diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/55758-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/55758-0.txt | 10726 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 10726 deletions
diff --git a/old/55758-0.txt b/old/55758-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 62aa6d0..0000000 --- a/old/55758-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10726 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Boys' and Girls' Herodotus, by John S. White - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Boys' and Girls' Herodotus - Being Parts of the History of Herodotus Edited for Boys and Girls - -Author: John S. White - -Release Date: October 16, 2017 [EBook #55758] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' HERODOTUS *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Chris Pinfield and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - -Transcriber's Note. - -Apparent typographical errors have been corrected. The inconsistent use -of hyphens has been retained, as has the use of both "king" and "King". - -Small capitals have been replaced by full capitals, while italics are -indicated by _underscores_. A phrase in black letter font is indicated -by +plus signs+. - -An advertisement for another work by the same author has been shifted to -the back of the book. - -The illustration titled "ALPHABET" does not identify which alphabet it -is, but it appears to illustrate Egyptian hieroglyphics. - -The "Synchronistical Table of the Principal Events in Herodotus" towards -the end of the book extends over two pages in small font: one on the -Greeks and one on the "Barbarians". The text on the Persian Empire is -spread over several columns on the second page. In this version the -table on each page has been split into two, and the text on the Persian -Empire placed at the end. - - - - -[Illustration: THE PYRAMIDS AND SPHINX.] - - - - - THE - BOYS' AND GIRLS' - HERODOTUS - - BEING - - PARTS OF THE HISTORY OF HERODOTUS - EDITED FOR BOYS AND GIRLS, WITH AN INTRODUCTION - - BY - - JOHN S. WHITE, LL.D. - HEAD-MASTER, BERKELEY SCHOOL; EDITOR OF THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH - - _WITH FIFTY ILLUSTRATIONS_ - - NEW YORK & LONDON - G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS - +The Knickerbocker Press+ - 1884 - - - COPYRIGHT BY - G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS - 1884 - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -Imagine yourself in the city of Athens near the close of the year 446 -B.C. The proud city, after many years of supremacy over the whole of -Central Greece, has passed her zenith, and is surely on the decline. She -has never recovered from the blow received at Coronea. The year has been -one of gloom and foreboding. The coming spring will bring the end of the -five years' truce; and an invasion from the Peloponnesus is imminent. -But, as the centre of learning, refinement, and the arts, the lustre of -her fame is yet undimmed, and men of education throughout the world deem -their lives incomplete until they have sought and reached this -intellectual Mecca. During this year a stranger from Halicarnassus, in -Asia Minor, after many years of travel in Asia, Scythia, Libya, Egypt, -and Magna Græcia, has taken up his abode at Athens. He is still a young -man, hardly thirty-seven, yet his fame is that of the first and greatest -of historians. Dramatists and poets immortal there have been, but never -man has written such exquisite prose. Twenty centuries and more shall -wear away, and his history will be read in a hundred different tongues, -as well as in the beautiful and simple Greek that he wrote. His name -will grow into a household word; the school-boy will revel in his -delightful tales, and wise men will call him the Father of History! For -weeks the people of Athens have listened entranced to the public reading -of his great work, and now the Assembly has passed a decree tendering to -him the city's thanks, together with a most substantial gift in -recognition of his talents—a purse of money equal to twelve thousand -American dollars. - -Such is the account which Eusebius gives, and others to whom we may -fairly accord belief; and it adds no slight tinge of romance to the -picture to discover among the listening throng the figure of the boy -Thucydides, moved to tears by the recital, who then and there received -the impulse that made of him also a great student and writer of history. -Herodotus, noticing how intensely his reading had affected the youth, -turned to Olorus, the father of Thucydides, who was standing near, and -said: "Olorus, thy son's soul yearns after knowledge." - -Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus, 484 B.C., and died at Thurium in -Italy, about the year 425. As in the case of Plutarch, our knowledge of -his personal history is very meagre, aside from the little we glean from -his own writings. His parents, Lyxes and Rhœo, appear to have been of -high rank and consideration in Halicarnassus, and possessed of ample -means; and his acquaintance both at home and in Athens was of the best. -A lover of poetry and a poet by nature, the whole plan of his work, the -tone and character of his thoughts, and a multitude of words and -expressions, show him to have been perfectly familiar with the Homeric -writings. There is scarcely an author previous to his time with whose -works he does not appear to have been thoroughly acquainted. Hecatæus, -to be sure, was almost the only writer of prose who had attained any -distinction, for prose composition was practically in its infancy; but -from him and from several others, too obscure even to be named, he -freely quotes, while the poets, Hesiod, Olen, Musæus, Archilochus, the -authors of the "Cypria" and the "Epigoni," Alcæus, Sappho, Solon, Æsop, -Aristeas, Simonides of Ceos, Phrynichus, Æschylus, and Pindar, are -referred to, or quoted, in such a way as to show an intimate -acquaintance with their works. - -The design of Herodotus was to record the struggles between the Greeks -and barbarians, but, in carrying it out, as Wheeler, the English analyst -of the writings of Herodotus, has happily expressed it, he is -perpetually led to trace the causes of the great events of his history; -to recount the origin of that mighty contest between liberty and -despotism which marked the whole period; to describe the wondrous -manners and mysterious religions of nations, and the marvellous -geography and fabulous productions of the various countries, as each -appeared on the great arena; to tell to an inquisitive and credulous -people of cities vast as provinces and splendid as empires; of -stupendous walls, temples and pyramids; of dreams, omens, and warnings -from the dead; of obscure traditions and their exact accomplishment;—and -thus to prepare their minds for the most wonderful story in the annals -of men, when all Asia united in one endless array to crush the states of -Greece; when armies bridged the seas and navies sailed through -mountains; when proud, stubborn-hearted men arose amid anxiety, terror, -confusion, and despair, and staked their lives and homes against the -overwhelming power of a foreign despot, till Heaven itself sympathized -with their struggles, and the winds and waves delivered their country, -and opened the way to victory and revenge. - -The personal character of Herodotus, reflected from every page that he -wrote, renders his vivid story all the more happily suited to the -reading and study of boys and girls. He is as honest as the sun; equally -impartial to friends and foes; candid in the statement of both sides of -a question; and an artist withal in the gift of delineating a character -or a people with a few rapid strokes, so bold and masterly that the -sketch is placed before you with stereoscopic distinctness. For so early -a writer he presents a surprising unity of plan, combined with a variety -of detail that is amazing. What if he does crowd and enrich his story -with a world of anecdote? What if he feels bound always to paint for you -the customs, manners, dress, and peculiarities of a people before he -begins their history? This very biographical style is the charm of his -pen. Like the flowers of the magnolia-tree, his bright stories and vivid -descriptions at times almost overwhelm the root and branch of his -narrative; yet, after all, we remember the magnolia more because of its -cloud of snowy bloom in the few fleeting days of May than for all its -green and shade in the other months. - -Herodotus, to be sure, lacks that far-seeing faculty of discerning -accurately the real causes of great movements, wars, and migrations of -men—a faculty possessed pre-eminently by Thucydides and largely by -Xenophon, but he is equally far removed from the coldness of the one and -the ostentatious display of the other. He is above all things natural, -simple, and direct. "He writes," says Aristotle, "sentences which have a -continuous flow, and which end only when the sense is complete." - -I have allowed Herodotus, as I did Plutarch, to tell you his story in -his own words, as closely as the English idiom can reproduce the spirit -and flow of the Greek, calling gratefully to my aid the labors of such -students, analysts, and translators of Herodotus as Rawlinson, Dahlmann, -Cary, and Wheeler; and I have discarded from the text only what is -indelicate to the modern ear, or what the young reader might find -tedious, redundant, or irrelevant to the main story. But so small a part -comes under this head, that I am sure I can fairly say to you: "This is -Herodotus himself." If you read him through and do not like him, who -will be the disappointed one? Not you, but I! - -NEW YORK, _June 15, 1884_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER. PAGE - - _BOOK I.—CLIO._ - - I. Origin of the War between the Greeks and Barbarians 1 - II. History of Lydia 4 - III. Origin of Athens and Sparta 17 - IV. Conquest of Lydia by Cyrus 25 - V. History of the Medes to the Reign of Cyrus 35 - VI. The Asiatic Greeks and the Lydian Revolt 54 - VII. The Conquest of Assyria and the War with the Massagetæ 65 - - - _BOOK II.—EUTERPE._ - - I. Physical History of Egypt 83 - II. Religion, Manners, Customs, Dress, and Animals - of the Egyptians 91 - III. God-Kings Prior to Menes 107 - IV. First Line of 330 Kings, only Three Mentioned 108 - V. From Sesostris to Sethon 110 - VI. Third Line from the Twelve Kings to Amasis 127 - - - _BOOK III.—THALIA._ - - I. Expeditions of Cambyses 138 - II. Usurpation of Smerdis the Magus and Accession of Darius 157 - III. Indians, Arabians, and Ethiopians 169 - IV. Reign of Darius to the Taking of Babylon 174 - - - _BOOK IV.—MELPOMENE._ - - I. Description of Scythia and the Neighboring Nations 188 - II. Invasion of Scythia by Darius 203 - III. Description of Libya 210 - - - _BOOK V.—TERPSICHORE._ - - I. Conquests of the Generals of Darius 219 - II. The Ionian Revolt 229 - - - _BOOK VI.—ERATO._ - - I. The Suppression of the Ionian Revolt 236 - II. Expedition of Mardonius 246 - III. Expedition of Datis and Artaphernes; - The Battle of Marathon 252 - - - _BOOK VII.—POLYMNIA._ - - I. Death of Darius and Reign of Xerxes 261 - II. Battle of Thermopylæ 280 - - - _BOOK VIII.—URANIA._ - - I. The Invasion of Attica and the Battle of Salamis 292 - II. Xerxes' Retreat 302 - - - _BOOK IX.—CALLIOPE._ - - I. The War Continued; Battle of Platæa and Siege of Thebes 307 - II. The Battle of Mycale 321 - Synchronistical Table of the Principal Events in Herodotus 326 - Herodotean Weights and Money, Dry and Liquid Measures, - and Measurements of Lengths 328 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PAGE - - The Pyramids and Sphinx _Frontispiece_ - Offering at the Temple of Delphi 14 - Athens from Mount Hymettus 19 - Assyrian Warriors in a Chariot 38 - Sphinx from S. W. Palace (Nimroud) 39 - Egyptian Hare 47 - Winged Human-Headed Lion 69 - Sepulchral Vases 80 - Map of Ægyptus 82 - The Two Great Pyramids at the Time of the Inundation 85 - Nile Boat 89 - The Trochilus 98 - Spearing the Crocodile 99 - Head of Rameses II. 109 - Bust of Thothmes I. 111 - Paris Carrying Away Helen 113 - Bes and Hi 117 - The Great Pyramid, without the Surface Stone 119 - Section of the Great Pyramid 121 - Section of Gallery in Pyramid 123 - Hall of Columns in the Great Temple of Karnak 125 - Egyptian Bell Capitals 129 - Harpoon and Fish-Hooks 129 - Egyptian Helmets 131 - The Great Sphinx 135 - Egyptian Pottery 139 - Sand Storm in the Desert 147 - Attack on Fort 153 - The Obelisk 155 - Mameluke Tomb, Cairo 163 - Egyptian War Chariot, Warrior, and Horse 167 - Military Drum 171 - Alphabet 175 - Infantry Drilled by Sergeant 185 - Light-Armed Troops Marching 187 - Olive Trees 217 - Head-Dress of a Riding Horse 221 - Amphitheatre at Pola 241 - Ruins of an Ancient Temple in Corinth 249 - Tripolitza 267 - The Tomb of Jonah, Konyunjik, and the Ruins Opposite Mosul 273 - Bridge over the Gortynius 277 - Cyclopean Walls at Cephalloma 281 - Island and Castle of Corfu 283 - Bridge at Corfu 287 - Plains of Argos 289 - Ancient Greek Walls Restored 293 - Celes Ridden by a Cupid 303 - Bœotia 309 - Coat of Mail 311 - The Fisherman 313 - Juno 315 - Elegant Vases and Amphoræ 317 - Bas-Relief of the Muses 325 - - - - -HERODOTUS. - - - - -_BOOK I. CLIO._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -ORIGIN OF THE WAR BETWEEN THE GREEKS AND BARBARIANS. - - -This is a publication of the researches of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, -made in order that the actions of men may not be effaced by time, and -that the great and wondrous deeds displayed both by Greeks and -barbarians[1] may not be deprived of renown; and, furthermore, that the -cause for which they waged war upon each other may be known. - -The learned among the Persians assert that the Phœnicians were the -original authors of the quarrel; that they migrated from that which is -called the Red Sea to the Mediterranean and, having settled in the -country which they now inhabit, forthwith applied themselves to distant -voyages; and that they exported Egyptian and Assyrian merchandise, -touching at other places, and also at Argos. Argos, at that period, -surpassed in every respect all those states which are now comprehended -under the general appellation of Greece. They say, that on their arrival -at Argos, the Phœnicians exposed their merchandise for sale, and that on -the fifth or sixth day after their arrival, when they had almost -disposed of their cargo, a great number of women came down to the -sea-shore, and among them Io the daughter of the king Inachus. While -these women were standing near the stern of the vessel, and were -bargaining for such things as most pleased them, the Phœnicians made an -attack upon them. Most of the women escaped, but Io with some others was -seized. Then the traders hurried on board and set sail for Egypt. Thus -the Persians say that Io went to Egypt, and that this was the beginning -of wrongs. After this certain Greeks (for they are unable to tell their -name), having touched at Tyre in Phœnicia, carried off the king's -daughter Europa. These must have been Cretans. Thus far they say that -they had only returned like for like, but that after this the Greeks -were guilty of the second provocation; for having sailed down in a -vessel of war to Æa, a city of Colchis on the river Phasis, when they -had accomplished the more immediate object of their expedition, they -carried off the king's daughter Medea; and the king of Colchis, having -despatched a herald to Greece, demanded satisfaction and the restitution -of the princess; but the Greeks replied, that as they of Asia had not -given satisfaction for the stealing of Io, they would not give any to -them. In the second generation after this, Alexander, the son of Priam, -having heard of these events, was desirous of obtaining a wife from -Greece by means of violence, being fully persuaded that he should not -have to give satisfaction, since the Greeks had not done so. When, -therefore, he had carried off Helen, the Greeks immediately sent -messengers to demand her back again and require satisfaction; but when -they brought forward these demands they were met with this reply: "You -who have not yourselves given satisfaction, nor made it when demanded, -now wish others to give it to you." After this the Greeks were greatly -to blame, for they levied war against Asia before the Asiatics did upon -Europe. Now, to carry off women by violence the Persians think is the -act of wicked men; to trouble one's self about avenging them when so -carried off is the act of foolish ones; and to pay no regard to them -when carried off, of wise men: for it is clear, that if they had not -been willing, they could not have been carried off. Accordingly the -Persians say, that they of Asia made no account of women that were -carried off; but that the Greeks for the sake of a Lacedæmonian woman -assembled a mighty fleet, sailed to Asia, and overthrew the empire of -Priam. From this event they had always considered the Greeks as their -enemies: for the Persians claim Asia, and the barbarous nations that -inhabit it, as their own, and consider Europe and the people of Greece -as totally distinct. - -Such is the Persian account; and to the capture of Troy they ascribe the -commencement of their enmity to the Greeks. As relates to Io, the -Phœnicians do not agree with this account of the Persians but affirm -that she voluntarily sailed away with the traders. I, however, am not -going to inquire further as to facts; but having pointed out the person -whom I myself know to have been the first guilty of injustice toward the -Greeks, I will then proceed with my history, touching as well on the -small as the great estates of men: for of those that were formerly -powerful many have become weak, and some that were formerly weak became -powerful in my time. Knowing, therefore, the precarious nature of human -prosperity, I shall commemorate both alike. - -Crœsus was a Lydian by birth, son of Alyattes, and sovereign of the -nations on this side the river Halys. This river flowing from the south -between the Syrians[2] and Paphlagonians, empties itself northward into -the Euxine Sea. This Crœsus was the first of the barbarians whom we know -of that subjected some of the Greeks to the payment of tribute, and -formed alliances with others. He subdued the Ionians and Æolians, and -those of the Dorians who had settled in Asia, and formed an alliance -with the Lacedæmonians; but before his reign all the Greeks were free. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -HISTORY OF LYDIA. - - -The government, which formerly belonged to the Heraclidæ, passed to the -family of Crœsus, who were called Mermnadæ. Candaules, whom the Greeks -call Myrsilus, was tyrant of Sardis, and a descendant of Alcæus, son of -Hercules. For Agron, son of Ninus, grandson of Belus, great-grandson of -Alcæus, was the first of the Heraclidæ who became king of Sardis; and -Candaules, son of Myrsus, was the last. They who ruled over this country -before Agron, were descendants of Lydus, son of Atys, from whom this -whole people, anciently called Mæonians, derived the name of Lydians. -The Heraclidæ, descended from a female slave of Jardanus and Hercules, -having been intrusted with the government by these princes, retained the -supreme power in obedience to the declaration of an oracle: they reigned -for twenty-two generations, a space of five hundred and five years, the -son succeeding to the father to the time of Candaules, son of Myrsus. -Candaules was murdered by his favorite, Gyges, who thus obtained the -kingdom, and was confirmed in it by the oracle at Delphi. For when the -Lydians resented the murder of Candaules, and were up in arms, the -partisans of Gyges and the other Lydians came to the following -agreement, that if the oracle should pronounce him king of the Lydians, -he should reign; if not, he should restore the power to the Heraclidæ. -The oracle answered that Gyges should become king. But the Pythian added -this, "that the Heraclidæ should be avenged on the fifth descendant of -Gyges." Of this prediction neither the Lydians nor their kings took any -notice until it was actually accomplished. - -Thus the Mermnadæ deprived the Heraclidæ of the supreme power. Gyges -sent many offerings to Delphi; indeed most of the silver offerings at -Delphi are his; and besides the silver, he gave a vast quantity of gold; -among the rest six bowls of gold, which now stand in the treasury of the -Corinthians, and are thirty talents in weight; though, to tell the -truth, this treasury does not belong to the people of Corinth, but -Cypselus son of Eetion. Gyges was the first of the barbarians of whom we -know who made offerings at Delphi, except Midas, son of Gordius, the -king of Phrygia, who dedicated the royal throne, on which he used to sit -and administer justice, a piece of workmanship deserving of admiration. -The throne stands in the same place as the bowls of Gyges. - -Periander the son of Cypselus was king of Corinth, and the Corinthians -say (and the Lesbians confirm their account) that a wonderful prodigy -occurred in his life-time. Arion of Methymna, second to none of his time -in accompanying the harp, and the first who composed, named, and -represented the dithyrambus at Corinth, was carried to Tænarus on the -back of a dolphin. Arion, having continued a long time with Periander, -made a voyage to Italy and Sicily, acquired great wealth there, and -determined to return to Corinth. He set out from Tarentum, and hired a -ship of some Corinthians, because he put more confidence in them than in -any other nation; but these men, when they were in the open sea, -conspired together to throw him overboard and seize his money. Learning -of this he offered them his money, and entreated them to spare his life. -But he could not prevail on them; the sailors ordered him either to kill -himself, that he might be buried ashore, or to leap immediately into the -sea. Arion, reduced to this strait, entreated them, since such was their -determination, to permit him to stand on the stern of the vessel in his -full dress and sing, and he promised when he had sung to make way with -himself. The seamen, pleased that they should hear the best singer in -the world, retired from the stern to the middle of the vessel. Arion put -on all his robes, took his harp in his hands, stood on the rowing -benches and went through the Orthian strain; the strain ended, he leaped -into the sea as he was, in full dress; the sailors continuing their -voyage to Corinth: but a dolphin caught him upon his back, and carried -him to Tænarus; so that, having landed, he proceeded to Corinth in his -full dress, and upon his arrival there, related all that happened. -Periander gave no credit to his relation, put Arion under close -confinement, and watched anxiously for the arrival of the seamen. When -they appeared, he summoned them and inquired if they could give any -account of Arion. They answered that he was safe in Italy, and that they -had left him flourishing at Tarentum. At that instant Arion appeared -before them just as he was when he leaped into the sea; at which they -were so astonished that, being fully convicted, they could no longer -deny the fact. These things are reported by the Corinthians and -Lesbians; and there is a little bronze statue of Arion at Tænarus, -representing a man sitting on a dolphin. - -Alyattes the Lydian and father of Crœsus, having waged a long war -against the Milesians, died after a reign of fifty-seven years. Once -upon recovery from an illness he dedicated at Delphi a large silver -bowl, with a saucer of iron inlaid; an object that deserves attention -above all the offerings at Delphi. It was made by Glaucus the Chian, who -first invented the art of inlaying iron. - -At the death of Alyattes, Crœsus, then thirty-five years of age, -succeeded to the kingdom. He attacked the Ephesians before any other -Greek people. The Ephesians being besieged by him, consecrated their -city to Diana, by fastening a rope from the temple to the wall. The -distance between the old town, which was then besieged, and the temple, -is seven stadia. Crœsus afterward attacked the several cities of the -Ionians and Æolians in succession, alleging different pretences against -the various states. After he had reduced the Greeks in Asia to the -payment of tribute, he formed a design to build ships and attack the -Islanders. But when all things were ready for the building of ships, -Bias of Priene (or, as others say, Pittacus of Mitylene) arriving at -Sardis, put a stop to his ship-building by making this reply, when -Crœsus inquired if he had any news from Greece: "O king, the Islanders -are enlisting a large body of cavalry, with the intention of making war -upon you and Sardis." Crœsus, thinking he had spoken the truth, said: -"May the gods put such a thought into the Islanders, as to attack the -sons of the Lydians with horse." The other answering said: "Sire, you -appear to wish above all things to see the Islanders on horseback upon -the continent; and not without reason. But what can you imagine the -Islanders more earnestly desire, after having heard of your resolution -to build a fleet to attack them, than to catch the Lydians at sea, that -they may revenge on you the cause of those Greeks who dwell on the -continent, whom you hold in subjection?" Crœsus, much pleased with the -conclusion, and convinced, (for he appeared to speak to the purpose,) -put a stop to the ship-building, and made an alliance with the Ionians -that inhabit the islands. - -In course of time, when nearly all the nations that dwell within the -river Halys, except the Cilicians and Lycians, were subdued, and Crœsus -had added them to the Lydians, all the wise men of that time, as each -had opportunity, came from Greece to Sardis, which had then attained to -the highest degree of prosperity; and amongst them Solon, an Athenian, -who made laws for the Athenians at their request, and absented himself -for ten years, sailing away under pretence of seeing the world, that he -might not be compelled to abrogate any of the laws he had established: -for the Athenians could not do it themselves, since they were bound by -solemn oaths to observe for ten years whatever laws Solon should enact -for them. On his arrival Solon was hospitably entertained by Crœsus, and -on the third or fourth day, by order of the king, the attendants -conducted him round the treasury, and showed him all their grand and -costly contents. After he had seen and examined every thing -sufficiently, Crœsus asked him this question: "My Athenian guest, the -great fame as well of your wisdom as of your travels has reached even to -us; I am therefore desirous of asking you who is the most happy man you -have seen?" He asked this question because he thought himself the most -happy of men. But Solon, speaking the truth freely, without any -flattery, answered, "Tellus, the Athenian." Crœsus, astonished at his -answer, eagerly asked him: "On what account do you deem Tellus the -happiest?" He replied: "Tellus, in the first place, lived in a -well-governed commonwealth; had sons who were virtuous and good; and he -saw children born to them all, and all surviving. In the next place, -when he had lived as happily as the condition of human affairs will -permit, he ended his life in a most glorious manner. For coming to the -assistance of the Athenians in a battle with their neighbors of Eleusis, -he put the enemy to flight and died nobly. The Athenians buried him at -the public charge in the place where he fell, and honored him greatly." - -When Solon had roused the attention of Crœsus by relating many happy -circumstances concerning Tellus, Crœsus, expecting at least to obtain -the second place, asked, whom he had seen next to him. "Cleobis," said -he, "and Biton, natives of Argos, for they possessed a sufficient -fortune, and had withal such strength of body, that they were both alike -victorious in the public games; and moreover the following story is -related of them:—When the Argives were celebrating a festival of Juno, -it was necessary that their mother should be drawn to the temple in a -chariot; but the oxen did not come from the field in time, the young men -therefore put themselves beneath the yoke, and drew the car in which -their mother sat; and having conveyed it forty-five stades, they reached -the temple. After they had done this in sight of the assembled people, a -most happy termination was put to their lives; and in them the Deity -clearly showed that it is better for a man to die than to live. For the -men of Argos, who stood round, commended the strength of the youths, and -the women blessed her as the mother of such sons; but the mother -herself, transported with joy both on account of the action and its -renown, stood before the image and prayed that the goddess would grant -to Cleobis and Biton, her own sons, who had so highly honored her, the -greatest blessing man could receive. After this prayer, when they had -sacrificed and partaken of the feast, the youths fell asleep in the -temple itself, and never woke more, but met with such a termination of -life. Upon this the Argives, in commemoration of their filial affection, -caused their statues to be made and dedicated at Delphi." - -Thus Solon adjudged the second place of felicity to these youths. Then -Crœsus was enraged, and said: "My Athenian friend, is my happiness then -so slighted by you as worth nothing, that you do not think me of so much -value as private men?" He answered: "Crœsus, do you inquire of me -concerning human affairs—of me, who know that the divinity is always -jealous, and delights in confusion. For in lapse of time men are -constrained to see many things they would not willingly see, and to -suffer many things they would not willingly suffer. Now I put the term -of man's life at seventy years; these seventy years then give -twenty-five thousand two hundred days, without including the intercalary -months of the leap years, and if we add that month to every other year, -in order that the seasons arriving at the proper time may agree, the -intercalary months will be thirty-five more in the seventy years, and -the days of these months will be one thousand and fifty. Yet in all this -number of twenty-six thousand two hundred and fifty days, that compose -these seventy years, one day produces nothing exactly the same as -another. Thus, then, O Crœsus, man is altogether the sport of fortune. -You appear to me to be master of immense treasures, and king of many -nations; but as relates to what you inquire of me, I cannot say, till I -hear that you have ended your life happily. For the richest of men is -not more happy than he that has a sufficiency for a day, unless good -fortune attend him to the grave, so that he ends his life in happiness. -Many men who abound in wealth are unhappy; and many who have only a -moderate competency are fortunate. He that abounds in wealth, and is yet -unhappy, surpasses the other only in two things; but the other surpasses -the wealthy and the miserable in many things. The former indeed is -better able to gratify desire and to bear the blow of adversity. But the -latter surpasses him in this; he is not indeed equally able to bear -misfortune or satisfy desire, but his good fortune wards off these -things from him; and he enjoys the full use of his limbs, he is free -from disease and misfortune, he is blessed with good children and a fine -form, and if, in addition to all these things, he shall end his life -well, he is the man you seek and may justly be called happy; but before -he die we ought to suspend our judgment, and not pronounce him happy, -but fortunate." - -When Solon had spoken thus to Crœsus, Crœsus did not confer any favor on -him, but holding him in no account, dismissed him as a very ignorant -man, because he overlooked present prosperity, and bade men look to the -end of every thing. - -After the departure of Solon, the indignation of the gods fell heavily -upon Crœsus, probably because he thought himself the most happy of all -men. A dream soon after visited him while sleeping, which pointed out to -him the truth of the misfortunes that were about to befall him in the -person of one of his sons. For Crœsus had two sons, of whom one was -grievously afflicted, for he was dumb; but the other, whose name was -Atys, far surpassed all the young men of his age. Now the dream -intimated to Crœsus that he would lose this Atys by a wound inflicted -with the point of an iron weapon. When he awoke, and had considered the -matter with himself, he relieved Atys from the command of the Lydian -troops, and never after sent him out on that business; and causing all -spears, lances, and such other weapons as men use in war, to be removed -from the men's apartments, he had them laid up in private chambers, that -none of them being suspended might fall upon his son. While Crœsus was -engaged with the nuptials of his son, a man oppressed by misfortune, and -whose hands were polluted, a Phrygian by birth, and of royal family, -arrived at Sardis. This man, having come to the palace of Crœsus, sought -permission to obtain purification according to the custom of the -country. Crœsus purified him, performing the usual ceremony, and then -inquired: "Stranger, who art thou, and from what part of Phrygia hast -thou come as a suppliant to my hearth? and what man or woman hast thou -slain?" The stranger answered: "I am the son of Gordius, and grandson of -Midas, and am called Adrastus. I unwittingly slew my own brother, and -being banished by my father and deprived of every thing, I have come -hither." Then said Crœsus: "You were born of parents who are our -friends, and you have come to friends, among whom, if you will stay, you -shall want nothing; and by bearing your misfortune as lightly as -possible you will be the greatest gainer." So Adrastus took up his abode -in the palace of Crœsus. - -At this time a boar of enormous size appeared in Mysian Olympus, and -rushing down from that mountain, ravaged the fields of the Mysians. The -Mysians, though they often went out against him, could not hurt him, but -suffered much from him. At last deputies from the Mysians came to Crœsus -and said: "O king, a boar of enormous size has appeared in our country, -and ravages our fields: though we have often endeavored to take him, we -cannot. We therefore earnestly beg, that you will send with us your son -and some chosen youths with dogs, that we may drive him from the -country." But Crœsus, remembering the warning of his dream, answered: -"Make no further mention of my son; I shall not send him with you, -because he is lately married, but I will give you chosen Lydians, and -the whole hunting train, and will order them to assist you with their -best endeavors in driving the monster from your country." The Mysians -were content with this, but Atys, who had heard of their request, came -in, and earnestly protested: "Father, you used to permit me to signalize -myself in the two most noble and becoming exercises of war and hunting; -but now you keep me excluded from both, without having observed in me -either cowardice or want of spirit. How will men look on me when I go or -return from the forum? What kind of a man shall I appear to my -fellow-citizens? What to my newly married wife? Either let me then go to -this hunt, or convince me that it is better for me to do as you would -have me." "My son," said Crœsus, "I act thus, not because I have seen -any cowardice, or any thing else unbecoming in you; but a vision in a -dream warned me that you would be short-lived, and would die by the -point of an iron weapon. It was on account of this that I hastened your -marriage, and now refuse to send you on this expedition; taking care to -preserve you, if by any means I can, as long as I live; for you are my -only son; the other, who is deprived of his hearing, I consider as -lost." The youth answered: "You are not to blame, my father, if after -such a dream you take so much care of me; but you say the dream -signified that I should die by the point of an iron weapon. What hand, -or what pointed iron weapon has a boar, to occasion such fears in you? -Had it said I should lose my life by a tusk, you might do as you have, -but it said by the point of a weapon; then since we have not to contend -against men, let me go." "You have outdone me," replied Crœsus, "in -explaining the import of the dream, you shall go to the chase." - -Then turning to the Phrygian Adrastus, he exclaimed: "Adrastus, I beg -you to be my son's guardian, when he goes to the chase, and take care -that no skulking villains show themselves in the way to do him harm. -Besides, you ought to go for your own sake, where you may signalize -yourself by your exploits; this was the glory of your ancestors, and you -are besides in full vigor." Adrastus answered: "On no other account, my -lord, would I take part in this enterprise; it is not fitting that one -in my unfortunate circumstances should join with his prosperous -compeers. But since you urge me, I ought to oblige you. Rest assured, -that your son, whom you bid me take care of, shall, as far as his -guardian is concerned, return to you uninjured." - -Then all went away, well provided with chosen youths and dogs, and, -having arrived at Mount Olympus, they sought the wild beast, found him -and encircled him around. Among the rest, the stranger, Adrastus, -throwing his javelin at the boar, missed him, and struck the son of -Crœsus; thus fulfilling the warning of the dream. Upon this, some one -ran off to tell Crœsus what had happened, and having arrived at Sardis, -gave him an account of the action, and of his son's fate. Crœsus, -exceedingly distressed by the death of his son, lamented it the more -bitterly, because he fell by the hand of one, whom he himself had -purified from blood; and vehemently deploring his misfortune, he invoked -Jove the Expiator, attesting what he had suffered by this stranger. He -invoked also the same deity, by the name of the god of hospitality and -private friendship: as the god of hospitality, because by receiving a -stranger into his house, he had unawares fostered the murderer of his -son; as the god of private friendship, because, having sent him as a -guardian, he found him his greatest enemy. Soon the Lydians approached, -bearing the corpse, and behind it followed the murderer. He, having -advanced in front of the body, delivered himself up to Crœsus, -stretching out his hands and begging him to kill him upon it; for he -ought to live no longer. When Crœsus heard this, though his own -affliction was so great, he pitied Adrastus, and said to him: "You have -made me full satisfaction by condemning yourself to die. You are not the -author of this misfortune, except as far as you were the involuntary -agent; but that god, whoever he was, that long since foreshowed what was -about to happen." Crœsus buried his son as the dignity of his birth -required; but the son of Gordius, when all was silent around, judging -himself the most heavily afflicted of all men, killed himself on the -tomb. - -Some time after, the overthrow of the kingdom of Astyages, son of -Cyaxares, by Cyrus, son of Cambyses, and the growing power of the -Persians, put an end to the grief of Crœsus; and it entered into his -thoughts whether he could by any means check the growing power of the -Persians before they became formidable. After he had formed this -purpose, he determined to make trial as well of the oracles in Greece as -of that in Lydia; and sent different persons to different places, some -to Delphi, some to Abæ of Phocis, and some to Dodona. - -[Illustration: OFFERING AT THE TEMPLE OF DELPHI.] - -He endeavored to propitiate the god at Delphi by magnificent sacrifices; -for he offered three thousand head of cattle of every kind fit for -sacrifice, and having heaped up a great pile, he burned on it beds of -gold and silver, vials of gold, and robes of purple and garments; hoping -by that means more completely to conciliate the god. When the sacrifice -was ended, having melted down a vast quantity of gold, he cast -half-bricks from it; of which the longest were six palms in length, the -shortest three, and in thickness one palm: their number was one hundred -and seventeen: four of these, of pure gold, weighed each two talents and -a half; the other half-bricks of pale gold, weighed two talents each. He -made also the figure of a lion of fine gold, weighing ten talents. This -lion, when the temple of Delphi was burned down, fell from the -half-bricks, for it had been placed on them; and it now lies in the -treasury of the Corinthians, weighing six talents and a half; for three -talents and a half were melted from it. Crœsus, having finished these -things sent them to Delphi, and with them these following: two large -bowls, one of gold, the other of silver; that of gold was placed on the -right hand as you enter the temple, and that of silver on the left; but -these also were removed when the temple was burnt down; and the golden -one weighing eight talents and a half and twelve minæ, is placed in the -treasury of Clazomenæ; the silver one, containing six hundred amphoræ, -lies in a corner of the vestibule, and is used by the Delphians for -mixing the wine on the Theophanian festival. The Delphians say it was -the workmanship of Theodorus the Samian; and I think so too, for it -appears to be no common work. He also sent four casks of silver, which -stand in the treasury of the Corinthians; and he dedicated two lustral -vases, one of gold, the other of silver: on the golden one is an -inscription, OF THE LACEDÆMONIANS, who say that it was their offering, -but wrongfully, for it was given by Crœsus: a certain Delphian made the -inscription, in order to please the Lacedæmonians; I know his name, but -forbear to mention it. The boy, indeed, through whose hand the water -flows, is their gift; but neither of the lustral vases. At the same time -Crœsus sent many other offerings without an inscription: amongst them -some round silver covers; and a statue of a woman in gold three cubits -high, which the Delphians say is the image of Crœsus's baking woman; and -to all these things he added the necklaces and girdles of his wife. - -These were the offerings he sent to Delphi; and to Amphiaraus, having -ascertained his virtue and sufferings, he dedicated a shield all of -gold, and a lance of solid gold, the shaft as well as the points being -of gold. These are now at Thebes in the temple of Ismenian Apollo. - -To the Lydians appointed to convey these presents to the temples, Crœsus -gave it in charge to inquire of the oracles, whether he should make war -on the Persians, and if he should invite any other nation as an ally. -Accordingly, when the Lydians arrived at the places to which they were -sent, and had dedicated the offerings, they consulted the oracles, -saying: "Crœsus, king of the Lydians and of other Nations, esteeming -these to be the only oracles among men, sends these presents in -acknowledgment of your discoveries; and now asks whether he should lead -an army against the Persians, and whether he should join any auxiliary -forces with his own?" Such were their questions; and the opinions of -both oracles concurred, foretelling: "That if Crœsus should make war on -the Persians, he would destroy a mighty empire;" and they advised him to -engage the most powerful of the Greeks in his alliance. When Crœsus -heard the answers that were brought back, he was beyond measure -delighted with the oracles; and fully expecting that he should destroy -the kingdom of Cyrus, he again sent to Delphi, and having ascertained -the number of the inhabitants, presented each of them with two staters -of gold. In return for this, the Delphians gave Crœsus and the Lydians -the right to consult the oracle before any others, and exemption from -tribute, and the first seats in the temple, and the privilege of being -made citizens of Delphi, to as many as should desire it in all future -time. Crœsus, having made these presents to the Delphians, sent a third -time to consult the oracle. For after he had ascertained the veracity of -the oracle, he had frequent recourse to it. His demand now was whether -he should long enjoy the kingdom? to which the Pythian gave this answer: -"When a mule shall become king of the Medes, then, tender-footed Lydian, -flee over pebbly Hermus, nor tarry, nor blush to be a coward." With this -answer, when reported to him, Crœsus was more than ever delighted, -thinking that a mule should never be king of the Medes instead of a man, -and consequently that neither he nor his posterity should ever be -deprived of the kingdom. In the next place he began to enquire carefully -who were the most powerful of the Greeks whom he might gain over as -allies; and on inquiry found that the Lacedæmonians and Athenians -excelled the rest, the former being of Dorian, the latter of Ionic -descent: for these were in ancient time the most distinguished, the -latter being a Pelasgian, the other an Hellenic nation. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -ORIGIN OF ATHENS AND SPARTA. - - -What language the Pelasgians used I cannot with certainty affirm; but if -I may form a conjecture from those Pelasgians who now exist, and inhabit -the town of Crestona above the Tyrrhenians, and from those Pelasgians -settled at Placia and Scylace on the Hellespont, they spoke a barbarous -language. And if the whole Pelasgian body did so, the Attic race, being -Pelasgic, must at the time they changed into Hellenes have altered their -language. The Hellenic race, however, appears to have used the same -language from the time they became a people. At first insignificant, yet -from a small beginning they have increased to a multitude of nations, -chiefly by a union with many other barbarous nations. But the Pelasgic -race, being barbarous, never increased to any great extent. - -Of these nations Crœsus learnt that the Attic was oppressed and -distracted by Pisistratus, then reigning in Athens. When a quarrel -happened between those who dwelt on the sea-coast and the Athenians, the -former headed by Megacles, the latter by Lycurgus, Pisistratus aiming at -the sovereign power, formed a third party; and having assembled his -partisans under color of protecting those of the mountains, he contrived -this stratagem. He wounded himself and his mules, drove his chariot into -the public square, as if he had escaped from enemies that designed to -murder him in his way to the country, and besought the people to grant -him a guard, having before acquired renown in the expedition against -Megara, by taking its port, Nisæa, and displaying other illustrious -deeds. The people of Athens, deceived by this, gave him such of the -citizens as he selected, who were not to be his javelin men, but -club-bearers, for they attended him with clubs of wood. These men, -joining in revolt with Pisistratus seized the Acropolis, and Pisistratus -assumed the government of the Athenians, neither disturbing the existing -magistracies, nor altering the laws; but he administered the government -according to the established institutions, liberally and well. Not long -after, the partisans of Megacles and Lycurgus became reconciled and -drove him out. In this manner Pisistratus first made himself master of -Athens, and, his power not being firmly rooted, lost it. But those who -expelled Pisistratus quarrelled anew with one another; and Megacles, -harassed by the sedition, sent a herald to Pisistratus to ask if he was -willing to marry his daughter, on condition of having the sovereignty. -Pisistratus having accepted the proposal and agreed to his terms, in -order to his restitution, they contrive the most ridiculous project -that, I think, was ever imagined; especially if we consider, that the -Greeks have from old been distinguished from the barbarians as being -more acute and free from all foolish simplicity, and more particularly -as they played this trick upon the Athenians, who are esteemed among the -wisest of the Greeks. In the Pæanean tribe was a woman named Phya, four -cubits high, wanting three fingers, and in other respects handsome; this -woman they dressed in a complete suit of armor, placed her on a chariot, -and having shown her beforehand how to assume the most becoming -demeanor, they drove her to the city, with heralds before, who, on their -arrival in the city, proclaimed what was ordered in these terms: "O -Athenians, receive with kind wishes Pisistratus whom Minerva herself -honoring above all men now conducts back to her own citadel." The report -was presently spread among the people that Minerva was bringing back -Pisistratus; and the people in the city believing this woman to be the -goddess, both adored a human being, and received Pisistratus. - -[Illustration: ATHENS FROM MOUNT HYMETTUS.] - -Pisistratus having recovered the sovereignty in the manner above -described, married the daughter of Megacles in accordance with his -agreement, but Pisistratus soon hearing of designs that were being -formed against him, withdrew entirely out of the country, and arriving -in Eretria, consulted with his sons. The opinion of Hippias prevailing, -to recover the kingdom, they immediately began to collect contributions -from those cities which felt any gratitude to them for benefits -received; and though many gave large sums, the Thebans surpassed the -rest in liberality. At length (not to give a detailed account) time -passed, and every thing was ready for their return, for Argive -mercenaries arrived from Peloponnesus; and a man of Naxos, named -Lygdamis, who had come as a volunteer, and brought both men and money, -showed great zeal in the cause. Setting out from Eretria, they came back -in the eleventh year of their exile, and first of all possessed -themselves of Marathon. While they lay encamped in this place, their -partisans from the city joined them, and others from the various -districts, to whom a tyranny was more welcome than liberty, crowded to -them. The Athenians of the city, on the other hand, had shown very -little concern all the time Pisistratus was collecting money, or even -when he took possession of Marathon. But when they heard that he was -marching from Marathon against the city, they at length went out to -resist him; and marched with their whole force against the invaders. In -the mean time Pisistratus's party, advanced towards the city, and -arrived in a body at the temple of the Pallenian Minerva, and there took -up their position. Here Amphilytus, a prophet of Acarnania, moved by -divine impulse, approached Pisistratus, and pronounced this oracle in -hexameter verse: - - "The cast is thrown—the net expanded wide— - At night the tunnies in the snare will glide." - -He, inspired by the god, uttered this prophecy; and Pisistratus, -comprehending the oracle, and saying he accepted the omen, led on his -army. The Athenians of the city were then engaged at their breakfast, -and some of them after breakfast had betaken themselves to dice, others -to sleep; so that the army of Pisistratus, falling upon them by -surprise, soon put them to flight. As they were flying, Pisistratus -contrived a clever stratagem to prevent their rallying again, and forced -them thoroughly to disperse. He mounted his sons on horseback and sent -them forward. They, overtaking the fugitives, spoke as they were ordered -by Pisistratus, bidding them be of good cheer, and to depart every man -to his own home. The Athenians yielded a ready obedience, and thus -Pisistratus, having a third time possessed himself of Athens, secured -his power, more firmly, both by the aid of auxiliary forces, and by -revenues partly collected at home and partly drawn from the mines along -the river Strymon. He seized as hostages the sons of the Athenians who -had held out against him, and had not immediately fled, and settled them -at Naxos. He moreover purified the island of Delos, in obedience to an -oracle, and having dug up the dead bodies, as far as the prospect from -the temple reached, he removed them to another part of Delos. - -Crœsus was informed that such was, at that time, the condition of the -Athenians; and that the Lacedæmonians, having extricated themselves out -of great difficulties, had gained the mastery over the Tegeans in war. -They had formerly been governed by the worst laws of all the people in -Greece, both as regarded their dealings with one another, and in holding -no intercourse with strangers. But they changed to a good government in -the following manner: Lycurgus, a man much esteemed by the Spartans, -having arrived at Delphi to consult the oracle, no sooner entered the -temple, than the Pythian spoke as follows: - - "Lycurgus, thou art come to my rich fane, - Beloved by Zeus and all the heavenly train, - But whether god or man I fear to say, - Yet god thou must be more than mortal clay." - -Some men say that, besides this, the Pythian also communicated to him -that form of government now established among the Spartans. But, as the -Lacedæmonians themselves affirm, Lycurgus being appointed guardian to -his nephew Leobotis,[3] king of Sparta, brought those institutions from -Crete. For as soon as he had taken the guardianship, he altered all -their customs, and took care that no one should transgress them. -Afterwards he established military regulations, and instituted the -ephori and senators. Thus, having changed their laws, they established -good institutions in their stead. They erected a temple to Lycurgus -after his death, and held him in the highest reverence. As they had a -good soil and abundant population, they quickly sprang up and -flourished. And now they were no longer content to live in peace; but -proudly considering themselves superior to the Arcadians, they sent to -consult the oracle at Delphi, touching the conquest of the whole country -of the Arcadians; and the Pythian gave them this answer: "Dost thou ask -of me Arcadia? thou askest a great deal; I cannot grant it thee. There -are many acorn-eating men in Arcadia, who will hinder thee. But I do not -grudge thee all; I will give thee Tegea to dance on with beating of the -feet, and a fair plain to measure out by the rod." When the -Lacedæmonians heard this answer reported, they laid aside their design -against all Arcadia; and relying on an equivocal oracle, led an army -against Tegea only, carrying fetters with them, as if they would surely -reduce the Tegeans to slavery. But being defeated in an engagement, as -many of them as were taken alive, were compelled to work, wearing the -fetters they had brought, and measuring the lands of the Tegeans with a -rod. Those fetters in which they were bound, were, even in my time, -preserved in Tegea, suspended around the temple of Alean Minerva. - -In the first war, therefore, they had constantly fought against the -Tegeans with ill success, but in the time of Crœsus, and during the -reign of Anaxandrides and Ariston at Lacedæmon, they at length became -superior in the following manner: When they had always been worsted in -battle by the Tegeans, they sent to enquire of the oracle at Delphi, -what god they should propitiate, in order to become victorious over the -Tegeans. The Pythian answered, they should become so, when they had -brought back the bones of Orestes the son of Agamemnon. But as they were -unable to find the sepulchre of Orestes, they sent again to inquire of -the god in what spot Orestes lay interred, and the Pythian gave this -answer to the inquiries of those who came to consult her: - - "Down in Arcadia's level plain I know, - Tegea lies:—and where woe lies on woe— - Where two bound winds impatient of the yoke, - Are forced to blow—where stroke replies to stroke: - Beneath the earth lies Agamemnon's son, - Bear him to Sparta and Tegea's won." - -When the Lacedæmonians heard this, they were as far off the discovery as -ever, though they searched every where, till Lichas, one of the Spartans -who are called Agathoergi, found it. These Agathoergi consist of -citizens who are discharged from serving in the cavalry, such as are -senior, five in every year. It is their duty during the year in which -they are discharged from the cavalry, not to remain inactive, but go to -different places where they are sent by the Spartan commonwealth. -Lichas, who was one of these persons, discovered it in Tegea, both -meeting with good fortune and employing sagacity. For as the -Lacedæmonians had at that time intercourse with the Tegeans, he, coming -to a smithy, looked attentively at the iron being forged, and was struck -with wonder when he saw what was done. The smith perceiving his -astonishment desisted from his work, and said: "O Laconian stranger, you -would certainly have been astonished had you seen what I saw, since you -are so surprised at the working of iron. For as I was endeavoring to -sink a well in this enclosure, in digging, I came to a coffin seven -cubits long; and because I did not believe that men were ever taller -than they now are, I opened it and saw that the body was equal to the -coffin in length, and after I had measured it I covered it up again." -The man told him what he had seen, and Lichas, reflecting on what was -said, conjectured from the words of the oracle, that this must be the -body of Orestes, forming his conjecture on the following reasons: seeing -the smith's two bellows he discerned in them the two winds, and in the -anvil and hammer the stroke answering to stroke, and in the iron that -was being forged the woe that lay on woe; representing it in this way, -that iron had been invented to the injury of man. He then returned to -Sparta, and gave the Lacedæmonians an account of the whole matter; but -they brought a feigned charge against him and sent him into banishment. -He, going back to Tegea, related his misfortune to the smith, and wished -to hire the enclosure from him, but he would not let it. But in time, -when he had persuaded him, he took up his abode there; and having opened -the sepulchre and collected the bones, he carried them away with him to -Sparta. From that time, whenever they made trial of each other's -strength, the Lacedæmonians were by far superior in war; and the greater -part of Peloponnesus had been already subdued by them. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -CONQUEST OF LYDIA BY CYRUS. - - -Crœsus being informed of all these things, sent ambassadors to Sparta, -with presents, and to request their alliance, having given them orders -what to say; and when they were arrived they spoke as follows: "Crœsus, -king of the Lydians and of other nations, has sent us with this message: -'O Lacedæmonians, since the deity has directed me by an oracle to unite -myself to a Grecian friend, therefore (for I am informed that you are -pre-eminent in Greece), I invite you in obedience to the oracle, being -desirous of becoming your friend and ally, without treachery or guile.'" -But the Lacedæmonians, who had before heard of the answer given by the -oracle to Crœsus, were gratified at the coming of the Lydians, and -exchanged pledges of friendship and alliance; and indeed certain favors -had been formerly conferred on them by Crœsus; for when the -Lacedæmonians sent to Sardis to purchase gold, wishing to use it in -erecting the statue of Apollo that now stands at Thornax in Laconia, -Crœsus gave it as a present to them. For this reason, and because he had -selected them from all the Greeks, and desired their friendship, the -Lacedæmonians accepted his offer of alliance; and in the first place -they promised to be ready at his summons; and in the next, having made a -great bronze bowl, capable of containing three hundred amphoræ, and -covered it outside to the rim with various figures, they sent it to him, -being desirous of making Crœsus a present in return. But this bowl never -reached Sardis, for one of the two following reasons: the Lacedæmonians -say, that when the bowl, on its way to Sardis, was off Samos, the -Samains having heard of it, sailed out in long ships, and took it away -by force. On the other hand the Samains affirm, that when the -Lacedæmonians who were conveying the bowl found they were too late, and -heard that Sardis was taken and Crœsus a prisoner, they sold the bowl in -Samos, and that some private persons, who bought it dedicated it in the -temple of Juno. - -Crœsus, mistaking the oracle, prepared to invade Cappadocia, hoping to -overthrow Cyrus and the power of the Persians. Whilst Crœsus was -preparing for his expedition against the Persians, a Lydian named -Sandanis, who before that time was esteemed a wise man, and on this -occasion acquired a very great name in Lydia, gave him advice in these -words: "O king, you are preparing to make war against a people who wear -leather trousers, and the rest of their garments of leather; who inhabit -a barren country, and feed not on such things as they choose, but such -as they can get. Besides they do not habitually use wine, but drink -water; nor have they figs to eat, nor any thing that is good. In the -first place, then, if you should conquer, what will you take from them, -since they have nothing? On the other hand, if you should be conquered, -consider what good things you will lose. For when they have tasted of -our good things, they will become fond of them, nor will they be driven -from them. As for me, I thank the gods, that they have not put it into -the thoughts of the Persians to make war on the Lydians." Sandanis did -not, however, persuade Crœsus, for he proceeded to invade Cappadocia, as -well from a desire of adding it to his own dominions, as a wish to -punish Cyrus on account of Astyages. For Cyrus, son of Cambyses, had -subjugated Astyages, son of Cyaxares, who was brother-in-law of Crœsus, -and king of Medes. - -Crœsus, alleging this against him, sent to ask the oracle, if he should -make war on the Persians; and when an ambiguous answer came back, he, -interpreting it to his own advantage, led his army against the territory -of the Persians. When he arrived at the river Halys, Crœsus transported -his forces, as I believe, by the bridges which are now there. But the -common opinion of the Greeks is, that Thales the Milesian procured him a -passage in the following way: Whilst Crœsus was in doubt how his army -should pass over the river, for they say that these bridges were not at -that time in existence, Thales, who was in the camp, caused the stream, -which flowed along the left of the army, to flow on the right instead. -He contrived it thus: having begun above the camp, he dug a deep trench, -in the shape of a half-moon, so that the river, being turned into this -from its old channel, might pass in the rear of the camp pitched where -it then was, and afterward, having passed by the camp, might fall into -its former course; so that as soon as the river was divided into two -streams it became fordable in both. Some say, that the ancient channel -of the river was entirely dried up; but this I cannot assent to; for how -then could they have crossed it on their return? - -However, Crœsus, having passed the river with his army, came to a place -called Pteria, in Cappadocia. (Now Pteria is the strongest position of -the whole of this country, and is situated over against Sinope, a city -on the Euxine Sea.) Here he encamped and ravaged the lands of the -Syrians; and took the city of the Pterians, and enslaved the -inhabitants; he also took all the adjacent places, and expelled the -inhabitants, who had given him no cause for blame. But Cyrus, assembling -his own army, and taking with him all who inhabited the intermediate -country, went to meet Crœsus. But before he began to advance, he sent -heralds to the Ionians, to persuade them to revolt from Crœsus, which -the Ionians refused to do. When Cyrus had come up and encamped opposite -Crœsus, they made trial of each other's strength on the plains of -Pteria; but when an obstinate battle took place, and many fell on both -sides, they at last parted, on the approach of night, neither having -been victorious. - -Crœsus laying the blame on his own army on account of the smallness of -its numbers, for his forces that engaged were far fewer than those of -Cyrus,—marched back to Sardis, designing to summon the Egyptians -according to treaty, and to require the presence of the Lacedæmonians at -a fixed time: having collected these together, and assembled his own -army, he purposed, when winter was over, to attack the Persians in the -beginning of the spring. With this design, when he reached Sardis, he -despatched ambassadors to his different allies, requiring them to meet -at Sardis before the end of five months; but the army that was with him, -and that had fought with the Persians, which was composed of mercenary -troops, he entirely disbanded, not imagining that Cyrus, who had come -off on such equal terms, would venture to advance upon Sardis. While -Crœsus was forming these plans the whole suburbs were filled with -serpents, and when they appeared, the horses, forsaking their pastures, -came and devoured them. When Crœsus beheld this, he considered it to be, -as it really was, a prodigy, and sent immediately to consult the -interpreters at Telmessus; but the messengers having arrived there, and -learnt from the Telmessians what the prodigy portended, were unable to -report it to Crœsus, for before they sailed back to Sardis, Crœsus had -been taken prisoner. The Telmessians had pronounced as follows: "that -Crœsus must expect a foreign army to invade his country, which, on its -arrival, would subdue the natives, because, they said, the serpent is a -son of the earth, but the horse is an enemy and a stranger." - -Cyrus, as soon as Crœsus had retreated after the battle at Pteria, -having discovered that it was the intention of Crœsus to disband his -army, saw that it would be to his advantage to march with all possible -expedition on Sardis, before the forces of the Lydians could be a second -time assembled. Whereupon Crœsus, thrown into great perplexity, seeing -that matters had turned out contrary to his expectations, drew out the -Lydians to battle. At that time no nation in Asia was more valiant and -warlike than the Lydians. Their mode of fighting was from on horseback; -they were armed with long lances, and managed their horses with -admirable address. - -The place where they met was the plain that lies before the city of -Sardis, which is extensive and bare; the Hyllus and several other rivers -flowing through it force a passage into the greatest, called the Hermus, -which, flowing from the sacred mountain of mother Cybele, falls into the -sea near the city of Phocæa. Here Cyrus, when he saw the Lydians drawn -up in order of battle, alarmed at the cavalry, had recourse to the -following stratagem, on the suggestion of Harpagus, a Mede. Collecting -together all the camels that followed his army with provisions and -baggage, and causing their burdens to be taken off, he mounted men upon -them equipped in cavalry accoutrements, and ordered them to go in -advance of the rest of his army against the Lydian horse; his infantry -he bade follow the camels, and placed the whole of his cavalry behind -the infantry. When all were drawn up in order, he charged them not to -spare any of the Lydians, but to kill every one they met; but on no -account to kill Crœsus, even if he should offer resistance when taken. -He drew up the camels in the front of the cavalry for this reason: a -horse is afraid of a camel, and cannot endure either to see its form or -to scent its smell; this then would render the cavalry useless to -Crœsus, by which the Lydian expected to signalize himself. Accordingly, -when they joined battle, the horses no sooner smelt the camels and saw -them, than they wheeled round, and the hopes of Crœsus were destroyed. -Nevertheless, the Lydians were not discouraged, but leaped from their -horses and engaged with the Persians on foot; but at last, when many had -fallen on both sides, the Lydians were put to flight, and being shut up -within the walls, were besieged by the Persians. - -Sardis was taken in the following manner. On the fourteenth day after -Crœsus had been besieged, Cyrus sent horsemen throughout his army, and -proclaimed that he would liberally reward the man who should first mount -the wall; upon this several attempts were made, and as often failed; -till, after the rest had desisted, a Mardian, whose name was Hyrœades, -endeavored to climb up on that part of the citadel where no guard was -stationed, for on that side the citadel was precipitous and -impracticable. Hyrœades had seen a Lydian the day before come down this -precipice for a helmet that had rolled down, and carry it up again. He -thereupon ascended the same way, followed by divers Persians; and when -great numbers had gone up, Sardis was thus taken, and the whole town -plundered. - -The following incidents befel Crœsus himself. He had a son of whom I -have before made mention, who was dumb. Now, in the time of his former -prosperity, Crœsus had done every thing he could for him, and among -other expedients had sent to consult the oracle of Delphi concerning -him; but the Pythian gave him this answer: - - "O foolish king of Lydia, do not seek - To hear thy son within thy palace speak! - Better for thee that pleasure to forego— - The day he speaks will be a day of woe." - -When the city was taken, one of the Persians, not knowing Crœsus, was -about to kill him; Crœsus, though he saw him approach, took no heed of -him, caring not if he should die by the blow; but this speechless son of -his, when he saw the Persian advancing against him, through dread and -anguish, burst into speech, and said: "Man, kill not Crœsus." These were -the first words he ever uttered; but from that time he continued to -speak during the remainder of his life. So the Persians got possession -of Sardis, and made Crœsus prisoner, after he had reigned fourteen -years, been besieged fourteen days, and lost his great empire, as the -oracle had predicted. The Persians, having taken him, conducted him to -Cyrus; and he, having heaped up a great pile, placed Crœsus upon it, -bound with fetters, and with him fourteen young Lydians; designing -either to offer this sacrifice to some god, as the first fruits of his -victory, or wishing to perform a vow; or perhaps, having heard that -Crœsus was a religious person, he placed him on the pile for the purpose -of discovering whether any deity would save him from being burned alive. -When Crœsus stood upon the pile, notwithstanding the weight of his -misfortunes, the words of Solon recurred to him, as spoken by -inspiration of the deity, that "No living man could be justly called -happy." When this occurred to him, it is said, that after a long silence -he recovered himself, and uttering a groan, thrice pronounced the name -of Solon; when Cyrus heard him, he commanded his interpreters to ask -Crœsus whom it was he called upon; Crœsus for some time kept silence; -but at last, being constrained to speak, said: "I named a man, whose -discourses I more desire all tyrants might hear, than to be possessor of -the greatest riches." When he gave them this obscure answer, they again -inquired what he said, and were very importunate; he at length told them -that Solon, an Athenian, formerly visited him, and having viewed all his -treasures, made no account of them; telling, in a word, how every thing -had befallen him as Solon had warned him, though his discourse related -to all mankind as much as to himself, and especially to those who -imagine themselves happy. The pile now was kindled, and the outer parts -began to burn; when Cyrus, informed by the interpreters of what Crœsus -had said, relented, considering that being but a man, he was yet going -to burn another man alive, who had been no way inferior to himself in -prosperity; and moreover, fearing retribution, and reflecting that -nothing human is constant, commanded the fire to be instantly -extinguished, and Crœsus, with those who were about him, to be taken -down. But they with all their endeavors were unable to master the fire. -Crœsus, perceiving that Cyrus had altered his resolution, when he saw -every man endeavoring to put out the fire, but unable to get the better -of it, shouted aloud, invoking Apollo, and besought him, if ever any of -his offerings had been agreeable to him, to protect and deliver him from -the present danger. And the Lydians relate, as he with tears invoked the -god, on a sudden clouds were seen gathering in the air, which before was -serene, and that a violent storm burst forth and vehement rain fell and -extinguished the flames; by which Cyrus perceiving that Crœsus was -beloved by the gods, and a good man, when he had had him taken down from -the pile, asked him the following question: "Who persuaded you, Crœsus, -to invade my territories, and to become my enemy instead of my friend?" -He answered: "O king, I have done this for your good but my own evil -fortune, and the god of the Greeks who encouraged me to make war is the -cause of all. For no man is so void of understanding as to prefer war -before peace; for in the latter children bury their fathers; in the -former, fathers bury their children. But, I suppose, it pleased the gods -that these things should be so." - -Cyrus, having set him at liberty, placed him by his own side, and showed -him great respect. But Crœsus, absorbed in thought remained silent; and -presently turning round and beholding the Persians sacking the city of -the Lydians, he said, "Does it become me, O king, to tell you what is -passing through my mind, or to keep silence?" Cyrus bade him say with -confidence whatever he wished; upon which Crœsus asked him, "What is -this vast crowd so earnestly employed about?" He answered, "They are -sacking your city, and plundering your riches." "Not so," Crœsus -replied, "they are neither sacking my city, nor plundering my riches, -for they are no longer mine; they are ravaging what belongs to you." The -reply of Crœsus attracted the attention of Cyrus; he therefore ordered -all the rest to withdraw, and asked Crœsus what he thought should be -done in the present conjuncture. He answered: "Since the gods have made -me your servant, I think it my duty to acquaint you, if I perceive -anything deserving of remark. The Persians, who are by nature -overbearing, are poor. If, therefore, you permit them to plunder and -possess great riches, you may expect the following results; whoso -acquires the greatest riches, be assured, will be ready to rebel. -Therefore, if you approve what I say, adopt the following plan: place -some of your body-guard as sentinels at every gate, with orders to take -the booty from all those who would go out, and to acquaint them that the -tenth must of necessity be consecrated to Jupiter; thus you will not -incur the odium of taking away their property; and they, acknowledging -your intention to be just, will readily obey." Cyrus was exceedingly -delighted at this suggestion, and ordered his guards to carry it out, -then turning to Crœsus, he said: "Since you are resolved to display the -deeds and words of a true king, ask whatever boon you desire on the -instant." "Sir," he answered, "the most acceptable favor you can bestow -upon me is, to let me send my fetters to the god of the Greeks, whom I -have honored more than any other deity, and to ask him, if it be his -custom to deceive those who deserve well of him." Certain Lydians were -accordingly sent to Delphi, with orders to lay his fetters at the -entrance of the temple, and to ask the god, if he were not ashamed to -have encouraged Crœsus by his oracles to make war on the Persians -assuring him that he would put an end to the power of Cyrus, of which -war such were the first-fruits (commanding them at these words to show -the fetters), and at the same time to ask if it were the custom of the -Grecian gods to be ungrateful. When the Lydians arrived at Delphi, and -had delivered their message, the Pythian is reported to have made this -answer: "The god himself even cannot avoid the decrees of fate; and -Crœsus has atoned for the crime of Gyges his ancestor in the fifth -generation, who, being one of the body-guard of the Heraclidæ, murdered -his master, Candaules, and usurped his dignity, to which he had no -right. But although Apollo was desirous that the fall of Sardis might -happen in the time of the sons of Crœsus, and not during his reign, yet -it was not in his power to avert the fates; but so far as they allowed -he accomplished, and conferred the boon on him; for he delayed the -capture of Sardis for the space of three years. Let Crœsus know, -therefore, that he was taken prisoner three years later than the fates -had ordained; and in the next place, he came to his relief, when he was -upon the point of being burnt alive. Then, as to the prediction of the -oracle, Crœsus has no right to complain; for Apollo foretold him that if -he made war on the Persians, he would subvert a great empire; and had he -desired to be truly informed, he ought to have sent again to inquire, -whether his own or that of Cyrus was meant. But since he neither -understood the oracle, nor inquired again, let him lay the blame on -himself. And when he last consulted the oracle, he did not understand -the answer concerning the mule; for Cyrus was that mule; inasmuch as he -was born of parents of different nations, the mother superior, but the -father inferior. For she was a Mede, and daughter of Astyages, king of -Media; but he was a Persian, subject to the Medes." When Crœsus heard -this reply of the priestess of Apollo, he acknowledged the fault to be -his and not the god's. - -The customs of the Lydians differ little from those of the Greeks. They -are the first of all nations we know of that introduced the art of -coining gold and silver; and they were the first retailers. The Lydians -themselves say that the games which are now common to themselves and the -Greeks, were invented by them during the reign of Atys, when a great -scarcity of corn pervaded all Lydia. For when they saw famine staring -them in the face they sought for remedies, and some devised one thing, -some another; and at that time the games of dice, knucklebones, ball, -and all other kinds of games except draughts, were invented, (for the -Lydians do not claim the invention of this ancient game,) and having -made these inventions to alleviate the famine, they employed them as -follows: they used to play one whole day that they might not be in want -of food; and on the next, they ate and abstained from play. Thus they -passed eighteen years; but when the evil did not abate, but on the -contrary, became still more virulent, their king divided the whole -people into two parts, and cast lots which should remain and which quit -the country, and over that part whose lot it should be to stay he -appointed himself king; and over that part which was to emigrate he -appointed his own son, whose name was Tyrrhenus. Those to whose lot it -fell to leave their country went down to Smyrna, built ships, and having -put all their movables which were of use on board, set sail in search of -food and land, till having passed by many nations, they reached the -Ombrici, where they built towns, and dwell to this day. From being -called Lydians, they changed their name to one after the king's son, who -led them out; from him they gave themselves the appellation of -Tyrrhenians. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -HISTORY OF THE MEDES TO THE REIGN OF CYRUS. - - -My history hence proceeds to inquire who Cyrus was that overthrew the -power of Crœsus, and how the Persians became masters of Asia. In which -narration I shall follow those Persians, who do not wish to magnify the -actions of Cyrus, but to relate the plain truth; though I am aware that -there are three other ways of relating Cyrus's history. After the -Assyrians had ruled over Upper Asia five hundred and twenty years, the -Medes first began to revolt from them; and they it seems, in their -struggle with the Assyrians for liberty, proved themselves brave men; -and having shaken off the yoke, became free: afterward the other nations -also did the same as the Medes. When all throughout the continent were -independent, they were again reduced under a despotic government. There -was among the Medes a man famous for wisdom, named Deioces, son of -Phraortes. This Deioces, aiming at absolute power, had recourse to the -following plan. The Medes were at that time distributed into villages, -and Deioces, who was already highly esteemed in his own district, -applied himself with great zeal to the exercise of justice; and this he -did, since great lawlessness prevailed throughout the whole of Media, -and he knew that injustice and justice are ever at variance. The Medes -of the same village, observing his conduct, chose him for their judge; -and he, constantly keeping the sovereign power in view, showed himself -upright and just. By this conduct he acquired no slight praise from his -fellow citizens, so much so that the inhabitants of other villages, -hearing that Deioces was the only one who judged uprightly, having -before met with unjust sentences, when they heard of him gladly came -from all parts to Deioces, in order to submit their quarrels to his -decision; and at last they would commit the decision to no one else. In -the end, when the number of those who had recourse to him continually -increased as men heard of the justice of his decisions, Deioces, seeing -the whole devolved upon himself, would no longer occupy the seat where -he used to sit to determine differences, and refused to act as judge any -more, for it was of no advantage to him to neglect his own affairs, and -spend the day in deciding the quarrels of others. Upon this, rapine and -lawlessness growing far more frequent throughout the villages than -before, the Medes called an assembly and consulted together about the -present state of things, but, as I suspect, the partisans of Deioces -spoke to the following purpose: "Since it is impossible for us to -inhabit the country if we continue in our present condition, let us -constitute a king over us, and so the country will be governed by good -laws, and we ourselves shall be able to attend to our business, nor be -any longer driven from our homes by lawlessness." By some such words -they persuaded them to submit to a kingly government. Upon their -immediately putting the question, whom they should appoint king, Deioces -was unanimously preferred and commended: so that at last they agreed -that he should be their king. But he required them to build him a palace -suitable to the dignity of a king, and give him guards for security of -his person. The Medes accordingly did so: and built him a strong and -spacious palace in the part of the country that he selected, and -permitted him to choose guards for his person out of all the Medes. -Being thus possessed of the power, he compelled the Medes to build one -city, and having carefully adorned that, to pay less attention to the -others. As the Medes obeyed him in this also, he built lofty and strong -walls, which now go under the name of Ecbatana,[4] one placed in a -circle within the other; and this fortification was so contrived, that -each circle was raised above the other by the height of the battlements -only. The situation of the ground, rising by an easy ascent, was very -favorable to the design. There were seven circles altogether, the king's -palace and the treasury, situated within the innermost of them. The -largest of these walls was about equal in circumference to the city of -Athens; the battlements of the first circle were white, of the second -black, of the third purple, of the fourth blue, of the fifth bright red. -Thus the battlements of all circles were painted with different colors; -but the two last had their battlements plated, the one with silver, the -other with gold.[5] - -Deioces then built these fortifications for himself, and round his own -palace; and he commanded the rest of the people to fix their habitations -round the fortification; and when all the buildings were completed he, -for the first time, established the following regulations: that no man -should be admitted to the king's presence, but every one should consult -him by means of messengers, and, moreover, that it should be accounted -indecency for any one to laugh or spit before him. He established such -ceremony about his own person, in order that those who were brought up -with him, and of no meaner family, nor inferior to him in manly -qualities, might not, when they saw him, grieve and conspire against -him; but that he might appear to be of a different nature to those who -did not see him. When he had established these regulations, and settled -himself in the tyranny, he was very severe in the distribution of -justice. And the parties contending were obliged to send him their case -in writing. All other things were regulated by him: so that, if he -received information that any man had injured another, he would send for -him, and punish him in proportion to his offence. For this purpose he -had spies and eaves-droppers in every part of his dominions. - -Now Deioces collected the Medes into one nation, and ruled over it. The -following are the tribes of the Medes, the Busæ, Parataceni, Struchates, -Arizanti, Budii, and the Magi. Deioces had a son, Phraortes, who, when -his father died, after a reign of fifty-three years, succeeded him in -the kingdom; but having so succeeded, he was not content to rule over -the Medes only, but made war on the Persians, and reduced them under the -dominion of the Medes. And afterward being master of these two nations, -both of them powerful, he subdued Asia, attacking one nation after -another; till at last he invaded the Assyrians, who inhabited the city -of Nineveh, and having made war on them, perished with the greater part -of his army, after he had reigned twenty-two years. - -[Illustration: ASSYRIAN WARRIORS IN A CHARIOT.] - -When Phraortes was dead, Cyaxares his son, grandson of Deioces, -succeeded him. He is said to have been more warlike than his ancestors. -He was the first to divide the people of Asia into cohorts, and then -into spearmen, archers, and cavalry; whereas before they had been -confusedly mixed together. It was he that fought with the Lydians, when -the day was turned into night, as they were fighting; and who subjected -the whole of Asia above the river Halys. He assembled the forces of all -his subjects, and marched against Nineveh to avenge his father, and -destroy that city. He took Nineveh (how they took it, I will relate in -another work),[6] and reduced the Assyrians into subjection, with the -exception of the Babylonian district. Having accomplished these things, -Cyaxares died, after a reign of forty years. - -[Illustration: SPHINX FROM S. W. PALACE (NIMROUD).] - -Astyages the son of Cyaxares succeeded him in the kingdom. He had a -daughter, to whom he gave the name of Mandane. When she arrived at a -marriageable age he gave her to no one of the Medes who was worthy of -her, but to a Persian, named Cambyses, whom he found descended of a good -family, and of a peaceful disposition, deeming him far superior to a -Mede of moderate rank. In the first year after Mandane was married to -Cambyses, Astyages saw a vision: it appeared to him that a vine sprang -from his daughter, and spread over all Asia. Having seen this and -communicated it to the interpreters of dreams, he sent to Persia for his -daughter, and her son the infant Cyrus, and upon her arrival he put her -under a guard, resolving to destroy her child, for the Magian -interpreters had signified to him from his vision, that the issue of his -daughter would reign in his stead. Astyages therefore, sent for -Harpagus, a kinsman of his, and the most faithful of all the Medes, and -the manager of all his affairs, and said to him: "Harpagus, on no -account fail to perform the business I now charge you with; nor expose -me to danger by deceiving me; nor, by preferring another, draw ruin upon -thy own head. Take the child of Mandane carry him to your own house and -kill him, and afterward bury him in whatever way you think fit." -Harpagus answered: "O king, you have never yet observed any ingratitude -in me, and I shall take care never to offend you for the future. If it -is your pleasure that this thing should be done, it is fitting that I -readily obey you." Harpagus, having given this answer, when the child -had been put into his hands, adorned as if for death, returned home -weeping; and upon his arrival he told his wife all that Astyages had -said. She asked him, "What then do you purpose to do?" He answered: "Not -as Astyages has commanded; though he should be yet more outrageous and -mad than he is, I will not comply with his wishes, nor will I submit to -him by performing such a murder: and for many reasons I will not murder -the child; both because he is my own relation, and because Astyages is -old, and has no male offspring; besides, if, after his death, the -sovereignty should devolve on his daughter, whose son he would now -murder by my means, what else remains for me but the greatest danger? It -is necessary, however, for my safety that the child should die, but as -necessary that one of Astyages' people should be the executioner, and -not one of mine." He accordingly sent a messenger for one of Astyages' -herdsmen, who he knew grazed his cattle on pastures most convenient for -the purpose, and on mountains abounding with wild beasts. His name was -Mitradates, and he had married his fellow-servant. The foot of the -mountains at which this herdsman grazed his cattle, lies to the north of -Ecbatana, toward the Euxine Sea. For the Medic territory on this side -toward the Saspires, is very mountainous, lofty, and covered with -forests; while all the rest of Media is level. When the herdsman, -summoned in great haste, arrived, Harpagus addressed him as follows: -"Astyages bids thee take this infant, and expose him on the bleakest -part of the mountains, that he may speedily perish; and has charged me -to add, that if thou by any means shouldst save the child, thou shalt -die by the most cruel death; and I am appointed to see the child -exposed." The herdsman, having heard these words, took the infant, -returned by the same way, and reached his cottage. It so happened that -an infant of his own lay dead at home. When he returned and came up to -his wife she asked him why Harpagus had sent for him in such haste. -"Wife," said he, "when I reached the city, I saw and heard what I wish I -had never seen, nor had ever befallen our masters. The whole house of -Harpagus was filled with lamentations; I, greatly alarmed, went in, and -as soon as I entered, I saw an infant lying before me, panting and -crying, dressed in gold and a robe of various colors. Harpagus bade me -to take up the child directly, and carry him away, and expose him in the -part of the mountain most frequented by wild beasts; telling me at the -same time, that it was Astyages who imposed this task on me, and -threatening the severest punishment if I should fail to do it. I took up -the infant and carried him away, supposing him to belong to one of the -servants; for I had then no suspicion whence he came; though I was -astonished at seeing him dressed in gold and fine apparel; and also at -the sorrow which evidently prevailed in the house of Harpagus. But soon -after, on my way home, I learnt the whole truth, from a servant who -accompanied me out of the city, and delivered the child into my hands; -that he was born of Mandane, Astyages' daughter, and of Cambyses son of -Cyrus, and that Astyages had commanded him to be put to death." - -As the herdsman uttered these last words, he uncovered the child, and -showed it to his wife; she seeing that the child was large and of a -beautiful form, embraced the knees of her husband, and with tears -besought him by no means to expose it. He said that it was impossible to -do otherwise; for spies would come from Harpagus to see the thing done, -and he must himself die the most cruel death if he should fail to do it. -"Since, then" said she "I cannot persuade you not to expose the child, -do this: take our own dead child and expose it, and let us bring up the -son of Astyages' daughter as our own. Thus you will neither be convicted -of having wronged our masters, nor shall we have consulted ill for our -own interests; for the child that is dead will have a royal burial, and -the one that survives will not be deprived of life." The herdsman, happy -at the suggestion of his wife, gave to her the child that he had brought -for the purpose of putting to death, and his own, which was dead, he put -into the basket in which he had brought the other, and having dressed it -in all the finery of the other child, exposed it in the most desolate -part of the mountains. On the third day after the infant had been -exposed, the herdsman, having left one of his assistants as a guard, -went to the city, and arriving at the house of Harpagus, told him he was -ready to show the dead body of the infant. Harpagus accordingly sent -some of the most trusty of his guards, and by that means saw the body, -and buried the herdsman's child. The other, who afterwards had the name -of Cyrus, was brought up by the herdsman's wife, who gave him some other -name, and not that of Cyrus. - -When the child attained the age of ten years, the following circumstance -discovered him. He was playing in the village in which the ox-stalls -were, with boys of his own age in the road. The boys had chosen this -reputed son of the herdsman for their king. He in sport appointed some -of them to build houses, and others to be his body-guards; one of them -to be the king's eye, and to another he gave the office of bringing -messages to him, assigning to each his proper duty. One of these boys -who was playing with him, son of Artembares, a man of rank among the -Medes, refused to obey the orders of Cyrus; he therefore commanded the -others to seize him, and when they obeyed, Cyrus scourged the boy very -severely. But the boy, as soon as he was let loose, considering that he -had been treated with great indignity, took it very much to heart, and -hastening to the city, complained to his father of the treatment he had -met with from the son of Astyages' herdsman. Artembares, in a transport -of anger, went immediately to Astyages, and taking his son with him, -said that he suffered treatment that was not to be borne, adding, "Thus, -O king, are we insulted by your slave, the son of a herdsman;" showing -the boy's shoulders. Astyages having heard and seen what was done, -resolving, on account of the rank of Artembares, to avenge the indignity -offered to the youth, sent for the herdsman and his son. When both came -into his presence, Astyages, looking upon Cyrus, said: "Have you, who -are the son of such a man as this, dared to treat the son of one of the -principal persons in my kingdom with such indignity?" But Cyrus -answered: "Sir, I treated him as I did with justice. For the boys of our -village, of whom he was one, in their play made me their king, because I -appeared to them the most fitted for that office. All the other boys -performed what they were ordered, but he refused to obey and paid no -attention to my commands, so he was punished: if I deserve punishment -for this here I am ready to submit to it." As the boy spoke Astyages -recognised him; the character of his face appeared like his own, and his -answer more free than accorded with his condition; the time also of the -exposure seemed to agree with the age of the boy. Alarmed at this -discovery, he was for some time speechless; and at last, having with -difficulty recovered himself (being desirous of sending Artembares away -in order that he might examine the herdsman in private), he said: -"Artembares, I will take care that neither you nor your son shall have -any cause of complaint," and dismissed him; but the servants, at the -command of Astyages, conducted Cyrus into an inner room; and when the -herdsman remained alone, he asked him in the absence of witnesses, -whence he had the boy, and from whose hands he received him? He affirmed -that the boy was his own son, and that the mother who bore him was still -living with him. Astyages told him, that he did not consult his own -safety in wishing to be put to the torture; and as he said this he made -a signal to his guards to seize him. The man, when brought to the -torture, discovered the whole matter, speaking the truth throughout; and -concluded with prayers and entreaties for pardon. Astyages, when the -herdsman had confessed the truth, did not concern himself much about him -afterwards; but attaching great blame to Harpagus, he ordered his guards -to summon him; and when Astyages asked, "Harpagus, by what kind of death -did you dispose of the child which I delivered to you, born of my -daughter?" Harpagus, seeing the herdsman present, had not recourse to -falsehood, lest he should be detected and convicted, but said, "O king, -when I had received the infant, I carefully considered how I could act -according to your wish and command, and, without offending you, I might -be free from the crime of murder both in your daughter's sight and in -yours. I therefore sent for this herdsman and gave him the child, saying -that you had commanded him to put it to death, and in saying this I did -not speak falsely, for such indeed were your orders. In this manner I -delivered the infant to him, charging him to place it in some desert -mountain, and to stay and watch till the child was dead, threatening the -severest punishment if he should not fully carry out these injunctions. -When he had executed these orders, and the child was dead, I sent some -of the most trusty of my servants, and by means of them beheld the body, -and buried it. This is the whole truth, O king, and such was the fate of -the child." - -Thus Harpagus told the real truth; but Astyages, dissembling the anger -which he felt on account of what had been done, again related to -Harpagus the whole matter as he had heard it from the herdsman; and -afterwards, when he had repeated it throughout, he ended by saying that -the child was alive and all was well. "For," he added, "I suffered much -on account of what had been done regarding this child, and could not -easily bear the reproaches of my daughter; therefore, since fortune has -taken a more favorable turn, do you, in the first place, send your own -son to accompany the boy I have recovered; and, in the next place, (for -I propose to offer a sacrifice for the preservation of the child to the -gods, to whom that honor is due), do you be with me at supper." - -Harpagus on hearing these words, when he had paid his homage, and had -congratulated himself that his fault had turned to so good account, and -that he was invited to the feast under such auspicious circumstances, -went to his own home. And as soon as he entered he sent his only son, -who was about thirteen years of age, and bade him go to Astyages, and do -whatever he should command; and then, being full of joy, he told his -wife what had happened. But when the son of Harpagus arrived, having -slain him and cut him into joints, Astyages roasted some parts of his -flesh and boiled others, and having had them well dressed, kept them in -readiness. At the appointed hour, when the other guests and Harpagus -were come, tables full of mutton were placed before the rest and -Astyages himself, but before Harpagus all the body of his son, except -the head, the hands and the feet; these were laid apart in a basket -covered over. When Harpagus seemed to have eaten enough, Astyages asked -him if he was pleased with the entertainment; and when Harpagus replied -that he was highly delighted, the officers appointed for that purpose -brought him the head of his son covered up with the hands and feet, and -standing before Harpagus, they bade him uncover the basket and take what -he chose. Harpagus doing as they desired, and uncovering the basket, saw -the remains of his son's body, but he expressed no alarm at the sight, -and retained his presence of mind; whereupon Astyages asked him if he -knew of what animal he had been eating. He said he knew very well, and -that whatever a king did was agreeable to him. After he had given this -answer he gathered the remains of the flesh and went home, purposing, as -I conjecture, to collect all that he could and bury it. - -Astyages thus punished Harpagus; and then, considering what he should do -with Cyrus, summoned the Magi, who had formerly interpreted his dream. -When they were come, Astyages asked them in what way they had -interpreted his vision. They gave the same answer as before; and said -that if the boy was still alive, and had not already died, he must of -necessity be king. He answered them as follows: "The boy still survives, -and while living in the country, the boys of the village made him king, -and he has already performed all such things as kings really do, for he -has appointed guards, door-keepers, messengers, and all other things in -like manner; and now I desire to know to what do these things appear to -you to tend." The Magi answered, "If the boy be living and has already -been a king by no settled plan, you may take courage on his account and -make your mind easy, for he will not reign a second time. For some of -our predictions terminate in trifling results; and dreams, and things -like them, are fulfilled by slight events." To this Astyages replied: "I -too, O Magi, am very much of the same opinion, that since the child has -been named king, the dream is accomplished, and that the boy is no -longer an object of alarm to me; yet consider well, and carefully weigh -what will be the safest course for my family and yourselves." The Magi -answered: "O king, it is of great importance to us that your empire -should be firmly established, for otherwise it is alienated, passing -over to this boy, who is a Persian, and we, who are Medes, shall be -enslaved by Persians, and held in no account as being foreigners; -whereas while you, who are of our own country, are king, we have a share -in the government, and enjoy great honors at your hands. Thus, then, we -must on every account provide for your safety and that of your -government; and now if we saw any thing to occasion alarm we should tell -you of it beforehand; but now, since the dream has issued in a trifling -event, we ourselves take courage, and advise you to do the like, and to -send the boy out of your sight to his parents in Persia." When Astyages -heard this he was delighted, and, calling for Cyrus, said to him: -"Child, I have been unjust to you, by reason of a vain dream; but you -survive by your own destiny. Now go in happiness to Persia, and I will -send an escort to attend you; when you arrive there you will find a -father and mother very different from the herdsman Mitradates and his -wife." - -Astyages thus sent Cyrus away, and, upon his arrival at the house of -Cambyses, his parents received him with the greatest tenderness and joy, -having been assured that he had died immediately after his birth; and -they inquired of him by what means his life had been preserved. He told -them, that till that time he believed he was the son of Astyages' -herdsman. He related that he had been brought up by the herdsman's wife; -and he went on constantly praising her. - -[Illustration: EGYPTIAN HARE.] - -When Cyrus had reached man's estate, and proved the most manly and -beloved of his equals in age, Harpagus paid great court to him, sending -him presents, from his desire to be avenged on Astyages; for he did not -see that he himself, who was but a private man, could be able to take -vengeance on Astyages; perceiving, therefore, that Cyrus was growing up -to be his avenger, he contracted a friendship with him, comparing the -sufferings of Cyrus with his own. And before this he had made the -following preparations. Seeing Astyages severe in his treatment of the -Medes, Harpagus holding intercourse with the chief persons of the -nation, one after another, persuaded them that they ought to place him -at their head, and depose Astyages. When he had effected his purpose, -and all was ready, Harpagus, wishing to discover his designs to Cyrus, -who resided in Persia, and having no other way left, because the roads -were all guarded, contrived the following artifice. Having cunningly -contrived a hare, by opening its belly, and tearing off none of the -hair, he put a letter, containing what he thought necessary to write, -into the body; and having sewed up the belly of the hare, he gave it -with some nets to the most trusty of his servants, dressed as a hunter, -and sent him to Persia; having by word of mouth commanded him to bid -Cyrus, as he gave him the hare, to open it with his own hand, and not to -suffer any one to be present when he did so. This was accordingly done, -and Cyrus having received the hare, opened it; and found the letter -which was in it, to the following purport: "Son of Cambyses, seeing the -gods watch over you, (for otherwise you could never have arrived at your -present fortune), do you now avenge yourself on your murderer Astyages; -for as far as regards his purpose you are long since dead, but by the -care of the gods and of me you survive. I suppose you have been long -since informed both what was done regarding yourself, and what I -suffered at the hands of Astyages, because I did not put you to death, -but gave you to the herdsman. Then, if you will follow my counsel, you -shall rule over the whole territory that Astyages now governs. Persuade -the Persians to revolt, and invade Media; and whether I or any other -illustrious Mede be appointed to command the army opposed to you, every -thing will turn out as you wish; for they, on the first onset, having -revolted from him, and siding with you, will endeavor to depose him. -Since, then, every thing is ready here, do as I advise, and do it -quickly." - -Cyrus, upon receiving this intelligence, began to consider by what -measures he could best persuade the Persians to revolt. Having written -such a letter as he thought fit, he called an assembly of the Persians, -read the letter and said that Astyages had appointed him general of the -Persians: "Now," he continued, "I require you to attend me, every man -with a sickle." When all had come with their sickles, as had been -ordered, Cyrus selected a tract of land in Persia, about eighteen or -twenty stadia square (nearly two and one half miles), which was -overgrown with briers, and directed them to clear it during the day: -when the Persians had finished the appointed task, he bade them come -again on the next day, washed and well attired. In the meantime Cyrus -collected all his father's flocks and herds, had them killed and -dressed, to entertain the Persian forces, and provided wine and bread in -abundance. The next day, when the Persians had assembled, he made them -lie down on the turf, and feasted them; and, after the repast was over, -asked them whether the treatment they had received the day before, or -the present, was preferable. They answered, that the difference was -great; for on the preceding day they had every hardship, but on the -present everything that was good. Then Cyrus discovered his intentions, -and said: "Men of Persia, the case stands thus; if you will hearken to -me, you may enjoy these, and numberless other advantages, without any -kind of servile labor; but if you will not hearken to me, innumerable -hardships, like those of yesterday, await you. Now, therefore, obey me, -and be free; for I am persuaded I am born by divine providence to -undertake this work; and I deem you to be men in no way inferior to the -Medes, either in other respects or in war; then revolt with all speed -from Astyages." - -The Persians under such a leader, gladly asserted their freedom, having -for a long time felt indignant at being governed by the Medes. Astyages, -informed of what Cyrus was doing, sent a messenger and summoned him; but -Cyrus bade the messenger take back word, "that he would come to him -sooner than Astyages desired." When Astyages heard this, he armed all -the Medes; and, as if the gods had deprived him of understanding, made -Harpagus their general, utterly forgetting the outrage he had done him. -And when the Medes came to an engagement with the Persians, such of them -as knew nothing of the plot, fought; but others went over to the -Persians; and the far greater part purposely behaved as cowards and -fled. As soon as the news was brought to Astyages that the Medes were -thus shamefully dispersed, he exclaimed: "Not even so shall Cyrus have -occasion to rejoice." His first act was to impale the Magi, who had -interpreted his dream, and advised him to let Cyrus go; then he armed -all the Medes that were left in the city, old and young; and leading -them out, engaged the Persians, and was defeated. Astyages himself was -made prisoner, and lost all the Medes whom he had led out. Harpagus, -standing by Astyages after he was taken, exulted over him and jeered at -him; and among other galling words, he asked him about the supper, at -which he had feasted him with his son's flesh, and inquired, "how he -liked slavery in exchange for a kingdom." Astyages, looking steadfastly -on Harpagus, asked in return, whether he thought himself the author of -Cyrus's success. Harpagus said, he did, for, as he had written, the -achievement was justly due to himself. Astyages thereupon proved him to -be "the weakest and most unjust of all men; the weakest, in giving the -kingdom to another, which he might have assumed to himself, if indeed he -had effected this change; and the most unjust, because he had enslaved -the whole nation of the Medes on account of the supper." - -So Astyages, after he had reigned thirty-five years, was deposed. But -Cyrus kept him with him till he died, without doing him any further -injury. Thus did Cyrus come to the throne, conquer Crœsus, and become -master of all Asia. - -The Persians, according to my own knowledge, observe the following -customs:—It is not their practice to erect statues, or temples, or -altars, but they charge those with folly who do so; because, as I -conjecture, they do not think the gods have human forms, as the Greeks -do. They are accustomed to ascend the highest parts of the mountains, -and offer sacrifice to Jupiter, and they call the whole circle of the -heavens by the name of Jupiter. They sacrifice to the sun and moon, to -the earth, fire, water, and the winds. To these alone they sacrificed in -the earliest times: but they have since learnt from the Arabians and -Assyrians to sacrifice to Venus Urania, whom the Assyrians call Venus -Mylitta, the Arabians, Alitta, and the Persians Mitra. They do not erect -altars nor kindle fires when about to sacrifice; they do not use -libations, or flutes, or fillets, or cakes; but, when any one wishes to -offer sacrifice to any one of these deities, he leads the victim to a -clean spot, and invokes the god, usually having his tiara decked with -myrtle. He that sacrifices is not permitted to pray for blessings for -himself alone; but he is obliged to offer prayers for the prosperity of -all the Persians, and the king, for he is himself included in the -Persians. When he has cut the victim into small pieces, and boiled the -flesh, he strews under it a bed of tender grass, generally trefoil, and -then lays all the flesh upon it; when he has put every thing in order, -one of the Magi standing by sings an ode concerning the original of the -gods, which they say is the incantation; and without one of the Magi it -is not lawful for them to sacrifice. After having waited a short time, -he that has sacrificed carries away the flesh and disposes of it as he -thinks fit. It is their custom to honor their birthday above all other -days; and on this day they furnish their table in a more plentiful -manner than at other times. The rich then produce an ox, a horse, a -camel, and an ass, roasted whole in an oven; but the poor produce -smaller cattle. They are moderate at their meals, but eat of many -after-dishes, and those not served up together. On this account the -Persians say, "that the Greeks rise hungry from the table, because -nothing worth mentioning is brought in after dinner, and that if -anything were brought in, they would not leave off eating." The Persians -are much addicted to wine. They are accustomed to debate the most -important affairs when intoxicated; but whatever they have determined on -in such deliberation, is on the following day, when they are sober, -proposed to them by the master of the house where they have met to -consult; and if they approve of it when sober also, then they adopt it; -if not, they reject it. And whatever they have first resolved on when -sober, they reconsider when intoxicated. When they meet one another in -the streets, one may discover by the following custom, whether those who -meet are equals. For instead of accosting one another, they kiss on the -mouth; if one be a little inferior to the other, they kiss the cheek; -but if he be of a much lower rank, he prostrates himself before the -other. - -The Persians are of all nations the most ready to adopt foreign customs; -for they wear the Medic costume, thinking it handsomer than their own; -and in war they use the Egyptian cuirass. From the age of five years to -twenty, they instruct their sons in three things only: to ride, to use -the bow, and to speak the truth. Before he is five years of age, a son -is not admitted to the presence of his father, but lives entirely with -the women: the reason of this custom is, that if he should die in -childhood, he may occasion no grief to his father. - -Now I much approve of the above custom, as also of the following, that -not even the king is allowed to put any one to death for a single crime, -nor any private Persian exercise extreme severity against any of his -domestics for one fault, but if on examination he should find that his -misdeeds are more numerous and greater than his services, he may in that -case give vent to his anger. They say that no one ever yet killed his -own father or mother. To tell a lie is considered by them the greatest -disgrace; next to that, to be in debt; for the reason that one who is in -debt must of necessity tell lies. Whosoever of the citizens has the -leprosy or scrofula, is not permitted to stay within a town, nor to have -communication with other Persians; and they say that a man is afflicted -with these diseases from having committed some offence against the sun. -Every stranger that is seized with these distempers they drive out of -the country; and they do the same to white pigeons, making the same -charge against them. They neither spit, nor wash their hands in a river, -but pay extreme veneration to all rivers. Another circumstance is also -peculiar to them which has escaped the notice of the Persians -themselves, but not of us. Their names, which correspond with their -personal forms and their rank, all terminate in the same letter (s) -which the Dorians call _San_, and the Ionians _Sigma_. If you inquire -into this you will find, that all Persian names, without exception, end -in the same letter. These things I can with certainty affirm to be true, -since I myself know them. But what follows, relating to the dead, is -only secretly mentioned, viz.: that the dead body of a Persian is never -buried until it has been torn by some bird or dog; but I know for a -certainty that the Magi do this, for they do it openly. The Persians -then, having covered the body with wax, conceal it in the ground. The -Magi differ very much from all other men, and particularly from the -Egyptian priests, for the latter hold it matter of religion not to kill -any thing that has life, except such things as they offer in sacrifice; -whereas the Magi kill every thing with their own hands, except a dog or -a man; and they think they do a meritorious thing, when they kill ants, -serpents, and other reptiles and birds. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE ASIATIC GREEKS AND THE LYDIAN REVOLT. - - -The Ionians and Æolians, as soon as the Lydians were subdued by the -Persians, sent ambassadors to Cyrus at Sardis, wishing to become subject -to him, on the same terms as they had been to Crœsus. But, when he heard -their proposal, he told them this story: "A piper seeing some fishes in -the sea, began to pipe, expecting that they would come to shore; but -finding his hopes disappointed, he took a casting-net, with which he -caught a great number of fishes, and drew them out. When he saw them -leaping about, he said to the fishes: 'Cease your dancing, since when I -piped you would not come out and dance.'" Cyrus told this story to the -Ionians and Æolians, because the Ionians, when Cyrus pressed them by his -ambassador to revolt from Crœsus, refused to consent, and now, when the -business was done, were ready to listen to him. When the Ionians heard -this message, they severally fortified themselves with walls, and met -together at the Panionium, with the exception of the Milesians; for -Cyrus made an alliance with them on the same terms as the Lydians had -done. The rest of the Ionians resolved unanimously to send ambassadors -to Sparta, to implore them to succor the Ionians. These Ionians, to whom -the Panionium belongs, have built their cities under the finest sky and -climate of the world that we know of; for neither the regions that are -above it, nor those that are below, nor the parts to the east or west, -are at all equal to Ionia; for some of them are oppressed by cold and -rain, others by heat and drought. These Ionians do not all use the same -language, but have four varieties of dialect. Miletus, the first of -them, lies toward the south. - -The Milesians were sheltered from danger, as they had made an alliance. -The islanders also had nothing to fear; for the Phœnicians were not yet -subject to the Persians, nor were the Persians themselves at all -acquainted with maritime affairs. Now the Milesians had seceded from the -rest of the Ionians only for this reason, that weak as the Grecian race -then was, the Ionian was weakest of all, and of least account; for -except Athens, there was no other city of note. The other Ionians, -therefore, and the Athenians shunned the name, and would not be called -Ionians; and even now many of them appear to me to be ashamed of the -name. But these twelve cities gloried in the name, and built a temple -for their own use, to which they gave the name of Panionium. - -When the ambassadors of the Ionians and Æolians arrived at Sparta, they -made choice of a Phocæan, whose name was Pythermus, to speak in behalf -of all. Putting on a purple robe, in order that as many as possible of -the Spartans might hear of it and assemble, he addressed them at length, -imploring their assistance. But the Lacedæmonians would not listen to -him, and determined not to assist the Ionians: they therefore returned -home. Yet the Lacedæmonians, though they had rejected the Ionian -ambassadors, despatched men in a penteconter, to keep an eye upon the -affairs of Cyrus and Ionia. These men arriving in Phocæa, sent the most -eminent person among them, whose name was Lacrines, to Sardis, to warn -Cyrus in the name of the Lacedæmonians, "not to injure any city on the -Grecian territory, for in that case they would not pass it by -unnoticed." When the herald gave this message, it is related that Cyrus -inquired of the Greeks who were present, who the Lacedæmonians were, and -how many in number, that they sent him such a warning. And when -informed, he said to the Spartan herald, "I was never yet afraid of -those, who in the midst of their city have a place set apart, in which -they collect and cheat one another by false oaths; and if I continue in -health, not the calamities of the Ionians shall be talked about, but -their own." This taunt of Cyrus was levelled at the Greeks in general, -who have markets for the purposes of buying and selling; for the -Persians have no such a thing as a market. After this, Cyrus intrusted -Tabalus a Persian with the government of Sardis, and appointed Pactyas a -Lydian to bring away the gold, both that belonging to Crœsus and to the -other Lydians, and departed with Cyrus for Ecbatana, for from the first -he took no account of the Ionians. But Babylon was an obstacle to him, -as were also the Bactrians, the Sacæ, and the Egyptians; against whom he -resolved to lead an army in person, and to send some other general -against the Ionians. But as soon as Cyrus had marched from Sardis, -Pactyas prevailed on the Lydians to revolt from Tabalus and Cyrus; and -going down to the sea-coast, with all the gold taken from Sardis in his -possession, he hired mercenaries and persuaded the inhabitants of the -coast to join him; and then having marched against Sardis, he besieged -Tabalus, who was shut up in the citadel. - -When Cyrus heard this news on his march, he said to Crœsus; - -"Crœsus, what will be the end of these things? the Lydians, it seems, -will never cease to give trouble to me, and to themselves. I am in doubt -whether it will not be better to reduce them to slavery; for I appear to -have acted like one who, having killed the father, has spared the -children; so I am carrying away you, who have been something more than a -father to the Lydians, and have intrusted their city to the Lydians -themselves: and then I wonder at their rebellion!" Crœsus, fearing lest -he should utterly destroy Sardis, answered: "Sir, you have but too much -reason for what you say; yet do not give full vent to your anger, nor -utterly destroy an ancient city, which is innocent as well of the former -as of the present offence: for of the former I myself was guilty, and -now bear the punishment on my own head; but in the present instance -Pactyas, to whom you intrusted Sardis, is the culprit; let him therefore -pay the penalty. But pardon the Lydians, and enjoin them to observe the -following regulations, to the end that they may never more revolt, nor -be troublesome to you: send to them and order them to keep no weapons of -war in their possession; and enjoin them to wear tunics under their -cloaks, and buskins on their feet; and require them to teach their sons -to play on the cithara, to strike the guitar, and to sell by retail; and -then you will soon see them becoming women instead of men, so that they -will never give you any apprehensions about their revolting." Crœsus -suggested this plan, thinking it would be more desirable for the -Lydians, than that they should be sold for slaves; and being persuaded, -that unless he could suggest some feasible proposal, he should not -prevail with him to alter his resolution: and he dreaded also, that the -Lydians, if they should escape the present danger, might hereafter -revolt from the Persians, and bring utter ruin on themselves. Cyrus, -pleased with the expedient, laid aside his anger, and said that he would -follow his advice: then having sent for Mazares, a Mede, he commanded -him to order the Lydians to conform themselves to the regulations -proposed by Crœsus, and moreover to enslave all the rest who had joined -the Lydians in the attack on Sardis; but by all means to bring Pactyas -to him alive. Cyrus having given these orders on his way, proceeded to -the settlements of the Persians. But Pactyas heard that the army which -was coming against him was close at hand, and fled in great -consternation to Cyme. Mazares marched against Sardis with an -inconsiderable division of Cyrus's army, but found that Pactyas and his -party were no longer there. He, however, compelled the Lydians to -conform to the injunctions of Cyrus; who, by his order, completely -changed their mode of life: after this Mazares despatched messengers to -Cyme, requiring them to deliver up Pactyas. But the Cymæans, in order to -come to a decision, resolved to refer the matter to the deity at -Branchidæ, for an oracular shrine was there erected in former times, -which all the Ionians and Æolians were in the practice of consulting. -The Cymæans asked the oracle "what course they should pursue respecting -Pactyas, that would be most pleasing to the gods:" the answer to their -question was, that they should deliver up Pactyas to the Persians. When -this answer was reported, they determined to give him up; but, -Aristodicus the son of Heraclides, a man of high repute among the -citizens, distrusting the oracle, and suspecting the sincerity of the -consulters, prevented them from doing so; till at last other messengers, -among whom was Aristodicus, went to inquire a second time concerning -Pactyas. When they arrived at Branchidæ, Aristodicus consulted the -oracle in the name of all, inquiring in these words: "O king, Pactyas, a -Lydian, has come to us as a suppliant, to avoid a violent death at the -hands of the Persians. They now demand him, and require the Cymæans to -give him up. We, however, though we dread the Persian power, have not -yet dared to surrender the suppliant, till it be plainly declared by -thee what we ought to do." The oracle gave the same answer as before. -Upon this Aristodicus deliberately acted as follows; walking round the -temple, he took away all the sparrows and all other kinds of birds that -had built nests in the temple; whereupon a voice issued from the -sanctuary; addressing Aristodicus, it spoke as follows: "O most impious -of men, how darest thou do this? Dost thou tear my suppliants from my -temple?" Aristodicus without hesitation answered, "O king, art thou then -so careful to succor thy suppliants, but biddest the Cymæans to deliver -up theirs?" The oracle again rejoined: "Yes, I bid you do so; that -having acted impiously, ye may the sooner perish, and never more come -and consult the oracle about the delivering up of suppliants." When the -Cymæans heard this latter answer, not wishing to bring destruction on -themselves by surrendering Pactyas, or to subject themselves to a siege -by protecting him, they sent him away to Mitylene. But the Mitylenæans, -when Mazares sent a message to them requiring them to deliver up -Pactyas, were preparing to do so for some remuneration; what, I am -unable to say precisely, for the proposal was never completed. For the -Cymæans, being informed of what was being done by the Mitylenæans, -despatched a vessel to Lesbos, and transported Pactyas to Chios, whence -he was torn by violence from the temple of Minerva Poliuchus by the -Chians, and delivered up. The Chians delivered him up in exchange for -Atarneus, a place situate in Mysia, opposite Lesbos. In this manner -Pactyas fell into the hands of the Persians; who kept him under guard in -order that they might deliver him to Cyrus. For a long time after this, -none of the Chians would offer barley-meal from Atarneus to any of the -gods, or make any cakes of the fruit that came from them; but all the -productions of that country were excluded from the temples. Mazares, -after this, marched against those who had assisted in besieging Tabalus; -and in the first place reduced the Prienians to slavery, and in the next -overran the whole plain of the Mæander, and gave it to his army to -pillage; and he treated Magnesia in the same manner: but shortly -afterward fell sick and died. - -On his death Harpagus came down as his successor in the command; he also -was by birth a Mede, the same whom Astyages king of the Medes -entertained at the impious feast, and who assisted Cyrus in ascending -the throne. This man being appointed general by Cyrus, on his arrival in -Ionia, took several cities by means of earth-works; for he forced the -people to retire within their fortifications, and then, having heaped up -mounds against the walls, he carried the cities by storm. Phocæa was the -first place in Ionia that he attacked. - -These Phocæans were the first of all the Greeks who undertook long -voyages, and they are the people who discovered the Adriatic and -Tyrrhenian seas, Iberia, and Tartessus.[7] They made their voyages in -fifty-oared galleys, and not in merchant-ships. When they arrived at -Tartessus they were kindly received by the king of the Tartessians, -whose name was Arganthonius; he reigned eighty years over Tartessus, and -lived to the age of one hundred and twenty. The Phocæans became such -great favorites with him, that he at first solicited them to abandon -Ionia, and to settle in any part of his territory they should choose; -but afterward, finding he could not prevail with them to accept his -offer, and hearing from them the increasing power of the Mede, he gave -them money for the purpose of building a wall around their city; he must -have given it unsparingly, for the wall is not a few stades in -circumference, and is entirely built of large and well-compacted stones. -When Harpagus had marched his army against the Phocæans, he besieged -them, but offered these terms: "that he would be content if the Phocæans -would throw down only one of their battlements, and consecrate one house -_to the king's use_." The Phocæans, detesting slavery, said, "that they -wished for one day to deliberate, and would then give their answer"; but -while they were deliberating they required him to draw off his forces -from the wall. Harpagus said, that "though he well knew their design, -yet he would permit them to consult together." In the interval, then, -during which Harpagus withdrew his army from the wall, the Phocæans -launched their fifty-oared galleys, and having put their wives, -children, and goods on board, together with the images from the temples -and other offerings, except works of bronze or stone, or pictures, they -embarked themselves, and set sail for Chios: and the Persians took -possession of Phocæa, abandoned by all its inhabitants. The Phocæans, -when the Chians refused to sell them the Œnyssæ Islands, for fear they -should become the seat of trade, and their own island be thereby -excluded, directed their course to Cyrnus; where, by the admonition of -an oracle, they had twenty years before built a city, named Alalia. But -Arganthonius was at that time dead. On their passage to Cyrnus, having -first sailed down to Phocæa, they put to death the Persian garrison -which had been left by Harpagus to guard the city. Afterward, when this -was accomplished, they pronounced terrible imprecations on any who -should desert the fleet; besides this, they sunk a mass of red-hot iron, -and swore "that they would never return to Phocæa, till this burning -mass should appear again." Nevertheless, as they were on their way -toward Cyrnus, more than one half of the citizens were seized with -regret and yearning for their city and dwellings in the country, and -violating their oaths, sailed back to Phocæa; but such of them as kept -to their oath weighed anchor and sailed from the Œnyssæ Islands. On -their arrival at Cyrnus they lived for five years in common with the -former settlers: but as they ravaged the territories of all their -neighbors, the Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians combined together to make -war against them, each with sixty ships: and the Phocæans, on their -part, having manned their ships, consisting of sixty in number, met them -in the Sardinian Sea; and having engaged, the Phocæans obtained a kind -of Cadmean victory;[8] for forty of their own ships were destroyed, and -the twenty that survived were disabled, for their prows were blunted. -They therefore sailed back to Alalia, took on board their wives and -children, with what property their ships were able to carry, and leaving -Cyrnus, sailed to Rhegium. As to the men belonging to the ships -destroyed, most of them fell into the hands of the Carthaginians and -Tyrrhenians, who took them on shore and stoned them to death. But -afterward all animals belonging to the Argyllæans that passed by the -spot where the Phocæans who had been stoned lay, became distorted, -maimed, and crippled, as well sheep, as beasts of burden and men. The -Argyllæans, therefore, being anxious to expiate the guilt, sent to -Delphi; and the Pythian enjoined them to use those rites which they -still observe; for they commemorate their death with great magnificence, -and have established gymnastic and equestrian contests. This was the -fate of these Phocæans; but the others, who fled to Rhegium, left that -place, and got possession of the town in the territory of Œnotria, which -is now called Hyela, which they colonized by the advice of a certain -Posidonian, who told them the Pythia had directed them to establish -sacred rites to Cyrnus as being a hero, but not to colonize the island -of that name. - -The Teians also acted nearly in the same manner as the Phocæans. For -when Harpagus by means of his earth-works had made himself master of -their walls, they all went on board their ships, and sailed away to -Thrace, and there settled in the city of Abdera; which Timesius of -Clazomenæ having formerly founded, did not enjoy, but was driven out by -the Thracians, and is now honored as a hero by the Teians of Abdera. - -These were the only Ionians who abandoned their country rather than -submit to servitude. The rest, except the Milesians, gave battle to -Harpagus, and as well as those who abandoned their country, proved -themselves brave men, each fighting for his own; but defeated and -subdued, they remained in their own countries, and submitted to the -commands imposed on them. The Milesians, as I have before mentioned, -having made a league with Cyrus, remained quiet. So was Ionia a second -time enslaved, and the islanders, dreading the same fate, made their -submission to Cyrus. When the Ionians were brought into this wretched -condition, and nevertheless still held assemblies at Panionium, I am -informed that Bias of Priene gave them most salutary advice, which, had -they harkened to him, would have made them the most flourishing of all -the Greeks. He advised, "that the Ionians, should sail in one common -fleet to Sardinia, and there build one city for all the Ionians; thus -being freed from servitude, they would flourish, inhabiting the most -considerable of the islands, and governing the rest; whereas if they -remained in Ionia, he saw no hope of recovering their liberty." But -before Ionia was ruined, the suggestion of Thales, the Milesian, who was -of Phœnician extraction, was also good, who advised that the Ionians -should constitute one general council in Teos, which stands in the -centre of Ionia; and that the rest of the inhabited cities should be -governed as independent states. - -Harpagus having subdued Ionia, marched against the Carians, Cannians, -Lycians, Ionians, and Æolians; of whom the Carians were by far the most -famous of all nations in those times. They introduced three inventions -which the Greeks have adopted. For the Carians set the example of -fastening crests upon helmets and of putting devices on shields; they -are also the first who attached handles to shields; until their time all -who used shields carried them without handles, guiding them with -leathern thongs, having them slung round their necks and left shoulders. - -The Lycians were originally sprung from Crete, for in ancient time Crete -was entirely in the possession of barbarians. But a dispute having -arisen between Sarpedon and Minos, sons of Europa, respecting the -sovereign power, when Minos got the upper hand in the struggle, he drove -out Sarpedon with his partisans; and they being expelled came to the -land of Milyas in Asia, and were afterwards joined by Lycus son of -Pandion of Athens, who was likewise driven out by his brother Ægeus, and -came to be called Lycians after him. Their customs are partly Cretan and -partly Carian; but they have one peculiar to themselves, in which they -differ from all other nations: they take their name from their mothers -and not from their fathers; so that if any one asks another who he is, -he will describe himself by his mother's side, and reckon his ancestry -in the female line. And if a free-born woman marry a slave, the children -are accounted of pure birth; but if a man though a citizen, and of high -rank, marry a foreigner, the children are considered low born. - -All Cnidia, except a small space, is surrounded by water; for the -Ceramic gulf bounds it on the north, and on the south the sea by Syme -and Rhodes: now this small space, which is about five stades in breadth, -the Cnidians, wishing to make their territory insular, designed to dig -through, while Harpagus was subduing Ionia. For the whole of their -dominions were within the isthmus; and where the Cnidian territory -terminates toward the continent, there is the isthmus that they designed -to dig through. But, as they were carrying on the work with great -diligence, the workmen appeared to be wounded to a greater extent and in -a more strange manner than usual, both in other parts of the body, and -particularly in the eyes, by the chipping of the rock; they therefore -sent deputies to Delphi to inquire what was the cause of the -obstruction; and, as the Cnidians say, the Pythia answered as follows in -trimeter verse: "Build not a tower on the isthmus, nor dig it through, -for Jove would have made it an island had he so willed." So the Cnidians -desisted from their work, and surrendered without resistance to -Harpagus, as soon as he approached with his army. The Pedasians were -situated inland above Halicarnassus. When any mischief is about to -befall them or their neighbors, the priestess of Minerva has a long -beard: this has three times occurred. These were the only people about -Caria who opposed Harpagus for any time and gave him much trouble, by -fortifying a mountain called Lyda. After some time, however, they were -subdued. The Lycians, when Harpagus marched his army toward the Xanthian -plain, went out to meet him, and engaging with very inferior numbers, -displayed great feats of valor. But being defeated and shut up within -their city, they collected their wives, children, property, and servants -within the citadel, and then set fire to it and burnt it to the ground. -When they had done this, and engaged themselves by the strongest oaths, -all the Xanthians went out and died fighting. Of the modern Lycians, who -are said to be Xanthians, all, except eighty families, are strangers; -but these eighty families happened at the time to be away from home and -so survived. Thus Harpagus got possession of Xanthus and Caunia almost -in the same manner; for the Caunians generally followed the example of -the Lycians. