the -depôt. - -For descriptions of the manner in which the pail system for the -collection of excreta is carried out in Birmingham, I must refer my -readers to an article written by myself in a number of _The Sanitary -Engineer_ of New York published on the 1st Sept. 1881, in which I have -entered fully into the method there adopted and its advantages and -disadvantages, but which are too long to recapitulate in this chapter. - -The next duty which has to be considered is that of “the proper -cleansing of streets.” - -There is no doubt that for the sake of the appearance as well as the -health of any town its streets cannot be too well cleansed. Muddy and -wet streets cause dampness in the subsoil of neighbouring dwellings, and -dust is not only injurious to tradesmen’s goods but also to the lungs of -those who have to breathe an atmosphere loaded with silicate and organic -impurities.[164] - -Street cleansing is effected either by hand-sweeping and hand-scraping, -or by machinery. As to which is the most economical much depends upon -the value of labour, and also upon the condition of the roads to be -dealt with, but in point of time and as a general rule the value of a -horse rotary brush-sweeping machine is undoubted, the only time at which -such a machine fails to do effective work is on the occasions when the -mud to be removed (owing to a peculiar condition of the atmosphere), has -attained a semisolidity, and is of a stiff and sticky consistency, when -it either adheres to and clogs the brushes of the machine, or is -flattened by them on to the road instead of being removed.[165] - -The brushes of a machine last about 180 hours constant work, and then -the old stocks can be easily refilled with bass at no great cost. The -comparative work which can be done by a sweeping machine is about 11 to -1 of that effected by manual labour, so that the economy involved by the -former method is evident. - -The strength and durability of the brooms used for the work of sweeping -the streets is of some importance, as affecting the ultimate cost of the -work, and some care and skill is required in their selection. Bass -brooms are better than birch brooms for this purpose, and the bass of -which the brooms are made should be sufficiently stout and of regular -thickness; it should be tough and elastic, not old, dry, and brittle, -each knot should be of uniform size and be firmly set, and the number of -knots in each broom head is also a matter of choice. A convenient and -fair test of the soundness of a broom is to soak it for a few days in -water before issuing it to the sweeper, and then note the time it will -last. The handles of the brooms should be made of alder wood. - -On the question of the extra work involved in street cleansing by its -bad construction or by the materials of which it is constructed, climate -must be considered, as well as the amount of traffic it has to bear, and -also its gradient and the habits of the people residing in it.[166] - -The Superintendent of the Scavenging Department at Liverpool has made -some observations and obtained some valuable information on these -points, which he has detailed in a report he presented to the Health -Committee of that borough in the year 1877, an abstract of which is as -follows: - -GROSS COST FOR EACH TIME OF CLEANSING 10,000 YARDS SUPERFICIAL OF -DIFFERENT DESCRIPTIONS OF ROADWAY IN THE BOROUGH OF LIVERPOOL. - - --------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+------+------------ - | | | Con- | | | | Gross - | | | dition| Area | Loads| Times| Cost per - |Descrip- | | of re-| of | re- | swept|10,000 Yards - |tion | |pair of| Car- | moved| in | Superficial - | of | When | Road- |riage-|in one| one | for each - Street.|Pavement.| paved. | way. | way. |Month.|month.| cleansing. - --------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+------+------------ - | | | | Yds. | | | - | | | | supr.| | |£ _s._ _d._ - Lord |Granite | 1877 | Very | 4,503| 15 | 26 |0 6 5¹⁄₂ - Street |setts, | | good | | | | - |asphalte | | | | | | - |joints | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - North | Ditto | 1872 | Good | 3,287| 17¹⁄₂| 26 |0 8 10¹⁄₂ - John | | | | | | | - Street | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Tithe- |Granite | 1872 | Bad | 5,150| 38 | 26 |0 11 2 - barn |setts, | and | | | | | - Street |ordinary | 1874 | | | | | - |joints | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - West |Ditto, | 1876 | Very |11,980| 35 | 13 |0 9 4³⁄₄ - Derby |asphalte | | good | | | | - Road |joints | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Great | Ditto | 1877 | Good |16,860| 85 | 13 |0 14 4¹⁄₂ - Howard | | | | | | | - Street | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Great |Ditto, | Not as-| Mod- |15,900| 85 | 13 |0 14 1 - Homer |ordinary |certain-| erate | | | | - Street |joints | able | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Kensing-|Macadam | Ditto | Good |14,540| 76 | 13 |0 14 3³⁄₄ - ton |breasted | | | | | | - Street |with sett| | | | | | - | | | | | | | - Stanley | Ditto | Ditto | Bad |16,534|186 | 13 |1 8 9¹⁄₄ - Road | | | | | | | - --------+---------+--------+-------+------+------+------+------------ - -He adds that the full benefit of the impervious pavements as regards the -cost of scavenging has not yet been felt, for almost all the lines of -streets so paved are intersected at short distances by streets of -ordinary jointed granite setts or macadam, whence a quantity of mud and -refuse is dragged by the traffic on to the asphalted jointed roadways, -which are consequently debited with the cost of removal of some effete -material not intrinsically belonging to them. - -Mr. Till, the Borough Surveyor of Birmingham, from investigations he has -made on this subject, says that for granite pavement 2 cart loads of mud -have to be removed from every 1000 square yards of surface, one third of -a load for wood pavement[167] and 4 loads three times a day (a total of -12 loads) for macadamised roadways. - -The ultimate disposal of the material removed from the surfaces of -roadways especially when they are macadamised is a difficult matter, as, -being chiefly composed of silicate, it is valueless as a manure. - -In small towns, except during abnormally muddy weather, it may be mixed -with the house refuse and sold to farmers, or the road scrapings -themselves may be used as an excellent sand, if thoroughly washed, to -mix with lime or cement to form mortar for public works; excessive -accumulations of mud, however, must be got rid of in the most economical -and speedy manner possible, and this is effected either by filling up -old disused quarries with it, or depositing it upon waste lands, or -forming embankments for new roads, but in no case should it be used, as -I have before stated, upon building sites; it is difficult and expensive -to destroy it or partially convert it into other matters by fire, so -that if these methods which I have enumerated are impracticable, the -only other method left for the disposal of the sweepings or scrapings -from the streets is to take them out to sea in hopper barges and sink -them in deep water. - -The last question that arises on the subject of scavenging before we -consider the disposal of snow, is whether the onus of cleansing private -courts and alleys which are not repairable by the urban authority should -be borne by them or not. - -The great difficulty attached to this duty arises from the fact that -these private courts and alleys are generally very badly paved, if paved -at all, full of pits, where pools of stagnant mud and water collect, and -even in the best cases, the interstices between the pebbles, or other -paving, are filled with filth arising in great measure from the dirty -habits of the people, and this filth it is found exceedingly difficult -to dislodge. The remedy for this is to compel the owners of the abutting -properties to have the courts and alleys properly paved with asphalte, -or other equally impervious material, after which it would be easy for -the urban authority to cause them to be swept at least once a day, and -flushed with water in the hot weather once a week, but in order to -compel the owners to execute this very desirable work it would be -necessary to put the complicated machinery of section 150 of the Public -Health Act 1875 in force, and the expense to the landlords would be in -many cases very disproportionate to the value of their property. - -Out of the ninety towns to which reference has before been made, the -authorities of only nineteen of them cleanse the private courts and -alleys in their jurisdiction, although for the sake of sanitation it is -very desirable that such work should be so undertaken by them. - -In most towns it is necessary to cleanse its principal streets at least -once a day, and this appears to be the practice of nearly all the ninety -towns I have referred to; only seven of them, however, appear to have -this operation repeated more frequently; in several towns, the horse -droppings, &c., are removed at once, under what is called the “orderly” -system, and this is especially necessary in streets that are paved with -such materials as wood paving, asphalte, or granite setts. The suburban -streets of a town need only be cleansed once or twice a week, except in -special cases of extremes of mud or snow, and I will now proceed to -discuss the questions involved by a heavy fall of the latter. - -Experiments have shown that a cubic yard of fresh fallen snow may weigh -as much as 814 pounds or as little as 71 pounds. Assuming that a cubic -foot will weigh 16·38 pounds, I estimate that for a fall of 3 inches of -snow upon a street 36 feet in width, 20 tons, representing a bulk of -about 100 cubic yards, would have to be removed for every 100 yards of -length of street if it was thought necessary to clear it away. - -Assuming that there are 30 miles of street in a town from which the snow -must be removed; 21,144 loads must be carted somewhere, at a cost of at -least 1,500_l._, assuming that each cart could make ten trips a day, and -even then it would take 352 carts a whole week to effect it. - -It may be contended that I have taken an extreme case, and that, of -course, the snow does not lie for very long upon the ground in the -condition in which it fell, and that hourly it is reducing in bulk and -weight by being ground up by the traffic, and finding its way in the -form of water into the sewers. This may be so, but at the same time it -must not be forgotten that the bulk is also being constantly increased -by that which is shovelled off the house tops[168] and brought out from -private premises adjoining the streets. - -Upon this point Mr. Hayward, the Engineer to the Commissioners of Sewers -of the City of London, says[169]:-- - -“Snow readily compresses under the traffic, and when removed in carts -and shot down elsewhere it may be assumed that on an average four cubic -yards of snow measured as it has fallen is equal to one cubic yard when -placed on the apparatus.” This computation, however, does not make any -allowance for the snow thrown from off the roofs, &c., and it of course -greatly consolidates whilst travelling in the cart. - -Fortunately for a town surveyor in this country, exceptionally heavy -falls of snow are not very frequent, but when they do happen great -pressure is put upon his department to cope with it, and one of the -greatest difficulties he has to contend against is the disposal of the -snow after it has been placed in the cart. - -If there is a river close by, it can be taken there and tipped, but this -is objectionable if it is a navigable river where dredging has to be -done, as it is surprising what a quantity of road scrapings and other -matters are always removed with the snow, and these materials naturally -sink to the bottom, and add considerably to the cost of dredging. - -If there are public parks the snow may be heaped in them, provided no -damage is done to the grass or paths, but the snow thus heaped takes a -considerable time to melt, the first effect of a thaw being to -consolidate it: a better plan is to deposit it upon waste spots, if -these are not too far from the streets which have to be cleared. - -Tipping the snow down the manholes into the sewers has been tried in -London and other cities, but has failed through the snow consolidating, -and although lighted gas jets have been turned on to the snow, it has -still melted too slowly to be of any practical utility. - -Speaking of Clarke’s apparatus for melting snow, Mr. Haywood, in the -same report from which I have already quoted, says: - -“It is seldom that a fall of snow occurs sufficiently large to cause -serious interruption to the traffic; heavy snowstorms in fact occur only -once in six or seven years; for some years therefore these apparatuses -if fixed might not be required. They would either have to be taken out, -stored and refixed yearly or maintained in their places and kept in -order there, in either case at an annual expense.” - -In perusing Mr. Hayward’s report it also appears that the cost of this -apparatus fixed is about 120_l._, and the cost of melting the snow 9_d._ -per cubic yard. - -In order to grapple with this question of the removal of snow, I am of -opinion that it is useless to attempt to cart it away while falling, but -try to make clear crossings for the foot passengers and to keep the -traffic open. If there should be a high wind at the time, and the snow -drifts in consequence, cut through the drifts so as to allow the -vehicular traffic to continue. Directly the snow ceases to fall put on -all available hands to clear the channel gutters and street gratings, in -preparation for a sudden thaw, when, if these precautions were not -taken, serious flooding and great damage to property might ensue; for -the same reason cart away all the snow you can at the bottom of -gradients and in the valleys, and also from very narrow streets and -passages, &c. In the wider streets use the snow plough, or with gangs of -men (in the snow season there is generally plenty of labour obtainable), -shovel the snow into a long narrow heap on each side of the street, -taking care to leave the channel gutters and gratings quite clear, and a -sufficient space between the heaps for at least two lines of traffic. -Passages must also be cut at frequent intervals through the heaps, in -order to allow foot passengers to cross the street, and also to let the -water reach the channel gutters as soon as the snow begins to melt.[170] - -The next point to be considered in this chapter is that of “The proper -watering of streets for the whole or any part of their district.” - -One of the earliest methods for watering streets, but one which has, I -think, almost entirely died out, on account principally of the large -quantity of water used in the process, was that of allowing the water to -run down the channel gutters, ponding it back by means of canvas or -leather aprons placed across the gutter, and then spreading the water on -to the surface of the street by throwing it with wooden shovels. This -method, which at first sight may appear clumsy, is an exceedingly good -one upon sanitary grounds. It not only lays the dust, but it washes the -surface of the street, and it most effectually scours out the gutters -and at the same time flushes the sewers, which at the season that -watering is necessary is also of great importance to any town. By this -process a delightful freshness is given to the air, and the appearance -of the cool and limpid water rushing along on each side of the street -acts favourably upon the inhabitants. The great objections to this -system are (1) the enormous quantity of water that is used in the -process, and (2) the difficulty of doing the work after the traffic of -the day has commenced. - -Somewhat of a modification of this process is what is known as “Brown’s -System of Street Watering,” which may be described as follows:--A lead -pipe is laid in the footpath at the back of the kerb on each side of the -street to be watered, small gratings or shields being fixed in the pipe -at intervals of twelve inches, and the remaining space filled with -asphalte; small holes are then bored in the pipe through the openings in -the shields. The pipe is connected with the water main in the street, -and is provided with the necessary stopcocks, &c. On the water being -turned on, fine jets are thrown in different directions upon the surface -of the street. The width of roadway that can be watered by this process -depends upon the pressure of the water, but it may be fairly assumed -that in most towns streets of fifty feet width could be effectually -watered in a few minutes by a pipe on each side of the street. - -This process has not gained much favour hitherto, principally on account -of the large first cost involved, which would amount to upwards of -800_l._ per mile of street, but the expense afterwards should not much -exceed the wages of one man at about 3_s._ 6_d._ per day to manipulate -the necessary work, and the interest on the outlay and depreciation of -the pipes, &c. - -The other objections to this system are:-- - -(1.) The liability of the pipes and perforations to get out of order, -especially when allowed to lie idle for so many months in each year. - -(2.) The unpleasantness to pedestrians which must be caused whilst the -watering is proceeding. - -(3.) The inconvenience to the traffic during the process. - -(4.) The effect upon the water by high winds, when in all probability it -would be blown back across the foot pavement. - -(5.) In very broad streets it would be inoperative. - -In Paris and other continental cities, and also in several towns in this -country, the watering is effected by hose and reels, or by portable iron -tubes. - -Mr. Parry, C.E., the Borough Surveyor of Reading, has given the -following particulars of the system of hand watering adopted in that -borough, in which he gives the cost, and describes the utility of that -method as compared with the use of water carts: - -A water cart (he states) will water twice a day a superficial area of -23,849 yards, and for a length watered one width that means 5,962 lineal -yards, or for a double width 2,981 yards, the cost per day of laying on -being as follows:--Horse, cart, and man, 8_s._ cost of maintenance of -cart, harness, shoeing, &c., 1_s._ 5_d._, making 9_s._ 5_d._ per day. - -With respect to the hand machines he states that he has one of Headley’s -drum machines, and three of special make, somewhat similar to those used -in Paris. They are equal in point of work; and one machine will water -23,740 square yards twice a day, which, it will be observed, is very -close to the amount of work performed by a cart. - -“Headley’s machine cost us (he continues), five years ago when new, -31_l._ 7_s._ 3_d._, and the repairs and maintenance since that date have -been 22_l._, or an average of 4_l._ 8_s._ per annum, and is just now -almost past repair. The other description of hand machine cost each when -new 20_l._, and the repairs and maintenance have amounted to an average -of 3_l._ 18_s._ each year. They were in use some time before Headley’s -was obtained, and they will be of use for a long time yet. The cost of -labour per day by the hand machines is for two men at 2_s._ 10_d._ -each--5_s._ 8_d._--as it requires two men to work the machine properly, -one to distribute the water, and the other to move the machine and to -attach and detach the apparatus to and from the hydrants; add to this -7_d._ per day for maintenance and repairs, will make 6_s._ 3_d._ per -day. The quantity of water delivered by the water carts is 0·51 gallons -per square yard, and by the hand machine 1·30 gallons.” - -It will thus be seen that in the case of the cart 24,324 gallons of -water are used per diem, and 61,724 gallons by the hand machines, the -surface watered being very nearly the same in both cases. Assuming that -the water has a commercial value of 6_d._ per 1000 gallons, and adding -this to the cost per diem in each case, the total cost stands thus: - - Hand machines £1 10_s._ 10_d._ - Carts £1 1_s._ 7_d._ - -the advantage in point of cost being in favour of the carts; but the -hand machine may water better, especially in broad streets, although in -narrow streets or where there is much traffic, this method would be -impracticable. - -In Paris both hose and carts are used for watering the thoroughfares, -the former for the boulevards, the avenues, and a certain number of -first-class streets. - -The most commonly known method in this country for watering the streets -and roads of our towns is that of carrying the water in wheeled barrels, -carts, or vans, and distributing it therefrom through a perforated pipe -upon the surface of the road as the vehicle is drawn along by a horse -attached to the shafts.[171] - -The old barrel upon wheels gave place to a cart, and now we have -“Bayley’s Patent Hydrostatic Van,” which is too well known to almost all -town surveyors to need much description. It holds about 450 gallons of -water and takes about 9 minutes to fill (this time of course varying -with the size of main and pressure of water), and ten minutes to spread -the water upon the surface of the road. - -With regard to the work that one of these vans will accomplish in -comparison to that effected by an ordinary cart, the following table, -compiled from experiments on the question, will be useful: - - -------------+--------+------+--------+----------+-----------+------ - | |No. of| | | | - | | Loads| Total | | | - |Contents| to |quantity| | | Gain - | in | cover| of | | | per - Cart or Van. |Gallons.| beat.| Water. | Time. |Difference.| Cent. - -------------+--------+------+--------+----------+-----------+------ - | | | |Hrs. Mnts.| Hrs. Mnts.| - Bayley’s van | 450 | 5¹⁄₂| 2475 | 1 23 | .. | .. - Ordinary cart| 225 | 11 | 2475 | 1 50 | 0 27 |24¹⁄₂ - -------------+--------+------+--------+----------+-----------+------ - Bayley’s van | 450 | 5¹⁄₂| 2475 | 1 38 | .. | .. - Ordinary cart| 237 | 11 | 2607 | 2 10 | 0 32 |25 - -------------+--------+------+--------+----------+-----------+------ - Bayley’s van | 450 | 6 | 2700 | 1 45 | .. | .. - Ordinary cart| 290 | 11 | 3190 | 2 10 | 0 25 |19¹⁄₄ - -------------+--------+------+--------+----------+-----------+------ - Bayley’s van | 450 | 8 | 3600 | 2 15 | .. | .. - Ordinary cart| 260 | 17 | 4420 | 3 30 | 1 15 |36 - -------------+--------+------+--------+----------+-----------+------ - -This shows a mean gain of 26 per cent. in favour of the van, and the -following tables, made by an inspector in 1873, showing the actual -occupation of the ordinary carts and Bayley’s vans during a day’s work, -are extremely interesting, as showing that while the van is engaged in -spreading the water the time of the cart is wasted in travelling to and -from the stand posts, and when it is borne in mind also that the van -spreads water more widely than the cart, there can be no doubt that a -saving of at least 30 per cent. can be effected by the substitution of -these vans for the old-fashioned cart. - - CARTS. - -------------+--------+----------+----------+------------+---------- - | |Travelling|Travelling| | - |Filling.| Full. | Empty. |Waiting, &c.|Spreading. - -------------+--------+----------+----------+------------+---------- - | H. M. | H. M. | H. M. | H. M. | H. M. - Paddington | 1 45 | 2 9 | 1 58 | 0 20 | 1 30 - St. Saviour’s| 1 29 | 2 16 | 2 4 | 0 26 | 1 29 - Strand | 1 11 | 2 30 | 2 18 | 0 17 | 1 3 - Kensington | 4 40 | 2 2 | 1 57 | 0 0 | 1 54 - Chelsea | 2 44 | 1 15 | 2 14 | 0 35 | 1 6 - -------------+--------+----------+----------+------------+---------- - VANS. - -------------+--------+----------+----------+------------+---------- - Paddington | 3 33 | 1 9 | 1 3 | 0 0 | 3 0 - St. Saviour’s| 2 20 | 1 4 | 1 21 | 0 23 | 2 58 - Strand | 2 30 | 1 25 | 1 14 | 0 20 | 2 23 - -------------+--------+----------+----------+------------+---------- - -In the year 1856, Mr. Scott, C.E., the Chief Surveyor of the parish of -St. Pancras, kept an account of the daily round of an ordinary water -cart, when he found that through an average working day of 10¹⁄₄ hours, -exclusive of the breakfast and dinner hours, the cart took one hour and -twenty minutes filling, fifty minutes only in distributing the water on -the roads, and eight hours and seven minutes in travelling to spread the -water and back to the stand posts. It was obvious that these were placed -too far apart, and by the subsequent introduction of additional -standposts Mr. Scott found, in the year 1867, that the filling occupied -two hours, the distribution one hour and thirty minutes, and the -travelling to and fro six hours and thirty minutes; so that it may be -assumed, with an ordinary two-wheeled water cart, that two-thirds of the -day is spent in travelling, one fifth in filling, and about one-seventh -in the actual spreading. But a watch should be kept upon the man who is -engaged in this work, otherwise he will idle away his time and the -streets remain unwatered. A good check upon this is Mr. Bayley’s -Tell-Tale, which registers automatically on a dial at the side of the -van the number of rounds a man goes each day. - -Watering the streets with sea water should be adopted whenever it is -feasible, as it not only gives a delightful freshness to the air and -dispels iodine, but it also causes the surface of the street to maintain -its humidity for a longer period than when fresh water is used, as it -impregnates the soil with hygrometric matter. This has been often -attempted artificially, by adding common salt to the water used for -watering, but it is rather too expensive for the benefit derived.[172] - -Watering the roads with a largely diluted disinfectant such as -“Sanitas” in the liquid form, is frequently of great benefit, and where -it can be afforded, it should be occasionally done, especially in the -narrower streets and more crowded districts of a city or town, or when -an epidemic has broken out. - -With reference to the very important question as to the cost of -scavenging, street-cleansing and watering. It is, of course, not -possible to lay down any hard and fast lines, as it must necessarily -vary considerably according to circumstances; much depends upon whether -the district is an urban one, consisting of houses closely packed -together, or whether it is suburban, with scattered villas and mansions -standing in their own grounds; the question, also, of the distance of -the depôts to which the material has to be carted, considerably affects -the result of any estimate, as also does the cost of horse hire, the -rate of wages, and whether the district is of a hilly or flat nature, -and, as I have before shown, the manner in which the streets are formed -and paved, the habits of the people, the requirements as to cleansing -streets and watering, and last, but not least, the manner of the -eventual disposal of the rubbish after removal; all these points must -bear with great weight upon any question of cost, and make the results -widely different. - -On referring to the returns to which I have more than once alluded, it -is found that the cost of removing the house refuse and cleansing and -sweeping the streets combined, varies considerably in different -localities. In one case the sum amounts only to the rate of one -half-penny per annum per head of the population of the town, whereas in -another case the amount is at the rate of three shillings and sixpence -per head. On calculating the average cost per head of population per -annum of the ninety towns from which I received replies on this point, I -find that it amounts to about tenpence half-penny, after giving credit -for any sum of money realised by the sale of the refuse to farmers and -others; so that if this work is costing the ratepayers of a town or -city anything under a shilling per head of the whole population every -year, they have no cause to grumble. - -Before closing this chapter I will make a few observations upon the -subject of contracts for work of this description. - -There is no doubt that the “dust and slopping” contractor is fast going -out of fashion,[173] as it has been found that the work is far more -carefully and systematically carried out without the intervention of a -contractor; for if we turn to the articles of agreement or contract -usually drawn up between a sanitary authority and a contractor for -scavenging, we find that they must be very binding in their phraseology, -and enter fully into the details of the work; they should state very -clearly the number of times in every week that the contractor shall -cause all the ashpits in the districts enumerated to be emptied and -cleansed, the manner in which this work shall be performed, and how the -materials thus removed shall be disposed of and the place of their -ultimate destination. The conditions should further specify what amount -of manual, team labour, and carts, are necessary for the work, and also -what plant the contractor must keep in the way of ladders, baskets, -shovels, and brooms, &c. The conditions should also contain a carefully -prepared list of the streets to be swept, and the manner and number of -times this work must be executed, and arrange for the disposal of the -materials thus removed. - -In many such contracts it is found necessary to insert clauses binding -the contractor, under all sorts of penalties, to be always at the -disposal of and under the commands of the inspector of nuisances, or -such other officer or officers as the sanitary authority may appoint. -The contractor’s men also are forbidden to accept gratuities, and are -directed on no account to remove either trade or garden refuse, and they -are also enjoined to be “careful to consult the convenience of the -householders in their visits, and to thoroughly clean up all dirt and -litter that they may cause in the discharge of their duties. If they -fail in any or either of these injunctions and commands, or for any -other dereliction of duty, the inspector of nuisances, or such other -officer as the sanitary authority shall appoint, may summarily dismiss -them, without any reference being made on the subject to their employer -the contractor, and in fact the conditions have necessarily to be made -so stringent and binding as to be either totally inoperative or open to -grave abuses, or, on the other hand, the work can be carelessly and -improperly executed by the contractor. - -The consequence of such binding clauses is that the officers, if they do -their strict duty, will probably be engaged in constant disputes and -litigation with the contractor as to the due and proper observance of -the terms of his contract, and thus their time is much occupied instead -of in other more important matters, which is naturally detrimental to -the interests of the ratepayers. - -I am strongly of opinion that the work of the collection of house refuse -and cleansing the streets should be carried out by the local authority -with their own officers and staff, and that executing this work by -contract is a mistake and a false economy. It is, perhaps, true that it -may be done in the latter manner at less actual cost to the ratepayers, -but all public work should be done in the best manner possible, -irrespective of cost, thoroughly, but without extravagance, and the -result of such work, especially where it affects the cleanliness and the -appearance of a town, soon fully repays any moderate extra cost that may -thus have been incurred, irrespective of the enormous benefit that is -conferred upon any community by the reduction of disease and the -death-rate by a proper attention to such necessary sanitary work. - - [157] A _rural authority_ cannot apparently make any byelaw with - regard to the prevention of such nuisances. - - [158] A byelaw under this section “must be limited to imposing upon - the occupier the duty of cleansing or removal at such intervals as the - sanitary authority may think fit. The mode of cleansing or removal and - the precautions to be observed in connection with the process are not - matters within the range of such byelaws.” _Vide_ ‘Memorandum to the - Model Byelaws issued by the Local Government Board for the use of - Sanitary Authorities, No. 1, Cleansing of Footways and Pavements, - &c.,’ 1877. - - [159] In Glenn’s ‘Law of Public Health and Local Government,’ 8th - edition, in a footnote to section 44, p. 39, several instances are - given of _what is not refuse_, such as ashes from furnaces, &c., and - it is stated that “the intention of the Act was that only the rubbish - arising from the domestic use of houses should be removed.” - - [160] The Bromley Local Board issue a card on which is printed, - amongst other information with reference to the contract for the - removal of house refuse, the following suggestions:--“It is hoped that - householders will as far as possible facilitate the systematic removal - of refuse by providing suitable dust-bins, and directing their - servants that ordinary house refuse only shall be deposited in such - receptacles. The following are some of the items of refuse which the - contractors are bound to remove, viz.:--cinder ashes, potatoe - peelings, cabbage leaves, and kitchen refuse generally. But the - contractors are not required to remove the refuse of any trade, - manufacture, or business, or of any building materials or any garden - cuttings or sweepings.” - - [161] In New York about 800,000 tons of refuse are disposed of - annually in this manner. - - [162] For a description of the manner in which this is effected at - Manchester, see my book on scavenging, to which I have before - referred. - - [163] The ashes are mixed with chaff, chopped straw, refuse hay, grass - cuttings, dry street sweepings, wool and hair, shoddy, &c., and a - small percentage of sulphate of iron or lime. - - [164] Professor Tyndall, in his beautiful experiments, has proved that - dusty air is alive with the germs of the bacteria of putrefaction, - whilst the pure fresh air which he gathered on a mountain peak in the - Alps is innocent of such germs, and is absolutely powerless to produce - any organisms. - - [165] Dry dust will absorb about ten times its bulk of water, thus - swelling considerably and producing the greasy mud so often seen after - rain. - - [166] In Boston, U.S.A., the macadamised roads are not swept at all, - as it is considered that by sweeping off the sand and detritus their - durability is much lessened, but their gutters are cleansed as - required, and rubbish picked up. (_Vide_ ‘Minutes of Proceedings - Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. lxiii. p. 368.) - - [167] In Regent Street, London, in November 1881, I saw four loads of - mud removed from about 1000 square yards of surface, it being then - almost new wood pavement. - - [168] See note under “Other Obstructions and Nuisances,” p. 155, 8th - edition, Glen’s ‘Law of Public Health and Local Government.’ - - [169] _Vide_ ‘Report to the Streets Committee of the Honourable the - Commissioners of Sewers of the City of London on Melting Snow by - Clarke’s Apparatus,’ by William Haywood, Engineer and Surveyor to the - Commission, 1881, p. 9. - - [170] With regard to the removal of snow from the footpaths, it is - highly desirable that this should be effected by the occupiers of the - premises adjacent to the street, as otherwise it adds immensely to the - work of the local authority. The following interesting remarks by the - superintendent of the scavenging department of Liverpool will be no - doubt read with great interest: - - “The only way to compass the removal of snow from the footwalks of the - principal thoroughfares within a comparatively short time, is by - sprinkling them with salt, such as is commonly used for agricultural - purposes. It is certain that, unaided by the salt, a sufficient number - of men cannot be procured for the emergency of clearing snow from the - footways of the most important thoroughfares. It has been stated by - medical authorities that the application of salt to snow is - detrimental to the health of people who have to walk through the - ‘slush’ produced by the mixture, and that the excessive cooling of the - air surrounding the places where the application has been made is - injurious to delicate persons. It therefore seems that the application - of salt to snow should not be undertaken during the day time, but - should be commenced not before 11 p.m., nor continued after 6 a.m., - and that only such an area of footwalks should be so treated on any - one night as the available staff of men can clear by an early hour the - following morning. - - “To sweep snow from the footwalks whilst the fall of snow continues, - and especially during business hours, appears to be wasteful and - futile, and to apply salt during the same periods may be held to be - injurious to health. - - “That the snow of an ordinary fall can be removed from the footwalks - by an application of salt an hour or so before they are scraped is an - ascertained fact, except at least when a moderately severe frost has - preceded, accompanied, or followed the snow-fall, or when the snow has - drifted into extensive accumulations. Were it not for the danger to - health by excessive cooling of the air, and for the expense attending - the operation, all the impervious pavements could be cleared of snow - (unless the fall was a heavy one) in a comparatively short time by a - liberal application of salt and the employment of the horse sweeping - machines as soon as the snow had become sufficiently softened to admit - of their use.” - - [171] In the metropolis of London alone, the watering of the streets - and roads employs, in addition to a staff of inspectors and foremen, - about 1500 men, and an equal number of horses and carts; and in order - to lay the dust effectually, about 30,000 tons of water must be spread - upon the streets every dry day, the cost of this gigantic work being - nearly 200,000_l._ per annum upon an average of 120 days when watering - becomes necessary. - - [172] In Rouen, where chloride of calcium is obtained from the - manufactories of pyroligneous acid in the neighbourhood, it is mixed - with the water for use on the roads, and it is stated that on a mile - of road, 16 feet in width, 5630 gallons of water were necessary daily, - but that the same result was attained with 1480 gallons of chloride - solution, marking 30° Baumé, and costing about ¹⁄₂_d._ per gallon, the - humectation remaining good for five or six days with the solution of - chloride. With water only in 1093 yards, in four rounds daily, 3520 - gallons were used, the cost being 48_s._; with chloride of calcium the - cost was 32_s._ per day. - - [173] Amongst the questions which I addressed to the surveyors of the - principal towns of England in 1879 was the following:--“Is the house - refuse collected by the sanitary authority or by a contractor?” and - out of the ninety towns from which I received replies, only thirty - were found to employ contractors for this purpose, and of these the - authorities of two of them proposed to dispense with the services of - the contractor, and to administrate the work with their own staff, as - they found the existing state of things was thoroughly unsatisfactory. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -SEWERAGE. - - -The Public Health Act 1875 contains a considerable number of clauses -dealing with the subject of the sewers of a town, but two of the -shortest sections in the whole Act, and yet those that involve a -considerable amount of work in the town surveyor’s department, are the -following: - -“Every local authority shall keep in repair[174] all sewers belonging to -them, and shall cause to be made such sewers as may be necessary for -effectually draining their district for the purposes of this Act”[175] -(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 15). - -“Every local authority shall cause the sewers belonging to them to be -constructed, covered, ventilated,[176] and kept so as not to be a -nuisance or injurious to health, and to be properly cleansed and -emptied”[177] (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 19). - -As to what sewers do “belong” to the local authority, the following -section of the Public Health Act 1875 states: - -“All existing and future sewers within the district of a local -authority, together with all buildings, works, materials, and things -belonging thereto, - -“Except - -“(1.) Sewers made by any person for his own profit, or by any company -for the profit of the shareholders; and - -“(2.) Sewers made and used for the purpose of draining, preserving, or -improving land under any local or private Act of Parliament, or for the -purpose of irrigating land; and - -“(3.) Sewers under the authority of any commissioners of sewers -appointed by the Crown, - -shall vest in and be under the control of such local authority. - -“Provided that sewers within the district of a local authority which -have been, or which may hereafter be constructed by or transferred to -some other local authority, or by or to a sewage board or other -authority empowered under any Act of Parliament to construct sewers, -shall (subject to any agreement to the contrary) vest in and be under -the control of the authority who constructed the same, or to whom the -same have been transferred” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 13). - -And as to the definition of the word “sewer,” the same Act states: - -“‘Sewer’ includes sewers and drains of every description, except drains -to which the word ‘drain’[178] interpreted as aforesaid applies, and -except drains vested in or under the control of any authority having the -management of roads and not being a local authority under this Act.” - -The result of this acquisition by the local authority of the sewers in -their district is, that in most of the old cities and towns a legacy of -very defective and imperfect sewers has been inherited, and considerable -expense in their repair and maintenance has thus been entailed. - -A great number of books have been written on the subject of sewerage, -and much valuable information has been published from time to time, so -that it almost seems superfluous to say much upon the subject; however, -a few remarks which are particularly applicable to the work of a town -surveyor may be of some service. - -The word _sewerage_ may be taken as meaning a system of sewers carrying -_sewage_ which is the fluid and feculent refuse from dwellings and their -yards, &c. Sewage is generally found mixed with rain water from the -surface of the streets and roofs of houses, together with the liquid -waste products from manufactories,[179] and sometimes, although very -improperly, with subsoil water. - -A good system of sewerage should embrace the whole of the following -requirements:-- - -(1.) Each sewer should be laid at such a depth as will readily drain the -basements of the adjoining buildings. - -(2.) Its area and gradient must be so regulated as to make it -self-cleansing, and at the same time carry off effectively the maximum -quantity of liquid for which it is intended.[180] - -(3.) Each sewer should (unless quite impracticable) be laid in straight -lines and with even gradients between man- or lamp-holes, and these -gradients must not be excessive, or damage may be caused to the sewer. -A velocity of about 6 feet per second is sufficient. - -(4.) Sewers must be laid at proper levels in respect of their -intersection with each other, bearing in mind that they are all -generally converging to one point. - -(5.) Manholes should be of simple construction; circular brickwork upon -concrete is a convenient description. They may be made to serve the -additional purposes of ventilating shafts, flushing chambers, junction -shafts, storm overflows, and side entrances. - -(6.) Tributary sewers or drains should not join the main sewers at right -angles unless the bottom of the manhole is so constructed as to give the -required curve in the direction of the flow of the sewage, and they -should join at a height (if of unequal section) equal to the difference -of their sectional diameters, the aim of all junctions being to cause as -little disturbance as possible in the proper flow of the liquids along -their respective channels. - -(7.) Sewers should not be constructed of too large a sectional area, but -none should be less than 6 inches internal diameter, as house-drains in -this country are never less than 4 inches diameter, and the main sewer -should of course be larger than its tributaries. It is also rather -difficult to ventilate a smaller sewer than 6 inches, and very little is -saved by putting in a smaller sewer than that. - -Stoneware pipes of greater diameter than 18 inches should never be used. -Where larger sewers are constructed they should be either concrete -pipes,[181] or brickwork or concrete should be employed. - -The position of the sewer should, if possible, be behind the houses for -the following reasons:-- - -(1.) The waterclosets, sinks, &c., being nearly always at the back, a -drain under the house (which is always objectionable) is avoided. - -(2.) Economy is secured to the owner of the property, as a shorter -length of drain is required than if the sewer was in the front. - -(3.) A better fall is usually obtained. - -(4.) Where there is a separate or partially separate system of sewerage, -a double sewer in the street is avoided. - -The only objection to this method being that of the chance of the sewer -becoming choked or broken when entry has to be made into private -property to repair it, but this ought never to happen after once the -sewer has been properly constructed. Of course, where houses are closely -packed together it would not be possible to carry the sewer at the back, -but where it can be done I agree thoroughly with Mr. Rawlinson, C.B., -C.E., &c., who, speaking of this method, says, “I know nothing but good -of it.” - -Where the sewer is proposed to be taken through any private lands it is -necessary to act in accordance with the following clause of the Public -Health Act 1875, and serve the necessary notices, a specimen form of -which also follows: - -“Any local authority may carry any sewer through, across, or under any -turnpike road, or any street or place laid out as or intended for a -street, or under any cellar or vault which may be under the pavement or -carriageway of any street, and, after giving reasonable notice in -writing to the owner or occupier (if on the report of the surveyor it -appears necessary), into, through, or under any lands[182] whatsoever -within their district. They may also (subject to the provisions of this -Act relating to sewage works without the district of the local -authority) exercise all or any of the powers given by this section -without their district for the purposes of outfall or distribution of -sewage” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 16). - -The form of notice necessary to be served before entry upon any lands -for the purpose of carrying out any sewerage works may be on the -following pattern:-- - - “NOTICE IS HEREBY GIVEN. - - “1. That the mayor, aldermen, and burgesses of the borough of , - in execution of the powers and authorities given to and vested in them - by virtue of the Public Health Act 1875, upon the report of their - surveyor, whereby it appears to the said authority to be necessary to - enter into, through, or under the lands and premises particularly - described in the schedule hereunder written, for the several purposes - hereinafter mentioned, the said mayor, aldermen, and burgesses will - immediately after the day of enter into and upon the - premises described in the said schedule hereto, and on the plan - hereinafter mentioned numbered , for the purpose of in, - through, or under the said lands and premises , and to construct - all other necessary works for all or any of the purposes aforesaid. - - “2. The course of the said sewer is indicated by a line drawn on the - said plan from the point to . - - “And notice is hereby further given that a plan of the intended works, - and of the lands and premises upon which it is intended to enter for - the construction of the same, is now open for inspection, between the - hours of 10 in the forenoon and 4 in the afternoon, and may then be - seen at the offices of the borough surveyor, Street, , - and a tracing thereof is hereunto annexed. - - Dated this day of 18 . - - _________________________ - _Town Clerk._”[183] - -THE SCHEDULE REFERRED TO. - - ------------+------------------------+--------------+-------+--------- - No. on plan.|Description of premises.|Where situate.|Owner. |Occupier. - ------------+------------------------+--------------+-------+--------- - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - | | | | - ------------+------------------------+--------------+-------+--------- - -In carrying out works of sewerage the greatest care is necessary in the -materials selected and the manner in which the work is executed. Tunnels -and shafts must be most carefully timbered, levels very accurately given -and adhered to, and for this purpose sight rails and long boning rods -can be used with great advantage. In running sands, or where the line of -an old sewer is being followed, or in fact anywhere where a good and -quick joint is required, “Stanford’s” patent jointed pipes should be -used. - -“This joint is made by casting, upon the spigot and in the socket of -each pipe, rings of durable material, which, when put together, fit -mechanically into each other, as in a bored and turned joint; it needs -no skilled labour in fixing, only a little grease, allows of slight -settlement of the pipes without injury, and requires neither cement, -clay, nor other extraneous material, the pipes containing a perfect -joint within themselves.” - -Breakages sometimes occur in stoneware pipe sewers after they are laid, -which generally are found on examination to arise from one of the -following causes: - -(1.) Laying the pipes on a rigid foundation without recessing the -sockets so as to give an even bearing. - -(2.) Laying the pipes on foundations which afterwards yield or settle. - -(3.) Laying the pipes at too great a depth without protection by -concrete or otherwise to resist the pressure of the superincumbent -earth, or by not sufficiently punning the filling-in, when a sudden -settlement will often crack or crush a pipe. - -(4.) Accidental or wilful injuries to pipes which are not noticed before -the trench is filled in. - -(5.) Laying the pipes at too shallow a depth without protection, when -heavy traffic or a falling weight upon the surface will crush or crack a -pipe. - -(6.) Defective or weak pipes.[184] - -The following plates give the different forms of sewerage pipes that are -now manufactured in this country, in addition to those of common -shapes: - -[Illustration: BROOKE’S PATENT SUBSOIL DRAINS AND PIPE-RESTS.] - -[Illustration: CREEKE’S PATENT CAPPED PIPES.] - -[Illustration: MAWBEY’S PATENT GROOVED SOCKET-PIPES.] - -[Illustration: HENRY SHARP, JONES, & CO.’S ROCK-CONCRETE PIPES.] - -[Illustration: JENNING’S PATENT CHAIR AND SADDLE PIPES.] - -The chokage in pipe sewers generally arises from one or more of the -following causes:-- - -(1.) Improper gradients. - -(2.) Insufficient flush.[185] - -(3.) Foreign articles finding their way into and choking the sewer. - -(4.) Defective joints through which the liquid runs leaving solid -matters behind. - -(5.) An excess of road detritus or of ashes, through the house closets -of the poor, finding their way into the sewer. - -(6.) Improper bends in the line of sewer. - -(7.) Right-angle or improper junctions being formed with the sewer. - -(8.) A collapse of the sewer. - -A temporary chokage in a small-sized sewer which does not arise from any -structural defect can be speedily and effectually remedied by the use of -Ben Reed’s patent drain-cleaning rods, which are probably too well known -to every town surveyor to need any description, but in conjuction with -man- or lamp-holes and straight lines of sewers they are very valuable. - -Before closing this chapter, a few words upon what is called the -“separate system of sewerage” may be of use. - -The mistake hitherto made has been to try to absolutely separate all -rainfall from the sewers, and there is no doubt that a partial -separation of the rain-water from the sewage proper has many advantages; -but it must be understood that a great deal of the rain-water that falls -upon roofs of buildings and in back yards and small back streets must of -necessity be carried into the sewers, as well as liquid refuse from -manufactories. A partial separation thus carried out has the following -advantages: - -(1.) It is not necessary to have sewers of enormous diameter. - -(2.) The depth of the surface water conduits need not be so great as -that which is necessary for sewers. - -(3.) The avoidance of road detritus being washed into the sewers. - -(4.) Where the sewage has to be pumped or treated chemically or put on -the land, the combined system causes an immense unwieldy bulk of liquid -to be at times dealt with.[186] - -(5.) The sewers may be placed at the back of the houses, a great -advantage which cannot be carried out under the combined system. - -(6.) The regularity in the amount of flow of sewage. - -(7.) The accuracy with which the quantity of sewage may be calculated -and the sizes of sewers apportioned. - -(8.) Economy both to the general rates and also to individuals in -carrying out their connections. - -(9.) Where old and defective sewers exist they are often fitted to carry -surface water, but are quite inappropriate as sewers. - -No rules, however, can be laid down with regard to this question, as -each town or district must be treated as the case requires. - -In conclusion, I will mention the different methods at present in vogue -for the sewerage of towns. - -(1.) The combined system, where all sewage, surface water, -manufacturers’ refuse, and subsoil waters are carried in the same sewer. - -(2.) Similar to the above, the subsoil water, however, being carefully -excluded. - -(3.) The partially separate system. - -(4.) The absolutely separate system, where there are three sets of -sewers, one for sewage proper, one for surface water, and one for -subsoil water. - -(5.) The “Lieurner” system, which professes to remove all sewage by -exhausting the air in the sewers and drains. - -(6.) “Shone’s” pneumatic ejector system, which is described as -follows:-- - -“The ejectors are cast-iron receivers of a suitable form, placed -underground at depths to suit the locality, into which ejectors the -sewage flows through the ordinary pipe drains from the houses. As the -liquid rises in the interior of the ejector, and when full, it lifts a -valve and admits compressed air from an engine which supplies the entire -district. The ejectors are thus emptied of their contents, which are -blown out in about eighty seconds of time, and the sewage passes through -cast-iron main pipes of suitable diameters to the land, or other outlet -provided to receive it, or it may be distributed upon the waste land as -it passes through.” - -(7.) The dry systems, which consist of-- - -(_a._) Earth closets; - -(_b._) Tubs, as the Goux, &c.; - -(_c._) Pails, as the Rochdale; - -(_d._) Middens. - -But all these dry systems require some system of sewers to carry off -rain-water, slop-water, &c., and in my opinion are not suitable for very -large communities. - - [174] If the sewers vested in and belonging to a local authority are - allowed by their negligence to get out of repair, they are liable to - an action for damages (_Vide_ ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health Act,’ 3rd - edition, p. 19). Keeping in repair does not, however, include - construction of entirely new works. (_Ibid._) - - [175] The sewers provided by a local authority must be sufficient to - carry off the ordinary sewage and rainfall of the district, but they - need not be sufficient to carry off an extraordinary flow of water - caused by a storm; damage caused by that comes under the definition of - damage caused by the act of God, for which there is no individual - responsibility (_Ibid._ p. 20). This clause seems to insist upon - sewers carrying the rainfall. - - [176] See chapter on “Ventilation of Sewers.” - - [177] A local authority is not to be held liable for not keeping their - sewers cleansed at all events and under all circumstances, but only - where by the exercise of reasonable care and skill they can be kept - cleansed. They are, however, liable, in case they make default in - observing the requirements, to have an injunction filed against them - and to be restrained by injunction from allowing the continuance of - the nuisance. (_Ibid._ p. 23.) - - [178] For the legal definition of “drain,” see the chapter on “House - Drainage.” - - [179] Facilities must be given to enable manufacturers to send the - liquids proceeding from their works into the public sewers, provided - the sewers are more than sufficient for the requirements of the - district, or if the liquids would not prejudicially affect the sewers, - or from their temperature or otherwise be injurious in a sanitary - point of view. _Vide_ Rivers Pollution Act 1876 (39 & 40 Vic. c. 75, - s. 7). But this question is often greatly disputed, and has led to - much litigation. - - [180] If everything has to be carried in a sewer, the following - provisions must be made:-- - - (_a_) The house sewage which may be calculated from the water supply. - - (_b_) Manufacturers’ refuse. - - (_c_) Rainfall, which is a very uncertain quantity. - - (_d_) The subsoil water should certainly be dealt with, but it should - on no account be permitted to enter the sewers themselves; separate - provision under the main sewers should be provided for this purpose. - - [181] Messrs. Sharp, Jones and Co., of Bournemouth, make most - excellent concrete pipes up to 36 inches in diameter, which can be - economically and advantageously used in many instances, and are - gaining every day in popularity with engineers. - - [182] The definition of “lands” as given in the Public Health Act - 1875, is as follows:--“‘lands’ and ‘premises’ include messuages, - buildings, lands, easements, and hereditaments of any tenure” (38 & 39 - Vic. c. 55, s. 4). - - [183] Notices may be signed either by the clerk to the local authority - or their surveyor (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 266). - - [184] The thickness of stoneware pipe sewers should be as follows: - - ----+--------------------------+----------------------+---- - |Internal diameter of pipe.|Thickness of material.| - +--------------------------+----------------------+ - | in. | in. | - | 3 | ¹⁄₂ | - | 4 | ⁵⁄₈ | - | 6 | ³⁄₄ | - | 9 | 1 | - | 12 | 1¹⁄₈ | - | 15 | 1¹⁄₄ | - | 18 | 1³⁄₈ | - ----+--------------------------+----------------------+---- - - The thickness of fire clay or earthenware pipes should be slightly in - excess of those given for stoneware. - - [185] The patent automatic flushing arrangement by Mr. Rogers Field, - C.E., is an excellent apparatus for lessening the chances of a sewer - becoming choked from this cause. - - [186] It is necessary in many towns where the combined system is in - force, and the sewage has to be pumped when heavy rains commence, to - put temporary clay dams round the street gratings to prevent the - surface water from entering the sewers, thus at once showing the - inability of the system to deal with flood waters. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -SEWAGE DISPOSAL. - - -The magnitude of the question of “sewage disposal” almost decided me to -refrain from making any remarks upon it, but on reconsideration I -thought a few might be serviceable. - -Sewage disposal means the getting rid of the foul water contained in the -sewerage system of any community. - -Where a dry method is in force for the collection of the excrementitious -matters it is called “interception”; the following are some of the -systems which effect it:-- - -Privies, ashpits, middens, cesspools, pails, troughs, the “Rochdale,” -the “Eureka,” the “Goux,” Fosses Permanentes, Fosses Mobiles, and -Moule’s, Taylor’s, and Phillip’s earth closets. - -The collection and disposal of the mass of excrement under these dry -systems is found to be a very troublesome matter, and they are at their -best but inferior substitutes for water carriage, nor must it be -forgotten that sewers and drains are necessary even if a good -interception process is in force. I shall therefore confine my remarks -to the disposal of water-carried sewage. - -Many books have been written, many valuable reports have been prepared -and issued, lengthy papers and discussions have been frequent at the -meetings of scientific societies, and almost innumerable pamphlets have -been published upon this important sanitary subject. Some millions of -money have also been spent in trying to deal satisfactorily with this -question, not only with a view to the purification of the effluent of -the sewage, but also to endeavour to make a profit out of the -residuals.[187] The result of this literature, discussion, and -experiment has led to the following conclusions: - -No hard and fast lines can be laid down as to the best method to be -adopted for the disposal of the sewage of any town, but the peculiar -circumstances of each case must be considered before advice could be -given on the subject: geographical position, physical arrangement, -habits of the population, and the character and quantity of the sewage -of the town being some of the most important. - -In any case it is necessary that the transmission of the sewage to the -outfall should be effected as speedily as possible, and that the -position of this outfall should be such as to cause no nuisance. The -contents of the sewers should, if possible, be emptied by gravitation, -as pumping is a constant expense, and economy with efficiency must of -course be studied. - -Up to the present time the following are the methods adopted in this -country for the disposal of sewage: - -(1.) Passing the sewage in its crude state into the sea or tidal river. - -(2.) Passing the sewage in its crude state over large tracts of land; -this is called broad irrigation. - -(3.) Passing the sewage in its crude state on to small tracts of land -previously prepared by deep drainage; this is called intermittent -downward filtration. - -(4.) Mechanical subsidence of the sewage in large tanks, the effluent -passing on to land or into a river. - -(5.) Mechanical filtration of the sewage, the effluent passing on to -land or into a river. - -(6.) The introduction of lime or other precipitant into the sewage, -which is allowed to settle in tanks, the effluent passing on to land or -into a river. - -Very little need be said upon the first of these methods. Many engineers -of high standing contend that, where practicable, the sea or the tidal -estuary of a river is the right place for the sewage, as no costly works -are necessary, and an abominable nuisance is thus got rid of at once and -for ever. To ensure this, however, great care must be exercised in the -selection of the site for the outfall. Float observations should be -made, not only of the surface tides and currents, but also of those at -different depths, and the effect upon the sewage by its different -specific gravity from that of the salt water must be allowed for, as -well as the difference of level of the tides and the configuration of -the adjoining coast line. - -The second method, that of broad irrigation, is one that finds -considerable favour with a large number of engineers and agriculturists. -The great sewage-disposal cry has always been, “Put back on the land -what you have taken from it, or some day there will be no beef and no -bread.” The difficulty is to always find land in sufficient quantity and -so situated as to be available for this purpose. Almost any soil is, -however, suitable for irrigation, provided it is well and properly -drained. The quantity of sewage which should be used for this purpose -per acre of land varies considerably, as will be seen on reference to a -table prepared by Mr. Henry Robinson,[188] where the number of -inhabitants to each acre irrigated is in one case (Leamington) stated to -be 55, in another (Blackburn) 208,[189] the average being 137, the -number of gallons per head of population per diem being 38. - -It may be useful to state here that a hundred tons of sewage will cover -an acre of land 1 inch in depth, and that the value of sewage as a -manure is said to vary from ¹⁄₂_d._ to 2_d._ per ton, or, calculated in -another manner, about 10_d._ per head of population per annum. - -The best crops for a sewage farm (in addition to nearly all kinds of -market-garden produce) are rye-grass, mangolds, beetroot, cabbages, -carrots, potatoes, turnips, rabi, parsnips, lucerne, beans, wheat, -oats, and barley; the cereals, however, are apt to run rather to straw, -and some care is also necessary not to oversewage potatoes and some -other root crops. Grazing cattle or cows can also be carried on with -advantage, the presence of sewage having no effect either on the milk or -flesh of animals fed on sewage farms. - -The third method, that of intermittent downward filtration, is really -irrigation of land to such an extent as the land will filter or purify -the sewage, the effluent passing off pure, irrespective of any effect -upon the crops which may be growing upon the land. - -Great discussions have arisen (the principal battle-ground being Merthyr -Tydvil) as to the maximum quantity of sewage which an acre of properly -prepared land will treat, some of the champions of this system -contending that a good porous soil properly drained to a depth of six -feet will purify the sewage of 6000 persons per acre, others that only -the sewage of 250 persons can be so treated.[190] - -There can be no doubt that earth has a most powerful deodorising power. -Laboratory experiments have shown that as much as eight gallons of -sewage can be filtered through a cubic yard of loamy soil in twenty-four -hours, the soil being drained at a depth of six feet, the effluent -therefrom having obtained a wonderful degree of purity. Much, however, -must depend upon the character of the soil of the filtering area and the -strength of the sewage which is being operated upon. - -The following description of the manner in which the earth acts upon -sewage will be of interest: - -“The fæcal matters and other impurities attached themselves to the -surfaces of the particles of earth by a kind of cohesive attraction, and -in this state were readily attacked by the oxygen of the air. Their -organic carbon became carbonic acid, their nitrogen was converted into -nitrous or nitric acid, which united with the lime, magnesia, and other -basic matters present. Mechanically suspended impurities were arrested -as by a sieve, and the water issued from beneath--not indeed fit for -dietetic or domestic purposes, but at any rate in a fair state of purity -and quite inoffensive to the senses.” (_Vide_ W. Crookes in the -discussion on the Sewage Question by Norman Bazalgette, ‘Min. of -Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. xlviii. p. -164.) - -The land thus used as a sewage filter requires constant aëration by -being dug over or ploughed, and if this precaution is taken, it is -surprising to what a wonderful extent the land will take sewage without -becoming what is called “sewage sick.” Clay soils are, however, stated -to be ill-adapted for this purpose. - -The next method, that of mechanical subsidence of the sewage in large -tanks, has been attempted in conjunction with irrigation and filtration -without much benefit, nor has the fifth method I have mentioned, viz., -that of mechanical filtration of the sewage, met with any better result. -Artificial filters have been constructed of burnt clay, cinders, coke, -charcoal, peat, chalk, gravel, broken stone, sand, spongy iron (this is -now being applied very successfully for the purification of water), -straw, cocoa-nut matting, wicker-work, and wire gauze of different -degrees of fineness of mesh. - -The late Mr. Odams spent a considerable sum in endeavouring to strain -sewage through revolving screens of wire gauze with but little success, -and Mr. Bannehr has striven to achieve the same object by passing sewage -over oscillating screens of the like material. - -In all these cases of mechanical filtration, however, the effluent has -either not been sufficiently pure or the screens and filters have become -clogged and refused to act.[191] - -The last method that I have mentioned for the disposal of sewage is -that of precipitation, or what may be more properly called the chemical -treatment of sewage. - -Precipitation means the production, by the introduction of chemical -substances within the body of the sewage, of certain solid compounds, -which, in settling, drag down with them the suspended matters in the -sewage, together with a small proportion of the polluting matters which -are in solution in the sewage, this proportion varying with the quantity -of solid matters deposited. The effluent from the tanks in which this -precipitation takes place is then allowed to flow direct into a river or -stream, or is still further purified by being passed over land or -filtered through deep-drained soils. - -Chemical treatment of sewage was first tried in Paris in the year 1740, -and since then every effort has been made to extract a valuable and -commercial manure from sewage and purify the effluent. Between the years -1865 and 1875 more than 400 patents were taken out in respect of these -and other matters in connection with the sewage question. - -It is almost needless to say that but few of these patents were of any -practical value. Those processes which have some merit and are now best -known are, I believe, included in the following list:-- - -LIST OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES FOR THE TREATMENT OF TOWN SEWAGE. - - The A. B. C. (or Sillar’s) process - Anderson’s process - Bird’s „ - Blyth’s „ - Campbell’s „ - Collin’s „ - Forbes and Price’s process - Fulda’s process - Goodall’s „ - Hanson’s „ - Higg’s „ - Hille’s „ - Holden’s process - Lenk’s „ - Lundy’s „ - Manning’s „ - Scott’s „ - Smith’s „ - Spence’s „ - Stothert’s „ - Suvern’s „ - Whitthread’s process - Wickstead’s „ - -Space will not permit me to describe these processes, and probably most -of them, if not all, are familiar to my readers. Suffice it to say that -in nearly all cases the _modus operandi_ is that of mixing certain -chemicals with the sewage by mechanical agitation, or by passing the -sewage over “salmon ladders,” &c., then allowing the sewage to remain -perfectly still whilst the solids are gravitating, and then dealing with -the effluent in different manners. - -Amongst the numerous chemical ingredients which are used for this -purpose may be mentioned the following:-- - -Alum, animal charcoal, ashes, blood, bone ash, carbolic acid, chalk, -chloride of lime, chloride of zinc, chloride of iron, clay, creosote, -hæmatite, hydrate of lime, lead nitrate, magnesian salts, oxide of -manganese, perchloride of iron, salt, soda, sulphate of zinc, sulphate -of iron, sulphuric acid, and tar. - -One of the great difficulties in connection with the precipitation of -sewage is the disposal of the sludge which is left behind in the tanks. - -This sludge contains about 90 per cent. of moisture, and if left to dry -atmospherically, a thin crust forms over it, thus protecting that which -is underneath, and it will not dry for many months. In some cases it is -sought to dispose of the accumulations of sludge by digging it into the -land; in others it is mixed with house ashes, &c., and sold as manure. -Its bulk, however, in proportion to its manurial value is so excessive -as to render it almost valueless, and it is difficult to get rid of it -for this purpose even when fortified with ammonia or other chemical. A -frequent practice now adopted is to reduce its bulk by exposure or by -presses to a semi-dried condition; in other cases it is dried to a -powder by heat, and General Scott has patented a method where, in -connection with the lime process, it is burned and manufactured into -cement. Sometimes it is squeezed in presses, such as Needham and Kite’s -or Johnson’s, or it is filtered by Milburn’s or Weare’s apparatus. For -drying the sludge by heat, Borwick’s or Forrest’s machines have been -used with some success, but there is no doubt that the slimy, -glutinous, albuminous, offensive mixture technically known as sludge is -a difficult matter to dispose of in all sewage works. - -In connection with the chemical treatment of sewage, it is of advantage -to pass the effluent over land filters on the intermittent downward -filtration principle. Another very effective plan is to pass the -effluent (or even crude sewage) through land which is thickly planted -with the Anacharis or American weed, duckweed, sedges, rushes, reeds, -&c., or through beds of osiers or alder trees. An acre of land thus -planted is said to purify more than three million gallons of sewage per -diem.[192] - -There is no doubt that plants of this description have a powerful action -in purifying sewage or foul water of any kind, and where land is scarce -this method has many advantages. - -It is almost unnecessary to add that where sewage is treated in any -other manner than that of throwing it into the sea or river, bulk is a -great objection, especially if it has to be pumped. - -To obviate this bulk the separate system is of great advantage, and -Isaac Shone’s new method for ejecting sewage along pipes seems also to -be a most desirable invention in connection with this subject. - - [187] It is computed that every ton of liquid sewage which is treated - chemically costs about three-quarters of a farthing. - - [188] _Vide_ ‘Sewage Disposal,’ by Henry Robinson, C.E., &c., 2nd - edition, p. 79. - - [189] I purposely omit (Kendal) 856, as this is, properly speaking, - “filtration.” - - [190] For much interesting information upon this and other subjects in - connection with sewage disposal, see ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the - Institution of Civil Engineers,’ vol. xlviii. p. 105 et seq. Also the - report of a committee of the Local Government Board on Modes of - Treating Town Sewage, 1876. ‘Sewage Disposal,’ by Henry Robinson, - C.E., and other works on the subject. - - [191] Under the Rivers Pollution Act, no effluent is allowed to enter - a stream &c., if it contains more than three parts of suspended - inorganic matter, and one part organic matter for every 100,000 parts - of liquid. - - [192] _Vide_ ‘Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil - Engineers,’ vol. xlviii. p. 179. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -VENTILATION OF SEWERS. - - -The necessity for some manner of dealing with the noxious vapours -emanating from sewage other than that of letting it find its way from -the sewers into the house drains and thence into dwelling houses, has -induced the legislature of this country to introduce the following -clause in the Public Health Act 1875, which imposes on every local -authority the duty of causing their sewers to be ventilated so as not to -be a nuisance or injurious to health. - -“Every local authority shall cause the sewers belonging to them to be -constructed, covered, ventilated and kept, so as not to be a nuisance, -or injurious to health, and to be properly cleansed and emptied” (38 & -39 Vic. c. 55, s. 19). - -The result of this compulsion upon local authorities to ventilate their -sewers has been the introduction of many methods to effect the purpose, -the great difficulty being to “ventilate so as not to be a nuisance or -injurious to health,” the advocates of open ventilation contending that -this is effected by having a sufficient number of openings in a sewer to -dilute and safely disseminate the foul gas with atmospheric air so that -no nuisance is caused.[193] - -Many other methods have been from time to time suggested, some of which -have been carried into effect, and I will now proceed to give them in -detail, discussing their merits and objections in each case. - -(1.) Open shafts are carried up from the crown of the sewer to the -centre or side of the roadway, and there protected by an open iron grid -or grating at the level of the street surface. - -This is the system which has hitherto found most favour with town -surveyors, and is sometimes modified or worked in conjunction with the -practice of untrapping all the gully pits and buddle holes at the sides -of the roadway, which is an excellent plan if the theory of the -atmospheric air dilution at which this system aims is a correct one; in -fact, if this dilution by air is all that is necessary to render the -foul air in a sewer innocuous and inoffensive, there cannot be too many -openings into it. - -The objections to this system are as follows: - -(_a._) The foul air escaping into the public streets is often very -injurious to persons passing a ventilator, and sewers are buried out of -sight, but they are not out of mind so long as we are constantly and -unpleasantly reminded of their existence. - -(_b._) It is found that a change of temperature either of the -atmosphere, or of the air in a sewer, will seriously affect the action -of a shaft, causing it sometimes to have upcast currents of air, -sometimes downcast; the effect of this latter action, especially when it -arises from the direction of the wind blowing over or into the shaft, is -frequently to drive the impure gases contained in the sewer into the -house drains, and from thence into the houses, unless they are so -trapped and ventilated as to prevent it. - -(_c._) They are also affected by the fluctuations of the flow of sewage -in the sewer, or by barometric changes in the atmosphere. - -(_d._) The situation of the open grids in the street is sometimes -somewhat awkward for traffic, and horses will frequently shy at them, -they also admit solid road detritus into the sewer unless they are -protected by a catch plate of some description. - -(_e._) They are tempting places for children to play over, with what -results may be imagined. - -(2.) Open shafts are carried up the sides (gable ends if possible) of -buildings in the neighbourhood of the sewer; these shafts may be either -open at the top, or be furnished with exhaust cowls. This system is -sometimes employed in conjunction with inlet shafts at the sides of the -street, in the manner shown by the drawing which follows: - -[Illustration] - -This method has the advantage over the first system I have mentioned of -carrying the smells further from our reach, but it also has the -following disadvantages: - -(_a._) The distance and the number of bends and elbows the gases have to -traverse before reaching the external air. - -(_b._) The difficulty of fixing them just at the points where they are -most required with reference to the gradients of the sewer, especially -if they are to be constructed of such an internal diameter as will -ensure their efficiency. - -(_c._) The great objection raised by occupiers and owners of premises -against having them fixed on their premises, both on sanitary and legal -grounds. - -(_d._) Their great expense. - -(_e._) The effect of weather upon their currents. - -(3.) By making use of the rain-water pipes from adjoining buildings. - -This method commends itself as being very economical, and the -opportunities thus given for ventilation are so numerous. If sewers are -to be ventilated at all[194] it would seem at first sight that there -could not be too many openings from and into them, but this system has -the following serious objections: - -(_a._) When raining, little or no ventilation can take place, and this -is the very time, owing to the rising of the water in the sewer, that -the gases should be allowed free egress if such is considered the best -manner of dealing with them. - -(_b._) The position of the head of the rain-water pipe is generally the -worst that could be chosen for the egress of the gases, both on sanitary -and pneumatic grounds. - -(_c._) The joints of a rain-water pipe are usually none of the best. - -(_d._) The objections persons naturally have to allow the rain-water -pipes of their houses to be used for such a purpose. - -(4.) By utilising the lamp posts or columns adjacent to the sewer. - -The objects of this system are first to obtain a constant upward current -from the sewer, and secondly to secure that the foul gases and air shall -be consumed and rendered innocuous by being burnt. The objections to -this system are-- - -(_a._) The lamps are only lit at night, consequently little or no -ventilation would be going on during the day. - -(_b._) The number and diameter of the lamps are generally too small to -make any appreciable effect upon the ventilation of the sewer. - -(5.) By passing or filtering the foul air through charcoal placed in -trays or other receptacles in shafts. - -The theory of this method is admirable, as the charcoal would arrest all -the impurities and flocculent organic matters contained in the foul air, -and allow only the pure filtered air to pass into the atmosphere. - -It has been found, however, where this method has been adopted, that the -charcoal very soon becomes so caked and consolidated from damp and the -vibration of the traffic, that it will neither allow the air to filter -through, nor absorb the impurities contained in it; these objections and -the amount of attention this system requires, has not rendered it very -popular with town surveyors, although it has much to recommend it. - -(6.) By making use of ordinary chimney shafts. - -This method and the one which follows have some merits, the principle -being that an upward current is established as an exhaust from the -sewer, and also that the foul air is purified by being passed through -fire, but both these advantages are only gained when the fires are -actually burning; the objections to this system are-- - -(_a._) Structural difficulties must often be encountered and overcome. - -(_b._) Possibility of explosion arising from leaks of gas mains into -sewers (a by no means uncommon occurrence, as all who have charge of -sewers frequently find to their cost). - -(_c._) The objections of owners and occupiers to allow their premises to -be thus made use of to carry off a public nuisance for which they as -individuals are in no way responsible. - -(7.) By lofty shafts erected at convenient positions which are either in -connection with furnaces or are simply open to the air. - -For a long outfall sewer with no connections this method has many -advantages, notably so in the large furnace and shaft erected on the -Brighton outfall sewer by the borough surveyor, Mr. Lockwood. But in a -general system of sewerage, it was found by experiments made by Sir -Joseph Bazalgette, C.B. that the effect of trying to reduce the gases by -the action of furnaces was but very small, and that the area over which -the effect extended was but very limited: in fact, a sewer may be -compared to a perforated tube, the house drains, gully drains, &c., -representing the perforations; the effect of an exhaustion by the action -of the furnace is simply to suck fresh air into the sewer at all these -points instead of removing the foul air for any distance. - -High shafts at different points effect a partial clearance of sewer -gases, but they are very costly, and the reasons I have previously given -against the system of open shafts are practically the same in this and -all other modifications of the principle. - -Many other methods have been tried from time to time, either to prevent -the formation of gases in the sewers, or neutralize or destroy them, -some of which are as follows: - -By giving a quick velocity of discharge in a sewer; by placing materials -within sewers which would absorb the gases as fast as they were -generated; by passing deodorants or disinfectants into sewers; by -deodorizing or disinfecting all materials before they are allowed to -enter a drain or sewer; by placing chemical agents within sewers to give -off certain gases which would then, it was conjectured, destroy the -noxious properties of the sewer gases; by introducing charcoal into -sewers to absorb the foul gases; by laying pipes within the sewers for -the purpose of discharging chlorine into the sewer; by employing -galvanic agency to disengage or to produce ozone from the sewer gas; by -passing the foul air through shafts into which water was constantly -injected, and by endeavouring to extract the foul air by fans driven by -machinery. - -I have myself patented a plan for “annihilating sewer gases” by allowing -them to be absorbed into dry earth, and have tried the system with some -very marked and successful results.