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE CONQUEST OF ASSYRIA AND THE WAR WITH THE MASSAGETÆ. - - -While Harpagus was reducing the lower parts of Asia, Cyrus had conquered -the upper parts, subduing every nation without exception. The greatest -parts of these I shall pass by without notice; but I will make mention -of those which gave him most trouble, and are most worthy of being -recorded. - -Assyria contains many large cities, the most renowned and the strongest -of which, where the seat of government was established after the -destruction of Nineveh, was Babylon, which is of the following -description. The city stands in a spacious plain, and is quadrangular, -and shows a front on every side of one hundred and twenty stades [15 -miles]; these stades make up the sum of four hundred and eighty in the -whole circumference. It was adorned in a manner surpassing any city we -are acquainted with. In the first place, a moat deep, wide, and full of -water, runs entirely round it; next, there is a wall fifty royal cubits -in breadth [about 84 feet], and in height two hundred [270 feet], but -the royal cubit is larger than the common one by three fingers' breadth. -And here I think I ought to explain how the earth, taken out of the -moat, was consumed, and in what manner the wall was built. As they dug -the moat they made bricks of the earth that was taken out; and when they -had moulded a sufficient number they baked them in kilns. Then making -use of hot asphalt for cement, and laying wattled reeds between the -thirty bottom courses of bricks, they first built up the sides of the -moat, and afterward the wall itself in the same manner; and on the top -of the wall, at the edges, they built dwellings of one story, fronting -each other, having spaces between these dwellings wide enough to turn a -chariot with four horses. In the circumference of the wall there were a -hundred gates, all of bronze, as also were the posts and lintels. Eight -days' journey from Babylon [200 miles] stands another city, called Is, -on a small river of the same name, which discharges its stream into the -Euphrates; this river brings down with its water many lumps of bitumen, -from which the bitumen used in the wall of Babylon was taken. The city -consists of two divisions, for the Euphrates, separates it in the -middle: this river, which is broad, deep, and rapid, flows from Armenia, -and falls into the Red Sea. The wall on either bank has an elbow carried -down to the river; and thence along the curvatures of each bank runs a -wall of baked bricks. The city itself, which is full of houses three and -four stories high, is cut up into straight streets running at right -angles to each other. At the end of each street a little gate is formed -in the wall along the river side, in number equal to the streets; and -they are all made of bronze, and lead down to the edge of the river. -This outer wall is the chief defence, but another wall runs round -within, not much inferior to the other in strength, though narrower. In -the middle of each division of the city fortified buildings were -erected; in one, the royal palace, with a spacious and strong enclosure, -bronze-gated; and in the other, the precinct of Jupiter Belus, which in -my time was still in existence, a square building of two stades [¼ of a -mile] on every side. In the midst of this precinct is built a solid -tower of one stade both in length and breadth, and on this tower rose -another, and another upon that, to the number of eight. And there is an -ascent to these outside, running spirally round all the towers. About -the middle of the ascent there is a landing-place and seats on which -those who go up may rest themselves; and in the uppermost tower stands a -spacious temple, handsomely furnished, and in it a large couch, with a -table of gold by its side. No statue has been erected within it, but as -the Chaldæans, who are priests of this deity, assert, though I cannot -credit what they say, the god himself comes to the temple and reclines -on the bed, in the same manner as the Egyptians say happens at Thebes in -Egypt. - -There is also another temple below, within the precinct at Babylon; in -it is a large golden statue of Jupiter seated, and near it a great table -of gold; the throne also and the step are of gold, which together weigh -eight hundred talents [twenty-two tons], as the Chaldæans affirm. -Outside the temple is a golden altar; and another large altar, where -full-grown sheep are sacrificed; for on the golden altar only sucklings -may be offered. On the great altar the Chaldæans consume yearly a -thousand talents [twenty-seven tons] of frankincense when they celebrate -the festival of this god. There was also at that time within the -precincts of this temple a statue of solid gold, twelve cubits high -[eighteen feet]; I, indeed, did not see it, but only relate what is said -by the Chaldæans. Darius, son of Hystaspes, formed a design to take away -this statue, but dared not do so; but Xerxes, son of Darius, took it, -and killed the priest who forbade him to remove it. - -There were many others who reigned over Babylon, whom I shall mention in -my Assyrian history, who beautified the walls and temples, and amongst -them were two women. The first of these, named Semiramis, lived five -generations before the other; she raised mounds along the plain, which -are worthy of admiration; for before, the river used to overflow the -whole plain like a sea. But the other, who was queen next after her, and -whose name was Nitocris, (and she was much more sagacious than the other -queen,) in the first place left monuments of herself, which I shall -presently describe; and in the next place, when she saw the power of the -Medes growing formidable and restless, and that, among other cities, -Nineveh was captured by them, she took every possible precaution for her -own defence. First of all, the River Euphrates, which before ran in a -straight line, and which flows through the middle of the city, by having -channels dug above, she made so winding, that in its course it touched -three times at one and the same village in Assyria, called Arderica: and -to this day, those who go from our sea to Babylon, if they travel by the -Euphrates, come three times to this village on three successive days. -She also raised on either bank of the river a mound, astonishing for its -magnitude and height. At a considerable distance above Babylon, she had -a reservoir for a lake dug, carrying it out some distance from the -river, and in the depth digging down to water, and in width making its -circumference of four hundred and twenty stades [about fifty-two and a -half miles]: she consumed the soil from this excavation by heaping it up -on the banks of the river, and when it was completely dug, she had -stones brought and built a casing to it all round. She had both these -works done, the river made winding, and the whole excavation a lake, in -order that the current, being broken by frequent turnings, might be more -slow, and the navigation to Babylon tedious, and that after the voyage, -a long march round the lake might follow. All this was done in that part -of the country where the approach to Babylon is nearest, and where is -the shortest way for the Medes; in order that the Medes might not, by -holding intercourse with her people, become acquainted with her affairs. -She enclosed herself, therefore, with these defences by digging, and -immediately afterwards made the following addition. As the city -consisted of two divisions, which were separated by the river, during -the reign of former kings, when any one had occasion to cross from one -division to the other, he was obliged to cross in a boat: and this, in -my opinion, was very troublesome: she therefore provided for this, for -after she had dug the reservoir for the lake, she left this other -monument built by similar toil. She had large blocks of stone cut, and -when they were ready and the place was completely dug out, she turned -the whole stream of the river into the place she had dug: while this was -filling, and the ancient channel had become dry, in the first place, she -lined with burnt bricks the banks of the river throughout the city, and -the descents that lead from the gates to the river, in the same manner -as the walls. In the next place, about the middle of the city, she built -a bridge with the stones she had prepared, and bound them together with -plates of lead and iron. Upon these stones she laid, during the day, -square planks of timber, on which the Babylonians might pass over; but -at night these planks were removed, to prevent people from crossing by -night and robbing one another. When the hollow that was dug had become a -lake filled by the river, and the bridge was finished, she brought back -the river to its ancient channel from the lake. - -[Illustration: WINGED HUMAN-HEADED LION.] - -The same queen also contrived the following deception. Over the most -frequented gate of the city she prepared a sepulchre for herself, high -up above the gate itself; and on the sepulchre she had engraved, -SHOULD ANY ONE OF MY SUCCESSORS, KINGS OF BABYLON, FIND HIMSELF IN -WANT OF MONEY, LET HIM OPEN THIS SEPULCHRE, AND TAKE AS MUCH AS HE -CHOOSES; BUT IF HE BE NOT IN WANT, LET HIM NOT OPEN IT; FOR THAT WERE -NOT WELL. This monument remained undisturbed, until the kingdom -fell to Darius; but it seemed hard to Darius that this gate should be of -no use, and that when money was lying there, and this money inviting him -to take it, he should not do so; but no use was made of this gate for -this reason, that a dead body was over the head of any one who passed -through it. He therefore opened the sepulchre, and instead of money, -found only the body, and these words written: HADST THOU NOT BEEN -INSATIABLY COVETOUS, AND GREEDY OF THE MOST SORDID GAIN, THOU WOULDEST -NOT HAVE OPENED THE CHAMBERS OF THE DEAD. - -Cyrus made war against the son of this queen, who bore the name of his -father Labynetus, and had the empire of Assyria. Now when the great king -leads his army in person, he carries with him from home well prepared -provisions and cattle; and he takes with him water from the river -Choaspes, which flows past Susa, of which alone, the king drinks. A -great number of four-wheeled carriages drawn by mules carry the water of -this river, after it has been boiled in silver vessels, and follow him -from place to place wherever he marches. Cyrus, in his march against -Babylon, arrived at the river Gyndes, whose fountains are in the -Matianian mountains, and which flows through the land of the Dardanians, -and falls into another river, the Tigris; the latter, flowing by the -city of Opis, discharges itself into the Red Sea. When Cyrus was -endeavoring to cross this river Gyndes, which can be passed only in -boats, one of the sacred white horses through wantonness plunged into -the stream, and attempted to swim over, but the stream having carried -him away and drowned him, Cyrus was much enraged with the river for this -affront, and threatened to make his stream so weak, that henceforth -women should easily cross it without wetting their knees. After this -menace, deferring his expedition against Babylon, he divided his army -into two parts; and marked out by lines one hundred and eighty channels, -on each side of the river, diverging every way; then having distributed -his army, he commanded them to dig. His design was indeed executed by -the great numbers he employed; but they spent the whole summer in the -work. When Cyrus had avenged himself on the river Gyndes, by -distributing it into three hundred and sixty channels, and the second -spring began to shine, he then advanced against Babylon. But the -Babylonians, having taken the field, awaited his coming; and when he had -advanced near the city, the Babylonians gave battle, and, being -defeated, were shut up in the city. But as they had been long aware of -the restless spirit of Cyrus, and saw that he attacked all nations -alike, they had laid up provisions for many years; and therefore were -under no apprehensions about a siege. On the other hand, Cyrus found -himself in difficulty, since much time had elapsed, and his affairs were -not at all advanced. Whether therefore some one else made the suggestion -to him in his perplexity, or whether he himself devised the plan, he had -recourse to the following stratagem. Having stationed the bulk of his -army near the passage of the river where it enters Babylon, and again -having stationed another division beyond the city, where the river makes -its exit, he gave orders to his forces to enter the city as soon as they -should see the stream fordable. Having thus stationed his forces, and -given these directions, he himself marched away with the ineffective -part of his army; and coming to the lake, Cyrus did the same with -respect to the river and the lake as the queen of the Babylonians had -done. For having diverted the river, by means of a canal, into the lake, -which was before a swamp, he made the ancient channel fordable by the -sinking of the river. When this took place, the Persians who were -appointed to that purpose close to the stream of the river, which had -now subsided to about the middle of a man's thigh, entered Babylon by -this passage. If, however, the Babylonians had been aware of it -beforehand, or had known what Cyrus was about, they would not have -suffered the Persians to enter the city, but would have utterly -destroyed them; for having shut all the little gates that lead down to -the river, and mounting the walls that extend along the banks of the -river, they would have caught them as in a net; whereas the Persians -came upon them by surprise. It is related by the people who inhabited -this city, that on account of its great extent, when they who were at -the extremities were taken, those of the Babylonians who inhabited the -centre knew nothing of the capture (for it happened to be a festival) -but they were dancing at the time, and enjoying themselves, till they -received certain information of the truth. Thus was Babylon taken for -the first time.[9] - -How great was the power of the Babylonians, I can prove by many other -circumstances, and especially by the following. The whole territory over -which the great king reigns, is divided into districts for the purpose -of furnishing subsistence for him and his army, in addition to the usual -tribute; of the twelve months in the year, the Babylonian territory -provides him with subsistence for four, and all the rest of Asia for the -remaining eight; so that the territory of Assyria amounts to a third -part of the power of all Asia, and the government of this region, which -the Persians call a satrapy, is remunerative; since it yielded a full -artabe of silver every day to Tritæchmes son of Artabazus, who held this -district from the king: the artabe is a Persian measure, containing -three Attic chœnices more than the Attic medimnus [or about twelve and a -half gallons]. And he had a private stud of horses, in addition to those -used in war, of eight hundred stallions, and sixteen thousand mares. He -kept, too, such a number of Indian dogs, that four considerable towns in -the plain were exempted from all other taxes and appointed to find food -for the dogs. Such were the advantages accruing to the governor of -Babylon. The land of Assyria is but little watered by rain, only enough -in fact to nourish the root of the corn; the stalk grows up, and the -grain comes to maturity only by being irrigated from the river, not, as -in Egypt, by the river overflowing the fields, but by the hand and by -engines. The Babylonian territory, like Egypt, is intersected by canals; -and the largest of these is navigable, stretching in the direction of -the winter sunrise[10]; and it extends from the Euphrates to another -river, the Tigris, on which the city of Nineveh stood. This is, of all -lands with which we are acquainted, by far the best for the growth of -corn: but it does not carry produce trees of any kind, either the fig, -or the vine, or the olive; yet it is so fruitful in the produce of corn, -that it yields continually two hundred-fold, and when it produces its -best, it yields even three hundred-fold. The blades of wheat and barley -grow there to fully four fingers (three inches) in breadth; and though I -well know to what a height millet and sesama grow, I shall not mention -it; for I am well assured, that to those who have never been in the -Babylonian country, what has been said concerning its productions will -appear to many incredible. They use no other oil than such as is drawn -from sesama. They have palm-trees growing all over the plain; most of -these bear fruit from which they make bread, wine, and honey. They also -tie the fruit of that which the Greeks call the male palm, about those -trees that bear dates, in order that the fly entering the date may ripen -it, lest otherwise the fruit may fall before maturity; for the male -palms have flies in the fruit, just like wild fig-trees. - -The most wonderful thing of all, next to the city itself, is what I am -now going to describe: their vessels that sail down the river to Babylon -are circular, and made of leather. For when they have cut the ribs out -of willows that grow in Armenia above Babylon, they cover them with -hides extended on the outside, by way of a bottom; not making any -distinction in the stern, nor contracting the prow, but making them -circular like a buckler; then having lined this vessel throughout with -reeds, they suffer it to be carried down by the river freighted with -merchandise, chiefly casks of palm-wine. The vessel is steered by two -spars, held by two men standing upright, one of whom draws his spar in -and the other thrusts his out. Some of these vessels are made very -large, and others of a smaller size; but the largest of them carry a -cargo of five thousand talents [about one hundred and thirty-five tons]. -Every vessel has a live ass on board, and the larger ones more. For -after they arrive at Babylon, and have disposed of their freight, they -sell the ribs of the boat and all the reeds by public auction; then -having piled the skins on the asses, they return by land to Armenia, for -it is not possible by any means to sail up the river because of the -rapidity of the current: and for this reason they make their vessels of -skins and not of wood, and upon their return to Armenia with their -asses, they construct other vessels in the same manner. For their dress, -they wear a linen tunic that reaches down to the feet; over this they -put another garment of wool, and over all a short white cloak; they have -sandals peculiar to the country, very much like the Bœotian clogs. They -wear long hair, binding their heads with turbans, and anoint the whole -body with perfumes. Every man has a seal, and a staff curiously wrought; -and on every staff is carved either an apple, a rose, a lily, an eagle, -or something of the kind; for it is not allowable to wear a stick -without a device. - -Many curious customs prevail amongst them. This, in my opinion, is the -wisest, which I hear the Venetians, of Illyria, also practise. Once a -year, in every village, whatever maidens are of a marriageable age, they -collect together and bring in a body to one place; around them gathers a -crowd of men. Then a crier having made them stand up one by one, offers -them for sale, beginning with the most beautiful; and when she has been -sold for a large sum, he puts up another who is next in beauty. They are -sold on condition that they shall be married. Such men among the -Babylonians as are rich and desirous of marrying, bid against one -another, and purchase the handsomest. But such of the lower classes as -are desirous of marrying, do not require a beautiful form, but are -willing to take the plainer damsels with a sum of money. So when the -crier has finished selling the handsomest of the maidens, he makes the -ugliest stand up, or one that is a cripple, and puts her up to auction, -for the person who will marry her with the smallest sum, until she is -knocked down to the man who offers to take the least. This money is that -obtained from the sale of the handsome maidens; so that the beautiful -ones portion out the ugly and the crippled. A father is not allowed to -give his daughter in marriage to whom he pleases, nor can a purchaser -carry off a maiden without security; but he is first obliged to give -security that he will certainly marry her, and then he may take her -away. If they do not agree, a law has been enacted that the money shall -be repaid. It is also lawful for any one who pleases to come from -another village and purchase. They have also this other custom, second -only to the former in wisdom. They bring their sick to the market-place, -for they have no physicians; then those who pass by the sick person -confer with him about the disease, to discover whether they have -themselves been afflicted with the same disease, or have seen others so -afflicted. They then advise him to have recourse to the same treatment -as that by which they escaped a similar disease, or have known to cure -others. And no one passes by a sick person in silence, without inquiring -into the nature of his distemper. They embalm their dead in honey, and -their funeral lamentations are like those of the Egyptians. - -There are three tribes among them that eat nothing but fish; these, when -they have taken and dried them in the sun, they treat in the following -manner: they put them into a mortar, and having pounded them with a -pestle, sift them through a fine cloth; then, whoever pleases, kneads -them into a cake, or bakes them like bread. - -When Cyrus had conquered this nation, he was anxious to reduce the -Massagetæ to subjection. This nation is said to be both powerful and -valiant, dwelling toward the east and the rising sun beyond the river -Araxes, over against the Issedonians; there are some who say that this -nation is Scythian. The Araxes is reported by some persons to be -greater, by others less, than the Ister; they say that there are many -islands in it, some nearly equal in size to Lesbos; and that in them are -men, who during the summer feed upon all manner of roots, which they dig -out of the ground; and that they store up for food ripe fruits which -they find on the trees, and feed upon these during the winter. They add, -that they have discovered other trees that produce fruit of a peculiar -kind, which the inhabitants, when they meet together in companies, and -have lighted a fire, throw on it, as they sit around in a circle; and -that, inhaling the fumes of the burning fruit that has been thrown on, -they become intoxicated by the odor, just as the Greeks do by wine; and -that the more fruit is thrown on, the more intoxicated they become, -until they rise up to dance and betake themselves to singing. The river -Araxes flows from the Matienian mountains, whence also springs the river -Gyndes, which Cyrus distributed into the three hundred and sixty -trenches; and it gushes out from forty springs, all of which, except -one, discharge themselves into fens and swamps, in which it is said men -live who feed on raw fish, and clothe themselves in the skins of -sea-calves; but the one stream of the Araxes flows through an -unobstructed channel into the Caspian Sea. The Caspian is a sea by -itself, having no communication with any other sea; for the whole of -that which the Greeks navigate, and that beyond the Pillars, called the -Atlantic, and the Red Sea, are all one. But the Caspian is a separate -sea of itself; being in length a fifteen-days' voyage for a rowing boat; -and in breadth, where it is widest, an eight-days' voyage. On the -western shore of this sea stretches the Caucasus, which is in extent the -largest, and in height the loftiest, of all mountains; it contains -within itself many various nations of men, who for the most part live -upon the produce of wild fruit-trees. In this country, it is said, there -are trees which produce leaves of such a nature, that by rubbing them -and mixing them with water the people paint figures on their garments; -these figures do not wash out, but grow old with the wool, as if they -had been woven in from the first. East of the Caspian is a plain in -extent unbounded in the prospect. A great portion of this extensive -plain is inhabited by the Massagetæ, against whom Cyrus resolved to make -war; for the motives that urged and incited him to this enterprise were -many and powerful: first of all his birth, which he thought was -something more than human; and secondly, the good fortune which had -attended him in his wars; for wherever Cyrus directed his arms, it was -impossible for that nation to escape. - -A woman whose husband was dead, was queen of the Massagetæ; her name was -Tomyris; and Cyrus sent ambassadors under pretence of wooing her, and -made her an offer of marriage. But Tomyris, being aware that he was not -wooing her, but the kingdom of the Massagetæ, forbade their approach. -Upon this Cyrus, perceiving his artifice ineffectual, marched to the -Araxes, and openly prepared to make war on the Massagetæ, by throwing -bridges over the river, and building turrets on the boats which carried -over his army. While he was employed in this work Tomyris sent a herald -to him with this message: "King of the Medes, desist from your great -exertions; for you cannot know if they will terminate to your advantage; -and having desisted, reign over your own dominions, and bear to see me -governing what is mine. But if you will not attend to my advice, and -prefer every thing before peace; in a word, if you are very anxious to -make trial of the Massagetæ, toil no longer in throwing a bridge over -the river; but do you cross over to our side, while we retire three -days' march from the river; or if you had rather receive us on your -side, do you the like." When Cyrus heard this proposal, he called a -council of the principal Persians, laid the matter before them, and -demanded their opinion as to what he should do: they unanimously advised -him to let Tomyris pass with her army into his territory. But Crœsus the -Lydian, who was present and disapproved this advice, delivered a -contrary opinion to that which was put forward, and said: "O king, I -assured you long ago, that since Jupiter delivered me into your hands, I -would to the utmost of my power avert whatever misfortune I should see -impending over your house; and my own calamities,[11] sad as they are, -have been lessons to me. If you think yourself immortal, and that you -command an army that is so too, it is needless for me to make known to -you my opinion. But if you know that you too are a man, and that you -command such as are men, learn this first of all, that there is a wheel -in human affairs, which, continually revolving, does not suffer the same -persons to be always successful. My opinion touching the matter before -us is wholly at variance with that already given. For if we shall -receive the enemy into this country, there is danger that if you are -defeated, you will lose, besides, your whole empire; for it is plain -that if the Massagetæ are victorious, they will not flee home again, but -will march upon your territories: and if you are victorious, your -victory is not so complete as if, having crossed over into their -territory, you should conquer the Massagetæ and put them to flight; for -then you can march directly into the dominions of Tomyris. It is a -disgrace too that Cyrus the son of Cambyses should give way and retreat -before a woman. My opinion, therefore, is, that you should pass over and -advance as far as they retire; and then, by the following stratagem, -endeavor to get the better of them. I hear the Massagetæ are -unacquainted with the Persian luxuries, and are unused to the comforts -of life. Suppose then that you cut up and dress an abundance of cattle, -and lay out a feast in our camp for these men; and besides, bowls of -unmixed wine without stint; then leave the weakest part of your army -behind, while the rest return again toward the river; for the Massagetæ, -if I mistake not, when they see so much excellent fare, will turn to -immediately, and after that there remains for us the display of mighty -achievements." - -Cyrus approved the suggestions of Crœsus and bade Tomyris retire, as he -would cross over to her. She accordingly retired, as she had promised. -Cyrus placed Crœsus in the hands of his son Cambyses, to whom he also -intrusted the kingdom, and having strictly charged him to honor Crœsus, -and treat him well in case his inroad on the Massagetæ should fail, sent -them back to Persia and crossed the river with his army. When he had -passed the Araxes, and night came on, he saw a vision, as he was -sleeping in the country of the Massagetæ. He fancied that he saw the -eldest son of Hystaspes with wings on his shoulders; and that with one -of these he overshadowed Asia, and with the other Europe. Now Darius, -who was then about twenty years of age, was the eldest son of Hystaspes, -son of Arsames, one of the Achæmenides; and he had been left in Persia, -for he had not yet attained the age of military service. When Cyrus -awoke he considered his dream with attention; and as it seemed to him of -great moment, he summoned Hystaspes, and taking him aside, said: -"Hystaspes, your son has been detected plotting against me and my -empire; and I will show you how I know it for a certainty. The gods -watch over me and forewarn me of every thing that is about to befall me. -Now, last night, as I was sleeping, I saw the eldest of your sons with -wings on his shoulders, and with one of these he overshadowed Asia, and -Europe with the other; from this vision, it cannot be otherwise than -that your son is forming designs against me; do you therefore go back to -Persia with all speed, and take care, that when I have conquered these -people and return home, you bring your son before me to be examined." -Cyrus spoke thus under a persuasion that Darius was plotting against -him; but the deity forewarned him that he himself would die in that very -expedition, and that his kingdom would devolve on Darius. Hystaspes, -however, answered in these words: "God forbid, O king, that a Persian -should be born who would plot against you! But if any such there be, may -sudden destruction overtake him, for you have made the Persians free -instead of being slaves, and instead of being ruled over by others to -rule over all; but if any vision informs you that my son is forming any -plot against you, I freely surrender him to you to deal with as you -please." And Hystaspes repassed the Araxes and went to Persia, for the -purpose of keeping his son Darius in custody for Cyrus. - -[Illustration: SEPULCHRAL VASES.] - -Cyrus having advanced one day's march from the Araxes, proceeded to act -according to the suggestion of Crœsus. After this, when Cyrus and the -effective part of the Persian army had marched back to the Araxes, -leaving the ineffective part behind, a third division of the army of the -Massagetæ attacked those of Cyrus' forces that had been left behind, -and, after some resistance, put them to death. Then, seeing the feast -laid out, as soon as they had overcome their enemies they lay down and -feasted; and being filled with food and wine, fell asleep. Then the -Persians attacked them, and put many of them to death, and took a still -greater number prisoners, among them the son of Queen Tomyris, who -commanded the Massagetæ, and whose name was Spargapises. When she heard -what had befallen her army and her son, she sent a herald to Cyrus with -the following message: "Cyrus, insatiate with blood, be not elated with -what has now happened, that by the fruit of the vine, with which ye -yourselves, when filled with it, so rave, that when it descends into -your bodies, evil words float on your lips; be not elated, that by such -a poison you have deceived and conquered my son, instead of by prowess -in battle. But take the good advice that I offer you. Restore my son; -depart out of this country unpunished for having insolently disgraced a -third division of the army of the Massagetæ. But if you will not do -this, I swear by the sun, the Lord of the Massagetæ, that, insatiable as -you are, I will glut you with blood." Cyrus, however, paid no attention -to this message; but Spargapises, the son of Queen Tomyris, as soon as -he recovered from the effects of the wine, and perceived in what a -plight he was, begged of Cyrus that he might be freed from his fetters; -and as soon as he was set free, and found his hands at liberty, he put -himself to death. But Tomyris, finding Cyrus did not listen to her, -assembled all her forces, and engaged with him. I think that this battle -was the most obstinate that was ever fought between barbarians. First of -all, they stood at a distance and used their bows; afterward, when they -had emptied their quivers, they engaged in close fight with their swords -and spears, and thus they continued fighting for a long time, and -neither was willing to give way; but at length the Massagetæ got the -better, and the greater part of the Persian army was cut in pieces on -the spot, and Cyrus himself was killed, after he had reigned twenty-nine -years. Tomyris filled a skin with human blood, sought for the body of -Cyrus among the slain of the Persians, and thrust the head into the -skin, and insulting the dead body, said: "Thou hast indeed ruined me -though alive and victorious in battle, since thou hast taken my son by -stratagem; but I will now glut thee with blood, as I threatened." Of the -many accounts given of the end of Cyrus, this appears to me most worthy -of credit. - -The Massagetæ resemble the Scythians in their dress and mode of living; -they have both horse and foot bow-men, and javelin-men, who are -accustomed to carry battle-axes: they use gold and bronze for every -thing; for in whatever concerns spears, and arrow-points, and -battle-axes, they use bronze; but the head, and belts, and -shoulder-pieces, are ornamented with gold. In like manner with regard to -the chest of horses, they put on breastplates of bronze; but the -bridle-bit and cheek-pieces are ornamented with gold. They make no use -of silver or iron, for neither of those metals are found in their -country, but they have bronze and gold in abundance. Their manners are -as follows: when a man has attained a great age, all his kinsmen meet, -and sacrifice him, together with cattle of several kinds; and when they -have boiled the flesh, they feast on it. This death they account the -most happy; but they do not eat the bodies of those who die of disease; -but bury them in the earth, and think it a great misfortune that they -did not reach the age to be sacrificed. They sow nothing, but live on -cattle, and fish which the river Araxes yields in abundance, and they -are drinkers of milk. They worship the sun only of all the gods, and -sacrifice horses to him; and they assign as the reason of this custom -that they think it right to offer the swiftest of all animals to the -swiftest of all the gods. - -[1] Under the name "barbarians" the Greeks included all who were not -sprung from themselves—all who did not speak the Greek language. - -[2] Syria was at that time the name of Cappadocia, as Herodotus himself -elsewhere states. - -[3] It is generally agreed that the name of Lycurgus's nephew was not -Leobotas, but Charilaus. See the life of Lycurgus in the "Boys' and -Girls' Plutarch." - -[4] There is a Scriptural account of Ecbatana, in the Apocrypha. Judith -i 1-4. - -[5] Major Robinson states that the seven colors described by Herodotus, -are those employed by the Orientals, to denote the seven planetary -bodies. - -[6] Several passages of our author seem to prove that Herodotus wrote -other histories than those which have come down to us. Elsewhere in this -book he speaks of his Assyrian history; and the second of the Libyan. - -[7] Tartessus was situated between the two branches of the Bœtis, now -the Guadalquiver. - -[8] A proverbial expression signifying "that the victors suffered more -than the vanquished." - -[9] It was again taken by Darius; see end of Book III. - -[10] That is, southeast. - -[11] These words "pathemata mathemata" seem to have been a proverb in -the Greek. - -[Illustration: ÆGYPTUS] - - - - -_BOOK II. EUTERPE._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -PHYSICAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. - - -After the death of Cyrus, Cambyses succeeded to the kingdom. He was son -of Cyrus, and Cassandane the daughter of Pharnaspes; she having died -some time before, Cyrus deeply mourned for her himself, and commanded -all his subjects to mourn. Cambyses then considered the Ionians and -Æolians as his hereditary slaves, and when he made an expedition against -Egypt, he took with him some of the Greeks over whom he bore rule. - -The Egyptians, before the reign of Psammitichus, considered themselves -to be the most ancient of mankind. But after Psammitichus came to the -throne, he endeavored to ascertain who really were the most ancient, and -from that time they have considered the Phrygians to have been an older -race than themselves. When Psammitichus was unable, by inquiry, to -discover any solution of the question, who were the most ancient of men, -he devised this expedient. He gave two new-born children of poor parents -to a shepherd, to be brought up among his flocks, with strict orders -that no one should utter a word in their presence, that they should lie -in a solitary room by themselves, and that the shepherd should bring -goats' milk to them at certain times, and listen to discover what word -the children would first articulate, after they had given over their -insignificant mewlings. When the shepherd had pursued this plan for the -space of two years, one day as he opened the door and went in, both the -children fell upon him, and holding out their hands, cried "Becos." At -first the shepherd said nothing; but as this same word was repeated to -him whenever he went and tended the children, he at length acquainted -his master, and by his command brought the children into his presence. -When Psammitichus heard it he inquired what people call any thing by the -name of "Becos"; and discovered that the Phrygians call bread by that -name. So the Egyptians, convinced by the experiment, allowed that the -Phrygians were more ancient than themselves. This relation I had from -the priests of Vulcan at Memphis. But the Greeks tell many other foolish -things, among them, that Psammitichus, having had the tongues of some -women cut out, had the children brought up by them. - -The Egyptians were the first to discover the year, which they divided -into twelve parts, making this discovery from the stars; and so, I -think, they act more wisely than the Greeks, who insert an intercalary -month every third year, on account of the seasons; while the Egyptians, -reckoning twelve months of thirty days each, add five days each year -above that number, so that the circle of the seasons comes round to the -same point. They say also, that the Egyptians were the first who -introduced the names of the twelve gods, and that the Greeks borrowed -those names from them; that they were the first to assign altars, -images, and temples to the gods, and to carve the figures of animals on -stone. They add that Menes was the first mortal who reigned over Egypt, -and that in his time all Egypt, except the district of Thebes, was a -morass, and that no part of the land that now exists below Lake Myris -was then above water; to this place from the sea is a seven-days' -passage up the river. It is evident to a man of common understanding, -who sees it, that the part of Egypt which the Greeks frequent with their -shipping, is land reclaimed by the Egyptians, and a gift from the river; -for when you are at the distance of a day's sail from land, if you cast -the lead you will bring up mud, yet find yourself in eleven fathoms of -water; showing the immense alluvial deposit. - -[Illustration: THE TWO GREAT PYRAMIDS AT THE TIME OF THE INUNDATION.] - -The length of Egypt along the sea-coast is sixty schœni (450 miles) from -the Plinthinetic Bay to Lake Serbonis, near which Mount Casius -stretches. Men who are short of land measure their territory by fathoms; -those who have some possessions, by stades; those who have much, by -parasangs; and such as have a very great extent, by schœni. A parasang -is equal to thirty stades, and each schœnus, which is an Egyptian -measure, is equal to sixty stades. So the whole coast of Egypt is three -thousand six hundred stades in length. As far as Heliopolis, inland, -Egypt is wide, flat, without water, and a swamp. The distance to -Heliopolis, as one goes up from the sea, is about equal in length to the -road from Athens—that is to say, from the altar of the twelve gods,—to -Pisa and the temple of Olympian Jupiter, or about fifteen hundred -stades. From Heliopolis upward Egypt is narrow, for on one side the -table-land of Arabia extends from north to south and southwest, -stretching up continuously to that which is called the Red Sea. In this -plateau are the stone quarries which were cut for the pyramids at -Memphis. Where its length is the greatest, I have heard that it is a -two-months' journey from east to west; and that eastward its confines -produce frankincense. On that side of Egypt which borders upon Libya -extends another rocky table-land covered with sand, on which the -pyramids stand, stretching in the same direction as that part of the -Arabian mountain that runs southward. - -The greater part of all this country, as the priests informed me, has -been reclaimed by the Egyptians from the sea and the marshes. For the -space beyond the city of Memphis seems to me to have been formerly a bay -of the sea; as is the case also with the parts about Ilium, Teuthrania, -Ephesus, and the plain of the Mæander, if I may be permitted to compare -small things with great. There are other rivers not equal in size to the -Nile, which have wrought great works; amongst them one of the most -remarkable is the Achelous which, flowing through Acarnania, and falling -into the sea, has already converted one half of the Echinades islands -into a continent. There is in the Arabian territory, not far from Egypt, -branching from the Red Sea, a bay of the sea of such a length that the -voyage, from the innermost part of this bay to the broad sea, occupies -forty days for a vessel with oars; but the width, where the bay is -widest, only half a day's passage, and in it an ebb and flow takes place -daily; and I am of opinion that Egypt was formerly a similar bay; this -stretching from the Northern Sea toward Ethiopia; and the Arabian Bay, -which I am describing, from the south toward Syria; and that they almost -perforated their recesses so as to meet each other, overlapping to some -small extent. Now, if the Nile were to turn its stream into this Arabian -gulf, what could hinder it from being filled with soil by the river -within twenty thousand years?—for my part, I think it would be filled -within ten thousand. How, then, in the time that has elapsed before I -was born, might not even a much greater bay than this have been filled -up by such a great and powerful river? I therefore give credit to those -who relate these things concerning Egypt, when I see that Egypt projects -beyond the adjoining land; that shells are found on the mountains; that -a saline humor forms on the surface so as even to corrode the pyramids; -and that this mountain which is above Memphis is the only one in Egypt -that abounds in sand: add to which, that Egypt, in its soil, is neither -like Arabia or its confines, nor Libya, nor Syria, but is black and -crumbling, as if it were mud and alluvial deposit, brought down by the -river from Ethiopia; whereas we know that the earth of Libya is reddish, -and somewhat more sandy; and that of Arabia and Syria is clayey and -flinty. - -The priests relate that in the reign of Mœris, when the river rose at -least eight cubits, it irrigated all Egypt below Memphis; and yet Mœris -had not been nine hundred years dead when I received this information. -But now, unless the river rises sixteen cubits, or fifteen at least, it -does not overflow the country. It appears to me, therefore, that if the -soil continues to grow in height, in the same proportion, those -Egyptians below Lake Mœris, who inhabit other districts than that which -is called Delta, must, by reason of the Nile not overflowing their land, -for ever suffer the same calamity which they used to say the Greeks -would suffer from. For hearing that all the lands of Greece were watered -by rain, and not by rivers, as their own was, they said "that the Greeks -at some time or other would suffer miserably from famine." But let me -state how the matter stands with the Egyptians themselves: if, as I said -before, the land below Memphis should continue to increase in height in -the same proportion as it has done in time past, what else will happen -but that the Egyptians who inhabit this part will starve, if their land -shall neither be watered by rain, nor the river be able to inundate the -fields? Now, indeed, they gather in the fruits of the earth with less -labor than any other people, for they have not the toil of breaking up -the furrows with the plough, nor of hoeing, nor of any other work which -all other men must labor at to obtain a crop of corn; but when the river -has come of its own accord and irrigated their fields, and again -subsided, then each man sows his own land and turns swine into it; and -when the seed has been trodden in by the swine, he waits for -harvest-time; then he treads out the corn with his swine, and gathers it -in. - -All Egypt, beginning from the cataracts and the city of Elephantine, is -divided into two parts, and partakes of both names; one belongs to -Libya, and the other to Asia. The Nile, beginning from the cataracts, -flows to the sea, dividing Egypt in the middle. Now, as far as the city -of Cercasorus, the Nile flows in one stream; but from that point it is -divided into three channels. That which runs eastward is called the -Pelusiac mouth; another of the channels bends westward, and is called -the Canopic mouth; but the direct channel of the Nile is the following: -descending from above, it comes to the point of the Delta, where it -divides the Delta in the middle, and discharges itself into the sea, -supplying by this channel, not by any means the least quantity of water, -nor the least renowned; this is called the Sebennytic mouth. There are -also two other mouths, that diverge from the Sebennytic and flow into -the sea,—the Saitic, and the Mendesian. The Bolbitine and Bucolic mouths -are not natural, but artificial. The Nile, when full, inundates not only -Delta, but also part of the country said to belong to Libya and Arabia, -to the extent of about two days' journey on each side. - -At the summer solstice it fills and overflows for a hundred days; then -falls short in its stream, and retires; so that it continues low all the -winter, until the return of the summer solstice. In parts of Ethiopia, -out of which the Nile flows, the inhabitants become black from the -excessive heat; kites and swallows continue there all the year; and the -cranes, to avoid the cold of Scythia, migrate to these parts as -winter-quarters. - -[Illustration: NILE BOAT.] - -With respect to the sources of the Nile, no man of all the Egyptians, -Libyans, or Greeks with whom I have conversed, ever pretended to know -any thing; except the registrar of Minerva's treasury at Sais in Egypt. -But even he seemed to be trifling with me, when he said he knew -perfectly well. His account was: "That there are two mountains rising -into a sharp peak, situated between the cities of Syene and Elephantine; -the names of these mountains are Crophi and Mophi. The sources of the -Nile, which are bottomless, flow from between these mountains, and half -of the water flows north over Egypt, and the other half to the southward -over Ethiopia. That the fountains of the Nile are bottomless, he said, -Psammitichus, king of Egypt, proved by experiment; for he twisted a line -many thousand fathoms in length and let it down, but could not find a -bottom." In my opinion, this simply proves that there are strong -whirlpools and an eddy here; so that the water beating against the -rocks, a sounding-line, when let down, cannot reach the bottom. As you -ascend the river above the city of Elephantine, the country is so steep -that it is necessary to attach a rope on both sides of a boat as you do -with an ox in a plough, and so proceed; but if the rope should happen to -break, the boat is carried away by the force of the stream. This kind of -country lasts for a four-days' passage (or eighty miles), and the Nile -here winds as much as the Mæander. After that you come to a level plain, -where the Nile flows round an island named Tachompso. Ethiopians inhabit -the country immediately above Elephantine, and one half of the island; -the other half is inhabited by Egyptians. Near to this island lies a -vast lake, on the borders of which Ethiopian nomads dwell; after sailing -through this lake, you come to the channel of the Nile, which flows into -it: then you have to land and travel forty days by the side of the -river, for sharp rocks rise in the Nile, and there are many sunken ones, -through which it is not possible to navigate a boat; you then must go on -board another boat, and sail for twelve days; and will at last arrive at -a large city called Meroe: this city is said to be the capital of all -Ethiopia. The inhabitants worship no other gods than Jupiter and -Bacchus; but these they honor with great magnificence; they have also an -oracle of Jupiter; and they make war, whenever that god bids them by an -oracular warning, and against whatever country he bids them. Sailing -from this city, you will arrive at the country of the Automoli, in a -space of time equal to that which you took in coming from Elephantine to -the capital of the Ethiopians. These Automoli are called by the name of -Asmak, which in the language of Greece signifies, "those that stand at -the left hand of the king." These, to the number of two hundred and -forty thousand of the Egyptian war-tribe, once revolted to the -Ethiopians, whose king made them the following recompense. There were -certain Ethiopians disaffected toward him; he bade them expel these, and -take possession of their land; by the settlement of these men among -them, the Ethiopians became more civilized, and learned the manners of -the Egyptians. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -RELIGION, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, DRESS, AND ANIMALS OF THE EGYPTIANS. - - -Egypt possesses more wonders than any other country, and exhibits works -greater than can be described, in comparison with all other regions; -therefore more must be said about it. The Egyptians besides having a -peculiar climate and a river differing in its nature from all other -rivers, have adopted customs and usages in almost every respect -different from the rest of mankind. Amongst them the women attend -markets and traffic, but the men stay at home and weave. Other nations, -in weaving, throw the wool upward; the Egyptians, downward. The men -carry burdens on their heads; the women, on their shoulders. No woman -can serve the office for any god or goddess; but men are employed for -both offices. Sons are not compelled to support their parents unless -they choose, but daughters are compelled to do so, whether they choose -or not. In other countries the priests of the gods wear long hair; in -Egypt they have it shaved. With other men it is customary in mourning -for the nearest relations to have their heads shorn; the Egyptians, on -occasions of death, let the hair grow both on the head and face, though -till then shaven. Other men feed on wheat and barley, but it is a very -great disgrace for an Egyptian to make food of them; but they make bread -from spelt, which some call zea. They knead the dough with their feet; -but mix clay with their hands. Every man wears two garments; the women, -but one. Other men fasten the rings and sheets of their sails outside; -but the Egyptians, inside. The Greeks write and cipher, moving the hand -from left to right; but the Egyptians, from right to left: and doing so, -they say they do it right-ways, and the Greeks left-ways. They have two -sorts of letters, one of which is called sacred, the other common. - -They are of all men the most excessively attentive to the worship of the -gods, and observe the following ceremonies: They drink from cups of -bronze, which they scour every day. They wear linen garments, constantly -fresh-washed, thinking it better to be clean than handsome. The priests -shave their whole body every third day, that no impurity may be found -upon them when engaged in the service of the gods. The priests wear -linen only, and shoes of byblus, and are not permitted to wear any other -garments, or other shoes. They wash themselves in cold water twice every -day and twice every night, and use a great number of ceremonies. On the -other hand, they enjoy no slight advantages, for they do not consume or -expend any of their private property; but sacred food is cooked for -them, and a great quantity of beef and geese is allowed each of them -every day, with wine from the grape; but they must not taste of fish. -Beans the Egyptians do not sow at all in their country, nor do they eat -those that happen to grow there. The priests abhor the sight of that -pulse, accounting it impure. The service of each god is performed, not -by one, but by many priests, of whom one is chief; and, when one of them -dies, his son is put in his place. The male kine they deem sacred to -Epaphus, and to that end prove them in the following manner: If the -examiner finds one black hair upon him, he adjudges him to be unclean; -one of the priests appointed for this purpose makes this examination, -both when the animal is standing up and lying down; and he draws out the -tongue, to see if it is pure as to the prescribed marks, which I shall -mention in another part of my history. He also looks at the hairs of his -tail, to see whether they grow naturally. If the beast is found pure in -all these respects, he marks it by rolling a piece of byblus round the -horns, and then having put on it some sealing earth, he impresses it -with his signet; and so they drive him away. Any one who sacrifices one -that is unmarked is punished with death. The established mode of -sacrifice is this: they lead the victim, properly marked, to the altar -where they intend to sacrifice, and kindle a fire; then having poured -wine upon the altar, near the victim, they invoke the god, and kill it; -then cut off the head, and flay the body of the animal. Having -pronounced many imprecations on the head, they who have a market and -Greek merchants dwelling amongst them, carry it there and sell it; but -those who have no Greeks amongst them throw it into the river; and they -pronounce the following imprecations on the head: "If any evil is about -to befall either those that now sacrifice, or Egypt in general, may it -be averted on this head." But a different mode of disembowelling and -burning the victims prevails in different sacrifices. The practice with -regard to the goddess whom they consider the greatest, and in whose -honor they celebrate the most magnificent festival, is this: When they -have flayed the bullocks, having first offered up prayers, they take out -all the intestines, and leave the vitals with the fat in the carcass: -they then cut off the legs and the extremity of the hip, with the -shoulders and neck, and fill the body of the bullock with fine bread, -honey, raisins, figs, frankincense, myrrh, and other perfumes, and burn -it, pouring on it a great quantity of oil. They sacrifice after they -have fasted; and while the sacred things are being burnt, they all beat -themselves; after which they spread a banquet of what remains of the -victims. - -All the Egyptians sacrifice the pure male kine and calves, but they are -not allowed to sacrifice the females, for they are sacred to Isis; the -image of Isis is made in the form of a woman with the horns of a cow, as -the Greeks represent Io; and all Egyptians alike pay a far greater -reverence to cows than to any other cattle. No Egyptian man or woman -will kiss a Greek on the mouth; or use the knife, spit, or cauldron of a -Greek, or taste of the flesh of a pure ox that has been divided by a -Greek knife. They bury the kine that die in the following manner: The -females they throw into the river, and the males they inter in the -suburbs, with one horn, or both, appearing above the ground, for a mark. -When it is putrified, and the appointed time arrives, a raft comes to -each city from the island called Prosopitis, in the Delta, which is nine -schœni in circumference. Now in this island Prosopitis there are several -cities; but that from which the rafts come to take away the bones of the -oxen, is called Atarbechis; in it a temple of Venus has been erected. -From this city then many persons go about to other towns; and having dug -up the bones, carry them away, and bury them in one place; and they bury -all other cattle that die in the same way that they do the oxen; for -they do not kill any of them. All those who have a temple erected to -Theban Jupiter, or belong to the Theban district, abstain from sheep, -and sacrifice goats only. For the Egyptians do not all worship the same -gods in the same manner, except Isis and Osiris, who, they say, is -Bacchus. On the other hand, those who frequent the temple of Mendes, and -belong to the Mendesian district, abstain from goats, and sacrifice -sheep. The Thebans say that this custom was established among them in -the following way: that Hercules was very desirous of seeing Jupiter, -but Jupiter was unwilling to be seen by him; at last, however, as -Hercules persisted, Jupiter flayed a ram, cut off the head, and held it -before himself, and then having put on the fleece, showed himself to -Hercules. From this circumstance the Egyptians make the image of Jupiter -with a ram's face; and the Ammonians, who are a colony of Egyptians and -Ethiopians, and who speak a language between both, have adopted the same -practice; and, as I conjecture, the Ammonians thus derived their name, -for the Egyptians call Jupiter, Ammon. The Thebans then do not sacrifice -rams, being for this reason accounted sacred by them; on one day in the -year, however, at the festival of Jupiter, they kill and flay one ram, -put it on this image of Jupiter, and bring an image of Hercules to it; -then all who are in the temple beat themselves in mourning for the ram, -and bury him in a sacred vault. - -Of this Hercules I have heard that he is one of the twelve gods; but of -the other Hercules, who is known to the Greeks, I could never hear in -any part of Egypt. That the Egyptians did not derive the name of -Hercules from the Greeks, but rather the Greeks from the Egyptians, I -have many proofs to show. The parents of this Hercules, Amphitryon and -Alcmene, were both of Egyptian descent, and the Egyptians say they do -not know the names of Neptune and the Dioscuri, yet if they had derived -the name of any deity from the Greeks, they would certainly have -mentioned these above all others, since even at that time they made -voyages, and some of the Greeks were sailors. But Hercules is one of the -ancient gods of the Egyptians; and they say themselves it was seventeen -thousand years before the reign of Amasis, when the number of their gods -was increased from eight to twelve, of whom Hercules was accounted one. -Being desirous of obtaining certain information from whatever source I -could, I sailed to Tyre in Phœnicia, having heard that there was there a -temple dedicated to Hercules; and I saw it richly adorned with a great -variety of offerings, and in it were two pillars, one of fine gold, the -other of emerald stone, both shining exceedingly at night. Conversing -with the priests of this god, I inquired how long this temple had been -built, and I found that they did not agree with the Greeks. For they -said that the temple was built at the time when Tyre was founded, and -that two thousand three hundred years had elapsed since the foundation -of Tyre. In this city I also saw another temple dedicated to Hercules by -the name of Thasian; I went therefore to Thasos, and found there a -temple of Hercules built by the Phœnicians, who founded Thasos, when -they sailed in search of Europa, and this occurred five generations -before Hercules the son of Amphitryon appeared in Greece. The researches -then that I have made evidently prove that Hercules is a god of great -antiquity, and therefore those Greeks appear to me to have acted most -correctly, who have built two kinds of temples sacred to Hercules, and -who sacrifice to one as an immortal, under the name of Olympian, and -paid honor to the other as a hero. The Mendesians pay reverence to all -goats; at the death of a he-goat public mourning is observed throughout -the whole Mendesian district. - -The Egyptians consider the pig to be an impure beast, and therefore if a -man in passing by a pig should touch him only with his garments, he -forthwith goes to the river and plunges in; and in the next place, -swineherds, although native Egyptians, are the only men who are not -allowed to enter any of their temples; neither will any man give his -daughter in marriage to one of them, nor take a wife from among them; -but the swineherds intermarry among themselves. The Egyptians do not -think it right to sacrifice swine to any deities but the moon and -Bacchus. In this sacrifice of pigs to the moon, when the sacrificer has -slain the victim, he puts together the tip of the tail, with the spleen -and the caul, covers them with the fat found about the belly of the -animal, and consumes them with fire: the rest of the flesh they eat -during the full moon in which they offer the sacrifices; but on no other -day would any one even taste it. The poor amongst them, through want of -means, form pigs of dough, and having baked them, offer them in -sacrifice. - -Whence each of the gods sprung, whether they existed always, and of what -form they were, was, so to speak, unknown till yesterday. For I am of -opinion that Hesiod and Homer lived four hundred years before my time, -and not more, and these were they who framed a theogony for the Greeks, -and gave names to the gods, and assigned to them honors and arts, and -declared their several forms. - -The Egyptians were also the first who introduced public festivals, -processions, and solemn supplications; and the Greeks learned these from -them. The Egyptians hold public festivals several times in a year; that -which is best and most rigidly observed is in the city of Bubastis, in -honor of Diana; the second, in the city of Busiris, is in honor of Isis; -the largest temple of Isis is in this city, in the middle of the -Egyptian Delta. Isis is in the Grecian language called Demeter. The -third festival is held at Sais, in honor of Minerva; the fourth, at -Heliopolis, in honor of the sun; the fifth, at the city of Buto, in -honor of Latona; the sixth, at the city of Papremis, in honor of Mars. -When they are assembled at the sacrifice, in the city of Sais, they all -on a certain night kindle a great number of lamps in the open air, -around their houses; the lamps are flat vessels filled with salt and -oil, the wick floats on the surface and burns all night; hence the -festival is named "the lighting of lamps." The Egyptians who do not come -to this public assembly observe the rite of sacrifice, and all kindle -lamps, not only in Sais, but throughout all Egypt. - -Egypt, though bordering on Libya, does not abound in wild beasts; but -all that they have are accounted sacred. Superintendents, consisting -both of men and women, are appointed to feed every kind separately; and -the son succeeds the father in this office. All the inhabitants of the -cities perform their vows to the superintendents. Having made a vow to -the god to whom the animal belongs, they shave either the whole heads of -their children, or a half, or a third part of the head, and then weigh -the hair in a scale against silver, and whatever the weight may be, they -give to the superintendent of the animals; she in return cuts up some -fish, and gives it as food to the animals; such is the usual mode of -feeding them. Should any one kill one of these beasts, if wilfully, -death is the punishment; if by accident, he pays such fine as the -priests choose to impose. But whoever kills an ibis or a hawk, whether -wilfully or by accident, must necessarily be put to death. When a -conflagration takes place, a supernatural impulse seizes on the cats. -The Egyptians, standing at a distance, take care of the cats, and -neglect to put out the fire; but the cats often make their escape, leap -over the men, and throw themselves into the fire; when this happens -great lamentations are made among the Egyptians. In whatever house a cat -dies of a natural death, all the family shave their eyebrows; but if a -dog die, they shave the whole body and the head. All cats that die are -carried to certain sacred houses, where they are first embalmed, and -then buried in the city of Bubastis. All persons bury their dogs in -sacred vaults within their own city; and ichneumons are buried in the -same manner as the dogs; but field-mice and hawks they carry to the city -of Buto; the ibis to Hermopolis; the bears, which are few in number, and -the wolves, which are not much larger than foxes, they bury wherever -they are found lying. - -[Illustration: THE TROCHILUS.] - -This is the nature of the crocodile:—During the four coldest months it -eats nothing, and though it has four feet, it is amphibious. It lays its -eggs on land, and there hatches them. It spends the greater part of the -day on the dry ground, but the whole night in the river; for the water -is then warmer than the air and dew. Of all living things with which we -are acquainted, this, from the least beginning, grows to be the largest. -For it lays eggs little larger than those of a goose, and the young is -at first in proportion to the egg; but when grown up it reaches to the -length of seventeen cubits (25½ feet), and even more. It has the eyes of -a pig, large teeth, and projecting tusks: it is the only animal that has -no tongue: it does not move the lower jaw, but is the only animal that -brings down its upper jaw to the under one. It has strong claws, and a -skin covered with scales, that cannot be broken on the back. It is blind -in the water, but very quick-sighted on land; and because it lives for -the most part in the water, its mouth is filled with leeches. All other -birds and beasts avoid him, but he is at peace with the trochilus, -because he receives benefit from that bird. For when the crocodile gets -out of the water on land, and then opens its jaws, which it does most -commonly toward the west, the trochilus enters its mouth and swallows -the leeches: the crocodile is so well pleased with this service that it -never hurts the trochilus. With some of the Egyptians crocodiles are -sacred; with others not, but they treat them as enemies. Those who dwell -about Thebes, and Lake Mœris consider them to be very sacred; and they -each of them train up a crocodile, which is taught to be quite tame; and -put crystal and gold ear-rings into their ears, and bracelets on their -fore paws; they give them appointed and sacred food, and treat them as -well as possible while alive, and when dead they embalm them, and bury -them in sacred vaults. But the people who dwell about the city of -Elephantine eat them, not considering them sacred. They are not called -crocodiles by the Egyptians, but "champsæ"; the Ionians gave them the -name of crocodiles, because they thought they resembled lizards, which -are also so called, and which are found in the hedges of their country. -The modes of taking the crocodile are many and various, but I shall only -describe that which seems to me most worthy of relation. When the -fisherman has baited a hook with the chine of a pig, he lets it down -into the middle of the river, and holding a young live pig on the brink -of the river, beats it; the crocodile, hearing the noise, goes in its -direction, and meeting with the chine, swallows it, and the men draw it -to land; when it is drawn out on shore, the sportsman first of all -plasters its eyes with mud, after which he manages it very easily; but -until he has done this, he has a great deal of trouble. The hippopotamus -is esteemed sacred in the district of Papremis, but not so by the rest -of the Egyptians. It is a quadruped, cloven-footed, with the hoofs of an -ox, snub-nosed, has the mane of a horse, projecting tusks, and the tail -and neigh of a horse. In size he is equal to a very large ox: his hide -is so thick that spear-handles are made of it when dry. Otters are also -met with in the river, which are deemed sacred; and amongst fish, they -consider that which is called the lepidotus, and the eel, sacred; these -they say are sacred to the Nile; and among birds, the vulpanser. - -[Illustration: SPEARING THE CROCODILE.] - -There is also another sacred bird, called the phœnix, which I have never -seen except in a picture; for it makes its appearance amongst them only -once in five hundred years, as the Heliopolitans affirm: they say that -it comes on the death of its sire. If he is like the picture, he is of -the following size and description: the plumage of his wings is partly -golden-colored, and partly red; in outline and size he is like an eagle. -They tell this incredible story about him:—They say that he comes from -Arabia, and brings the body of his father, enclosed in myrrh, to the -temple of the sun, and there buries him in the temple. He brings him in -this manner: first he moulds an egg of myrrh as large as he thinks -himself able to carry; then he tries to carry it, and when he has made -the experiment, he hollows out the egg, puts his parent into it, and -stops up with some more myrrh the hole through which he introduced the -body, so when his father is put inside, the weight is the same as -before; then he carries him to the temple of the sun in Egypt. - -In the neighborhood of Thebes there are sacred serpents not at all -hurtful to men: they are diminutive in size, and carry two horns that -grow on the top of the head. When these serpents die they bury them in -the temple of Jupiter, for they say they are sacred to that God. There -is a place in Arabia, situated very near the city of Buto, to which I -went, on hearing of some winged serpents; there I saw bones and spines -of serpents in such quantities as it would be impossible to describe: -there were heaps upon heaps, some large, some smaller, scattered in a -narrow pass between two mountains, which leads into a spacious plain, -contiguous to the plain of Egypt: it is reported that at the beginning -of spring, winged serpents fly from Arabia toward Egypt; but that -ibises, a sort of bird, meet them at the pass, and do not allow the -serpents to go by, but kill them: for this service the Arabians say that -the ibis is highly reverenced by the Egyptians; and the Egyptians -acknowledge it. The ibis is all over a deep black; it has the legs of a -crane, its beak is much curved, and it is about the size of the crex. -Such is the form of the black ones, that fight with the serpents. But -those that are best known, for there are two species, are bare on the -head and the whole neck, have white plumage, except on the head, the -throat, and the tips of the wings and extremity of the tail; in all -these parts they are of a deep black; in their legs and beak they are -like the other kind. The form of the serpent is like that of the -water-snake; but he has wings without feathers, and as like as possible -to the wings of a bat. This must suffice for the description of sacred -animals. - -Of the Egyptians, those who inhabit that part of Egypt which is sown -with corn, cultivate the memory of past events more than any other -people, and are the best-informed men I ever met. Their manner of life -is this: They purge themselves every month for three days successively, -seeking to preserve health by emetics and clysters, for they suppose -that all diseases to which men are subject proceed from the food they -use. And indeed in other respects the Egyptians, next to the Libyans, -are the most healthy people in the world, as I think, on account of the -seasons, because they are not liable to change; for men are most subject -to disease at periods of change, and above all others at the change of -the seasons. They feed on bread made into loaves of spelt, which they -call cyllestis; and they use wine made of barley, for they have no vines -in that country. Some fish they dry in the sun and eat raw, others -salted with brine; and of birds they eat quail, ducks, and smaller birds -raw, salting them first. All other things, whether birds or fishes, that -they have, except such as are accounted sacred, they eat either roasted -or boiled. At their convivial banquets, among the wealthy classes, when -they have finished supper, a man carries round in a coffin the image of -a dead body carved in wood, made as perfect a counterfeit as possible in -color and workmanship, and in size generally about one or two cubits in -length; and showing this to each of the company, he says: "Look upon -this, then drink and enjoy yourself; for when dead you will be like -this." - -They observe their ancient customs and acquire no new ones. Among other -memorable customs they have just one song called "Linus," which is sung -in Phœnicia, Cyprus, and elsewhere; in different nations it bears a -different name, but it agrees almost exactly with the same which the -Greeks sing, under the name of Linus. So that among the many wonderful -things in Egypt, the greatest wonder of all is where they got this -Linus; for they seem to have sung it from time immemorial. The "Linus" -in the Egyptian language is called Maneros; and the Egyptians say that -he was the only son of the first king of Egypt, and that happening to -die prematurely, he was honored by the Egyptians in this mourning dirge, -the first and only song they have. In the following particular the -Egyptians resemble the Lacedæmonians only among all the Greeks: the -young men, when they meet their elders, give way and turn aside; and -rise from their seats when they approach. But, unlike any nation of the -Greeks, instead of addressing one another in the streets, they salute by -letting the hand fall down as far as the knee. They wear linen tunics -fringed round the legs, which they call calasiris, and over these they -throw white woollen mantles; woollen clothes, however, are not carried -into the temples, nor are they buried with them, as this is accounted -profane—agreeing in this respect with the worshippers of Orpheus and -Bacchus, who are Egyptians and Pythagoreans: for they consider it -profane for one who is initiated in these mysteries to be buried in -woollen garments for some religious reason or other. The Egyptians have -discovered more prodigies than all the rest of the world. They have -amongst them oracles of Hercules, Apollo, Minerva, Diana, Mars, and -Jupiter; but that which they honor above all others is the oracle of -Latona in the city of Buto. The art of medicine is divided amongst them -into specialties, each physician applying himself to one disease only. -All places abound in physicians, some for the eyes, others for the head, -others for the teeth, others for cutaneous diseases, and others still -for internal disorders. - -Their manner of mourning and burying is as follows: When a man of any -consideration dies, all the women of that family besmear their heads and -faces with mud, leave the body in the house, and wander about the city, -beating themselves, having their clothes girt up, their neck and breast -exposed, and all their relations accompany them. The men, too, beat -themselves in the same way. When they have done this, they carry out the -body to be embalmed. There are persons who are specially appointed for -this purpose; when the dead body is brought to them, they show to the -bearers wooden models of corpses, skilfully painted to illustrate the -various methods of embalming. They first show the most expensive manner -of embalming; then the second, which is inferior and less expensive; and -lastly, the third and cheapest. The relations stipulate which style they -prefer, agree on the price, and depart. To embalm a body in the most -expensive manner, they first draw out the brains through the nostrils -with an iron hook, perfecting the operation by the infusion of drugs. -Then with a sharp Ethiopian stone they make an incision in the side, and -take out all the bowels; and having cleansed the abdomen and rinsed it -with palm-wine, they next sprinkle it with pounded perfumes. Then they -fill the belly with pure myrrh pounded, and cassia, and other perfumes, -frankincense excepted, and sew it up again; this done, they steep it in -natrum, leaving it under for seventy days; a longer time than which it -is not lawful to steep it. At the expiration of the seventy days they -wash the corpse, and wrap the whole body in bandages of flaxen cloth, -smearing it with gum, which the Egyptians commonly use instead of glue. -After this the relations take the body back again, make a wooden case in -the shape of a man, enclose the body in it, and store it in a sepulchral -chamber, setting it upright against the wall. For those who, to avoid -great expense, desire the middle way, they prepare in the following -manner. Charging syringes with oil made from cedar, they fill the -abdomen of the corpse without making any incision or taking out the -bowels, but inject it at the fundament; and having prevented the -injection from escaping, they steep the body in natrum for the -prescribed number of days, on the last of which they let out from the -abdomen the oil of cedar which has such power that it brings away the -intestines and vitals in a state of dissolution; the natrum dissolves -the flesh, and nothing of the body remains but the skin and the bones. -The operation is then complete. The third method of embalming, which is -used only for the poorer sort, consists in thoroughly rinsing the -abdomen in syrmæa, and steeping it with natrum for the seventy days. -Should any person, whether Egyptian or stranger, be found to have been -seized by a crocodile, or drowned in the river, to whatever city the -body may be carried, the inhabitants are by law compelled to have the -body embalmed, and adorned in the handsomest manner, and buried in the -sacred vaults. Nor is it lawful for any one else, whether relations or -friends, to touch him; but the priests of the Nile bury the corpse with -their own hands, as being something more than human. - -They avoid using Grecian customs; and, in a word, the customs of all -other people whatsoever. - -The Egyptians who dwell in the morasses, have the same customs as the -rest of the Egyptians, and each man has but one wife, like the Greeks. -But to obtain food more easily, they have the following inventions: when -the river is full, and has made the plains like a sea, great numbers of -lilies, which the Egyptians call lotus, spring up in the water: these -they gather and dry in the sun; then having pounded the middle of the -lotus, which resembles a poppy, they make bread of it and bake it. The -root also of this lotus is fit for food, and is tolerably sweet; it is -round, and of the size of an apple. There are also other lilies, like -roses, that grow in the river, the fruit of which is contained in a -separate pod, that springs up from the root in form very much like a -wasp's nest; in this there are many berries fit to be eaten, of the size -of an olive stone, and they are eaten both fresh and dried. The byblus, -an annual plant, is found in the fens. They cut off the top and put it -to some other uses, but the lower part that is left, to the length of a -cubit, they eat and sell. Those who are anxious to eat the byblus -dressed in the most delicate manner, stew it in a hot pan and then eat -it. - -The Egyptians who live about the fens use an oil drawn from the fruit of -the sillicypria, which they call cici: they plant and cultivate these -sillicypria, which in Greece grow spontaneous and wild, on the banks of -the rivers and lakes: under cultivation these bear an abundance of -fruit, though of an offensive smell. Some bruise it and press out the -oil; others boil and stew it, and collect the liquid that flows from it; -this is fat, and no less suited for lamps than olive oil; but it emits a -disgusting smell. They contrive in various ways to protect themselves -from the mosquitoes, which are very abundant. Towers are of great -service to those who inhabit the upper parts of the marshes; for the -mosquitoes are prevented by the winds from flying high: but those who -live round the marshes have contrived another expedient. Every man has a -net, with which in the daytime he takes fish, and at night, in whatever -bed he sleeps, he throws the net around it, and crawls in underneath; if -he should wrap himself up in his clothes or in linen, the mosquitoes -would bite through them, but they never attempt to bite through the net. - -Their ships in which they convey merchandise are made of the acacia, -which in shape is much like the Cyrenæan lotus, and exudes a gum. From -this acacia they cut planks about two cubits in length and join them -together like bricks, building their ships in the following manner: They -fasten the planks of two cubits length round stout and long ties: when -they have thus built the hulls, they lay benches across them. They make -no use of ribs, but caulk the seams inside with byblus. They make only -one rudder, and that is driven through the keel. They use a mast of -acacia, and sails of byblus. These vessels are unable to sail up the -stream unless a fair wind prevails, but are towed from the shore. They -are thus carried down the stream: there is a hurdle made of tamarisk, -wattled with a band of reeds, and a stone with a hole in the middle, of -about two talents in weight; of these two, the hurdle is fastened to a -cable, and let down at the prow of the vessel to be carried on by the -stream; and the stone by another cable at the stern; and by this means -the hurdle, by the stream bearing hard upon it, moves quickly and draws -along "the baris" (for this is the name given to these vessels), but the -stone being dragged at the stern, and sunk to the bottom, keeps the -vessel in its course. They have very many of these vessels, and some of -them carry many thousand talents. When the Nile inundates the country, -the cities alone are seen above its surface, like the islands dotting -the Ægean Sea. When this happens, they navigate no longer by the channel -of the river, but straight across the country. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -GOD-KINGS PRIOR TO MENES. - - -In former time, the priests of Jupiter did to Hecatæus the historian, -when he was tracing his own genealogy, and connecting his family with a -god in the sixteenth degree, the same as they did to me, though I did -not endeavor to trace my genealogy. Conducting me into the interior of a -spacious edifice, and showing me four hundred and forty-five wooden -colossuses, they counted them over; for every high-priest places an -image of himself there during his lifetime; the priests pointed out that -the succession from father to son was unbroken. But when Hecatæus traced -his own genealogy, and connected himself with a god in the sixteenth -degree, they controverted his genealogy by computation, not admitting -that a man could be born from a god; and said that each of the -colossuses was a Piromis, sprung from a Piromis; until they pointed out -the three hundred and forty-five colossuses, each a Piromis, sprung from -a Piromis, and they did not connect them with any god or hero. Piromis -means, in the Grecian language, "a noble and good man." They said that -these were very far from being gods; but before the time of these men, -gods had been the rulers of Egypt, and had dwelt amongst men; and that -one of them always had the supreme power, and that Orus, the son of -Osiris, was the last who reigned over it. Now, Osiris in the Greek -language means Bacchus, and Orus is the equivalent of Apollo. - -All the revenue from the city of Anthylla, which is of much importance, -is assigned to purchase shoes for the wife of the reigning king of Egypt. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -FIRST LINE OF 330 KINGS, ONLY THREE MENTIONED. - - -The priests informed me, that Menes, who first ruled over Egypt, in the -first place protected Memphis by a mound; for the whole river formerly -ran close to the sandy mountain on the side of Libya; but Menes, -beginning about a hundred stades above Memphis, filled in the elbow -toward the south, dried up the old channel, and conducted the river into -a canal, so as to make it flow between the mountains. This bend of the -Nile is still carefully upheld by the Persians, and made secure every -year; for if the river should break through and overflow in this part, -there would be danger lest all Memphis should be flooded. When the part -cut off had been made firm land by this Menes, who was first king, he -built on it the city that is now called Memphis; and outside of it he -excavated a lake from the river toward the north and the west; for the -Nile itself bounds it toward the east. In the next place, they relate -that he built in it the temple of Vulcan, which is vast and well worthy -of mention. After this the priests enumerated from a book the names of -three hundred and thirty other kings. In so many generations of men, -there were eighteen Ethiopians and one native queen, the rest were -Egyptians. The name of this woman who reigned, was the same as that of -the Babylonian queen, Nitocris: they said that she avenged her brother, -whom the Egyptians had slain, while reigning over them. After they had -slain him, they delivered the kingdom to her; and she, to avenge him, -destroyed many of the Egyptians by this stratagem: she caused an -extensive apartment to be made underground, and pretended that she was -going to consecrate it, then inviting those of the Egyptians whom she -knew to have been principally concerned in the murder, she gave them a -great banquet, and in the midst of the feast let in the river upon them, -through a large concealed channel. Of the other kings they did not say -that they were in any respect renowned, except the last, Mœris; he -accomplished some memorable works, as the portal of Vulcan's temple, -facing the north wind; and dug a lake, and built pyramids in it, the -size of which I shall mention when I come to speak of the lake itself. - -[Illustration: HEAD OF RAMESES II.] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -FROM SESOSTRIS TO SETHON. - - -I shall next mention king Sesostris. The priests said that he was the -first who, setting out in ships of war from the Arabian Gulf, subdued -those nations that dwell by the Red Sea. - -There are also in Ionia two images of this king, carved on rocks, one on -the way from Ephesia to Phocæa, the other from Sardis to Smyrna. In both -places a man is carved, four cubits and a half high, holding a spear in -his right hand, and a bow in his left, and the rest of his equipment in -unison, for it is partly Egyptian and partly Ethiopian; from one -shoulder to the other across the breast extend sacred Egyptian -characters engraved, which have the following meaning: "I ACQUIRED -THIS REGION BY MY OWN SHOULDERS." - -The priests tell a yarn of this Egyptian Sesostris, that returning and -bringing with him many men from the nations whose territories he had -subdued, when he arrived at the Pelusian Daphnæ, his brother, to whom he -had committed the government of Egypt, invited him to an entertainment, -and his sons with him, and caused wood to be piled up round the house -and set on fire: but that Sesostris, being informed of this, immediately -consulted with his wife, for he had taken his wife with him; she advised -him to extend two of his six sons across the fire, and form a bridge -over the burning mass, and that the rest should step on them and make -their escape. Sesostris did so, and two of his sons were in this manner -burned to death, but the rest, together with their father, were saved. -Sesostris having returned to Egypt, and taken revenge on his brother, -employed the multitude of prisoners whom he brought from the countries -he had subdued in many remarkable works: these were the men who drew the -huge stones which, in the time of this king, were conveyed to the temple -of Vulcan; they, too, were compelled to dig all the canals now seen in -Egypt; and thus by their involuntary labor made Egypt, which before was -throughout practicable for horses and carriages, unfit for these -purposes. But the king intersected the country with this network of -canals for the reason that such of the Egyptians as occupied the inland -cities, being in want of water when the river receded, were forced to -use a brackish beverage unfit to drink, which they drew from wells. They -said also that this king divided the country amongst all the Egyptians, -giving an equal square allotment to each; and thence drew his revenues -by requiring them to pay a fixed tax every year; if the river happened -to take away a part of any one's allotment, he was to come to him and -make known what had happened; whereupon the king sent persons to inspect -and measure how much the land was diminished, that in future he might -pay a proportionate part of the appointed tax. Land-measuring appears to -me to have had its beginning from this act, and to have passed over into -Greece; for the pole [12] and the sundial, and the division of the day -into twelve parts, the Greeks learned from the Babylonians. This king -was the only Egyptian that ever ruled over Ethiopia; he left as -memorials in front of Vulcan's temple statues of stone: two of thirty -cubits, of himself and his wife; and four, each of twenty cubits, of his -sons. A long time after, the priest of Vulcan would not suffer Darius -the Persian to place his statue before them, saying, "that deeds had not -been achieved by him equal to those of Sesostris the Egyptian: for -Sesostris had subdued other nations, not fewer than Darius had done, and -the Scythians besides; but that Darius was not able to conquer the -Scythians; wherefore it was not right for one who had not surpassed him -in achievements to place his statue before his offerings." They relate, -however, that Darius pardoned these observations. - -[Illustration: BUST OF THOTHMES I.] - -After the death of Sesostris, his son Pheron succeeded to the kingdom; -he undertook no military expedition, and happened to become blind -through the following occurrence: the river having risen to a very great -height for that time, eighteen cubits, it overflowed the fields, a storm -of wind arose, and the river was tossed about in waves; whereupon they -say that the king with great arrogance laid hold of a javelin, and threw -it into the midst of the eddies of the river; and that immediately -afterward he was seized with a pain in his eyes, and became blind. He -continued blind for ten years; but in the eleventh, having escaped from -this calamity, he dedicated offerings throughout all the celebrated -temples, the most worthy of mention being two stone obelisks to the -temple of the sun, each consisting of a single block of granite, and -each a hundred cubits in length and eight cubits in breadth. - -A native of Memphis succeeded him in the kingdom, whose name in the -Grecian language is Proteus; there is to this day an enclosure sacred to -him at Memphis, which is very beautiful and richly adorned, situated to -the south side of the temple of Vulcan. The priests told me that when -Paris had carried Helen off from Sparta, violent winds drove him out of -his course in the Ægean into the Egyptian Sea, and from there (for the -gale did not abate) he came to Egypt, and in Egypt to that which is now -called the Canopic mouth of the Nile. - -[Illustration: PARIS CARRYING AWAY HELEN.] - -And Homer appears to me to have heard this relation; but as it was not -so well suited to epic poetry as the other which he has made use of, he -rejected it. He has told in the Iliad the wanderings of Paris; how, -while he was carrying off Helen, he was driven out of his course, and -wandered to other places, and how he arrived at Sidon of Phœnicia; and -in the exploits of Diomede, his verses are as follows: "Where were the -variegated robes, works of Sidonian women, which god-like Paris himself -brought from Sidon, sailing over the wide sea, along the course by which -he conveyed high-born Helen."[13] He mentions it also in the Odyssey, in -the following lines: "Such well-chosen drugs had the daughter of Jove, -of excellent quality, which Polydamna gave her, the Egyptian wife of -Thonis, where the fruitful earth produces many drugs, many excellent -when mixed, and many noxious."[14] Menelaus also says the following to -Telemachus: "The gods detained me in Egypt, though anxious to return -hither, because I did not offer perfect hecatombs to them."[15] He shows -in these verses, that he was acquainted with the wandering of Paris in -Egypt; for Syria borders on Egypt, and the Phœnicians, to whom Sidon -belongs, inhabit Syria. From these verses, and this first passage -especially, it is clear that Homer was not the author of the Cyprian -verses, but some other person. For in the Cyprian verses it is said, -that Paris reached Ilium from Sparta on the third day, when he carried -off Helen, having met with a favorable wind and a smooth sea; whereas -Homer in the Iliad says that he wandered far while taking her with him. - -Rhampsinitus succeeded Proteus in the kingdom: He left as a monument the -portico of the temple of Vulcan, fronting to the west; and erected two -statues before the portico, twenty-five cubits high. Of these, the one -standing to the north the Egyptians call Summer; and that to the south, -Winter: and the one that they call Summer, they worship and do honor to; -but the one called Winter, they treat in a quite contrary way. - -This king, they said, possessed a great quantity of money, such as no -one of the succeeding kings was able to attain. Wishing to treasure up -his wealth in safety, he built a chamber of stone, one of the walls of -which adjoined the outside of the palace. But the builder, forming a -plan against it, devised the following contrivance; he fitted one of the -stones so that it might be easily taken out by two men, or even one. -When the chamber was finished, the king laid up his treasures in it; in -the course of time the builder, finding his end approaching, called his -two sons to him, and described to them how he had provided when he was -building the king's treasury that they might have abundant sustenance; -and having clearly explained to them every thing relating to the removal -of the stone, he gave them its dimensions, and told them, if they would -observe his instructions, they would be stewards of the king's riches. -He died, and the sons were not long in applying themselves to the work; -coming by night to the palace, they found the stone in the building, -easily removed it, and carried off a great quantity of treasure. When -the king happened to open the chamber, he was astonished at seeing the -vessels deficient in treasure; but was not able to accuse any one, as -the seals were unbroken, and the chamber well secured. When on opening -it two or three times, the treasures were always evidently diminished -(for the thieves did not cease plundering), he adopted the following -plan: he ordered traps to be made, and placed them round the vessels in -which the treasures were. But when the thieves came as before, and one -of them had entered, as soon as he went near a vessel, he was -straightway caught in the trap; perceiving, therefore, in what a -predicament he was, he immediately called to his brother, and told him -what had happened, and bade him enter as quick as possible, and cut off -his head, lest, if he was seen and recognized, he should ruin him also: -the other thought that he spoke well, and did as he was advised; then, -having fitted in the stone, he returned home, taking with him his -brother's head. When day came, the king entered the chamber, and was -astonished at seeing the body of the thief in the trap without the head, -but the chamber secure, and without any means of entrance or exit. In -this perplexity he contrived another plan: he hung up the body of the -thief on a public wall, and having placed sentinels there, ordered them -to seize and bring before him whomsoever they should see weeping or -expressing commiseration at the spectacle. The mother was greatly -grieved at the body being suspended, and coming to words with her -surviving son, commanded him, by any means he could, to contrive how he -might take down and bring away the corpse of his brother; and if he -should neglect to do so, she threatened to go to the king, and inform -him that he had the treasures. Having got some asses, and filled some -skins with wine, he put them on the asses, and then drove them along; -but when he came near the sentinels that guarded the suspended corpse, -he drew out two or three of the necks of the skins that hung down, and -loosened them; and, as the wine ran out, he beat his head, and cried out -aloud, as if he knew not to which of the asses he should turn first. The -sentinels, when they saw wine flowing in abundance, ran into the road, -with vessels in their hands, caught the wine that was being spilt, -thinking it all their own gain; but the man, feigning anger, railed -bitterly against them all; however, as the sentinels soothed him, he at -length pretended to be pacified; and at last drove his asses out of the -road, and set them to rights again. When more conversation passed, and -one of the sentinels joked with him and set him laughing, he gave them -another of the skins; and they, just as they were, lay down and set to -to drink, and invited him to stay and drink with them. He was persuaded, -and remained with them; and as they treated him kindly during the -drinking, he gave them another of the skins; and the sentinels, having -taken very copious draughts, became royally drunk, and, overpowered by -the wine, fell asleep on the spot. Then he took down the body of his -brother, and having by way of insult shaved the right cheeks of all the -sentinels, laid the corpse on the asses, and drove home, having -performed his mother's injunctions. The king, upon being informed that -the body of the thief had been stolen, was exceedingly indignant, but -being unable by any means to find out the contriver of this artifice, he -grew so astonished at the shrewdness and daring of the man, that at -last, sending throughout all the cities, he caused a proclamation to be -made, offering a free pardon, and promising great reward to the man, if -he would discover himself. The thief, relying on this promise, went to -the king's palace; and Rhampsinitus greatly admired him, and gave him -his daughter in marriage, accounting him the most knowing of all men; -for while the Egyptians were superior to all others, he was superior to -the Egyptians. - -After this, they said that this king descended alive into the place -which the Greeks call Hades, and there played at dice with Ceres, and -sometimes won, and other times lost; and that he came up again and -brought with him as a present from her a napkin of gold. Any person to -whom such things appear credible may adopt the accounts given by the -Egyptians; it is my object, however, throughout the whole history, to -write what I hear from each people. The Egyptians say that Ceres and -Bacchus hold the chief sway in the infernal regions; and the Egyptians -were also the first who asserted the doctrine that the soul of man is -immortal, and that when the body perishes the soul enters into some -other animal, constantly springing into existence; and when it has -passed through the different kinds of terrestrial, marine, and aërial -beings, it again enters into the body of a man that is born; and that -this revolution is made in three thousand years. - -[Illustration: BES AND HI.] - -Now, they told me that down to the reign of Rhampsinitus there was a -perfect distribution of justice, and that all Egypt was in a high state -of prosperity; but that after him Cheops, coming to reign over them, -plunged into every kind of wickedness. For, having shut up all the -temples, he first of all forbade them to offer sacrifice, and afterward -ordered all the Egyptians to work for him; some, accordingly, were -appointed to draw stones from the quarries in the Arabian mountain down -to the Nile, others he ordered to receive the stones when transported in -vessels across the river, and to drag them to the mountain called the -Libyan. And they worked to the number of a hundred thousand men at a -time, each party during three months. The time during which the people -were thus harassed by toil lasted ten years on the road which they -constructed, along which they drew the stones, a work, in my opinion, -not much less than the pyramid: for its length is five stades, and its -width ten orgyæ, and its height, where it is the highest, eight orgyæ; -and it is of polished stone, with figures carved on it: ten years, then, -were expended on this road, and in forming the subterraneous apartments -on the hill, on which the pyramids stand, which he had made as a burial -vault for himself, in an island, formed by draining a canal from the -Nile. Twenty years were spent in erecting the pyramid itself: of this, -which is square, each face is eight plethra, and the height is the same; -it is composed of polished stones, and joined with the greatest -exactness; none of the stones are less than thirty feet in length. This -pyramid was built in the form of steps, which some call crosssæ, others -bomides. When they had first built it in this manner, they raised the -stones for covering the surface by machines made of short pieces of -wood: having lifted them from the ground to the first range of steps, -when the stone arrived there it was put on another machine that stood -ready on the first range; from this it was drawn to the second range on -another machine; for the machines were equal in number to the ranges of -steps; or they removed the machine, which was only one, and portable, to -each range in succession, whenever they wished to raise the stone -higher; for I should relate it in both ways, as it was related to me. -The highest parts of it were first finished, and last of all the parts -on the ground. On the pyramid is shown an inscription, in Egyptian -characters, how much was expended in radishes, onions, and garlic for -the workmen; which the interpreter, as I well remember, reading the -inscription, told me amounted to one thousand six hundred talents of -silver. If this be really the case, how much more was probably expended -in iron tools, in bread, and in clothes for the laborers, since they -occupied in building the works the time which I mentioned, and no short -time besides, as I think, in cutting and drawing the stones, and in -forming the subterraneous excavation. It is related that Cheops in his -cruelty subjected his daughter to every sort of disgrace, but she -contrived to leave a monument of herself, and asked every one that she -met to give her a stone toward the edifice she designed: of these stones -they said the pyramid was built that stands in the middle of the three, -before the great pyramid, each side of which is a plethron and a half in -length. The Egyptians say that this Cheops reigned fifty years; and when -he died, his brother Chephren succeeded to the kingdom; and he followed -the same practices as the other, both in other respects, and in building -a pyramid. This does not come up to the dimensions of his brother's, for -I myself measured them; nor has it subterraneous chambers; nor does a -channel from the Nile flow to it, as to the other; but this flows -through an artificial aqueduct round an island within, in which they say -the body of Cheops is laid. Having laid the first course of variegated -Ethiopian stones, less in height than the other by forty feet, he built -it near the large pyramid. They both stand on the same hill, which is -about a hundred feet high. Chephren, they said, reigned fifty-six years. -Thus one hundred and six years are reckoned, during which the Egyptians -suffered all kinds of calamities, and for this length of time the -temples were never opened. From the hatred they bear them the Egyptians -are not very willing to mention their names; but call the pyramids after -Philition, a shepherd, who at that time kept his cattle in those parts. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT PYRAMID, WITHOUT THE SURFACE STONE.] - -They said that after him, Mycerinus, son of Cheops, reigned over Egypt; -that the conduct of his father was displeasing to him; and that he -opened the temples, and permitted the people, who were worn down to the -last extremity, to return to their employments, and to sacrifices; and -that he made the most just decisions of all their kings. On this -account, of all the kings that ever reigned in Egypt, they praise him -most, for he both judged well in other respects, and moreover, when any -man complained of his decision, he used to make him some present out of -his own treasury and pacify his anger. To this beneficent Mycerinus, the -beginning of misfortunes was the death of his daughter, who was his only -child; whereupon he, extremely afflicted, and wishing to bury her in a -more costly manner than usual, caused a hollow wooden image of a cow to -be made and covered with gold, into which he put the body of his -deceased daughter. This cow was not interred in the ground, but even in -my time was exposed to view in the city of Sais, placed in the royal -palace, in a richly furnished chamber. They burn near it all kinds of -aromatics every day, and a lamp is kept burning by it throughout each -night. - -The cow is covered with a purple cloth, except the head and the neck, -which are overlaid with very thick gold; and the orb of the sun imitated -in gold is placed between the horns. The cow is kneeling; in size equal -to a large, living cow. - -[Illustration: SECTION OF THE GREAT PYRAMID.] - -After the loss of his daughter, a second calamity befell this king: an -oracle reached him from the city of Buto, importing, "that he had no -more than six years to live, and should die in the seventh." Thinking -this very hard, he sent a reproachful message to the god, complaining, -"that his father and uncle, who had shut up the temples, and paid no -regard to the gods, and moreover had oppressed men, had lived long; -whereas he who was religious must die so soon." But a second message -came to him from the oracle, stating, "that for this very reason his -life was shortened, because he had not done what he ought to have done; -for it was needful that Egypt should be afflicted during one hundred and -fifty years; and the two who were kings before him understood this, but -he did not." When Mycerinus heard this, and saw that this sentence was -now pronounced against him, he ordered a great number of lamps to be -made, which were lighted whenever night came on, and he drank and -enjoyed himself, never ceasing night or day, roving about the marshes -and groves, wherever he could hear of places most suited for pleasure. -He had recourse to this artifice for the purpose of convicting the -oracle of falsehood, that by turning the nights into days, he might have -twelve years instead of six. - -This king also left a pyramid, but much smaller than that of his father, -being on each side twenty feet short of three plethra; it is -quadrangular, and built half way up of Ethiopian stone. - -After Mycerinus, the priests said, that Asychis became king of Egypt, -and that he built the eastern portico to the temple of Vulcan, which is -by far the largest and most beautiful in its wealth of sculptured -figures and infinite variety of architecture. This king, being desirous -of surpassing his predecessors, left a pyramid, as a memorial, made of -bricks; on which is an inscription carved on stone, in the following -words: "Do not despise me in comparison with the pyramids of stone, for -I excel them as much as Jupiter, the other gods. For by plunging a pole -into a lake, and collecting the mire that stuck to the pole, men made -bricks, and in this manner built me." - -[Illustration: SECTION OF GALLERY IN PYRAMID.] - -After him there reigned a blind man of the city of Anysis, whose name -was Anysis. During his reign, the Ethiopians and their king, Sabacon, -invaded Egypt with a large force; whereupon this blind king fled to the -fens; and the Ethiopian reigned over Egypt for fifty years, during which -time he performed the following actions: When any Egyptians committed -any crime, he would not have any of them put to death, but passed -sentence upon each according to the magnitude of his offence, enjoining -them to heap up mounds of earth, each offender against his own city, and -by this means the cities were made much higher; for first of all they -had been raised considerably by those who dug the canals in the time of -king Sesostris. Although other cities in Egypt were carried to a great -height, in my opinion the greatest mounds were thrown up about the city -of Bubastis, in which is a beautiful temple of Bubastis corresponding to -the Grecian Diana. Her sacred precinct is thus situated: all except the -entrance is an island; for two canals from the Nile extend to it, not -mingling with each other, but each reaches as far as the entrance to the -precinct, one flowing round it on one side, the other on the other. Each -is a hundred feet broad, and shaded with trees. The portico is ten orgyæ -in height, and is adorned with figures six cubits high, that are -deserving of notice. This precinct, being in the middle of the city, is -visible on every side to a person going round it; for while the city has -been mounded up to a considerable height, the temple has not been moved, -so that it is conspicuous as it was originally built. A wall sculptured -with figures runs round it; and within is a grove of lofty trees, -planted round a large temple in which the image is placed. The width and -length of the precinct is each way a stade. Along the entrance is a road -paved with stone, four plethra in width and about three stades in -length, leading through the square eastward toward the temple of -Mercury; on each side of the road grow trees of enormous height. They -told me that the final departure of the Ethiopian occurred in the -following manner: it appeared to him in a vision that a man, standing by -him, advised him to assemble all the priests in Egypt, and to cut them -in two down the middle; but he, fearing that the gods held out this as a -pretext to him, in order that he, having been guilty of impiety in -reference to sacred things, might draw down some evil on himself from -gods or from men, would not do so; but as the time had expired during -which it was foretold that he should reign over Egypt, he departed -hastily from the country. When Sabacon of his own accord had departed -from Egypt, the blind king resumed the government, having returned from -the fens, where he had lived fifty years, on an island formed of ashes -and earth. For when any of the Egyptians came to him bringing -provisions, as they were severally ordered to do unknown to the -Ethiopian, he bade them bring some ashes also as a present. The kings -who preceded Amyrtæus were unable, for more than seven hundred years, to -find out where this island was. It was called Elbo, and was about ten -stades square. - -After him reigned a priest of Vulcan, whose name was Sethon: he held in -no account the military caste of the Egyptians, as not having need of -their services; and accordingly, among other indignities, he took away -their lands; to each of whom, under former kings, twelve chosen acres -had been assigned. After this, when Sennacherib, king of the Arabians -and Assyrians, marched a large army against Egypt, the Egyptian warriors -refused to assist him; and the priest, being reduced to a strait, -entered the temple, and bewailed before the image the calamities he was -in danger of suffering. While he was lamenting, sleep fell upon him, and -it appeared to him in a vision, that the god stood by and encouraged -him, assuring him that he should suffer nothing disagreeable in meeting -the Arabian army, for he would himself send assistants to him. Confiding -in this vision, he took with him such of the Egyptians as were willing -to follow him, and encamped in Pelusium, at the entrance into Egypt; but -none of the military caste followed him, only tradesmen, mechanics, and -sutlers. When they arrived there, a number of field mice, pouring in -upon their enemies, devoured their quivers and their bows, and the -handles of their shields; so that on the next day, when they fled bereft -of their arms, many of them fell. And to this day, a stone statue of -this king stands in the temple of Vulcan, with a mouse in his hand, and -an inscription to the following effect: "Whoever looks on me, let him -revere the gods." - -[Illustration: HALL OF COLUMNS IN THE GREAT TEMPLE OF KARNAK.] - -The Egyptians and the priests show that from the first king to this -priest of Vulcan who last reigned, were three hundred and forty-one -generations of men; and the same number of chief priests and kings. Now, -three hundred generations are equal to ten thousand years, for three -generations of men are one hundred years; and the forty-one remaining -generations that were over the three hundred, make one thousand three -hundred and forty years. Thus, they say, in eleven thousand three -hundred and forty years, no god has assumed the form of a man. They -relate that during this time the sun has four times risen out of his -usual quarter, and that he has twice risen where he now sets, and twice -set where he now rises; yet, that no change in the things in Egypt was -occasioned by this, either in respect to the productions of the earth or -the river, or to diseases or deaths. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THIRD LINE; FROM THE TWELVE KINGS TO AMASIS. - - -What things both other men and the Egyptians agree in saying occurred in -this country, I shall now proceed to relate, and shall add to them some -things of my own observation. The Egyptians having become free, after -the reign of the priest of Vulcan, since they were at no time able to -live without a king, divided all Egypt into twelve parts and established -twelve others. These contracted intermarriages, and agreed that they -would not attempt the subversion of one another, and would maintain the -strictest friendship. They made these regulations and strictly upheld -them, for the reason that it had been foretold them by an oracle when -they first assumed the government, "that whoever among them should offer -a libation in the temple of Vulcan from a bronze bowl, should be king of -all Egypt"; for they used to assemble in all the temples. Now, being -determined to leave in common a memorial of themselves, they built a -labyrinth, a little above the lake of Mœris, situated near that called -the city of Crocodiles; this I have myself seen, and found it greater -than can be described. For if any one should reckon up all the buildings -and public works of the Greeks, they would be found to have cost less -labor and expense than this labyrinth alone, though the temple in -Ephesus is deserving of mention, and also that in Samos. The pyramids -likewise were beyond description, and each of them comparable to many of -the great Greek structures. Yet the labyrinth surpasses even the -pyramids. For it has twelve courts enclosed with walls, with doors -opposite each other, six facing the north, and six the south, contiguous -to one another; and the same exterior wall encloses them. It contains -two kinds of rooms, some under ground and some above, to the number of -three thousand, fifteen hundred of each. The rooms above ground I myself -went through and saw, and relate from personal inspection. But the -underground rooms I know only from report; for the Egyptians who have -charge of the building would, on no account, show me them, saying that -they held the sepulchres of the kings who originally built this -labyrinth, and of the sacred crocodiles. I can therefore only relate -what I have learnt by hearsay concerning the lower rooms; but the upper -ones, which surpass all human works, I myself saw. The passages through -the corridors, and the windings through the courts, from their great -variety, presented a thousand occasions of wonder, as I passed from a -court to the rooms, and from the rooms to halls, and to other corridors -from the halls, and to other courts from the rooms. The roofs of all -these are of stone, as also are the walls; but the walls are full of -sculptured figures. Each court is surrounded with a colonnade of white -stone, closely fitted. And adjoining the extremity of the labyrinth is a -pyramid, forty orgyæ in height, on which large figures are carved, and a -way to it has been made under ground. - -Yet more wonderful than this labyrinth is the lake named from Mœris, -near which this labyrinth is built; its circumference measures three -thousand six hundred stades, or a distance equal to the sea-coast of -Egypt. The lake stretches lengthways, north and south, being in depth in -the deepest part fifty orgyæ. That it is made by hand and dry, this -circumstance proves, for about the middle of the lake stand two -pyramids, each rising fifty orgyæ above the surface of the water, and -the part built under water extends to an equal depth; on each of these -is placed a stone statue, seated on a throne. Thus these pyramids are -one hundred orgyæ in height. The water in this lake does not spring from -the soil, for these parts are excessively dry, but it is conveyed -through a channel from the Nile, and for six months it flows into the -lake, and six months out again into the Nile. And during the six months -that it flows out it yields a talent of silver every day to the king's -treasury from the fish; but when the water is flowing into it, twenty -minæ. The people of the country told me that this lake discharges itself -under ground into the Syrtis of Libya, running westward toward the -interior by the mountain above Memphis. But when I did not see anywhere -a heap of soil from this excavation, for this was an object of curiosity -to me, I inquired of the people who lived nearest the lake, where the -soil that had been dug out was to be found; they told me where it had -been carried, and easily persuaded me, because I had heard that a -similar thing had been done at Nineveh, in Assyria. For certain thieves -formed a design to carry away the treasures of Sardanapalus, King of -Nineveh, which were very large, and preserved in subterraneous -treasuries; the thieves, therefore, beginning from their own dwellings, -dug under ground by estimated measurement to the royal palace, and the -soil that was taken out of the excavations, when night came on, they -threw into the river Tigris, that flows by Nineveh; and so they -proceeded until they had effected their purpose. The same method I heard -was adopted in digging the lake in Egypt, except that it was not done by -night, but during the day; for the Egyptians who dug out the soil -carried it to the Nile, and the river receiving it, soon dispersed it. - -[Illustration: EGYPTIAN BELL CAPITALS.] - -[Illustration: HARPOON AND FISH HOOKS.] - -While the twelve kings continued to observe justice, in course of time, -as they were sacrificing in the temple of Vulcan, and were about to -offer a libation on the last day of the festival, the high priest, -mistaking the number, brought out eleven of the twelve golden bowls with -which he used to make the libation. Whereupon he who stood last of them, -Psammitichus, since he had not a bowl, having taken off his helmet, -which was of bronze, held it out and made the libation. All the other -kings were in the habit of wearing helmets, and at that time had them -on. Psammitichus therefore, without any sinister intention, held out his -helmet; but they having taken into consideration what was done by -Psammitichus, and the oracle that had foretold to them, "that whoever -among them should offer a libation from a bronze bowl, should be sole -king of Egypt"; calling to mind the oracle, did not think it right to -put him to death, since upon examination they found that he had done it -by no premeditated design. But they determined to banish him to the -marshes, having divested him of the greatest part of his power; and they -forbade him to leave the marshes, or have any intercourse with the rest -of Egypt. With the design of avenging himself on his persecutors, he -sent to the city of Buto to consult the oracle of Latona, the truest -oracle that the Egyptians have, and the answer was returned "that -vengeance would come from the sea, when men of bronze should appear." He -was very incredulous that men of bronze would come to assist him; but -not long after a stress of weather compelled some Ionians and Carians, -who had sailed out for the purpose of piracy, to bear away to Egypt; and -when they had disembarked and were clad in bronze armor, an Egyptian, -who had never before seen men clad in such manner, went to the marshes -to Psammitichus, and told him that men of bronze had arrived from the -sea, and were ravaging the plains. He felt at once that the oracle was -accomplished, and treated these Ionians and Carians in a friendly -manner, and by promising them great things, persuaded them to join with -him; and, with their help and that of such Egyptians as were well -disposed toward him, he overcame the other kings. - -[Illustration: EGYPTIAN HELMETS.] - -Psammitichus, now master of all Egypt, constructed the portico to -Vulcan's temple at Memphis that faces the south wind; he built a court -for Apis, in which he is fed whenever he appears, opposite the portico, -surrounded by a colonnade, and full of sculptured figures; and instead -of pillars, statues twelve cubits high are placed under the piazza. -Apis, in the language of the Greeks, means Epaphus. To the Ionians, and -those who with them had assisted him, Psammitichus gave lands opposite -each other, with the Nile flowing between. These bear the name of -"Camps." He royally fulfilled all his promises; and he moreover put -Egyptian children under their care to be instructed in the Greek -language; from whom the present interpreters in Egypt are descended. The -Ionians and the Carians continued for a long time to inhabit these -lands, situated near the sea, a little below the city of Bubastis. They -were the first people of a different language who settled in Egypt. The -docks for their ships, and the ruins of their buildings, were to be seen -in my time in the places from which they had removed. - -Psammitichus reigned in Egypt fifty-four years; during twenty-nine of -which he sat down before and besieged Azotus, a large city of Syria, -until he took it. This Azotus, of all the cities we know of, held out -against a siege the longest period. Neco was son of Psammitichus, and -became king of Egypt: he first set about the canal that leads to the Red -Sea, which Darius the Persian afterward completed. Its length is a -voyage of four days, and in width it was dug so that two triremes might -sail rowed abreast. The water is drawn into it from the Nile, and enters -it a little above the city Bubastis. The canal passes near the Arabian -city Patumos, and reaches to the Red Sea. In the digging of it one -hundred and twenty thousand Egyptians perished in the reign of Neco. - -Psammis his son reigned only six years over Egypt. He made an expedition -into Ethiopia, and shortly afterward died, Apries his son succeeding to -the kingdom. He, next to his grandfather Psammitichus, enjoyed greater -prosperity than any of the former kings, during a reign of five and -twenty years, in which period he marched an army against Sidon, and -engaged the Tyrians by sea. But it was destined for him to meet with -adversity. For, having sent an army against the Cyrenæans, he met with a -signal defeat. And the Egyptians, complaining of this, revolted from -him, suspecting that Apries had designedly sent them to certain ruin, in -order that they might be destroyed, and he might govern the rest of the -Egyptians with greater security. Both those that returned and the -friends of those who perished, being very indignant at this, openly -revolted against him. Apries, having heard of this, sent Amasis to -appease them by persuasion. But when he had come to them, and was urging -them to desist from their enterprise, one of the Egyptians, standing -behind him, placed a helmet on his head, and said: "I put this on you to -make you king." And this action was not at all disagreeable to Amasis, -as he presently showed. When Apries heard of this, he armed his -auxiliaries and marched against the Egyptians with Carian and Ionian -auxiliaries to the number of thirty thousand. They met near the city -Momemphis, and prepared to engage with each other. Apries had a palace -in the city of Sais that was spacious and magnificent. - -There are seven classes of people among the Egyptians—priests, warriors, -herdsmen, swineherds, tradesmen, interpreters, and pilots. Their -warriors are called Calasiries or Hermotybies. The Hermotybies number, -when they are most numerous, a hundred and sixty thousand. None of these -learn any business or mechanical art, but apply themselves wholly to -military affairs. The Calasiries number two hundred and fifty thousand -men: nor are these allowed to practise any art, but they devote -themselves to military pursuits alone, the son succeeding to his father. - -When Apries, leading his auxiliaries, and Amasis, all the Egyptians, met -together at Momemphis, the foreigners fought well, but being far -inferior in numbers, were, on that account, defeated. Apries is said to -have been of opinion that not even a god could deprive him of his -kingdom, so securely did he think himself established; but he was -beaten, taken prisoner, and carried back to Sais, to that which was -formerly his own palace, but which now belonged to Amasis: here he was -maintained for some time in the royal palace, and Amasis treated him -well. But at length the Egyptians complaining that he did not act -rightly in preserving a man who was the greatest enemy both to them and -to him, he delivered Apries to the Egyptians. They strangled him, and -buried him in his ancestral sepulchre, in the sacred precinct of -Minerva, very near the temple, on the left hand as you enter. - -Apries being thus dethroned, Amasis, who was of the Saitic district, -reigned in his stead; the name of the city from which he came was Siuph. -At first the Egyptians held him in no great estimation, as having been -formerly a private person, and of no illustrious family; but afterward -he conciliated them by an act of address, without any arrogance. He had -an infinite number of treasures among them a golden foot-pan, in which -Amasis himself and all his guests were accustomed to wash their feet. -This he broke in pieces, had the statue of a god made from it, and -placed it in the most suitable part of the city. The Egyptians flocked -to the image and paid it the greatest reverence. Thus, Amasis called the -Egyptians together and said: "This statue was made out of the foot-pan -in which the Egyptians formerly spat and washed their feet, and which -they then so greatly reverenced; now, the same has happened to me as to -the foot-pan; for though I was before but a private person, I now am -your king; you must therefore honor and respect me." By this means he -won over the Egyptians, so that they thought fit to obey him. He adopted -the following method of managing his affairs: early in the morning, -until the time of full-market, he assiduously despatched the business -brought before him; after that he drank and jested with his companions, -and talked loosely and sportively. But his friends, offended at this, -admonished him, saying: "You do not, O king, control yourself properly, -in making yourself too common. For it becomes you, who sit on a -venerable throne, to pass the day in transacting public business; thus -the Egyptians would know that they are governed by a great man, and you -would be better spoken of. But now you act in a manner not at all -becoming a king." But he answered them: "They who have bows, when they -want to use them, bend them; but when they have done using them, they -unbend them; for if the bow were to be kept always bent, it would break. -Such is the condition of man; if he should incessantly attend to serious -business, and not give himself up sometimes to sport, he would shortly -become mad or stupefied. I, being well aware of this, give up a portion -of my time to each." - -He built an admirable portico to the temple of Minerva at Sais, far -surpassing all others both in height and size, as well as in the -dimensions and quality of the stones; he likewise dedicated large -statues, and huge andro-sphinxes, and brought other stones of a -prodigious size for repairs: some from the quarries near Memphis; but -those of greatest magnitude, from the city of Elephantine, distant from -Sais a passage of twenty days. But that which I rather the most admire, -is this: he brought a building of one stone from the city of -Elephantine, and two thousand men, who were appointed to convey it, were -occupied three whole years in its transport, and these men were all -pilots. The length of this chamber, outside, is twenty-one cubits, the -breadth fourteen, and the height eight. But inside, the length is -eighteen cubits and twenty digits, the width twelve cubits, and the -height five cubits. This chamber is placed near the entrance of the -sacred precinct; for they say that he did not draw it within the -precinct for the following reason: the architect, as the chamber was -being drawn along, heaved a deep sigh, being wearied with the work, over -which so long a time had been spent; whereupon Amasis, making a -religious scruple of this, would not suffer it to be drawn any farther. -Some persons however say, that one of the men employed at the levers was -crushed to death by it, and that on that account it was not drawn into -the precinct. Amasis dedicated in all the most famous temples, works -admirable for their magnitude; and amongst them, at Memphis, the -reclining colossus before the temple of Vulcan, of which the length is -seventy-five feet; and on the same base stand two statues of Ethiopian -stone, each twenty feet in height, one on each side of the temple. There -is also at Sais another similar statue, lying in the same manner as that -at Memphis. It was Amasis also who built the temple to Isis at Memphis, -which is spacious and well worthy of notice. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT SPHINX.] - -Under the reign of Amasis, Egypt is said to have enjoyed the greatest -prosperity, both in respect to the benefits derived from the river to -the land, and from the land to the people; and it is said to have -contained at that time twenty thousand inhabited cities. Amasis it was -who established the law among the Egyptians, that every Egyptian should -annually declare to the governor of his district, by what means he -maintained himself; and if he failed to do this, or did not show that he -lived by honest means, he should be punished with death. Solon the -Athenian brought this law from Egypt and established it at Athens. -Amasis, being partial to the Greeks, bestowed other favors on various of -the Greeks, and gave the city of Naucratis for such as arrived in Egypt -to dwell in; and to such as did not wish to settle there, but only to -trade by sea, he granted places where they might erect altars and -temples to the gods. Now, the most spacious of these sacred buildings, -which is also the most renowned and frequented, called the Hellenium, -was erected at the common charge of the following cities: of the -Ionians,—Chios, Teos, Phocæa, and Clazomenæ; of the Dorians,—Rhodes, -Cnidus, Halicarnassus, Phaselis; and of the Æolians,—Mitylene alone. So -that this temple belongs to them, and these cities appoint officers to -preside over the mart: and whatever other cities claim a share in it, -claim what does not belong to them. Besides this, the people of Ægina -built a temple to Jupiter for themselves; and the Samians another to -Juno, and the Milesians one to Apollo. Naucratis was anciently the only -place of resort for merchants, and there was no other in Egypt: and if a -man arrived at any other mouth of the Nile, he was obliged to swear -"that he had come there against his will"; and having taken such an -oath, he must sail in the same ship to the Canopic mouth; but if he -should be prevented by contrary winds from doing so, he was forced to -unload his goods and carry them in barges round the Delta until he -reached Naucratis. So great were the privileges of Naucratis. When the -Amphyctions contracted to build the temple that now stands at Delphi for -three hundred talents—for the temple that was formerly there had been -burned by accident, and it fell upon the Delphians to supply a fourth -part of the sum—the Delphians went about from city to city to solicit -contributions, and brought home no small amount from Egypt. For Amasis -gave them a thousand talents of alum, and the Greeks who were settled in -Egypt twenty minæ. - -Amasis also dedicated offerings in Greece. In the first place, a gilded -statue of Minerva at Cyrene, and his own portrait painted; secondly, to -Minerva in Lindus two stone statues and a linen corselet well worthy of -notice; thirdly, to Juno at Samos two images of himself carved in wood, -which stood in the large temple even in my time, behind the doors. He -was the first who conquered Cyprus, and subjected it to the payment of -tribute. - -[12] By the Greek word Πόλος Herodotus means "a concave dial," shaped -like the vault of heaven. - -[13] Iliad, vi., 289. - -[14] Odyssey, iv., 227. - -[15] Odyssey, iv., 351. - - - - -_BOOK III. THALIA._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -EXPEDITIONS OF CAMBYSES. - - -Cambyses, son of Cyrus, made war against Amasis, leading with him his -own subjects, together with Greeks, Ionians and Æolians. The cause of -the war was this: Cambyses sent a herald into Egypt to demand the -daughter of Amasis. The suggestion was made by an Egyptian physician, -who out of spite served Amasis in this manner, because Amasis had -selected him out of all the physicians in Egypt, torn him from his wife -and children, and sent him as a present to the Persians, when Cyrus had -sent to Amasis, and required of him the best oculist in Egypt. The -Egyptian therefore, having this spite against him, urged on Cambyses by -his suggestions, bidding him demand the daughter of Amasis, in order -that if he should comply he might be grieved, or if he refused he might -incur the hatred of Cambyses. But Amasis, dreading the power of the -Persians, resorted to a piece of deceit. There was a daughter of Apries, -the former king, very tall and beautiful, the only survivor of the -family, named Nitetis. This damsel, Amasis adorned with cloth of gold, -and sent to Persia as his own daughter. After a time, when Cambyses -saluted her, addressing her by her father's name, the damsel said to -him: "O king, you do not perceive that you have been imposed upon by -Amasis, who dressed me in rich attire, and sent me to you, presenting me -as his own daughter; whereas, I am really the daughter of Apries, whom -he put to death, after he had incited the Egyptians to revolt." These -words enraged Cambyses, and led him to invade Egypt. - -[Illustration: EGYPTIAN POTTERY.] - -A circumstance that few of those who have made voyages to Egypt have -noticed, I shall now proceed to mention. From every part of Greece, and -also from Phœnicia, earthen vessels filled with wine are imported into -Egypt twice every year, and yet not a single one of these wine jars is -afterward to be seen. In what way, then, you may ask, are they disposed -of? Every magistrate is obliged to collect all the vessels from his own -city, and send them to Memphis; the people of that city fill them with -water, and convey them to the arid parts of Syria; so that the earthen -vessels continually imported and landed in Egypt, are added to those -already in Syria. The Persians, as soon as they became masters of Egypt, -facilitated the passage into that country, by supplying it with water in -this manner. But as, at that time, water was not provided, Cambyses, by -the advice of a Halicarnassian stranger, sent ambassadors to the -Arabian, and requested a safe passage, which he obtained, giving to, and -receiving from him, pledges of faith. - -The Arabians observe pledges as religiously as any people: when any wish -to pledge their faith, a third person, standing between the two parties, -makes an incision with a sharp stone in the palm of the hand, near the -longest fingers, of both the contractors; then taking some of the nap -from the garment of each, he smears seven stones, placed between them, -with the blood; and as he does this, he invokes Bacchus and Urania. When -this ceremony is completed, the person who pledges his faith, binds his -friends as sureties to the stranger, or the citizen, if the contract be -made with a citizen, and the friends also hold themselves obliged to -observe the engagement. They acknowledge no other gods than Bacchus and -Urania, and they say that their hair is cut in the same way as Bacchus' -is cut, in a circular form, banged round the temples. They call Bacchus, -Orotal; and Urania, Alilat. When the Arabian had exchanged pledges with -the ambassadors who came from Cambyses, he filled camels' skins with -water, loaded them on all his living camels, and drove them to the arid -region, and there awaited the army of Cambyses. This is the most -credible of the accounts that are given; yet it is right that one less -credible should be mentioned, since it is likewise affirmed. There is a -large river in Arabia called Corys, which discharges itself into the Red -Sea. From this river it is said that the king of the Arabians, having -sewn together a pipe of ox-hides and other skins, reaching in length to -the desert, conveyed the water through it; and that in the arid region -he dug large reservoirs, to receive and preserve the water. It is a -twelve days' journey from the river to the desert, yet he conveyed water -through three pipes into three different places. - -Amasis died after a reign of forty-four years, during which no great -calamity had befallen him. He was embalmed and buried in the sepulchre -within the sacred precinct, which he himself had built. During the reign -of Psammenitus, son of Amasis, a most remarkable prodigy befell the -Egyptians; rain fell at Egyptian Thebes, which had never happened -before, nor since, to my time, as the Thebans themselves affirm. For no -rain ever falls in the upper regions of Egypt; but at that time rain -fell in drops at Thebes. The Persians, having marched through the arid -region, halted near the Egyptians, as if with a design of engaging; -there the auxiliaries of the Egyptians, consisting of Greeks and -Carians, condemning Phanes because he had led a foreign army against -Egypt, adopted the following expedient against him: Phanes had left his -sons in Egypt; these they brought to the camp, within sight of their -father, placed a bowl midway between the two armies, then dragging the -children one by one, they slew them over the bowl, into which they also -poured wine and water; then all the auxiliaries drank of the blood, and -immediately joined battle. After a hard fight, when great numbers had -fallen on both sides, the Egyptians were put to flight. Here I saw a -very surprising fact, of which the people of the country informed me. As -the bones of those who were killed in that battle lie scattered about -separately, the bones of the Persians in one place, and those of the -Egyptians in another, the skulls of the Persians were so weak that if -you should hit one with a single pebble, you would break a hole in it; -whereas those of the Egyptians are so hard, that you could scarcely -fracture them by striking them with a stone. The cause of this, they -told me (and I readily assented), is that the Egyptians begin from -childhood to shave their heads, and the bone is thickened by exposure to -the sun; from the same cause also they are less subject to baldness, and -one sees fewer persons bald in Egypt than in any other country. But the -Persians have weak skulls, because they shade them from the first, -wearing tiaras for hats. - -The Egyptians fled in complete disorder from the battle. When they had -shut themselves up in Memphis, Cambyses sent a Mitylenæan bark up the -river, with a Persian herald on board, to invite the Egyptians to terms. -But when they saw the bark entering Memphis they rushed in a mass from -the wall, destroyed the ship, and having torn the crew to pieces, limb -by limb, they carried them into the citadel. After this the Egyptians -were besieged, and at length surrounded. The neighboring Libyans, -fearing what had befallen Egypt, gave themselves up without resistance, -submitted to pay a tribute, and sent presents, which Cambyses received -very graciously. - -On the tenth day after Cambyses had taken the citadel of Memphis, he -seated Psammenitus, the King of the Egyptians, who had reigned only six -months, at the entrance of the city. And by way of insult, he dressed -his daughter in the habit of a slave, and sent her with a pitcher to -fetch water, with other maidens selected from the principal families, -dressed in the same manner. As the girls, with loud lamentation and -weeping, came into the presence of their fathers, all the other fathers -answered them with wailing and weeping, when they beheld their children -thus humiliated. But Psammenitus only bent his eyes to the ground. When -these water-carriers had passed by, he next sent his son, with two -thousand Egyptians of the same age, with halters about their necks, and -a bridle in their mouths; and they were led out to suffer retribution -for those Mitylenæans who had perished at Memphis with the ship. For the -royal judges had given sentence, that for each man ten of the principal -Egyptians should be put to death. Yet, when he saw them passing by, and -knew that his son was being led out to death, though all the rest of the -Egyptians who sat round him wept and made loud lamentations, he did the -same as he had done in his daughter's case. But just then it happened -that one of his boon-companions, a man somewhat advanced in years, who -had lost his all, and possessed nothing but such things as a beggar has, -asking alms of the soldiery, passed by Psammenitus, and the Egyptians -seated in the suburbs. Then, indeed, he wept bitterly, and calling his -companion by name, smote his head. Cambyses, surprised at this behavior, -sent a messenger to say: "Psammenitus, your master Cambyses inquires -why, when you saw your daughter humiliated and your son led to -execution, you did not bewail or lament; and have been so highly -concerned for a beggar, who is no way related to you, as he is -informed." Psammenitus answered: "Son of Cyrus, the calamities of my -family are too great to be expressed by lamentation; but the griefs of -my friend were worthy of tears, who, having fallen from abundance and -prosperity, has come to beggary on the threshold of old age." When this -answer was brought back by the messenger, it appeared to Cambyses to be -well said; and, as the Egyptians relate, Crœsus wept, for he had -attended Cambyses into Egypt, and the Persians that were present wept -also; Cambyses himself, touched with pity, gave immediate orders to -preserve his son out of those who were to perish, but those who were -sent found the son no longer alive, having been the first that suffered; -but Psammenitus himself they conducted to Cambyses, with whom he -afterward lived, without experiencing any violence. And had it not been -suspected that he was planning innovations, he would probably have -recovered Egypt, so as to have the government intrusted to him. For the -Persians are accustomed to honor the sons of kings, and even if they -have revolted from them, sometimes bestow the government upon their -children. Psammenitus, devising mischief, received his reward, for he -was discovered inciting the Egyptians to revolt; and when he was -detected by Cambyses he was compelled to drink the blood of a bull, and -died immediately. - -Cambyses proceeded from Memphis to the city of Sais, and entering the -palace of Amasis, commanded the dead body of Amasis to be brought out of -the sepulchre; he gave orders then to scourge it, to pull off the hair, -to prick it, and to abuse it in every possible manner. But when they -were wearied with this employment, for the dead body, since it was -embalmed, resisted, and did not at all fall in pieces, Cambyses gave -orders to burn it, commanding what is impious. For to burn the dead is -on no account allowed by either nation: not by the Persians, for they -consider fire to be a god, and say it is not right to offer to a god the -dead body of a man; nor by the Egyptians, as fire is held by them to be -a living beast, which devours every thing it can lay hold of, and when -it is glutted with food it expires with what it has consumed; therefore, -as it is their law on no account to give a dead body to wild beasts, for -that reason they embalm them, that they may not lie and be eaten by -worms. - -Cambyses determined to send to Elephantine for some of the Ichthyophagi, -who understood the Ethiopian language, that he might despatch them as -spies to Ethiopia. When the Ichthyophagi came, he despatched them to the -Ethiopians, having instructed them what to say, carrying presents, -consisting of a purple cloak, a golden necklace, bracelets, an alabaster -box of ointment, and a cask of palm wine. These Ethiopians, to whom -Cambyses sent, are said to be the tallest and handsomest of all men; and -have customs different from those of other nations, especially with -regard to the regal power; for they confer the sovereignty upon the man -whom they consider to be of the largest stature, and to possess strength -proportionate to his size. - -When the Ichthyophagi arrived among this people, they gave the presents -to the king, and addressed him as follows: "Cambyses, King of the -Persians, desirous of becoming your friend and ally, has sent us to -confer with you, and he presents you with these gifts, which are such as -he himself most delights in." But the Ethiopian, knowing that they came -as spies, spoke thus to them: "Neither has the king of the Persians sent -you with presents to me, because he valued my alliance; nor do you speak -the truth; for ye are come as spies of my kingdom. Nor is he a just man; -for if he were just, he would not desire any other territory than his -own; nor would he reduce people into servitude who have done him no -injury. However, give him this bow, and say these words to him: 'The -king of the Ethiopians advises the king of the Persians, when the -Persians can thus easily draw a bow of this size, then to make war on -the Macrobian Ethiopians with more numerous forces; but until that time -let him thank the gods, who have not inspired the sons of the Ethiopians -with a desire of adding another land to their own.'" Having spoken thus -and unstrung the bow, he delivered it to the comers. Then taking up the -purple cloak, he asked what it was, and how made; and when the -Ichthyophagi told him the truth respecting the purple, and the manner of -dyeing, he said that the men are deceptive, and their garments are -deceptive also. Next he inquired about the necklace and bracelets, and -when the Ichthyophagi explained to him their use as ornaments, the king, -laughing, and supposing them to be fetters, said that they have stronger -fetters than these. Thirdly, he inquired about the ointment; and when -they told him about its composition and use, he made the same remark as -he had on the cloak. But when he came to the wine, and inquired how it -was made, being very much delighted with the draught, he further asked -what food the king made use of, and what was the longest age to which a -Persian lived. They answered, that he fed on bread, describing the -nature of wheat; and that the longest period of the life of a Persian -was eighty years. Upon this the Ethiopian said, that he was not at all -surprised if men who fed on earth lived so few years; and he was sure -they would not be able to live even so many years, if they did not -refresh themselves with this beverage, showing the wine to the -Ichthyophagi: for in this he admitted they were surpassed by the -Persians. The Ichthyophagi inquiring in turn of the king concerning the -life and diet of the Ethiopians, he said, that most of them attained to -a hundred and twenty years, and some even exceeded that term, and that -their food was boiled flesh, and their drink milk. When the spies -expressed their astonishment at the number of years, he led them to a -fountain, by washing in which they became more sleek, as if it had been -of oil, and an odor proceeded from it as of violets. The water of this -fountain, the spies said, is so weak, that nothing is able to float upon -it, neither wood, nor such things as are lighter than wood; but every -thing sinks to the bottom. If this water is truly such as it is said to -be, it may be they are long-lived by reason of the abundant use of it. -Leaving this fountain, he conducted them to the common prison, where all -were fettered with golden chains; for among these Ethiopians bronze is -the most rare and precious of all metals. After this, they visited last -of all their sepulchres, which are said to be prepared from crystal in -the following manner. When they have dried the body, either as the -Egyptians do, or in some other way, they plaster it all over with -gypsum, and paint it, making it as much as possible to resemble real -life; they then put round it a hollow column made of crystal, which they -dig up in abundance, and is easily wrought. The body being in the middle -of the column is plainly seen, and it does not emit an unpleasant smell, -nor is it in any way offensive; and it is all visible[16] as the body -itself. The nearest relations keep the column in their houses for a -year, offering to it the first-fruits of all, and performing sacrifices; -after that time they carry it out and place it somewhere near the city. - -When the spies returned home and reported all that had passed, Cambyses, -in a great rage, immediately marched against the Ethiopians, without -making any provision for the subsistence of his army, or once -considering that he was going to carry his arms to the remotest parts of -the world; but, as a madman, and not in possession of his senses, as -soon as he heard the report of the Icthyophagi, he set out on his march, -ordering the Greeks who were present to stay behind, and taking with him -all his land forces. When the army reached Thebes, he detached about -fifty thousand men, and ordered them to reduce the Ammonians to slavery, -and to burn the oracular temple of Jupiter, while he with the rest of -his army marched against the Ethiopians. But before the army had passed -over a fifth part of the way, all the provisions that they had were -exhausted, and the beasts of burden themselves were eaten. Now if -Cambyses had at this juncture altered his purpose, and had led back his -army, he would have proved himself to be a wise man. But he obstinately -continued advancing. The soldiers supported life by eating herbs as long -as they could gather any from the ground; but when they reached the -sands, some of them had recourse to a dreadful expedient, for taking one -man in ten by lot, they devoured him: when Cambyses heard this, shocked -at their eating one another, he abandoned his expedition against the -Ethiopians, marched back and reached Thebes, after losing a great part -of his army. From Thebes he went down to Memphis, and suffered the -Greeks to sail away. Thus ended the expedition against the Ethiopians. -Those who had been sent against the Ammonians, after having set out from -Thebes, under the conduct of guides, are known to have reached the city -Oasis, which is inhabited by Samians, distant seven days' march from -Thebes, across the sands. This country in the Greek language is called -the Island of the Blessed. But afterward none, except the Ammonians and -those who have heard their report, are able to give any account of them; -for they neither reached the Ammonians, nor returned back. But the -Ammonians make the following report: When they had advanced from this -Oasis toward them across the sands, and were about half-way between them -and Oasis, as they were taking dinner, a vehement south wind blew, -carrying with it heaps of sand, and completely destroyed the whole army. - -[Illustration: SAND STORM IN THE DESERT.] - -When Cambyses arrived at Memphis, Apis, whom the Greeks call Epaphus, -appeared to the Egyptians; and when this manifestation took place, the -Egyptians immediately put on their richest apparel, and kept festive -holiday. Cambyses, seeing them thus occupied, and concluding that they -made these rejoicings on account of his ill success, summoned the -magistrates of Memphis; and when they came into his presence, he asked -"why the Egyptians had done nothing of the kind when he was at Memphis -before, but did so now, when he had returned with the loss of a great -part of his army." They answered, that their god appeared to them, who -was accustomed to manifest himself at intervals, and that when he did -appear, then all the Egyptians were accustomed to rejoice and keep a -feast. Cambyses, having heard this, said they were liars, and put them -to death. Then he summoned the priests into his presence, and when the -priests gave the same account, he said, that he would find out whether a -god so tractable had come among the Egyptians; and commanded the priests -to bring Apis to him. This Apis, or Epaphus, the Egyptians say, is the -calf of a cow upon which the lightning has descended from heaven. It is -black, and has a square spot of white on the forehead; on the back the -figure of an eagle; and in the tail double hairs; and on the tongue a -beetle. When the priests brought Apis, Cambyses, like one almost out of -his senses, drew his dagger, meaning to strike the belly of Apis, but -hit the thigh; then falling into a fit of laughter, he said to the -priests: "Ye blockheads, are there such gods as these, consisting of -blood and flesh, and sensible of steel? This, truly, is a god worthy of -the Egyptians. But you shall not mock me with impunity." Then he gave -orders to scourge the priests, and kill all the Egyptians who should be -found feasting. Apis, wounded in the thigh, lay and languished in the -temple; and at length, when he had died of the wound, the priests buried -him without the knowledge of Cambyses. - -But Cambyses, as the Egyptians say, immediately became mad in -consequence of this atrocity, though he really was not of sound mind -before. His first crime he committed against his brother Smerdis, who -was born of the same father and mother; him he sent back from Egypt to -Persia through envy, because he alone of all the Persians had drawn the -bow, which the Ichthyophagi brought from the Ethiopian, within two -fingers' breadth; of the other Persians no one was able to do this. -After the departure of Smerdis for Persia, Cambyses saw the following -vision in his sleep: he imagined that a messenger arrived from Persia -and informed him that Smerdis was seated on the royal throne, and -touched the heavens with his head. Upon this, fearing for himself, lest -his brother should kill him, and reign, he sent Prexaspes, the most -faithful to him of the Persians, to Persia, with orders to kill Smerdis. -Having gone up to Susa, he killed Smerdis; some say, when he had taken -him out to hunt; but others, that he led him to the Red Sea and drowned -him. This they say was the first of the crimes of Cambyses; the second -was that of marrying his own sister, who had accompanied him into Egypt. - -The Greeks say, that one day Cambyses made the whelp of a lion fight -with a young dog; and this wife was also looking on; the dog being -over-matched, another puppy of the same litter broke his chain, and came -to his assistance, and thus the two dogs united got the better of the -whelp. Cambyses was delighted at the sight, but she, sitting by him, -shed tears. Cambyses, observing this, asked her why she wept. She -answered, that she wept seeing the puppy come to the assistance of his -brother, remembering Smerdis, and knowing that there was no one to -avenge him. The Greeks say, that for this speech she was put to death by -Cambyses. But the Egyptians say, that as they were sitting at table, his -wife took a lettuce, stripped off its leaves, and then asked her husband -"whether the lettuce stripped of its leaves, or thick with foliage, was -the handsomer." He said: "When thick with foliage." Whereupon she -remarked: "Then you have imitated this lettuce, in dismembering the -house of Cyrus." Whereupon he, in rage, kicked her and inflicted such -injuries that she died. - -Thus madly did Cambyses behave toward his own family; whether on account -of Apis, or from some other cause, from which, in many ways, misfortunes -are wont to befall mankind. For Cambyses is said, even from infancy, to -have been afflicted with a certain severe malady, which some called the -sacred disease.[17] In that case, it was not at all surprising that, -when his body was so diseased, his mind should not be sound. And toward -the other Persians he behaved madly in the following instances: for it -is reported that he said to Prexaspes, whom he highly honored, and whose -office it was to bring messages to him, whose son was cupbearer to -Cambyses, no trifling honor by any means, he is reported to have said: -"Prexaspes, what sort of a man do the Persians think me? and what -remarks do they make about me?" He answered: "Sir, you are highly -extolled in every other respect, but they say you are too much addicted -to wine." The king enraged cried out: "Do the Persians indeed say that, -by being addicted to wine, I am beside myself, and am not in my senses? -then their former words were not true." For, on a former occasion, when -the Persians and Crœsus were sitting with him, Cambyses asked, what sort -of a man he appeared to be in comparison with his father Cyrus; they -answered, that he was superior to his father, because he held all that -Cyrus possessed, and had acquired besides Egypt and the empire of the -sea. Crœsus, who was not pleased with this decision, spoke thus to -Cambyses: "To me, O son of Cyrus, you do not appear comparable to your -father, for you have not yet such a son as he left behind him." Cambyses -was delighted at hearing this, and commended the judgment of Crœsus. So, -remembering this, he said in anger to Prexaspes: "Observe now yourself, -whether the Persians have spoken the truth, or whether they who say such -things are not out of their senses: for if I shoot that son of yours who -stands under the portico, and hit him in the heart, the Persians will -appear to have said nothing to the purpose; but if I miss, then say that -the Persians have spoken the truth, and that I am not of sound mind." -Having said this, and bent his bow, he hit the boy; and when the boy had -fallen, he ordered them to open him and examine the wound; and when the -arrow was found in the heart, he said to the boy's father, laughing: -"Prexaspes, it has been clearly shown to you that I am not mad, but that -the Persians are out of their senses. Now tell me, did you ever see a -man take so true an aim?" But Prexaspes, perceiving him to be out of his -mind, and being in fear for his own life, said: "Sir, I believe that a -god himself could not have shot so well." At another time, having, -without any just cause, seized twelve Persians of the first rank, he had -them buried alive up to the head. - -While he was acting in this manner, Crœsus the Lydian thought fit to -admonish him in the following terms: "O king, do not yield entirely to -your youthful impulses and anger, but possess and restrain yourself. It -is a good thing to be provident, and wise to have forethought. You put -men to death who are your own subjects, having seized them without any -just cause; and you slay their children. If you persist in such a -course, beware lest the Persians revolt from you. Your father Cyrus -strictly charged me to admonish you, and suggest whatever I might -discover for your good." He thus manifested his good-will, in giving -this advice; but Cambyses answered: "Do you presume to give me advice, -you, who so wisely managed your own country; and so well advised my -father, when you persuaded him to pass the river Araxes, and advance -against the Massagetæ, when they were willing to cross over into our -territory? You have first ruined yourself by badly governing your own -country, and then ruined Cyrus, who was persuaded by your advice. But -you shall have no reason to rejoice; for I have long wanted to find a -pretext against you." So saying, he took up his bow for the purpose of -shooting him; but Crœsus jumped up and ran out. Cambyses, unable to -shoot him, commanded his attendants to seize him, and put him to death. -But the attendants, knowing his temper, concealed Crœsus for the -following reason, that if Cambyses should repent, and inquire for -Crœsus, they, by producing him, might receive rewards for preserving him -alive; or if he should not repent, or sorrow for him, then they would -put him to death. Not long afterward Cambyses did regret the loss of -Crœsus, whereupon the attendants acquainted him that he was still -living; on which Cambyses said: "I am rejoiced that Crœsus is still -alive; they, however, who disobeyed my orders and saved him, shall not -escape with impunity, but I will have them put to death." And he made -good his word. - -He committed many such mad actions, both against the Persians and his -allies, while he stayed at Memphis opening ancient sepulchres, and -examining the dead bodies; he also entered the temple of Vulcan, and -derided the image, for the image of Vulcan is very much like the -Phœnician Pataici, which the Phœnicians place at the prows of their -triremes, and is a representation of a pigmy. He likewise entered the -temple of the Cabeiri, (into which it is unlawful for any one except the -priest to enter) and these images he burnt, after he had ridiculed them -in various ways: these also are like that of Vulcan; and they say that -they are the sons of this latter. It is in every way clear to me that -Cambyses was outrageously mad; otherwise he would not have attempted to -deride sacred things and established customs. For if any one should -propose to all men, to select the best institutions of all that exist, -each, after considering them all, would choose his own; so certain is it -that each thinks his own institutions by far the best. It is not -therefore probable, that any but a madman would make such things the -subject of ridicule. That all men are of this mind respecting their own -institutions may be inferred from many proofs, but is well illustrated -by the following incident: Darius once summoned some Greeks under his -sway, and asked them "for what sum they would feed upon the dead bodies -of their parents." They answered, that they would not do it for any sum. -Then Darius called to him some of the Indians called Callatians, who are -accustomed to eat their parents, and asked them, in the presence of the -Greeks, "for what sum they would consent to burn their fathers when they -die." But they made loud exclamations and begged he would speak words of -good omen. Such then is the effect of custom: and Pindar appears to me -to have said rightly "that custom is the king of all men." - -[Illustration: ATTACK ON FORT.] - -Whilst Cambyses was invading Egypt, the Lacedæmonians made an expedition -against Polycrates, who had made an insurrection and seized on Samos. At -first, having divided the state into three parts, he had shared it with -his brothers Pantagnotus and Syloson; but afterward, having put one of -them to death, and expelled Syloson, the younger, he held the whole of -Samos, and made a treaty of friendship with Amasis, King of Egypt, -sending presents, and receiving others from him in return. In a very -short time the power of Polycrates increased, and was noised abroad -throughout Ionia and the rest of Greece; for wherever he turned his -arms, everything turned out prosperously. He had a hundred fifty-oared -galleys, and a thousand archers. And he plundered all without -distinction; for he said that he gratified a friend more by restoring -what he had seized, than by taking nothing at all. He accordingly took -many of the islands, and many cities on the continent; he moreover -overcame in a sea-fight, and took prisoners, the Lesbians, who came to -assist the Milesians with all their forces; these, being put in chains, -dug the whole trench that surrounds the walls of Samos. - -The Lacedæmonians, arriving with a great armament, besieged Samos, -attacked the fortifications, and passed beyond the tower that faced the -sea near the suburbs; but afterward, when Polycrates himself advanced -with a large force, they were driven back, and after forty days had been -spent in besieging Samos, finding their affairs were not at all -advanced, they returned to Peloponnesus; though a groundless report got -abroad, that Polycrates coined a large quantity of the money of the -country in lead, had it gilt, and gave it to them; whereupon they took -their departure. This was the first expedition that the Lacedæmonian -Dorians undertook against Asia. - -Those of the Samians who had fomented the war against Polycrates set -sail for Siphnus when the Lacedæmonians were about to abandon them, for -they were in want of money. The Siphnians were at that time the richest -of all the islanders, having such gold and silver mines, that from the -tenth of the money accruing from them, a treasure was laid up at Delphi -equal to the richest; and they used every year to divide the product of -the mines. When they established this treasure, they asked the oracle, -whether their present prosperity would continue with them for a long -time; but the Pythian answered as follows: "When the Prytaneum in -Siphnus shall be white, and the market white-fronted, then shall there -be need of a prudent man to guard against a wooden ambush and a crimson -herald." The market and Prytaneum of the Siphnians were then adorned -with Parian marble. As soon as the Samians reached Siphnus, they sent -ambassadors to the city in a ship which, like all ships at that time, -was painted red. And this was what the Pythian meant by a wooden ambush -and a crimson herald. These ambassadors requested the Siphnians to lend -them ten talents; the Siphnians refused the loan, and the Samians -proceeded to ravage their territory. The Siphnians were beaten, and -compelled to give a hundred talents. - -[Illustration: THE OBELISK.] - -I have dwelt longer on the affairs of the Samians, because they have the -three greatest works that have been accomplished by all the Greeks. The -first is a mountain, one hundred and fifty orgyæ in height, in which is -dug a tunnel, beginning from the base, with an opening at each side. The -length of the excavation is seven stades, and the height and breadth -eight feet each; through the whole length of it is dug another -excavation twenty cubits deep, and three feet broad, through which the -water conveyed by pipes reaches the city, drawn from a copious fountain. -The architect of this excavation was a Megarian, Eupalinus, son of -Naustrophus. The second work is a mound in the sea round the harbor, in -depth about one hundred orgyæ; and in length more than two stades. The -third is a temple, the largest of all we have ever seen; of this, the -architect was Rhœcus, son of Phileus, a native. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -USURPATION OF SMERDIS THE MAGUS AND ACCESSION OF DARIUS. - - -While Cambyses, son of Cyrus, tarried in Egypt, and was acting madly, -two magi, who were brothers, revolted. One of these, Cambyses had left -steward of his palace, the other was a person very much like Smerdis, -son of Cyrus, whom Cambyses, his own brother, had put to death. The -magus Patizithes, having persuaded this man that he would manage every -thing for him, set him on the throne; and sent heralds in various -directions, particularly to Egypt, to proclaim to the army, that they -must in future obey Smerdis, son of Cyrus, and not Cambyses. The herald -who was appointed to Egypt, finding Cambyses and his army at Ecbatana in -Syria, stood in the midst and proclaimed what had been ordered by the -magus. Cambyses, believing that he spoke the truth, and that he had -himself been betrayed by Prexaspes, and that he, when sent to kill -Smerdis, had not done so, looked toward Prexaspes, and said: "Prexaspes, -hast thou thus performed the business I enjoined upon thee?" But he -answered: "Sire, it is not true that your brother Smerdis has revolted -against you, nor that you can have any quarrel, great or small, with -him. For I myself put your order into execution, and buried him with my -own hands. I think I understand the whole matter, O king: the magi are -the persons who have revolted against you,—Patizithes, whom you left -steward of the palace, and his brother Smerdis." When Cambyses heard the -name of Smerdis, the truth of this account and of the dream struck him: -for he fancied in his sleep that some one announced to him that Smerdis, -seated on the royal throne, touched the heavens with his head. -Perceiving, therefore, that he had destroyed his brother without a -cause, he wept bitterly for him, deplored the whole calamity, and leapt -upon his horse, resolving with all speed to march to Susa against the -magus. But as he was leaping on his horse, the chape of his sword's -scabbard fell off, and the blade, being laid bare, struck the thigh; -wounding him in that part where he himself had formerly smitten the -Egyptian god Apis. Mortally wounded, he asked what was the name of the -city. They said it was Ecbatana. And it had been before prophesied to -him from the city of Buto, that he should end his life in Ecbatana. He -had imagined that he should die an old man in Ecbatana of Media, where -all his treasures were; but the oracle in truth meant in Ecbatana of -Syria. When he had thus been informed of the name of the city, though -smitten by misfortune, he returned to his right mind; and comprehending -the oracle, said: "Here it is fated that Cambyses, son of Cyrus, should -die." - -Twenty days later he summoned the principal men of the Persians who were -with him, told them his vision and his great mistake, shed bitter tears, -and charged them never to permit the government to return into the hands -of the Medes. When the Persians saw their king weep, all rent the -garments they had on, and gave themselves up to lamentation. Soon the -bone became infected, the thigh mortified, and Cambyses, son of Cyrus, -died, after he had reigned in all seven years and five months, having -never had any children. Great incredulity stole over the Persians who -were present, as to the story that the magi had possession of the -government, and agreed that it must be Smerdis, son of Cyrus, who had -risen up and seized the kingdom. Prexaspes, moreover, vehemently denied -that he had killed Smerdis; for it was not safe for him, now that -Cambyses was dead, to own that he had killed the son of Cyrus with his -own hand. - -The magus, after the death of Cambyses, relying on his having the same -name as Smerdis the son of Cyrus, reigned securely during the seven -months that remained to complete the eighth year of Cambyses; in which -time he treated all his subjects with such beneficence, that at his -death, all the people of Asia, except the Persians, regretted his loss. -For the magus, on assuming the sovereignty, despatched messengers to -every nation he ruled over, and proclaimed a general exemption from -military service and tribute for the space of three years. But in the -eighth month he was discovered in the following manner. Otanes, son of -Pharnaspes, was by birth and fortune equal to the first of the Persians. -This Otanes first suspected the magus not to be Smerdis the son of -Cyrus, from the fact, that he never went out of the citadel, and that he -never summoned any of the principal men of Persia to his presence. -Having conceived suspicion of him, he contrived the following artifice. -Cambyses had married his daughter, whose name was Phædyma; the magus of -course had her as his wife, as well as all the rest of the wives of -Cambyses. Otanes therefore, sending to his daughter, inquired whether -her husband was Smerdis, son of Cyrus, or some other person; she sent -back word to him, saying that she did not know. Otanes sent a second -time, saying: "If you do not yourself know Smerdis, son of Cyrus, then -inquire of Atossa, for she must of necessity know her own brother." To -this his daughter replied: "I can neither have any conversation with -Atossa, nor see any of the women who used to live with me; for as soon -as this man, whoever he is, succeeded to the throne, he dispersed us -all, assigning us separate apartments." When Otanes heard this, the -matter appeared much more plain; and he sent a third message to her in -these words: "Daughter, it becomes you, being of noble birth, to -undertake any peril that your father may require you to incur. For if -this Smerdis is not the son of Cyrus, but the person whom I suspect, it -is not fit that he should escape with impunity, but suffer the -punishment due to his offences. Now follow my directions: watch your -opportunity, and whenever you discover him to be sound asleep, touch his -ears; and if you find he has ears, be assured that he is Smerdis, son of -Cyrus; but if he has none, then he is Smerdis the magus." To this -message Phædyma answered, saying "that she should incur very great -danger by doing so; for he kept the sides of his head concealed, and if -he had no ears, and she should be discovered touching him, she well knew -that he would put her to death; nevertheless she would make the -attempt." Cyrus, during his reign, had cut off the ears of this Smerdis -the magus, for some grave offence. Phædyma, therefore, determining to -execute all that she had promised her father, catching the magus sound -asleep on his couch one day felt for his ears, and perceiving without -any difficulty that the man had no ears, as soon as it was day, she sent -and made known to her father what the case was. - -Thereupon Otanes, having taken with him Aspathines and Gobryas, who were -the noblest of the Persians, and persons on whom he could best rely, -related to them the whole affair; and they agreed that each should -associate with himself a Persian in whom he could place most reliance. -Otanes accordingly introduced Intaphernes; Gobryas, Megabyzus; and -Aspathines, Hydarnes. Just at this time Darius, son of Hystaspes, -arrived at Susa from Persia, where his father was governor, and the six -Persians determined to admit Darius to the confederacy. These seven met, -exchanged pledges with each other, and conferred together. When it came -to the turn of Darius to declare his opinion, he addressed them as -follows: "I thought that I was the only person who knew that it was the -magus who reigns, and that Smerdis, son of Cyrus, is dead; and for this -very reason I hastened hither in order to contrive the death of the -magus. But since it proves that you also are acquainted with the fact, -it appears to me that we should act immediately." Otanes said to this: -"Son of Hystaspes, you are born of a noble father, and show yourself not -at all inferior to him; do not, however, so inconsiderately hasten this -enterprise, but set about it with more caution; for we must increase our -numbers, and then attempt it." Darius replied to this: "Be assured, ye -men who are here present, if you adopt the plan proposed by Otanes, you -will all miserably perish; for some one will discover it to the magus, -consulting his own private advantage; indeed, you ought to have carried -out your project immediately, without communicating it to any one else; -but since you have thought fit to refer it to others, and have disclosed -it to me, let us carry it out this very day, or be assured, that if this -day passes over, no one shall be beforehand with me and become my -accuser, but I myself will denounce you to the magus." Otanes, seeing -Darius so eager, replied: "Since you compel us to precipitate our -enterprise, and will not permit us to defer it, tell us in what way we -are to enter the palace and attack him; for you yourself know that -guards are stationed at intervals; and how shall we pass them?" "There -are many things," said Darius, "that can not be made clear by words, but -may by action; and there are other things that seem practicable in -description, but no signal effect proceeds from them. Be assured that -the guards stationed there will not be at all difficult to pass by: for -in the first place, seeing our rank, there is no one who will not allow -us to pass, partly from respect, and partly from fear; and in the next -place, I have a most specious pretext by which we shall gain admission, -for I will say that I have just arrived from Persia, and wish to report -a message to the king from my father. For when a lie must be told, let -it be told. Whoever of the doorkeepers shall willingly let us pass, -shall be rewarded in due time; but whoever offers to oppose us must -instantly be treated as an enemy." After this Gobryas said: "Friends, -shall we ever have a better opportunity to recover the sovereign power, -or if we shall be unable to do so, to die? seeing we who are Persians, -are governed by an earless Medic magus. Those among you who were present -with Cambyses when he lay sick, well remember the imprecations he -uttered at the point of death against the Persians, if they should not -attempt to repossess themselves of the sovereign power: we did not then -believe this story, but thought that Cambyses spoke from ill-will. I -give my voice that we yield to Darius, and that on breaking up this -conference we go direct to the magus." And all assented to his proposal. - -Meantime the magi, on consultation, determined to make Prexaspes their -friend: both because he had suffered grievous wrong from Cambyses, who -shot his son dead with an arrow; and because he alone of all the -Persians knew of the death of Smerdis, son of Cyrus, as he had -despatched him with his own hand; and moreover, Prexaspes was in high -repute with the Persians. Therefore, having sent for Prexaspes, they -endeavored to win his friendship, binding him by pledges and oaths, that -he would never divulge to any man the cheat they had put upon the -Persians, assuring him that in return they would give him every thing -his heart could desire. When Prexaspes had promised that he would do as -the magi wished, they made a second proposal, saying, that they would -assemble all the Persians under the walls of the palace, and desired -that he would ascend a tower, and assure them that they were governed by -Smerdis, son of Cyrus. Prexaspes assented, and the magi, having convoked -the Persians, placed him on the top of a turret, and commanded him to -harangue the people. But he purposely forgot what they desired him to -say, and, beginning from Achæmenes, described the genealogy of Cyrus' -family; told them what great benefits Cyrus had done the Persians; and -finally declared the whole truth, saying that he had before concealed -it, as it was not safe for him to tell what had happened; but that in -the present emergency necessity constrained him to make it known. He -accordingly told them that he, being compelled by Cambyses, had put -Smerdis, son of Cyrus, to death, and that it was the magi who then -reigned. After he had uttered many imprecations against the Persians, if -they should not recover back the sovereign power, and punish the magi, -he threw himself headlong from the tower. Thus died Prexaspes, a man -highly esteemed during the course of his whole life. - -[Illustration: MAMELUKE TOMB, CAIRO.] - -The seven Persians, resolving to attack the magi without delay, had -offered prayers to the gods, and were in the midst of their way when -they were informed of all that Prexaspes had done, whereupon they again -conferred together; and some, with Otanes, strongly advised to defer the -enterprise while affairs were in such a ferment; but others, with -Darius, urged to proceed at once. While hotly disputing there appeared -seven pairs of hawks pursuing two pairs of vultures, and plucking and -tearing them. The seven, on seeing this, all approved the opinion of -Darius, and forthwith proceeded to the palace, emboldened by the omen. -When they approached the gates, it happened as Darius had supposed; for -the guards, out of respect for men of highest rank among the Persians, -and not suspecting any such design on their part, let them pass by, -moved as they were by divine impulse; nor did any one question them. But -when they reached the hall, they fell in with the eunuchs appointed to -carry in messages, who inquired of them for what purpose they had come; -and at the same time that they questioned them they threatened the -doorkeepers for permitting them to pass, and endeavored to prevent the -seven from proceeding any farther. They instantly drew their daggers, -stabbed all that opposed their passage on the spot, and then rushed to -the men's apartment. The magi happened to be both within at the time, -and were consulting about the conduct of Prexaspes. But seeing the -eunuchs in confusion, and hearing their outcry, they hurried out, and -put themselves on the defensive. One snatched up a bow, and the other a -javelin, and the parties engaged with each other. The one who had taken -up the bow, seeing his enemies were near and pressing upon them, found -it of no use; but the other made resistance with his spear, and first -wounded Aspathines in the thigh, and next Intaphernes in the eye; and -Intaphernes lost his eye from the wound, but did not die. The other -magus, when he found his bow of no service, fled to a chamber adjoining -the men's apartment, purposing to shut to the door, and two of the -seven, Darius and Gobryas, rushed in with him; and as Gobryas was -grappling with the magus, Darius standing by was in perplexity, fearing -that he should strike Gobryas in the dark; but Gobryas, seeing that he -stood by inactive, asked him why he did not use his hand. He answered: -"Fearing for you, lest I should strike you." "Never mind," said Gobryas, -"drive your sword through both of us." Darius obeyed, thrust with his -dagger, and by good fortune hit the magus. - -Having slain the magi, and cut off their heads, they left the wounded of -their own party there, as well on account of their exhaustion as to -guard the acropolis; but the other five of them, carrying the heads of -the magi, ran out with shouting and clamor, and called upon the rest of -the Persians, relating what they had done, and showing them the heads; -and at the same time they slew every one of the magi that came in their -way. The Persians, informed of what had been done by the seven, and of -the fraud of the magi, determined themselves also to do the like; and -having drawn their daggers, they slew every magus they could find; and -if the night coming on had not prevented, they would not have left a -single magus alive. This day the Persians observe in common more than -any other, and in it they celebrate a great festival, which they call -"The Slaughter of the Magi." On that day no magus is allowed to be seen -in public. - -When the tumult had subsided, and five days had elapsed, those who had -risen up against the magi deliberated on the state of affairs. Otanes -advised that they should commit the government to the Persians at large, -"for," said he, "how can a monarchy be a well-constituted government, -where one man is allowed to do whatever he pleases without control?" -Megabyzus advised them to intrust the government to an oligarchy, and -said: "Let us choose an association of the best men, and commit the -sovereign power to them, for among them we ourselves shall be included, -and it is reasonable to expect that the best counsels will proceed from -the best men." Darius expressed his opinion the third, saying: "What -Megabyzus has said concerning the people was spoken rightly, but if -three forms are proposed, and each the best in its kind, democracy, -oligarchy, and monarchy, I contend that the last is far superior. For -nothing can be found better than one man, who is the best; since acting -upon equally wise plans, he would govern the people without blame, and -would keep his designs most secret from the ill-affected. But in an -oligarchy, whilst many are exerting their energies for the public good, -strong private enmities commonly spring up; for each wishing to be -chief, and to carry his own opinions, they come to deep animosities one -against another, whence seditions arise; and from seditions, murder; and -from murder recourse is always had to a monarchy; and thus it is proved -that this form of government is the best. Also when the people rule, it -is impossible that evil should not spring up, and powerful combinations, -for they who injure the commonwealth act in concert; and this lasts -until some one of the people stands forward and puts them down; and on -this account, being admired by the people, he becomes a monarch; this -again shows that a monarchy is best. Moreover, we should not subvert the -institutions of our ancestors, when we see how good they are." - -Four of the seven adhered to this opinion. Then said Otanes: -"Associates, since it is evident that some one of us must be made king, -I will not enter into competition with you; for I wish neither to govern -nor be governed. But on this condition I give up all claim to the -government, that neither I nor any of my posterity may be subject to any -one of you." The six agreed to these terms, and he withdrew from the -assembly; and this family alone, of all the Persians, retains its -liberty to this day, and yields obedience only so far as it pleases, but -without transgressing the laws of the Persians. The rest of the seven -consulted how they might appoint a king on the most equitable terms; and -they determined that Otanes and his posterity forever should be given a -Median vest yearly, by way of distinction, together with all such -presents as are accounted most honorable among the Persians, for he -first advised the enterprise, and associated them together. And they -made the resolution that every one of the seven should have liberty to -enter into the palace without being introduced, and that the king should -not be allowed to marry a wife out of any other family than of the -conspirators. With regard to the kingdom, they determined that he whose -horse should first neigh in the suburbs at sunrise, while they were -mounted, should have the kingdom. - -Darius had a groom, a shrewd man, whose name was Œbares, to whom, when -the assembly had broken up, Darius said: "Œbares, we have determined -that he whose horse shall neigh first at sunrise, when we ourselves are -mounted, is to have the kingdom. Now, if you have any ingenuity, -contrive that I may obtain this honor, and not another." Œbares -answered: "If, sir, it depends on this, whether you shall be king or -not, keep up your spirits; for no one else shall be king before you; I -know a trick that will make him neigh." At dawn of day, the six, as they -had agreed, met together on horseback; and as they were riding round the -suburbs, Darius' horse, at the signal from Œbares, ran forward and -neighed, and at that instant lightning and thunder came from a clear -sky. These things consummated the auspices, as if done by appointment, -and the others, dismounting from their horses, did obeisance to Darius -as king. - -[Illustration: EGYPTIAN WAR CHARIOT, WARRIOR AND HORSES.] - -Accordingly Darius, son of Hystaspes, was declared king, and all the -people of Asia, except the Arabians, were subject to him. The Arabians -never submitted to the Persian yoke, but were on friendly terms, and -gave Cambyses a free passage into Egypt; for without the consent of the -Arabians the Persians could not have penetrated into Egypt. Darius -contracted his first marriages with Persians; he married two daughters -of Cyrus, Atossa and Artystona; Atossa, you remember, had been before -married to her brother Cambyses, and afterward to the magus. He married -another also, daughter of Smerdis, son of Cyrus, whose name was Parmys; -and he had besides, the daughter of Otanes who detected the magus. His -power was fully established on all sides. He erected a stone statue, -representing a man on horseback; and he had engraved on it the following -inscription: "Darius, son of Hystaspes, by the sagacity of his horse, -(here mentioning the name,) and by the address of Œbares, his groom, -obtained the empire of the Persians." In Persia, he constituted twenty -governments, which they call satrapies; set governors over them, and -appointed tributes to be paid to him from each. In consequence of this -imposition of tribute, and other things of a similar kind, the Persians -say Darius was a trader, Cambyses a master, and Cyrus a father. The -first, because he made profit of every thing; the second, because he was -severe and arrogant; the last, because he was mild, and always aimed at -the good of his people. If the total of all his revenues is computed -together, fourteen thousand five hundred and sixty Euboic talents were -collected by Darius as an annual tribute,[18] passing over many small -sums which I do not mention. This tribute accrued to Darius from Asia -and a small part of Libya; but in the course of time another revenue -accrued from the islands, and the inhabitants of Europe as far as -Thessaly. This treasure the king melts and pours into earthen jars, and -knocking away the earthen mould when he wants money he cuts off as much -as he has occasion to use. - -The Cilicians were required to send each year to Darius three hundred -and sixty white horses, one for every day. The Persian territory alone -was not subject to tribute; but the Persians brought gifts. The -Ethiopians bordering on Egypt, whom Cambyses subdued when he marched -against the Macrobian Ethiopians, and who dwell about the sacred city of -Nysa, celebrate festivals of Bacchus, use the same grain as the -Calantian Indians, and live in subterraneous dwellings. These brought -every third year two chœnices of unmolten gold, two hundred blocks of -ebony, five Ethiopian boys, and twenty large elephants' tusks. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -INDIANS, ARABIANS, AND ETHIOPIANS. - - -That part of India toward the rising sun is all sand; for of the people -with whom we are acquainted, and of whom any thing certain is told, the -Indians live the farthest toward the east of all the inhabitants of -Asia; and the Indians' country toward the east is a desert, by reason of -the sands. There are many nations of Indians, and they do not all speak -the same language; some of them are nomads, and they inhabit the marshes -of the river, and feed on raw fish, which they take going out in boats -made of bamboo, one joint of which makes a boat. These Indians wear a -garment made of rushes cut from the river, beaten flat, platted like a -mat, and worn as a corselet. Other Indians, living to the east of these, -are nomads, and eat raw flesh; they are called Padæans. When any one of -this community is sick, if it be a man, the men who are his nearest -connections put him to death, alleging that if he wasted by disease his -flesh would be spoiled; and no matter if he denies that he is sick, they -are not likely to agree with him, but kill and feast upon him. And if a -woman be sick, the women who are most intimate with her do the same as -the men. And whoever reaches to old age, they sacrifice and feast upon; -but few among them succeed in growing old, for before that, every one -that falls into any distemper is put to death. Other Indians have -different customs: they neither kill any thing that has life, nor sow -any thing, nor are they wont to have houses, but they live upon herbs, -and have a grain of the size of millet, in a pod, which springs -spontaneously from the earth; this they gather, and boil and eat it with -the pod. When any one of them falls ill, he goes and lies down in the -desert, and no one takes any thought about him, whether dead or sick. -All these Indians whom I have mentioned have a complexion closely -resembling the Ethiopians. They are situated very far from the Persians, -toward the south, and were never subject to Darius. - -Those who border on the city of Caspatyrus and the country of Pactyica -are the most warlike of the Indians, and these are they who are sent to -procure the gold. In this desert, and in the sand, there are ants in -size somewhat less indeed than dogs, but larger than foxes. Some of them -which were taken there, are in the possession of the king of the -Persians. These ants, forming their habitations under ground, heap up -the sand, as the ants in Greece do, and in the same manner; and they are -very much like them in shape. The sand thus heaped up is mixed with -gold. The Indians go to the desert to get this sand, each man having -three camels, on either side a male harnessed to draw by the side, and a -female in the middle; this last the man mounts himself, having taken -care to yoke one that has been separated from her young as recently born -as possible; for camels are not inferior to horses in swiftness, and are -much better able to carry burdens. What kind of figure the camel has I -shall not describe to the Greeks, as they are acquainted with it; but -what is not known respecting it I will mention. A camel has four thighs -and four knees in his hinder legs. The Indians then, adopting such a -plan of harnessing, set out for the gold, having before calculated the -time, so as to be engaged in their plunder during the hottest part of -the day, for during the heat the ants hide themselves under ground. -Amongst these people the sun is hottest in the morning, and not, as with -us, at mid-day; during this time it scorches much more than at mid-day -in Greece; so that, it is said, they then refresh themselves in water. -But as the day declines, the sun becomes to them as it is in the morning -to others; and after this, as it proceeds it becomes still colder, until -sunset, then it is very cold. When the Indians arrive at the spot with -their sacks, they fill them with the sand, and return as fast as -possible. For the ants, as the Persians say, immediately discovering -them by the smell, pursue them, and they are equalled in swiftness by no -other animal, so that if the Indians did not get the start of the ants -while they were assembling, not a man of them could be saved. Now the -male camels (for they are inferior in speed to the females) would -otherwise slacken their pace, dragging on, not both equally; but the -females, mindful of the young they have left, do not slacken their pace. -Thus the Indians obtain the greatest part of their gold. - -[Illustration: MILITARY DRUM.] - -The extreme parts of the inhabited world somehow possess the most -excellent products; while Greece enjoys by far the best-tempered -climate. In India, the farthest part of the inhabited world toward the -east, all animals, both quadrupeds and birds, are much larger than they -are in other countries, with the exception of horses; in this respect -they are surpassed by the Medic breed called the Nysæan horses. Then -there is an abundance of gold there, partly dug, partly brought down by -the rivers, and partly seized in the manner I have described. And -certain wild trees there bear wool instead of fruit, which in beauty and -quality excels that of sheep; and the Indians make their clothing from -these trees. Again, Arabia is the farthest of inhabited countries toward -the south; and this is the only region in which grow frankincense, -myrrh, cassia, cinnamon, and ledanum. All these, except myrrh, the -Arabians gather with difficulty. The frankincense they gather by burning -styrax, which the Phœnicians import into Greece. Winged serpents, small -in size, and various in form, guard the trees that bear frankincense, a -great number round each tree. These are the same serpents that invade -Egypt. They are driven from the trees by nothing else but the smoke of -the styrax. Vipers are found in all parts of the world; but flying -serpents in Arabia, and nowhere else; there they appear to be very -numerous. - -The Arabians obtain the cassia, which grows in marshes or shallow lakes, -by covering their whole body and face, except the eyes, with hides and -skins, and thus avoiding the attacks of the winged animals, like bats, -which infest the marshes, and screech fearfully, and are exceedingly -fierce. The cinnamon they collect in a still more wonderful manner. -Where it grows and what land produces it they are unable to tell; except -that some say it grows in those countries in which Bacchus was nursed. -Large birds bring those rolls of bark, which we, from the Phœnicians, -call cinnamon, for their nests, which are built with clay, against -precipitous mountains, where there is no access for man. The Arabians, -to surmount this difficulty, cut up into large pieces the limbs of dead -oxen, and asses, and other beasts of burden, carry them to these spots, -lay them near the nests, and retire to a distance. The birds fly down -and carry up the limbs of the beasts to their nests, which not being -strong enough to support the weight, break and fall to the ground. Then -the men, coming up, gather the cinnamon, much of which they export to -other countries. Still more wonderful is the fragrant ledanum. For it is -found sticking like gum to the beards of he-goats, which collect it from -the wood. It is useful for many ointments, and the Arabians burn it very -generally as a perfume. They are famous for their perfumes; and there -breathes from Arabia, as it were, a divine odor. They have two kinds of -sheep worthy of admiration, which are seen nowhere else. One kind has -large tails, not less than three cubits in length, which, if suffered to -trail, would ulcerate, by the tails rubbing on the ground. But every -shepherd knows enough of the carpenter's art to prevent this, for they -make little carts and fasten them under the tails, binding the tail of -each separate sheep to a separate cart. The other kind of sheep have -broad tails, even to a cubit in breadth. Where the meridian declines[19] -toward the setting sun, the Ethiopian territory extends, being the -extreme part of the habitable world. It produces much gold, huge -elephants, wild trees of all kinds, ebony, and men of large stature, -very handsome, and long-lived. - -Such are the extremities of Asia and Libya. Concerning the western -extremities of Europe I am unable to speak with certainty, for I do not -admit that there is a river, called by barbarians Eridanus, which -discharges itself into the sea toward the north, from which amber is -said to come; nor am I acquainted with the Cassiterides Islands, whence -our tin comes. For in the first place, the name Eridanus shows that it -is Grecian and not barbarian, and coined by some poet; in the next -place, though I have diligently inquired, I have never been able to hear -from any man who has himself seen it, that there is a sea on that side -of Europe. However, both tin and amber come to us from the remotest -parts. Toward the north of Europe there is evidently a very great -quantity of gold, but how procured I am unable to say with certainty; -though it is said that the Arimaspians, a one-eyed people, steal it from -the griffins. Nor do I believe this, that any men are born with one eye, -and yet in other respects resemble the rest of mankind. However, the -extremities of the world seem to surround and enclose the rest of the -earth, and to possess those productions which we account most excellent -and rare. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -REIGN OF DARIUS TO THE TAKING OF BABYLON. - - -Of the seven men that conspired against the magus, it happened that one -of them, Intaphernes, by an act of insolence, lost his life shortly -after the revolution. He wished to enter the palace in order to confer -with Darius; but the door-keeper and the messenger would not let him -pass, saying, that the king was engaged, but Intaphernes, suspecting -they told a falsehood, drew his scimetar, cut off their ears and noses, -and having strung them to straps taken from his bridle, hung them round -their necks, and dismissed them. They presented themselves to the king, -and told him the cause for which they had been so treated. Darius, -fearing lest the six had done this in concert, sent for them, one by -one, and endeavored to discover whether they approved of what had been -done. When he found that Intaphernes had not done this with their -knowledge, he seized Intaphernes himself, and his children, and all his -family, having many reasons to suspect that he, with his relations, -would raise a rebellion against him. And he bound them as for death: but -the wife of Intaphernes, going to the gates of the palace, wept and -lamented aloud; and prevailed on Darius to have compassion on her. He -therefore sent a messenger to say as follows: "Madam, king Darius allows -you to release one of your relations who are now in prison, whichever of -them all you please." She deliberated, and answered: "Since the king -grants me the life of one, I choose my brother from them all." Darius, -wondering at her choice, asked: "Madam, the king inquires the reason -why, leaving your husband and children, you have chosen that your -brother should survive; who is not so near related to you as your -children, and less dear to you than your husband?" "O king," she -answered, "I may have another husband if God will, and other children if -I lose these; but as my father and mother are no longer alive, I cannot -by any means have another brother; for this reason I spoke as I did." -This pleased Darius so well that he granted to her the one whom she -asked, and also her eldest son; all the rest he put to death. - -[Illustration: ALPHABET.] - -It happened not long after this that Darius, in leaping from his horse -while hunting, twisted his foot with such violence that the ankle-bone -was dislocated. At first thinking he had about him Egyptians who had the -first reputation for skill in the healing art, he made use of their -assistance. But they, by twisting the foot, and using force, made the -evil worse; and from the pain which he felt, Darius lay seven days and -seven nights without sleep. On the eighth day, as he still continued in -a bad state, some one who had before heard at Sardis of the skill of -Democedes the Crotonian, made it known to Darius; and he ordered them to -bring him to him as quickly as possible. They found him among the slaves -altogether neglected; and brought him forward, dragging fetters behind -him, and clothed in rags. As he stood before him, Darius asked him -whether he understood the art. He denied that he did, fearing lest, if -he discovered himself, he should be altogether precluded from returning -to Greece. But he appeared to Darius to dissemble, although he was -skilled in the art; he therefore commanded those who had brought him -thither to bring out whips and goads. Whereupon he owned up, saying that -he did not know it perfectly, but having been intimate with a physician, -he had some poor knowledge of the art. Upon which Darius put himself -under his care, and by using Grecian medicines, and applying lenitives -after violent remedies, he caused him to sleep, and in a little time -restored him to his health, though Darius had begun to despair of ever -recovering the use of his foot. After this cure, Darius presented him -with two pairs of golden fetters; but Democedes asked him, if he -purposely gave him a double evil because he had restored him to health. -Darius, pleased with the speech, introduced him to his wives, with the -remark that this was the man who had saved the king's life; whereupon -each of them dipped a goblet into a chest of gold, and presented it -brimful to Democedes—so munificent a gift, that a servant named Sciton, -following behind, picked up enough staters that fell from the goblets to -make him a rich man. - -This Democedes had been so harshly treated at Crotona by his father, who -was of a severe temper, that he left him and went to Ægina; having -settled there, in the first year, though he was unprovided with means, -and had none of the instruments necessary for the exercise of his art, -he surpassed the most skilful of their physicians. In the second year, -the Æginetæ engaged him for a talent out of the public treasury; and in -the third year the Athenians, for a hundred minæ; and in the fourth year -Polycrates, for two talents; thus he came to Samos. From this man the -Crotonian physicians obtained a great reputation; for at this period the -physicians of Crotona were said to be the first throughout Greece, and -the Cyrenæans the second. At the same time the Argives were accounted -the most skilful of the Greeks in the art of music. Democedes, having -completely cured Darius at Susa, had a very large house, and a seat at -the king's table; and he had every thing he could wish for, except the -liberty of returning to Greece. He obtained from the king a pardon for -the Egyptian physicians who first attended the king, and were about to -be empaled, because they had been outdone by a Greek physician; and in -the next place he procured the liberty of a prophet of Elis, who had -attended Polycrates, and lay neglected among the slaves. In short, -Democedes had great influence with the king. - -Not long after Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, and wife to Darius, had a -tumor on her breast; after some time it burst, and spread considerably. -As long as it was small, she concealed it, and from delicacy informed no -one of it; when it became dangerous, she sent for Democedes and showed -it to him. He said that he could cure her, but exacted a solemn promise, -that she in return would perform for him whatever he should require of -her, but added that he would ask nothing which might bring disgrace on -her. When therefore he had healed her, and restored her to health, -Atossa, instructed by Democedes, addressed Darius, in the following -words: "O king, you, who possess so great power, sit idle, and do not -add any nation or power to the Persians. It is right that a man who is -both young and master of such vast treasures should render himself -considerable by his actions, that the Persians may know that they are -governed by a man. Two motives should influence you, to such a course: -first, that the Persians may know that it is a worthy man who rules over -them; and secondly, that they may be worn in war, and not tempted by too -much ease to plot against you. You must perform some illustrious action -while you are in the flower of your age; for the mind grows with the -growth of the body, and as it grows old, grows old with it, and dull for -every action." She spoke thus according to her instructions, and he -answered: "Lady, you have mentioned the very things that I myself -propose to do; for I have determined to make a bridge and march from -this continent to the other, against the Scythians; and this shall -shortly be put in execution." Atossa replied: "Give up the thought of -marching first against the Scythians, for they will be in your power -whenever you choose; but take my advice, and lead an army into Greece; -for from the account I have heard, I am anxious to have Lacedæmonian, -Argive, Athenian, and Corinthian attendants: and you have the fittest -man in the world to show and inform you of every thing concerning -Greece; I mean the person who cured your foot." Said Darius: "Well, -since you think I ought to make my first attempt against Greece, I think -it better first to send some Persians thither as spies with the man you -mention; they, when they are informed of and have seen every particular, -will make a report to me; and then, being thoroughly informed, I will -turn my arms against them." No sooner said than done; for as soon as day -dawned, he summoned fifteen eminent Persians, and commanded them to -accompany Democedes along the maritime parts of Greece; and to take care -that Democedes did not escape from them, but they must by all means -bring him back again. He next summoned Democedes himself, and requested -that when he should have conducted the Persians through all Greece, and -shown it to them, to return; he also commanded him to take with him all -his movables as presents to his father and brothers, promising to give -him many times as much instead. Moreover, he said, that for the purpose -of transporting the presents he would give a merchant-ship, filled with -all kinds of precious things, which should accompany him on his voyage. -Now Darius, in my opinion, promised him these things without any -deceitful intention; but Democedes, fearing lest Darius was making trial -of him, received all that was given, without eagerness, but said that he -would leave his own goods where they were, that he might have them on -his return; the merchant-ship he said he would accept. - -In Sidon, a city of Phœnicia, they manned two triremes, and with them -also a large trading vessel, laden with all kinds of precious things; -and set sail for Greece. Keeping to the shore, they surveyed the coasts, -and made notes in writing; at length, having inspected the greatest part -of it, and whatever was most remarkable, they proceeded to Tarentum in -Italy. There, out of kindness toward Democedes, Aristophilides, king of -the Tarentines, took off the rudders of the Median ships, and shut up -the Persians as spies. While they were in this condition Democedes went -to Crotona and when he had reached his own home, Aristophilides set the -Persians at liberty, and restored what he had taken from their ships. -The Persians pursuing Democedes, arrived at Crotona, found him in the -public market, and laid hands on him. Some of the Crotonians, dreading -the Persian power, were ready to deliver him up; but others seized the -Persians in turn, and beat them with staves, though they expostulated in -these terms: "Men of Crotona, have a care what you do, you are rescuing -a man who is a runaway from the king; how will king Darius endure to be -thus insulted? How can what you do end well, if you force this man from -us? What city shall we sooner attack than this? What sooner shall we -endeavor to reduce to slavery?" But they could not persuade the -Crotonians; so launching a small boat they sailed back to Asia; nor, as -they were deprived of their guide, did they attempt to explore Greece -any further. At their departure Democedes enjoined them to tell Darius -that he had Milo's daughter affianced to him as his wife, for the name -of Milo, the wrestler, stood high with the king; and on this account it -appears to me that Democedes spared no expense to hasten this marriage, -that he might appear to Darius to be a man of consequence in his own -country. - -After these things, king Darius took Samos, first of all the cities, -either Grecian or barbarian, and for the following reason. When -Cambyses, son of Cyrus, invaded Egypt, many Greeks resorted thither; -some, as one may conjecture, on account of trade; others, to serve as -soldiers; others, to view the country. Of these, the last was Syloson, -son of Æaces, brother to Polycrates, and an exile from Samos. The -following piece of good luck befel this Syloson: having put on a scarlet -cloak, he walked in the streets of Memphis; and Darius, who was one of -Cambyses' guard, and as yet a man of no great account, took a fancy to -the cloak, and coming up, wished to purchase it. But Syloson, perceiving -that Darius was very anxious to have the cloak, impelled by a divine -impulse, said: "I will not sell it for any sum, but I will give it you -for nothing, if so it must needs be." Darius accepted his offer with -thanks and took the cloak. Syloson thought afterward that he had lost it -through his good nature, but when, in course of time, Cambyses died, and -the seven rose up against the magus, and of the seven, Darius possessed -the throne, Syloson heard that the kingdom had devolved on the man to -whom he had given his cloak in Egypt on his requesting it; so he went up -to Susa and seated himself at the threshold of the king's palace, and -said he had been a benefactor to Darius. The porter reported it to the -king; who said: "What Greek is my benefactor, to whom I owe a debt of -gratitude, having so lately come to the throne? Scarcely one of them has -as yet come here; nor can I mention any thing that I owe to a Greek. -However, bring him in, that I may know the meaning of what he says." The -porter introduced Syloson, who related the story of the cloak, and said -that he was the person who gave it. "Most generous of men!" exclaimed -the king, "art thou then the man who, when as yet I had no power, made -me a present, small as it was? yet the obligation is the same as if I -were now to receive a thing of great value. In return I will give thee -abundance of gold and silver, so that thou shalt never repent having -conferred a favor on Darius son of Hystaspes." To this Syloson replied: -"O king, give me neither gold nor silver; but recover and give me back -my country, Samos, which now, since my brother Polycrates died by the -hands of Orœtes, a slave of ours has possessed. Give me this without -bloodshed and bondage." Then Darius sent an army under the conduct of -Otanes, one of the seven, with orders to accomplish whatever Syloson -should desire. - -Mæandrius held the government of Samos, having had the administration -intrusted to him by Polycrates: though he wished to prove himself the -most just of men, he was unable to effect his purpose. For when the -death of Polycrates was made known to him, he erected an altar to -Jupiter Liberator, and marked round it the sacred enclosure, which is -now in the suburbs. Afterward, he summoned an assembly of all the -citizens, and said: "To me, as you know, the sceptre and all the power -of Polycrates has been intrusted, and I am now able to retain the -government. But what I condemn in another, I will myself, to the utmost -of my ability, abstain from doing. For neither did Polycrates please me -in exercising despotic power over men equal to himself, nor would any -other who should do the like. Now Polycrates has accomplished his fate; -and I, surrendering the government into your hands, proclaim equality to -all. I require, however, that the following remuneration should be -granted to myself; that six talents should be given me out of the -treasures of Polycrates; and in addition, I claim for myself and my -descendants for ever, the priesthood of the temple of Jupiter Liberator, -to whom I have erected an altar, and under whose auspices I restore to -you your liberties." But one of them rising up said, "You forsooth are -not worthy to rule over us, being as you are a base and pestilent -fellow; rather think how you will render an account of the wealth that -you have had the management of." Thus spoke a man of eminence among the -citizens, whose name was Telesarchus. But Mæandrius, perceiving that if -he should lay down the power, some other would set himself up as a -tyrant in his place, no longer thought of laying it down. To which end, -when he had withdrawn to the citadel, sending for each one severally, as -if about to give an account of the treasures, he seized them and put -them in chains. They were kept in confinement; but after this, disease -attacked Mæandrius; and his brother, whose name was Lycaretus, supposing -that he would die, in order that he might the more easily possess -himself of the government of Samos, put all the prisoners to death; for, -as it seems, they were not willing to be free. - -When the Persians arrived at Samos, bringing Syloson with them, no one -raised a hand against them, and the partisans of Mæandrius, and -Mæandrius himself, said they were ready to quit the island under a -treaty; and when Otanes had assented to this, and had ratified the -agreement, the principal men of the Persians, having had seats placed -for them, sat down opposite the citadel. The tyrant Mæandrius had a -brother somewhat out of his senses, whose name was Charilaus; he, for -some fault he had committed, was confined in a dungeon; and having at -that time overheard what was doing, and having peeped through his -dungeon, when he saw the Persians sitting quietly down, he shouted and -said that he wished to speak with Mæandrius. Mæandrius commanded him to -be released, and brought into his presence; and as soon as he was -brought there, upbraiding and reviling his brother, he urged him to -attack the Persians, saying: "Me, O vilest of men, who am your own -brother, and have done nothing worthy of bonds, you have bound and -adjudged to a dungeon; but when you see the Persians driving you out and -making you houseless, you dare not avenge yourself, though they are so -easy to be subdued. But if you are in dread of them, lend me your -auxiliaries, and I will punish them for coming here, and I am ready also -to send you out of the island." Mæandrius accepted his offer, as I -think, not that he had reached such a pitch of folly as to imagine that -his own power could overcome that of the king, but rather out of envy to -Syloson, if without a struggle he should possess himself of the city -uninjured. Having therefore provoked the Persians, he wished to make the -Samian power as weak as possible, and then give it up; being well -assured that the Persians, if they suffered any ill-treatment, would be -exasperated against the Samians; and knowing also that he himself had a -safe retreat from the island, whenever he chose, for he had had a secret -passage dug leading from the citadel to the sea. Accordingly Mæandrius -himself sailed away from Samos; but Charilaus armed all the auxiliaries, -threw open the gates, sallied out upon the Persians, who did not expect -any thing of the kind, and slew those of the Persians who were seated in -chairs, and who were the principal men among them. But the rest of the -Persian army came to their assistance, and the auxiliaries, being hard -pressed, were shut up again within the citadel. But Otanes, the general, -when he saw that the Persians had suffered great loss, purposely -neglected to obey the orders which Darius had given him at his -departure, that he should neither kill nor take prisoner any of the -Samians, but deliver the island to Syloson without damage; on the -contrary, he commanded his army to put to death every one they met with, -both man and child alike. Whereupon, one part of the army besieged the -citadel, and the rest killed every one that came in their way, all they -met, as well within the temples as without. Mæandrius in the meantime -sailed to Lacedæmon, and carried with him all his treasures. One day -when he had set out his silver and golden cups, his servants began to -clean them; and he, at the same time, holding a conversation with -Cleomenes, son of Anaxandrides, then king of Sparta, led him on to his -house. When the king saw the cups, he was struck with wonder and -astonishment; upon which Mæandrius bade him take whatever he pleased, -and when Mæandrius had repeated this offer two or three times, Cleomenes -showed himself a man of the highest integrity, for he refused to accept -what was offered; and being informed that by giving to other citizens he -would gain their support, he went to the Ephori, and said that it would -be better for Sparta that this Samian stranger should quit the -Peloponnesus, lest he should persuade him or some other of the Spartans -to become base. They immediately banished Mæandrius by public -proclamation. The Persians, having drawn Samos as with a net, delivered -it to Syloson, utterly destitute of inhabitants. Afterward, however, -Otanes, the general, repeopled it, in consequence of a vision in a dream. - -Whilst the naval armament was on its way to Samos, the Babylonians -revolted, having very well prepared themselves. For during all the time -the magus reigned, and the seven were rising up against him, they had -made preparations for a siege, and somehow in the confusion this had -escaped observation. But when they openly revolted they resorted to this -extraordinary means of husbanding their resources: gathering together -all the women, except their mothers, and one woman apiece, besides, whom -each one chose from his own family, they strangled them; the one woman -each man selected to cook his food, and they strangled the rest, that -they might not consume their provisions. When Darius was informed of -this, he collected all his forces, and marched against Babylon. But upon -laying siege to them he found that they were not at all solicitous about -the event, for the Babylonians mounted the ramparts, and danced, and -derided Darius and his army, and cried: "Why sit ye there, Persians? -will ye not be off? It will be a long day before you will take us." - -When the nineteenth month of the siege had passed, Zopyrus, son of that -Megabyzus, who was one of the seven who dethroned the magus, went to -Darius and asked him whether he deemed the taking of Babylon of very -great importance. Learning that he valued it at a high price, he went -away and inflicted on himself an irremediable mutilation, for he cut off -his nose and ears, chopped his hair in a disgraceful manner, scourged -himself, and then presented himself before Darius. The latter was very -much grieved when he beheld a man of high rank so mutilated, and -starting from his throne, he shouted aloud and asked who had mutilated -him, and for what cause. He answered: "O King, there is no man except -yourself who could have power to treat me thus; no stranger has done it, -but I myself, deeming it a great indignity that the Assyrians should -deride the Persians." "Foolish man," said Darius, "because you are -mutilated, will the enemy sooner submit? Have you lost your senses, that -you have thus ruined yourself?" "If I had communicated to you what I was -about to do," he answered, "you would not have permitted me, but now, if -you are not wanting to your own interests, we shall take Babylon. For I, -as I am, will desert to the city, and will tell them that I have been -thus treated by you; and I think that when I have persuaded them that -such is the case, I shall obtain the command of their army. Do you then, -on the tenth day after I shall have entered the city, station a thousand -men of that part of your army whose loss you would least regret over -against the gates called after Semiramis; again, on the seventh day -after the tenth, station two thousand more against the gate called from -Nineveh; and from the seventh day let an interval of twenty days elapse, -and then place four thousand more against the gate called from the -Chaldæans; but let them carry no defensive arms except swords. After the -twentieth day, command the rest of the army to invest the wall on all -sides, but station the Persians for me at those called the Belidian and -Cissian gates; for, as I think, when I have performed great exploits, -the Babylonians will intrust every thing to me, and, moreover, the keys -of the gates, and then it will be mine and the Persians' care to do what -remains to be done." - -[Illustration: INFANTRY DRILLED BY SERGEANT.] - -Having given these injunctions, he went to the gates, turning round as -if he were really a deserter. Those who were stationed in that quarter, -seeing him from the turrets, ran down and opened one door of the gate a -little, and asked him who he was, and for what purpose he came. He told -them that he was Zopyrus, and had deserted to them: the door-keepers -then conducted him to the assembly of the Babylonians, and standing -before them he deplored his condition, saying that he had suffered from -Darius these injuries, and that he was so treated because he had advised -to raise the siege, since there appeared no means of taking the city. -"Now, therefore," he said, "I come to you, O Babylonians, as your -greatest blessing; and to Darius, his army, and the Persians, the -greatest mischief; for he shall not escape with impunity, having thus -mutilated me; and I am acquainted with all his designs." And the -Babylonians, seeing a man of distinction among the Persians deprived of -his ears and nose, and covered with stripes and blood, thoroughly -believing that he spoke the truth, and that he had come as an ally to -them, were ready to intrust him with whatever he should ask; and he, -having obtained the command of the forces, acted as he had preconcerted -with Darius; for on the tenth he led out the army of the Babylonians, -and surrounded the thousand whom he had instructed Darius to station -there, and cut them all in pieces. Then the Babylonians, perceiving that -he performed deeds such as he promised, were ready to obey him in every -thing. He then suffered the appointed number of days to elapse, and -again selected a body of Babylonians, led them out, and slaughtered the -two thousand of Darius' soldiers. The Babylonians witnessing this action -also, all had the praises of Zopyrus on their tongues. Then he again, -after the appointed number of days had elapsed, led out his troops -according to the settled plan, surrounded the four thousand, and cut -them in pieces. And when he had accomplished this, Zopyrus was every -thing to the Babylonians, and was appointed commander-in-chief and -guardian of the walls. But when Darius, according to agreement, invested -the wall all round, then Zopyrus discovered his whole treachery; for -while the Babylonians, mounting the wall, repelled the army of Darius -that was attacking them, Zopyrus opened the Cissian and Belidian gates -and led the Persians within the wall. Those of the Babylonians who saw -what was done, fled into the temple of Jupiter Belus; and those who did -not see it, remained each at his post, until they also discovered that -they had been betrayed. - -[Illustration: LIGHT ARMED TROOPS MARCHING.] - -Thus Babylon was taken a second time. But when Darius had made himself -master of the Babylonians, first of all, he demolished the walls and -bore away all the gates, for when Cyrus had taken Babylon before, he did -neither of these things; and secondly, Darius impaled about three -thousand of the principal citizens, and allowed the rest of the -Babylonians to inhabit the city. And that the Babylonians might have -wives to take the place of those they had strangled, Darius ordered the -neighboring provinces to send women to Babylon, taxing each at a certain -number, so that a total of fifty thousand women came together; and from -these the Babylonians of our time are descended. No Persian, in the -opinion of Darius, either of those who came after, or who lived before, -surpassed Zopyrus in great achievements, Cyrus only excepted; for with -him no Persian ever ventured to compare himself. It is also reported -that Darius frequently expressed this opinion, that he would rather -Zopyrus had not suffered such ignominious treatment than acquire twenty -Babylons in addition to that he had. And he honored him exceedingly; for -he every year presented him with those gifts which are most prized by -the Persians, and he assigned him Babylon to hold free from taxes during -his life. - -[16] The Egyptian mummies could only be seen in front, the back being -covered by a box or coffin; the Ethiopian bodies could be seen all -round, as the column of glass was transparent. - -[17] Epilepsy. - -[18] Nearly $18,000,000 in all. - -[19] That is, "southwest." - - - - -_BOOK IV. MELPOMENE._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -DESCRIPTION OF SCYTHIA AND THE NEIGHBORING NATIONS. - - -After the capture of Babylon, Darius made an expedition against the -Scythians, for as Asia was flourishing in men, and large revenues came -in, Darius was desirous of revenging himself upon the Scythians, because -they had formerly invaded the Median territory, and defeated in battle -those that opposed them. For the Scythians ruled over Upper Asia for -twenty-eight years. But when those Scythians returned to their own -country, after such an interval, a task no less than the invasion of -Media awaited them; for they found an army of no inconsiderable force -ready to oppose them; the wives of the Scythians, seeing their husbands -were a long time absent, had married their slaves. The Scythians deprive -all their slaves of sight for the sake of the milk which they drink, -doing as follows: when they have taken bone tubes very like flutes, they -thrust them into the veins of the mares, and blow with their mouth; -while some blow, others milk. They say they do this because the veins of -the mare, being inflated, become filled, and the udder is depressed. -When they have finished milking, they pour the milk into hollow wooden -vessels, and having placed the blind men round about the vessels, they -agitate the milk: then they skim off that which swims on the surface, -considering it the most valuable, but that which subsides is of less -value than the other. On this account the Scythians put out the eyes of -every prisoner they take; for they are not agriculturists, but feeders -of cattle. From these slaves then and the women a race of youths had -grown up, who, when they knew their own extraction, opposed those who -were returning from Media. And first they cut off the country by digging -a wide ditch, stretching from Mount Taurus to the lake Mæotis, which is -of great extent, and afterward encamping opposite, they came to an -engagement with the Scythians, who were endeavoring to enter. When -several battles had been fought, and the Scythians were unable to obtain -any advantage, one of them said: "Men of Scythia, what are we doing? by -fighting with our slaves not only are we ourselves by being slain -becoming fewer in number, but by killing them we shall hereafter have -fewer to rule over. So it seems to me that we should lay aside our -spears and bows, and that every one, taking a horsewhip, should go -directly to them; for so long as they saw us with arms, they considered -themselves equal to us, and born of equal birth; but when they shall see -us with our whips instead of arms, they will soon learn that they are -our slaves, and will no longer resist." The Scythians adopted the advice -on the spot; and the slaves, struck with astonishment, forgot to fight, -and fled. - -As the Scythians say, theirs is the most recent of all nations. The -first man that appeared in this country, which was a wilderness, was -named Targitaus; they say that the parents of this Targitaus, in my -opinion relating what is incredible, were Jupiter and a daughter of the -river Borysthenes; and that Targitaus had three sons, who went by the -names of Lipoxais, Apovais, and Colaxais; that during their reign a -plough, a yoke, an axe, and a bowl of golden workmanship, dropping down -from heaven, fell on the Scythian territory; that the eldest, seeing -them first, approached, intending to take them up, but as he came near, -the gold began to burn; when he had retired the second went up, and it -did the same again; but when the youngest approached, the burning gold -became extinguished, and he carried the things home with him; and the -elder brothers, in consequence of this, giving way, surrendered the -whole authority to Alaxais the youngest. The Scythians reckon the whole -number of years from their beginning, from King Targitaus to the time -that Darius crossed over against them, to be just a thousand years. This -sacred gold the kings watch with the greatest care, and annually -approach it with magnificent sacrifices to render it propitious. If he -who has the sacred gold happens to fall asleep in the open air on the -festival, the Scythians say he cannot survive the year, and on this -account they give him as much land as he can ride round on horseback in -one day. The country being very extensive, Colaxais established three of -the kingdoms for his sons, and made that one the largest in which the -gold is kept. The parts beyond the north of the inhabited districts the -Scythians say can neither be seen nor passed through, by reason of the -feathers shed there; for the earth and air are so full of feathers that -the view is intercepted. With respect to these feathers I entertain the -following opinion: in the upper parts of this country it continually -snows, less in summer than in winter, as is reasonable; now, whoever has -seen snow falling thick near him, will know what I mean; for snow is -like feathers; and on account of the winter being so severe, the -northern parts of this continent are uninhabited. - -Such is the account the Scythians give of themselves, and of the country -above them; but the Greeks who inhabit Pontus give the following -account: they say that Hercules, as he was driving away the herds of -Geryon, arrived in this country, which was then a desert, and that -Geryon, fixing his abode outside the Pontus, inhabited the island which -the Greeks call Erythia, situated near Gades, beyond the columns of -Hercules in the ocean. The ocean, they say, beginning from the sunrise, -flows round the whole earth, that Hercules thence came to the country -now called Scythia, and as a storm and frost overtook him, he drew his -lion's skin over him, and went to sleep; and in the meanwhile, his -mares, which were feeding apart from his chariot, vanished by some -divine chance. They add that when Hercules awoke, he sought for them; -and that having gone over the whole country, he at length came to the -land called Hylæa; there he found a monster, having two natures, half -virgin, half viper, of which the upper parts resembled a woman, and the -lower parts a serpent: in astonishment he asked her if she had anywhere -seen his strayed mares. She said that she herself had them, and would -not restore them to him unless he would make her his wife. Hercules -agreed. She, however, delayed giving back the mares, out of a desire to -detain Hercules as long as she could; but as he was desirous of -recovering them and departing, she at last restored the mares, saying: -"These mares that strayed hither I preserved for you, but now that you -will go away and leave me, tell me what I must do with our three sons -when they are grown up; shall I establish them here, for I possess the -rule over this country, or shall I send them to you?" He replied: "When -you see the children arrived at the age of men, you cannot err if you do -this: whichever of them you see able thus to bend this bow, and thus -girding himself with this girdle, make him an inhabitant of this -country; and whichever fails in these tasks which I enjoin, send out of -the country. If you do this you will please yourself and do wisely." -Then having drawn out one of his bows, for Hercules carried two at that -time, and having shown her the belt, he gave her both the bow and the -belt, which had a golden cup at the extremity of the clasp, and -departed. When the sons had attained to the age of men she gave them -names; to the first, Agathyrsis, to the second, Gelonus, and to the -youngest, Scythes; and, in the next place, she did what had been -enjoined; and two of her sons, Agathyrsis and Gelonus, being unable to -come up to the proposed task, left the country, being expelled by their -mother; but the youngest of them, Scythes, having accomplished it, -remained there. From this Scythes, son of Hercules, are descended those -who have been successively kings of the Scythians; and from the cup, the -Scythians even to this day wear cups hung from their belts. - -Aristeas, of Proconnesus, says in his epic verses, that, inspired by -Apollo, he came to the Issedones; that beyond the Issedones dwell the -Arimaspians, a people that have only one eye; beyond them the -gold-guarding griffins; and beyond these the Hyperboreans, who reach to -the sea: that all these, except the Hyperboreans, beginning from the -Arimaspians, continually encroached upon their neighbors; that the -Issedones were expelled from their country by the Arimaspians, the -Scythians by the Issedones, and that the Cimmerians, who inhabited on -the South Sea, being pressed by the Scythians, abandoned their country. - -No one knows with certainty what is beyond the country about which this -account speaks. But as far as we have been able to arrive at the truth -with accuracy from hearsay, the whole shall be related. From the port of -the Borysthenitæ, for this is the most central part of the sea-coast of -all Scythia, the first people are the Callipidæ, being Greek-Scythians; -beyond these is another nation called Alazones. These and the Callipidæ, -in other respects, follow the usages, of the Scythians, but they both -sow and feed on wheat, onions, garlic, lentils, and millet; but beyond -the Alazones dwell husbandmen, who do not sow wheat for food but for -sale. Beyond these the Neuri dwell; and to the north of the Neuri the -country is utterly uninhabited, as far as I know. These nations are by -the side of the river Hypanis, to the west of the Borysthenes. But if -one crosses the Borysthenes, the first country from the sea is Hylæa; -and from this higher up live Scythian agriculturists, where the Greeks -settled on the river Hypanis. These Scythian husbandmen occupy the -country eastward, for three days' journey, extending to the river whose -name is Panticapes; and northward a passage of eleven days up the -Borysthenes. Beyond this region the country is a desert for a great -distance; and beyond the desert Androphagi dwell, who are a distinct -people, not in any respect Scythian. Beyond this is really desert, and -no nation of men is found there, as far as we know. The country eastward -of these Scythian agriculturists, when one crosses the river Panticapes, -nomads occupy, who neither sow at all nor plough; and all this country -is destitute of trees except Hylæa. The nomads occupy a tract eastward -for fourteen days' journey, stretching to the river Gerrhus. Beyond the -Gerrhus are the parts called the Royal, and the most valiant and -numerous of the Scythians, who deem all other Scythians to be their -slaves. These extend southward to Taurica, and eastward to the trench, -which those sprung from the blind men dug, and to the port on the lake -Mæotis, which is called Cremni, and some of them reach to the river -Tanais. The parts above to the north of the Royal Scythians, the -Melanchlæni inhabit, a distinct race, and not Scythian. But above the -Melanchlæni are lakes, and an uninhabited desert, as far as we know. - -After one crosses the river Tanais, it is no longer Scythian, but the -first region belongs to the Sauromatæ, who, beginning from the recess of -the lake Mæotis, occupy the country northward, for a fifteen days' -journey, all destitute both of wild and cultivated trees. Above these -dwell the Budini, occupying the second region, and possessing a country -thickly covered with all sorts of trees. Above the Budini, toward the -north, there is first a desert of seven days' journey, and next to the -desert, if one turns somewhat toward the east, dwell the Thyssagetæ, a -numerous and distinct race, and they live by hunting. Contiguous to -these, in the same regions, dwell those who are called Iyrcæ, who also -live by hunting in the following manner: the huntsman, having climbed a -tree, lies in ambush (and the whole country is thickly wooded), and each -man has a horse ready taught to lie on his belly, that he may not be -much above the ground, and a dog besides. When he sees any game from the -tree, having let fly an arrow, he mounts his horse, and goes in pursuit, -and the dog keeps close to him. Above these, as one bends toward the -east, dwell other Scythians, who revolted from the Royal Scythians, and -so came to this country. As far as the territory of these Scythians, the -whole country that has been described is level and deep-soiled; but -after this it is stony and rugged. When one has passed through a -considerable extent of the rugged country, a people are found living at -the foot of lofty mountains, who are said to be all bald from their -birth, both men and women, and are flat-nosed, and have large chins; -they speak a peculiar language, wear the Scythian costume, and live on -the fruit of a tree; the name of the tree on which they live is called -ponticon, and is about the size of a figtree; it bears fruit like a -bean, and has a stone. When this is ripe they strain it through a cloth, -and a thick and black liquor flows from it, to which they give the name -of aschy; this they suck, and drink mingled with milk; from the thick -sediment of the pulp they make cakes to eat, for they have not many -cattle in these parts, as the pastures there are not good. Every man -lives under a tree, which, in the winter, he covers with a thick white -woollen covering. No man does any injury to this people, for they are -accounted sacred; nor do they possess any warlike weapon. They determine -by arbitration the differences that arise among their neighbors; and -whoever takes refuge among them is injured by no one. They are called -Argippæi. - -As far, then, as these bald people, our knowledge respecting the country -and the nations before them is very good, for some Scythians frequently -go there from whom it is not difficult to obtain information, as well as -some Greeks belonging to the ports in Pontus. The Scythians who go to -them transact business by means of seven interpreters and seven -languages, but beyond the bald men no one can speak with certainty, for -lofty and impassable mountains form their boundary, which no one has -ever crossed; but these bald men say, what to me is incredible, that men -with goats' feet inhabit these mountains; and when one has passed beyond -them, other men are found, who sleep six months at a time, but this I do -not at all admit. However, the country eastward of the bald men is well -known, being inhabited by Issedones, who are said to observe this -extraordinary custom. When a man's father dies all his relations bring -cattle, which they sacrifice, and, having cut up the flesh, they cut up -also the dead parent of their host, and mingling all the flesh together, -they spread out a banquet; then making bare and cleansing his head they -gild it; and afterward treat it as a sacred image, performing grand -annual sacrifices to it. A son does this to his father, as the Greeks -celebrate the anniversary of their father's death. These people are -likewise accounted just; and the women have equal authority with the men. - -Above them, the Issedones affirm, are the men with only one eye, and the -gold-guarding griffins. The Scythians repeat this account, having -received it from them; and we have adopted it from the Scythians, and -call them in the Scythian language, Arimaspi; for _Arima_, in the -Scythian language, signifies one, and _Spou_, the eye. All this country -which I have been speaking of is subject to such a severe winter, that -for eight months the frost is intolerable, so that if you pour water on -the ground you will not make mud, but if you light a fire you will. Even -the sea freezes, and the whole Cimmerian Bosphorus; and the Scythians -who live within the trench lead their armies and drive their chariots -over the ice to the Sindians, on the other side. Thus winter continues -eight months, and even during the other four it is cold there. And this -winter is different in character from the winters in all other -countries; for in this no rain worth mentioning falls in the usual -season, but during the summer it never leaves off raining. At the time -when there is thunder elsewhere there is none there, but in summer it is -violent: if there should be thunder in winter, it is counted a prodigy -to be wondered at. So, should there be an earthquake, whether in summer -or winter, in Scythia it is accounted a prodigy. Their horses endure -this cold, but asses and mules cannot endure it at all; whereas in other -places in the world horses that stand exposed to frost become -frost-bitten and waste away, but asses and mules endure it. On this -account also the race of beeves appears to me to be defective there, and -not to have horns; and the following verse of Homer, in his Odyssey, -confirms my opinion: "And Libya, where the lambs soon put forth their -horns," rightly observing, that in warm climates horns shoot out -quickly; but in very severe cold, the cattle do not produce them at all, -or with difficulty. Concerning the Hyperboreans, I do not relate the -story of Abaris, who was said to have carried an arrow round the whole -earth without eating any thing. But I smile when I see many persons -describing the circumference of the earth, who have no sound reason to -guide them; they describe the ocean as flowing around the earth, which -is made circular as if by a lathe, and make Asia equal to Europe. - -In length Europe extends along both Libya and Asia, but in respect to -width, it is evidently much larger. Libya shows itself to be surrounded -by water, except so much of it as borders upon Asia. Neco, King of -Egypt, was the first whom we know of that proved this; when he had -ceased digging the canal leading from the Nile to the Arabian Gulf, he -sent certain Phœnicians in ships, with orders to sail back through the -pillars of Hercules into the Mediterranean Sea, and so return to Egypt. -The Phœnicians accordingly, setting out from the Red Sea, navigated the -southern sea; when autumn came they went ashore and sowed the land, by -whatever part of Libya they happened to be sailing, and waited for -harvest; then having reaped the corn, they put to sea again. When two -years had thus passed, in the third they doubled the pillars of -Hercules, arrived in Egypt, and related what to me does not seem -credible, but may to others, that as they sailed round Libya, they had -the sun on their right hand.[20] Ever since that the Carthaginians say -that Libya is surrounded by water. - -A great part of Asia was explored under the direction of Darius. Being -desirous to know where the Indus, which is the second river that -produces crocodiles, discharges itself into the sea, he sent in ships -Scylax of Caryanda and others on whom he could rely to make a true -report. They accordingly set out from the city of Caspatyrus, sailed -down the river toward the sunrise to the sea; then sailing on the sea -westward, they arrived in the thirtieth month at that place where the -king of Egypt despatched the Phœnicians, whom I before mentioned, to -sail round Libya. After this Darius subdued the Indians, and frequented -this sea. Thus the other parts of Asia, except toward the rising sun, -are found to exhibit things similar to Libya. - -Whether Europe is surrounded by water either toward the east or toward -the north, has not been fully discovered by any man; but in length it is -known to extend beyond both the other continents. Nor can I conjecture -for what reason three different names have been given to the earth, -which is but one, and why those should be derived from the names of -women, Libya is said by most of the Greeks to take its name from a -native woman of the name of Libya; and Asia, from the wife of -Prometheus. But the Lydians claim this name, saying that Asia was so -called after Asius, son of Cotys, son of Manes, and not after Asia the -wife of Prometheus; from whom also a tribe in Sardis is called the Asian -tribe; nor is it clear whence Europe received its name, nor who gave it, -unless we say that the region received the name from the Tyrian Europa: -yet she evidently belonged to Asia, and never came into the country -which is now called Europe by the Greeks. - -The Euxine Sea exhibits the most ignorant nations: for we are unable to -mention any one nation of those on this side the Pontus that has any -pretensions to intelligence; nor have we ever heard of any learned man -among them, except the Scythian nation and Anacharsis. By the Scythian -nation one of the most important of human devices has been contrived -more wisely than by any others whom we know; their other customs, -however, I do not admire. This device has been contrived so that no one -who attacks them can escape; and that, if they do not choose to be -found, no one is able to overtake them. For they have neither cities nor -fortifications, but carry their houses with them; they are all -equestrian archers, living not from the cultivation of the earth, but -from cattle, and their dwellings are wagons,—how must not such a people -be invincible, and difficult to engage with? The country and the rivers -aid them: for the country, being level, abounds in herbage and is well -watered; and rivers flow through it almost as numerous as the canals in -Egypt. The Ister, which is the greatest of all the rivers we know, flows -always with an equal stream both in summer and winter, and has five -mouths. - -In each district of the Scythians, in the place where the magistrates -assemble, is erected a structure sacred to Mars, of the following kind. -Bundles of faggots are heaped up to the length and breadth of three -stades, but less in height; on the top of this a square platform is -formed; and three of the sides are perpendicular, but on the fourth it -is accessible. Every year they heap on it one hundred and fifty -wagon-loads of faggots, for it is continually sinking by reason of the -weather. On this heap an old iron scimetar is placed by each tribe, and -this is the image of Mars; they bring yearly sacrifices of cattle and -horses; and to these _scimetars_ they offer more sacrifices than to the -rest of the gods. Whatever enemies they take alive, of these they -sacrifice one in a hundred, not in the same manner as they do the -cattle, but in a different manner; for after they have poured a libation -of wine on their heads, they cut the throats of the men over a bowl; -then having carried _the bowl_ on the heap of faggots, they pour the -blood over the scimetar. Below at the sacred precinct, they do as -follows: having cut off all the right shoulders of the men that have -been killed, with the arms, they throw them into the air; and then, -having finished the rest of the sacrificial rites, they depart; but the -arm lies wherever it has fallen, and the body apart. Swine they never -use, nor suffer them to be used in their country at all. - -When a Scythian overthrows his first enemy, he drinks his blood; and -presents the king with the heads of the enemies he has killed in battle; -for if he brings a head, he shares the booty that they take; but not, if -he does not bring one. He skins it in the following manner. Having made -a circular incision round the ears and taking hold of the skin, he -shakes it from the skull; then having scraped off the flesh with the rib -of an ox, he softens the skin with his hands, makes it supple, and uses -it as a napkin; each man hangs it on the bridle of the horse which he -rides, and prides himself on it; for whoever has the greatest number of -these skin napkins is accounted the most valiant man. Many of them make -cloaks of these skins, to throw over themselves, sewing them together -like shepherd's coats; and many, having flayed the right hands of their -enemies that are dead, together with the nails, make coverings for their -quivers; the skin of a man, which is both thick and shining, surpasses -almost all other skins in the brightness of its white. Many, having -flayed men whole, and stretched the skin on wood, carry it about on -horseback. The heads themselves, not indeed of all, but of their -greatest enemies, they treat as follows: each, having sawn off all below -the eye-brows, cleanses it, and if the man is poor, he covers only the -outside with leather, and so uses it; but if he is rich, he covers it -with leather, and gilds the inside, and so uses it for a drinking-cup. -They do this also to their relatives, if they are at variance, and one -prevails over another in the presence of the king. When strangers of -consideration come to him, he produces these heads, and relates how, -though they were his relatives, they made war against him, and he -overcame them, considering this a proof of bravery. Once in every year, -the governor of a district, each in his own district, mingles a bowl of -wine, from which those Scythians drink by whom enemies have been -captured; but they who have not achieved this, do not taste of this -wine, but sit at a distance in dishonor; this is accounted the greatest -disgrace: such of them as have killed very many men, having two cups at -once, drink them together. - -Soothsayers among the Scythians are numerous, who divine by the help of -a number of willow rods, in the following manner. They lay large bundles -of twigs on the ground and untie them; and having placed each rod apart, -they utter their predictions; and whilst they are pronouncing them, they -gather up the rods again, and put them together again one by one. This -is their national mode of divination. But the Enarees, or Androgyni, say -that Venus gave them the power of divining by means of the bark of a -linden tree: when a man has split the linden-tree in three pieces, -twisting it round his own fingers, and then untwisting it, he utters a -response. - -When the king of the Scythians is sick, he sends for three of the most -famous of the prophets, who prophesy in the manner above mentioned. When -any of these prophets are proved to have sworn falsely, they put them to -death in the following manner: they fill a wagon with faggots, and yoke -oxen to it, then tie the feet of the prophets, bind their hands behind -them, gag them, and enclose them in the midst of the faggots; then -having set fire to them, they terrify the oxen, and let them go. Many -oxen are burnt with the prophets, and many escape very much scorched, -when the pole has been burnt asunder. Of the children of those whom he -puts to death, the king kills all the males, but does not hurt the -females. - -The sepulchres of the kings are in the country of the Gerrhi. There, -when their king dies, they dig a large square hole in the ground, to -receive the corpse. Then, having the body covered with wax, the belly -opened and cleaned, filled with bruised cypress, incense, parsley and -anise-seed, and sewn up again, they carry it in a chariot to another -nation; those who receive the corpse, brought to them, do the same as -the Royal Scythians; they cut off part of their ear, shave off their -hair, wound themselves on the arms, lacerate their forehead and nose, -and drive arrows through their left hand. Thence they carry the corpse -of the king to another nation whom they govern; and those to whom they -first came accompany them. When they have carried the corpse round all -the provinces, they arrive at the sepulchres among the Gerrhi, who are -the most remote of the nations they rule over. Then, when they have -placed the corpse in the grave on a bed of leaves, having fixed spears -on each side of the dead body, they lay pieces of wood over it, and -cover it over with mats. In the remaining space of the grave they bury -one of the king's wives, having strangled her, and his cup-bearer, a -cook, a groom, a page, a courier, and horses, and firstlings of -everything else, and golden goblets; they make no use of silver or -bronze. Then they all heap up a large mound, vieing with each other to -make it as large as possible. At the expiration of a year, they take the -most fitting of his remaining servants, all native Scythians; for -whomsoever the king may order serve him, and they have no servants -bought with money. Now when they have strangled fifty of these servants, -and fifty of the finest horses, they take out their bowels, cleanse -them, fill them with chaff, and sew them up again. Then placing the half -of a wheel, with its concave side uppermost, on two pieces of wood, and -the other half on two other pieces of wood, and preparing many of these -in the same manner, they thrust thick pieces of wood through the horses -lengthwise, up to the neck, mount them on the half-wheels; the foremost -part of the half-wheels supporting the shoulders of the horses, and the -hinder part the belly near the thighs, while the legs on both sides are -suspended in the air; then, having put bridles and bits on the horses, -they stretch them in front, and fasten them to a stake; they then mount -upon each horse one of the fifty young men that have been strangled. -They drive a straight piece of wood along the spine as far as the neck, -and a part of this wood which projects from the bottom they fix into a -hole bored in the other piece of wood that passes through the horse. The -horsemen are then placed round the monument, and they depart. - -When the other Scythians die, their nearest relations carry them about -among their friends, laid in chariots; each one receives and entertains -the attendants, and sets the same things before the dead body, as before -the rest. In this manner private persons are carried about for forty -days, and then buried. After the burial the Scythians purify themselves -by wiping and thoroughly washing their heads and bodies. They set up -three pieces of wood leaning against each other, extend around them -woollen cloths; and having joined them together as closely as possible, -they throw red-hot stones into a vessel placed in the middle of the -pieces of wood and the cloths. They have a sort of hemp growing in this -country, much like flax, except in thickness and height; in this respect -the hemp is far superior: it grows both spontaneously and from -cultivation; and from it the Thracians make garments like linen, nor -would any one who is not well skilled in such matters distinguish -whether they are made of flax or hemp, but a person who has never seen -this hemp would think the garment was made of flax. The Scythians take -seed of this hemp, creep under the cloths, and put the seed on the -red-hot stones; this smokes, and produces such a steam, as no Grecian -vapor-bath could surpass. Transported with vapor, they shout aloud; and -this serves them instead of washing, for they never bathe the body in -water. Their women pound on a rough stone pieces of cypress, cedar, and -incense-tree, pouring on water; and then this pounded matter, when it is -thick, they smear over the whole body and face. This at the same time -gives them an agreeable odor, and when they take off the cataplasm on -the following day, they become clean and shining. - -I have never been able to learn with accuracy the amount of the -population of the Scythians. There is a spot between the river -Borysthenes and the Hypanis, called Exampæus, containing a fountain of -bitter water, which renders the Hypanis unfit to be drunk. In this spot -lies a bronze cauldron, in size six times as large as the bowl at the -mouth of the Pontus, which Pausanias, son of Cleombrotus, dedicated. For -the benefit of any one who has never seen this, I will describe it: The -cauldron easily contains six hundred amphoræ; and is six fingers in -thickness. The inhabitants say that it was made from the points of -arrows; for their king, Ariantas, wishing to know the population of the -Scythians, commanded the Scythians to bring him each one point of an -arrow, and threatened death on whosoever should fail to bring it. -Accordingly, a vast number of arrow points were brought, and resolving -to leave a monument made from them, he made this bronze bowl, and -dedicated it at Exampæus. Their country has nothing wonderful, except -the rivers, which are very large and very many in number, and the -extensive plains. They show the print of the foot of Hercules upon a -rock near the river Tyras; it resembles the footstep of man, and is two -cubits in length. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -INVASION OF SCYTHIA BY DARIUS. - - -Whilst Darius was making preparations against the Scythians, and sending -messages to command some to contribute land forces, and others a fleet, -and others to bridge over the Thracian Bosphorus, Artabanus, the son of -Hystaspes, and brother of Darius, entreated him on no account to make an -expedition against the Scythians, representing the poverty of Scythia; -but he could not persuade him. At that time Œobazus, a Persian, who had -three sons all serving in the army, besought Darius that one might be -left at home for him. The king answered him, as a friend, and one who -had made a moderate request, that he would leave him all his sons; he -therefore was exceedingly delighted, hoping that his sons would be -discharged from the army. But at Darius' command the proper officers put -all the sons of Œobazus to death, and left them on the spot. - -When Darius, marching from Susa, reached Chalcedon on the Bosphorus, a -bridge was already laid across. There, sitting in the temple, he took a -view of the Euxine Sea, which is worthy of admiration, for of all seas -it is by nature the most wonderful. - -Darius, pleased with the bridge, presented its architect, Mandrocles the -Samian, with ten of every thing, and he painted a picture of the whole -junction of the Bosphorus, with King Darius seated on a throne, and his -army crossing over, and dedicated it as first fruits in the temple of -Juno. - -When Darius reached the river Tearus he was so delighted with it that he -erected a pillar with this inscription: THE SPRINGS OF THE TEARUS -YIELD THE BEST AND FINEST WATER OF ALL RIVERS; AND A MAN, THE BEST AND -FINEST OF ALL MEN, CAME TO THEM, LEADING AN ARMY AGAINST THE SCYTHIANS, -DARIUS, SON OF HYSTASPES, KING OF THE PERSIANS, AND OF THE WHOLE -CONTINENT. - -Before he reached the Ister, he subdued the Getæ, who think themselves -immortal, supposing that they themselves do not die, but that the -deceased go to the deity Zalmoxis. Every fifth year they dispatch one of -themselves, taken by lot, to Zalmoxis, with orders to let him know on -each occasion what they want. Their mode of sending him is this. Some -who are appointed hold three javelins; whilst others take up the man who -is to be sent to Zalmoxis by the hands and feet, swing him round, and -throw him into the air, upon the points. If he is transfixed and dies, -they think the god is propitious to them; if he does not die, they blame -the messenger himself, saying that he is a bad man, and dispatch another. - -When Darius and his land forces reached the Ister and all had crossed, -Coes, general of the Mitylenians, advised the king to let the bridge -remain over it, leaving the men who constructed it as its guard. "Not," -said he, "that I am at all afraid that we shall be conquered in battle -by the Scythians, but rather that, being unable to find them, we may -suffer somewhat in our wanderings." "Lesbian friend," replied Darius, -"when I am safe back in my own palace, fail not to present yourself to -me, that I may requite you for good advice with good deeds." Tying sixty -knots in a thong, he summoned the Ionian commanders to his presence, and -said: "Men of Ionia, I have changed my resolution concerning the bridge; -so take this thong, and as soon as you see me march against the -Scythians, untie one of these knots every day; and if I return not until -the days numbered by the knots have passed, sail away to your own -country. Till that time, since I have changed my determination, guard -the bridge, and apply the utmost care to preserve and secure it." - -The Scythians determined to fight no battle in the open field, because -their allies did not come to their assistance; but to retreat and draw -off covertly, and fill up the wells and the springs as they passed by, -and destroy the herbage on the ground. They sent forward the best of -their cavalry as an advanced guard; but the wagons, in which all their -children and wives lived, they left behind. - -Advancing with his army as quick as possible, he fell in with the -Scythian divisions and pursued them, but they kept a day's march before -him. The Scythians, for Darius did not relax his pursuit, fled, as had -been determined, toward those nations that had refused to assist them. -When this had continued for a considerable time, Darius sent a horseman -to Indathyrsus, king of the Scythians, with the following message: "Most -miserable of men, why dost thou continually fly, when it is in thy power -to do one of these two other things? For if thou thinkest thou art able -to resist my power, stand, and having ceased thy wanderings, fight; but -if thou art conscious of thy inferiority, in that case also cease thy -hurried march, and bringing earth and water as presents to thy master, -come to a conference." To this Indathyrsus, the king of the Scythians, -answered: "This is the case with me, O Persian; I never yet fled from -any man out of fear, nor do I now so flee from thee; nor have I done any -thing different now from what I am wont to do, even in time of peace; -but why I do not forthwith fight thee, I will explain. We have no cities -nor cultivated lands, for which we are under any apprehension lest they -should be taken or ravaged. Yet, if it is by all means necessary to come -to battle at once, we have the sepulchres of our ancestors, come, find -these, and attempt to disturb them, then you will know whether we will -fight for our sepulchres or not; but before that, unless we choose, we -will not engage with thee. The only masters I acknowledge are Jupiter my -progenitor, and Vesta, queen of the Scythians; but to thee, instead of -presents of earth and water, I will send such presents as are proper to -come to thee. And in answer to thy boast, that thou art my master, I bid -thee weep." (This is a Scythian saying.) The herald therefore departed -carrying this answer to Darius. - -When the kings of the Scythians heard the name of servitude, they were -filled with indignation; whereupon they sent the division united with -the Sauromatæ, which Scopasis commanded, with orders to confer with the -Ionians, who guarded the bridge over the Ister. Those who were left -resolved no longer to lead the Persians about, but to attack them -whenever they were taking their meals; accordingly, observing the -soldiers of Darius taking their meals, they put their design in -execution. The Scythian cavalry always routed the Persian cavalry, but -the Persian horsemen in their flight fell back on the infantry, and the -infantry supported them. The Scythians, having beaten back the cavalry, -wheeled around through fear of the infantry. A very remarkable -circumstance, that was advantageous to the Persians and adverse to the -Scythians, when they attacked the camp of Darius, was the braying of the -asses and the appearance of the mules, for Scythia produces neither ass -nor mule; there is not in the whole Scythian territory a single ass or -mule, by reason of cold. The asses, then, growing playful, put the -Scythian horses into confusion; and frequently, as they were advancing -upon the Persians, when the horses heard, midway, the braying of the -asses, they wheeled round in confusion, and were greatly amazed, -pricking up their ears, as having never before heard such a sound, nor -seen such a shape; and this circumstance in some slight degree affected -the fortune of the war. - -When the Scythians saw the Persians in great commotion, to detain them -longer in Scythia they left some of their own cattle in the care of the -herdsmen and withdrew to another spot; and the Persians coming up, took -the cattle and exulted in what they had done. When this had happened -several times, Darius at last was in a great strait, and the kings of -the Scythians, having ascertained this, sent a herald, bearing as gifts -to Darius, a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows. The Persians asked -the bearer of the gifts the meaning of this present; but he answered -that he had no other orders than to deliver them and return immediately; -and he advised the Persians, if they were wise, to discover what the -gifts meant. Darius' opinion was that the Scythians meant to give -themselves up to him, as well as earth and water; forming his conjecture -thus: since a mouse is bred in the earth, and subsists on the same food -as a man; a frog lives in the water; a bird is very like a horse; and -the arrows they deliver up as their whole strength. But Gobryas, one of -the seven who had deposed the magus, did not coincide with this; he -conjectured that the presents intimated: "Unless, O Persians, ye become -birds and fly into the air, or become mice and hide yourselves beneath -the earth, or become frogs and leap into the lakes, ye shall never -return home again, but be stricken by these arrows." And thus the other -Persians interpreted the gifts. - -The rest of the Scythians, after they had sent the presents to Darius, -drew themselves up opposite the Persians with their foot and horse, as -if they intended to come to an engagement; and as the Scythians were -standing in their ranks, a hare started in the midst of them; and each -went in pursuit of it. The Scythians being in great confusion, and -shouting loudly, Darius asked the meaning of the uproar in the enemy's -ranks; but when he heard that they were pursuing a hare, he said to -those he was accustomed to address on such occasions: "These men treat -us with great contempt; and I am convinced that Gobryas spoke rightly -concerning the Scythian presents. I feel that we have need of the best -advice, how our return home may be effected in safety." To this Gobryas -answered: "O king, I was in some measure acquainted by report with these -men; but I have learned much more since I came hither, and seen how they -make sport of us. My opinion is, that as soon as night draws on we -should light fires, as we are accustomed to do, and having deceived and -left behind those soldiers who are least able to bear hardships, and -having tethered all the asses, should depart before the Scythians direct -their march to the Ister, for the purpose of destroying the bridge, or -the Ionians take any resolution which may occasion our ruin." Darius -acted on this opinion: the infirm amongst the soldiers, and those whose -loss would be of the least consequence, he left on the spot in the camp. -And he left the asses, that they might make a noise; and the men were -left on this pretext, that he with the strength of his army was about to -attack the Scythians, and they, during that time, would defend the camp. -So Darius laid these injunctions on those he was preparing to abandon, -caused the fires to be lighted, and marched away with all speed toward -the Ister. The asses, deserted by the multitude, began to bray much -louder than usual; so that the Scythians, hearing them, supposed of -course that the Persians were still at their station. When day appeared, -the men that were abandoned, discovering that they had been betrayed by -Darius, extended their hands to the Scythians, and told them what had -occurred; when they heard this the divisions of the Scythians joined -forces as quickly as possible and pursued the Persians straight toward -the Ister. But as a great part of the Persian army consisted of -infantry, and they did not know the way, there being no roads cut, and -as the Scythian army consisted of cavalry, and knew the shortest route, -they missed each other, and the Scythians arrived at the bridge much -before the Persians. Finding that the Persians were not yet arrived, -they spoke to the Ionians who were on board the ships in these terms: -"Men of Ionia, the number of days appointed for your stay is already -passed, and you do not as you ought in continuing here; but if you -remained before through fear, now break up the passage and depart as -quickly as possible, rejoicing that you are free, and give thanks to the -gods and the Scythians. As for the man who before was your master, we -will so deal with him that he shall never hereafter make war on any -people." - -Upon this the Ionians held a consultation. The opinion of Miltiades the -Athenian, who commanded and reigned over the Chersonesites on the -Hellespont, was, that they should comply with the request of the -Scythians, and restore liberty to Ionia. But Histiæus the Milesian was -of a contrary opinion, and said, "that every one reigned over his own -city through Darius; and if Darius' power should be destroyed, neither -would he himself continue master of Miletus, nor any of the rest of -other places; because every one of the cities would choose to be -governed rather by a democracy than a tyranny." Histiæus had no sooner -delivered this opinion, than all went over to his side, who had before -assented to that of Miltiades. Approving of the opinion of Histiæus, -they determined to add to it the following acts and words. To break up -the bridge on the Scythian side, as far as a bow-shot might reach, that -they might seem to do something, when in effect they did nothing; and -that the Scythians might not attempt to use violence and purpose to -cross the Ister by the bridge; and to say, while they were breaking up -the bridge on the Scythian side, they would do every thing that might be -agreeable to the Scythians. And, Histiæus delivered the answer in the -name of all, saying as follows: "Men of Scythia, you have brought us -good advice, and urge it seasonably; you, on your part, have pointed out -the right way to us, and we on ours readily submit to you; for, as you -see, we are breaking up the passage, and will use all diligence, -desiring to be free. But while we are breaking it up, it is fitting you -should seek for them, and having found them, avenge us and yourselves on -them, as they deserve." The Scythians, believing a second time that the -Ionians were sincere, turned back to seek the Persians; but entirely -missed the way they had taken. The Scythians themselves were the cause -of this, as they had destroyed the pastures for the horses in this -direction, and filled in the wells; for if they had not done this, they -might easily have found the Persians; but now they erred in the very -thing which they thought they had contrived for the best. For the -Scythians sought the enemy by traversing those parts of the country -where there was forage and water for the horses, thinking that they too -would make their retreat by that way. But the Persians carefully -observing their former track, returned by it, and thus with difficulty -found the passage. As they arrived in the night, and perceived the -bridge broken off, they fell into the utmost consternation, lest the -Ionians had abandoned them. There was with Darius an Egyptian, who had -an exceedingly loud voice. This man Darius commanded to stand on the -bank of the Ister, and called Histiæus the Milesian. He did so, and -Histiæus, having heard the first shout, brought up all the ships to -carry the army across, and joined the bridge. Thus the Persians escaped. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -DESCRIPTION OF LIBYA. - - -Beginning from Egypt the Adrymachidæ are the first of the Libyans we -meet with: they for the most part observe the usages of Egypt, but they -wear the same dress as the other Libyans. The women wear a chain of -bronze on each leg, and allow their hair to grow long. Next to these are -the Giligammæ, who occupy the country westward, as far as the island -Aphrodisias. Midway on this coast the island of Platea is situated, -which the Cyrenæans colonized. The Asbystæ adjoin the Giligammæ -westward; they inhabit the country above Cyrene, but do not reach to the -sea; for the Cyrenæans occupy the sea-coast. They drive four-horsed -chariots, more than any of the Libyans, and endeavor to imitate most of -the customs of the Cyrenæans. The Nasamones, a very numerous people, -live to the westward. In summer they leave their cattle on the coast, -and go up to the region of Augila, in order to gather the fruit of the -palm-trees, which grow in great numbers to a large size, and are all -productive. They catch locusts, dry them in the sun, reduce them to -powder, and sprinkling them in milk, drink them. In their oaths and -divinations they swear, laying their hands on the sepulchres of those -who are generally esteemed to have been the most just and excellent -persons among them; and they divine, going to the tombs of their -ancestors, and after having prayed, they lie down to sleep, and whatever -dream they have, they avail themselves of. In pledging their faith, each -party gives the other to drink out of his hand, and drinks in turn from -the other's hand; and if they have no liquid, they take up some dust -from the ground and lick it. - -Above these to the north, in a country abounding with wild beasts, live -the Garamantes, who avoid all men and the society of any others; they do -not possess any warlike weapon, nor do they know how to defend -themselves. The Macæ adjoin them on the sea-coast, westward; these shave -their heads so as to leave a tuft, and allowing the middle hair to grow, -keep both sides shaved close to the skin; in war they wear the skins of -ostriches for defensive armor. The river Cinyps, flowing through their -country from a hill called the Graces, discharges itself into the sea. -This hill of the Graces is thickly covered with trees, though all the -rest of Libya is bare. From the sea to this hill is a distance of two -hundred stades. The Lotophagi occupy the coast that projects to the sea -in front; they subsist only on the fruit of the lotus, which is equal in -size to the mastic berry, and in sweetness resembles the fruit of the -palm-tree. The Lotophagi make wine also from this fruit. - -The Machlyes, who also use the lotus, but in a less degree than those -before mentioned, adjoin the Lotophagi on the sea-coast. They extend as -far as a large river called Triton, which discharges itself into the -great lake Tritonis; and in it is an island named Phla. They say that -the Lacedæmonians were commanded by an oracle to colonize this island. -The following story is also told: that Jason, when the building of the -Argo was finished at the foot of Mount Pelion, having put a hecatomb on -board, and a bronze tripod, sailed round the Peloponnesus, purposing to -go to Delphi; and as he was sailing off Malea, a north wind caught him -and drove him to Libya; and before he could descern the land, he found -himself in the shallows of the lake Tritonis; and as he was in doubt how -to extricate his ship, the story goes that a Triton appeared to him, and -bade Jason give him the tripod, promising that he would show them the -passage, and conduct them away in safety. Jason consented, and the -Triton showed them the passage out of the shallows, and placed the -tripod in his own temple; then pronouncing an oracle from the tripod, he -declared to Jason and his companions all that should happen,—that "when -one of the descendants of those who sailed with him in the Argo should -carry away the tripod, then it was fated that a hundred Grecian cities -should be built about the lake Tritonis." The neighboring nations of the -Libyans, when they heard this, concealed the tripods. The Auses adjoin -these Machlyes; they, as well as the Machlyes, dwell round the lake -Tritonis, and the Triton forms the boundary between them. The Machlyes -let the hair grow on the back of the head, and the Auses on the front. -At the annual festival of Minerva, their virgins, dividing themselves -into two companies, fight together with stones and staves, affirming -that they perform the ancient rites to their native goddess, whom we -call Minerva; and those of the virgins who die from their wounds they -call false virgins. But before they leave off fighting, they, with one -consent, deck the maiden that excels in beauty, with a Corinthian -helmet, and a suit of Grecian armor, and placing her in a chariot -conduct her round the lake. In what way they formerly decorated the -maidens before the Greeks settled in their neighborhood, I am unable to -say; but I conjecture that they were decked in Egyptian armor, for I am -of opinion that the shield and helmet were brought from Egypt into -Greece. - -Above these nomadic tribes, inland, Libya abounds in wild beasts; beyond -the wild-beast tract is a ridge of sand, stretching from the Egyptian -Thebes to the columns of Hercules. At intervals of a ten days' journey -in this ridge, there are pieces of salt in large lumps on hills; and at -the top of each hill, from the midst of the salt, cool, sweet water -gushes up. The first people you come to after a ten days' journey from -Thebes, are the Ammonians, who have a temple resembling that of Theban -Jupiter. For the image of Jupiter at Thebes has the head of a ram. They -have also another kind of spring water which in the morning is tepid, -becomes colder about the time of full forum, and at midday is very cold; -at that time they water their gardens. As the day declines it generally -loses its coldness, till the sun sets, then the water becomes tepid -again, and continuing to increase in heat till midnight, it then boils -and bubbles up; when midnight is passed, it gets cooler until morning. -This fountain is called after the sun. Next to the Ammonians, along the -ridge of sand, at the end of another ten days' journey, there is a hill -of salt, like that of the Ammonians, and water, and men live round it; -the name of this region is Augila; and thither the Nasamonians go to -gather dates. From the Augilæ, at the end of another ten days' journey, -is another hill of salt and water, and many fruit-bearing palm-trees, as -also in other places; and men inhabit it who are called Garamantes, a -very powerful nation; they lay earth upon the salt, and then sow their -ground. From these to the Lotophagi the shortest route is a journey of -thirty days; amongst them cattle that feed backwards are met with, -having horns that are so bent forward, that they are unable to feed -forwards, because their horns would stick in the ground. They differ -from other kine in no other respect, except that their hide is thicker -and harder. These Garamantes hunt the Ethiopian Troglodytes in -four-horse chariots; these Ethiopian Troglodytes are the swiftest of -foot of all men of whom we have heard any account given. The Troglodytes -feed upon serpents and lizards, and such kinds of reptiles; they speak a -language like no other, but screech like bats. - -At the distance of another ten days' journey from the Garamantes is -another hill of salt and water, around which a people live who are -called Atarantes; they are the only race we know of who have not -personal names. For the name Atarantes belongs to them collectively, and -to each one of them no name is given. They curse the sun as he passes -over their heads, and moreover utter against him the foulest invectives, -because he consumes by his scorching heat, the men themselves and their -country. Afterward, at the end of still another ten days' journey, there -is one more hill of salt and water, and men live round it, near a -mountain called Atlas; it is narrow and circular on all sides, and is -said to be so lofty that its top can never be seen; it is never free -from clouds, either in summer or winter. The inhabitants say that it is -the Pillar of Heaven. From this mountain the men derive their -appellation, for they are called Atlantes. They are said neither to eat -the flesh of any animal, nor to see visions. As far, then, as these -Atlantes, I am able to mention the names of the nations that inhabit -this ridge, but not beyond them. This ridge, however, extends as far as -the pillars of Hercules, and even beyond; and there is a mine of salt in -it at intervals of ten days' journey, and men dwelling there. The houses -of them all are built of blocks of salt, for in these parts of Libya no -rain falls; walls being of salt could not of course stand long if rain -did fall. The salt dug out there is white and purple in appearance. -Above this ridge, to the south and interior of Libya, the country is a -desert, without water, without animals, without rain, and without wood; -and there is no kind of moisture in it. - -Westward of lake Tritonis, the Libyans are no longer nomads, nor do they -follow the same customs, with respect to their children, as the nomads -are accustomed to do; for the nomadic Libyans, whether all I am unable -to say with certainty, but many of them, when their children are four -years old, burn the veins on the crown of their heads, with uncleaned -sheep's wool; and some of them do so on the veins in the temples; to the -end that humors flowing down from the head may not injure them as long -as they live: and, for this reason, they say they are so very healthy, -for the Libyans are in truth the most healthy of all men with whom we -are acquainted. But I simply repeat what the Libyans themselves say. -From the Libyan women the Greeks derived the attire and ægis of -Minerva's statues; for, except that the dress of the Libyan women is -leather, and the fringes that hang from the ægis are not serpents, but -made of thongs, they are otherwise equipped in the same way; and, -moreover, the very name proves that the garb of the Palladia comes from -Libya; for the Libyan women throw over their dress, goats' skins without -the hair, fringed and dyed with red. From these goats' skins the Greeks -have borrowed the name of Ægis. And the howlings in the temples were, I -think, first derived from there; for the Libyan women practise the same -custom, and do it well. The Greeks also learnt from the Libyans to yoke -four horses abreast. All the nomads, except the Nasamonians, inter their -dead in the same manner as the Greeks; these bury them in a sitting -posture, watching when one is about to expire, that they may set him up, -and he may not die supine. Their dwellings are compacted of the asphodel -shrub, interwoven with rushes, and are portable. - -To the west of the river Triton, Libyans who are husbandmen next adjoin -the Auses; they are accustomed to live in houses, and are called Maxyes. -They let the hair grow on the right side of the head, and shave the -left; and bedaub the body with vermilion: they say that they are -descended from men who came from Troy. This region, and all the rest of -Libya westward, is much more infested by wild beasts and more thickly -wooded than the country of the nomads; for the eastern country of Libya, -which the nomads inhabit, is low and sandy, as far as the river Triton; -but the country westward of this, which is occupied by agriculturists, -is very mountainous, woody, and abounds with wild beasts. For amongst -them there are enormous serpents, and lions, elephants, bears, asps, -asses with horns, and monsters with dogs' heads and without heads, who -have eyes in their breasts, at least as the Libyans say, together with -wild men and wild women. None of these things are found among the -nomads, but others of the following kind: pygargi, antelopes, buffaloes, -and asses, not such as have horns, but others that never drink; and -oryes, from the horns of which are made the elbows of the Phœnician -citherns; in size this beast is equal to an ox; and foxes, hyænas, -porcupines, wild rams, dictyes, thoes, panthers, boryes, and land -crocodiles about three cubits long, very much like lizards; ostriches, -and small serpents, each with one horn. These, then, are the wild -animals in that country, besides such as are met with elsewhere, except -the stag and the wild boar; but the stag and the wild boar are never -seen in Libya. They have three sorts of mice there; some called dipodes, -or two-footed; others, zegeries, this name is Libyan, and means the same -as the word signifying hillocks in Greek; and hedgehogs. There are also -weasels produced in the silphium, like those at Tartessus. - -The Zaveces adjoin the Maxyan Libyans; their women drive their chariots -in war. The Gyzantes adjoin them; amongst them bees make a great -quantity of honey, and it is said that confectioners make much more. All -these paint themselves with vermilion, and eat monkeys, which abound in -their mountains. Near them, the Carthaginians say, lies an island called -Cyraunis, two hundred stades in length, inconsiderable in breadth, easy -of access from the continent, and abounding in olive trees and vines. In -it is a lake, from the mud of which the girls of the country draw up -gold dust by means of feathers daubed with pitch. Whether this is true I -know not, but I write what is related; it may be so, however, for I have -myself seen pitch drawn up out of a lake and from water in Zacynthus; -and there are several lakes there, the largest of them is seventy feet -every way, and two orgyæ in depth; into this they let down a pole with a -myrtle branch fastened to the end, and then draw up pitch adhering to -the myrtle; it has the smell of asphalt, but is in other respects better -than the pitch of Pieria. They pour it into a cistern dug near the lake, -and when they have collected a sufficient quantity, draw it off from the -cistern into jars. All that falls into the lake passes under ground, and -appears again upon the surface of the sea, which is about four stades -distant from the lake. This account given of the island may probably be -true. The Carthaginians further say, that beyond the pillars of Hercules -there is an inhabited region of Libya; when they arrive among these -people and have unloaded their merchandise, they set it in order on the -shore, go on board their ships, and make a great smoke; the inhabitants, -seeing the smoke, come down to the sea, deposit gold in exchange for the -merchandise, and withdraw to some distance from the merchandise; the -Carthaginians then, going ashore, examine the gold, and if the quantity -seems sufficient for the merchandise they take it up and sail away; but -if it is not sufficient, they go on board their ships again and wait; -the natives then approach and deposit more gold, until they have -satisfied them; neither party ever wrongs the other; for they do not -touch the gold before it is made adequate to the value of the -merchandise, nor do the natives touch the merchandise before the other -party has taken the gold. - -No part of Libya appears to me so good in fertility as to be compared -with Asia or Europe, except only the district of Cinyps; for the land -bears the same name as the river, and is equal to the best land for the -production of corn; nor is it at all like the rest of Libya; for the -soil is black, and well watered with springs, and it is neither affected -at all by drought, nor is it injured by imbibing too much rain, which -falls in this part of Libya. The