[195] - -Having thus far considered all the known methods for dealing with the -noxious emanations which proceed from sewers, the next point to consider -is what these noxious emanations are, and whether they exist in all -sewers. - -It has been found that even in sewers of the best and most modern -construction what is called “sewer gas” is generated in more or less -quantity; this arises even from fresh sewage, but is far more noxious -and dangerous to health when the sewage has begun to decompose. Even -where the sewers are so constructed as to remove all the sewage to the -outfall within 24 hours (which has been decided to be the maximum time -it should take), there is still an accumulation of slime on the inner -periphery of the sewers, owing to the rise and fall of the sewage line, -which is constantly manufacturing gases of decomposition. - -It is no doubt true that the more perfect the system of sewerage is the -less foul air there is in the sewers, but in very few towns will there -be found no sewers or drains where temporary obstructions of the sewage -do not occur, and where gases are generated, which then find their way -into other parts of the sewage system unless they are dealt with in some -effective manner. - -As to what is the actual composition of this foul air in a sewer little -or nothing seems to be known, except that it is highly dangerous to -health if breathed, and is also very offensive to the smell. - -The “fœtid organic vapour,” or sewer gas proper, has for its companions -in a sewer, sulphuretted hydrogen, a most poisonous as well as -unpleasant smelling gas, carburetted hydrogen, due very often to leaky -gas mains or services, or to decomposing vegetable matters, carbonic -acid gas or carbonic anhydride (choke damp), and some ammoniacal -compounds. - -The actual component parts, however, of any gases in a sewer must vary -considerably with its conditions and locality, &c., in the same manner -as they would in any public building or room, and it is impossible to -tell, without costly experiments, what gases may be prevalent in any -particular portion of a sewer. But whatever may be the analysis of this -foul air, there can be but little doubt that it contains organic matter -floating about in it as solids, and that it is excessively injurious and -even dangerous to breathe, and that it should be caught and destroyed or -rendered innocuous, and not be permitted to pass into and contaminate -and poison the air we breathe. - -Some engineers are of opinion that this foul air always finds its way to -the upper portions of the sewerage system, but my investigations into -this subject have led me to believe that no rule of this kind can be -laid down, for with quick velocities of flow, in some sewers, the gases -are carried by friction in the direction of the flow of the sewage, and -do not ascend as has been imagined. - -Whatever system of ventilation of the main sewers in any town may be -adopted, it is imperative that the house drains connected with them -should be properly trapped and ventilated, and this is in my judgment of -even greater importance than the ventilation of the main sewers. On this -point I have given more explanations in the chapter upon “House -Drainage.” - -In conclusion, let me refer my readers to a most exhaustive discussion, -and very valuable information contained in the chapter entitled -“Ventilation of Sewers and Drains” in Mr. Baldwin Latham’s ‘Sanitary -Engineering,’ in which may be found almost everything that is at present -known upon this important subject. - - [193] If there is any truth in the “germ theory” of disease, how - dangerous must be the practice of open sewer ventilation, a waft of - foul air from a sewer carrying with it a germ, and the unsuspecting - passer-by is inoculated just as surely as if he had handled or been - near the excrements of the diseased person whose evacuations have been - passed into the public sewer. - - [194] The important city of Bristol has no system of sewer - ventilation, and yet the death rate of the city, which is by no means - specially healthily situated, has not been abnormally high up to this - year (1883). - - [195] For further information upon my system for the annihilation of - sewer gases, I must refer my readers to a pamphlet written by myself - in 1880, entitled ‘Sewer Ventilation, or a New and Improved System for - the disposal of the Noxious Gases generated in Sewers and Drains,’ and - also to a paper I read on this subject at the meeting of the Sanitary - Institute of Great Britain, held in Exeter in the year 1881. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -PUBLIC CONVENIENCES. - - -In almost every town in the United Kingdom public urinals are now -erected, although it is not often that good watercloset accommodation is -provided, except at hotels and railway stations, over which the local -authority have no jurisdiction; or perhaps if they do provide any -accommodation of this description it is only in connection with the -public parks or in the markets, museums, &c. - -The clause of the Public Health Act which empowers an urban authority to -spend money out of the district rates for this purpose is as follows: - -“Any urban authority may if they think fit provide and maintain in -proper and convenient situations, urinals, waterclosets, earthclosets, -privies and ashpits and other similar conveniences for public -accommodation” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 39). - -It is not my intention to enter into the merits or otherwise of the many -descriptions of urinals and latrines that have been brought to the -notice from time to time of every town surveyor by enterprising -manufacturers and patentees, but only to give a few suggestions upon the -subject. - -Public urinals ought to be erected by the urban authority as a matter of -convenience to the peripatetic portion of any community, and also to -prevent nuisances being committed in improper places. - -In selecting sites for urinals the town surveyor must take care that -after erection they shall not be offensive or a nuisance to any persons -living in the vicinity, and that they shall be so placed that although -they may be easily found, the persons using them shall be effectually -screened.[196] - -Urinals are better constructed of iron rather than of brickwork or more -solid workmanship, in order that they can be readily removed. It is -surprising what an uproar is sometimes raised in a neighbourhood by the -erection of a urinal; this clamour occasionally has so much effect upon -the urban authority that they order the removal of the urinal, although -it may not have been erected many days, and if it has been substantially -built a considerable waste of the public money is thus involved. - -Where a urinal is constructed with basins, as by the following plan, the -basins may be of iron or good stone ware or similar construction, these -being always kept full of water which is constantly although slowly -changing. - -[Illustration] - -Stall urinals may be some modification of the following plan, and be -constructed of iron with slate partitions, or the partitions may be of -iron covered with plate glass where soiled, the stalls should not be -less than 24 in. in the clear, and water must be kept constantly flowing -over the soiled portion either from a perforated pipe or a -spreader.[197] A very excellent arrangement is to have a trench or -trough cut at the foot of the stall for the whole length of the urinal, -which is kept constantly full of water and occasionally flushed, thus -avoiding nuisance in a very satisfactory manner. - -[Illustration] - -Provision must of course be made to efficiently drain and light all -public urinals, and arrangements should be made by which they can be -thoroughly washed once or twice a day, so as to keep every part -scrupulously clean. Urine after a very short exposure exhales a most -fœtid and unpleasant odour, from the decomposition of its nitrogenous -matter. Carbolic acid, chloride of lime, sanitas, or other disinfectant -should also be used, especially in warm weather. - -If the interior of a public urinal or latrine has to be painted a light -colour, it is well to mix a little sand with the paint, so as to prevent -as much as possible that literature and art which so often disfigures -establishments of this description. An excellent composition with which -to treat urinals, although it is of a somewhat dark tint, is a mixture -of common coal tar and naphtha, which not only gives a clean and -polished appearance to the place, but is also an excellent deodorant and -disinfectant. - -With regard to public W.C. accommodation, this, as I have before stated, -is not very often provided by an urban authority,[198] although common -public latrines are sometimes erected. These are generally used by -rather rough persons, and should be constructed in a strong and simple -manner. - -For this purpose stoneware bowls or basins placed over a drain and -fitting into ordinary right-angled junctions placed vertically are -simple and effective as well as very economical in construction. Slate, -iron, or wood seats may be placed on these basins, which should be kept -half full of water. A periodical and sudden flush which carries the -whole contents into the nearest sewer can be arranged for so as to work -automatically by the introduction of a cistern and one of Mr. Roger -Field’s flush syphons at the upper end of the system. - -For further information on the subject of urinals, waterclosets, -latrines, and all similar subjects, let the town surveyor refer to Mr. -George Jennings or Messrs. Macfarlane, who have an endless variety of -designs and appliances in connection with such matters. - - [196] The urban authority have an absolute discretion as to the sites - they select. They cannot, however, erect public conveniences so as - thereby to cause a nuisance, even though the convenience is wanted and - the locality chosen suitable. (_Vide_ ‘Public Health and Local - Government Act,’ by F. V. Fitzgerald, 3rd edition, p. 33.) - - [197] The quantity of water usually required to each stall when kept - constantly running is about half a gallon per minute. - - [198] For an excellent specimen of such public accommodation, that at - Liverpool near the St. George’s Hall should be inspected. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -ARTIZANS AND LABOURERS’ DWELLINGS, &c. - - -The Artizans and Labourers’ Dwellings Act 1868 (31 & 32 Vic. c. 130) was -in effect incorporated in the Public Health Act 1875 so that “every -urban authority shall within their district, . . . have, exercise and be -subject to all the powers, rights, duties, capacities, liabilities, and -obligations within such district exercisable or attaching by and to the -local authority” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 10). - -The mode of procedure is as follows: - -Where the “officer of health”[199] finds any premises in a condition or -state dangerous to health so as to be unfit for human habitation, he -shall report the same in writing to the clerk of the local authority. -The local authority must then refer such report to a surveyor or -engineer,[200] who shall thereupon consider the report so furnished to -him, and report to the local authority what is the cause of the evil so -reported on, and if such evil is occasioned by defects in any premises, -whether the same can be remedied by structural alterations and -improvements or otherwise, or whether such premises or any or what part -thereof ought to be demolished (31 & 32 Vic. c. 130, s. 6). - -Upon the receipt of this report from the surveyor the local authority -sends copies to the owner of the premises, giving him opportunities of -attending before them and of appealing against the report, and if his -objections are overruled, a plan and specification of the works (if -any) and an estimate of the cost of such works, must be prepared by the -surveyor, and these in turn may be inspected by the owner and objected -to by him in writing, and he may also attend before the local authority, -and if he makes good his objections the local authority may direct the -plan, specification and estimate to be amended, and the works would then -be executed in accordance with the amended plans, &c. (31 & 32 Vic. c. -130, s. 8). - -Persons who are aggrieved by any order of the local authority may appeal -against it, but failing this, if the owner does not within two months -diligently proceed with and complete the same in conformity with the -specification to the satisfaction of the surveyor, the local authority -may either order the premises to be shut up, or to be demolished, or may -themselves execute the required works in conformity with the -specification (31 & 32 Vic. c. 130, s. 18). - -If the requirements of the order involve the total demolition and not -the improvement of the premises, the owner shall within three months -proceed to take down and remove them, and if he fail to do so, then the -local authority may pull down and recoup the expenses by a sale of the -old material (31 & 32 Vic. c. 130, s. 20). - -The above Act was amended in 1879 by the “Artizans and Labourers’ -Dwellings Act (1868) Amendment Act 1879” (42 & 43 Vic. c. 64), the most -important clause affecting the action of the town surveyor being as -follows: - -“Notwithstanding anything in the Act of 1868, the owner of any premises -specified in an order of the local authority made under that Act, and -requiring him to execute any works or to demolish such premises, may -within three months after service on him of the order, require the local -authority in writing to purchase such premises” (42 & 43 Vic. c. 64, s. -5). - -The amount of compensation to be paid to the owner is to be settled by -arbitration if no agreement can be arrived at, such arbitration to be -carried out in a manner provided for by certain clauses in this -Amendment Act 1879. - -Sec. 9 of the same Act also provides for the repayment (by sale of old -materials, &c.) of the cost incurred by the local authority in executing -any works under the Acts. - -This Act has again been amended quite recently (August 1882) by “An Act -to Amend the Artizans and Labourers’ Dwellings Acts” (45 & 46 Vic. c. -54), the most important clause affecting the working of this Act being -as follows: - -(1.) “If in any place to which the Artizans and Labourers’ Dwellings Act -1868 applies the officer of health finds that any building, although not -in itself unfit for human habitation, is so situate that by reason of -its proximity to or contact with any other building it causes one of the -following effects, that is to say: - - “(1.) It stops ventilation or otherwise makes or conduces to make such - other buildings to be in a condition unfit for human habitation; or - - “(2.) It prevents proper measures from being carried into effect for - remedying the evils complained of in respect of such other buildings, - -in any such case the officer of health shall make a report to the local -authority in writing of the particulars relating to such first-mentioned -building (in this Act referred to as ‘an obstructive building’) stating -that in his opinion it is expedient that the obstructive building should -be pulled down, and shall deliver the report to the clerk of the local -authority. - -“(2.) The local authority shall refer such report to a surveyor or -engineer to report thereon, and to report as to the cost of acquiring -the lands on which such obstructive building is erected, and of pulling -down such building.” - -The local authority then consider the reports of the officer of health -and of the surveyor, and proceed to give copies to the owner of the -lands in question, who has liberty of appeal, &c., as before given in -the Act 1868. The lands may be acquired by the local authority by -agreement or compulsorily under the Lands Clauses Consolidation Acts, -and the obstructive building, “or such part thereof as may be -obstructive,” may be pulled “down, and the whole site, or such part -thereof as may be required to be kept open for the purpose of remedying -the evils” kept as an open space. - -The owner of the land may, by giving due notice, declare that “he -desires to retain the site of the obstructive building, and undertake -either to pull down or to permit the local authority to pull down, the -obstructive building,” in which case he retains the site, and is -compensated only for the building. - -These recent amendments to the old Act of 1868 are of the greatest -importance, for they aim at the easy improvement of courts and alleys, -by opening them where houses have been erected across the entrance, in -some cases depriving the courts and alleys of light and air, and leaving -only a small covered archway through which the occupants can enter. - -The Act has only too recently become law for me to give any particulars -with regard to its working, but it appears to be a most valuable -sanitary Act. - -Prior to these amendments of the Act 1868, it was felt that it dealt -only with isolated buildings, and consequently, in order to improve -large areas, the “Act for Facilitating the Improvement of the Dwellings -of the Working Classes in Large Towns” was passed in 1875 (38 & 39 Vic. -c. 36), since which date, like the Act 1868, it has been twice amended, -once in 1879 (42 & 43 Vic. c. 63), and again in 1882 (45 & 46 Vic. c. -54). - -The object of the Act of 1875 was to facilitate the removal of portions -of towns, especially of the courts and alleys in the poorer and more -densely-populated parts. - -The Act is to be put in force where an official representation is made -by the medical officer of health to the local authority of an urban -sanitary district (which must contain a population of at least 25,000) -that “any houses, courts, or alleys within a certain area” are “unfit -for human habitation, or that diseases indicating a generally low -condition of health amongst the population have been from time to time -prevalent in a certain area,” and that this is attributable to the bad -arrangement or bad condition of the streets and houses, or “other -sanitary defects,” which can only be remedied by “an improvement scheme -for the rearrangement and reconstruction of the streets or houses” (38 & -39 Vic. c. 36, s. 3). - -The improvement scheme to be prepared on receipt of this report by the -local authority must be accompanied by “maps, particulars, and -estimates” (no doubt these must be prepared by the surveyor, although no -mention is made as to who shall prepare them), and this scheme may -“provide for widening any existing approaches to the unhealthy area, or -otherwise for opening out the same for the purposes of ventilation or -health.” It must distinguish “the lands proposed to be taken -compulsorily,” and by the Act 1875 it was necessary to “provide for the -accommodation of at the least as many persons of the working class as -may be displaced in the area with respect to which the scheme is -proposed in suitable dwellings, which, unless there are any special -reasons to the contrary, shall be situate within the limits of the same -area or in the vicinity thereof” (sec. 5). - -So much practical difficulty was experienced in carrying this latter -part of the clause into effect, that in 1879 a short Act was passed (42 -& 43 Vic. c. 63), which by the 4th section amended that part of the -original clause as to the provision of accommodation for the working -classes as follows: - -“Where it is proved to the satisfaction of the confirming authority -. . . . that equally convenient accommodation can be provided . . . . at -some place other than within the area or the immediate vicinity . . . . -and it is also proved to the satisfaction of such authority that the -required accommodation has been or is about to be forthwith provided.” -The confirming authority may be satisfied with such provision, and for -this purpose the local authority may make use of any lands belonging to -them, or purchase any that are suitable (42 & 43 Vic. c. 63, s. 4). - -This part of the Act has again been amended in the year 1882 by 45 & 46 -Vic. c. 54, which in section 3 enacts as follows: - -“. . . . and where any such improvement scheme comprises an area situate -elsewhere than in the metropolis or the City of London, it shall, if the -confirming authority so require (but it shall not otherwise be -obligatory on the local authority so to frame their scheme), provide for -the accommodation of such number of those persons of the working class -displaced in the area with respect to which the scheme is proposed in -suitable dwellings to be erected in such place or places either within -or without the limits of the same area as the said authority, on a -report made by the officer conducting the local enquiry, may require -. . . .” - -Having thus far given the _modus operandi_ under which the Act has to be -enforced, it is necessary to see what are some of the town surveyor’s -duties in connection therewith. - -First, there are the “maps, particulars, and estimates” which have to be -prepared, and these involve-- - -(_a._) Accurate surveys of the area; - -(_b._) A reference of all the properties included: - -(_c._) A census of the population of the area; - -(_d._) A valuation of all the properties; - -(_e._) A plan of the proposed new streets, &c. - -(_f._) An estimate of the cost of the whole work. - -In addition to this it is necessary for the local authority to “impose -suitable conditions and restrictions as to the elevation, size, and -design of the houses and the extent of the accommodation to be afforded -thereby, and to make due provision for the maintenance of proper -sanitary arrangements,” and this naturally involves detailed drawings of -the buildings to be erected. - -In the same clause (38 & 39 Vic. c. 36, s. 9) it is stated that the -local authority may engage with any society, &c., to carry the whole or -any part of the scheme into effect, but “the local authority shall not -themselves, without the express approval of the confirming authority, -undertake the rebuilding of the houses or the execution of any part of -the scheme, except that they may take down any or all of the buildings -upon the area, and clear the whole or any part thereof, and may lay out, -form, pave, sewer, and complete” all the necessary streets, &c., which -shall thenceforth be public streets repairable by the inhabitants at -large. - -It is scarcely necessary to say that the enforcement of this Act -involves a considerable expenditure of work and time in the office of -the town surveyor. - -The buildings which are erected on the sites dealt with under this Act -are generally of the “high block” class, as it is found that the -labouring man prefers to live near his work, and land is generally too -expensive in such localities to admit of the erection of any other -description of buildings. - -As to whether this class of dwelling is as healthy as ordinary cottages -or houses, the following death-rates for the year 1879 will be some -guide: - - The London Improved Industrial Dwellings 16·4 per 1000 - The Peabody Trust Dwellings 17·2 „ „ - The Metropolitan Association Dwellings 14·3 „ „ - The Newcastle Improved Industrial Dwellings 12·0 „ „ - The general death rate for the Metropolis at the - same date being 21·2 „ „ - -It is of course necessary that the sanitary arrangements of industrial -dwellings of the block type should be very perfect, and as to the manner -in which they should be erected the following words of Mr. John Price, -who for twelve years had lived in one of them himself, can be here given -with advantage:[201] - -“Model dwellings are therefore most appreciated by working men when -placed near the scene of their daily labour. The arrangements most -preferred are those which bring the fewest families or persons in -contact with one another on a flat or landing. As a rule the buildings -should not exceed four stories in height; the staircases should be about -four feet in width, and broken by short landings, lighted by large -windows open to the external air; the window-sills should not be less -than three feet from the floors for the safety of young children, and -for the same reason well staircases should be avoided. The steps of the -stairs should only have a 6-inch ‘rise,’ for the more easy accommodation -of old people and young children; they should be fire-proof, and well -lighted with gas on an evening. There should be a thick layer of -deafening between the floors. The waterclosets should be placed in an -offshoot from the main building, opening on to each landing, and well -ventilated by open windows and air bricks. The watercloset apparatus -should be as simple and effective as possible. Patents depending upon -the proper working of valves and ball-cocks should be avoided, as the -fruitful cause of trouble and expense; little reliance must be placed on -their proper use by tenants where more than one family have access to -them. I have seen excellent closets stopped up with cloths and all -manner of earthenware and hardware, children of careless parents being -the principal offenders; what is everybody’s duty is often most -neglected. It will be found most economical in large buildings of this -class to appoint a person whose duty it should be to attend to the -proper flushing of waterclosets daily. I would suggest that there -should be a large cistern under the roof (distinct from the cistern used -for domestic purposes), a ³⁄₄-inch feed pipe should lead to each w.c., -which should consist of a simple metal or earthenware pan, provided only -with a tap, flushing rim, and plug, placed under the seat securely, and -under the sole control of the attendant, who, by the necessary daily -inspection, would detect any stoppage or injury to the fittings. The -expense of such supervision would probably be soon saved in plumbers’ -bills. Of course the soil-pipes should be well ventilated above the roof -of the building, and all drains and sinks should be properly trapped. -The attendant on his daily rounds would also be able to see that these -are kept in proper order. The dust-shaft, extending to the full height -of the building, should have proper hoppers connected with it to prevent -the dust coming from the lower or upper landings; a nuisance sometimes -complained of in block dwellings. The washhouses should be placed on the -roof or in the yards, fitted with set pots and requisite conveniences. -The soft water from the roofs should be stored in tanks for washing and -domestic purposes--it will be much appreciated by sensible tenants, and -save the water bill greatly. - -“The great desiderata of these large blocks of buildings is ample -playground for the children, without which they play upon the stairs, -and are often the cause of strife amongst neighbours. I know those who -have experience in the matter may say that it is more easy to state what -is desirable than what is practical. The enhanced value of land in all -our large towns precludes any liberal investment on what appears so -financially unremunerative as playgrounds, yet they are essential -adjuncts wherever there is an infantile population. Mr. Powell, on -behalf of the London Trades’ Unions, enumerated before Sir Richard -Cross’s Committee certain objections which the working classes of London -entertained against the earliest erected blocks of dwellings, amongst -which was their barrack-like and uninviting appearance, and also their -want of playgrounds for children. Recently these defects have been -greatly remedied.” - -A few words are necessary upon the “Labouring Classes’ Lodging Houses -Acts” (14 & 15 Vic. c. 34; 29 & 30 Vic. c. 28; 30 & 31 Vic. c. 28). - -The object of these Acts was to empower urban authorities, under certain -restrictions and after certain formalities, to appropriate any lands -vested in them or at their disposal, or to purchase or rent the -necessary lands for the purpose of erecting suitable buildings for -lodging-houses for the working classes, or to convert any buildings into -lodging-houses, and “repair and improve the same respectively with all -requisite furniture, fittings, and conveniences”; and further powers are -given in the Acts for the urban authority to contract with persons for -different objects, &c. - -I am unable to give any experiences of the working of these Acts, for I -do not know of any urban authority which has carried them into effect, -the Artizans and Labourers’ Dwellings Improvement Acts having virtually -superseded them. - -The following copy of the bye-laws as sanctioned by the Treasury in 1867 -in connection with the Labouring Classes’ Lodging Houses Acts may, -however, be of interest, as well as the table of sizes of rooms which -follows: - -Separate watercloset accommodation to be provided for each tenement, or -else, where watercloset accommodation is to be used in common by the -occupants of two or more tenements, separate accommodation must be -provided for each sex. Such accommodation may be either watercloset, -earthcloset, or privy. - -Each tenement to have a dustbin or the use of a dustbin common to -several buildings. - -Each tenement to be well lighted by external windows made to open. - -Each tenement to have ready access to water. - -Where several tenements in one building, proper ventilation to be -provided for the passages, staircases, &c. - -The drains to be well constructed. - -Parties to whom moneys to be advanced to enter into covenants with the -Public Works Loan Commissioners, that where there are several tenements -in one building they - -(_a._) Will cause the passages, staircases, &c., to be kept clean; - -(_b._) Will cause the waterclosets, &c., to be kept in good repair; - -(_c._) Will cause the dustbins to be emptied at intervals of seven days; - -(_d._) Will take precautions against any interruption in the supply of -water; - -(_e._) Will keep the windows in good order and repair, and the chimneys -swept; - -(_f._) Will keep the drains in proper order; - -(_g._) Will allow inspection by Commissioner of Works to see that the -above covenants are observed. - -Number of cubic feet in each room of the several classes of tenements -(none of less than two rooms) for which money has been authorised to be -advanced: - - ------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - | One | One | One | One | One - |Room of|Room of|Room of|Room of|Room of - | cubic | cubic | cubic | cubic | cubic - Class. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. | feet. - ------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - Class I. of two rooms | 715 | 1,219 | | | - Ditto | 816 | 994 | | | - Ditto | 995 | 1,020 | | | - Class II. of four rooms | 960 | 960 | 960 | 960 | - Class III. of five rooms| 372 | 675 | 1056 | 1056 | 1232 - Ditto | 446 | 459 | 459 | 781 | 1468 - ------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- - -It may be information valuable to a town surveyor, if before closing -this chapter I draw attention to the provisions of the Municipal -Corporations Act 1882, sec. 3, which gives corporations power to convert -any corporate land into sites for working men’s dwellings, although the -corporation are not authorised to erect the dwellings thereon. - - [199] The term “officer of health,” as respects any urban sanitary - district in England, means the medical officer of health appointed by - the urban sanitary authority under the Public Health Act 1875 (42 & 43 - Vic. c. 64, s. 3). - - [200] The town surveyor is usually employed for this work. - - [201] _Vide_ ‘Industrial Dwellings from a Sanitary point of View,’ by - John Price, Resident Agent, Newcastle-on-Tyne Industrial Dwellings - Company, read September 28th, at the Congress of the Institute, held - at Newcastle-on-Tyne. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV. - -DEFECTS IN DWELLING-HOUSES, &C. - - -There are many defects in dwelling-houses with which it is the duty of -the sanitary inspector to deal, such as the Bakehouse Regulations Act, -offensive trades, nuisances rendering houses unfit for human habitation, -&c., but I propose to give in this chapter, in addition to those with -which I have already dealt, such subjects under this head as come within -the duties of the town surveyor. - -The first which I propose to treat is that of the question of - - -_Cellar Dwellings._--These are at all times objectionable even if the -clauses of the Public Health Act 1875 be strictly carried out, and the -surveyor should discourage them as much as possible. Nothing more can be -said with reference to them than is contained in the provisions of the -above Act, which are as follows:[202] - -“It shall not be lawful to let or occupy or suffer to be occupied -separately as a dwelling, any cellar (including for the purposes of this -Act in that expression any vault or underground room) built or rebuilt -after the passing of this Act, or which is not lawfully so let or -occupied at the time of the passing of this Act” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. -71). - -And with regard to existing cellar dwellings they are only to be let or -occupied on the following conditions:-- - -“Unless the cellar is in every part thereof at least seven feet in -height, measured from the floor to the ceiling thereof, and is at least -three feet of its height above the surface of the street or ground -adjoining or nearest to the same; and - -“Unless there is outside of and adjoining the cellar and extending along -the entire frontage thereof, and upwards from six inches below the level -of the floor thereof up to the surface of the said street or ground, an -open area of at least two feet and six inches wide in every part; and - -“Unless the cellar is effectually drained by means of a drain, the -uppermost part of which is one foot at least below the level of the -floor thereof; and - -“Unless there is appurtenant to the cellar the use of a watercloset, -earthcloset, or privy, and an ashpit, furnished with proper doors and -coverings, according to the provisions of this Act; and - -“Unless the cellar has a fireplace with a proper chimney or flue, and an -external window of at least nine superficial feet in area clear of the -sash frame, and made to open in a manner approved by the surveyor -(except in the case of an inner or back cellar let or occupied along -with a front cellar as part of the same letting or occupation, in which -case the external window may be of any dimensions, not being less than -four superficial feet in area clear of the sash frame). - -“Provided that in any area adjoining a cellar there may be steps -necessary for access to such cellar, if the same be so placed as not to -be over, across, or opposite to the said external window, and so as to -allow between every part of such steps and the external wall of such -cellar a clear space of six inches at the least, and that over or across -any such area there may be steps necessary for access to any building -above the cellar to which such area adjoins, if the same be so placed as -not to be over, across, or opposite to any such external window” (38 & -39 Vic. c. 55, s. 72). - -Where two convictions in respect of the same cellar have taken place -within three months, the local authority may close it, and recover any -expenses incurred by them in the execution of this duty (38 & 39 Vic., -c. 55, s. 75). - -The next defect in a dwelling-house which will be considered is that of - - -_Insufficient W.C. accommodation._--A new house may not be erected -without “a sufficient watercloset, earthcloset,[203] or privy” under a -penalty not exceeding twenty pounds[204] (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 35). - -And with regard to existing premises: - -“If a house within the district of a local authority appears to such -authority _by the report of their surveyor_ or inspector of nuisances to -be without a sufficient watercloset, earthcloset, or privy . . . . the -local authority shall by written notice require the owner or occupier of -the house within a reasonable time therein specified, to provide a -sufficient watercloset, earthcloset, or privy . . . . or either of them -as the case may require. If such notice is not complied with the local -authority may, at the expiration of the time specified in the notice, do -the work, provided that where a watercloset, earthcloset, or privy has -been and is used in common by the inmates of two or more houses, or if -in the opinion of the local authority a watercloset, earthcloset, or -privy may be so used, they need not require the same to be provided for -each house” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 36). - -If the local authority approve, an earthcloset may be constructed -instead of a watercloset, but in this case they should make arrangements -for the supply of the dry earth and the removal of its contents. - -The necessary form of notice to be served in connection with -insufficient w.c. accommodation may be as follows: - - _To the owner of the house No. in the borough of ._ - - Whereas the above-mentioned house is situate within the district of - the mayor, aldermen, and burgesses of , the urban sanitary - authority for the borough of : And whereas it appears to the - said urban sanitary authority that the said house is without a - sufficient watercloset, earthcloset, or privy: Now the said urban - sanitary authority do hereby require you, the said owner, within - from the date of this notice to provide a sufficient - watercloset for the use of the inhabitants of the said house. And take - notice, that if you do not within the time above specified provide a - sufficient watercloset, as aforesaid, to the satisfaction of the said - urban sanitary authority, they will themselves, at the expiration of - such time, do the necessary work to provide such closet accommodation - as aforesaid, and proceed to recover the costs and expenses thereby - incurred in manner provided by the Public Health Act 1875. - - Dated this of , 188 . - - ______________________________ - _Surveyor to the said Mayor, Aldermen and Burgesses._ - -And where the case demands, the following note may be added below the -above notice: - - “NOTE.--The urban sanitary authority may, if they so determine, - require a separate watercloset to be provided for each house, or they - may permit a watercloset to be used in common by the inmates of two or - more houses,[205] but in either case the closet itself must be - properly constructed and provided with due means of ventilation. The - urban sanitary authority will approve of the existing closet - accommodation if it is perfected by means of the following works being - carried out. (Specification of work required to be done must here be - inserted.) The whole of the work to be executed in a workmanlike - manner and to my entire approval. - - “It is, however, to be understood that the above notice requiring the - work to be executed within one month will be rigidly enforced; and if - at the expiration of that time the work be not completed, the urban - sanitary authority will themselves proceed to execute the necessary - work to provide proper closet accommodation in such manner as they may - deem most advisable, without pledging themselves to the adoption of - the method above suggested.” - - ______________________________ - _Surveyor to the said Mayor, Aldermen and Burgesses._ - -With regard to watercloset accommodation for factories, it appears to -rest entirely with the town surveyor to draw the attention of the -sanitary authority to any case where he considers this is deficient, as -by the following clause: - -“Where it appears to any local authority by the report of their surveyor -that any house is used or intended to be used as a factory or building -in which persons of both sexes are employed or intended to be employed -at one time in any manufacture, trade, or business, the local authority -may, if they think fit, by written notice require the owner or occupier -of such house, within the time therein specified, to construct a -sufficient number of waterclosets, earthclosets, or privies and ashpits -for the separate use of each sex. - -“Any person who neglects or refuses to comply with any such notice shall -be liable for each default to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds, and -to a further penalty not exceeding forty shillings for every day during -which the default is continued” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 38). - -In providing closet accommodation which is to be used in common by the -occupants of a number of houses, it must be remembered that it should -be of the most simple description. Any one acquainted with the working -of waterclosets situated in courts and alleys will know how badly they -are treated, and into what a fearful state of disrepair and filth they -speedily fall, as the great difficulty the sanitary inspector always -finds is to have them kept clean; “What is everybody’s business is -nobody’s.” And although by clauses 40, 41, 46, &c., of the Public Health -Act 1875 persons causing a nuisance can be punished, it is a difficult -matter to detect the person in fault, unless of course it is a -structural defect, when the owner can be summoned if it is allowed to -remain uncured. - -For this reason what are known as “Fowler’s closets,” or some -modification of this principle, should be adopted in all such localities -where earthclosets or some of the dry systems are not in force, as they -are without any complicated valve apparatus or anything of the kind. - -The last point to consider in this chapter is that of _Houses without a -proper supply of water_. - -“Where on _the report of the surveyor_ of a local authority it appears -that any house is without a proper supply of water, and that such a -supply can be furnished at a cost not exceeding that authorised by any -local Act, or where there is not any local Act, not exceeding twopence a -week, or at such other cost as the Local Government Board may determine, -the local authority shall give notice in writing to the owner, requiring -him, within a time specified, to obtain such supply, and to do all such -works as may be necessary for that purpose,[206] and in default of his -doing so may carry out all necessary works themselves for obtaining such -supply” (_vide_ 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. lxii.). - -It is not very often that a house is found without any supply of water -at all, for if that from the mains is not laid on it is generally found -that the house is supplied from a well or from a stand-pipe in a court, -or some similar source. If the water is derived from an impure well or -other contaminated source, the following clause of the Public Health Act -1875 must be enforced in order to close the well or compel the -discontinuance of the polluted supply, when a “proper” supply of water -can be enforced in the manner I have described: - -“On the representation of any person to any local authority that within -their district the water in any well, tank, or cistern, public or -private, or supplied from any public pump, and used or likely to be used -by man for drinking or domestic purposes, or for manufacturing drinks -for the use of man, is so polluted as to be injurious to health, such -authority may apply to a court of summary jurisdiction for an order to -remedy the same; and thereupon such court shall summon the owner or -occupier of the premises to which the well, tank, or cistern belongs if -it be private, and in the case of a public well, tank, cistern or pump, -any person alleged in the application to be interested in the same, and -may either dismiss the application, or may make an order directing the -well, tank, cistern, or pump to be permanently or temporarily closed, or -the water to be used for certain purposes only, or such other order as -may appear to them to be requisite to prevent injury to the health of -persons drinking the water. - -“The court may, if they see fit, cause the water complained of to be -analysed at the cost of the local authority applying to them under this -section. - -“If the person on whom an order under this section is made fails to -comply with the same, the court may, on the application of the local -authority, authorise them to do whatever may be necessary in the -execution of the order, and any expenses incurred by them may be -recovered in a summary manner from the person on whom the order is -made. - -“Expenses incurred by any rural authority in the execution of this -section, and not recovered by them as aforesaid, shall be special -expenses” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 70). - -It is an established fact that wells within a town must always be -regarded with some suspicion, and where they exist either publicly or -privately the local authority would do well to have the water from them -analysed with a view to having them closed. Even cisterns, if not -frequently examined and cleansed, will cause the water that is stored in -them to become polluted, not only from the dust of the air settling in -them and the natural impurities of the water passing through them, but -frequently from foreign objects falling into them and decaying, such as -rats, mice, cats, and in one case that I know of, a sirloin of beef, and -in another a plumber! These remained in the cistern until the colour, -smell, and taste of the water drew the attention of the drinkers to -“something being the matter!” The cure for the chance of such cases as -these is of course the constant supply. - - [202] Any cellar in which any person passes the night shall be deemed - to be occupied as a dwelling within the meaning of this Act (38 & 39 - Vic. c. 55, s. 74). - - [203] “In this Act (P. H. Act 1875) the term ‘earth closet’ includes - any place for the reception and deodorization of fæcal matter - constructed to the satisfaction of the local authority” (38 & 39 Vic. - c. 55, s. 37). - - [204] In case of several houses together, it has been held as not - necessary to have separate accommodation for each house, if there is - sufficient for them collectively. (Clutton Guardians v. Pointing, 4 Q. - B. Division 340, 48 L. J. M. C. 137.) - - [205] It is not always possible for a separate w.c. to be provided for - each house, hence the wisdom of the law which makes it permissive for - a local authority to allow a group of tenements to be provided for by - several waterclosets close together. - - [206] A similar provision is made requiring the keeper of a common - lodging house to obtain a proper supply of water (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, - s. 81), but it does not appear to be the express duty of the town - surveyor to draw attention to this, as it does in the more general - clause. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI. - -HOUSE DRAINAGE. - - -It would not be possible in one chapter of a book of this description to -enter into all the details and necessary apparatus in connection with -house drainage. I propose only to point out some of the town surveyor’s -duties in connection with this subject, and to add a few remarks which -may be of some service. - -The definition of the word “drain” as given in the Public Health Act -1875 is as follows: - -“‘Drain’ means any drain of and used for the drainage of one building -only, or premises within the same curtilage, and made merely for the -purpose of communicating therefrom with a cesspool or other like -receptacle for drainage, or with a sewer into which the drainage of two -or more buildings or premises occupied by different persons is conveyed” -(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 4). - -Although this definition is very clear, it occasionally happens, -especially in old towns, that some doubt arises as to whether an -existing conduit for sewage is a “drain” or a “sewer”[207] for though a -conduit is of small size it maybe found to be carrying the sewage of two -or more buildings, and thus is really “a sewer belonging to the local -authority.” - -This difficulty often leads to litigation where a notice having been -served upon an owner of property to put in a new drain in place of one -that has been found on examination to be defective, the new work is of -course commenced at the junction with the main sewer, and it is not -until the new so-called drain is nearly completed that it is found to -be “used for the drainage” of more than one building, and is in fact “a -sewer into which the drainage of two or more buildings or premises, -occupied by different persons is conveyed” (see clause quoted above), -and is therefore repairable by the local authority (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, -s. 13). - -Where the town surveyor is in any doubt as to whether the conduit is a -drain or a sewer, he should test from whence the sewage comes by passing -diluted white lime or carbolic acid down the adjacent water-closets and -watching whether it flows through the conduit or not, but even here he -is sometimes at fault if the drains are old and dilapidated, as they do -not reach the point he is watching and he is thus misled. - -In connection with the question of house drainage the town surveyor has -the following duties to perform: - -(1.) To inspect all new drains that are constructed in connection with -existing buildings within his district. - -(2.) To inspect all drains of new buildings that are constructed within -his district. - -(3.) To inspect all defective drains within his district, serve the -necessary notices in respect thereof, and inspect the works he has -required to be executed whilst they are in progress. - -(1.) With reference to the first of these duties the following is the -clause of the Public Health Act 1875 which bears upon the point: - -“The owner or occupier of any premises within the district of a local -authority shall be entitled to cause his drains to empty into the sewers -of that authority on condition of his giving such notice as may be -required by that authority of his intention so to do, and of complying -with the regulations of that authority in respect of the mode in which -the communications between such drains and sewers are to be made, and -subject to the control of any person who may be appointed by that -authority to superintend the making of such communications. Any person -causing a drain to empty into a sewer of a local authority without -complying with the provisions of this section shall be liable to a -penalty not exceeding twenty pounds, and the local authority may close -any communication between a drain and sewer made in contravention of -this section . . . .” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 21). - -The first thing therefore that a local authority has to do is to frame -the necessary regulations and appoint a “person to superintend the -making of such communications.” - -The following is given as a specimen form of the manner in which these -regulations may be compiled:[208] - - _Regulations made and ordained by the Urban Sanitary Authority for - , as to the giving of notice before any drains are made to - communicate with the sewers of the said Urban Sanitary Authority; - regulating the mode in which such communications are to be made; and - appointing the person under whose superintendence and control the work - is to be executed._ - -1.--No communication shall be made with any sewer belonging to the said -Urban Sanitary Authority, nor any drain made to empty therein, unless -notice of an intention so to do, signed by the owner or occupier of the -premises to which such drains belong, be left at the office of the -borough surveyor two days previously; and such notice must specify the -point at which it is desired that communication shall be made, and the -time at which it is proposed the work shall be commenced, and any person -not complying with these regulations will be liable to a penalty not -exceeding twenty pounds. - -2.--Work required to be done in connecting any house drain or drains -with the main or public sewer, shall be executed in the following -manner: - -The ground to be excavated to the required depth with all possible -expedition, the work to proceed by night and day; and there shall be -maintained during the progress of the work all such fencings, hoardings, -struttings, and shorings, as may be necessary for or in consequence of -any of the works, for the protection of the public, and of all buildings -and property whatever, near to or liable to be affected by the work, -which shall also be well watched and lighted. - -The shoring and strutting of the excavation is to be done in such -manner, with poling boards, waling pieces and struts, as the surveyor -shall consider necessary. - -All surplus earth or material is to be carted away as speedily as -possible. Care must be taken where the excavation is made in a road or -path to keep separate the surface material from the lower, so as to -replace them in their proper positions. - -The excavation shall in all cases where practicable be in open cutting, -and not by shafts and headings. - -The junction with the main sewer to be done in the following manner:-- - -The drain shall in no case be less than four inches internal diameter, -and shall be constructed of well-burnt glazed socketed stoneware pipes, -circular, perfectly true in bore, and straight, with whole socket joints -free from flaws, blisters, cracks, or other defects, set in Portland -cement joints with a uniform fall, well bedded on well-rammed and solid -ground, the sockets being sunk into it so as to give an even bearing. -No shafts or sudden falls will be allowed. - -Where the junction is with a sewer constructed of pipes, one length of -the sewer (or more if necessary) shall be removed and an oblique proper -glazed socket junction pipe, set in Portland cement, inserted in its -place. - -The junction with the sewer shall be of the same size as the drain. - -Where the junction is with a brick or stone sewer, the connection shall -be made at such height above the invert as the surveyor shall determine, -and be made with a glazed socket pipe obliquely in line of current of -main sewer, properly bedded in with cement, cut off so as to take the -form of the main sewer and offer no obstruction to the proper flow of -sewage therein, or with a properly constructed stoneware block junction. - -On completion of the junction, which shall be made before any of the -pipe drain is laid, it shall be inspected by the surveyor, and the work -must not be further proceeded with until such inspection has been made -and the junction pronounced satisfactory. The drain shall be properly -trapped between the sewer and the house, with a syphon of such form as -the surveyor shall direct, and be at its inlet end or other extremity -carried up open its full diameter to above the roof line. - -The excavation is to be filled in within six inches of the surface of -the ground, with layers of earth not more than six inches in thickness, -carefully rammed or punned with iron punners of not less weight than 10 -lbs. - -The surface of a roadway must be brought up to its proper level with the -surface material kept separate, and properly broken or other approved -road metal, and the roadway where broken shall be kept in repair by the -person opening the ground for a period of twelve months after the -completion of the work. - -If the excavation is made under a footpath or paved road, the paving -must be made good and kept in repair for a similar period. - -3.--A. B. C., the present borough surveyor, and his successors in -office, or the person for the time being acting as or discharging the -duties of borough surveyor, are hereby appointed as the person or -persons to superintend the making of such communications with the public -sewers as aforesaid. - - * * * * * - -(1.) Notwithstanding the stringency of the above regulations it is very -difficult to ensure that the whole of the new drain is properly executed -by the person who is carrying out the work, for if he wishes to deceive -the surveyor’s department it is not very difficult to do so in works of -this description. It would be far better if all drains of dwelling -houses could be constructed solely by the staff of the local authority, -and failing any general act upon the subject, that they should be able -to obtain private powers to do so. - -It is illegal for anyone to touch the surface of either roadway or -footpath for any purpose whatever[209] without the consent of the urban -authority (see 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, sec. 149), and especially to touch or -interfere with the main sewers. All such work could be done better and -cheaper, both for the ratepayers and the owners of property, if carried -out by the trained staff of the local authority; nothing would be gained -by scamping the work, and one of the worst stumbling blocks in the -interests of sanitation would be removed by this simple and effective -measure. Gas and water companies invariably refuse to allow anyone to -interfere with their mains or services, but execute the work with their -own men; how much more important is it that house drains and sewers -should be equally protected. If a gas or water main or house service -leaks through defective work it is quickly detected and remedied; not so -with a drain or sewer, the deadly gases may be oozing through defective -joints or the foul liquid may be poisoning the soil under the adjacent -dwelling houses, and many victims may suffer before the cause is -ascertained, and even then laborious legal machinery has to be put in -force before it can be rectified. - -The only objections that can be raised to the plan I so strongly -advocate are, first, the interference with the trade connections and -interests of builders and others; and secondly, the responsibility -incurred by the local authority to execute thoroughly sound and good -work, and the difficulty they might afterwards experience if it was -necessary to find fault with their own work. The first objection should -really have no weight when lives are at stake, and the responsibility -incurred by the second objection ought not to be shirked. - -Until some alteration is made in the present law the town surveyor must -be as vigilant as he can, and endeavour to induce the public to look -more closely themselves into such all-important points. - -(2.) The next duty of the town surveyor is to inspect all drains of new -buildings that are being constructed in his district. - -I have dealt with this subject in the chapter on “New Buildings.” The -model bye-laws to which I have there referred contain some excellent -principles in reference to this matter, and too much power cannot be -given to a local authority in respect of house drains, even to the -extent of prohibiting any one else to construct them. The main sewer, -shared in common as it is by all the inhabitants of a town, must be -looked upon as a common danger, and each house that connects with it -should so far as possible be severed from it; at the same time the drain -must be so constructed that the sewage reaches the sewer as quickly and -as completely as possible, without any nuisance or knowledge of the -unpleasant nature of its contents or those in the sewer reaching the -inhabitants of the house: this is the key-note of all house drainage, -and many excellent books and descriptions of this class of work have -been from time to time written. - -(3.) The next duty of the town surveyor is to inspect all defective -drains within his district, and serve the necessary notices, &c. - -This duty is embodied in the following clauses of the Public Health Act, -1875: - -“Where any house within the district of a local authority is without a -drain sufficient for effectual drainage, the local authority shall by -written notice require the owner or occupier of such house, within a -reasonable time therein specified, to make a covered drain or drains -emptying into any sewer which the local authority are entitled to use, -and which is not more than one hundred feet from the site of such house; -but if no such means of drainage are within that distance, then emptying -into such covered cesspool or other place not being under any house as -the local authority direct; and the local authority may require any such -drain or drains to be of such materials and size, and to be laid at such -level and with such fall, as on the report of their surveyor may appear -to them to be necessary. - -“If such notice is not complied with, the local authority may, after the -expiration of the time specified in the notice, do the work required, -and may recover in a summary manner the expenses incurred by them in so -doing from the owner, or may by order declare the same to be private -improvement expenses. - -“Provided that where, in the opinion of the local authority, greater -expense would be incurred in causing the drains of two or more houses to -empty into an existing sewer pursuant to this section, than in -constructing a new sewer and causing such drains to empty therein, the -local authority may construct such new sewer, and require the owners or -occupiers of such houses to cause their drains to empty therein, and may -apportion as they deem just the expenses of the construction of such -sewer among the owners of the several houses, and recover in a summary -manner the sums apportioned from such owners, or may by order declare -the same to be private improvement expenses” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. -23). - -The above clause is the most simple under which this duty can be carried -out, provided it can be proved that the house[210] is “without a drain -sufficient for effectual drainage,” and for this purpose it would -probably be necessary to enter the premises and open up and examine the -drain, unless, of course, it was a case where no drain existed to the -house at all, or was evidently and notoriously without “effectual -drainage.” In order to enter for this purpose the requisite powers are -conferred in the following clause of the Public Health Act 1875: - -“The local authority, or any of their officers, shall be admitted into -any premises for the purpose of examining as to the existence of any -nuisance thereon, or of enforcing the provisions of any Act in force -within the district requiring fireplaces and furnaces to consume their -own smoke, at any time between the hours of nine in the forenoon and six -in the afternoon, or in the case of a nuisance arising in respect of any -business, then at any hour when such business is in progress or is -usually carried on. - -“Where under this Act a nuisance has been ascertained to exist, or an -order of abatement or prohibition has been made, the local authority or -any of their officers shall be admitted from time to time into the -premises between the hours aforesaid, until the nuisance is abated, or -the works ordered to be done are completed, as the case may be. - -“Where an order of abatement or prohibition has not been complied with, -or has been infringed, the local authority, or any of their officers, -shall be admitted from time to time at all reasonable hours, or at all -hours during which business is in progress or is usually carried on, -into the premises where the nuisance exists, in order to abate the same. - -“If admission to premises for any of the purposes of this section is -refused, any justice on complaint thereof on oath by any officer of the -local authority (made after reasonable notice in writing of the -intention to make the same has been given to the person having custody -of the premises), may, by order under his hand, require the person -having custody of the premises to admit the local authority, or their -officer, into the premises during the hours aforesaid, and if no person -having custody of the premises can be found, the justice shall, on oath -made before him of that fact, by order under his hand authorise the -local authority or any of their officers to enter such premises during -the hours aforesaid. - -“Any order made by a justice for admission of the local authority or any -of their officers on premises shall continue in force until the nuisance -has been abated, or the work for which the entry was necessary has been -done” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 102). - -The above clause also gives the necessary powers of entry where the -following clause of the Public Health Act is enforced with reference to -defective house drainage, instead of the 23rd section which I have -quoted. - -“On the written application of any person to a local authority, stating -that any drain, watercloset, earthcloset, privy, ashpit, or cesspool on -or belonging to any premises within their district is a nuisance, or -injurious to health (but not otherwise), the local authority may, by -writing, empower their surveyor or inspector of nuisances, after -twenty-four hours’ written notice to the occupier of such premises, or -in case of emergency without notice, to enter such premises, with or -without assistants, and cause the ground to be opened, and examine such -drain, watercloset, earthcloset, privy, ashpit, or cesspool. If the -drain, watercloset, earthcloset, privy, ashpit, or cesspool on -examination is found to be in proper condition, he shall cause the -ground to be closed, and any damage done to be made good as soon as can -be, and the expenses of the works shall be defrayed by the local -authority. If the drain, watercloset, earthcloset, privy, ashpit, or -cesspool on examination appear to be in bad condition, or to require -alteration or amendment, the local authority shall forthwith cause -notice in writing to be given to the owner or occupier of the premises -requiring him forthwith or within a reasonable time therein specified to -do the necessary works; and if such notice is not complied with, the -person to whom it is given shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding -ten shillings for every day during which he continues to make default, -and the local authority may, if they think fit, execute such works, and -may recover in a summary manner from the owner the expenses incurred by -them in so doing, or may by order declare the same to be private -improvement expenses” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 41). - -In acting upon the above clause it is well to note the machinery that is -necessary in order to secure success in the event of a prosecution. - -(1.) The notice to the local authority of the existence of a nuisance -arising from a drain, &c., must be in writing, and that authority must -then proceed to consider the notice. - -(2.) If they agree to take action the local authority may empower their -surveyor to enter the premises (with or without notice as the case may -require) but this order to him must also be in writing.[211] - -(3.) If the surveyor is allowed by the occupier of the premises to enter -(and in default he must put the 102nd section which I have quoted in -force) he may then open the ground “with or without assistants.” - -(4.) If he finds a defective drain he must then report to the local -authority in writing, unless he has been primarily invested by the local -authority with such powers as will dispense with such report.[212] - -(5.) The local authority shall “forthwith cause notice in writing to be -given to the owner, &c.” to do the work. - -(6.) If the owner executes the work the surveyor must supervise its -execution. - -(7.) If this work is not done within a reasonable time the local -authority “may if they think fit” execute the works; the surveyor has -probably to carry them out, after having obtained the necessary -permission to enter for the purpose. - -(8.) The costs of the work have to be recovered. - -Anyone acquainted with local government will know how difficult and -tedious such processes must necessarily be, the delay between the -meetings of the local authority being quite sufficient to make the -matter in dispute last a considerable time, and this delay is extremely -undesirable where a nuisance arising from a defective house-drain is in -existence. - -There seems to be no doubt that the clauses which are given in the -Public Health Act 1875 empower the local authority to specify without -dispute the class of work they think necessary in order to remedy any -evils arising from a defective drain, but it is a pity that some more -simple process cannot be introduced to improve the sanitary condition of -a house without the necessity of so much laborious legal machinery. - -There is still one other clause in the Public Health Act 1875, which -refers to house drainage, and it is as follows: - -“Every local authority shall provide that all drains, waterclosets, -earthclosets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools within their district be -constructed and kept so as not to be a nuisance, or injurious to health” -(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 40). But this clause is usually taken to apply -rather to nuisances arising from temporary defects than to more -important structural defects in a drain, and such nuisances come more -under the cognizance and duties of the inspector of nuisances than those -of the town surveyor. - -It would not be possible, as I have already stated, in one chapter to -give all the detail descriptions of house drains and the necessary -apparatus in connection therewith, and besides very many excellent -books, pamphlets and papers have been from time to time written on this -important subject.[213] Before, however, bringing this chapter to a -conclusion, I will give a list of the essential requirements of all good -house drainage which may be of some use to the town surveyor: - -(1.) A house drain should be constructed of stoneware pipes (not -earthenware or fire clay), these are generally salt glazed, and should -be perfectly smooth or even slippery inside, the pipes must be of true -circular section and thickness of material, and straight in the -direction of their length, with whole sockets of proper depth, and free -from any cracks, blisters, sand holes, or other defects. As even the -most carefully manufactured pipes vary somewhat in diameter of sockets; -&c., it is well to have them sorted before commencing the work; it is -scarcely necessary to add that no “seconds” should be allowed on the -works. - -(2.) The internal diameter of the drain should not be too large; 6 -inches may be considered as a maximum, 4 inches is generally quite -sufficient to carry off all the sewage from an extensive establishment, -even if all the water from the roofs or a portion of them is included. - -(3.) The inclination is governed by circumstances, but about 1 in 60 is -found to be a very convenient fall for many hydraulic, and other -reasons. - -(4.) The jointing of the pipes should be executed with great care; if -cement joints are made each pipe should be jointed separately, and it -should be seen that no cement is left in the drain. Sometimes tarred -gaskin is used to prevent this, and Stanford’s patent joints are -excellent where running water or sewage has to be contended with, or -great despatch of the work is necessary.[214] - -(5.) The sockets of the pipes should be sunk into the ground at the -bottom of the trench so as to give an even bearing, which amongst other -benefits dispenses with the chance of settlements. - -(6.) No pipes should be allowed to be covered in until they have been -inspected by the town surveyor or his assistants, and in order to test -the soundness of the joints, it is a good plan to fill the drain with -water, having first stopped up the lower end, and note the effect. - -(7.) Drains should not pass under buildings if it can be avoided, but if -unavoidable they must be buried in good concrete, and relieving arches -turned to any walls passing over them. In America iron pipes are used -under houses. - -(8.) Care must be exercised, in filling in over pipes, not to break or -injure them. - -(9.) The trap to a house drain should be a “Buchan” or other similar -syphon with a good cascade action, its position must be guided by -circumstances. - -(10.) The drain should end at the outside wall of the house and be -carried up the wall its full diameter to above the roof for ventilation, -an inlet for fresh air being essential on the house side of the trap; if -the drain has to pass under the house it must be similarly carried up on -the other side. - -(11.) The connection with the main sewer has been already described. - -In conclusion I would urge the necessity of a register of all drains -being kept that are examined by the surveyor’s department. This can be -done by having a series of numbered notebooks kept solely for this -purpose, and all the information thus acquired should also be plotted on -the map of the town if on a sufficiently large scale. - -The necessity of correct plans of the drainage of buildings cannot be -over-estimated, especially for hospitals, asylums, workhouses, schools, -or other public buildings, and even for the smallest dwelling house such -a plan would often prove to be the greatest boon to the occupier or -owner as well as at all times to the town surveyor, the medical officer -of health, and the inspector of nuisances. - - [207] For definitions of the word “sewer,” see the chapter on - Sewerage. - - [208] The New York Board of Health require that earthenware drain - pipes connecting dwellings with street sewers shall be hard and salt - glazed, sound and cylindrical; at least ⁵⁄₈ths of an inch thick if 5 - inches in diameter, and ³⁄₄ of an inch thick if 6 inches in diameter. - Pipe must be connected with hydraulic cement of the best quality. No - “tempered up” cement can be used. The pipes must be laid with such - good alignment that the inspector can see through the entire line from - the house to the sewer, and every section must be bedded in cement so - as to have a firm bearing, not only at the hub, but along its entire - length. The inside of the drain must be freed from all cement which - may have oozed through at the joints, and from all other obstructions. - Before the drain is covered notice must be sent to the Health - Department, by the owner or plumber, that the inspector may visit and - examine the work, and the Board of Health will not approve or permit a - drain which has not been examined by one of its inspectors and found - to be properly constructed. - - [209] See chapter on “Breaking up Streets.” - - [210] The definition of house is as follows:--“House” includes - schools, also factories and other buildings in which more than twenty - persons are employed at one time. (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 4) - - [211] Notices, orders, and other such documents under this Act may be - in writing or print, or partly in writing and partly in print; and if - the same require authentication by the local authority, the signature - thereof by the clerk to the local authority or their surveyor or - inspector of nuisances shall be sufficient authentication (38 & 39 - Vic. c. 55, s. 266). - - [212] Having obtained admission to the premises, the inspection of the - alleged nuisance should be so conducted as to enable the local - authority to determine whether it exists, or whether it existed at the - time the notice was given, and whether, although it has since been - removed or discontinued, it is likely to recur or to be repeated; and - in all cases it will be the most expedient course to reduce to writing - the result of the inspection. When the inspection is made by an - officer of the local authority, it will also be expedient for that - authority, on receiving the report of their officer formally and in - writing, to record the conclusions to which they have come after - considering his report in order to ground further proceedings. (_Vide_ - ‘Law of Public Health and Local Government,’ by W. C. and A. G. Glen, - 8th edition, p. 81.) - - [213] For ample information on the subject of house drainage and - similar subjects see the following books, etc.:-- Bailey Denton’s - ‘Sanitary Engineering’; Baldwin Latham’s ‘Sanitary Engineering’; - Buchan’s ‘Plumbing’; Slagg’s ‘Sanitary Work’; Hart’s ‘Manual of Public - Health’; Hellyer’s ‘Plumber and Sanitary Houses’; Galton’s ‘Healthy - Dwellings’; ‘House Drainage,’ by W. A. Tylor; Philbrick’s ‘American - Sanitary Engineering,’ and many others, besides the numerous reports - of the “Health of Towns Commission,” and several articles in the - _Sanitary Record_, the _Sanitary Engineer of New York_, and Mr. - Rawlinson’s ‘Hints,’ all of which should be studied by the town - surveyor. - - [214] In some parts of the north of England taper pipes are used about - 20 inches in length, the internal diameter of the larger end being - slightly greater than the external diameter of the smaller end, thus - allowing the small end of one pipe to enter the large end of another. - Continuous lengths of cement pipes made _in situ_ are also now being - introduced. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII. - -PUBLIC PLEASURE GROUNDS AND STREET TREES. - - -Amongst the clauses of the Public Health Act 1875 which affect the -duties of the town surveyor will be found the following: - -“Any urban authority may purchase or take on lease, lay out, plant, -improve, and maintain lands for the purpose of being used as public -walks or pleasure grounds, and may support or contribute to the support -of public walks or pleasure grounds provided by any person whomsoever. - -“Any urban authority may make bye-laws for the regulation of any such -public walk or pleasure ground, and may by such bye-laws provide for the -removal from such public walk or pleasure ground of any person -infringing any such bye-law by any officer of the urban authority or -constable” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 164). - -There are very few, if any, cities or towns in this country that have -not availed themselves of this clause, even if they did not already -possess one if not more public parks or pleasure grounds of some -description, these having either been given by some benevolent citizen -or acquired in some other manner by the urban authority.[215] - -Included in the powers given by the above clause are no doubt those -regulating the acquisition and support of recreation or public -playgrounds, public walks, or old city walls or other places, and -disused burying grounds.[216] - -In connection with the above clause of the Public Health Act, the town -surveyor may have the following duties to perform: - -To advise his corporation upon the value, suitability, and desirability -of any site that is intended for use as a public park or recreation -ground, and after its acquisition to adapt it for the requisite -purposes. To effect this it must be drained and laid out with -carriage-drives, walks, lawns, flower-beds, plantations, and sometimes -streams, waterfalls, and lakes. He must design and erect the necessary -lodges, entrance gates, fences, shelters, seats,[217] band-stands, and -fountains, and must afterwards superintend the maintenance of these and -the rest of the works in connection with the pleasure ground. - -It would be impossible to lay down any rules for the guidance of a -surveyor in carrying out these works, for each case must be dealt with -as its exigencies require, and a great deal of common sense, as well as -engineering, architectural, and artistic skill must be displayed by him -in carrying out any works of this description, details of which could -not possibly be given in a book of this size dealing with so many -subjects.[218] - -A few suggestions may, however, be of some service on these points. - -Public playgrounds for children should be composed of large, level, -well-rolled, gravelled spaces, with a few trees for shade, and some -sheds for shelter. Turf soon gets spoiled and worn bare, when it is not -so pleasant as well-rolled gravel, as it is far more dusty in dry -weather and very damp in wet, besides having an uncared-for appearance. - -In public parks, shrubs planted singly directly on the lawns without any -beds around them have a very pleasing look, although it adds somewhat to -the difficulty of mowing the grass. The grass itself is greatly improved -if it is well dressed with manure in the spring and constantly watered -all the year round. - -Paths should be gravelled in the autumn, care being taken to wait until -all the leaves have fallen, which are swept up and removed at once. A -good fence for a path, if any protection is necessary, is either a -strained wire fence or cast-iron hoops representing bent sticks. They -are both cheap, and stand well against weather and rough treatment. - -A very economical and neat border to the footpaths can be made from the -old used-up flagstones from the foot pavements of the streets, these cut -up and placed on edge, especially if in conjunction with a pitched -channel gutter of pebbles, look remarkably well. - -Ornamental flints make a pretty border, but they are nasty things for a -child to fall upon. - -For flower-beds a flat border or edge of ivy has a very telling effect. -If there are ponds or lakes in the park there should be a broad path or -road close to the water’s edge. It is surprising what a great advantage -in effect this has over the plan of leaving a strip of green between the -path and the water. - -The selection of the proper shrubs for a park and their distribution is -a matter that requires the advice of an expert gardener. The following -list of ordinary shrubs that will thrive well almost anywhere in this -country may however be of use for reference: - - Aucubas. - Azaleas. - Box. - Berberises. - Euonymus. - Hollies. - Ivies. - Laurels. - Lilacs. - Mahorrias. - Pampas grass. - Privet. - Rhododendrons. - Thorns. - Yuccas. - -With regard to the selection of trees, this also requires skilled -advice, but a list is given further on in this chapter, of trees -suitable for street planting, which may be also some guide in this -respect. - -In high gales of wind the surveyor may be expected to endeavour to save -valuable trees in a public park from being blown down. This may -sometimes be effected by a judicious application of chains or ropes, but -the better plan is to keep all trees well pruned and as free as possible -from “top hamper” and undue leverage from overhanging limbs. - -On the pruning of trees and the removal of large limbs I must refer my -readers to a most admirable little book recently published in America, -being a translation from the celebrated ‘Treatise on Pruning Forest and -Ornamental Trees, by A. des Cars,’ which enters most fully into the -subject, and being of great practical value, should be studied by anyone -who has anything to do with the care of forest or other trees.[219] - -With regard to the planting of trees along the sides of streets, our -French neighbours are much in advance of us.[220] It is true that in -this country, owing to the much larger consumption of coal as a domestic -fuel, there is more soot in the air, but it is erroneous to suppose that -trees will not thrive well in England. No doubt the moisture of our -climate causes the soot or “blacks” to adhere to the leaves and limbs of -the trees, but for that reason deciduous and not evergreen trees should -be selected for planting in towns, and these, if well chosen and -carefully planted, will most undoubtedly fully repay their first cost -and maintenance by the additional beauty to the street, the agreeable -shade they cast, and their generally healthful action on the population. - -In selecting trees to plant along the sides of the streets or roads in -any towns, it is well to bear in mind that the following qualities are -necessary:-- - -The tree must be hardy; it must not be affected by a long-continued -drought; heat must not wither it nor make it look rusty; it must be able -to withstand dust, smoke, soot, foul air, and the insidious attacks of -insects, and be able to recover from any malicious or accidental injury -it may receive. - -The tree must be of rapid growth, and develope a straight, clean stem -with shady foliage. It must be graceful either in full leaf or when bare -as in winter; its roots must not require too much room, and they must be -able to withstand the effects of pollution or rough treatment. - -Although the foregoing list of requirements may seem rather formidable, -yet amongst the trees whose names now follow there will be found some -which meet many, if not all of these requirements, and which, if -properly planted with all reasonable care, may be expected to thrive if -planted at the sides of the streets in any town in this country. - -LIST OF TREES SUITABLE FOR PLANTING AT THE SIDES OF STREETS. - - Western Plane. - Lime. - Maple. - Horse Chestnut. - Elm. - Tulip tree. - Lombardy Poplar. - Ash. - Willow. - Beech. - Birch. - Oak. - Sycamore. - Copper Beech. - Pawlonia. - Ailantus Glandulosa. - Laburnum. - Lilac. - Almond. - Peach. - Hawthorn. - Acacia. - Double Cherry, etc. - -Of the above list the western plane for many reasons is the most -desirable. Its freshness when it bursts into green buds is well known, -and it is proverbial for its hardiness. - -The lime was at one time the most popular tree for this purpose, but it -has several defects, the most notable being that its leaves wither -before the summer is over, and the tree assumes a lifeless look at a -time when most shade and freshness are required of it. - -Of the remainder of the trees I have enumerated some are slow in growth, -which is a considerable drawback; others are not wholly free from being -affected by cold winds in the spring or by lice in the winter, and the -assistance of an expert is very necessary in selecting trees for this -important purpose. - -Whatever trees are selected, the following precautions should be taken: - -The young tree should have been well nourished in its nursery before -removal, and should on no account be planted in the street until its -stem is nearly 10 feet in height and about 3 inches in diameter. The -stem should be clean and straight, and the whole tree symmetrical. - -The great difficulty in this country is to obtain sufficient numbers of -trees of the exact size and description, when it becomes necessary to -plant out a street. They have often to be imported, when it is found -that they are frequently unsuited both for soil and climate, besides -being very costly; thus many failures have arisen in consequence. To -obviate this necessity in Paris the Government have for many years -instituted and maintained special nurseries where trees are grown for -this purpose alone, these nurseries being situated at Passy, the Jardin -Fleuriste, and Petit Buy, no less than 115 men being constantly employed -in the work. Some further particulars will be given presently on the -cost of this work. - -The trees thus nourished and selected should be planted in the autumn, -for there is a well-known saying that “a tree planted before Christmas -can be _ordered_ to grow; if planted after Christmas it must be _asked_ -to do so”; and there is no doubt that if trees are planted too late in -the season great difficulty in getting them to grow is generally -experienced. - -The excavated pits must be well drained, and filling the bottom of the -pit with rubble is a good plan. The further the tree can be planted from -the kerb the better, so as not only to give it a larger body of soil, -but to lessen the risk of killing the tree by the pollution of the -ground with gas from a defective main, and also excess of moisture from -the channel gutters. The distance apart of the trees is a matter of -choice. In Paris this is only 16 to 18 feet, but I think half a chain -(33 feet) is quite close enough; it economises trees and gives plenty of -room for the limbs of each tree to spread, and the intermediate -lamp-posts, watering hydrants, or other standards are not crowded out. - -Each tree should have a cast-iron grating around its roots similar to -the following drawing:-- - -[Illustration] - -This should be about 4 feet square. It prevents the ground getting hard -about the trees, and permits air and water to enter to the roots. It -also makes it easy to give any attention to the trees that they may -require when young, such as manuring, digging, &c. - -The tree should also be protected with a slight iron grill or railing to -prevent mischievous persons from cutting their names on the trunk, -climbing up into the tree, or breaking off its branches whilst still -young. The following sketch shows the description of grill necessary, -which is light, cheap, and at the same time effective. - -[Illustration] - -The following interesting particulars of the manner in which street -planting of trees is conducted in Paris will be useful, and are given -_in extenso_:[221] - -“When the boulevarde is marked out and levelled, if the soil is of bad -quality, as is nearly always the case, trenches are dug in the footway -from one end of the boulevarde to the other. The width of this trench is -usually about 6 feet, and its depth 4 or 5; and before filling it in -drain-pipes are laid along the sides made with lapped joints so that the -roots shall not enter between them. The trench is then filled with good -garden earth, raising it a little higher than the level so as to allow -for settling. In this ground the trees are planted about 6 yards apart. -They should be carefully chosen with perfect roots, and moderately -pruned. Formerly the stem was cut at about 9 feet from the ground, but -this had the bad effect of preventing the top of the tree from being -straight, and the practice has been given up. The trees are next staked -and tied with wire over a neat wad of straw, which prevents all injury -to the stem. A protecting cage, neither heavy nor very expensive, is -placed round the tree to prevent accidents; and if the weather be at all -dry at the time of planting, the trees are copiously watered.” - -The cost of planting a tree in the Paris boulevarde is thus given:[222] - - fr. c. - - 15 cubic metres of excavation at 4 francs =60·00 - 15 cubic metres of vegetable mould at 4 francs =60·00 - Training poles about 5 metres in height = 1·50 - ------ - 121·50 - Average deduction of 15 per cent. resulting from - letting by tender 18·23 - ------ - Price by contract 103·27 - Pipe drainage and materials 11·15 - Watering appliance (average) 2·50 - Cast iron grating round the base 46·69 - Transport of tree from nursery 2·00 - Planting, including stakes 3·00 - Iron basket (to protect stem) 8·70 - The tree 5·00 - Labour for planting 1·69 - ------ - 184·00 - -The maintenance of each tree costs 1·58 francs. - -The total cost, therefore, of each tree capitalised reaches about 8_l._, -and its life is said not to exceed twelve years. - -Before closing this chapter it is well to advert to the evident -importance that the legislature attach to the planting and preservation -of trees along the sides of the public streets in this country and their -desire to protect them, as the following clause of the Public Health Act -1875 will show. “. . . Any person who, without the consent of the urban -authority, wilfully displaces or takes up, or who injures the pavement, -stones, materials, fences, or posts of, _or the trees_ in any such -street shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds, and to a -further penalty not exceeding five shillings for every square foot of -pavement, stones, or other materials so displaced, taken up, or injured; -he shall also be liable in the case of _any injury to trees_ to pay to -the local authority such amount of compensation as the court may award” -(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 149). - -It is a great source of regret that mischievous persons can be found who -by their wilful malice injure the trees planted at the sides of streets -out of the public funds and with great expense and trouble. - - [215] By the “Commons Act 1876,” powers were given to acquire and lay - out commons for purposes of public recreation, etc. - - [216] Upon this latter point _Vide_ 24 & 25 Vic. c. 61, s. 21. - - [217] As a preservative against the malicious disfigurement of wooden - seats, I have seen the following inscription placed upon some seats in - an old public park, “Never cut a friend,” and it had apparently the - desired effect. - - [218] As an instance of the size and importance works of this - description may assume, the Bois de Boulogne, Paris, is an example. It - covers an area of 2000 acres, of which one half is forest, one quarter - is grass, one-eighth roads, and about 70 acres is water. One of the - most beautifully arranged public parks in this country is Sefton Park, - Liverpool, where the most perfect arrangements of lawns, plantations, - lakes and drives, have been carried out. - - [219] ‘A Treatise on Pruning Forest and Ornamental Trees,’ by A. des - Cars, translated from the 7th French edition, with an introduction by - Charles S. Sargent, etc. Published by A. Williams and Co., Boston, - U.S.A., 1881. - - [220] In Paris in the year 1880, there were 90,000 trees in the - streets, besides 20,000 more in the cemeteries. (_Vide_ Report of Mr. - Till, the Borough Surveyor of Birmingham, 20th December, 1880.) There - are also upwards of 8000 seats in public places; the trees and seats - costing nearly 100,000_l._ per annum to maintain. - - [221] _Vide_ ‘The Parks, Promenades, and Gardens of Paris,’ by W. - Robinson, F.L.S., 1869, p. 128. - - [222] _Vide_ ‘L’Architecte,’ 20th November, 1880, p. 370. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII. - -PUBLIC ABATTOIRS. - - -The following is the clause of the Public Health Act 1875 which empowers -an urban authority to establish public slaughter-houses (or -“abattoirs“[223] as they are sometimes called) for the purposes of the -district they govern: - -“Any urban authority may, if they think fit, provide slaughter-houses, -and they shall make bye-laws with respect to the management and charges -for the use of any slaughterhouses so provided. - -“For the purpose of enabling any urban authority to regulate -slaughter-houses within their district, the provisions of the Towns -Improvement Clauses Act 1847, with respect to slaughter-houses, shall be -incorporated with this Act.[224] - -“Nothing in this section shall prejudice or affect any rights, powers, -or privileges of any persons incorporated by any local Act passed before -the passing of the Public Health Act 1848, for the purpose of making and -maintaining slaughter-houses” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 169). - -The great necessity for the establishment of one or more public -slaughter-houses in any town can only fully be realised by persons who -will take the trouble to inspect those which are private; they are -generally placed near the shops of the butchers for the sake of -convenience, the result being that they are situated in the central -portions of the town and are thus surrounded by closely packed -dwellings. The private slaughter house often consists of a stable or -shed which has been converted into an ill-designed slaughter-house, -badly paved, with imperfect drainage; they are frequently not -sufficiently lighted, ventilated or drained, and are utterly unfitted -for the purposes for which they are used. - -Their position also is often so badly chosen that the children in the -vicinity resort there to see the animals killed, and the poor beasts -have in some cases to be driven through a narrow passage into the -slaughter-house itself, where, trembling at the sight and smell of the -blood and carcasses of its dead companions, it remains tethered until -its turn comes to fall a victim to the blow of the slaughter-man: a blow -which sometimes has often to be repeated before its object is attained, -owing to the bad light and cramped surroundings of the place. - -As these slaughter-houses are generally rented by the butcher using them -at large rentals (such accommodation being scarce), it is not to be -expected that he will spend much money to improve property which is not -his own; but notwithstanding the loss of weight incurred by the animal -to be slaughtered thus fretting and sweating in its terror, the damage -to the meat by its being dressed in the same locality with the live -beast, steaming and smelling in the vicinity, and the exorbitant rents -demanded, still there are great objections always raised by butchers in -towns to the establishment of public slaughter-houses. These objections -are based by them on the following grounds: - -They contend that the carriage of the meat from the slaughter-house to -their shop deprives them of some of their profits; that slaughtering -their animals in the presence of other butchers leads to disparaging -remarks and trade jealousies, and that they sometimes are robbed of fat, -tools, &c. - -These arguments are groundless if the public abattoir is properly -designed, is in a suitable locality, and is well managed. - -There are no powers by which butchers can be compelled to abandon -private slaughter-houses, and use those provided by the urban authority, -so long as the bye-laws of the authority are not infringed; but as the -law stands at present, private slaughter-houses may be licensed (10 & 11 -Vic. c. 34, ss. 125, 126) or registered (10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, s. 127), -and the only manner in which they could be closed (which would then -compel the butcher to use the public abattoir) would be by putting the -129th section of the same Act in force, which states that the justices -before whom any person is convicted of killing or dressing cattle -contrary to the provision of the Act, or of the non-observance of any -bye-law or regulation of the local authority, in addition to the penalty -may suspend _the licence_ for any period not exceeding two months; or in -the case of the owner of any _registered_ slaughter-house may forbid for -any period not exceeding two months, the slaughtering of cattle therein. -For a second or other subsequent like offence, in addition to the -penalty the justices may revoke the licence or absolutely forbid the -slaughtering of cattle in the particular house or yard. In such an event -the local authority may refuse to grant any _licence_ whatever to the -person whose licence has been revoked, or on account of whose default -the slaughtering of cattle in any _registered_ slaughter-house has been -forbidden. - -With reference to the establishment anew of the business of a -slaughterer of cattle in London, the following particulars required to -be deposited by the applicant with the Metropolitan Board of Works will -be useful. - -A plan of the premises and sections of the building drawn to a scale of -¹⁄₄-inch to the foot and showing the proposed or existing arrangements -for drainage, lighting, ventilation, and water supply, with a key plan -of the locality, have to be deposited, as well as replies to the -following questions: - -(1.) State what place for the accommodation or poundage of the cattle -about to be slaughtered is provided; if such place has an entrance way -for the cattle otherwise than through the slaughter-house; if separated -from the slaughter-house by a brick partition with a door; and also what -provision is made therein for watering animals. - -(2.) State if slaughter-house and its poundage is within 20 feet of an -inhabited building; and if it has any entrance opening directly on a -public highway. - -(3.) State if the entrance to the premises is apart from and independent -of any shop or dwelling-house; if from a street at the side or rear; and -also the height of the entrance gates. - -(4.) State the dimensions of the slaughter-house, length, breadth, -height to eaves, and construction of the roof; and give similar -information about the poundage. - -(5.) State if slaughter-house and poundage are drained by glazed pipes -communicating with public sewer, or how; how drains are trapped; and if -gratings have openings greater than three-eighths of an inch across. - -(6.) State if floors are below level of outside road or footway, and if -paved with asphalte, or flag-stone set in cement, or how. - -(7.) State how walls of slaughter-house are constructed, and if they are -covered with hard smooth and impervious material to a height of at least -4 feet; and, if so, state what material is used, and to what height it -is carried. - -(8.) State how slaughter-house and poundage are lighted, if with -lantern, sky, or side-lights, or otherwise. - -(9.) State how ventilated, if by openings, windows, louvre boards, or -otherwise. - -(10.) State what provision is made for water-supply, the capacity of the -cistern, and at what height it is placed above floor level. - -(11.) State if any watercloset, privy, urinal, cesspool, or stable, is -within, or communicates directly with the slaughter-house. - -(12.) State if any rooms or lofts are constructed, or proposed to be -constructed, over the slaughter-house. - -(13.) State if the premises will be provided with all the necessary and -most approved apparatus and tackle for the slaughtering of cattle. - -Having thus far dealt with private slaughter-houses, I will now turn to -the question of the provision of public establishments of the kind by -the urban authority, for it is usually the duty of the town surveyor to -advise his corporation upon such a matter. - -First, as to the site of the proposed public abattoir, this depends -greatly upon what sites are at the command of the town; it should if -possible be near the cattle market to prevent the passage of animals -through the streets, not only on account of the great public -inconvenience, but also the loss of weight to the animal[225] and the -heated and bad state into which its blood becomes from the exercise, and -the violent blows of the drovers’ sticks. - -The site would be isolated and yet not too far from the shops of the -butchers, or the cost of carriage of the meat will be considerable; it -is almost needless to say that it should be easily and effectively -drained, and the more air with which it can be surrounded the better. It -is imperative that the entrance for the live beasts should be separate -from the exit of the dead meat, and the approach roads to the site -should not be narrow. - -In laying out the site every town surveyor must use his own judgment, -but the following plan on which the site of the excellent public -abattoir at Manchester is laid out may serve as some guide for this -purpose, although of course this establishment is on a very large scale -indeed, and is in connection with a carcass market more than 500 feet -in length: - -[Illustration: PLAN OF MANCHESTER SLAUGHTER-HOUSE.] - -In designing an abattoir on a large scale provision for the following -accommodation should be considered. - -(1.) _Lairs for cattle and pens for sheep._ - -These should be separated from the slaughter-house by a smaller -temporary lair in which the beast whose turn has come can be fastened to -the halter by which he is dragged into the slaughter-house, the sides of -the door-way being lined with iron for this purpose. The paving of the -lairs may be of asphalte, but care must be taken that near the door of -slaughter-house, the paving is of pitchers or something that is not at -all slippery, as here the frightened beast often struggles and draws -back when he sees the “engines of destruction” in the slaughter-house, -and smells the blood of those who have gone before. - -The lairs must be thoroughly well drained, lighted, and ventilated, and -troughs for hay and water placed for each beast, for although the -animals are not expected to remain long in the lairs before being -killed, still it is very important that they should be well and kindly -treated, and rest, so that they may obtain their normal condition before -being killed. - -A door easily closed should shut off the lair from the slaughter-house, -as it is open to question, if animals do not see with fear the hapless -fate of their comrades; for this and other obvious reasons the animals -must on no account be permitted to pass through the slaughter-house to -reach the lair. - -The lairs should be well lighted artificially, as a great deal of -slaughtering is conducted before and after daylight. - -(2.) _The slaughter-houses._ - -These may be separate or in one long building used in common by the -butchers; both systems have their advantages and disadvantages. - -The long building has the advantage of greater economy in erection and -of management, as one inspector can see from end to end of it. Where -also a large site is not available greater advantage can be taken of a -slaughter-house erected on this plan, as several butchers can slaughter -in turn; the lairs, however, must be kept separate. The butchers do not -like this plan, but prefer privacy, and a great deal of “horse play” is -sometimes indulged in by the slaughtermen at work in a large building. -The method of payment for the use of a slaughter-house of this -description cannot well be by rent, but by head of animal slaughtered, -and this is open to the objection of possible fraud. It is necessary -also to have separate slaughter-houses for the sheep and the pigs. - -Whether the slaughter-houses are constructed separately or in one long -building, the detail requirements are much the same. - -The pavement of the floor should be placed on concrete and it should be -constructed of some material that is easily cleansed, is impervious to -moisture, and is not slippery either wet or dry. It must also be of -sufficient durability, and be strong enough to bear the weight of the -dead-meat carts which have to back in over it under the beams carrying -the carcasses, should there be no dead meat market in connection with -the slaughter-house as at Manchester, Dundee, &c. - -The requirements of such a floor are met by good natural compressed or -mastic asphalte. The necessary holes for the reception of the flaying -sticks used in many parts of England can be easily managed by inserting -either small brass sockets specially made, or more simply by pieces of -gas-pipe cut into lengths of about an inch set tight in the asphalte. - -The walls of the slaughter-house must be of sufficient strength to carry -the beams or girders of the overhead hoisting gear, as well as some tons -of hanging carcasses, as will presently be explained. - -The inside of these walls must be lined to a height of about 6 feet -above the floor line with some material which is impervious and easily -cleansed. Glazed white tiles or bricks are sometimes used for this -purpose, but are apt to get chipped or broken, and I have found that -asphalte, although dark in colour, answers the purpose admirably, and is -much cheaper. - -With regard to the drainage of the slaughter-house, this should, if -possible, be so arranged that there are no gratings or gully-pits in the -house itself. The floor should fall about 1 in 30 from the lairs to the -cart doors, so that everything should pass outside into a gutter in -which the necessary gratings and gully-pits can be arranged. If this is -thought to be objectionable, pits with double gratings, the lower one -being only a plate with perforated holes, can be placed in the -slaughter-house so as to prevent any solid matter whatever from entering -the drains, and these pits can be united by short drains with gully-pits -outside. The double grating should in any case be inserted, as by this -means all solid matter is kept out of the drains: a very important -consideration. - -The cart doors should be made sliding, and not hinged, or great -inconvenience will be experienced, and they must be made wide enough for -the carts to back in easily. - -In some slaughter-houses the killing ring to which the beast is attached -whilst the blow from the poleaxe is given[226] consists of a strong -horse-shoe shaped piece of iron projecting about 24 inches from the wall -at a height of about 18 inches, and having a ring in the top curve, -thus-- - -[Illustration] - -whilst in others the killing ring is on the floor, thus-- - -[Illustration] - -and in others an iron pillar standing up from the floor is used, which -is considered the best plan, as the beast should stand in a natural and -easy position at about a right angle from the feller. - -The lighting of the slaughter-house should be effected from the roof, as -a good and steady light is essential to the men engaged in this -business. An awkward cut may seriously damage good beef or mutton. Care -must, however, be taken to exclude the glare of the sun, and the -ventilation should be carefully arranged by louvres easily manipulated. - -Water should be plentifully laid on at a good pressure, so as to ensure -thorough flushing, &c., and the necessary taps should be recessed in the -walls, as everything in a building of this description should be kept as -flush as possible, or it will be damaged. In some slaughter-houses hot -water is laid on, and this is a great boon to the butchers and much -appreciated by them. - -Gas must of course be laid on, as much slaughtering takes place during -the night. - -The machinery for hoisting the beasts and slinging the carcasses -requires to be effective, simple, and very strong, as it is subjected to -the roughest treatment, and such machinery has been patented and is -erected by Messrs. John Meiklejon and Son, of Dalkeith, on very -reasonable terms.[227] - -This machinery hoists the beast by simply pulling on an endless chain. -It remains suspended at any height, and can be equally easily lowered. -The divided carcass can be placed upon hooks at any point along the -girders above without being touched, and it can be taken off again and -lowered on to a man’s shoulders or into the cart direct, and in fact, -speaking from my own experience, this machinery is very perfect. - -The carcasses of the sheep are hung by hand upon hooks projecting from -rails which are placed at a convenient height around the walls of the -slaughter-house. - -In some abattoirs the sheep slaughter-houses are distinct from those -used for killing beasts, and this method has many advantages. - -Before proceeding to describe the further requirements of an abattoir or -group of slaughter-houses, I think the following plan will be of use to -show the arrangement which I have described with regard to lairs and -slaughter-houses:-- - -[Illustration: PLAN - -SECTION THROUGH A.B.] - -The following plan shows the arrangements adopted in the Metropolitan -Cattle Market slaughter-houses: - -[Illustration: METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET SLAUGHTER-HOUSES.] - -(3.) _The condemned meat department._ - -This should consist of a lair for suspected cattle, a lair and -slaughter-house for the condemned cattle similar to that already -described, and a condemned meat store: this being the place where not -only all the diseased animals’ carcasses are temporarily stored pending -destruction, but also any meat of sound beasts that may have gone bad -after killing, &c. The whole of the meat thus placed in the condemned -store must be taken to the boiling-down house, where it is destroyed by -being boiled down to fat, which is disposed of for various trade -purposes. - -The following description of the method employed for this purpose at the -Deptford Foreign Cattle Market will here be of use:[228] - -“There are several killing houses for diseased cattle, and excellent -apparatus for boiling down condemned meat. For this purpose two boilers -are suspended from a strong platform through which they pass, and the -bottoms of them are several feet above the floor. They are each 4 feet 6 -inches in diameter and 10 feet in length under platform. At the bottom -the cylinder tapers to 2 feet 8 inches in diameter. Under this there is -a semispherical bottom to the boiler hinged and kept shut by a -back-weighted lever and screws. On the top of each there is a -semispherical cover and safety valve. - -“There is an iron crane and windlass for lifting off and on the covers. -After the boilers are charged with diseased meat the covers are made -secure and steam let into them near the bottom. There is a cock in the -bottom of each for running off the liquid at certain stages into a trap -grating in the floor under it, and conducted into a cement cistern -outside of the boiling-house, from which it is periodically removed. -Whether any use is made of the tallow produced I am not informed. The -bones when removed are quite porous, of a very white colour, and nearly -as light as cork. I presume that they will be sold for being converted -into bone manure. I understand these large boilers are not very often -used, and that a small close galvanized iron cylinder, 2 feet 9 inches -in diameter, and 2 feet 6 inches high, placed 15 inches above the -ground, having cock at bottom, steam pipe at side, and portable lid, -does most of the work very efficiently.” - -(4.) _The pig-killing department._ - -This should be separate from the ordinary slaughter-house, as the styes -for pigs must be differently arranged to the cattle lairs, and a boiler -house is necessary, as boiling water must be had for scalding and -dressing the carcasses. Special iron troughs with false bottoms have -been arranged by Messrs. Meiklejon, which greatly facilitate this part -of the butcher’s work, and simple hoisting apparatus over these troughs -lifts the carcase in and out, and carries it off to the cooling or -hanging room, which must of necessity be separate from the killing and -scalding rooms. Drainage, lighting, ventilation and floors should be -similar to those described for the slaughter-houses, and plenty of lime -wash can be used with advantage here as well as in the main -slaughter-house. - -(5.) _The blood house._ - -The blood of the slaughtered animals, which formerly was allowed to run -away, has been found to contain a most valuable aniline dye, and for -this purpose it is now collected and taken to the blood-houses, where in -order to obtain this dye it is necessary to place the blood in shallow -tins, where it is warmed by steam-pipes, the liquid is then drawn off, -which is the albumen from which the dye is extracted, the residuum left -in the trays is of the consistency of jelly, and is sold for manure. - -(6.) _The tripery._ - -This is provided in large abattoirs for the purpose of preparing the -tripe and feet of the slaughtered animals, and in the Glasgow public -slaughter-houses this is effected by the corporation free of charge by -special machinery adapted for the purpose. - -(7.) _The tallow market._ - -Where tallow is melted down, and moulded in shapes for manufacturers’ -uses. - -(8.) _The hide store._ - -This is where the hides and sheep skins are weighed and temporarily -stored, sometimes in connection with this are-- - -(9.) _Sale rooms_; for the hides, skins of sheep, &c., and tallow. - -In addition to the above requirements may be mentioned, - -(10.) _A superintendent’s dwelling-house and office._ - -(11.) _A gate keeper’s dwelling-house and office._ - -(12.) _A weighing machine and office._ - -(13.) _A convenient room_ for the meetings of the committee of the -corporation having charge of the slaughter-house. - -(14.) _Waiting rooms_ for dealers, drovers, slaughtermen, and butchers, -&c. - -(15.) _Store-rooms and a joiner’s workshop._ - -(16.) _Stables and shedding_ for the horses and carts of the jobbers and -butchers, &c. - -(17.) _Lofts for straw and hay_; the former should be provided free by -the corporation, the latter on payment of so much per diem for each -beast. - -(18.) _The necessary urinal and w. c. accommodation._ - -With regard to the provision to be made for storing the dung and waste -refuse from public slaughter-houses, I am strongly of opinion that there -should not be any fixed receptacle for such matters, but that covered -carts should be provided, which could stand in convenient positions and -be removed every day, a fresh and clean cart being substituted at once -for the one removed; by this means all nuisance is avoided. - -Speaking of public abattoirs, in a recent lecture on Industrial -Nuisances, Dr. C. W. Chancellor, of the Maryland State Board of Health -U.S.A., gives some advice on the management of slaughter-houses. He -says: “During the process of slaughtering as much care as possible -should be taken to prevent the discharge of blood or other animal matter -upon the floor of the slaughter-house, upon the surrounding earth, or -into an open stream. The contents of the viscera should, with the blood, -offal and other garbage, be placed in impervious, covered, moveable -receptacles, constructed of galvanized iron or other non-absorbent -material, and removed from the premises without undue delay. Where hides -or skins are necessarily retained for a day or two before they can be -removed, they might without injury be advantageously brushed over on the -fleshy side with a solution of carbolic acid or some other antiseptic. -Fat should be freely exposed to the air in a cool place. As soon as the -slaughtering is completed the whole slaughter-house, floor and walls, -should be thoroughly washed. All the vessels and implements used in the -slaughtering should be kept clean and sweet. Deodorizers may sometimes -be used with advantage.” - -There can be no doubt that whereas private slaughter-houses are -frequently a most injurious nuisance to the neighbourhood in which they -are placed, owing to their situation and construction, and a visit to -one of them is likely to give a strong impetus to vegetarianism, the -public abattoir, on however large a scale, if properly constructed and -managed, need be no nuisance whatever, and every town in the kingdom -should endeavour to obtain one, not only on account of the nuisance -caused by private slaughter-houses, but for the incentive which is given -to butchers to abstain from slaughtering diseased or unwholesome -animals, the prevention of cruelty, and the material benefits derived in -a proper establishment for the best methods of dressing the meat. - - [223] The word “abattoir” is a French word from “abattre” to fell, it - is used in this country to designate a group of slaughter-houses. - - [224] The clauses referred to are contained in 10 & 11 Vic. c. 34, and - are ss. 125, 126, et seq.; they refer to the registration, licensing - and management of private slaughter-houses, and need not be commented - upon here. - - [225] An ordinary beast is said to lose 3 cwt. in weight in a journey - from Edinburgh to London. - - [226] The pole-axe should be of the American pattern, which has a head - hollow and very sharp round the periphery. The practise is, after the - blow is struck and the animal felled, to plunge a thin cane into the - wound, which passes down the spine, causing instantaneous death whilst - the animal is lying stunned. - - [227] The following is from the patent specification of this - machinery: - - “Letters patent to John Meiklejon, of Westfield Iron Works, Dalkeith, - in the County of Mid-Lothian, Scotland, for the invention of new or - improved machinery and appliances to be used in hoisting, removing, - dividing, and hanging on hooks, taking off these hooks again, and - loading carcasses and other bodies in abattoirs, carcass and meat - markets, and other places.” - - “The machinery and appliances above referred to enable the operations - above named to be performed without the necessity of the butchers - touching the meat. Also enables carcasses to be conveyed from - abattoirs to carcass market on a travelling hoist (hereafter - described), same being provided with rows of fixed jointed hooks or - loops, attached to rails on which the hoist runs, so that the - travelling hoist is enabled to hang the carcasses or bodies on to such - hooks or loops. Also enables a butcher to hang a carcass on any of - these hooks or loops, and pick them off again, and load on a vehicle, - without moving or touching any of the other carcasses hanging on the - other hooks. Also enables all operations to be performed, from - hoisting when killed to loading when sold or removed from market.” - - [228] _Vide_ ‘Report on the New Cattle Market and Abattoirs proposed - to be erected at Carolina Port, Dundee,’ by William Mackison, F.R.I.B. - A., &c. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX. - -MARKETS. - - -Under certain conditions urban authorities are empowered to provide -markets in their district by the following clause of the Public Health -Act 1875: - -“Where an urban authority are a local board or improvement -commissioners, they shall have power, with the consent of the owners and -ratepayers of their district, expressed by resolution passed in manner -provided by Schedule III. to this Act, and where the urban authority are -a town council they shall have power, with the consent of two thirds of -their number, to do the following things, or any of them, within their -district: - -“To provide a market place, and construct a market house and other -conveniences, for the purpose of holding markets: - -“To provide houses and places for weighing carts: - -“To make convenient approaches to such market: - -“To provide all such matters and things as may be necessary for the -convenient use of such market: - -“To purchase or take on lease land, and public or private rights in -markets and tolls for any of the foregoing purposes: - -“To take stallages, rents and tolls in respect of the use by any person -of such market: - -“But no market shall be established in pursuance of this section so as -to interfere with any rights, powers, or privileges enjoyed within the -district by any person without his consent” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. -166). - -In many towns, markets both for cattle and general merchandise have been -already established, and the duties of the town surveyor are simply to -execute the necessary alterations and maintenance of the buildings in -connection with them, but there may be occasions on which he has to -advise his corporation upon the acquisition of land for the purpose of -laying it out as a cattle market, and afterwards the erection of the -necessary pens and buildings, and a few remarks upon the subject may be -of some service. - -The site for a cattle market should be selected, if practicable, near to -a railway station, so as to avoid as much as possible the dangerous and -objectionable practice of driving cattle and sheep through the streets, -and for the same reasons it should be near the public slaughter-houses -if there are any in the town. Plenty of space should be provided in the -market for the cattle to move about in, for it must be remembered that -many of them which are sent to market are unused to the bustle of a -town, and are wild and untractable, and have never in their lives been -subjected to either penning or tethering. - -The site must be easily and effectively drained, it should be somewhat -isolated with respect to neighbouring buildings, the more air that can -be got to sweep through it the better. - -The accommodation necessary in a cattle market must vary considerably -with the requirements of the district, but the following list may be -given for selection: - -(1.) Pens or lairs for fat beasts. - -(2.) Pens or lairs for store cattle. - -(3.) Pens or lairs for cows with calves. - -(4.) Pens or lairs for calves. - -(5.) Pens for sheep. - -(6.) Pens or styes for pigs. - -(7.) Covered sheds or stables for horses. - -(8.) A space for showing horses off. - -(9.) Sheds for agricultural implements. - -(10.) Shops for the display of seeds, ropes, tarpaulins, sacks, etc. - -(11.) Accommodation for auctioneers. - -(12.) Lodges and offices for the superintendent or gate keeper. - -(13.) A weighing machine and office. - -(14.) A corn exchange (this is sometimes provided in the general -market). - -The entrance to a cattle market may with advantage be provided with -double sets of gates, with a space between in which flocks of sheep or -herds of cattle can be temporarily penned; a wicket gate in the second -set of gates will enable the toll collecter to count the number of -animals easily as they pass through into the market. - -The paving of the market should be of granite pitches, as it is -essential that it should not be slippery, or the cattle, which usually -arrive in a very excited condition, will fall and injure themselves; -this description of paving is also fairly impervious, and is easily -cleansed. - -The paving of the lairs and pens may, however, be of asphalte. - -For the cattle there may be enclosures for loose bullocks as well as -divisions in which the cattle are tethered; these divisions and -enclosures may be constructed of brick walls about 4 feet 6 inches in -height, or posts and rails of wood and iron, strongly fastened iron -rings about 4 feet apart are necessary to which the beasts must be -tethered. - -The paving must be kept high towards the head of the beast in order to -show him off to the greatest advantage. - -Large painted signboards should be fixed over the entrance of each -compartment, to designate to which class it belongs, in order to avoid -confusion or mistake. There should be drinking troughs for all cattle, -and hydrants should be fixed all about the market, so that it can be -thoroughly flushed and washed down. - -The sheep-pens can be constructed with iron or wood posts and rails with -the whole of one side opening as a gate, they should be about 3 feet in -height, and the floor should slope up from the point at which the -purchaser will stand in order that the sheep at the far end of the pen -may not appear diminutive.[229] - -The gates of the sheep-pens should be strongly stayed, as they make most -convenient seats on which the drovers and heavy farmers sit whilst they -drive their bargains. - -With regard to the dimensions of the pens and lairs, the following sizes -are suggested as sufficient spaces for different animals, in the modern -bye-laws, emanating from the Local Government Board in 1877, with -respect to markets: - - For every horse 8 feet by 2 feet. - For every ox or cow 8 „ „ 2 „ - For every mule or ass 5 „ „ 1 feet 6 inches. - For every calf 5 „ „ 1 „ 3 „ - For every sheep, goat or pig (of medium size) 4 feet superficial. - -The pens for calves and the styes for pigs should be covered, and their -floors should be about 3 feet 6 inches above the general level of the -market, as animals of this description are generally brought in carts, -and they could thus be easily moved out and in. - -These pens and styes must of course be thoroughly well drained and -ventilated. - -With regard to the weighing machine, this should be of the best -manufacture, and be of sufficient size to weigh a large wagon. It is -better to have what is called a “self contained” iron foundation, and -pit for the weighbridge rather than one of masonry. A convenient size -for this weighbridge would be 15 feet in length by 12 feet in breadth. - -With reference to the rest of the provisions I have enumerated, they -require no special comment, but must necessarily be left to the -discretion of the town surveyor and the wishes of his corporation. - -Markets for general merchandise are usually handsome buildings, which -are erected in the most central positions of the town; they contain: - -(1.) The corn exchange (this is sometimes erected in the cattle market). - -(2.) The fish market. - -(3.) The dead meat market (this is sometimes erected in connection with -the public slaughter-houses). - -(4.) The game and poultry market. - -(5.) The fruit, vegetable and flower market. - -(6.) The butter, eggs and cheese market. - -(7.) The miscellaneous goods market. - -(8.) Public conveniences. - -(9.) Offices and dwelling for the clerk of the market. - -(10.) Committee room for the market committee. - -The floor of the market should be on a level as much as is practicable -with the adjacent streets; steps up or down are objectionable for the -public, and galleries or upper floors should also be avoided unless the -available area of the site is limited. - -The interior of the building should be lofty, and it must be thoroughly -well ventilated; the great fault with nearly all existing markets is the -cutting draught to which buyers and sellers are usually subjected. - -Plenty of light is essential, but the rays of the sun should be -excluded by frosted glass or other contrivance, or the goods exposed for -sale will be damaged. - -The floor should be of asphalte or other similar material; it is -surprising what a “mess” is always made in a market. - -The stalls must be so arranged as to show to best advantage the goods -offered, and plenty of “gangway” should be left between them for the -passage of the public. - -Fish stalls should be constructed of iron, slate or similar material, -plenty of water being provided in this department; fish-washing troughs -filled with running water are very desirable, and a fountain can be -introduced with pleasing effect. - -Butchers’ stalls should be of thick wood to resist the chopping, and -plenty of standards and rails provided with iron hooks must be fixed -above them. - -A great number of moveable iron “offal boxes” should be placed in -different parts of the market, which must be cleared at least once a -day, and the market should be frequently flushed and cleansed with water -from hydrants fixed in different parts of the building. - -Many other points will no doubt suggest themselves to town surveyors, -who have the important work of designing either cattle or general -markets to undertake, but the few suggestions which have been given may -be of some use. - - [229] The following is a description of the manner in which the sheep - are penned in the cattle market of la Villette at Paris:--“The - enclosures or pens are all of iron, those for the sheep have a centre - railing 3 feet 3 inches high, and cross railings 1 foot 9 inches high; - the former with three horizontal rails and vertical rods, and the - latter two horizontal rails and vertical rods. There is a distance of - 15 feet betwixt the high railings, which is divided into three by iron - posts 21 inches high. The first row of these posts is placed at a - distance of 3 feet from the low cross railing at the passage, the - second row 18 inches from the first, the third 3 feet from the second, - and so on. The sheep are placed in line side by side as close as they - can stand, with their heads up to the low rail. A moveable hurdle of - wood is then set on edge between the sheep in rear and the iron posts - just described. A passage of 18 inches is left clear, and then another - row of sheep and another passage, and so on. In this manner a great - number of sheep are put into little space, in such a way as all can be - examined with the greatest ease.” (_Vide_ ‘Report on the New Cattle - Market and Abattoirs proposed to be erected at Carolina Port, Dundee,’ - by W. Mackison, F.R.I.B.A., &c., Town Surveyor, Dundee). - - - - -CHAPTER XXX. - -CEMETERIES. - - -Amongst the many duties that a town surveyor has to perform is sometimes -included that of laying out land for a large burial ground or cemetery, -and its management after construction. Power is given to all local -authorities to become burial authorities by the Public Health Interments -Act 1879, and so strongly is the need felt for what is called extramural -interment, that the Local Government Board may compel a local authority -to provide and maintain cemeteries. Power is also given for the -compulsory purchase of land for this purpose (see sections 175, 176, of -the Public Health Act 1875), and the cemetery may be placed either -within or without the district over which the local authority exercise -their jurisdiction, and many other privileges are granted in order to -encourage the acquisition of land so far removed from habitations as to -make the burial ground as sanitary as the practice of burying human -bodies can be made. - -Land once consecrated or used for burial cannot afterwards be sold or -used for secular purposes, except of course by an Act of Parliament; -“footpaths may, however, be provided in a consecrated but disused burial -ground, and the ground may be planted, so as in effect, though not -nominally, to make it a public garden.”[230] - -A cemetery must not be constructed within 200 yards of any dwelling -house, without the consent in writing of the owner, lessee, and occupier -of such house; but there is no prohibition upon anyone to prevent their -building a house close to a cemetery after it has been established.[231] - -Chapels may be built in cemeteries for the performance of the burial -services, and the grounds may be laid out and embellished as the local -authority may deem fit. The cemetery must be enclosed by walls or other -sufficient fences or iron railings 8 feet in height; it must be properly -sewered and drained, but such drainage must not flow into any “stream, -canal, reservoir, aqueduct, pond or watering place.”[232] - -Cemeteries are divided into consecrated and unconsecrated portions by -bond stones or other suitable marks; a chapel must be built upon the -consecrated portion, although it does not seem to be compulsory to do so -upon the unconsecrated portion. - -The selection of a proper site on sanitary and other grounds for a -cemetery is one of the greatest importance, and a town surveyor, or -anyone who has this duty to perform, cannot do better than keep the -following words of the well-known sanitary engineer Mr. Eassie before -him:[233] - -“A well-chosen cemetery is one whose soil is dry, close, and yet porous, -permitting the rain and its accompanying air to reach a reasonable -depth, and so expedite decay. The formation is also well covered with -vegetable mould, which assists in neutralising any hurtful emanations, -and encourages the growth of shrubs. The subsoil is also of such a kind -as to need no under draining, and such as will prevent the water lodging -in any grave or vault. It will also stand exposed to the north or north -east winds which are dry, and which do not hold the putrefactive gases -in solution, like the moist south or south westerly winds.” - -“An improperly chosen graveyard may be said to be one where the soil is -dense and clayey, and impervious to moisture. It will be insufficiently -drained, necessitating the use of planks to walk upon in wet weather. It -will be too close to the abodes of the living, too small to permit -proper planting, the graves covered, it may be with flat stones which -prevent the passage downwards of the air and rain, and surrounded -moreover by high walls which exclude the fresh air. The ground will be -stony and insufficiently covered with vegetable soil. No natural outfall -will exist, and the drainage water must be pumped up, the bare idea of -which is horrible. It will be near also to water-bearing strata, or to a -reservoir. Long before decomposition has taken place owing to the -smallness of the site, and the impossibility of obtaining any more land -except at high building prices, the organic matter hidden out of sight -will be far too large in proportion to the area.” - -Dr. Parsons, in a memorandum prepared by him on the “Sanitary -Requirements of Cemeteries” and published by the Local Government Board -in their eleventh annual report, says: - -“The soil of a cemetery should be of an open, porous nature, with -numerous close interstices, through which air and moisture may pass in a -finely divided state freely in every direction. In such a soil decay -proceeds rapidly, and the products of decomposition are absorbed or -oxidised. The soil should be easily worked, yet not so loose as to -render the work of excavation dangerous through the liability to falls -of earth. It should be free from water or hard rock to a depth of at -least 8 feet. If not naturally free from water, it should be drained if -practicable to that depth: to this end it is necessary that the site -should be sufficiently elevated above the drainage level of the -locality, either naturally, or, where necessary, by filling it up to the -required level with suitable earth.” - -“Loam, and sand with a sufficient quantity of vegetable mould, are the -best soils; clay and loose stones the worst. A dense clay is laborious -to work and difficult to drain; by excluding moisture and air it retards -decay, and it retains, in a concentrated state, the products of -decomposition, sometimes to be discharged into graves opened in the -vicinity, or sometimes to escape through cracks in the ground to the -surface. A loose, stony soil, on the other hand, allows the passage of -effluvia.” - -And with reference to the site to be chosen for a cemetery he further -states: - -“Nevertheless, in view of the evils which in former times have -undoubtedly arisen from the practice of intramural sepulture, and also -because the erection of houses near a cemetery interferes with the free -play of air around and over it, it is desirable that the site of the -cemetery should be in a neighbourhood in which building is not likely to -take place, and also that so far as practicable a belt of ground should -be reserved between the graves and the nearest land on which a house may -be built, in order to obviate to some extent the risk of contamination -of ground-air and subsoil water with decomposing matters. This is -especially necessary where houses are constructed with cellars. It is, -therefore, highly desirable that interments should not be made up to the -extreme edge of the cemetery, and it would be possible without great -waste of space to reserve in all cases a strip of ground free from -interments, 15 to 30 feet in width, around the whole cemetery on the -interior of the boundary fence. This strip would afford room, on the -inside for a gravel or asphalte walk to give access to all parts of the -cemetery, and on the outside next the fence to a belt of shrubs or -trees, the rootlets of which, penetrating the soil, would arrest and -assimilate any decomposing matters percolating to the exterior of the -cemetery. Obviously a cemetery should not be placed on elevated ground -above houses, where the soakings from it may percolate to the sites and -foundations of the dwellings below. . . .” - -“Sites are of course unsuitable which are liable to be flooded or to -landslips, or which are in danger of being washed away, or encroached -upon by streams or the sea. Very steep sites are not desirable. The -cemetery should be accessible by good roads from all parts of the -district.” - -As to the unsuitability of clay as a soil for cemeteries, Louis Créteur -in “Hygiene in the Battle Field” says, that the bodies of soldiers slain -during the Battle of Sedan were buried in chalk, quarry rubble, sand, -argillite, slate, marl, or clay soils, and the work of disinfection -lasted from the beginning of March till the end of June. In rubble the -decay had fully taken place, but in the clay the bodies kept well, and -even after a very long time the features could be identified. - -With regard to the amount of land necessary for a cemetery, Dr. Parsons -calculates that about a quarter of an acre of land for every thousand of -the population of the community to whom the cemetery belongs, is the -“usually estimated minimum,” but this is far too small a proportion even -for a cemetery possessing every advantage, and he further states, “The -desirability of providing more than this bare minimum of space is -obvious, and is generally recognized.” It must be remembered that as a -rule, quite one-sixth of the total area of a cemetery is taken up by the -roads, paths, ornamental grass or beds of flowers and shrubs, the -chapels, mortuaries, lodges, &c., and sufficient width should be allowed -between each grave space to permit every grave being reached without -trampling on others: a standard of 110 burials per acre has sometimes -been taken, but this appears to me to be rather a small one. - -In laying out ground for a cemetery, the following are some points that -require careful attention: - -(1.) The position of the entrance or entrances; there should if possible -be only one, as a lodge is necessary at each, which entails expense. - -(2.) The best position for the lodge or lodges, the chapels and -mortuary. - -(3.) The direction of the roads in the cemetery: these must be wide -enough for the hearses and mourning coaches, and there must be -convenient places provided for turning round. - -(4.) The direction of the paths:[234] these and the roads should be as -straight as possible, so as to economise available burial ground, paths -should be sufficiently wide to allow an entrance to be made in them to -the adjoining vaults or walled graves, these being frequently covered -with a massive tomb or ledger very difficult to remove. The vaults and -walled graves, being of a better class, are generally put in the borders -of the burial ground, close to the paths. - -(5.) In some soils deep and careful drainage is necessary. This should -be carried out with ordinary drain pipes laid at a depth of at least 10 -feet, and so communicating with each other and the grave spaces, that -even in a clay soil each grave as it is sunk should be found free from -water. - -(6.) Surface drainage, especially of the roads and paths, is also -necessary. - -(7.) Provision must be made for the disposal of the soil excavated from -the graves, as very little punning or ramming of the soil thrown in -after a burial should be permitted, and thus there is always a large -quantity of material to be otherwise disposed of. - -The cemetery must be divided into Church or consecrated ground, -Dissenters’ ground, and Roman Catholic ground, in such proportions as -may be found to suit the particular requirements of the locality in -which the cemetery is placed. - -These divisions must again be subdivided into sections according to the -class and description of the proposed grave, and each of these -subdivisions and grave-spaces must be accurately marked with a -distinguishing letter and number, so that on reference to a plan and a -register book, any person’s grave may be easily found, however long a -time may have elapsed since the interment took place, and although no -headstone or mark over the grave is there. It is needless to say, that -the plan of the cemetery has to be most carefully prepared, and the -ground equally carefully set out, to prevent any chance of error -occurring, or serious consequences might result. It may be well to -remark that no body can be removed after burial without an order from -one of Her Majesty’s principal Secretaries of State, or by faculty from -the Bishop in consecrated ground.[235] - -The following description of the different sections necessary in a large -cemetery may here be of use, the fees chargeable for the privilege of -burying in each section advancing with the letters appropriated to the -sections. - -_Section A._ This is appropriated to workhouse paupers or very poor -persons only,[236] the depth[237] of the grave may be limited to 6 feet, -and the size should be 9 feet by 4 feet; only coffins made of wood -should be allowed in this section.[238] - -_Section B._ This is of a slightly superior class to the last, the -depth and size may however be the same, but a larger fee can be charged, -and the position of the section with reference to the paths should be -better and more convenient. - -_Section C._ This is again superior to either of the former sections. -Extra depth and size may be allowed, and the position should also be -better. - -_Section D._ In the previous sections only “common” graves as they are -called should be allowed. In this section either walled graves, vaults, -tombs or common graves may be placed, the common graves may be of extra -depth and size, the space for a vault may be 8 feet 6 inches by 6 -feet.[239] - -This section should be exclusively the borders of the paths and other -spots easily accessible and prominent to view. - -_Section E._ This is the best section. No common graves should be -allowed in it, and the spaces allotted for burial may be isolated and of -various sizes according to agreement and payment. Here costly tombs and -monuments are erected, the position of the section being generally near -the chapels.[240] - -In all the above sections it is necessary to provide for the burial of -children: these require smaller space and in some instances they can be -buried with their mother, but in separate coffins. Unfortunately it is -necessary to allow rather a large percentage of available space for the -interment of children, as the infant mortality in this country is so -excessive. - -In connection with the question of the plan and the sections for -burial, it may be well to give the following rules and regulations for -the management of a cemetery: - - -_Cemetery Rules and Regulations._ - -(1.) All charges for interment, monuments, and gravestones must be paid -at the time the order is granted; no kind of work allowed to be done, or -any corpse brought on the ground without the production of an order. - -(2.) Certificates of death to be produced (showing the name of the -parish, &c., and all other requisite information) on paying the fees. - -(3.) Two days’ notice to be given for interment in graves, (exclusive of -Sunday,) and three days if a vault or brick grave be required. In -default, an extra charge will be made for working by night. - -(4.) The time when the funeral procession will be on the ground to be -named in the notice. An extra fee of will be charged when the -funeral procession is minutes later than the time appointed, and - for every minutes afterwards. - -(5.) The hours of interment are from A.M. to P.M. from -Michaelmas to Lady-day, and from A.M. to P.M. from Lady-day to -Michaelmas. - -(6.) All brick or stone work in the graves, and all foundations and -fixing of memorials, or planting, shall be under the supervision and -control of the local authority or their appointed agent. - -(7.) No grave or vault shall be re-opened by other persons than members -of that family without the written consent of the parties interested and -of the local authority. An extra fee for the interment of strangers will -be charged at the discretion of the local authority. - -(8.) In all unbricked graves, coffins of wood only shall be used. No -interment will be allowed nearer the surface than four feet for an -adult, or three feet for a child under 12 years. Every coffin in a -bricked grave or vault to be separately entombed in an air-tight manner. - -(9.) No palisades or iron railings to exceed feet in height, except -with the special consent of the local authority; and no palisades, or -enclosure of any description will be permitted to a grave until a -headstone or tomb has been erected. - -(10.) A drawing of every monument or gravestone to be submitted for -approval, and a copy of the intended inscription, if it contains more -than name, age, and date. Inscriptions to be arranged so as to face the -paths as far as practicable. Any question which shall arise touching the -fitness of any monumental inscription, placed in any part of the -consecrated portion of the ground, shall be determined on appeal by the -Bishop of the Diocese. - -(11.) All graves and vaults, monuments, gravestones, fencing or other -enclosures, to be kept in repair by the persons interested in their -preservation. If suffered to go out of repair and become unsightly, the -local authority will remove them altogether, and they will not be -allowed to be replaced without the consent of the local authority. -Graves will be kept in order by the local authority for a fee of -per annum. - -A plan of the ground, showing each grave space, is kept at the office of -the surveyor to the local authority and may be seen without charge. - -The public are admitted to the cemetery, on weekdays, from 7 A.M. to 8 -P.M. from Lady-day to Michaelmas, and from 8 A.M. to 5 P.M. from -Michaelmas to Lady-day. On Sundays, from 2 to 8 P.M. in summer and 2 to -5 P.M. in winter. - -All further information may be obtained at the office. - -The local authority forbid any gratuity being received by their -servants. - -The local authority reserves a right, from time to time, to make any -alteration in the foregoing charges and regulations. - -In connection with the above rules, a scale of fees of the charges for -interments must be prepared as well as for headstones, foot-stones, -ledgers, and tombs, or for enclosing any grave with kerbing, -iron-railings, posts and chains, &c. - -The practice of allowing persons to plant small shrubs and trees upon -the graves of their friends, should be deprecated, as not only do they -tend eventually to make a cemetery look untidy but they are placed so -close to the graves that when they grow up their roots often split open -a vault or walled grave, and even damage valuable tombstones. - -Trees which are suitable for cemeteries, and which would thrive even in -a town atmosphere, are the weeping willow, cypress, yew, cedar, juniper, -birch, ash, weeping elm, and a considerable number and variety of -drooping and other deciduous trees. These should, however, be planted -under the control of the local authority, as otherwise a cemetery would -soon be overrun by them. - -The regulations issued by the Secretary of State for the Home Department -in January 1863, for burial grounds provided under the Burial Acts, may -be of use for reference, and are given _in extenso_: - -(1.) The burial ground shall be effectually fenced, and, if necessary, -under-drained to such a depth as will prevent water remaining in any -grave or vault. - -(2.) The area to be used for graves shall be divided into grave spaces, -to be designated by convenient marks, so that the position of each may -be readily determined, and a corresponding plan kept on which each grave -space shall be shown. - -(3.) The grave spaces for the burial of persons above 12 years of age -shall be at least 9 feet by 4 feet, and those for the burial of children -under 12 years of age, 6 feet by 3 feet, or if preferred, half the -measurement of the adult grave space, namely, 4¹⁄₂ feet by 4 feet. - -(4.) A register of graves shall be kept in which the name, age, and date -of burial in each shall be duly registered. - -(5.) No body shall be buried in any vault or walled grave unless the -coffin be separately entombed in an air-tight manner; that is, by -properly cemented stone or brickwork, which shall never be disturbed. - -(6.) One body only shall be buried in a grave at one time, unless the -bodies be those of members of the same family. - -(7.) No unwalled grave shall be re-opened within 14 years after the -burial of a person above 12 years of age, or within eight years after -the burial of a child under 12 years of age, unless to bury another -member of the same family, in which case a layer of earth not less than -1 foot thick shall be left undisturbed above the previously buried -coffin; but if on reopening any grave the soil be found to be offensive, -such soil shall not be disturbed, and in no case shall human remains be -removed from the grave. - -(8.) No coffin shall be buried in any unwalled grave within 4 feet of -the ordinary level of the ground, unless it contains the body of a child -under 12 years of age, when it shall not be less than 3 feet below that -level. - -For further information upon the subject of the Interments Act 1879 and -much useful information in connection with cemeteries, I refer my -readers to ‘Notes and Practical Suggestions upon the Interment Act -1875,’ by T. Baker, Esq. - -I cannot close this chapter upon cemeteries without a few words upon a -subject which is analogous, cremation; and although I am aware that this -is a debateable question, still it is impossible for me to be silent, as -from my official experience on the practice of burial, I am so deeply -convinced that cremation should be substituted for it for very many -weighty reasons, that I feel it is necessary for me to give them. - -They are as follows: - -(1.) Nothing can be more unsanitary or dangerous to the living than the -burial of the dead. This has been enlarged upon over and over again by -men who have well studied the subject and are competent to give an -opinion and to that opinion I add my testimony. - -(2.) Nothing can be more loathsome and degrading to the dead bodies of -our friends or more revolting to our feelings, than the horrible -practice of placing the remains of those we love in the soil of a common -churchyard or cemetery, to be devoured with other bodies by worms. - -(3.) In placing a dead body under ground we can never be sure how long -the remains will be left undisturbed, a new street or railway will soon -destroy all traces of its resting place,[241] and even the law only -allows a grave to remain undisturbed for a short 14 years. - -(4.) In the event of friends or relations dying abroad their remains -cannot be sent home for burial except at great expense, cremation would -reduce the body to a few beautiful silvery ashes which could easily be -brought home and secured on arrival in a suitable and safe -position.[242] - -(5.) Cremation is the most respectful and beautiful manner for the -disposal of dead bodies, and need not alarm (on religious grounds[243]) -any more than the practice at sea of lowering the dead bodies overboard -to be eventually eaten and digested by marine animals. - -(7.) Cremation would settle at once and for ever the vexed question of -burial in consecrated or unconsecrated ground, and all the unseemly -quarrels which have taken place in connection with it from time to -time. - -(8.) The great extent of land that is now wasted in public burial -grounds and cemeteries.[244] - -There is no reason, even if cremation should take the place of burial, -why the fees for clergymen and others should not remain as at present, -and the unpleasant assistance of the British-ghoul, the undertaker, with -his long face at the ceremony and still longer bill afterwards, could -easily be dispensed with. - -The opponents of cremation urge that it would be more expensive than -burial, and consequently out of the reach of the poorer classes, and -also that it would cause so much difficulty in detecting cases of -poisoning, that it would tend to encourage persons to poison others who -happened to be in their way, or objectionable to them, and thus crime -would go unchecked. - -If these are the only objections they are easily to be overcome. - -First, by constructing public crematories, where for a few shillings a -day sufficient heat could be maintained to consume almost any number of -bodies, whilst the present great expense of maintaining large cemeteries -with their attendant guardians and other costs would be dispensed with; -and - -Secondly, by instituting a scientific and independent enquiry as to the -cause of every death which occurs. This is so much required at the -present day for the sake of the public health, that even if cremation is -never introduced it should be at once enforced, so that those who have -charge of the public health could have exact and reliable knowledge of -the causes of all the deaths throughout the United Kingdom, and thus -obtain such valuable information as would greatly assist in the daily -fight to subdue and overcome deaths from preventable causes. - - [230] _Vide_ ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health Act,’ p. 130, 3rd edition. - - [231] _Vide_ ‘Fitzgerald’s Public Health Act,’ p. 131, 3rd edition. - Foot note to clause x. Cemetery Clauses Act 1847. - - [232] Cemetery Clauses Act 1847, s. 20. - - [233] _Vide_ ‘Cremation of the Dead,’ by William Eassie, C.E. &c. &c., - p. 50. - - [234] The roads and paths in a cemetery require to be carefully made, - in order that they may be available during any weather. - - [235] 20 & 21 Vic. c. 81, s. 25. - - [236] The following is a description of the manner of burying the - poorer people in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, near Paris. (_Vide_ - ‘The Parks, Promenades, and Gardens of Paris,’ by W. Robinson, F.L.S., - &c., p. 109.) “A very wide trench or fosse is cut wide enough to hold - two rows of coffins placed across it, and 100 yards long or so. Here - they are rapidly stowed in one after another, just as nursery - labourers lay in stock ‘by the heels,’ only much closer, because there - is no earth between the coffins, and wherever the coffins, which are - very like egg-boxes, only somewhat less substantial, happen to be - short so that a little space is left between the two rows, those of - children are placed in lengthwise between them to economise space; the - whole being done exactly as a natty man would pack together turves or - mushroom spawn bricks.”. . . Let us hope that whatever else may be - “taken from the French,” we may never imitate them in their cemetery - management. - - [237] Depth of burial varies from 6 to 10 feet, but there must be 4 - feet of earth upon the top of the last coffin if an adult, 3 feet if a - child. - - [238] A proper grave should be dry when opened, and have a sufficiency - of soil over the coffin to absorb any gases of decomposition; it - should allow an adjoining grave to be opened without collapsing, and - should if possible dispense with the necessity of shoring or close - timbering the sides, and should allow sufficient space for a headstone - to be placed over it. - - [239] In a tomb or walled grave, the coffin should be enclosed in an - air-tight case, by means of a stone cemented down which must never - again be moved; or concrete may be used. It is a good plan to put some - charcoal with the coffin to absorb any gases of decomposition in case - of the vault opening accidentally at any future time, and in order to - guard against such an occurrence it is better to leave at least 2 feet - of earth on the top of the grave below the surface of the ground in - walled graves. - - [240] “No body shall be buried in any vault under any chapel of the - cemetery or within 15 feet of the outer wall of any such chapel.” - (_Vide_ s. 39, Cemetery Clauses Act 1847.) - - [241] In a beautiful out-of-the-way valley in Wales, there is a pretty - village with a quiet churchyard far from the “busy haunts of man,” yet - here it is found necessary to disinter all the bodies, as this - churchyard will soon be 30 feet under the surface of the water of an - immense reservoir now being constructed to supply the living with - drinking water, and it would not be right to leave the bodies there. - - [242] The body of Lord Balcarres was (as is now history) removed from - the mausoleum in his own grounds, and only recovered after a most - painful interval; this desecration could not have happened had his - body been cremated and the ashes suitably secured. - - [243] I believe it was Lord Shaftesbury whose remark on this point - was, “What would have become of the blessed martyrs, if destruction by - fire was to annul their chances of resurrection?” - - [244] The metropolis alone has in addition to the numerous burying - grounds near its parish churches, &c. (many of which have been, - however, dug up and destroyed), the average of which it would be - difficult to determine, the following cemeteries, which may be called - extra mural: - - Woking Cemetery 500 acres - Ilford and Leytonstone Cemetery 168 „ - Norwood and Nunhead Cemetery 40 „ - Highgate Cemetery 40 „ - West London at Brompton 40 „ - Abney Park Cemetery 32 „ - Kensal Green Cemetery 18 „ - Victoria Cemetery ---- - Tower Hamlets Cemetery ---- - Colney Hatch Cemetery ---- - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI. - -MORTUARIES. - - -As the Public Health Act 1875 contains several clauses bearing upon -mortuaries, a few words upon this subject will not be altogether -inappropriate. - -The great and terrible evils arising from the practice of keeping -corpses in inhabited rooms by the poorer classes were pointed out by Mr. -Chadwick in the year 1843[245] and the following clauses upon this -subject and the necessity imposed upon the local authority to provide -proper mortuaries are contained in the Public Health Act 1875: - -“Any local authority may, and if required by the Local Government Board -shall provide and fit up a proper place for the reception of dead bodies -before interment (in this Act called a mortuary), and may make bye-laws -with respect to the management and charges for use of the same; they may -also provide for the decent and economical interment, at charges to be -fixed by such bye-laws, of any dead body which may be received into a -mortuary (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 141). - -“Where the body of one who has died of any infectious disease is -retained in a room in which persons live or sleep, or any dead body -which is in such a state as to endanger the health of the inmates of the -same house or room is retained in such house or room, any justice may, -on a certificate signed by a legally qualified medical practitioner, -order the body to be removed, at the cost of the local authority, to any -mortuary provided by such authority, and direct the same to be buried -within a time to be limited in such order; and unless the friends or -relations of the deceased undertake to bury the body within the time so -limited, and do bury the same, it shall be the duty of the relieving -officer to bury such body at the expense of the poor rate, but any -expense so incurred may be recovered by the relieving officer in a -summary manner from any person legally liable to pay the expense of such -burial. - -“Any person obstructing the execution of an order made by a justice -under this section shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five -pounds” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 142). - -From these clauses it would appear that a mortuary or mortuaries are an -absolute essential in every town, although it does not appear necessary -to have a separate mortuary for any “body of one who has died of any -infectious disease,” but it may be taken to the mortuary which has been -provided for the reception of dead bodies generally. It may also be -assumed that bodies may be viewed by a coroner’s jury in the mortuary, -although a post-mortem examination cannot be made in it, as by the -following section: - -“Any local authority may provide and maintain a proper place (otherwise -than at a workhouse or at a mortuary) for the reception of dead bodies -during the time required to conduct any post-mortem examination ordered -by a coroner or other constituted authority, and may make regulations -with respect to the management of such place; and where any such place -has been provided, a coroner or other constituted authority may order -the removal of the body to and from such place for carrying out such -post-mortem examination, such costs of removal to be paid in the same -manner and out of the same fund as the costs and fees for post-mortem -examinations when ordered by the coroner (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 143).” - -It will be observed that the above clause apparently forbids a -post-mortem room being provided at the mortuary, although this would -appear to be the most appropriate situation for it, and indeed such a -room is frequently provided at or near the mortuary. The reason for this -prohibition, especially as it is associated with a workhouse, is -evidently to overcome the prejudice which would exist in the minds of -the ignorant that the fact of taking a body to a mortuary necessitated -dissection: a practice which is looked upon with much disfavour by such -persons. - -Mortuaries in this country generally consist of one of the following -descriptions: - -(1.) Elaborate groups of buildings, comprising mortuary chapel, -coroner’s room, post-mortem room, dead house, waiting rooms, &c., and -the necessary care-taker’s rooms, and offices. - -(2.) Mortuaries in connection with infectious hospitals. - -(3.) Mortuaries in connection with general hospitals. - -(4.) Mortuaries at cemeteries or licensed burial grounds. - -(5.) Dead-houses provided by the sanitary authority. - -In arranging for the erection of a dead-house or mortuary in any town, -the surveyor may find the following particulars and suggestions of some -use to him: - -A mortuary must be provided in the grounds or near all cemeteries that -are in active operation, but in addition to these, others ought to be -erected in central positions of the town, so that bodies can be easily -conveyed there, not only with a view to meet the objections mentioned in -the opening of this chapter, but also to avoid the unseemly practice at -present so largely in vogue of taking any cases of sudden death, -suicide, accidental drowning, violence or accident, &c., that may occur, -to the nearest public house, there to await identification and the -coroner’s inquest.[246] - -It has been computed that for every 50,000 of the population of any -town, a mortuary should be provided. - -In Frankfort mortuaries have been for some years in existence; they are -simple buildings, with a separate room for each corpse, intended not -only to prevent bodies from being kept in private houses, but also to -lessen the chance of any person being buried alive. The following is a -plan of one of these institutions: - -[Illustration: PLAN OF A GERMAN LEICHENHAUS OR DEAD-HOUSE.] - -To prevent the chance of burying any person alive, each corpse as it is -placed in its little dead-house has a ring placed upon its finger; this -ring is attached to a string which is in communication with a bell which -hangs in the attendant’s room, who is there night and day, a window -communicates with each dead-house, so that on the alarm being given he -is at once ready to render assistance. - -In Paris, as is well known, all bodies that are found are placed in the -“Morgue” behind “Notre Dame,” where they are publicly exhibited, thus -assisting identification, although the exposure of bodies in this -manner is not very attractive. - -In preparing designs for a group of buildings such as are set forth in -the first on the list which I have given, the following requirements -should be considered: - -_The Mortuary Chapel_ should be of such dimensions as are suitable for -the requirements of the district, bearing in mind that if an epidemic of -a fatal character was to unfortunately break out, it could either -provide accommodation for the extra strain upon it or be capable of -being easily extended. It should be designed so as to combine the -characteristics of a chapel with the most perfect sanitary -arrangements.[247] The walls should be of stone and are better lined -with cement or glazed tiles, and everything should be kept as flush as -possible so as to avoid projections on which dust could accumulate, the -whole being easily and readily cleansed and disinfected. The floor may -be of asphalte or other impervious material, and be well drained, great -care being of course taken to exclude rats. - -The ventilation must be perfect, the building should always be of low -temperature even in the hottest days of summer. All the group of -buildings should, if possible, be surrounded by a free belt of air. -Their position should be isolated with respect to other buildings, and -of course it is highly necessary that they should be as far away as -possible from any dwelling-houses, a disused burial ground being -sometimes selected as a convenient site. The furniture of a mortuary -chapel should consist only of trestles or of brackets against the walls -upon which to rest the shells containing the corpses. - -_The Dead-house_ should be a room smaller than the mortuary chapel, but -its construction may be the same. It is here that all bodies should be -brought uncoffined for the purpose of awaiting identification, or -preparatory to post-mortem examination, or of bodies of those who have -died from dangerous contagious maladies, and rendering immediate removal -necessary; these are placed upon slabs provided for the purpose, which -may be of slate, zinc, or other suitable material. In conjunction with -the dead-house should be - -_The Post-Mortem Room_, which requires plenty of light; it must also, -like the mortuary chapel and dead-house, be thoroughly ventilated and -drained and be easily cleansed. Its furniture must consist of the -necessary post-mortem table of slate, zinc, or wood covered entirely -with lead: this table must slightly dish towards the centre and be -drained into a pail or on to a grating. Plenty of water is essential, -conveniently laid on, and the room must be fitted with good arrangements -for gas or other means of artificial lighting. Some method is also -necessary for the purpose of heating water whenever it is required. - -_The Coroner’s Court_ may be simply a large room with convenient -seatings and tables for the coroner and his jury, accommodation being -also provided for the press, witnesses, &c. with the necessary retiring -rooms and offices. - -In addition to the above requirements the following accommodation should -also be provided: - -_A caretaker_ or _resident attendant_ should have accommodation at or -near the main group of buildings. - -_A Laboratory and Weighing Room_ should also be provided in connection -with the post-mortem room; and a _Store Room_ for spare shells and -disinfectants, &c. - -If possible also it is well to provide a _Hearse House_; and in -connection with the mortuary establishment, the disinfecting of bedding, -clothing, &c., which have become infected, should also if possible be -carried on. - -Before, however, proceeding to discuss the question of disinfection I -will give the following drawing of a mortuary chapel, &c., as proposed -by the late Dr. W. Hardwicke, the well-known Coroner, in a valuable -paper upon the subject of Public Mortuaries which he read before the -Royal Institute of British Architects in the year 1869: - -[Illustration] - -I am, however, not aware that any public mortuary even of this size has -yet been actually carried out in this country, greatly as they are -needed. - -With reference to the question of disinfection, which as I stated can be -conveniently taken in connection with that of mortuaries, the following -is the clause of the Public Health Act 1875 which deals with it: - -“Any local authority may provide a proper place, with all necessary -apparatus and attendance, for the disinfection of bedding, clothing or -other articles which have become infected, and may cause any articles -brought for disinfection to be disinfected free of charge (38 & 39 Vic. -c. 55, s. 122). See also 38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, ss. 120 and 121.” - -The first duty here involved is to provide a proper place for this -purpose, and this place cannot be better than that of the mortuary, so -as to centralize as much as possible the spots to which infection has to -be carried, and the necessary attendant can also here be found, as well -as convenient places to put the hand carts, &c., presently described. - -The next duty is to provide the necessary apparatus, which is now done -almost exclusively by the action of heat. This is sometimes effected by -building brick-work chambers which can be heated up to about 350° Fahr. -after the doors are closed, by means of coal or coke furnaces. Within -these chambers are moveable horses on which are placed the articles to -be disinfected: these are exposed to the necessary heat for varying -times according to the nature of the articles, the horse is then drawn -out, when the articles should be thoroughly washed with a disinfecting -soap and returned to their owners. Great care is necessary in this -operation to ensure evenness of heat, as otherwise the clothes, bedding, -&c., may be scorched and injured, and the local authority will then have -to make compensation. - -A more convenient form of disinfecting machine, and one that is less -costly to work and more even in its temperature, is one that can be -heated by gas, this is sometimes effected by the use of an iron box with -counter-balanced lid into which the articles are put, heat being applied -by means of gas jets burning underneath. A more elaborate and effective -method has however been patented, and is now manufactured by Messrs. -Goddard and Massey of Nottingham, which is known as Dr. Ranson’s system. -The following drawing shows the arrangement of this machine, and some of -the advantages claimed for it are as follows: - -Its heat is maintained automatically within certain limits in all parts -of the chamber, and has great drying power, which is important, as -securing from the long period of time at which this steady heat can be -maintained, that penetration into bedding and other bad conductors which -is so desirable to secure the necessary destruction of all disease germs -or chances of after inoculation: - -[Illustration] - -There can be no doubt that where a machine is not required to be -constantly at work gas is the cheapest and most convenient heat-producer -that we have. - -It is of course necessary that the infected bedding and clothing should -be fetched from the owners’ houses in such a manner as will lessen the -risk of spreading infection as much as possible, and for this purpose it -is necessary for the local authority to keep a covered hand-cart which -should be lined with tin and closed hermetically. It should be -sufficiently large to take a mattrass, and be of light construction, so -that one man can draw it when full. - -Before concluding my remarks on disinfection, it is well to state that -plenty of carbolic acid should be kept in a mortuary. Sheets saturated -with carbolic acid are used to wrap around the dead bodies of infected -persons, and sawdust saturated with carbolic acid is also freely used, -besides large quantities of that excellent disinfectant, “Sanitas.” - - [245] _Vide_ ‘A Supplementary Report on the Results of a Special - Enquiry into the Practice of Interments in Towns,’ by Edwin Chadwick, - 1843. - - [246] There is no law that can compel any one to receive a dead body - into his house. - - [247] It is important to remove the idea of a “parish dead-house,” - otherwise its object will be defeated, as persons will object to allow - the bodies of their deceased friends to be taken to it. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXII. - -BORROWING UNDER THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD. - - -There are a number of clauses in the Public Health Act 1875, which -empower a local authority to borrow money on the credit of the rates for -the purpose of “defraying any costs, charges and expenses incurred or to -be incurred by them in the execution of the Sanitary Acts.” (_Vide_ 38 & -39 Vic. c. 55, s. 233). - -The exercise of these powers of borrowing are subject to the following -regulations: - -(1.) Money shall not be borrowed except for permanent works.[248] - -(2.) The sum borrowed shall not exceed at any time, including all -outstanding debts, the assessable value for two years of the district. - -(3.) Where it exceeds the value of one year, the Local Government Board -will not give their sanction until one of their inspectors has held a -local enquiry. - -(4.) The money cannot be borrowed for a longer time than 60 years, and -it must be paid off within that time. - -(5.) Certain regulations as to sinking funds, &c. (_Vide_ 38 & 39 Vic. -c. 55, s. 234 _et seq._) - -The power to borrow money thus granted to local authorities has -undoubtedly given a considerable stimulus to the execution of important -sanitary works which could not be carried out if they had to be paid for -out of the current rates. It is also a fair and equitable arrangement -that permanent works should be paid for by those that reap the benefit -of them, and it is now so arranged that the money borrowed is repaid -within a certain specified time by equal annual payments, in order that -the ratepayer of the present shall not be unduly taxed for the benefit -of posterity. - -No regular or fixed times have been settled by the Local Government -Board over which they will allow the repayment of loans to be spread, -but it appears that the duration of the proposed works somewhat guides -the length of time allowed, as will appear from the following list which -I have prepared from the eighth Annual Report of the Local Government -Board: - - Description of Work. Number of Years. - - Purchase of land 50 to 60 - Sewage disposal 30 „ 50 - Sewerage works 30 „ 50 - Water supply 20 „ 50 - Fire brigade purposes 30 and 60 - Market Purposes 30 „ 60 - Plan of district 20 „ 30 - Lamps for public lighting 10 „ 20 - Artizans and Labourers’ Dwellings Act 50 - Erection of hospital 30 - „ „ public baths 30 - „ „ slaughter-houses 30 - „ „ buildings at sewage farm 30 - A public park 50 - Cemeteries 30 - Gas supply 30 - Street improvements 15 to 30 - Paving[249] and channelling 15 „ 20 - Stables, urinals, enginehouse 20 - Construction of a new road 20 - Disinfecting apparatus 20 - Mortuary and weighing machine 15 - Steam road roller 10 - -Whenever a local authority decide to make application to the Local -Government Board for power to borrow money for any proposed improvements -or works within their district, it is the duty of the town surveyor to -prepare the necessary drawings and obtain the required information in -order to fill in the forms which are supplied from the Local Government -Board office. - -With reference to this important part of his duty, I cannot do better -than give the following Suggestions as to the Preparation of Plans of -Proposed Works, by Robert Rawlinson, C.B., C.E., &c. (Chief Engineering -Inspector to the Local Government Board), prepared by him in 1878: - -“It will in all cases be necessary, upon application being made for -sanction to a loan, for the execution of works, that plans (or tracings -of the plans), sections, estimates in detail and specifications be -submitted with the application, accompanied by information as to the -population at the two last periods of the taking of the census, the -rateable value of the district, and the amount of outstanding loans.” - -“Such plans or tracings may be used for showing lines of main sewers, -drains, water-pipes and gas-mains. The lines of main sewers and drains -should have the cross sectional dimensions of the sewers and their -gradients distinctly marked (written and figured) upon them. The -dimensions of water and gas pipes should also be shown in figures or by -writing.” - -“N.B.--No general map should be submitted which is drawn to a scale of -less than 6 inches to a mile, except when the inch ordnance map is -used.” - -“Maps upon which sewerage works or water works are to be shown, or for -street improvements, should be not less than the ordnance scale of -¹⁄₂₅₀₀th.” - -“The sections should be drawn to the same horizontal scale, and to a -vertical scale of 20 feet to 1 inch.” - -Any detailed plan for the purposes of house drainage, paving, the -purchase of land &c., should be “constructed to a scale of not less than -10 feet to a mile, and upon this plan should be exhibited all houses and -other buildings, bench marks, the levels of streets and roads, of -cellars, of the sea at high and low tide level, and the summer and -flood levels of rivers. 3 feet by 2 feet will be a convenient size for -the sheets of this plan.” - -“Enlarged detail plans and sections of sewers, side entrances, -man-holes, sewer sluices, sluice valves, water-pipe joints, and similar -details, should be to a scale not less than 8 feet to 1 inch, and for -some details 4 feet to 1 inch.”[250] - -“As it may occasionally be desired to carry out works piecemeal, with a -view to save the time which would be occupied in the preparation of a -complete plan from actual survey, it will be sufficient in the first -instance to furnish any available general plan of streets and roads, -with the surface levels and those of the deepest cellars figured in feet -and inches, and the proposed scheme of works shown (or sketched) -thereon, after which the works can proceed in sections. It should be -understood, however, that a complete plan of the entire district must be -proceeded with, so that when the works are finished, the sanitary -authority and this Board may possess a proper record of them.” - -And again, Mr. Rawlinson in the same year, at a meeting of the -Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers, writes as follows: - -“Plans should be neatly and clearly drawn, the cross sectional -dimensions and the gradient being written on the _plan_ of sewers; there -should be a title and scale on each plan, as also on each sheet, and the -date with the name of the engineer or surveyor clearly written so as -easily to be read; this as a rule should be in the right-hand corner. -Many names are so written that experts cannot read them, and plans are -frequently sent out having no title, nor any scale, nor any name.” - -“Plans of details, such as side entrances, man-holes, flushing chambers, -and sewer ventilating arrangements, should be at 4 feet to an inch, -larger works may be at 4, 10 to 20 feet to an inch. Clear understandable -and measurable details are desirable . . . I have much trouble in -looking over defectively prepared plans and crude ill-understood and -ill-digested schemes as they are submitted to the Local Government -Board, for approval and sanction to a proposed loan. One great fact -connected with the Board must not, however, be overlooked. It is not an -office of works, it does not undertake to devise neither does it make -itself responsible in any degree for the plans or for the estimates -which may have been sanctioned. Each engineer and each local authority -must both devise and execute the local works, and the district must -alone be responsible for the local expenditure. The Board neither -dictates as to works, nor superintends works, but reserves the power of -refusing sanction to a proposed loan, and of requiring full explanations -as to failures in the works, or as to expenses over estimates before -sanctioning a supplemental loan. The reason that the Board declines -responsibility ought to be clearly manifest; plans and details may be -the best possible, but the ultimate result depends on daily local -supervision, and this the Board does not give; neither local action nor -local responsibility is superseded.” - -Speaking on this point at the first meeting of the Sanitary Institute of -Great Britain held at Croydon in 1879, Captain Douglas Galton, C.B., -says:[251] - -“Where a loan is applied for, the plan upon which the money is to be -spent is submitted for Government approval. The Government only lends -the money after the approval of the proposed scheme of expenditure by -one of their inspectors.” - -“The Local Authorities of the towns to be drained cannot therefore be -responsible for the plan selected, for the Local Authorities must alter -their plans to suit the views of the inspector. The responsibility of -the engineer is diminished, because he may be compelled to modify his -plan in a manner in which he may not thoroughly approve, and the -inspector has no responsibility in the matter, because, after having -approved of the general scheme, he has no control over the details or -the execution of the work, nor can he be in any way held responsible, if -the result were a failure.” - - [248] The Local Government Board have held a steam roller, a steam - fire-engine, a disinfecting apparatus, and lamp columns to be - permanent works. - - [249] For asphalte pavements twelve years have been allowed. - - [250] “Details may be drawn to any scale larger than the dimensions - named. Engraved or lithographed diagrams, if clear and distinct, will - be accepted. A new plan of any town or district cannot be used for - main sewering, water supply, gas supply, pavements, footwalks, and - other purposes without spoiling it; consequently it had better be - retained as a standard and be zincographed, there may then be copies - for all local purposes. The zinc plates to be the property of the - local authority.” - - [251] _Vide_ ‘Transactions of the Sanitary Institute of Great - Britain,’ vol. i. p. 116. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIII. - -CONTRACTS. - - -Contracts being principally a legal question, it is not my intention to -say much on the matter. - -In the Public Health Act 1875 will be found the following clauses: - -“Any Local Authority may enter into any contracts necessary for carrying -this Act into execution (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 173). - -“With respect to contracts made by an Urban Authority under this Act, -the following regulations shall be observed (namely): - -“(1.) Every contract made by an Urban Authority whereof the value or -amount exceeds fifty pounds shall be in writing, and sealed with the -common seal of such authority: - -“(2.) Every such contract shall specify the work, materials, matters or -things to be furnished, had or done, the price to be paid, and the time -or times within which the contract is to be performed, and shall specify -some pecuniary penalty to be paid in case the terms of the contract are -not duly performed: - -“(3.) Before contracting for the execution of any works under the -provisions of this Act, an Urban Authority shall obtain from their -surveyor an estimate in writing, as well of the probable expense of -executing the work in a substantial manner as of the annual expense of -repairing the same; also a report as to the most advantageous mode of -contracting, that is to say, whether by contracting only for the -execution of the work, or for executing and also maintaining the same in -repair during a term of years or otherwise: - -“(4.) Before any contract of the value or amount of one hundred pounds -or upwards is entered into by an Urban Authority ten days’ public notice -at the least shall be given, expressing the nature and purpose thereof, -and inviting tenders for the execution of the same; and such authority -shall require and take sufficient security for the due performance of -the same: - -“(5.) Every contract entered into by an Urban Authority in conformity -with the provisions of this section, and duly executed by the other -parties thereto, shall be binding on the Authority by whom the same is -executed and their successors, and on all other parties thereto and -their executors, administrators, successors or assigns to all intents -and purposes: Provided that an Urban Authority may compound with any -contractor or other person in respect of any penalty incurred by reason -of the non-performance of any contract entered into as aforesaid, -whether such penalty is mentioned in any such contract, or in any bond -or otherwise, for such sums of money or other recompense as to such -Authority may seem proper” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 174). - -In reading the numerous foot-notes that follow the above clauses in -Glen’s ‘Law of Public Health and Local Government,’ it will be seen that -contracts with corporations have been held to be very different from -ordinary ones between individuals or companies. All contracts should be -by deed under the seal of the corporation, or “there is no safety or -security for anyone dealing with such a body on any other footing,” and -this applies also in “respect of any variation or alteration in a -contract which has been made.” - -“A committee of the corporation has no power to enter into any contract” -(38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 200). - -A member of a corporation may not be “concerned in any bargain or -contract” entered into by the corporation, although this would not -vitiate the contract (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, sch. 11, clause 64), neither -may an officer of the corporation be “concerned or interested in any -bargain or contract” (38 & 39 Vic. c. 55, s. 193). - -It is, of course, necessary before any contract can be entered into, -that the town surveyor should prepare the specification, schedule of -prices and drawings where necessary; this entails a considerable amount -of work. - -In addition to ordinary specifications for works, the town surveyor has -often to prepare specifications and schedules for the supply of the -following goods: - - Ironmongery. - Paints, etc. - Disinfectants. - Castings. - Coals. - Harness. - Fodder. - Road metal. - Paving. - Clothing. - Stationery. - Horse hire. - -and a host of other things too numerous to mention. - -A well-written, clear, and comprehensive specification is a most -difficult thing to write, but it should be “common sense” from beginning -to end, any legal phraseology being left to the town clerk to introduce -in his “deed” as required by the Act. - -For sewer and drain work lump sum contracts are often undesirable: it is -better to work according to a schedule of prices, and periodical -measurements. - -It must not be forgotten that in all contracts the contractor seeks to -make a profit out of the work; if there is no intermediate contractor -this profit goes to the ratepayers. In most sanitary works also the men -employed by the local authority are more skilled in that particular -class of work than the chance men employed by a contractor, and for this -and many other reasons, administration by the local authority is in most -cases preferable to contracts.[252] - -Where tenders have been invited by advertisement or otherwise, the -successful person should be written to, apprising him of the fact, and -requesting him to call, sign the necessary specification, deeds, and -drawings; an intimation should also be made to the unsuccessful -competitors that their tenders have not been accepted. - -In conclusion, let me thank the authors of the following books for the -useful information which I have gained in perusing them for the purposes -of this work, and, let me add, they can be studied with advantage by -every “Town Surveyor”: - - ‘American Sanitary Engineering,’ by E. S. Philbrick. - - ‘Annales des Ponts et Chaussées,’ published in Paris. - - ‘Annual Reports of the Local Government Board,’ published in London. - - ‘A Practical Guide for Inspectors of Nuisances,’ by F. R. Wilson. - - ‘A Treatise on Roads,’ by Sir H. Parnell. - - ‘Cremation of the Dead,’ by W. Eassie. - - ‘Experience sur le tirage des Voitures,’ by M. Morin. - - ‘Healthy Dwellings,’ by D. Galton. - - ‘Health of Towns Commission,’ sundry reports. - - ‘Law of Public Health and Local Government,’ by W. C. and A. Glen. - - ‘Local Board Manual,’ by Owen Harris. - - ‘New Mode of Constructing Streets,’ by J. Edgworth. - - ‘Plumbing and House Draining,’ by W. P. Buchan. - - ‘Practical Treatise on Roads,’ by A. Penfold. - - ‘Repair of Main Roads,’ by W. H. Wheeler. - - ‘Roads and Streets,’ by D. Kinnear Clark. - - ‘Roads, Streets, and Pavements,’ by Q. A. Gillmore. - - ‘Roads and Roadways,’ by G. W. Willcocks. - - ‘Remarks on the Present System of Road Making,’ &c., by John Loudon - McAdam. - - ‘Sanitary Engineering,’ by Baldwin Latham. - - ‘Sanitary Engineering,’ by Bailey Denton. - - ‘Sanitary Work,’ by Charles Slagg. - - ‘Suggestions as to the Preparation of District Maps and of Plans for - Main Sewerage, Drainage, and Water Supply,’ by Robert Rawlinson, C.B., - &c. - - ‘Street Pavements,’ by G. F. Crosby Dawson. - - ‘Steam Road Rolling,’ by Fred. A. Paget. - - ‘The Parks, Promenades, and Gardens of Paris,’ by W. Robinson. - - ‘The Public Health and Local Government Act,’ by J. Vesey Fitzgerald. - - ‘The Interments Act 1879,’ by T. Baker. - - ‘The Plumber and Sanitary Houses,’ by S. S. Hellyer. - - ‘The Maintenance of Macadamised Roads,’ by Thomas Codrington. - - ‘The true system of Wood Pavement,’ Anonymous. - - ‘The Surveyor of Highways,’ by Alex. Glen. - - ‘Tree Pruning,’ by A. des Cars. - - Various papers in the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil - Engineers. - - Various papers in the Proceedings of the Sanitary Institute of Great - Britain. - - Various papers in the Proceedings of the Association of Municipal and - Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors. - - Various papers from the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. - - Various papers from the Reports on the Application of Science and Art - to Street Paving. - - Various reports by Mr. Haywood, Engineer to the Commissioners of - Sewers of the City of London. - - Various reports by Mr. Till, Surveyor of Birmingham. - - Various reports of Commissions, etc. - - [252] Mr. Parry, C.E., Borough Surveyor of Reading, says, “My - experience of such works is that town authorities can obtain both - labour and materials cheaper than contractors, and with efficient - supervision the work costs less money.” (_Vide_ ‘Proceedings of the - Association of Municipal and Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors,’ vol. - iv. p. 89.) - - - - -INDEX. - - - Abattoirs, 328 - Abrasion of stone, 48 - Accidents to horses, 31 - Accommodation in Cattle Market, 345 - Acland, Dr., on the surveyor, 4 - Acquisition of sewers, 252 - Acreage of sewage farms, 265 - Action of earth on sewage, 266 - Additions to old buildings, 210 - Advantage of plants for sewage, 270 - Advantages of asphalte, 99 - ---- public abattoirs, 343 - ---- separate system, 261 - ---- steam rolling, 70 - ---- wood paving, 89 - Alleys and courts if cleansed, 238 - Allotting numbers, 154 - Alteration of old building to new, 209 - American footpath, 114 - ---- paving, 77 - ---- road rolling, 65 - Analysis of asphalte, 97 - Angell Lewis on the surveyor, 6 - Angles of roads, 30 - Annihilation of sewer gases, 277 - Application to borrow, 376 - Appointment of surveyor, 1, 3, 10, 18 - Arc lights, 144 - Area of cemeteries, 354, 363 - ---- sewers, 253, 254 - Artificial asphalte, 117 - ---- stone pavements, 116 - Artizans’ dwellings, 284, 291 - Ashpits, 226 - Asphalte, Mac Adam, 46 - ---- mastic, 107 - ---- roadways, 96 - Asphaltic wood pavement, 82 - Automatic flushing, 262 - Aveling and Porter’s roller, 68 - Awnings over paths, 184 - - Bargains. See Contracts - Bars opening outwards, 178 - Bayley’s hydrostatic van, 245 - Best stones for pitchers, 75 - Bitumen, 96 - Bituminous concrete, 78 - ---- mixture, 79 - ---- roadways, 46 - Binding for roads, 62 - Blinds over paths, 184 - Blood-house, 341 - Books on drainage, 315 - ---- useful, 384 - Borrowing, 375 - Borders for paths, 320 - Bottles and brickbats, 225 - Bottoming roadways, 37 - Breakages in pipe sewers, 258 - Breaking stone, 48, 51 - Breaking-up streets, 157 - Brick footpaths, 116 - Bridges over streets, 33 - Broad irrigation, 265 - Brown’s street watering, 243 - Buildings, dangerous, 188 - ---- projections of, 176 - ---- new, 206 - ---- setting back, 175 - Buddle hole, 128 - Bullock lairs, 346 - ---- rollers, 60 - Burial fees, 356 - ---- in clay, 354 - Burners, gas, 140 - Burning refuse, 233 - Butchers, 329, 334 - Byelaws for new streets, &c., 206 - - Cage for trees, 325 - Caithness flagging, 112 - Caldrons, 107 - Candle power, 136 - Canvassing, 19 - Capacities of surveyor, 5 - Carcel power, 136 - Carey’s wood pavement, 83 - Cart for scavenging, 230 - Cast-iron name plates, 151 - Cattle lairs, 333 - Cattle Market, 345 - Causes of breakages in pipes, 258 - Cellar coverings, 180 - ---- door projecting, 176 - ---- dwellings, 295 - Cemeteries, 350 - Channelling, 123 - Chapel mortuary, 369 - Chapels in cemeteries, 351 - Charcoal sewer ventilators, 275 - Chemical treatment of sewage, 268 - Chesterfield lighting, 129 - Chicago roads, 38 - Chimney shafts, 190 - ---- ---- ventilators, 275 - Chloride of calcium for watering, 247 - Choice of street names, 152 - Chokages in pipe sewers, 260 - Cisterns, objectionable, 302 - Clarke’s apparatus, 240 - Clay slate, 49 - Cleansing of streets, 234 - ---- private courts, &c., 238 - Climate and trees, 321 - Clinkers, 225 - Closing polluted well, 301 - ---- slaughter-houses, 330 - Coal plates, 182 - Coefficients of road metal, 51 - Collection of house refuse, 228 - Combined system of sewerage, 261 - Committees, 23 - Common line of frontage, 177 - Compensation for setting back, 175 - Composition of sewer gas, 278 - Compressed asphalte, 96 - Concrete, 78 - ---- footpaths, 113 - ---- pipes, 254 - Condemned meat, 339 - Connection with main sewers, 305 - Construction of asphalte roads, 98 - Contour of roadways, 43 - Contract with Gas Company, 132 - Contracts, 381 - ---- for scavenging, 249 - ---- surveyor must not be interested in, 3, 382 - Conversion into new building, 210 - Cost of asphalte, 101 - ---- chemical treatment, 264 - ---- electric light, 145 - ---- kerbing, 125 - ---- maintenance of macadamised roads, 34, 41 - ---- melting snow, 241 - ---- pipes, 254 - ---- scavenging, 248 - ---- tree planting, 326 - ---- watering, 244 - ---- wood pavement, 91 - ---- working steam rollers, 61, 63 - Core hard, 39 - Coroner’s court, 370 - Cremation, 361 - Crops for sewage farm, 265 - Croskey’s wood pavement, 82 - - Damage to roads, 161 - ---- trees, 327 - Dangerous buildings, 188 - ---- crossings, 33 - Deacon on streets, 76 - Dead-house, 367, 369 - Declaration of public streets, 204 - Defacing numbers or names, 149 - Defects in dwellings, 295 - Defective cellar covers, 181 - ---- drains, 310 - Definition of new building, 208 - ---- sewer, 252 - ---- street, 149, 205 - Demolition of premises, 285 - Deposit of plans of streets, 210 - Depth of sewers, 253 - Diameter of drains, 315 - Diary of water-cart, 247 - Dimensions of lairs and pens, 347 - Disadvantages of steam rolling, 72 - Diseased meat, 339 - Disinfection, 371 - Disposal of refuse, 232 - ---- road scrapings, 237 - ---- sewage, 263 - Distance of lamps, 135 - ---- trees, 324 - Division of cemeteries, 355 - ---- England, 2 - Doors opening outwards, 178 - Down pipes, 183 - Drainage, 303 - ---- definition of, 303 - ---- of cemeteries, 351 - ---- slaughter-house, 335 - Drain-cleaning rods, 260 - Drains under houses, 316 - Draught on roads, 29 - Dry systems, 263 - Drying sludge, 269 - Dust-bins, 226 - Dusty streets, 234 - Duties of surveyor, 5, 7, 11, 20 - Dwellings and cemeteries, 350 - Dynamos, 141 - - Earth as a sewage filter, 266 - Easements, 182 - Eaves shuting, 183 - Effect of traffic, 27 - Elasticity of asphalte, 104 - Electric lighting, 129, 140 - Enamelled name plates, 152 - Entrance to cattle market, 346 - Erection of hoardings or scaffolds, 187 - Escape from fire, 218 - Euston pavement, 77 - Evasion of Building Acts, 209 - Examination of surveyor, 14 - - Fees for burials, 356 - Fences, 320 - Filling-in over pipes, 317 - Filters for sewage, 267 - Filtration of sewage, 266 - Fire protection, 218 - Fitness of stone, 48 - Flagging, York, 110 - ---- Caithness, 112 - ---- blue lias, 113 - Flag poles, 177 - Flints, 50 - Float observations, 265 - Flushing courts and alleys, 238 - Footpaths, 106 - ---- and snow, 241 - Force required on roads, 30 - Forms of Notice. See Notice - Foundation of macadamised roads, 39 - French burial, 356 - Frontage of streets, 174 - Fryer’s destructor, 233 - Fuel for rollers, 61 - Furnaces as sewer ventilators, 276 - Furniture of mortuary, 369 - - Gales and trees, 321 - Galton on borrowing, 379 - Garden refuse, 225 - Gas-burners, 140 - ---- lighting, 130 - Gates opening outwards, 178 - Gauge of stone, 52 - General markets, 348 - German dead-house, 368 - Germ theory, 271 - Glass name tablets, 152 - Gneiss, 49 - Good house drainage, 315 - Goux system, 233 - Gradients of house-drains, 316 - ---- roads, 30 - ---- sewers, 253 - ---- for rollers, 62 - Granite, 49 - ---- foot-pavement, 117 - ---- kerb, 124 - Grass, 320 - Grating for trees, 324 - Gravel footpaths, 121 - ---- 50 - Grave spaces, 360 - ---- yards, 350 - Green and Son’s roller, 69 - Grill for trees, 325 - Gritted asphalte, 108 - Ground floor, 208 - Grouting, 79 - Gulley gratings, 126 - - Hammer-broken stone, 52 - Hand or hose watering, 244 - Hard core, 39 - Harrison’s wood pavement, 83 - Hayward on snow, 239 - Hayward’s pavement lights, 181 - Heads of scavenging, 224 - Healey’s boilers, 80 - Health of district, 288 - Henson’s wood pavement, 83 - Hide store, 341 - Highways, surveyor of, 20 - Hoardings, 187 - Hoisting machinery, 337 - Horse-shoes, 27 - House, definition of, 311 - ---- drainage, 303 - ---- refuse collection, 228 - ---- ---- disposal, 232 - ---- ---- destruction, 233 - ---- ---- removed, 223 - Houses unfit for habitation, 284 - Hydrostatic van, 245 - - Illuminating power, 135 - Imperishable stone-paving blocks, 104 - Importation of trees, 322 - Improper water supply, 300 - Improved wood pavement, 81 - Improvement of courts and alleys, 287 - ---- streets, 174 - ---- private streets, 193 - Incandescent lamps, 144 - Inclination of roads, 30 - Individuals breaking-up streets, 169 - Industrial dwellings, 290 - Inertia of load, 32 - Ingredients used for precipitation, 269 - Inlets for fresh air into sewers, 273 - Inspection of drains, 305, 314 - ---- buildings, 217, 219 - Insufficient w.c. accommodation, 297 - Interception or dry systems, 263 - Intermittent filtration, 266 - Intersection of sewers, 254 - Iron name plates, 151 - Irrigation, 265 - - Joints of pipe drains, 316 - Junction of drains, 307 - ---- sewers, 254 - - Keeping sewers clean, 251 - Kerbing and channelling, 123 - Killing rings, 336 - - Labourers’ dwellings, 284, 291 - Lairs for cattle, 333, 346 - Lamp-posts, 134 - ---- ---- as sewer ventilators, 274 - Land necessary for cemetery, 354 - Latrines, 282 - Laying out a cemetery, 354 - Leaky drains, 309 - Leaves as refuse, 225 - Letters for names, 152 - Lias flagging, 113 - Licence to break-up street, 172 - Lieurner system, 262 - Life of brooms, 235 - ---- carts, 231 - ---- paving stones, 76 - ---- wood, 88 - Lighting of slaughter-house, 336 - ---- streets, 129 - Ligno mineral pavement, 83 - Limestone, 49 - Lime-tree, 322 - Line of frontage, 177 - Lining of slaughter-house, 335 - List of borrowing powers, 376 - ---- chemical processes for sewage, 268 - ---- duties of surveyor, 5, 21 - ---- persons called surveyors, 4 - ---- road metal, 49 - ---- shrubs, 320 - ---- trees, 322 - ---- useful books, 384 - Liverpool scavenging, 235 - Lloyd’s wood pavement, 82 - Locomobiles, 107 - Loose stones on road, 45 - - Macadamised roadways, 34 - Machinery for electricity, 141 - ---- in slaughter-house, 337 - Machines for sweeping, 234 - ---- stone-breaking, 53 - Management of cemetery, 358 - Manchester abattoir, 333 - ---- pavement, 78 - Manholes for sewers, 253 - Manufacturers’ refuse, 253 - Markets, 344 - Mastic asphalte, 107 - Materials of sewage filters, 267 - Mechanical subsidence of sewage, 267 - Meetings of committees, 23 - Melting snow, 240 - Merit, test of, 14 - Metal road, 48 - Meters for public lamps, 133 - Method of appointment, 18 - Methods of disposal of sewage, 264 - ---- lighting, 131 - ---- numbering, 153 - ---- sewerage, 261 - ---- sewer ventilation, 276 - Minton’s name plates, 151 - Model bye-laws, 207 - ---- lodging-houses, 291 - Metropolitan slaughter-house, 339 - Money, receipt of, 3 - Mortuaries, 365 - Mount Sorrel, 75 - Mowlem’s wood pavement, 83 - Muddy streets, 234 - - Names of committees, 23 - Naming and numbering streets, 149 - Necessity for kerb, 123 - ---- slaughter-house, 328 - Newcastle lighting, 147 - New streets and buildings, 206 - Nicholson’s wood pavement, 84 - Norwich wood pavement, 84 - Notices to repair private streets, 198 - ---- of assessment of cost of ditto, 201 - ---- of defective drainage, 313 - ---- for breaking-up streets, 158 - ---- cellar coverings, 181 - ---- for dangerous building, 190 - ---- defective shuting, 183 - ---- doors and gates opening outwards, 179 - ---- insufficient w.c. accommodation, 298 - ---- numbering, 155 - ---- overhanging trees, 185 - ---- permission to break-up streets, 172 - ---- to construct sewers on private lands, 256 - ---- to erect buildings, 214 - ---- to open slaughter-house, 321 - ---- signature of, 313 - Number of graves in cemetery, 354 - - Objections to asphalte, 100 - ---- macadamised roadways, 44 - ---- steam rolling, 72 - ---- York flagging, 110 - Observations of tides, 265 - Obstruction in streets, 174 - Obstructive buildings, 286 - Old tins, 225 - Opening graves, 356, 361 - Open space at back of buildings, 218 - ---- ventilating shafts, 272 - Ornamental shrubs, 320 - Outfalls of sewers, 265 - Overhanging trees, 185 - - Paget on steam rolling, 71 - Pail system, 234 - Pails, 263 - Painted names, 151 - Painting urinals, 282 - Pamphlet on steam rolling, 65 - Papers, examination, 16 - Paris lighting, 135 - ---- roadways, cost of, 41 - ---- tree planting, 326 - Parks, 318 - Parry on contracts, 383 - ---- watering, 244 - Party walls through roofs, 218 - Paths in cemeteries, 355 - Partially separate system, 262 - Paving of Cattle Market, 346 - ---- lairs, 333, 346 - Pebbles, 50 - Pedestrian traffic, 33 - Pens for sheep, 333, 346 - Permission to break-up streets, 172 - ---- construct cellar, 182 - Persons called surveyor, 4 - Pig killing, 340 - Pinned roadways, 36, 39 - Pipe drains, 315 - ---- sewers, thickness, &c., 258 - ---- ---- diagrams, 259 - Pitch boilers, 80 - Pitched pavements, 73 - Plan for breaking-up streets, 160 - Plans of new streets or buildings, 210 - ---- of house drains, 317 - ---- for borrowing, 377 - ---- slaughter-house, 338 - Plane tree, 322 - Plants for sewage, 270 - Plaster not house refuse, 225 - Plates, name, 151 - Playgrounds, 318 - Pleasure grounds, 318, 350 - Paving of slaughter-house, 334 - Pole-axe, 336 - Polluted water supply, 291 - Porch, 176 - Portable dust-bins, 227 - Position of sewer, 254 - Post-mortem room, 370 - Powers to close slaughter-houses, 330 - Power to borrow, 375 - ---- make contracts, 381 - Precipitation of sewage, 268 - Preservation of wood, 86 - Private lands and sewer, 255 - ---- roads improvements, 204 - ---- slaughter-houses, 329 - ---- street improvements, 193 - Privies, 263 - Processes of chemical treatment, 268 - Projections, 176 - Proportions for asphalte, 109 - Prosser’s wood pavement, 85 - Protection of surveyor, 6, 8 - Pruning trees, 321 - Public abattoirs, 328 - ---- conveniences, 280 - ---- dust-bins, 228 - ---- lighting, 131 - ---- mortuaries, 365 - ---- works, 376 - Punctuality, 24 - - Qualities of road metal, 49, 51 - Quantity of land for sewage farm, 265 - - Rain-water pipes as ventilators, 274 - ---- ---- shutes, 183 - Rate collecting by surveyor, 3 - Rawlinson on borrowing, 377 - Receipt of money, 3 - Refuse, disposal of, 232 - ---- from manufactories, 253 - ---- receptacles, 229 - ---- trade and garden, 225 - Register of drains, 317 - ---- graves, 360 - Regulation of traffic, 33 - Regulations of cemeteries, 358, 360 - ---- connections with sewers, 305 - Regulations for breaking-up streets, 171 - Reinstating trenches, 162 - Removal of snow, 239 - ---- house refuse, 223 - Removing projections, 176 - Requirements of artizans’ dwellings, 291 - ---- drains, 317 - ---- roadways, 25 - Remuneration of surveyor, 7 - Reports, 24 - ---- on duties of surveyor, 10 - Resistance of wheels, 31 - Roads, private, improvement of, 204 - ---- in cemeteries, 355 - Roadway, specifications of, 35, 36 - Road metal, 48 - ---- ---- list of, 49 - ---- ---- specification of, 57 - ---- ---- weight of, 56 - ---- repairs, 66 - ---- rolling, 60 - ---- Roman, 73 - Ruts in roads, 45 - - Safety in traffic, 31 - Sale rooms, 341 - Sanctuaries, 33 - Sandstone, 50 - Sanitary Institute of Great Britain, 14 - Scaffolds, 187 - Scavenging, 221 - ---- cart, 230 - Sea-water for watering, 247 - Section of roadway, 43 - ---- footpaths, 121 - Sections of cemetery, 356 - Security to be entered into, 3 - Selection of trees, 321, 322 - Separate system, 260, 262 - Setting back buildings, 175 - ---- kerb, 124 - Sewerage, 251 - Sewerage, system of, 253 - Sewer through private lands, 255 - Sewered, 195 - Sewage and plants, 270 - ---- crops for, 265 - ---- disposal, 263 - ---- filtration, 266, 267 - ---- irrigation, 265 - ---- mechanical subsidence, 267 - ---- precipitation, 268 - ---- screening, 267 - ---- value of, 265 - Sewer gas, 277 - ---- ventilation, 271 - Shafts for ventilation, 273 - Shed, 176 - Sheep pens, 333, 346 - Shiel’s composite pavement, 85 - Shone’s system, 262 - Shop blinds, 184 - Shrubs projecting, 176 - ---- 320 - ---- in cemeteries, 360 - Shutes, 183 - Shutter projecting, 176 - Sight rails, 257 - Sign projecting, 176 - Site for abattoir, 332 - ---- of Cattle Market, 345 - ---- for cemetery, 351 - Size of cellar covers, 181 - ---- drains, 316 - ---- graves, 356 - ---- pitchers, 74 - ---- rooms, 294 - ---- trees, 323 - Slaughter-houses, 328, 334 - Slaughtering, 342 - Slippery roads, 32 - Sludge, treatment of, 269 - Snow, removal of, 239, 241 - ---- on footpaths, 241 - Soil for cemetery, 352 - Soot on trees, 321 - Specific gravity of road metal, 49 - Specifications of roadway, 35, 36 - Specification for asphalte, 103 - ---- flagging, 110 - ---- for breaking-up streets, 161 - ---- of wood pavement, 94 - ---- road metal, 57 - ---- scavenging, 249 - ---- tar pavement, 118 - Stalls in markets, 349 - Stanford’s joint, 257 - Step projecting, 176 - Stone breaking, 48 - Store for hides, 341 - Stowe’s wood pavement, 84 - Street, breaking-up, 155 - ---- cleansing, 234 - ---- definition of, 149, 205 - ---- lighting, 129 - ---- lines, 174 - ---- private, improvements, 193 - ---- trees, 318 - ---- watering, 242 - Streets, new, 206 - Stringent bye-laws, 219 - Subjects requiring attention, 21 - Subways, 168 - Sugg’s regulator, 133 - Supervision of new buildings, 217 - Surface water over paths, 186 - Subsoil water, 261 - Surveyor, office first legalised, 1 - ---- appointment of, 1, 3, 10, 18 - ---- and private streets, 194 - ---- as rate collector, 3 - ---- duties of, 5, 7, 11, 20 - ---- examination of, 14 - ---- entry of, to see if new building, 209 - ---- may be also inspector of nuisances, 3 - ---- must not be interested in contracts, 3 - ---- of highways, 20 - ---- protection of, 6, 8 - Sweeping machines, 234 - Syenite, 49, 75 - - Tables of cost of roadways, 41 - Table of scavenging, 236 - ---- watering, 246 - Tallow market, 341 - Tar paving, 118 - Telegraphs under or across roads, 164 - Telford, Thomas, 35 - Tell-tale on water-cart, 247 - Temporary obstructions, 192 - Testimonials, 18 - Test for asphalte, 97 - ---- brooms, 235 - ---- of good drains, 316 - ---- merit, 14 - Thames Embankment, lighting, 147 - Tides and outfalls, 265 - Tins as refuse, 225 - Title of surveyor, 4 - Town surveyor. See Surveyor - Traction on roads, 28 - Trade refuse, 225 - Traffic, 25 - Tram track, 80 - Trap for drain, 317 - Trappean rock, 49 - Treatment of sludge, 269 - ---- wood, 86 - Trees, 318 - ---- in cemeteries, 360 - ---- overhanging, 185 - Trenches cut in roads, 161 - Toughness of stone, 48 - Tripery, 341 - Troughs for pig-dressing, 340 - - Unhealthy areas, 288 - Urinals, 280 - Useful books, 384 - Use of steam rollers, 61 - - Vacancy in office of surveyor, 10 - Value of sewage, 265 - Vans for watering, 245 - Vault or cellar coverings, 180 - ---- ---- under-path, 182 - Velocity in sewers, 254 - Ventilation of house drain, 317 - ---- mortuaries, 369 - ---- sewers, 271 - Vigilance of drain inspection, 309 - Visit of scavengers, 230 - - Walls of cemeteries, 351 - ---- mortuaries, 369 - Wall projecting, 176 - ---- slaughter-house, 335 - Water and asphalte, 105 - ---- companies and streets, 157 - ---- for slaughter-house, 337 - ---- over footpaths, 186 - ---- supply to dwellings, 300 - W.C. accommodation, 280, 297 - ---- in factories, 299 - Watering streets, 242 - Wear of paving stones, 76 - Wearing effect of traffic, 27 - Weather on stone, 48 - Wheels, resistance of, 31 - Weighing machines, 348 - Weight of asphalte, 96 - ---- road metal, 56 - ---- rollers, 67 - ---- snow, 239 - Widening streets, 174 - Width of roadways, 32 - Window projecting, 176 - Wires for electricity, 141 - Wooden name plates, 152 - Wood paving, 81 - ---- treatment, 86 - ---- wear of, 88 - - Yards behind buildings, 218 - York flagging, 110 - - -LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND -CHARING CROSS. - - - - - BOOKS RELATING - TO - APPLIED SCIENCE - PUBLISHED BY - E. & F. N. SPON, - LONDON: 16, CHARING CROSS. - NEW YORK: 44, MURRAY STREET. - - -_A Pocket-Book for Chemists, Chemical Manufacturers, Metallurgists, -Dyers, Distillers, Brewers, Sugar Refiners, Photographers, Students, -etc., etc._ By THOMAS BAYLEY, Assoc. R.C. Sc. Ireland, Analytical and -Consulting Chemist and Assayer. 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We congratulate the author on the success of his laborious - and practically compiled little book, which has received unqualified - and deserved praise from every professional person to whom we have - shown it.”--_The Dublin Builder._ - - -_The Cabinet Maker_; being a Collection of the most approved designs in -the Mediæval, Louis-Seize, and Old English styles, for the use of -Cabinet Makers, Carvers, &c. By R. CHARLES. _96 plates_, folio, -half-bound, 10_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Quantity Surveying._ By J. LEANING. With 42 illustrations, crown 8vo, -cloth, 9_s._ - - CONTENTS: - - A complete Explanation of the London Practice. - General Instructions. - Order of Taking Off. - Modes of Measurement of the various Trades. - Use and Waste. - Ventilation and Warming. - Credits, with various Examples of Treatment. - Abbreviations. - Squaring the Dimensions. - Abstracting, with Examples in illustration of each Trade. - Billing. - Examples of Preambles to each Trade. - Form for a Bill of Quantities. - Do. Bill of Credits. - Do. Bill for Alternative Estimate. - Restorations and Repairs, and Form of Bill. - Variations before Acceptance of Tender. - Errors in a Builder’s Estimate. - Schedule of Prices. - Form of Schedule of Prices. - Analysis of Schedule of Prices. - Adjustment of Accounts. - Form of a Bill of Variations. - Remarks on Specifications. - Prices and Valuation of Work, with Examples and Remarks upon each - Trade. - The Law as it affects Quantity Surveyors, with Law Reports. - Taking Off after the Old Method. - Northern Practice. - The General Statement of the Methods recommended by the Manchester - Society of Architects for taking Quantities. - Examples of Collections. - Examples of “Taking Off” in each Trade. - Remarks on the Past and Present Methods of Estimating. - - -_A Practical Treatise on Heat, as applied to the Useful Arts_; for the -Use of Engineers, Architects, &c. By THOMAS BOX. _With 14 plates._ Third -edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ - - -_A Descriptive Treatise on Mathematical Drawing Instruments_: their -construction, uses, qualities, selection, preservation, and suggestions -for improvements, with hints upon Drawing and Colouring. By W. F. -STANLEY, M.R.I. Fifth edition, _with numerous illustrations_, crown 8vo, -cloth, 5_s._ - - -_Spons’ Architects and Builders’ Pocket-Book of Prices and Memoranda._ -Edited by W. YOUNG, Architect. Royal 32mo, roan, 4_s._ 6_d._; or cloth, -red edges, 3_s._ 6_d._ _Published annually._ Tenth edition. _Now ready._ - - -_Long-Span Railway Bridges_, comprising Investigations of the -Comparative Theoretical and Practical Advantages of the various adopted -or proposed Type Systems of Construction, with numerous Formulæ and -Tables giving the weight of Iron or Steel required in Bridges from 300 -feet to the limiting Spans; to which are added similar Investigations -and Tables relating to Short-span Railway Bridges. Second and revised -edition. By B. BAKER, Assoc. Inst. C.E. _Plates_, crown 8vo, cloth, -5_s._ - - -_Elementary Theory and Calculation of Iron Bridges and Roofs._ By AUGUST -RITTER, Ph.D., Professor at the Polytechnic School at Aix-la-Chapelle. -Translated from the third German edition, by H. R. SANKEY, Capt. R.E. -With 500 _illustrations_, 8vo, cloth, 15_s._ - - -_The Builder’s Clerk_: a Guide to the Management of a Builder’s -Business. By THOMAS BALES. Fcap. 8vo, cloth, 1_s._ 6_d._ - - -_The Elementary Principles of Carpentry._ By THOMAS TREDGOLD. Revised -from the original edition, and partly re-written, by JOHN THOMAS HURST. -Contained in 517 pages of letter-press, and _illustrated with 48 plates -and 150 wood engravings_. Third edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 18_s._ - - Section I. On the Equality and Distribution of Forces -- Section II. - Resistance of Timber -- Section III. Construction of Floors -- Section - IV. Construction of Roofs -- Section V. Construction of Domes and - Cupolas -- Section VI. Construction of Partitions -- Section VII. - Scaffolds, Staging, and Gantries -- Section VIII. Construction of - Centres for Bridges -- Section IX. Coffer-dams, Shoring, and Strutting - -- Section X. Wooden Bridges and Viaducts -- Section XI. Joints, - Straps, and other Fastenings -- Section XII. Timber. - - -_Our Factories, Workshops, and Warehouses_: their Sanitary and -Fire-Resisting Arrangements. By B. H. THWAITE, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E. -_With 183 wood engravings_, crown 8vo, cloth, 9_s._ - - -_Gold_: Its Occurrence and Extraction, embracing the Geographical and -Geological Distribution and the Mineralogical Characters of Gold-bearing -rocks; the peculiar features and modes of working Shallow Placers, -Rivers, and Deep Leads; Hydraulicing; the Reduction and Separation of -Auriferous Quartz; the treatment of complex Auriferous ores containing -other metals; a Bibliography of the subject and a Glossary of Technical -and Foreign Terms. By ALFRED G. LOCK, F.R.G.S. _With numerous -illustrations and maps_, 1250 pp., super-royal 8vo, cloth, 2_l._ 12_s._ -6_d._ - - -_Progressive Lessons in Applied Science._ By EDWARD SANG, F.R.S.E. Crown -8vo, cloth, each Part, 3_s._ - - Part 1. Geometry on Paper -- Part 2. Solidity, Weight, and Pressure -- - Part 3. Trigonometry, Vision, and Surveying Instruments. - - -_A Practical Treatise on Coal Mining._ By GEORGE G. ANDRÉ, F.G.S., -Assoc. Inst. C.E., Member of the Society of Engineers. _With 82 -lithographic plates._ 2 vols., royal 4to, cloth, 3_l._ 12_s._ - - -_Sugar Growing and Refining_: a Comprehensive Treatise on the Culture of -Sugar-yielding Plants, and the Manufacture, Refining, and Analysis of -Cane, Beet, Maple, Milk, Palm, Sorghum, and Starch Sugars, with copious -statistics of their production and commerce, and a chapter on the -distillation of Rum. By CHARLES G. WARNFORD LOCK, F.L.S., &c., and G. W. -WIGNER and R. H. HARLAND, FF.C.S., FF.I.C. _With 205 illustrations_, -8vo, cloth, 30_s._ - - -_Spons’ Information for Colonial Engineers._ Edited by J. T. HURST. Demy -8vo, sewed. - - - No. 1, Ceylon. By ABRAHAM DEANE, C.E. 2_s._ 6_d._ - - CONTENTS: - - Introductory Remarks -- Natural Productions -- Architecture and - Engineering -- Topography, Trade, and Natural History -- Principal - Stations -- Weights and Measures, etc., etc. - - - No. 2. Southern Africa, including the Cape Colony, Natal, and the - Dutch Republics. By HENRY HALL, F.R.G.S., F.R.C.I. With Map. 3_s._ - 6_d._ - - CONTENTS: - - General Description of South Africa -- Physical Geography with - reference to Engineering Operations -- Notes on Labour and Material in - Cape Colony -- Geological Notes on Rock Formation in South Africa -- - Engineering Instruments for Use in South Africa -- Principal Public - Works in Cape Colony: Railways, Mountain Roads and Passes, Harbour - Works, Bridges, Gas Works, Irrigation and Water Supply, Lighthouses, - Drainage and Sanitary Engineering, Public Buildings, Mines -- Table of - Woods in South Africa -- Animals used for Draught Purposes -- - Statistical Notes -- Table of Distances -- Rates of Carriage, etc. - - - No. 3. India. By F. C. DANVERS, Assoc. Inst. C.E. With Map. 4_s._ - 6_d._ - - CONTENTS: - - Physical Geography of India -- Building Materials -- Roads -- Railways - -- Bridges -- Irrigation -- River Works -- Harbours -- Lighthouse - Buildings -- Native Labour -- The Principal Trees of India -- Money -- - Weights and Measures -- Glossary of Indian Terms, etc. - - -_A Practical Treatise on Casting and Founding_, including descriptions -of the modern machinery employed in the art. By N. E. SPRETSON, -Engineer. Third edition, with 82 _plates_ drawn to scale, 412 pp., demy -8vo, cloth, 18_s._ - - -_The Clerk of Works_: a Vade-Mecum for all engaged in the -Superintendence of Building Operations. By G. G. HOSKINS, F.R.I.B.A. -Third edition, fcap. 8vo, cloth, 1_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Tropical Agriculture_; or, the Culture, Preparation, Commerce, and -Consumption of the Principal Products of the Vegetable Kingdom, as -furnishing Food, Clothing, Medicine, etc., and in their relation to the -Arts and Manufactures; forming a practical treatise and Handbook of -Reference for the Colonist, Manufacturer, Merchant, and Consumer, on the -Cultivation, Preparation for Shipment, and Commercial Value, etc., of -the various Substances obtained from Trees and Plants entering into the -Husbandry of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Regions. By P. L. SIMMONDS. -Second edition, revised and improved, 515 pages, 8vo, cloth, 1_l._ 1_s._ - - -_Steel: its History, Manufacture, and Uses._ By J. S. JEANS, Secretary -of the Iron and Steel Institute. 860 pages and 24 _plates_, 8vo, cloth, -36_s._ - - -_American Foundry Practice_: Treating of Loam, Dry Sand, and Green Sand -Moulding, and containing a Practical Treatise upon the Management of -Cupolas, and the Melting of Iron. By T. D. WEST, Practical Iron Moulder -and Foundry Foreman. Second edition, _with numerous illustrations_, -crown 8vo, cloth, 10_s._ 6_d._ - - -_The Maintenance of Macadamised Roads._ By T. CODRINGTON, M.I.C.E, -F.G.S., General Superintendent of County Roads for South Wales. 8vo, -cloth, 6_s._ - - -_Hydraulic Steam and Hand Power Lifting and Pressing Machinery._ By -FREDERICK COLYER, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. M.E. _With 73 plates_, 8vo, -cloth, 18_s._ - - -_Pumps and Pumping Machinery._ By F. COLYER, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. _With 23 -folding plates_, 8vo, cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Tables of the Principal Speeds occurring in Mechanical Engineering_, -expressed in metres in a second. By P. KEERAYEFF, Chief Mechanic of the -Obouchoff Steel Works, St. Petersburg; translated by SERGIUS KERN, M.E. -Fcap. 8vo, sewed, 6_d._ - - -_Girder Making and the Practice of Bridge Building in Wrought Iron_, -illustrated by Examples of Bridges, Piers, and Girder Work, etc., -constructed at the Skerne Iron Works, Darlington, by EDWARD HUTCHINSON, -M. Inst. M.E. _With 35 plates_, demy 8vo, cloth, 10_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Spons’ Dictionary of Engineering, Civil, Mechanical, Military, and -Naval_; with technical terms in French, German, Italian, and Spanish, -3100 pp., and _nearly 8000 engravings_, in super-royal 8vo, in 8 -divisions, 5_l._ 8_s._ Complete in 3 vols., cloth, 5_l._ 5_s._ Bound in -a superior manner, half-morocco, top edge gilt, 3 vols., 6_l._ 12_s._ - - _See page 15._ - - -_A Treatise on the Origin, Progress, Prevention, and Cure of Dry Rot in -Timber_; with Remarks on the Means of Preserving Wood from Destruction -by Sea-Worms, Beetles, Ants, etc. By THOMAS ALLEN BRITTON, late Surveyor -to the Metropolitan Board of Works, etc., etc. _With 10 plates_, crown -8vo, cloth, 7_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Metrical Tables._ By G. L. MOLESWORTH, M.I.C.E. 32mo, cloth, 1_s._ -6_d._ - - CONTENTS. - - General -- Linear Measures -- Square Measures -- Cubic Measures -- - Measures of Capacity -- Weights -- Combinations -- Thermometers. - - -_A Handbook of Electrical Testing._ By H. R. KEMPE, Member of the -Society of Telegraph Engineers. New edition, revised and enlarged, _with -81 illustrations_. Crown 8vo, cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Electro-Telegraphy._ By FREDERICK S. BEECHEY, Telegraph Engineer. A -Book for Beginners. _Illustrated._ Fcap. 8vo, sewed, 6_d._ - - -_Handrailing: by the Square Cut._ By JOHN JONES, Staircase Builder. -Fourth edition, _with seven plates_, 8vo, cloth, 3_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Handrailing: by the Square Cut._ By JOHN JONES, Staircase Builder. Part -Second, _with eight plates_, 8vo, cloth, 3_s._ 6_d._ - - -_The Gas Consumer’s Handy Book._ By WILLIAM RICHARDS, C.E. -_Illustrated._ 18mo, sewed, 6_d._ - - -_Steam Heating for Buildings_; or, Hints to Steam Fitters, being a -description of Steam Heating Apparatus for Warming and Ventilating -Private Houses and large Buildings; with Remarks on Steam, Water, and -Air in their relation to Heating; to which are added miscellaneous -Tables. By J. W. BALDWIN, Steam Heating Engineer. _With many -illustrations._ Second edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 10_s._ 6_d._ - - -_A Pocket-Book of Useful Formulæ and Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical -Engineers._ By GUILFORD L. MOLESWORTH, Mem. Inst. C.E., Consulting -Engineer to the Government of India for State Railways. _With numerous -illustrations_, 744 pp. Twenty-first edition, revised and enlarged, -32mo, roan, 6_s._ - - SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS: - - Surveying, Levelling, etc. -- Strength and Weight of Materials -- - Earthwork, Brickwork, Masonry, Arches, etc. -- Struts, Columns, Beams, - and Trusses -- Flooring, Roofing, and Roof Trusses -- Girders, - Bridges, etc. -- Railways and Roads -- Hydraulic Formulæ -- Canals, - Sewers, Waterworks, Docks -- Irrigation and Breakwaters -- Gas, - Ventilation, and Warming -- Heat, Light, Colour, and Sound -- Gravity: - Centres, Forces, and Powers -- Millwork, Teeth of Wheels, Shafting, - etc. -- Workshop Recipes -- Sundry Machinery -- Animal Power -- Steam - and the Steam Engine -- Water-power, Water-wheels, Turbines, etc. -- - Wind and Windmills -- Steam Navigation, Ship Building, Tonnage, etc. - -- Gunnery, Projectiles, etc. -- Weights, Measures, and Money -- - Trigonometry, Conic Sections, and Curves -- Telegraphy -- Mensuration - -- Tables of Areas and Circumference, and Arcs of Circles -- - Logarithms, Square and Cube Roots, Powers -- Reciprocals, etc. -- - Useful Numbers -- Differential and Integral Calculus -- Algebraic - Signs -- Telegraphic Construction and Formulæ. - - -_Spons’ Tables and Memoranda for Engineers_; selected and arranged by J. -T. HURST, C.E., Author of ‘Architectural Surveyors’ Handbook,’ ‘Hurst’s -Tredgold’s Carpentry,’ etc. Fifth edition, 64mo, roan, gilt edges, -1_s._; or in cloth case, 1_s_. 6_d_. - - This work is printed in a pearl type, and is so small, measuring only - 2¹⁄₂ in. by 1³⁄₄ in. by ¹⁄₄ in. thick, that it may be easily carried - in the waistcoat pocket. - - “It is certainly an extremely rare thing for a reviewer to be called - upon to notice a volume measuring but 2¹⁄₂ in. by 1³⁄₄ in., yet these - dimensions faithfully represent the size of the handy little book - before us. The volume--which contains 118 printed pages, besides a few - blank pages for memoranda--is, in fact, a true pocket-book, adapted - for being carried in the waistcoat pocket, and containing a far - greater amount and variety of information than most people would - imagine could be compressed into so small a space. . . . . The little - volume has been compiled with considerable care and judgment, and we - can cordially recommend it to our readers as a useful little pocket - companion.”--_Engineering._ - - -_Analysis, Technical Valuation, Purification and Use of Coal Gas._ By -the Rev. W. R. BOWDITCH, M.A. _With wood engravings_, 8vo, cloth, 12_s_. -6_d_. - - Condensation of Gas -- Purification of Gas -- Light -- Measuring -- - Place of Testing Gas -- Test Candles -- The Standard for Measuring - Gas-light -- Test Burners -- Testing Gas for Sulphur -- Testing Gas - for Ammonia -- Condensation by Bromine -- Gravimetric Method of taking - Specific Gravity of Gas -- Carburetting or Naphthalizing Gas -- - Acetylene -- Explosions of Gas -- Gnawing of Gaspipes by Rats -- - Pressure as related to Public Lighting, etc. - - -_A Practical Treatise on Natural and Artificial Concrete, its Varieties -and Constructive Adaptations._ By HENRY REID, Author of the ‘Science and -Art of the Manufacture of Portland Cement.’ New Edition, _with 59 -woodcuts and 5 plates_, 8vo, cloth, 15_s_. - - -_Hydrodynamics_: Treatise relative to the Testing of Water-Wheels and -Machinery, with various other matters pertaining to Hydrodynamics. By -JAMES EMERSON. _With numerous illustrations_, 360 pp. Third edition, -crown 8vo, cloth, 4_s_. 6_d_. - - -_The Gas Analyst’s Manual._ By F. W. HARTLEY, Assoc. Inst. C.E., etc. -_With numerous illustrations._ Crown 8vo, cloth, 6_s._ - - -_Gas Measurement and Gas Meter Testing._ By F. W. HARTLEY. Fourth -edition, revised and extended. _Illustrated_, crown 8vo, cloth, 4_s._ - - -_The French-Polishers Manual._ By a French-Polisher; containing Timber -Staining, Washing, Matching, Improving, Painting, Imitations, Directions -for Staining, Sizing, Embodying, Smoothing, Spirit Varnishing, -French-Polishing, Directions for Repolishing. Third edition, royal 32mo, -sewed, 6_d._ - - -_Hops, their Cultivation, Commerce, and Uses in various Countries._ By -P. L. SIMMONDS. Crown 8vo, cloth, 4_s._ 6_d._ - - -_A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Distribution of Coal Gas._ -By WILLIAM RICHARDS. Demy 4to, with _numerous wood engravings and 29 -plates_, cloth, 28_s._ - - SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS: - - Introduction -- History of Gas Lighting -- Chemistry of Gas - Manufacture, by Lewis Thompson, Esq., M.R.C.S. -- Coal, with Analyses, - by J. Paterson, Lewis Thompson, and G. R. Hislop, Esqrs. -- Retorts, - Iron and Clay -- Retort Setting -- Hydraulic Main -- Condensers -- - Exhausters -- Washers and Scrubbers -- Purifiers -- Purification -- - History of Gas Holder -- Tanks, Brick and Stone, Composite, Concrete, - Cast-iron, Compound Annular Wrought-iron -- Specifications -- Gas - Holders -- Station Meter -- Governor -- Distribution -- Mains -- Gas - Mathematics, or Formulæ for the Distribution of Gas, by Lewis - Thompson, Esq. -- Services -- Consumers’ Meters -- Regulators -- - Burners -- Fittings -- Photometer -- Carburization of Gas -- Air Gas - and Water Gas -- Composition of Coal Gas, by Lewis Thompson, Esq. -- - Analyses of Gas -- Influence of Atmospheric Pressure and Temperature - on Gas -- Residual Products -- Appendix -- Description of Retort - Settings, Buildings, etc., etc. - - -_Practical Geometry and Engineering Drawing_; a Course of Descriptive -Geometry adapted to the Requirements of the Engineering Draughtsman, -including the determination of cast shadows and Isometric Projection, -each chapter being followed by numerous examples; to which are added -rules for Shading, Shade-lining, etc., together with practical -instructions as to the Lining, Colouring, Printing, and general -treatment of Engineering Drawings, with a chapter on drawing -Instruments. By GEORGE S. CLARKE, Lieut. R.E., Instructor in Mechanical -Drawing, Royal Indian Engineering College. 20 _plates_, 4to, cloth, -15_s._ - - -_The Elements of Graphic Statics._ By Professor KARL VON OTT, translated -from the German by G. S. CLARKE, Lieut. R.E., Instructor in Mechanical -Drawing, Royal Indian Engineering College. _With 93 illustrations_, -crown 8vo, cloth, 5_s._ - - -_The Principles of Graphic Statics._ By GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, Lieut. -Royal Engineers. _With 112 illustrations_. 4to, cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ - - -_The New Formula for Mean Velocity of Discharge of Rivers and Canals._ -By W. R. KUTTER. Translated from articles in the ‘Cultur-Ingenieur,’ by -LOWIS D’A. JACKSON, Assoc. Inst. C.E. 8vo, cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Practical Hydraulics_; a Series of Rules and Tables for the use of -Engineers, etc., etc. By THOMAS BOX. Fifth edition, _numerous plates_, -post 8vo, cloth, 5_s._ - - -_A Practical Treatise on the Construction of Horizontal and Vertical -Waterwheels_, specially designed for the use of operative mechanics. By -WILLIAM CULLEN, Millwright and Engineer. _With 11 plates._ Second -edition, revised and enlarged, small 4to, cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Aid Book to Engineering Enterprise Abroad._ By EWING MATHESON, M. Inst. -C.E. The book treats of Public Works and Engineering Enterprises in -their inception and preliminary arrangement; of the different modes in -which money is provided for their accomplishment; and of the economical -and technical considerations by which success or failure is determined. -The information necessary to the designs of Engineers is classified, as -are also those particulars by which Contractors may estimate the cost of -works, and Capitalists the probabilities of profit. _Illustrated_, 2 -vols., 8vo, 12_s._ 6_d._ each. - - -_The Essential Elements of Practical Mechanics; based on the Principle -of Work_, designed for Engineering Students. By OLIVER BYRNE, formerly -Professor of Mathematics, College for Civil Engineers. Third edition, -_with 148 wood engravings_, post 8vo, cloth, 7_s._ 6_d._ - - CONTENTS: - - Chap. 1. How Work is Measured by a Unit, both with and without - reference to a Unit of Time -- Chap. 2. The Work of Living Agents, the - Influence of Friction, and introduces one of the most beautiful Laws - of Motion -- Chap. 3. The principles expounded in the first and second - chapters are applied to the Motion of Bodies -- Chap. 4. The - Transmission of Work by simple Machines -- Chap. 5. Useful - Propositions and Rules. - - -_The Practical Millwright’s and Engineer’s Ready Reckoner_; or Tables -for finding the diameter and power of cog-wheels, diameter, weight, and -power of shafts, diameter and strength of bolts, etc. By THOMAS DIXON. -Fourth edition, 12mo, cloth, 3_s._ - - -_Breweries and Maltings_: their Arrangement, Construction, Machinery, -and Plant. By G. SCAMELL, F.R.I.B.A. Second edition, revised, enlarged, -and partly rewritten. By F. COLYER, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. _With 20 plates_, -8vo, cloth, 18_s._ - - -_A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Starch, Glucose, -Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine_, based on the German of L. VON WAGNER, -Professor in the Royal Technical School, Buda Pesth, and other -authorities. By JULIUS FRANKEL; edited by ROBERT HUTTER, proprietor of -the Philadelphia Starch Works. _With 58 illustrations_, 344 pp., 8vo, -cloth, 18_s._ - - -_A Practical Treatise on Mill-gearing, Wheels, Shafts, Riggers, etc._; -for the use of Engineers. By THOMAS BOX. Third edition, _with 11 -plates_. Crown 8vo, cloth, 7_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Mining Machinery_: a Descriptive Treatise on the Machinery, Tools, and -other Appliances used in Mining. By G. G. ANDRÉ, F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. -C.E., Mem. of the Society of Engineers. Royal 4to, uniform with the -Author’s Treatise on Coal Mining, containing 182 _plates_, accurately -drawn to scale, with descriptive text, in 2 vols., cloth, 3_l._ 12_s._ - - CONTENTS: - - Machinery for Prospecting, Excavating, Hauling, and Hoisting -- - Ventilation -- Pumping -- Treatment of Mineral Products, including - Gold and Silver, Copper, Tin, and Lead, Iron, Coal, Sulphur, China - Clay, Brick Earth, etc. - - -_Tables for Setting out Curves for Railways, Canals, Roads, etc._, -varying from a radius of five chains to three miles. By A. KENNEDY and -R. W. HACKWOOD. _Illustrated_, 32mo, cloth, 2_s._ 6_d._ - - -_The Science and Art of the Manufacture of Portland Cement_, with -observations on some of its constructive applications. _With 66 -illustrations._ By HENRY REID, C.E., Author of ‘A Practical Treatise on -Concrete,’ etc., etc. 8vo, cloth, 18_s._ - - -_The Draughtsman’s Handbook of Plan and Map Drawing_; including -instructions for the preparation of Engineering, Architectural, and -Mechanical Drawings. _With numerous illustrations in the text, and 33 -plates (15 printed in colours)._ By G. G. ANDRÉ, F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. -C.E. 4to, cloth, 9_s._ - - CONTENTS: - - The Drawing Office and its Furnishings -- Geometrical Problems -- - Lines, Dots, and their Combinations -- Colours, Shading, Lettering, - Bordering, and North Points -- Scales -- Plotting -- Civil Engineers’ - and Surveyors’ Plans -- Map Drawing -- Mechanical and Architectural - Drawing -- Copying and Reducing Trigonometrical Formulæ, etc., etc. - - -_The Boiler-maker’s and Iron Ship-builder’s Companion_, comprising a -series of original and carefully calculated tables, of the utmost -utility to persons interested in the iron trades. By JAMES FODEN, author -of ‘Mechanical Tables,’ etc. Second edition revised, _with -illustrations_, crown 8vo, cloth, 5_s._ - - -_Rock Blasting_: a Practical Treatise on the means employed in Blasting -Rocks for Industrial Purposes. By G. G. ANDRÉ, F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E. -_With 56 illustrations and 12 plates_, 8vo, cloth, 10_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Surcharged and different Forms of Retaining Walls._ By J. S. TATE. -_Illustrated_, 8vo, sewed, 2_s._ - - -_A Treatise on Ropemaking as practised in public and private -Rope-yards_, with a Description of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables of -Weights, etc., adapted to the Trade, Shipping, Mining, Railways, -Builders, etc. By R. CHAPMAN, formerly foreman to Messrs. Huddart and -Co., Limehouse, and late Master Ropemaker to H.M. Dockyard, Deptford. -Second edition, 12mo, cloth, 3_s._ - - -_Laxton’s Builders’ and Contractors’ Tables_; for the use of Engineers, -Architects, Surveyors, Builders, Land Agents, and others. Bricklayer, -containing 22 tables, with nearly 30,000 calculations. 4to, cloth, 5_s._ - - -_Laxton’s Builders’ and Contractors’ Tables._ Excavator, Earth, Land, -Water, and Gas, containing 53 tables, with nearly 24,000 calculations. -4to, cloth, 5_s._ - - -_Sanitary Engineering_: a Guide to the Construction of Works of Sewerage -and House Drainage, with Tables for facilitating the calculations of the -Engineer. By BALDWIN LATHAM, C.E., M. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., F.M.S., -Past-President of the Society of Engineers. Second edition, _with -numerous plates and woodcuts_, 8vo, cloth, 1_l._ 10_s._ - - -_Screw Cutting Tables for Engineers and Machinists_, giving the values -of the different trains of Wheels required to produce Screws of any -pitch, calculated by Lord Lindsay, M.P., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., etc. Royal -8vo, cloth, oblong, 2_s._ - - -_Screw Cutting Tables_, for the use of Mechanical Engineers, showing the -proper arrangement of Wheels for cutting the Threads of Screws of any -required pitch, with a Table for making the Universal Gas-pipe Threads -and Taps. By W. A. MARTIN, Engineer. Second edition, royal 8vo, oblong, -cloth, 1_s._, or sewed, 6_d._ - - -_A Treatise on a Practical Method of Designing Slide-Valve Gears by -Simple Geometrical Construction_, based upon the principles enunciated -in Euclid’s Elements, and comprising the various forms of Plain -Slide-Valve and Expansion Gearing; together with Stephenson’s, Gooch’s, -and Allan’s Link-Motions, as applied either to reversing or to variable -expansion combinations. By EDWARD J. COWLING WELCH, Memb. Inst. -Mechanical Engineers. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6_s._ - - -_Cleaning and Scouring_: a Manual for Dyers, Laundresses, and for -Domestic Use. By S. CHRISTOPHER. 18mo, sewed, 6_d._ - - -_A Handbook of House Sanitation_; for the use of all persons seeking a -Healthy Home. A reprint of those portions of Mr. Bailey-Denton’s -Lectures on Sanitary Engineering, given before the School of Military -Engineering, which related to the “Dwelling,” enlarged and revised by -his Son, E. F. BAILEY-DENTON, C.E., B.A. _With 140 illustrations_, 8vo, -cloth, 8_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Treatise on Valve-Gears_, with special consideration of the -Link-Motions of Locomotive Engines. By Dr. GUSTAV ZEUNER. Third edition, -revised and enlarged, translated from the German, with the special -permission of the author, by MORITZ MÜLLER. _Plates_, 8vo, cloth, 12_s._ -6_d._ - - -_A Pocket-Book for Boiler Makers and Steam Users_, comprising a variety -of useful information for Employer and Workman, Government Inspectors, -Board of Trade Surveyors, Engineers in charge of Works and Slips, -Foremen of Manufactories, and the general Steam-using Public. By MAURICE -JOHN SEXTON. Second edition, royal 32mo, roan, gilt edges, 5_s._ - - -_The Strains upon Bridge Girders and Roof Trusses_, including the -Warren, Lattice, Trellis, Bowstring, and other Forms of Girders, the -Curved Roof, and Simple and Compound Trusses. By THOS. CARGILL, -C.E.B.A.T., C.D., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Member of the Society of Engineers. -_With 64 illustrations, drawn and worked out to scale_, 8vo, cloth, -12_s._ 6_d._ - - -_A Practical Treatise on the Steam Engine_, containing Plans and -Arrangements of Details for Fixed Steam Engines, with Essays on the -Principles involved in Design and Construction. By ARTHUR RIGG, -Engineer, Member of the Society of Engineers and of the Royal -Institution of Great Britain. Demy 4to, _copiously illustrated with -woodcuts and 96 plates_, in one Volume, half-bound morocco, 2_l._ 2_s._; -or cheaper edition, cloth, 25_s_. - - This work is not, in any sense, an elementary treatise, or history of - the steam engine, but is intended to describe examples of Fixed Steam - Engines without entering into the wide domain of locomotive or marine - practice. To this end illustrations will be given of the most recent - arrangements of Horizontal, Vertical, Beam, Pumping, Winding, - Portable, Semi-portable, Corliss, Allen, Compound, and other similar - Engines, by the most eminent Firms in Great Britain and America. The - laws relating to the action and precautions to be observed in the - construction of the various details, such as Cylinders, Pistons, - Piston-rods, Connecting-rods, Cross-heads, Motion-blocks, Eccentrics, - Simple, Expansion, Balanced, and Equilibrium Slide-valves, and - Valve-gearing will be minutely dealt with. In this connection will be - found articles upon the Velocity of Reciprocating Parts and the Mode - of Applying the Indicator, Heat and Expansion of Steam Governors, and - the like. It is the writer’s desire to draw illustrations from every - possible source, and give only those rules that present practice deems - correct. - - -_Barlow’s Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, -Reciprocals of all Integer Numbers up to 10,000._ Post 8vo, cloth, 6_s._ - - -_Camus (M.) Treatise on the Teeth of Wheels_, demonstrating the best -forms which can be given to them for the purposes of Machinery, such as -Mill-work and Clock-work, and the art of finding their numbers. -Translated from the French, with details of the present practice of -Millwrights, Engine Makers, and other Machinists, by ISAAC HAWKINS. -Third edition, _with 18 plates_, 8vo, cloth, 5_s._ - - -_A Practical Treatise on the Science of Land and Engineering Surveying, -Levelling, Estimating Quantities, etc._, with a general description of -the several Instruments required for Surveying, Levelling, Plotting, -etc. By H. S. MERRETT. Third edition, _41 plates with illustrations and -tables_, royal 8vo, cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ - - PRINCIPAL CONTENTS: - - Part 1. Introduction and the Principles of Geometry. Part 2. Land - Surveying; comprising General Observations -- The Chain -- Offsets - Surveying by the Chain only -- Surveying Hilly Ground -- To Survey an - Estate or Parish by the Chain only -- Surveying with the Theodolite -- - Mining and Town Surveying -- Railroad Surveying -- Mapping -- Division - and Laying out of Land -- Observations on Enclosures -- Plane - Trigonometry. Part 3. Levelling -- Simple and Compound Levelling -- - The Level Book -- Parliamentary Plan and Section -- Levelling with a - Theodolite -- Gradients -- Wooden Curves -- To Lay out a Railway Curve - -- Setting out Widths. Part 4. Calculating Quantities generally for - Estimates -- Cuttings and Embankments -- Tunnels -- Brickwork -- - Ironwork -- Timber Measuring. Part 5. Description and Use of - Instruments in Surveying and Plotting -- The Improved Dumpy Level -- - Troughton’s Level -- The Prismatic Compass -- Proportional Compass -- - Box Sextant -- Vernier -- Pantagraph -- Merrett’s Improved Quadrant -- - Improved Computation Scale -- The Diagonal Scale -- Straight Edge and - Sector. Part 6. Logarithms of Numbers -- Logarithmic Sines and - Co-Sines, Tangents and Co-Tangents -- Natural Sines and Co-Sines -- - Tables for Earthwork, for Setting out Curves, and for various - Calculations, etc., etc., etc. - - -_Saws: the History, Development, Action, Classification, and Comparison -of Saws of all kinds._ By ROBERT GRIMSHAW. _With 220 illustrations_, -4to, cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ - - -_A Supplement to the above_; containing additional practical matter, -more especially relating to the forms of Saw Teeth for special material -and conditions, and to the behaviour of Saws under particular -conditions. _With 120 illustrations_, cloth, 9_s._ - - -_A Guide for the Electric Testing of Telegraph Cables._ By Capt. V. -HOSKIŒR, Royal Danish Engineers. _With illustrations_, second edition, -crown 8vo, cloth, 4_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Laying and Repairing Electric Telegraph Cables._ By Capt. V. HOSKIŒR, -Royal Danish Engineers. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3_s._ 6_d._ - - -_A Pocket-Book of Practical Rules for the Proportions of Modern Engines -and Boilers for Land and Marine purposes._ By N. P. BURGH. Seventh -edition, royal 32mo, roan, 4_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Table of Logarithms of the Natural Numbers, from 1 to 108,000._ By -CHARLES BABBAGE, Esq., M.A. Stereotyped edition, royal 8vo, cloth, 7_s._ -6_d._ - - To ensure the correctness of these Tables of Logarithms, they were - compared with Callett’s, Vega’s, Hutton’s, Briggs’, Gardiner’s, and - Taylor’s Tables of Logarithms, and carefully read by nine different - readers; and further, to remove any possibility of an error remaining, - the stereotyped sheets were hung up in the Hall at Cambridge - University, and a reward offered to anyone who could find an - inaccuracy. So correct are these Tables, that since their first issue - in 1827 no error has been discovered. - - -_The Steam Engine considered as a Heat Engine_: a Treatise on the Theory -of the Steam Engine, illustrated by Diagrams, Tables, and Examples from -Practice. By JAS. H. COTTERILL, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied -Mechanics in the Royal Naval College. 8vo, cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ - - -_The Practice of Hand Turning in Wood, Ivory, Shell, etc._, with -Instructions for Turning such Work in Metal as may be required in the -Practice of Turning in Wood, Ivory, etc.; also an Appendix on Ornamental -Turning. (A book for beginners.) By FRANCIS CAMPIN. Second edition, -_with wood engravings_, crown 8vo, cloth, 6_s._ - - CONTENTS: - - On Lathes -- Turning Tools -- Turning Wood -- Drilling -- Screw - Cutting -- Miscellaneous Apparatus and Processes -- Turning Particular - Forms -- Staining -- Polishing -- Spinning Metals -- Materials -- - Ornamental Turning, etc. - - -_Health and Comfort in House Building, or Ventilation with Warm Air by -Self-Acting Suction Power_, with Review of the mode of Calculating the -Draught in Hot-Air Flues, and with some actual Experiments. By J. -DRYSDALE, M.D., and J. W. HAYWARD, M.D. Second edition, with Supplement, -_with plates_, demy 8vo, cloth, 7_s._ 6_d._ - - -_Treatise on Watchwork, Past and Present._ By the Rev. H. L. NELTHROPP, -M.A., F.S.A. _With 32 illustrations_, crown 8vo, cloth, 6_s._ 6_d._ - - CONTENTS: - - Definitions of Words and Terms used in Watchwork -- Tools -- Time -- - Historical Summary -- On Calculations of the Numbers for Wheels and - Pinions; their Proportional Sizes, Trains, etc. -- Of Dial Wheels, or - Motion Work -- Length of Time of Going without Winding up -- The Verge - -- The Horizontal -- The Duplex -- The Lever -- The Chronometer -- - Repeating Watches -- Keyless Watches -- The Pendulum, or Spiral Spring - -- Compensation -- Jewelling of Pivot Holes -- Clerkenwell -- - Fallacies of the Trade -- Incapacity of Workmen -- How to Choose and - Use a Watch, etc. - - -_Spons’ Engineers’ and Contractors’ Illustrated Book of Prices of -Machines, Tools, Ironwork, and Contractors’ Material; and Engineers’ -Directory._ Third edition, 4to, cloth, 6_s._ - - -_Algebra Self-Taught._ By W. P. HIGGS, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., Assoc. Inst. -C.E., Author of ‘A Handbook of the Differential Calculus,’ etc. Second -edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 2_s._ 6_d._ - - CONTENTS: - - Symbols and the Signs of Operation -- The Equation and the Unknown - Quantity -- Positive and Negative Quantities -- Multiplication -- - Involution -- Exponents -- Negative Exponents -- Roots, and the Use of - Exponents as Logarithms -- Logarithms -- Tables of Logarithms and - Proportionate Parts -- Transformation of System of Logarithms -- - Common Uses of Common Logarithms -- Compound Multiplication and the - Binomial Theorem -- Division, Fractions, and Ratio -- Continued - Proportion -- The Series and the Summation of the Series -- Limit of - Series -- Square and Cube Roots -- Equations -- List of Formulæ, etc. - - - JUST PUBLISHED. - - In super-royal 8vo, 1168 pp., _with 2400 illustrations_, in 3 - Divisions, cloth, price 13_s._ 6_d._ each; or 1 vol., cloth, 2_l._; or - half-morocco, 2_l._ 8_s._ - - A SUPPLEMENT - TO - SPONS’ DICTIONARY OF ENGINEERING, - Civil, Mechanical, Military, and Naval. - EDITED BY ERNEST SPON, MEMB. SOC. ENGINEERS. - -The success which has attended the publication of ‘SPONS’ DICTIONARY OF -ENGINEERING’ has encouraged the Publishers to use every effort tending -to keep the work up to the standard of existing professional knowledge. -As the Book has now been some years before the public without addition -or revision, there are many subjects of importance which, of necessity, -are either not included in its pages, or have been treated somewhat less -fully than their present importance demands. With the object, therefore, -of remedying these omissions, this Supplement is now being issued. Each -subject in it is treated in a thoroughly comprehensive way; but, of -course, without repeating the information already included in the body -of the work. - -The new matter comprises articles upon - - Abacus, Counters, Speed Indicators, and Slide Rule. - Agricultural Implements and Machinery. - Air Compressors. - Animal Charcoal Machinery. - Antimony. - Axles and Axle-boxes. - Barn Machinery. - Belts and Belting. - Blasting. - Boilers. - Brakes. - Brick Machinery. - Bridges. - Cages for Mines. - Calculus, Differential and Integral. - Canals. - Carpentry. - Cast Iron. - Cement, Concrete, Limes, and Mortar. - Chimney Shafts. - Coal Cleansing and Washing. - Coal Mining. - Coal Cutting Machines. - Coke Ovens. - Copper. - Docks. - Drainage. - Dredging Machinery. - Dynamo--Electric and Magneto-Electric Machines. - Dynamometers. - Electrical Engineering, Telegraphy, Electric Lighting and its - practical details, Telephones. - Engines, Varieties of. - Explosives. - Fans. - Founding, Moulding and the practical work of the Foundry. - Gas, Manufacture of. - Hammers, Steam and other Power. - Heat. - Horse Power. - Hydraulics. - Hydro-geology. - Indicators. - Iron. - Lifts, Hoists, and Elevators. - Lighthouses, Buoys, and Beacons. - Machine Tools. - Materials of Construction. - Meters. - Ores, Machinery and Processes employed to Dress. - Piers. - Pile Driving. - Pneumatic Transmission. - Pumps. - Pyrometers. - Road Locomotives. - Rock Drills. - Rolling Stock. - Sanitary Engineering. - Shafting. - Steel. - Steam Navvy. - Stone Machinery. - Tramways. - Well Sinking. - - - NOW COMPLETE. - - _With nearly 1500 illustrations_, in super-royal 8vo, in 5 Divisions, - cloth. - - Divisions 1 to 4, 13_s._ 6_d._ each; Division 5, 17_s._ 6_d._; or 2 - vols., cloth, £3 10_s._ - - SPONS’ ENCYCLOPÆDIA - OF THE - INDUSTRIAL ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCIAL - PRODUCTS. - - EDITED BY C. G. WARNFORD LOCK, F.L.S. - - Among the more important of the subjects treated of, are the - following:-- - - Acids, 207 pp. 220 figs. - Alcohol, 23 pp. 16 figs. - Alcoholic Liquors, 13 pp. - Alkalies, 89 pp. 78 figs. - Alloys. - Alum. - Asphalt. - Assaying. - Beverages, 89 pp. 29 figs. - Blacks. - Bleaching Powder, 15 pp. - Bleaching, 51 pp. 48 figs. - Candles, 18 pp. 9 figs. - Carbon Bisulphide. - Celluloid, 9 pp. - Cements. - Clay. - Coal-tar Products, 44 pp. 14 figs. - Cocoa, 8 pp. - Coffee, 32 pp. 13 figs. - Cork, 8 pp. 17 figs. - Cotton Manufactures, 62 pp. 57 figs. - Drugs, 38 pp. - Dyeing and Calico Printing, 28 pp. 9 figs. - Dyestuffs, 16 pp. - Electro-Metallurgy, 13 pp. - Explosives, 22 pp. 33 figs. - Feathers. - Fibrous Substances, 92 pp. 79 figs. - Floor-cloth, 16 pp. 21 figs. - Food Preservation, 8 pp. - Fruit, 8 pp. - Fur, 5 pp. - Gas, Coal, 8 pp. - Gems. - Glass, 45 pp. 77 figs. - Graphite, 7 pp. - Hair, 7 pp. - Hair Manufactures. - Hats, 26 pp. 26 figs. - Honey. - Hops. - Horn. - Ice, 10 pp. 14 figs. - Indiarubber Manufactures, 23 pp. 17 figs. - Ink, 17 pp. - Ivory. - Jute Manufactures, 11 pp., 11 figs. - Knitted Fabrics--Hosiery, - 15 pp. 13 figs. - Lace, 13 pp. 9 figs. - Leather, 28 pp. 31 figs. - Linen Manufactures, 16 pp. 6 figs. - Manures, 21 pp. 30 figs. - Matches, 17 pp. 38 figs. - Mordants, 13 pp. - Narcotics, 47 pp. - Nuts, 10 pp. - Oils and Fatty Substances, 125 pp. - Paint. - Paper, 26 pp. 23 figs. - Paraffin, 8 pp. 6 figs. - Pearl and Coral, 8 pp. - Perfumes, 10 pp. - Photography, 13 pp. 20 figs. - Pigments, 9 pp. 6 figs. - Pottery, 46 pp. 57 figs. - Printing and Engraving, 20 pp. 8 figs. - Rags. - Resinous and Gummy Substances, 75 pp. 16 figs. - Rope, 16 pp. 17 figs. - Salt, 31 pp. 23 figs. - Silk, 8 pp. - Silk Manufactures, 9 pp. 11 figs. - Skins, 5 pp. - Small Wares, 4 pp. - Soap and Glycerine, 39 pp. 45 figs. - Spices, 16 pp. - Sponge, 5 pp. - Starch, 9 pp. 10 figs. - Sugar, 155 pp. 134 figs. - Sulphur. - Tannin, 18 pp. - Tea, 12 pp. - Timber, 13 pp. - Varnish, 15 pp. - Vinegar, 5 pp. - Wax, 5 pp. - Wool, 2 pp. - Woollen Manufactures, 58 pp. 39 figs. - - - London: E. & F. N. SPON, 16, Charing Cross. - New York: 44, Murray Street. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - - Depending on the hard- and software used and their settings, not all - elements may display as intended; some of the larger tables are best - viewed on a wide screen in a wide window. - - Inconsistent spelling, hyphenation, lay-out and use of accents and - thousands separators have been retained except as listed below. - - The (inconsistent) use of spaces, underscores, hyphens etc. to - indicate blanks where names, data etc. need to be inserted has not - been standardised. - - page 4, Dr. Ackland: possibly Henry Acland. - - page 137, 855 décicarcel-cubes: probably the decimal point is missing. - - page 372, Ranson’s: should possibly be Ransom’s (cf. Table of - Contents) or vice versa. - - Index: not all items are given in alphabetical order, this has not - been corrected. - - - Changes made: - - Footnotes have been moved to the end of each chapter. - Some obvious minor punctuation and typographical errors have been - corrected silently. - Vide has been standardised to _Vide_. - Some tables have been re-arranged or split to fit the available space. - page xv: Leichenhauser changed to Leichenhaus - page 1: c. 63 _s._ 37 changed to c. 63 s. 37 - page 14: closing quotes removed from after ... instructions thereon. - page 16: opening quotes removed from before Syllabus of Subjects ... - page 38: closing quote removed from after ... finished pavement. - page 52: Ellisons changed to Ellison’s - page 85, footnote [73]: Henry Allnut changed to Henry Allnutt - page 93: 5 0 changed to 5·0 - page 137: décicarcel-tubes changed to décicarcel-cubes - page 164: closing quote removed from after ... is broken up. - page 184: nor exceeding changed to not exceeding - page 233: depot changed to depôt as elsewhere - page 247, footnote [172]: Beaumé changed to Baumé - page 322: Oilantus changed to Ailantus - page 334: (2.) added before _The slaughter-houses._ - page 357: footnote anchor [227] inserted - page 368: LEICHENHAUSER changed to LEICHENHAUS - page 371: closing quote added after ... ss. 120 and 121. - page 379: closing quotes added after ... nor any name. and after ... - one of their inspectors. - catalogue page 11: Lord Lindsay changed to LORD LINDSAY as other - authors - catalogue page 15 and 16: several list items moved to new lines as the - other list items. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Municipal and Sanitary Engineer's -Handbook, by H. 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