proportion of the produce of this land -equals that of Babylon. The land also which the Euesperides occupy is -good; for when it yields its best, it produces a hundred-fold; but that -in Cinyps three hundred-fold. The district of Cyrene, which is the -highest of that part of Libya which the nomads occupy, has three -seasons, a circumstance worthy of admiration; for the first fruits near -the sea swell so as to be ready for the harvest and vintage; when these -are gathered in, the fruits of the middle region, away from the sea, -swell so as to be gathered in, these they call uplands; and just as this -middle harvest has been gathered in, that in the highest part becomes -ripe and swells. So that when the first crop has been drunk and eaten, -the last comes in. Thus harvest occupies the Cyrenæans during eight -months. This maybe sufficient to say concerning these things. - -[Illustration: OLIVE TREES.] - -The Persians once upon a time, sent against the city of Barce, laid -siege to it for nine months, digging passages under ground that reached -to the walls, and making vigorous assaults. Now these excavations were -discovered by a worker of bronze, carrying a bronze shield round within -the wall, and applying it to the ground within the city: in other places -to which he applied it, it made no noise, but at the parts that were -excavated, the metal of the shield sounded. The Barcæans, therefore, -countermining them in that part, slew the Persians who were employed in -the excavation. When much time had been spent, and many had fallen on -both sides, and not the fewest on the side of the Persians, Amasis, -general of the land forces, had recourse to the following stratagem: -Finding that the Barcæans could not be taken by force, but might be by -artifice, he dug a wide pit by night, laid weak planks of wood over it, -and on the surface over the planks he spread a heap of earth, making it -level with the rest of the ground. At daybreak he invited the Barcæans -to a conference; they gladly assented, thinking that at last they were -pleased to come to terms: and they made an agreement of the following -nature, concluding the treaty over the concealed pit: "That as long as -this earth shall remain as it is, the treaty should continue in force; -and that the Barcæans should pay a reasonable tribute to the king, and -that the Persians should form no new designs against the Barcæans." -After the treaty the Barcæans, confiding in the Persians, went freely -out of the city, and allowed any one of the Persians who chose to pass -within the wall, throwing open all the gates. But the Persians, having -broken down the concealed bridge, rushed within the wall: having not -fully kept their oath. The Persians reduced the Barcæans to slavery and -took their departure. But king Darius gave them a village in the -district of Bactria, to dwell in, and the name of Barce was given to -this village, which was still inhabited in my time, in the Bactrian -territory. - -[20] Herodotus means that south of the equator the sun was in the north. - - - - -_BOOK V. TERPSICHORE._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -CONQUESTS OF THE GENERALS OF DARIUS. - - -The Persians, left in Europe by Darius under the command of Megabazus, -subdued the Perinthians first of the Hellespontines, who were unwilling -to submit to Darius, and had been before roughly handled by the -Pæonians. For an oracle had admonished the Pæonians to invade the -Perinthians, and if the Perinthians, when encamped against them, should -challenge them, shouting to them by name, then to attack, but if they -should not shout out to them, not to attack. A threefold single combat -took place between them according to a challenge; for they matched a man -with a man, a horse with a horse, and a dog with a dog. The Perinthians, -victorious in two of these combats, through excess of joy sang the Pæon, -whereupon the Pæonians conjectured that this was the meaning of the -oracle, and said among themselves: "Now surely the oracle must be -accomplished; now it is our part to act." The Pæonians attacked the -Perinthians as they were singing the Pæon, gained a complete victory, -and left but few of them alive. - -The nation of the Thracians is the greatest of all among men, except the -Indians; and if they were governed by one man, or acted in concert, they -would, in my opinion, be invincible, and by far the most powerful of all -nations. But as this is impracticable, and it is impossible that they -should ever be united, they are weak. - -Beyond the Ister appears to be an interminable desert, and the only men -that I am able to hear of as dwelling there are those called Sigynnæ, -who wear the Medic dress; their horses are shaggy all over the body, to -five fingers in depth of hair; they are small, flat-nosed, and unable to -carry men; but when yoked to chariots are very fleet. They say that -these people are a colony of Medes. How they can have been a colony of -Medes I cannot comprehend; but any thing may happen in the course of -time. - -There is a curious people who inhabit Lake Prasias itself, who were not -at all subdued by Megabazus;—they live upon the lake in dwellings -erected upon planks fitted on lofty piles, which are driven in the -middle of the lake, with a narrow entrance from the main land by a -single bridge. These piles that support the planks all the citizens -anciently placed there at the common charge; but afterward they -established a law to the following effect: Whenever a man marries, for -each wife he sinks three piles, bringing wood from a mountain called -Orbelus: but every man has several wives. Each one has a hut on the -planks, in which he dwells, with a trap-door closely fitted in the -planks, and leading down to the lake. They tie the young children with a -cord around the foot, for fear they should fall into the lake beneath. -To their horses and beasts of burden they give fish for fodder; of which -there is such an abundance, that you have simply to open your trap-door, -let down an empty basket by a cord into the lake, when, after waiting a -short time, you draw it up full of fish. - -[Illustration: HEAD-DRESS OF A RIDING HORSE.] - -Megabazus, after conquering the Pæonians, arrived at the Hellespont, -crossed over, and came to Sardis. In the meantime, Histiæus the Milesian -was building a wall around the place, which, at his own request, he had -received from Darius as a reward for his services in preserving the -bridge: this place was near the river Strymon, and its name Myrcinus. -Megabazus, upon learning what was being done by Histiæus, as soon as he -reached Sardis said to Darius: "O king, what have you done, in allowing -a crafty and subtle Greek to possess a city in Thrace, where there is an -abundance of timber fit for building ships and plenty of wood for oars, -and silver mines? A great multitude of Greeks and barbarians dwell -around, who, when they have obtained him as a leader, will do whatever -he may command, both by day and by night. Put a stop therefore to the -proceedings of this man, that you may not be harassed by a domestic war; -send for him in a gentle manner, and stop him: and when you have him in -your power, take care that he never returns to the Greeks." Megabazus -easily persuaded Darius, since he wisely foresaw what was to happen. So -Darius sent a messenger to Myrcinus, who spoke as follows: "Histiæus, -King Darius says thus: I find on consideration that there is no man -better affected to me and my affairs than thyself; and this I have -learnt, not by words, but actions; now, since I have great designs to -put in execution, come to me by all means, that I may communicate them -to thee." Histiæus, giving credit to these words, and at the time -considering it a great honor to become a counsellor of the king, went to -Sardis: when he arrived, Darius said, "Histiæus, I have sent for you on -this occasion. As soon as I returned from Scythia, and you were out of -my sight, I have wished for nothing so much as to see you and converse -with you again; being persuaded that a friend who is both intelligent -and well affected, is the most valuable of all possessions; both of -which I am able to testify from my own knowledge concur in you, as -regards my affairs. You have done well in coming, and I make you this -offer: Think no more of Miletus, nor of the new-founded city in Thrace; -but follow me to Susa, have the same that I have, and be the partner of -my table and counsels." And Darius appointed Artaphernes, his brother by -the same father, to be governor of Sardis, and departed for Susa, taking -Histiæus with him. He first nominated Otanes to be general of the forces -on the coast, whose father, Sisamnes, one of the royal judges, King -Cambyses had put to death and flayed, because he had given an unjust -judgment for a sum of money. He had his skin torn off, and cut into -thongs, and extended it on the bench on which he used to sit, when he -pronounced judgment; then Cambyses appointed as judge in the room of -Sisamnes, whom he had slain and flayed, the son of Sisamnes, admonishing -him to remember on what seat he sat to administer justice. This very -Otanes, then, being now appointed successor to Megabazus in the command -of the army, subdued the Byzantians and Chalcedonians, and took -Antandros, which belongs to the territory of Troas, and Lamponium; and -obtaining ships from the Lesbians, he took Lemnos and Imbrus, both of -which were then inhabited by Pelasgians. The Lemnians fought valiantly, -and defended themselves for some time, but were at length overcome; and -over those who survived, the Persians set up Lycaretus as governor, the -brother of Mæandrius, who had reigned in Samos. Otanes enslaved and -subdued them all for various alleged reasons: some he charged with -desertion to the Scythians; others he accused of having harassed Darius' -army in their return home from the Scythians. - -Afterward, for the intermission from misfortune was not of long -duration, evils arose a second time to the Ionians from Naxos and -Miletus. For, on the one hand, Naxos surpassed all the islands in -opulence; and on the other, Miletus, at the same time, had attained the -summit of its prosperity, and was accounted the ornament of Ionia. Some -of the opulent men, exiled from Naxos by the people, went to Miletus: -the governor of Miletus happened to be Aristagoras, son of Molpagoras, -son-in-law and cousin of Histiæus, whom Darius detained at Susa. These -Naxians arrived at Miletus, entreated Aristagoras, if he could, by any -means, to give them some assistance so that they might return to their -own country. He, perceiving that if by his means they should return to -their city, he might get the dominion of Naxos, used the friendship of -Histiæus as a pretence, and addressed the following discourse to them: -"I am not able of myself to furnish you with a force sufficient to -reinstate you against the wishes of the Naxians, who are in possession -of the city, for I hear that the Naxians have eight thousand heavy-armed -men, and a considerable number of ships of war. Yet I will contrive some -way, and use my best endeavors; my scheme is this: Artaphernes happens -to be my friend; he is son of Hystaspes and brother of king Darius, and -commands all the maritime parts of Asia, and has a large army and navy. -This man, I am persuaded, will do whatever we desire." The Naxians urged -Aristagoras to go about it in the best way he could, and bade him -promise presents, and their expenses to the army, for they would repay -it; having great expectation that when they should appear at Naxos the -Naxians would do whatever they should order, as also would the other -islanders; for of these Cyclades islands not one was as yet subject to -Darius. - -Accordingly Aristagoras journeyed to Sardis, and told Artaphernes, that -Naxos was an island of no great extent, to be sure, but beautiful and -fertile, and near Ionia, and in it was much wealth and many slaves. "Do -send an army against this country, to reinstate those who have been -banished; and if you do this, I have, in the first place, a large sum of -money ready, in addition to the expenses of the expedition, for it is -just that we who lead you on should supply that; and in the next, you -will acquire for the king Naxos itself, and the islands dependent upon -it, Paros, Andros, and the rest that are called Cyclades. Setting out -from there you will easily attack Eubœa, a large and wealthy island, not -less than Cyprus, and very easy to be taken. A hundred ships are -sufficient to subdue them all." The reply was quickly given: "You -propose things advantageous to the king's house, and advise every thing -well, except the number of ships; instead of one hundred, two hundred -shall be ready at the commencement of the spring. But it is necessary -that the king himself should approve of the design." Aristagoras, wild -with delight, went back to Miletus. And Artaphernes, finding that Darius -himself approved of the plan, made ready two hundred triremes, and a -very numerous body of Persians and other allies: and he appointed -Megabates general, a Persian of the family of the Archimenidæ, his own -and Darius' nephew, whose daughter, if the report be true, was afterward -betrothed to Pausanias, son of Cleombrotus the Lacedæmonian, who aspired -to become tyrant of Greece. Artaphernes, having appointed Megabates -general, sent forward the army to Aristagoras. - -Megabates, with Aristagoras, the Ionian forces, and the Naxians, sailed -professedly for the Hellespont; but when he arrived at Chios, anchored -at Caucasa, that he might cross over from there to Naxos by a north -wind. However, it was fated that the Naxians were not to perish by this -armament, as the following event occurred: As Megabates was going round -the watches on board the ships, he found no one on guard on board a -Myndian ship; indignant at this, he ordered his body-guards to find the -captain of this ship, whose name was Scylax, and to bind him with his -body half-way through the lower row-lock of the vessel, so that his head -should be on the outside of the vessel, and his legs within. Some one -told Aristagoras that Megabates had bound and disgraced his Myndian -friend. He went therefore and interceded for him with the Persian, but, -when he found he could obtain nothing, went himself and released him. -Megabates, hearing of this, was very indignant, and enraged at -Aristagoras, and told him so; "but," said Aristagoras, "what have you to -do with these matters? Did not Artaphernes send you to obey me, and to -sail wheresoever I should command?" Megabates, still more exasperated at -this, as soon as night arrived, dispatched men in a ship to Naxos, to -inform the Naxians of the impending danger. The Naxians, who had not a -suspicion that this armament was coming against them, immediately -carried every thing from the fields into the town, and, with plenty of -food and drink, prepared to undergo a siege, so the Persians had to -attack men well fortified, and after besieging them four months, -consumed all the supplies they had brought with them, together with -large sums furnished by Aristagoras, and wanting still more to carry on -the siege, they were forced to build a fortress for the Naxian exiles, -and retire to the continent unsuccessful. - -Aristagoras was thus unable to fulfil his promise to Artaphernes; while -at the same time the expenses of the expedition pressed heavily on him -on account of the ill success of the army; and having incurred the ill -will of Megabates to such an extent that he feared that he should be -deprived of the government of Miletus, he meditated a revolt. It -happened at the same time that a messenger with his head tattooed came -from Susa from Histiæus, urging Aristagoras to revolt from the king. For -Histiæus, being desirous to communicate to Aristagoras his wish for him -to revolt, had no other means of signifying it with safety, because the -roads were guarded; therefore, having shaved the head of the most -trustworthy of his slaves, he marked it with a sharp iron, and waited -till the hair had grown again, then sent him to Miletus without other -instructions except that when he arrived at Miletus he should desire -Aristagoras to shave off his hair and look upon his head: the punctures, -as I have said before, signified a wish for him to revolt. Histiæus did -this because he looked upon his detention at Susa as a great misfortune; -while if a revolt should take place he had great hopes that he should be -sent down to the coast; but if Miletus made no new attempt, he thought -that he should never go there again. It was resolved to revolt, and -messengers were sent to the force that had returned from Naxos, and -which was at Myus, to seize the captains on board the ships. Aristagoras -thus openly revolted, devising every thing he could against Darius. And -first, in pretence, having laid aside the sovereignty, he established an -equality in Miletus, in order that the Milesians might more readily join -with him in the revolt. Afterward he effected the same throughout the -rest of Ionia, expelling some of the tyrants; and he delivered up those -whom he had taken from on board the ships that had sailed with him -against Naxos, to the cities, in order to gratify the people, giving -them up to the respective cities, from whence each came. The -Mityleneans, as soon as they received Coes, led him out, and stoned him -to death; but the Cymeans let their tyrant go; and in like manner most -of the others let theirs go. Accordingly there was a suppression of -tyrants throughout the cities. But Aristagoras enjoined them all to -appoint magistrates in each of the cities, and went himself in a trireme -as ambassador to Sparta, for it was necessary for him to procure some -powerful alliance. - -Aristagoras arrived at Sparta, when Cleomenes held the government; and -he went to confer with him, as the Lacedæmonians say, carrying a bronze -tablet, on which was engraved the circumference of the whole earth, the -whole sea, and all rivers. "Wonder not, Cleomenes," said Aristagoras, -"at my eagerness in coming here, for it is a great sorrow to us that the -children of Ionians should be slaves instead of free, and above all -others it is a disgrace to you, inasmuch as you are at the head of -Greece. I adjure you by the Grecian gods, rescue the Ionians, who are of -your own blood, from servitude. It is easy for you to effect this, for -the barbarians are not valiant; whereas you, in matters relating to war, -have attained to the utmost height of glory; their mode of fighting is, -with bows and short spears, and they engage in battle wearing loose -trousers, and turbans on their heads, so that they are easy to be -overcome. Besides, there are treasures belonging to those who inhabit -that continent, such as are not possessed by all other nations together; -gold, silver, bronze, variegated garments, beasts of burden, and slaves; -all these you may have if you will. They live adjoining one another as I -will show you. Next to these Ionians are the Lydians, who inhabit a -fertile country, and abound in silver." As he said this he showed the -map of the earth, which he had brought with him, engraved on a tablet. -"Next to the Lydians," proceeded Aristagoras, "are these Phrygians to -the eastward, who are the richest in cattle and in corn of all with whom -I am acquainted. Next to the Phrygians are the Cappadocians, whom we -call Syrians; and bordering on them, the Cilicians, extending to this -sea in which the island of Cyprus is situated; they pay an annual -tribute of five hundred talents to the king. Next to the Cilicians are -these Armenians, who also abound in cattle; and next to the Armenians -are the Metienians, who occupy this country; and next them this -territory of Cissia, in which Susa is situated, on this river Choaspes, -and here the great king resides, and here are his treasures of wealth. -If you take this city, you may boldly contend with Jupiter in wealth. As -it is, you carry on war for a country of small extent, and not very -fertile, and of narrow limits, with the Messenians, who are your equals -in valor, and with the Arcadians and Argives, who have nothing akin to -gold or silver, the desire of which induces men to hazard their lives in -battle. But when an opportunity is offered to conquer all Asia with -ease, will you prefer any thing else?" "Milesian friend," said -Cleomenes, "I defer to give you an answer until the third day." They met -at the appointed time and place, and Cleomenes asked Aristagoras, how -many days' journey it was from the sea of the Ionians to the king. -Aristagoras, though he was cunning in other things, and had deceived him -with much address, made a slip in this; for he should not have told the -real fact, if he wished to draw the Spartans into Asia; whereas he told -him frankly that it was a three months' journey up there. Cutting short -the rest of the description which Aristagoras was proceeding to give of -the journey, Cleomenes said: "My friend, from Miletus, depart from -Sparta before sunset; for you speak no agreeable language to the -Lacedæmonians, in wishing to lead them a three months' journey from the -sea;" and Cleomenes went home. Aristagoras, nothing daunted, taking an -olive-branch in his hand, went to the house of Cleomenes, entered in, as -a suppliant, and besought Cleomenes to listen to him. The latter's -little child, a daughter, whose name was Gorgo, stood by him; she -happened to be his only child, and was about eight or nine years of age. -Cleomenes bade him say what he wished, and not mind the presence of the -little girl. Thereupon Aristagoras promised him ten talents, if he would -do as he desired; and as Cleomenes refused, Aristagoras went on -increasing his offers, until he promised fifty talents, when little -Gorgo cried out, "Papa, this stranger will corrupt you, if you don't -quickly depart." Cleomenes, pleased with the advice of the child, -retired to another apartment; and Aristagoras was forced to leave Sparta -altogether, without ever getting another opportunity to give further -particulars of the route to the city of the great king. - -With respect to this road, the case is as follows: There are royal -stations all along, and excellent inns, and the whole road is through an -inhabited and safe country. There are twenty stations extending through -Lydia and Phrygia, and the distance is ninety-four parasangs and a half. -After Phrygia, the river Halys is met with, at which there are gates, -which it is absolutely necessary to pass through, and thus to cross the -river; there is also a considerable fort on it. When you cross over into -Cappadocia, and traverse that country to the borders of Cilicia, there -are eight and twenty stations, and one hundred and four parasangs; and -on the borders of these people, you go through two gates, and pass by -two forts. When you have gone through these and made the journey through -Cilicia, there are three stations, and fifteen parasangs and a half. The -boundary of Cilicia and Armenia is a river that is crossed in boats, -called the Euphrates. In Armenia there are fifteen stations for -resting-places, and fifty-six parasangs and a half; there is also a fort -at the stations. Four rivers that are crossed in boats flow through this -country, which it is absolutely necessary to ferry over. First, the -Tigris; then the second and third have the same name, though they are -not the same river, nor flow from the same source. For the first -mentioned of these flows from the Armenians, and the latter from the -Matienians. The fourth river is called the Gyndes, which Cyrus once -distributed into three hundred and sixty channels. As you enter from -Armenia into the country of Matiene, there are four stations; and from -thence as you proceed to the Cissian territory there are eleven -stations, and forty-two parasangs and a half, to the river Choaspes, -which also must be crossed in boats; on this Susa is built. All these -stations amount to one hundred and eleven,[21] as you go up from Sardis -to Susa. Now if the royal road has been correctly measured in parasangs, -and if the parasang is equal to thirty stades, as indeed it is, from -Sardis to the royal palace, called Memnonia, is a distance of thirteen -thousand five hundred stades, the parasangs being four hundred and -fifty; and by those who travel one hundred and fifty stades every day, -just ninety days are spent on the journey. So Aristagoras spoke -correctly when he stated the distance to Susa. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE IONIAN REVOLT. - - -Aristagoras the Milesian, having been expelled from Sparta by Cleomenes -the Lacedæmonian, repaired to Athens; for this city was much more -powerful than the rest. Presenting himself before the people, he said -the same that he had done at Sparta, respecting the wealth of Asia and -the Persian mode of warfare, how they used neither shield nor spear, and -could be easily conquered. He said also that the Milesians were a colony -of the Athenians, and it was but reasonable that they, having such great -power, should rescue them. And as there was nothing he did not promise, -being very much in earnest, at length he persuaded them. It appears to -be more easy to impose upon a multitude than one man; this schemer, you -see, was not able to impose upon Cleomenes the Lacedæmonian singly, but -did upon thirty thousand Athenians. Twenty ships were sent to succor the -Ionians, and Melanthius commander over them, a citizen who was -universally esteemed. These ships proved the source of calamities both -to Greeks and barbarians. Aristagoras sailed first, arrived at Miletus, -and had recourse to a project from which no advantage could result to -the Ionians; nor did he employ it for that purpose, but that he might -vex king Darius. He sent a man into Phrygia, to the Pæonians, who had -been carried away captive by Megabazus, from the river Strymon, and -occupied a tract in Phrygia, and a village by themselves. Arrived among -the Pæonians, the messenger spoke as follows: "Men of Pæonia, -Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus, has sent me to suggest to you a mode of -deliverance, if you will take his advice. For all Ionia has revolted -from the king, and offers you an opportunity of returning safe to your -own country; as far as to the coast take care of yourselves, and we will -provide for the rest." When the Pæonians heard these words, they -considered it a very joyful event, and taking with them their children -and wives, fled to the coast; though some of them, through fear, -remained where they were. When the Pæonians reached the coast, they -crossed over to Chios, when a large body of Persian cavalry came on -their heels, and sent orders to Chios to the Pæonians, commanding them -to return. The Pæonians did not listen to the proposal; but the Chians -conveyed them to Lesbos, and the Lesbians forwarded them to Doriscus; -thence proceeding on foot they reached Pæonia. - -The Athenians arrived with twenty ships, bringing with them five -triremes of the Eretrians, who engaged in this expedition out of -good-will to the Milesians, in order to repay a former obligation; for -the Milesians had formerly joined the Eretrians in the war against the -Chalcidians. When these had arrived, and the rest of the allies had come -up, Aristagoras resolved to make an expedition to Sardis. He himself did -not march with the army, but remained at Miletus, and appointed as -generals of the Milesians, his own brother Charopinus, and of the other -citizens Hermophantus. The Ionians arrived at Ephesus with this force, -left their ships at Coressus, in the Ephesian territory, and advanced -with a numerous army, taking Ephesians for their guides; and marching by -the side of the river Cayster, they crossed Mount Tmolus, and reached -and took Sardis without opposition; all except the citadel, for -Artaphernes with a strong garrison defended the citadel. The following -accident prevented them, after they had taken the city, from plundering -it. Most of the houses in Sardis were built with reeds; and such of them -as were built with brick, had roof of reeds. A soldier happened to set -fire to one of these, and immediately the flame spread from house to -house, and consumed the whole city. While the city was burning, the -Lydians, and as many of the Persians as were in the city, being enclosed -on every side, and having no means of escaping from the city, rushed -together to the market-place, and to the river Pactolus, which, bringing -down grains of gold from Mount Tmolus, flows through the middle of the -market-place, and then discharges itself into the river Hermus, and that -into the sea. The Lydians and Persians, being assembled on this Pactolus -and at the market-place, were constrained to defend themselves: and the -Ionians, seeing some of the enemy standing on their defence, and others -coming up in great numbers, retired through fear to the mountain called -Tmolus, and thence under favor of the night retreated to their ships. -Thus Sardis was burnt, and in it the temple of the native goddess -Cybebe; the Persians, making a pretext of this, afterwards burnt in -retaliation the temples of Greece. As soon as the Persians who had -settlements on this side the river Halys were informed of these things, -they drew together and marched to assist the Lydians; the Ionians were -no longer at Sardis; but following on their track they overtook them at -Ephesus, where the Ionians drew out in battle-array against them, and -coming to an engagement, were sorely beaten; and the Persians slew many -of them, among other persons of distinction, Eualcis, general of the -Eretrians, who had gained the prize in the contests for the crown, and -had been much celebrated by Simonides the Cean. Those who escaped from -the battle were dispersed throughout the cities. - -Such was the result of the encounter. Afterward, the Athenians, totally -abandoning the Ionians, though Aristagoras urgently solicited them by -ambassadors, refused to send them any assistance. The Ionians, deprived -of the alliance of the Athenians, (for they had conducted themselves in -such a manner toward Darius from the first,) nevertheless prepared for -war with the king. And sailing to the Hellespont, they reduced Byzantium -and all the other cities in that quarter to their obedience. They then -sailed out of the Hellespont, and gained over to their alliance the -greater part of Caria; for the city of Caunus, which before would not -join their alliance, when they had burnt Sardis, came over to their side. - -When it was told king Darius, that Sardis had been taken and burnt by -the Athenians and Ionians, and that Aristagoras the Milesian was the -chief of the confederacy and the contriver of that enterprise, it is -related that he took no account of the Ionians, well knowing that they -would not escape unpunished for their rebellion, but inquired where the -Athenians were; then having been informed, he called for a bow, put an -arrow into it, let it fly toward heaven, and as he shot it into the air, -exclaimed: "O Jupiter, grant that I may revenge myself on the -Athenians!" Then he commanded one of his attendants, every time dinner -was set before him, to say thrice: "Sire, remember the Athenians." -Summoning to his presence Histiæus the Milesian, whom he had already -detained a long time, Darius said: "I am informed, Histiæus, that your -lieutenant, to whom you intrusted Miletus, has attempted innovations -against me; for he has brought men from the other continent, and with -them Ionians, who shall give me satisfaction for what they have done; -and has deprived me of Sardis. Now, can it appear to you that this is -right? Could such a thing have been done without your advice? Beware -lest hereafter you expose yourself to blame." To this Histiæus answered: -"O king, what have you said? That I should advise a thing from which any -grief, great or little, should ensue to you! With what object should I -do so? What am I in want of? I, who have all things the same as you, and -am deemed worthy to share all your counsels? But if my lieutenant has -done any such thing as you mention, be assured he has done it of his own -contrivance. But I do not believe the account, that the Milesians and my -lieutenant have attempted any innovations against your authority. Yet if -you have heard the truth, consider, O king, what mischief you have done -in withdrawing me from the coast. For the Ionians seem, when I was out -of their sight, to have done what they long ago desired to do; and had I -been in Ionia not one city would have stirred. Suffer me therefore to go -with all speed to Ionia, that I may restore all things there to their -former condition, and deliver into your hands this lieutenant of -Miletus, who has plotted the whole. When I have done this according to -your mind, I swear by the royal gods, not to put off the garments which -I shall wear when I go down to Ionia, before I have made the great -island Sardinia tributary to you." His speaking thus deceived the king; -Darius was persuaded, and let him go, charging him to return to Susa, as -soon as he should have accomplished what he had promised. - -While the news concerning Sardis was going up to the king, tidings were -brought to Onesilus the Salaminian, as he was besieging the Amathusians, -that Artybius, a Persian, leading a large Persian force on shipboard, -was to be expected in Cyprus. Onesilus accordingly sent heralds to the -different parts of Ionia, inviting them to assist him; and the Ionians, -without any protracted deliberation, arrived at Cyprus with a large -armament. The Persians crossed over in ships from Cilicia, and marched -by land against Salamis. - -Then the kings of the Cyprians drew up their forces in line, and -stationed the best of the Salaminians and Solians against the Persians. -Onesilus voluntarily took up his position directly against Artybius, the -general of the Persians. Artybius used to ride on a horse, that had been -taught to rear up against an armed enemy. Onesilus had a shield-bearer, -a Carian, well skilled in matters of war, and otherwise full of courage, -to whom he said: "I am informed that the horse of Artybius rears up, and -with his feet and mouth attacks whomsoever he is made to engage with; -tell me which you will watch and strike, whether the horse or Artybius -himself." His attendant answered: "I am ready to do both, or either of -them, but a king and a general ought, I think, to engage with a king and -a general. If you vanquish one who is a general, your glory is great; -while if he should vanquish you, which may the gods avert, to fall by a -noble hand is but half the calamity. We servants should engage with -other servants, and also against a horse, whose tricks you need not fear -at all; for I promise you he shall never again rear up against any man." -Forthwith the forces joined battle by land and sea. Now, the Ionians -fought valiantly on that day, when the armies met in close combat; and -when Artybius, seated on his horse, bore down upon Onesilus. Onesilus, -as he had concerted with his shield-bearer, struck Artybius himself; and -as the horse was throwing his feet against the shield of Onesilus, the -Carian with a scythe cut off the horse's feet. So that Artybius, the -general of the Persians, fell together with his horse on the spot. While -the rest were fighting, Stesenor, of Curium, deserted with no -inconsiderable body of men, and the chariots of war belonging to the -Salaminians did the same as the Curians. Consequently the Persians -became superior to the Cyprians. The army was put to flight, many fell, -and amongst them Onesilus, and the king of the Solians, Aristocyprus, -son of the Philocyprus whom Solon the Athenian, when he visited Cyprus, -celebrated in his verses above all tyrants. The Amathusians cut off the -head of Onesilus, because he had besieged them, took it to Amathus, and -suspended it over the gates; and when the head had become hollow, a -swarm of bees entered it, and filled it with honey-comb. An answer was -given to the Amathusians, who consulted the oracle respecting it, "that -they should take down the head and bury it, and sacrifice annually to -Onesilus, as to a hero, and that it would turn out better for them." - -Afterward, the Persians crossed the Mæander and engaged the Carians on -the banks of the river Marsyas. They fought an obstinate battle, and at -last overpowered them. Of the Persians there fell about two thousand, -and of the Carians ten thousand. The Carians, however, afterward -recovered from this wound, and renewed the contest. For hearing that the -Persians designed to invade their cities, they placed an ambuscade on -the way to Pedasus, into which the Persians, falling by night, were cut -in pieces, with their generals Daurises, Amorges, and Sisamaces. - -Hymees, who was one of those who pursued the Ionians that had attacked -Sardis, bending his march toward the Propontis, took Cius of Mysia. When -he heard that Daurises had quitted the Hellespont, and was marching -against Caria, he abandoned the Propontis, and led his army on the -Hellespont. He subdued all the Æolians who inhabited the territory of -Ilium, and subdued the Gergithæ, the remaining descendants of the -ancient Teucrians. Just then, however, he died of disease in the Troad. -But Artaphernes, governor of Sardis, and Otanes, who were appointed to -invade Ionia and the neighboring territory of Æolia, took Clazomenæ and -Cyme. - -Aristagoras the Milesian, for he was not, as it proved, a man of strong -courage, after he had thus thrown Ionia into confusion, and raised great -disturbances, thought of flight, when he saw these results. Besides, it -appeared to him impossible to overcome King Darius; so calling his -partisans together, he suggested "that it would be better for them to -have some sure place of refuge, in case they should be expelled from -Miletus." He asked, therefore, whether he should lead them to Sardinia, -to found a colony, or to Myrcinus of the Edonians, which Histiæus had -begun to fortify, having received it as a gift from Darius. However, the -opinion of Hecatæus the historian, son of Hegesander, was, that they -should set out for neither of these places, but should build a fortress -in the island of Leros, and remain quiet, if they were compelled to quit -Miletus. But Aristagoras himself was decidedly in favor of proceeding to -Myrcinus; he therefore intrusted Miletus to Pythagoras, a citizen of -distinction, and, taking with him all who were willing, sailed to -Thrace, and took possession of the region to which he was bound. But -both Aristagoras himself and all his army perished while he was laying -siege to a city in Thrace. - -[21] The detail of stations above-mentioned gives only eighty-one -instead of one hundred and eleven. The discrepancy can only be accounted -for by a supposed defect in the manuscripts. - - - - -_BOOK VI. ERATO._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE SUPPRESSION OF THE IONIAN REVOLT. - - -Aristagoras thus induced the Ionians to revolt, and died; and Histiæus, -tyrant of Miletus, repaired to Sardis. When he arrived from Susa, -Artaphernes, Governor of Sardis, asked him for what reason he supposed -the Ionians had revolted. Histiæus said he did not know, and seemed -surprised at what had happened, as if he knew nothing of the present -state of affairs. But Artaphernes saw that he was dissembling, and being -aware of the exact truth as to the revolt, said: "Histiæus, the state of -the case is this: you made the shoe and Aristagoras has put it on." -Histiæus in alarm fled to the coast as soon as night came on, and -although he had promised to reduce the great island of Sardinia for -Darius, he insinuated himself into the command of the Ionians in the war -against him. At Chios he was taken and put in chains, being suspected by -the Chians of planning some new design against them in favor of Darius. -However, the Chians, being assured that he was an enemy to the king, -released him, and conveyed him to Miletus, at his own request; but the -Milesians, delighted at being rid of Aristagoras, were by no means -desirous to receive another tyrant into their country, as they had -tasted of freedom. Thereupon Histiæus, going down to Miletus by night, -endeavored to enter it by force, but was wounded in the thigh by one of -the Milesians. When he was repulsed from his own country, he went back -to Chios, and from there, since he could not persuade the Chians to help -him, he crossed over to Mitylene, and prevailed with the Lesbians to -furnish him with ships; they manned eight triremes, and sailed with -Histiæus to Byzantium. There taking up their station, they took all the -ships that sailed out of the Pontus, except such of them as said they -were ready to submit to Histiæus. - -But a large naval and land-force was expected against Miletus itself. -For the Persian generals had united their forces and formed one camp to -march to Miletus, deeming the other cities of less consequence. The -Ionians, hearing of this, sent their respective deputies to the -Panionium, and determined not to assemble any land-forces to oppose the -Persians; but bade the Milesians themselves defend their walls, while -they should man their navy, without leaving a single ship behind, and -assemble as soon as possible at Lade, to fight in defence of Miletus. -Lade is a small island lying off the city of the Milesians. Soon the -Ionians came up with their ships manned, and formed their line, a fleet -three hundred and fifty-three triremes strong. On the side of the -barbarians the number of ships amounted to six hundred, and when they -arrived on the Milesian coast, and all their land-forces had come up, -the Persian generals began to fear they should not be strong enough to -overcome them, and so should be also unable to take Miletus, since they -were not masters at sea, and then might be in danger of receiving -punishment at the hands of Darius. Taking these things into -consideration, they summoned the tyrants of the Ionians, who had been -deprived of their governments by Aristagoras, and had fled to the Medes, -and who happened at that time to be serving in the army against Miletus. -"Men of Ionia," they said, "let each of you now show his zeal for the -king's house. For let each of you endeavor to detach his own countrymen -from the rest of the confederacy, and proclaim this, that they shall -suffer no hurt on account of their rebellion, nor shall their buildings, -whether sacred or profane, be burnt, nor shall they be treated with more -severity than they were before. But if they do not do this, and will at -all events come to the hazard of a battle, threaten that, when conquered -in battle, they shall all be enslaved." And the tyrants of the Ionians -sent each by night to his own countrymen, to make known the warning. But -the Ionians to whom these messages came, continued firm to their purpose -and would not listen to treachery; for each thought that the Persians -had sent this message. - -When the Ionians had assembled at Lade, a council was held, and the -Phocæan general Dionysius spoke as follows: "Our affairs are in a -critical[22] state, O Ionians; we are to be freemen or slaves, and that -too run-away slaves. But if you are willing to undergo hardships, for -the present you will have to toil, but will be enabled, by overcoming -your enemies, to be free; on the other hand, if you abandon yourselves -to ease and disorder, I have no hope that you will escape punishment at -the hands of the king for your revolt. But be persuaded by me, and -entrust yourselves to my guidance, and I promise you, that if the gods -are impartial, either our enemies will not fight us at all, or if they -do fight with us, they will be completely beaten." The Ionians intrusted -themselves to the guidance of Dionysius without hesitation who daily led -out the ships into a line, exercised the rowers, by practising the -manœuvre of cutting through one another's line, put the marines under -arms, and kept the ships at anchor for the rest of the day. For seven -days they continued to obey, but on the eighth the Ionians, unaccustomed -to such toil, and worn down by hardships and the heat of the sun, -grumbled to each other in such terms as these: "What deity have we -offended to fill up this measure of affliction? we who were so beside -ourselves, as to have intrusted ourselves to the guidance of a -presumptuous Phocæan, who, all told, contributed only three ships, but -having got us under his control, afflicts us with intolerable hardships. -Many of us have already fallen into distempers, and many more must -expect to meet with the same fate. Instead of these evils, it would be -better for us to suffer anything else, and to endure the impending -servitude, be it what it may, than be oppressed by the present, Come, -let us no longer obey him." And from that moment no one would obey; but, -pitching their tents on the island, they continued under the shade, and -would not go on board the ships, or perform their exercise. When the -generals of the Samians observed what was passing among the Ionians, and -saw great disorder among them, they accepted the proposal of Æaces, son -of Syloson, which he had before sent them at the desire of the Persians, -exhorting them to abandon the confederacy of the Ionians. Besides, it -was clearly impossible for them to overcome the power of the king, -because they were convinced, that if they should overcome Darius with -his present fleet, another five times as large would come against them. -So laying hold of this pretext, as soon as they saw the Ionians refusing -to behave well, they deemed it for their advantage to preserve their own -buildings, sacred and profane. - -When therefore the Phœnicians sailed against them, the Ionians drew out -their ships in line to oppose them; but when they came near and opposed -each other, I am unable to affirm with certainty who of the Ionians -proved themselves cowards, or brave men, in this sea-fight; for they -mutually accuse each other. The Samians however are said at that moment -to have hoisted sail, in pursuance of their agreement with Æaces, and -steered out of the line to Samos, with the exception of eleven ships; -the captains of which stayed and fought, refusing to obey their -commanders; and for this action the commonwealth of the Samians -conferred upon them the honor of having their names and ancestry -engraved on a column, as those who had proved themselves valiant men; -and this column now stands in the forum. The Lesbians also, seeing those -stationed next them flee, did the same as the Samians; and most of the -Ionians followed their example. Of those that persisted in the battle, -the Chians were most roughly handled, as they displayed signal proofs of -valor, and would not act as cowards. They had contributed one hundred -ships, and on board each of them forty chosen citizens served as -marines; and though they saw most of the confederates abandoning the -common cause, they disdained to follow the example of their treachery; -but choosing rather to remain with the few allies, they continued the -fight, cutting through the enemies' line, until, after they had taken -many of the enemies' ships, they lost most of their own. The Chians then -fled to their own country with the remainder of their fleet. Those -Chians whose ships were disabled in the fight, took refuge in Mycale, -ran their ships aground, and left them there, and marched over-land -across the continent. On their return they entered the territory of -Ephesus, and arrived near the city by night, at a time when the women -were celebrating the Thesmophoria; thereupon, the Ephesians, not having -before heard how it had fared with the Chians, and seeing an army enter -their territory, thinking they were certainly robbers, and had come to -seize their women, rushed out in a body, and slew the Chians. When -Dionysius the Phocæan perceived that the affairs of the Ionians were -utterly ruined, he took three of the enemies' ships and sailed away, not -indeed to Phocæa, well knowing that it would be enslaved with the rest -of Ionia, but directly to Phœnicia; and there having disabled some -merchantmen, and obtained great wealth, he sailed to Sicily, where he -established himself as a pirate, attacking none of the Greeks, but only -Carthaginians and Tyrrhenians. - -When the Persians had conquered the Ionians in the sea-fight they -besieged Miletus by land and sea, undermined the walls, and bringing up -all kinds of military engines against it, took it completely, in the -sixth year after the revolt of Aristagoras. They reduced the city to -slavery, so that the event coincided with the oracle delivered -concerning Miletus. For when the Argives consulted the oracle at Delphi -respecting the preservation of their city, a double answer was given; -part concerning themselves, and the addition concerning the Milesians. -The part relating to the Argives I will mention when I come to that part -of the history; the words the Pythian uttered relative to the Milesians, -who were not present, were these: "Then Miletus, contriver of wicked -deeds, thou shalt become a feast and a rich gift to many: thy wives -shall wash the feet of many long-haired masters, and our temple at -Didymi shall be tended by others." These things befell the Milesians at -that time; for most of the men were killed by the Persians, who wear -long hair, their women and children were treated as slaves, and the -sacred enclosure at Didymi, both the temple and the shrine, were -pillaged and burnt. Of the riches in this temple I have frequently made -mention in other parts of my history. Such of the Milesians as were -taken alive were afterward conveyed to Susa; and King Darius did them no -harm, but settled them on the Red Sea, in the city of Ampe, near by -which the Tigris falls into the sea. Of the Milesian territory, the -Persians themselves retained the parts round the city and the plain; the -mountainous parts they gave to the Carians of Pedasus to occupy. When -the Milesians suffered this at the hands of the Persians, the Sybarites, -who inhabited Laos and Scydrus, did not show equal sympathy. But when -Sybaris was taken by the Crotonians, all the Milesians of every age had -shaved their heads and displayed marks of deep mourning: for these two -cities had been more strictly united in friendship than any others we -are acquainted with. The Athenians behaved in a very different manner; -for the Athenians made it evident that they were excessively grieved at -the capture of Miletus, both in many other ways, and more particularly -when Phrynichus had composed a drama of the capture of Miletus, and -represented it, the whole theatre burst into tears, and fined him a -thousand drachmas[23] for renewing the memory of their domestic -misfortunes; and they gave order that henceforth no one should act this -drama. - -[Illustration: AMPHITHEATRE AT POLA.] - -While Histiæus the Milesian was near Byzantium, intercepting the trading -ships of the Ionians that sailed out of the Pontus, news was brought him -of what had taken place at Miletus; he therefore intrusted his affairs -on the Hellespont to Bisaltes, son of Apollophanes, of Abydos, and with -the Lesbians sailed to Chios, and engaged with a garrison of Chians, -that would not admit him, at a place called Cœli in the Chian territory, -and killed great numbers of them. The deity is wont to give some -previous warning when any great calamities are about to befall city or -nation, and before these misfortunes great warnings happened to the -Chians. For in the first place, when they sent to Delphi a band of one -hundred youths, two only of them returned home, for a pestilence seized -and carried off the remaining ninety-eight. In the next place, a little -before the sea-fight, a house in the city fell in upon some boys, as -they were learning to read, so that of one hundred and twenty boys one -only escaped. After this, the sea-fight following, threw the city -prostrate; and after the sea-fight Histiæus with the Lesbians came upon -them; and as the Chians had been much shattered, he easily reduced them -to subjection. From there Histiæus proceeded to attack Thasus with a -large body of Ionians and Æolians; and while he was besieging Thasus, -Harpagus, the Persian, general of a considerable army, who, happening to -be in those parts, engaged with him after his landing, took Histiæus -himself prisoner, and destroyed the greater part of his army. - -Now if, when Histiæus was taken prisoner, he had been conducted to king -Darius, in my opinion, he would have suffered no punishment, and the -king would have forgiven him his fault. But for this very reason, lest -by escaping he should again regain his influence with the king, -Artaphernes, Governor of Sardis, and Harpagus, who received him as soon -as he was conducted to Sardis, impaled his body on the spot, and -embalmed the head and sent it to Darius at Susa. Darius blamed those -that had done it, because they had not brought him alive into his -presence, and gave orders that they should wash and adorn the head of -Histiæus, and inter it honorably, as the remains of a man who had been a -great benefactor to himself and the Persians. - -The naval force of the Persians wintered near Miletus. In the second -year it set sail for the islands lying near the continent, Chios, -Lesbos, and Tenedos, which it easily subdued. When they took any one of -these islands, the barbarians netted the inhabitants in this manner: -Taking one another by the hand, they would extend from the northern to -the southern sea, and so march over the island, hunting out the -inhabitants. They also took the Ionian cities on the continent with the -same ease; but did not net the inhabitants, for that was impossible. -Thus the Ionians were for the third time reduced to slavery; first by -the Lydians, then twice successively by the Persians. The naval force, -departing from Ionia, reduced all the places on the left of the -Hellespont as one sails in; and all the cities of the Chersonese, except -Cardia, they subdued. - -Till that time Miltiades, son of Cimon, was tyrant of these cities, -Miltiades, son of Cypselus, having formally acquired this government in -the following manner: The Thracian Dolonci possessed this Chersonese; -these Dolonci, being pressed in war by the Apsynthians, sent their kings -to Delphi to consult the oracle concerning the war; the Pythian answered -them, "that they should take that man with them to their country to -found a colony, who after their departure from the temple should first -offer them hospitality." Accordingly the Dolonci, going by the sacred -way, went through the territories of the Phocians and Bœotians, and when -no one invited them, turned out of the road toward Athens. At that time -Pisistratus had the supreme power at Athens; but Miltiades, son of -Cypselus, had considerable influence; he was of a family that maintained -horses for the chariot-races, and was originally descended from Æacus -and Ægina, but in later times was an Athenian, Philæus, son of Ajax, -having been the first Athenian of that family. This Miltiades, being -seated in his own portico, and seeing the Dolonci passing by, wearing a -dress not belonging to the country, and carrying javelins, called out to -them: and upon their coming to him, he offered them shelter and -hospitality. They, grateful for their entertainment, made known to him -the whole oracle, and entreated him to obey the deity. Their words -persuaded Miltiades as soon as he heard them, for he was troubled with -the government of Pisistratus, and desired to get out of his way. He -therefore immediately set out to Delphi to ask the oracle whether he -should do that which the Dolonci requested of him. The Pythian having -bade him do so, Miltiades took with him all such Athenians as were -willing to join in the expedition, and set sail with the Dolonci, and -took possession of the country; and they who introduced him appointed -him tyrant. He, first of all, built a wall on the isthmus of the -Chersonese, from the city of Cardia to Pactya, in order that the -Apsynthians might not be able to injure them by making incursions into -their country. The width of this isthmus is thirty-six stades; and from -this isthmus the whole Chersonese inward is four hundred and twenty -stades in length. Miltiades next made war upon the Lampsacenians, who -laid an ambush and took him prisoner. But Miltiades was well known to -Crœsus, who, on hearing of this event, sent and commanded the -Lampsacenians to release Miltiades; if not, he threatened that he would -destroy them like a pine-tree. The Lampsacenians, uncertain as to what -was the meaning of this saying, discovered, with some difficulty, from -one of the elders, that the pine alone of all trees, when cut down, does -not send forth any more shoots, but perishes entirely: whereupon the -Lampsacenians, dreading the power of Crœsus, set Miltiades at liberty. -He accordingly escaped by means of Crœsus, and afterward died childless, -having bequeathed the government and his property to Stesagoras, his -brother by the same mother. When he was dead the Chersonesians -sacrificed to him, as is usual to a founder, and instituted equestrian -and gymnastic exercises, in which no Lampsacenian is permitted to -contend. The war with the Lampsacenians still continuing, it also befell -Stesagoras to die childless; being struck on the head with an axe in the -prytaneum, by a man who in pretence was a deserter, but was in fact an -enemy, and a very vehement one. - -Upon the death of Stesagoras, the Pisistratidæ sent Miltiades, son of -Cimon, and brother of Stesagoras who had died, with one ship to the -Chersonese, to assume the government; they had also treated him with -kindness at Athens, as if they had not been parties to the death of his -father Cimon. Miltiades having arrived in the Chersonese, kept himself -at home under color of honoring the memory of his brother Stesagoras, -and the principal persons of all the cities assembled together from -every quarter, and came in a body with the intention of condoling with -him, whereupon they were all thrown into chains by him. Thus Miltiades -got possession of the Chersonese, maintaining five hundred auxiliaries, -and married Hegesipyle, daughter of Olorus, King of the Thracians. This -Miltiades, son of Cimon, had lately arrived in the Chersonese, but -having heard that the Phœnicians were at Tenedos, he loaded five -triremes with the property he had at hand, and sailed away for Athens. -But when he had set out from the city of Cardia, he sailed through the -gulf of Melas, and as he was passing by the Chersonese, the Phœnicians -fell in with his ships. Miltiades himself escaped with four of the ships -to Imbrus, but the fifth the Phœnicians pursued and took; of this ship, -Metiochus, the eldest of the sons of Miltiades, happened to be -commander, whom the Phœnicians took together with the ship. When they -heard that he was son of Miltiades, they took him up to the king, -thinking that they should obtain great favor for themselves, because -Miltiades had given an opinion to the Ionians advising them to comply -with the Scythians, when the Scythians requested them to loose the -bridge and return to their own country. But Darius did the young man no -injury, but many favors; for he gave him a house and an estate, and a -Persian wife, by whom he had children, who were reckoned among the -Persians. Meantime Miltiades arrived safely at Athens. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -EXPEDITION OF MARDONIUS. - - -In the beginning of the spring, the other generals were dismissed by the -king, but Mardonius, son of Gobryas, went down to the coast, taking with -him a very large land-army, and a numerous naval force: he was young in -years, and had lately married king Darius' daughter, Artazostra. When he -arrived in Cilicia, and had gone in person on board ship, he proceeded -with the rest of the fleet, while the other generals led the land-army -to the Hellespont. When Mardonius reached Ionia, he did a thing, which, -when I mention it, will be a matter of very great astonishment to those -Greeks, who cannot believe that Otanes, one of the seven Persians, gave -an opinion that it was right for the Persians to be governed by a -democracy; for Mardonius deposed the tyrants of the Ionians, and -established democracies in the cities. - -After this, Darius made trial of what were the intentions of the Greeks, -whether to make war with him or to deliver themselves up. He therefore -despatched heralds, appointing different persons to go to different -parts throughout Greece, with orders to ask earth and water for the -king, the Persian method of demanding submission. These he sent to -Greece, and despatched other heralds to the tributary cities on the -coast, with orders to build ships of war and transports for horses. To -the heralds who came to Greece many of the inhabitants of the continent -gave what the Persian demanded, as did all the islanders also, and -moreover the Æginetæ, whereupon the Athenians forthwith threatened them, -thinking that the Æginetæ had given earth and water out of ill-will -toward themselves, in order that they might make war on them in -conjunction with the Persian. And the Athenians laying hold of the -pretext, sent to Sparta to accuse the Æginetæ of what they had done as -betraying Greece. - -The Spartans say, that once upon a time there lived in Lacedæmon one -Glaucus, son of Epicydes. This man attained to the first rank in all -respects, and bore the highest character for justice of all who at that -time dwelt at Lacedæmon. In the course of time a certain Milesian came -to Sparta and wished to have a conference with him, and said: "I am a -Milesian, and have come, Glaucus, with the desire of profiting by your -justice, of which, throughout all the rest of Greece, and particularly -in Ionia, there is great talk. Ionia is so continually exposed to great -dangers, while with us one can never see the same persons retaining -property. Having, therefore, reflected and deliberated on these things, -I determined to change half of my whole substance into silver and -deposit it with you, being well assured that with you, it would be safe. -Do you, then, take this money, and preserve these tokens; and whosoever -possessing these shall demand it back again, restore it to him." So -spoke the stranger who came from Miletus, and Glaucus received the -deposit, on the condition mentioned. After a long time had elapsed, the -sons of this man who had deposited the money came to Sparta, and -addressed themselves to Glaucus, showed the tokens, and demanded back -the money. Glaucus repulsed them, answering as follows: "I don't -remember the matter, nor any of the circumstances you mention; but if I -can recall it to my mind, I am willing to do every thing that is just; -if I really received it, I wish to restore it correctly; but if I have -not received it at all, I shall have recourse to the laws of the Greeks -against you. I therefore defer settling this matter with you for four -months from the present time." The Milesians in disappointment departed, -taking greatly to heart the loss of their money. But Glaucus went to -Delphi to consult the oracle; and, when he asked the oracle whether he -should make a booty of the money by an oath, the Pythian assailed him in -the following words: "Glaucus, son of Epicydes, thus to prevail by an -oath, and to make a booty of the money, will be a present gain. But -there is a nameless son of Perjury, who has neither hands nor feet; he -pursues swiftly, until he has seized and destroyed the whole race, and -all the house of him who has falsely sworn. But the race of a man who -keeps his oath is afterward more blessed." Glaucus, hearing this, -entreated the god to pardon the words he had spoken. But the Pythian -said, that to tempt the god, and to commit the crime, were the same -thing. So Glaucus sent for the Milesian strangers, and restored them the -money. There is at present not a single descendant of Glaucus, nor any -house which is supposed to have belonged to Glaucus; but he is utterly -extirpated from Sparta. Thus it is right to have no other thought -concerning a deposit, than to restore it when it is demanded. - -[Illustration: RUINS OF AN ANCIENT TEMPLE IN CORINTH.] - -The Æginetæ, offended at what they considered a great affront, prepared -to revenge themselves on the Athenians: and as the Athenians happened to -have a five-benched galley at Sunium, they formed an ambuscade and took -the ship "Theoris"[24] filled with the principal Athenians, and put the -men in chains. The Athenians, thus treated by the Æginetæ, no longer -delayed to devise all sorts of plans against them. Now there was in -Ægina an eminent man named Nicodromus, son of Cnœthus; incensed against -the Æginetæ on account of his former banishment from the island, and now -hearing that the Athenians were preparing to do a mischief to the -Æginetæ, he entered into an agreement with the Athenians for the -betrayal of Ægina, mentioning on what day he would make the attempt, and -on what it would be necessary for them to come to his assistance. -Nicodromus, according to his agreement, on the appointed day seized that -which is called the old town. The Athenians, however, did not arrive at -the proper time, for they happened not to have a sufficient number of -ships to engage with the Æginetæ; and while they were entreating the -Corinthians to furnish them with ships, their plan was ruined. The -Corinthians, for they were then on very friendly terms with them, at -their request supplied the Athenians with twenty ships, hiring them out -at a nominal price of five drachmæ each; because by their laws they were -forbidden to give them for nothing. The Athenians, taking these and -their own, manned seventy ships in all, sailed to Ægina, and arrived one -day after that agreed upon. When the Athenians did not arrive at the -proper time, Nicodromus embarked on shipboard and made his escape from -Ægina; and others of the Æginetæ accompanied him, to whom the Athenians -gave Sunium for a habitation; and they, sallying from thence, plundered -the Æginetæ in the island. This, however, happened subsequently. In the -meantime the most wealthy of the Æginetæ overpowered the common people, -who, together with Nicodromus, had revolted against them, and led them -out to execution. On this occasion they incurred a guilt, which they -were unable to expiate by any contrivance, as they were ejected out of -the island before the goddess became propitious to them. For having -taken seven hundred of the common people prisoners, they led them out to -execution; and one of them, who escaped from his bonds, fled to the -porch of Ceres the lawgiver, and seizing the door-handle, held it fast; -when they were unable by dragging to tear him away, they cut off his -hands, and so took him away; and the hands were left sticking on the -door-handles. So did the Æginetæ treat their own people. But when the -Athenians arrived with their seventy ships, they came to an engagement, -and being conquered in the sea-fight, they called upon the same persons -as before for assistance, that is, on the Argives. They, however, would -not any longer succor them, but complained that the ships of the -Æginetæ, having been forcibly seized by Cleomenes, had touched on the -territory of Argos, and the crews had disembarked with the -Lacedæmonians. Some men had also disembarked from Sicyonian ships in the -same invasion; and a penalty was imposed upon them by the Argives, to -pay a thousand talents, five hundred each. The Sicyonians, acknowledging -that they had acted unjustly, made an agreement to pay one hundred -talents, and be free from the rest; but the Æginetæ would not own -themselves in the wrong, and were very obstinate. On this account, -therefore, none of the Argives were sent by the commonwealth to assist -them; but, on their request, volunteers went to the number of a -thousand; a general, whose name was Eurybates, and who had practised for -the pentathlon, led them. The greater number of these never returned -home, but were slain by the Athenians in Ægina. The general, Eurybates, -engaging in single combat, killed three several antagonists in that -manner, but was slain by the fourth, Sophanes of Decelea. But the -Æginetæ attacked the fleet of the Athenians when they were in disorder, -and obtained a victory, and took four of their ships with the men on -board. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -EXPEDITION OF DATIS AND ARTAPHERNES; THE BATTLE -OF MARATHON. - - -War was accordingly kindled between the Athenians and Æginetæ. But the -Persian pursued his own design, for the servant continually reminded him -to remember the Athenians, and the Pisistratidæ constantly importuned -him and accused the Athenians; and at the same time Darius was desirous -of subduing those people of Greece who had refused to give him earth and -water. He therefore dismissed Mardonius from his command, because he had -succeeded ill in his expedition; and appointed other generals, whom he -sent against Eretria and Athens, namely, Datis, who was a Mede by birth, -and Artaphernes, son of Artaphernes, his own nephew; and he despatched -them with strict orders to enslave Athens and Eretria, and bring the -bondsmen into his presence. When these generals who were appointed left -the king, and reached the Aleian plain of Cilicia, bringing with them a -numerous and well-equipped army, they encamped there until the whole -naval force required from each people came up: the horse-transports were -also present, which Darius in the preceding year had commanded his -tributaries to prepare. They put the horses on board of these, and -embarked the land-forces in the ships, and sailed for Ionia with six -hundred triremes. From there they did not steer their ships along the -continent direct to the Hellespont and Thrace; but parting from Samos -they bent their course across the Icarian sea, and through the islands, -dreading the circumnavigation of Athos, because in the preceding year, -in attempting a passage that way, they had sustained great loss. - -While they were doing this, the Delians also, abandoning Delos, fled to -Tenos; but as the fleet was sailing down toward it, Datis would not -permit the ships to anchor near the island, but further on, off Rhenea; -and he, having ascertained where the Delians were, sent a herald and -addressed them as follows: "Sacred men, why have you fled, forming an -unfavorable opinion of me? For both I myself have so much wisdom, and am -so ordered by the king, that in the region where the two deities[25] -were born, no harm should be done either to the country itself or its -inhabitants. Return, therefore, to your houses, and resume possession of -the island." This message he sent to the Delians by means of a herald; -and afterward heaped up three hundred talents of frankincense upon the -altar, and burnt it. Then Datis sailed with the army first against -Eretria, taking with him both Ionians and Æolians. But after he had put -out to sea from there, Delos was shaken by an earthquake, as the Delians -say, the first and last time that it was ever so affected. And the deity -assuredly by this portent intimated to men the evils that were about to -befall them. For during the three successive reigns of Darius, son of -Hystaspes, of Xerxes, son of Darius, and of Artaxerxes, son of Xerxes, -more disasters befell Greece than during the twenty generations that -preceded the time of Darius, partly brought upon it by the Persians, and -partly by the chief men amongst them contending for power. So that it is -not at all improbable that Delos should be moved at that time, though -until then unmoved; and in an oracle respecting it, it had been thus -written: "I will move even Delos, although hitherto unmoved." And in the -Greek language these names mean: Darius, "one who restrains"; Xerxes, "a -warrior"; and Artaxerxes, "a mighty warrior." - -After the barbarians had parted from Delos, and touched at the islands, -they took with them men to serve in the army, and carried away the sons -of the islanders for hostages. Having subdued Eretria, and rested a few -days, they sailed to Attica, pressing the inhabitants very close, and -expecting to treat them in the same way as they had the Eretrians. Now -as Marathon was the spot in Attica best adapted for cavalry, and nearest -to Eretria, they gathered their forces there. When the Athenians heard -of this, they also sent their forces to Marathon: and ten generals led -them, of whom the tenth was Miltiades, whose father, Cimon, had been -banished from Athens by Pisistratus. During his exile, it was his good -fortune to obtain the Olympic prize in the four-horse chariot race, the -honor of which victory he transferred to Miltiades, his brother by the -same mother; afterward, in the next Olympiad, being victorious with the -same mares, he permitted Pisistratus to be proclaimed victor, and -returned home under terms. But after he had gained a third Olympic prize -with the same mares, it happened that he died by the hands of the sons -of Pisistratus, when Pisistratus himself was no longer alive; they slew -him near the Prytaneum, having placed men to waylay him by night. Cimon -was buried in front of the city, beyond that which is called the road to -Cœla, and opposite him these same mares were buried, which won the three -Olympic prizes. Stesagoras, the elder son of Cimon, was at that time -being educated by his uncle in the Chersonese, but the younger by Cimon -himself at Athens, and he had the name of Miltiades, from Miltiades, the -founder of the Chersonese. At that time, then, this Miltiades, coming -from the Chersonese, and having escaped a twofold death, became general -of the Athenians; for in the first place, the Phœnicians pursued him as -far as Imbros, exceedingly desirous of seizing him and carrying him up -to the king; and in the next, when he had escaped them, and had returned -to his own country, and thought himself in safety, his enemies attacked -him, and brought him before a court of justice, to prosecute him for -tyranny in the Chersonese. These also he escaped, and was at length -appointed general of the Athenians by the choice of the people. - -And first, while the generals were yet in the city, they despatched a -herald to Sparta, one Phidippides, an Athenian, a courier by profession, -who arrived in Sparta on the following day after his departure from the -city of the Athenians, and on coming in presence of the magistrates, -said: "Lacedæmonians, the Athenians entreat you to assist them, and not -to suffer the most ancient city among the Greeks to fall into bondage to -barbarians; for Eretria is already reduced to slavery, and Greece has -become weaker by the loss of a renowned city." He delivered the message -according to his instructions, and they resolved to assist the -Athenians; but it was out of their power to do so immediately, as they -were unwilling to violate the law; for it was the ninth day of the -current month; and they said they could not march out until the moon's -circle should be full. - -Meanwhile the traitor Hippias, son of Pisistratus, had guided the -barbarians to Marathon. He first of all landed the slaves from Eretria -on the island of the Styreans, called Ægilia; and next he moored the -ships as they came to Marathon, and drew up the barbarians as they -disembarked on land. But as he was busied in doing this, it happened -that he sneezed and coughed more violently than he was accustomed; and -as he was far advanced in years, several of his teeth were loose, so -that through the violence of his cough he threw out one of these teeth. -It fell on the sand, and he used every endeavor to find it; but when the -tooth could nowhere be found, he drew a deep sigh, and said to the -bystanders: "This country is not ours, nor shall we be able to subdue -it; whatever share belongeth to me, my tooth possesses." - -When the Athenians were drawn up in a place sacred to Hercules, the -Platæans came to their assistance with all their forces. For the -Platæans had given themselves up to the Athenians, as the Athenians had -already undergone many toils on their account. - -The opinions of the Athenian generals were divided: one party not -consenting to engage, "because they were too few to engage with the army -of the Medes"; and the others, among whom was Miltiades, urging them to -give battle. There was an eleventh voter who was appointed minister of -war among the Athenians, who had an equal vote with the generals, and at -that time Callimachus of Aphidnæ was minister of war. To him Miltiades -came and spoke as follows: "It now depends on you, Callimachus, either -to enslave Athens, or, by preserving its liberty, to leave a memorial of -yourself to every age, such as not even Harmodius and Aristogeiton have -left. For the Athenians were never in so great danger from the time they -were first a people. If they succumb to the Medes, it has been -determined what they are to suffer when delivered up to Hippias; but if -the city survives, it will become the first of the Greek cities. How, -then, this can be brought to pass, and how the power of deciding the -matter depends on you, I will now proceed to explain. The opinions of us -generals, who are ten, are equally divided; the one party urging that we -should engage, the other that we should not. Now, if we do not engage, I -expect that some great dissension arising amongst us will shake the -minds of the Athenians so as to induce them to a compliance with the -Medes. But if we engage before any dastardly thought arises in the minds -of some of the Athenians, if the gods are impartial, we shall be able to -get the better in the engagement. All these things now entirely depend -on you. For if you will support my opinion, your country will be free, -and the city the first in Greece; but if you join with those who would -dissuade us from an engagement, the contrary of the advantages I have -enumerated will fall to your lot." Miltiades, by these words, gained -over Callimachus, and it was determined to engage. Afterward the -generals whose opinions had been given to engage, as the command for the -day devolved upon each of them, gave it up to Miltiades; but though he -accepted it, he would not come to an engagement before his own turn to -command came. - -The war-minister, Callimachus, commanded the right wing, for the law at -that time was so settled among the Athenians; the Platæans were drawn -out last of all, occupying the left wing. Now, ever since that battle, -when the Athenians offer sacrifices and celebrate the public festivals -which take place every five years, the Athenian herald prays, saying: -"May blessings attend both the Athenians and the Platæans." Their line -was equal in extent to the Medic line, but the middle of it was but few -deep, and there the line was weakest, while each wing was strong in -numbers. When they were drawn up, and the victims were favorable, the -Athenians, at the order to charge, advanced against the barbarians in -double-quick time; and the space between them was not less than eight -stades. The Persians, seeing them charging at full speed, prepared to -receive them, laughing at their madness when they saw that they were so -few in number, and that they rushed on at full speed without cavalry or -archers. The Athenians, however, when they engaged in close ranks with -the barbarians, fought in a manner worthy of record. For they, the first -of all the Greeks whom we know of, charged the enemy at full speed, and -first endured the sight of the Medic garb and the men that wore it; for -until that time the very name of the Medes was a terror to the Greeks. -The battle at Marathon lasted a long time: and in the middle of the -line, where the Persians themselves and the Sacæ were arrayed, the -barbarians were victorious, and having broken the line, pursued to the -interior; but in both wings the Athenians and the Platæans were -victorious. Here they allowed the defeated portion of the barbarians to -flee; and having united both wings, they fought with those who had -broken their centre until at last the Athenians were victorious. They -followed the Persians in their flight, cutting them to pieces, till, -reaching the shore, they called for fire and attacked the ships. - -In this battle the brave war-minister, Callimachus, was killed, and -among the generals, Stesilaus, son of Thrasylas, perished; Cynægeirus, -son of Euphorion, laid hold of a ship's stern and had his hand severed -by an axe and fell; and besides, many other distinguished Athenians were -slain. In this manner the Athenians made themselves masters of seven -ships: but with the rest the barbarians rowed rapidly back, and after -taking off the Eretrian slaves from the island in which they had left -them, sailed round Sunium, wishing to anticipate the Athenians in -reaching the city. But the Athenians marched with all speed to the -assistance of the city, and reached it before the barbarians arrived; -and as they had come from the precinct of Hercules at Marathon, they -took up their station in another precinct of Hercules at Cynosarges. The -barbarians, having laid to with their fleet off Phalerum for a time, -soon sailed away for Asia. In this battle at Marathon there died of the -barbarians about six thousand four hundred men; and of the Athenians, -one hundred and ninety-two. An Athenian, Epizelus, son of Cuphagoras, -while fighting in the medley, and behaving valiantly, was deprived of -sight, though wounded in no part of his body, nor struck from a -distance; and he continued to be blind from that time for the remainder -of his life. I have heard that he used to give the following account of -his loss. He thought that a large heavy-armed man stood before him, -whose beard shaded the whole of his shield; that this spectre passed by -him, and killed the man that stood by his side, smiting him with this -loss as it passed. - -King Darius, before the Eretrians were made captive, harbored a deep -resentment against them, as the Eretrians had been the first to begin -acts of injustice: but when he saw them brought into his presence, and -subject to his power, he did them no other harm, but settled them in the -Cissian territory at a station of his own, the name of which is -Ardericca; it is two hundred and ten stades distant from Susa, and forty -from the well which produces three different substances; for asphalt, -salt, and oil are drawn up from it, in the following manner. It is -pumped up by means of a swipe, and, instead of a bucket, half of a -wine-skin is attached to it; having dipped down with this, a man draws -it up and then pours the contents into a receiver; and being poured from -this into another, it assumes three different forms: the asphalt and the -salt immediately become solid, but the oil they collect, and the -Persians call it rhadinace; it is black and emits a strong odor. Here -king Darius settled the Eretrians; who, even to my time, occupied this -territory, retaining their ancient language. Two thousand of the -Lacedæmonians came to Athens after the full moon, making such haste to -be in time, that they arrived in Attica on the third day after leaving -Sparta. Too late for the battle, they, nevertheless, proceeded to -Marathon, saw the slain, commended the Athenians and their achievement, -and returned home. - -After the defeat of the Persians at Marathon, Miltiades, asked of the -Athenians seventy ships, and troops, and money, without telling them -what country he purposed to invade, but saying that he would make them -rich if they would follow him, for he would take them to a country, from -which they would easily bring an abundance of gold, and the Athenians, -elated by these hopes, granted the ships. Miltiades, accordingly took -the troops and sailed against Paros, alleging as a pretext, that the -Parians had first begun hostilities by sending a trireme with the -Persians to Marathon. But his real reason was that he had a grudge -against the Parians on account of Lysagoras, son of Tisias, who was a -Parian by birth and who had calumniated him to Hydarnes the Persian. -Miltiades arrived with his forces and besieged the Parians, who were -driven within their walls; and sent a herald to them to demand a hundred -talents, saying, that if they did not furnish him that sum, he would not -draw off his army until he had destroyed them. The Parians never -entertained the thought of giving Miltiades any money; but devised means -by which they might defend the city; and in several parts where the wall -was most exposed to attack, they raised it, during the night, to double -its former height. Up to this point of the story all the Greeks agree; -but after this the Parians themselves say that it happened as follows. -That when Miltiades was in a state of perplexity, a captive woman, by -birth a Parian, and named Timo, conferred with him; she was an inferior -priestess of the infernal goddesses. When she came into the presence of -Miltiades, she advised him, if he deemed it of great consequence to take -Paros, to act as she should suggest. Following out her suggestions he -came to the mound before the city and leaped over the fence of Ceres -Thesmophora, as he was unable to open the door; and went to the temple, -for the purpose either to move some of the things that may not be moved, -or to do something or other, I know not what. He was just at the door, -when suddenly a thrill of horror came over him, and he went back by the -same way; and in leaping over the fence his thigh was dislocated, or his -knee was hurt. Miltiades, in a bad plight, sailed back home, neither -bringing money to the Athenians, nor having reduced Paros, but having -besieged it for six and twenty days, and ravaged the island. When the -Parians were informed that Timo, the priestess of the goddesses, had -directed Miltiades, they desired to punish her, and sent deputies to the -oracle at Delphi, as soon as they were relieved from the siege, to -inquire whether they should put to death the priestess of the goddesses, -for having made known to the enemy the means of capturing the country, -and for having discovered to Miltiades sacred things, which ought not to -be revealed to the male sex. But the Pythian did not allow them, but -said, "that Timo was not to blame for this, but that it was fated -Miltiades should come to a miserable end, and she had appeared to him as -a guide to misfortune." When Miltiades returned from Paros, the -Athenians were loud in their complaints against him, especially -Xanthippus, son of Ariphron, who brought a capital charge against -Miltiades before the people, and prosecuted him for deception. -Miltiades, though present in person, made no defence, through inability, -as his thigh had begun to mortify. But while he lay on a couch his -friends made a defence for him, dwelling much on the battle that had -been fought at Marathon, and on the capture of Lemnos; since he had -taken Lemnos, and inflicted vengeance on the Pelasgians, and had given -it up to the Athenians. The people so far favored him as to acquit him -of the capital offence, but fined him fifty talents for the injury he -had done. Miltiades soon after ended his life by the mortification of -his thigh, and his son Cimon paid the fifty talents. - -[22] The Greek words, literally translated, mean "on a razor's edge." - -[23] There is very good reason to believe that this fine was really -imposed for the adoption of a modern theme by Phrynichus, when hitherto -only the gods and heroes had been permissible subjects. - -[24] The "Theoris" was a vessel which was sent every year to Delos to -offer sacrifice to Apollo. - -[25] Apollo and Diana. - - - - -_BOOK VII. POLYMNIA._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -DEATH OF DARIUS AND REIGN OF XERXES. - - -When the news of the battle fought at Marathon reached Darius, who was -before much exasperated with the Athenians on account of the attack upon -Sardis, he grew still more eager to prosecute the war against Greece. He -therefore immediately sent messengers to the several cities, and bade -them prepare an army much greater than they had furnished before, and -ships, horses, corn, and transports. Asia was thrown into agitation -during the space of three years, the bravest men being enrolled and -prepared for the purpose of invading Greece. In the fourth year the -Egyptians, who had been subdued by Cambyses, revolted from the Persians; -whereupon Darius only became the more eager to march against both. Just -then a violent dissension arose between the sons of Darius concerning -the sovereignty; for by the customs of the Persians he was obliged to -nominate his successor before he marched out on any expedition. Before -Darius became king, he had three sons born to him by his former wife, -the daughter of Gobryas; and after his accession to the throne, four -others by Atossa, daughter of Cyrus. Of the former, Artabazanes was the -eldest; of those born after, Xerxes: and these two, not being of the -same mother, were at variance. Artabazanes urged that he was the eldest -of all the sons, and that it was the established usage among all men -that the eldest son should succeed to the sovereignty: on the other -hand, Xerxes alleged that he was son of Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, and -that it was Cyrus who had acquired freedom for the Persians. At this -very juncture, when Darius had not yet declared his opinion, Demaratus, -son of Ariston, happened to come up to Susa, deprived of his kingly -office at Sparta, and having imposed on himself a voluntary exile from -Lacedæmon. This man went to Xerxes, as report has it, and advised him to -say in addition to what he had already said, that "he was born after his -father Darius had become king, and was possessed of the empire of the -Persians; whereas Artabazanes was born while he was yet a private -person; wherefore it was not reasonable or just that any other should -possess that dignity in preference to himself." "Since in Sparta also," -Demaratus continued to suggest, "this custom prevailed, that if some -children were born before their father became king, and one was born -subsequently, when he had come to the throne, this last-born son should -succeed to the kingdom." Darius acknowledged this point, and declared -Xerxes king. But it appears to me that even without this suggestion -Xerxes would have been made king, for Atossa had unbounded influence. So -Darius appointed Xerxes to be king over the Persians, and prepared to -march. But just at this juncture, and in the year after the revolt of -Egypt, Darius himself, while making preparations, died, having reigned -thirty-six years in all; nor was he able to avenge himself either on the -Egyptians, who had revolted, or on the Athenians; and when Darius was -dead, the kingdom devolved on his son Xerxes. - -Xerxes was at first by no means inclined to make war against Greece, but -he levied forces for the reduction of Egypt. Mardonius, son of Gobryas, -who was cousin to Xerxes, and son of Darius' sister, and who had the -greatest influence with him of all the Persians, constantly held the -following language: "Sire, it is not right that the Athenians, who have -already done so much mischief to the Persians, should go unpunished? -However, for the present, finish the enterprise you have in hand; and -when you have quelled the insolence of Egypt, lead your army against -Athens; that you may acquire a good reputation among men, and any one -for the future may be cautious of marching against your territory." This -language was used by him for the purpose of revenge, but he frequently -made the following addition to it, that "Europe was a very beautiful -country, and produced all kinds of cultivated trees,—and was very -fertile, and worthy to be possessed by the king alone of all mortals." -Mardonius was desirous of new enterprises, and wished to be himself -governor of Greece, and in time he persuaded Xerxes to do as he advised. -Xerxes, in the second year after the death of Darius, reduced all Egypt -to a worse state of servitude than ever under Darius, and committed the -government to Achæmenes, his brother. - -He then convoked an assembly of the principal Persians, that he might -hear their opinions, and make known his intentions to them all. "Men of -Persia," said Xerxes, "I learn from older men that we have never -remained inactive since we wrested the sovereign power from the Medes, -and Cyrus overthrew Astyages; but the deity has led the way, and we have -followed his guidance to our advantage. What deeds Cyrus and Cambyses -and my father Darius have achieved, and what nations they have added to -our empire, no one need mention to you who know them well. But since I -have succeeded to the throne, I have carefully considered how I may not -fall short of my predecessors in honor, nor acquire less additional -power to the Persians." - -"I have now called you together, that I may communicate to you what I -purpose to do. I intend to throw a bridge over the Hellespont, and to -march an army through Europe against Greece, that I may punish the -Athenians for the injuries they have done to the Persians and to my -father. You have already seen Darius preparing to make war against those -people; but he died, and had it not in his power to avenge himself. But -I, in his cause and that of the other Persians, will not rest till I -have taken and burnt Athens; for they began by doing acts of injustice -against my father and me. First they came to Sardis, with Aristagoras -the Milesian, our servant, and burnt down the groves and the temples. -You all know well enough how they treated us on our making a descent on -their territory, when Datis and Artaphernes led our forces. For these -reasons, therefore, I have resolved to make war upon them. And I am sure -that if we subdue them, and their neighbors, who inhabit the country of -Pelops the Phrygian, we shall make the Persian territory co-extensive -with the air of heaven, for the sun will not look down upon any land -that borders on ours. When I shall have informed you of the time, it -will be the duty of each of you to come promptly. And whosoever shall -appear with the best-appointed troops, to him I will give such presents -as are accounted most honorable in our country." - -After this, when Xerxes had resolved to undertake the expedition, a -vision appeared to him in his sleep, which the magi interpreted to -signify that all mankind should serve him. Xerxes imagined that he was -crowned with the sprig of an olive tree, whose branches covered the -whole earth; and that afterward the crown that was placed on his head -disappeared. After the magi had given this interpretation, all the -Persians who were assembled departed immediately to their own -governments, and used all diligence to execute what had been ordered, -every man hoping to obtain the proposed reward; Xerxes thus levied his -army, searching out every region of the continent. He was employed four -whole years in assembling his forces and providing things necessary for -the expedition. In the fifth he began his march with a vast multitude of -men. For this was by far the greatest of all the expeditions with which -we are acquainted. What nation did not Xerxes lead out of Asia against -Greece? what stream, except that of great rivers, did not his army drink -dry? Some supplied ships; others were ordered to furnish men for the -infantry, others cavalry, some transports for horses, together with men -to serve in the army; others had to furnish long ships for the bridges, -and others provisions and vessels. - -And first of all, as those who had first attempted to double Mount Athos -had met with disaster, preparations were made for nearly three years to -cut Athos off by a canal. Triremes were stationed at Eleus in the -Chersonese, and from there men of every nation from the army dug under -the lash. They went in succession; and the people who dwelt round Athos -dug also. Bubares, son of Megabazus, and Artachæus, son of Artæus, both -Persians, presided over the work. Athos is a vast and celebrated -mountain, stretching into the sea, and inhabited by men. Where the -mountain terminates toward the continent, it is in the form of a -peninsula connected with the continent by an isthmus of about twelve -stades; this is a plain with hills of no great height from the sea of -the Acanthians to the sea which is opposite Torone. On this isthmus -stands Sana, a Grecian city; and on Athos itself are the cities of Dion, -Olophyxus, Acrothoon, Thyssus, and Cleonæ. To make the excavation the -barbarians divided the ground among the several nations, having drawn a -straight line near the city of Sana. When the trench was deep, some -stood at the bottom and continued to dig, and others handed the soil -that was dug out to men who stood above on ladders; they again in turn -handed it to others, until they reached those that were at the top; the -last carried it off and threw it away. In the case of all, except the -Phœnicians, the brink of the excavation fell in and gave double labor, -for as they made the upper and the lower opening of equal dimensions, -this must necessarily happen. But the Phœnicians, who show their skill -in other works, did so especially in this; for they dug the portion that -fell to their share, making the upper opening of the trench twice as -large as it was necessary for the trench itself to be; and as the work -proceeded they contracted it gradually, so that when they came to the -bottom the work was equal in width to the rest; near adjoining is a -meadow, where they had a market and bazaar, and great abundance of meal -was brought to them from Asia. According to my deliberate opinion, -Xerxes ordered this excavation to be made from motives of ostentation, -wishing to display his power, and to leave a memorial of himself. For -though it was possible, without any great labor, to have drawn the ships -over the isthmus, he commanded them to dig a channel for the sea of such -a width that two triremes might pass through rowed abreast. And the same -persons, to whom the excavation was committed, were ordered also to -throw a bridge over the river Strymon. He also caused cables of papyrus -and of white flax to be prepared for the bridges, and ordered the -Phœnicians and Egyptians to lay up provisions for the army, that neither -the men nor the beasts of burden might suffer from famine on their march -toward Greece, conveying them to various quarters in merchant-ships and -transports from all parts of Asia. - -While these men were employed in their appointed task, the whole -land-forces marched with Xerxes to Sardis, setting out from Critalla in -Cappadocia, where it had been ordered that all the troops throughout the -continent should assemble. They crossed the river Halys, entered -Phrygia, and arrived at Celænæ, where rise the springs of the Mæander, -and of another river not less than the Mæander, which is called the -Catarractes, which, springing up in the very forum of the Celænians, -discharges itself into the Mæander; in this city the skin of Silenus -Marsyas is suspended, which, as the Phrygians report, was stripped off -and suspended by Apollo. In this city Pythius, son of Atys, a Lydian, -being in waiting, entertained the whole army of the king, and Xerxes -himself, with most sumptuous feasts; and he offered to contribute money -toward the expense of the war. Xerxes asked the Persians near him who -this Pythius was, and what riches he possessed, that he made such an -offer. They answered: "O king, this is the person who presented your -father Darius with the golden plane tree and the vine; and he is now the -richest man we know of in the world, next to yourself." Xerxes in -surprise next asked Pythius what was the amount of his wealth. He said: -"O king, as soon as I heard you were coming down to the Grecian sea, -wishing to present you with money for the war, I made inquiry, and found -by computation that I had two thousand talents of silver, and of gold -four millions of Doric staters, lacking seven thousand. These I freely -give you; for myself I have sufficient subsistence from my slaves and -lands." Xerxes, delighted with his offer, replied: "My Lydian friend, -since I left the Persian country I have met with no man to the present -moment who was willing to entertain my army, or who, having come into my -presence, has voluntarily offered to contribute money toward the war. -But you have entertained my army magnificently, and have offered me vast -sums; in return for this, I make you my friend. Keep what you have -acquired, and I will myself make up to you the seven thousand staters -which you lack of four millions. Be careful always to continue such as -you are, and you shall never repent hereafter." - -[Illustration: TRIPOLITZA.] - -From Phrygia he entered Lydia, crossed the river Mæander, and passed by -the city of Callatebus, in which confectioners make honey with tamarisk -and wheat. Xerxes, by the way, met with a plane-tree, which, on account -of its beauty, he presented with golden ornaments, and having committed -it to the care of one of the Immortals,[26] on the next day he arrived -at Sardis, the capital of the Lydians. - -In the meanwhile those who were appointed had joined the Hellespont from -Asia to Europe. There is in the Chersonese on the Hellespont, between -the city of Sestos and Madytus, a craggy shore extending into the sea, -directly opposite Abydos. From this shore to Abydos, they had -constructed two bridges, the Phœnicians one with white flax, and the -Egyptians the other with papyrus. The distance is seven stades. When the -strait was thus united, a violent storm arose and broke in pieces and -scattered the whole work. When Xerxes heard of this, exceedingly -indignant, he commanded that the Hellespont should be stricken with -three hundred lashes with a scourge, and that a pair of fetters should -be let down into the sea. I have moreover heard that with them he -likewise sent branding instruments to brand the Hellespont. He certainly -charged those who flogged the waters to utter these barbarous and -impious words: "Thou bitter water! thy master inflicts this punishment -upon thee, because thou hast injured him, although thou hadst not -suffered any harm from him. And king Xerxes will cross over thee, -whether thou wilt or not; it is with justice that no man sacrifices to -thee, because thou art both a deceitful and briny river!" He accordingly -commanded them to chastise the sea in this manner, and to cut off the -heads of those who had to superintend the joining of the Hellespont. -They on whom this thankless office was imposed, carried it into -execution; and other engineers constructed bridges in the following -manner. They connected together penteconters and triremes, under the -bridge toward the Euxine sea, three hundred and sixty; and under the -other, three hundred and fourteen, obliquely to the Pontus, but in the -direction of the current of the Hellespont, that it might keep up the -tension of the cables. They then let down very long anchors, some on the -bridge toward the Pontus, on account of the winds that blew from it -within; others on the other bridge toward the west and the Ægean, on -account of the south and southeast winds. They left an opening as a -passage through between the penteconters, in three places, that any one -who wished might be able to sail into the Pontus in light vessels, and -from the Pontus outward. Having done this, they stretched the cables -from the shore, twisting them with wooden capstans, not as before using -the two kinds separately, but assigning to each two of white flax and -four of papyrus. The thickness and quality was the same, but those of -flax were stronger in proportion, every cubit weighing a full talent. -When the passage was bridged over, they sawed up trunks of trees, equal -in length to the width of the bridge, and laid them upon the extended -cables in regular order, fastening them securely together. They put -brush-wood on the top, and earth over the whole; and having pressed down -the earth, they drew a fence on each side, that the beasts of burden and -horses might not be frightened by looking down upon the sea. - -At last the works at the bridges and Mount Athos were completed, as well -as the mounds at the mouths of the canal which had been made on account -of the tide in order that the mouths of the trench might not be choked -up. News was brought that all was ready, and the army, fresh from their -winter at Sardis, set out fully prepared at the beginning of the spring -toward Abydos. But just as they were on the point of starting, the sun -quit his seat in the heavens and disappeared, though there were no -clouds, and the air was perfectly serene, and night ensued in the place -of day. This occasioned Xerxes much uneasiness; but the magi said "The -deity foreshows to the Greeks the extinction of their cities; the sun is -the portender of the future to the Greeks, and the moon to the -Persians." Xerxes, at this, was much delighted, and set out upon his -march. As he was leading his army away, Pythius the Lydian, terrified by -the prodigy in the heavens, and emboldened by the gifts of Xerxes, went -to the king and spoke thus: "Sire, would you indulge me by granting a -boon I wish to obtain, which is easy for you to grant, and of much -importance to me." Xerxes, expecting that he would wish for anything -rather than what he did ask, said that he would grant his request, and -bade him declare what he wanted. "Sire," said he, "I have five sons; and -it happens that they are all attending you in the expedition against -Greece. But pity me, O king, who am advanced in years, and release one -of my sons from the service, that he may take care of me and my -property. Take the other four with you, accomplish your designs, and -return home." Xerxes was highly incensed, and answered: "Base man! hast -thou dared, when I am marching in person against Greece, and taking with -me my children, and brothers, and kinsmen, and friends to make mention -of thy son? thou who art my slave, and who wert bound in duty to follow -me with all thy family, even with thy wife. But I promise to grant your -request; I will leave your dearest son." When he had given this answer, -he immediately commanded to find out the eldest of the sons of Pythius, -and to cut his body into two halves, and to stand one on the right of -the road, and the other on the left, while the army should pass between -them. - -This done the army passed between. The baggage-bearers and beasts of -burden first led the way; after them came a host of all nations. When -more than one half of the army had passed, an interval was left that -they might not mix with the king's troops. Before him a thousand -horsemen led the van, chosen from among all the Persians; and next to -them a thousand spearmen, these also chosen from among all, carrying -their lances turned downwards to the earth. After these, ten immense -sacred horses, gorgeously caparisoned, called Nisæan, from the plain in -the Medic territory, which produces them; then came the sacred chariot -of Jupiter, drawn by eight white horses, followed by a charioteer on -foot, holding the reins; for no mortal ever ascends this seat. Behind -this came Xerxes himself on a chariot drawn by Nisæan horses; and a -charioteer walked at his side, whose name was Patiramphes. In this -manner Xerxes marched out of Sardis, and whenever he thought right, he -used to pass from the chariot to a covered carriage. Behind him marched -a thousand spearmen, the bravest and noblest of the Persians, carrying -their spears in the usual manner; and after them another body of a -thousand horse, chosen from among the Persians; then ten thousand chosen -Persian infantry. Of these, one thousand had golden pomegranates on -their spears instead of ferrules, and they enclosed the others all -round; the nine thousand within had silver pomegranates. Those also that -carried their spears turned to the earth had golden pomegranates, and -those that followed nearest to Xerxes had golden apples. Behind the ten -thousand foot were placed ten thousand Persian cavalry; and after the -cavalry was left an interval of two stades; then the rest of the throng -followed promiscuously. - -Once when the army halted during the night under Mount Ida, thunder and -lightning fell upon them, and destroyed a considerable number of the -troops on the spot. At the Scamander, the first river on their march -from Sardis, the stream failed and did not afford sufficient drink for -the army and beasts of burden. Here Xerxes went up to the Pergamus or -citadel of Priam, and sacrificed a thousand oxen to the Ilian Minerva, -and the magi poured out libations in honor of the heroes of the Trojan -War. At Abydos, Xerxes wished to behold the whole army. And there had -been previously erected on a hill at this place, for his use, a lofty -throne of white marble; the people of Abydos had made it, in obedience -to an order of the king. Seated there, he beheld both the land army and -the fleet; he desired also to see a contest take place between the -ships, in which the Sidonian Phœnicians were victorious. Exceedingly -gratified he was, both with the contest and the army. But while he was -viewing the whole Hellespont covered by the ships, and all the shores -and the plains of Abydos full of men, he suddenly burst into tears. -Artabanus, his paternal uncle, observed him, and exclaimed: "O king, a -moment ago you pronounced yourself happy, but now you weep." "Alas," he -answered: "Commiseration seized me, when I considered how brief all -human life is, since of these, numerous as they are, not one will be -alive in a hundred years!" - -That day they made preparations for the passage over; and on the -following they waited for the sun, as they wished to see it rising, in -the mean time burning all sorts of perfumes on the bridges, and strewing -the road with myrtle branches. When the sun rose, Xerxes poured a -libation into the sea out of a golden cup, and offered up a prayer to -the sun, that no such accident might befall him as would prevent him -from subduing Europe, until he had reached its utmost limits. After the -prayer, he threw the cup into the Hellespont, and a golden bowl, and a -Persian sword, which they call acinace. But I cannot determine with -certainty, whether he dropped these things into the sea as an offering -to the sun, or whether he repented of having scourged the Hellespont, -and presented these gifts to the sea as a compensation. These ceremonies -finished, the infantry and all the cavalry crossed over by that bridge -which was toward the Pontus; and the beasts of burden and the attendants -by that toward the Ægean. I have heard that Xerxes crossed over last of -all. In seven days and seven nights without a halt his army crossed. On -this occasion it is related, that when Xerxes had crossed over the -Hellespont, a certain Hellespontine said: "O Jupiter, why, assuming the -form of a Persian, and taking the name of Xerxes, do you wish to subvert -Greece, bringing all mankind with you? since without them it was in your -power to do this." - -[Illustration: THE TOMB OF JONAH, KONYUNJIK, AND THE RUINS OPPOSITE -MOSUL.] - -Doriscus is a shore and extensive plain of Thrace. Through it flows a -large river, the Hebrus. A royal fort had been built, and a Persian -garrison had been established in it by Darius, from the time that he -marched against the Scythians. At Doriscus Xerxes numbered his army. The -whole land forces were found to be seventeen hundred thousand. They were -computed in this manner: having drawn together ten thousand men in one -place, and crowded them as close together as it was possible, they -traced a circle on the outside; removed the ten thousand, threw up a -stone fence on the circle, a yard high, and made others enter within the -enclosed space, until they had in this manner computed all. - -The Persians were equipped as follows: On their heads they wore loose -coverings, called tiaras; on the body various-colored sleeved -breastplates, with iron scales like those of fish; and on their legs, -loose trousers; instead of shields they had bucklers made of osiers; and -under them their quivers were hung. They had short spears, long bows, -and arrows made of cane, besides daggers suspended from the girdle on -the right thigh. They had for their general, Otanes, father of Amestris, -wife of Xerxes. They were formerly called Cephenes by the Grecians, but -by themselves and neighbors, Artæans. But when Perseus, son of Danae and -Jupiter, came to Cepheus, son of Belus, and married his daughter -Andromeda, he had a son to whom he gave the name of Perses; and from him -they derived their appellation. The Medes marched equipped in the same -manner as the Persians; for the above is a Medic and not a Persian -costume. The Medes had for their general, Tigranes, of the family of the -Achæmenidæ: they were formerly called Arians by all nations; but when -Medea of Colchis came from Athens to these Arians, they also changed -their names. The Assyrians who served in the army had helmets of bronze, -twisted in a barbarous fashion, not easy to describe; and shields and -spears, with daggers similar to those of the Egyptians, besides wooden -clubs knotted with iron, and linen cuirasses. By the Greeks they were -called Syrians, but by the barbarians, Assyrians. Among them were the -Chaldeans; and Otaspes, son of Artachæus commanded them. The Bactrians -had turbans on their heads, very much like those of the Medes, and bows -made of cane peculiar to their country, and short spears. The Sacæ, who -are Scythians, had on their heads caps, which came to a point and stood -erect: they also wore loose trousers, and carried bows peculiar to their -country, and daggers, and also battle-axes, called sagares. The Indians, -clad with garments made of cotton, had bows of cane, and arrows of cane -tipped with iron. - -The Arabians wore cloaks fastened by a girdle; and carried on their -right sides long bows which bent backward. The Ethiopians were clothed -in panthers' and lions' skins, and carried long bows, not less than four -cubits in length, made from branches of the palm-tree; and on them they -placed short arrows made of cane, instead of iron, tipped with a stone, -which was made sharp, and of the sort on which they engrave seals. -Besides, they had javelins, and at the tip was an antelope's horn, made -sharp, like a lance; they had also knotted clubs. When they were going -to battle, they smeared one half of their body with chalk, and the other -half with red ochre. The Arabians and Ethiopians who dwell above Egypt -were commanded by Arsames, son of Darius and Artystone, daughter of -Cyrus, whom Darius loved more than all his wives, and whose image he had -made of beaten gold. The Ethiopians from the sun-rise (for two kinds -served in the expedition) were marshalled with the Indians, and did not -at all differ from the others in appearance, except in their language -and their hair. For the eastern Ethiopians are straight-haired; but -those of Libya have hair more curly than that of any other people. These -Ethiopians from Asia were accoutred almost the same as the Indians; but -they wore on their heads skins of horses' heads, as masks, stripped off -with the ears and mane; and the mane served instead of a crest, and the -horses' ears were fixed erect; and as defensive armor they used the -skins of cranes instead of shields. The Libyans marched, clad in -leathern garments, and made use of javelins hardened by fire. They had -for their general, Massages, son of Oarizus. The Paphlagonians joined -the expedition, wearing on their heads plated helmets, and carried small -shields, and not large spears, besides javelins and daggers: and on -their feet they wore boots, peculiar to their country, reaching up to -the middle of the leg. The Thracians wore fox-skins on their heads, and -tunics around their bodies, and over them they were clothed with -various-colored cloaks, and on their feet and legs they had buskins of -fawn-skin, and carried javelins, light bucklers, and small daggers. -These people having crossed over into Asia, were called Bithynians; but -formerly, as they themselves say, were called Strymonians, as they dwelt -on the river Strymon. - -These, with very many others, were the nations that marched on the -continent and composed the infantry. Over these and the whole infantry -was appointed as general, Mardonius, son of Gobryas. But of the ten -thousand chosen Persians, Hydarnes was general. These Persians were -called Immortal, for the following reason: If any one of them made a -deficiency in the number, compelled either by death or disease, another -was ready chosen to supply his place; so that they were never either -more or less than ten thousand. The Persians displayed the greatest -splendor of all, and were also the bravest; their equipment was such as -has been described; but besides this, they were conspicuous from having -a great profusion of gold. They also brought with them covered chariots -and a numerous and well-equipped train of attendants. Camels and other -beasts of burden conveyed their provisions, apart from that of the rest -of the soldiers. - -[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE GORTYNIUS.] - -All these nations have cavalry; they did not, however, all furnish -horse, but only the following. First, the Persians, equipped in the same -manner as their infantry, except that on their heads some of them wore -bronze and wrought-steel ornaments. There is a certain nomadic race, -called Sagartians, of Persian extraction and language, who wear a dress -fashioned between the Persian and the Pactyan fashion; they furnished -eight thousand horse, but they are not accustomed to carry arms either -of bronze or iron, except daggers: they use lassos made of twisted -thongs. The mode of fighting of these men is as follows: When they -engage with the enemy they throw out the ropes, which have nooses at the -end, and whatever any one catches, whether horse or man, he drags toward -himself; and they that are entangled in the coils are put to death. The -Arabians had the same dress as their infantry, but all rode camels not -inferior to horses in speed. The number of the horse amounted to eighty -thousand, besides the camels and chariots. All the rest of the cavalry -were marshalled in troops; but the Arabians were stationed in the rear, -as horses cannot endure camels. Armamithres and Tithæus, sons of Datis, -were generals of the cavalry. Their third colleague in command, -Pharnuches, had been left at Sardis sick. For as they were setting out -from Sardis he met with a sad accident. When he was mounted, a dog ran -under the legs of his horse, and the horse, frightened, reared and threw -Pharnuches, who vomited blood, and the disease turned to a consumption. -With respect to the horse, his servants immediately led him to the place -where he had thrown his master, and cut off his legs at the knees. - -The number of the triremes amounted to twelve hundred and seven. - -Persians, Medes, and Sacæ served as marines on board all the ships. Of -these the Phœnicians furnished the best sailing ships, and of the -Phœnicians the Sidonians. The admirals of the navy were: Ariabignes, son -of Darius; Prexaspes, son of Aspathines; Megabazus son of Megabates; and -Achæmenes, son of Darius. Of the other captains I make no mention, as I -deem it unnecessary, except of Artemisia, whom I most admire, as having, -though a woman, joined this expedition against Greece. Her husband was -dead, but, holding the sovereignty while her son was under age, she -joined the expedition from a feeling of courage and manly spirit, though -there was no necessity for her doing so. Her name was Artemisia, and she -was the daughter of Lygdamis, by birth of Halicarnassus on her father's -side, and on her mother's a Cretan. She commanded the Halicarnassians, -the Coans, the Nisyrians, and the Calyndians, having contributed five -ships: and of the whole fleet, next to the Sidonians, she furnished the -most renowned ships, and of all the allies, gave the best advice to the -king. The cities which I have mentioned as being under her command, I -pronounce to be all of Doric origin; the Halicarnassians being -Trœzenians, and the rest Epidaurians. - -When Xerxes had numbered his forces, and the army was drawn up he -desired to pass through and inspect them in person. Accordingly he drove -through in a chariot, by each separate nation, made inquiries, and his -secretaries wrote down the answers; until he had gone from one extremity -to the other, both of the horse and foot. When he had finished this, and -the ships had been launched into the sea, Xerxes, in a Sidonian ship, -under a gilded canopy, sailed by the prows of the ships, asking -questions of each, as he had done with the land-forces, and having the -answers written down. - -When Xerxes arrived at Therma, he ordered his army to halt. And seeing -from Therma the Thessalonian mountains, Olympus and Ossa, which are of -vast size, and having learnt that there was a narrow pass between them, -through which the river Peneus runs, and hearing that at that spot there -was a road leading to Thessaly, very much wished to sail and see the -mouth of the Peneus. When Xerxes arrived, and beheld its mouth, he was -struck with great astonishment. For several rivers, five of them greatly -noted, the Peneus, the Apidanus, the Onochonus, the Enipeus, and the -Pamisus, meeting together in this plain from the mountains that enclose -Thessaly, discharge themselves into the sea through one channel, and -that a narrow one; but as soon as they have mingled together, from that -spot the names of the other rivers merge in that of the Peneus.[27] The -Thessalians say, that Neptune made the pass through which the Peneus -flows; and their story is probable. For whoever thinks that Neptune -shakes the earth, and that rents occasioned by earthquakes are the works -of this god, on seeing this, would say that Neptune formed it. For it -appears evident to me, that the separation of these mountains is the -effect of an earthquake. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -BATTLE OF THERMOPYLÆ. - - -When the Greeks arrived at the Isthmus they consulted in what way and in -what places they should prosecute the war. The opinion which prevailed -was that they should defend the pass at Thermopylæ; for it appeared to -be narrower than that into Thessaly, and at the same time nearer to -their own territories. On the western side of Thermopylæ is an -inaccessible and precipitous mountain, stretching to Mount Œta; and on -the eastern side of the way is the sea and a morass. In this passage -there are hot baths, which the inhabitants call Chytri, and above these -is an altar to Hercules. A wall had been built in this pass, and -formerly there were gates in it. The Phocians built it through fear, -when the Thessalians came from Thesprotia to settle in the Æolian -territory which they now possess, apprehending that the Thessalians -would attempt to subdue them; at the same time they diverted the hot -water into the entrance, that the place might be broken into clefts; -having recourse to every contrivance to prevent the Thessalians from -making inroads into their country. Now this old wall had been built a -long time, and the greater part of it had already fallen through age; -but they determined to rebuild it, and in that place to repel the -barbarian from Greece. Very near this road there is a village called -Alpeni, from which they expected to obtain provisions. - -[Illustration: CYCLOPEAN WALLS AT CEPHALLOMA.] - -The naval forces of Xerxes, setting out from the city of Therma, -advanced with ten of the fastest sailing ships straight to Scyathus, -where were three Greek ships keeping a look-out, a Trœzenian an -Æginetan, and an Athenian. These, seeing the ships of the barbarians at -a distance, betook themselves to flight. The Trœzenian ship, which -Praxinus commanded, the barbarians pursued and soon captured; and then, -having led the handsomest of the marines to the prow of the ship, they -slew him, deeming it a good omen that the first Greek they had taken was -also very handsome. The name of the man that was slain was Leon, and -perhaps he in some measure reaped the fruits of his name. The Æginetan -ship, which Asonides commanded, gave them some trouble, Pytheas, son of -Ischenous, being a marine on board, a man who on this day displayed the -most consummate valor; who, when the ship was taken, continued fighting -until he was almost cut to pieces. But when they found that he was not -dead, but still breathed, the Persians who served on board the ships -were very anxious to save him alive, on account of his valor, healing -his wounds with myrrh, and binding them with bandages of flaxen cloth. -And when they returned to their own camp, they showed him with -admiration to the whole army, and treated him well; but the others, whom -they took in this ship, they treated as slaves. Thus, two of the ships -were taken; but the third, which Phormus, an Athenian, commanded, in its -flight ran ashore at the mouth of the Peneus; and the barbarians got -possession of the ship, but not of the men: for as soon as the Athenians -had run the ship aground, they leaped out, and, proceeding through -Thessaly, reached Athens. The Greeks who were stationed at Artemisium -were informed of this event by signal-fires from Scyathus. - -As far as Thermopylæ, the army of Xerxes had suffered no loss, and the -numbers were at that time, as I find by calculation of those in ships -from Asia, a total of five hundred and seventeen thousand six hundred -and ten. Of infantry there were seventeen hundred thousand, and of -cavalry eighty thousand; to these I add the Arabians who rode camels, -and the Libyans who drove chariots, reckoning the number of twenty -thousand men. Accordingly, the numbers on board the ships and on the -land added together, make up two millions three hundred and seventeen -thousand six hundred and ten, exclusive of the servants that followed, -and the provision ships, and the men that were on board them. But the -force brought from Europe must still be added to this whole number, of -which I suppose that there were three hundred thousand men. So that -these myriads added to those from Asia, make a total of two millions six -hundred and forty one thousand six hundred and ten fighting men. I think -that the servants who followed them, together with those on board the -provision ships and other vessels that sailed with the fleet, were not -fewer than the fighting men, probably more numerous; but supposing them -to be equal in number with the fighting men, Xerxes, son of Darius, led -five millions two hundred and eighty-three thousand two hundred and -twenty men to Thermopylæ. This, then, was the number of the whole force -of Xerxes. But the number of women who made bread, wives of officers, -and servants, no one could mention with accuracy; nor of draught-cattle -and other beasts of burden; nor of Indian dogs that followed. I am not -astonished that the streams of some rivers failed; rather is it a wonder -to me how the provisions held out for so many myriads. For I find by -calculation, if each man had a chœnix of wheat daily, and no more, one -hundred and ten thousand three hundred and forty medimni must have been -consumed every day; and I have not reckoned the food for the women, -beasts of burden, and dogs. But, of so many myriads of men, not one of -them, for beauty and stature, was more entitled than Xerxes himself to -possess this power. - -[Illustration: ISLAND AND CASTLE OF CORFU.] - -The Greeks who awaited the Persian at Thermopylæ were: of Spartans three -hundred heavy-armed men; of Tegeans and Mantineans one thousand, half of -each; from Orchomenus in Arcadia one hundred and twenty; and from the -rest of Arcadia one thousand; from Corinth four hundred; from Phlius two -hundred men, and from Mycenæ eighty. These came from Peloponnesus. From -Bœotia, of Thespians seven hundred, and of Thebans four hundred. In -addition to these, the Opuntian Locrians, being invited, came with all -their forces, and a thousand Phocians. These nations had separate -generals for their several cities; but the one most admired, and who -commanded the whole army, was a Lacedæmonian, Leonidas, son of -Anaxandrides, and a descendant of Hercules, who had unexpectedly -succeeded to the throne of Sparta. For as he had two elder brothers, -Cleomenes and Dorieus, he was far from any thought of the kingdom. -However, Cleomenes and Dorieus both died, and the kingdom thus devolved -upon Leonidas. He had chosen the three hundred men allowed by law, and -marched to Thermopylæ. - -When the Persian came near the pass, the Greeks, alarmed, consulted -about a retreat, and it seemed best to the other Peloponnesians to -retire to Peloponnesus, and guard the Isthmus; but Leonidas, perceiving -the Phocians and Locrians very indignant at this proposition, determined -to stay there, and to despatch messengers to the cities, desiring them -to come to their assistance, as being too few to repel the army of the -Medes. Meantime Xerxes sent a scout on horseback, to see how many they -were, and what they were doing. For while he was still in Thessaly, he -had heard that a small army had been assembled at that spot, whose -leader was Leonidas, of the race of Hercules. When the horseman rode up -to the camp, he reconnoitred, and saw not indeed the whole camp, for it -was not possible that they should be seen who were posted within the -wall, but he had a clear view of those on the outside, whose arms were -piled in front of the wall. At this some of the Lacedæmonians were -performing gymnastic exercises, and others combing their hair. On -beholding this he was astonished, but having ascertained their number, -he rode back at his leisure, for no one pursued him, and he met with -general contempt. On his return he gave an account to Xerxes of all that -he had seen, who could not comprehend the truth, that the Greeks were -preparing to be slain and to slay to the utmost of their power. - -Xerxes let five days pass, constantly expecting that they would betake -themselves to flight. But on the fifth day, as they had not retreated, -but appeared to him to stay through arrogance and rashness, in rage he -sent the Medes and Cissians against them, with orders to take them -alive, and bring them into his presence. When the Medes bore down -impetuously upon the Greeks, many of them fell; others followed to the -charge, and were not repulsed, though they suffered greatly. But they -made it evident to every one, and not least of all to the king himself, -that they were indeed many men, but few soldiers. The engagement lasted -through the day. The Medes, roughly handled, retired; and the Persians -whom the king called "Immortal," and whom Hydarnes commanded, took their -place and advanced to the attack, thinking that they indeed should -easily settle the business. But they succeeded no better than the Medic -troops, but just the same, as they fought in a narrow space, and used -shorter spears than the Greeks, and were unable to avail themselves of -their numbers. The Lacedæmonians fought memorably, showing that they -knew how to fight with men who knew not, and whenever they turned their -backs, they retreated in close order; but the barbarians seeing them -retreat, followed with a shout and clamor; then they, being overtaken, -wheeled round so as to front the barbarians and overthrew an -inconceivable number of the Persians; and then some few of the Spartans -themselves fell. So that when the Persians were unable to gain any thing -in their attempt on the pass, by attacking in troops and in every -possible manner, they retired. It is said that during these onsets of -the battle, the king, who witnessed them, thrice sprang from his throne, -being alarmed for his army. On the following day the barbarians fought -with no better success; for considering that the Greeks were few in -number, and expecting that they were covered with wounds, and would not -be able to raise their heads against them any more, they renewed the -contest. But the Greeks were marshalled in companies and according to -their several nations, and each fought in turn, except the Phocians, who -were stationed at the mountain to guard the pathway. Again the Persians -failed and retired. - -While the king was in doubt what course to take, Ephialtes, son of -Eurydemus, a Malian, obtained an audience of him, expecting that he -should receive a great reward from the king, and informed him of the -path which leads over the mountain to Thermopylæ; and by that means -caused the destruction of those Greeks who were stationed there. -Afterwards, fearing the Lacedæmonians, he fled to Thessaly, and a price -was set on his head by the Pylagori, when the Amphictyons were assembled -at Pylæ. But some time after, he went down to Anticyra, and was killed -by Athenades, a Trachinian. This Athenades killed him for another -reason, which I shall mention in a subsequent part of my history;[28] he -was however rewarded none the less by the Lacedæmonians. Xerxes, -exceedingly delighted with what Ephialtes promised to perform, -immediately despatched Hydarnes with his troops from the camp about the -hour of lamp-lighting. - -All night long the Persians marched, and at dawn reached the summit of -the mountain. Here, as I have already mentioned, a thousand heavy-armed -Phocians kept guard, to defend their own country, and to secure the -pathway. The whole mountain was covered with oaks; there was a perfect -calm, and as a considerable rustling took place from the leaves strewn -under foot, the Phocians sprang up and put on their arms, just as the -barbarians made their appearance. Hit by many thick-falling arrows, the -Phocians fled to the summit of the mountain, prepared to perish. But the -Persians took no further notice of the Phocians, but marched down the -mountain with all speed. - -[Illustration: BRIDGE AT CORFU.] - -To the Greeks at Thermopylæ, the augur Megistias, having inspected the -sacrifices, first made known the death that would befall them in the -morning; certain deserters afterwards came and brought intelligence of -the circuit the Persians were taking while it was yet night; and, -thirdly, the scouts running down from the heights, as soon as day -dawned, brought the same intelligence. It had been announced to the -Spartans, by the oracle of Apollo, when they went to consult concerning -this war, "that either Lacedæmon must be overthrown by the barbarians, -or their king perish." This answer the prophetess gave in hexameter -verses to this effect: - - "Hear me, ye men of spacious Lacedæmon! - Either your glorious town must be destroyed, - By the fell hand of warriors sprung from Perseus, - Or else the confines of fair Lacedæmon - Must mourn a king of Heracleidan race, - For all the strength of lions or of bulls - Is nought to him who has the strength of Zeus; - And never shall that monarch be restrained - Until he takes your city or your king." - -Xerxes poured out libations at sun-rise, waited a short time, and began -his attack about the time of full market, as he had been instructed by -Ephialtes. The Greeks with Leonidas, marching out as if for certain -death, now advanced much farther than before into the wide part of the -defile. For the fortification of the wall had protected them, on the -preceding day, in the narrow part. But now engaging outside the narrows, -great numbers of the barbarians fell. The officers of the companies from -behind, with scourges, flogged every man, constantly urging them -forward, so that many of them falling into the sea, perished, and many -more were trampled alive under foot by one another; and no regard was -paid to any that perished. The Greeks, knowing that death awaited them -at the hands of those who were going round the mountain, were desperate, -and regardless of their own lives, displayed the utmost possible valor -against the barbarians. Already were most of their javelins broken, and -they had begun to despatch the Persians with their swords. In this part -of the struggle fell Leonidas, fighting valiantly, and with him other -eminent Spartans, whose names, seeing they were deserving men, I have -ascertained; indeed I have ascertained the names of the whole three -hundred. On the side of the Persians, also, many other eminent men fell -on this occasion, amongst them two sons of Darius, Abrocomes and -Hyperanthes, fighting for the body of Leonidas; and there was a violent -struggle between the Persians and Lacedæmonians, until at last the -Greeks rescued it by their valor, and four times repulsed the enemy. -Thus the contest continued until the Greeks heard that those with -Ephialtes were approaching. Then they retreated to the narrow part of -the way, and, passing beyond the wall, came and took up their position -on the rising ground, all in a compact body, with the exception of the -Thebans: the rising ground is at the entrance where the stone lion now -stands to the memory of Leonidas. On this spot they defended themselves, -first with their swords, then with their hands and teeth, until the -barbarians overwhelmed them with missiles in front, and from above, and -on every side. - -[Illustration: PLAINS OF ARGOS.] - -Dieneces, a Spartan, is said to have been the bravest man. They relate -that before the engagement with the Medes, having heard a Trachinian -say, that when the barbarians let fly their arrows, they would obscure -the sun by the multitude of their shafts, so great were their numbers, -he replied, not at all alarmed: "That's good; we shall have the -pleasure, then, of fighting in the shade." In honor of the slain, who -were buried on the spot where they fell, and of those who died before, -these inscriptions have been engraved upon stones above them; the first: - - "From Peloponnesus came four thousand men; - And on this spot fought with three hundred myriads." - -The second was in honor of the three hundred Spartans: - - "Go, stranger! tell the Lacedæmonians, here - We lie, obedient to their stern commands!" - -An engraved monument was also erected to Megistias the augur, by his -friend Simonides, and was as follows: - - "The monument of famed Megistias,— - Slain by the Medes what time they passed the Sperchius; - A seer, who though he knew impending fate, - Would not desert the gallant chiefs of Sparta." - -Two of these three hundred, Eurytus and Aristodemus, had been dismissed -from the camp by Leonidas, and were lying at Alpeni desperately -afflicted with a disease of the eyes. But when Eurytus heard of the -circuit made by the Persians, he called for his arms and ordered his -helot to lead him to the combatants; and, while the slave in terror ran -away, his brave half-blind master rushed into the midst of the throng -and perished; but Aristodemus, failing in courage, was left behind. Now -if it had happened that Aristodemus had returned sick to Sparta, or if -both had gone home together, in my opinion the Spartans would not have -shown any anger against them. But since one of them perished, and the -other, who had only the same excuse, refused to die, they must needs get -exceedingly angry with Aristodemus. On his return to Lacedæmon he was -met with insults and infamy. Not one of the Spartans would either give -him fire or converse with him: and he was jeered and hooted at by the -boys who called him "Aristodemus the coward." However, in the battle of -Platæa he removed all the disgrace that attached to him, for he earned -the title of the bravest of the Spartans, and recklessly lost his life. -Xerxes after the massacre passed through among the dead; and having -heard that Leonidas was king and general of the Lacedæmonians, he -commanded them to cut off his head, and fix it upon a pole. It is clear -to me from many other proofs, and not least of all from this, that king -Xerxes was more highly incensed against Leonidas during his life, than -against any other man; for otherwise he would never have violated the -respect due to his dead body; since the Persians, most of all men with -whom I am acquainted, are wont to honor men who are brave in war. - -[26] One of the ten thousand chosen men called Immortals, of whom we -shall hear more hereafter. - -[23] Literally, "the river Peneus gaining the victory as to the name, -causes the others to be nameless." - -[28] The promised account is no where given in any extant writings of -the historian. - - - - -_BOOK VIII. URANIA._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE INVASION OF ATTICA AND THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS. - - -The Greek fleet from Artemisium put in at Salamis at the request of the -Athenians, who wished to remove their children and wives out of Attica, -and consult what measures were to be taken. The Athenians caused -proclamation to be made, "that every one should save his children and -family by the best means he could." Thereupon the greatest part sent -away their families to Trœzen, some to Ægina, and others to Salamis. -They used all diligence to remove them to a place of safety, from a -desire to obey the oracle, but more particularly for the following -reason. The Athenians say that a large serpent used to live in the -temple as a guard to the Acropolis; they used to do it honor by placing -before it its monthly food, consisting of a honey-cake: this honey-cake -in former time had always been consumed, but now it remained untouched. -When the priestess made this known, the Athenians, with more readiness, -abandoned the city, since even the goddess had forsaken the Acropolis. -As soon as every thing had been deposited in a place of safety, they -sailed to the encampment. Many more ships were assembled together than -had fought at Artemisium, and from a greater number of cities. The same -admiral commanded them as at Artemisium, Eurybiades, son of Euryclides, -a Spartan, though he was not of the royal family. The Athenians, -however, furnished by far the most and the best sailing ships. The whole -number of ships besides the penteconters, amounted to three hundred and -seventy-eight. - -When the leaders from the various cities met together at Salamis, they -held a council, in which Eurybiades proposed that any one who chose -should deliver his opinion, where he thought it would be most -advantageous to come to an engagement by sea, of all the places of which -they were still in possession: for Attica was already given up. Most of -the opinions of those who spoke coincided, that they should sail to the -Isthmus, and fight before Peloponnesus; alleging this reason, that if -they should be conquered by sea while they were at Salamis, they would -be besieged in the island, where no succor could reach them; but if at -the Isthmus, they might escape to their own cities. - -[Illustration: ANCIENT GREEK WALLS RESTORED.] - -While the commanders from Peloponnesus were debating these matters, an -Athenian arrived with intelligence, that the barbarian had entered -Attica, and was devastating the whole of it by fire. The army with -Xerxes were thus three months en route from the passage over the -Hellespont, till they arrived at Athens. They took the city, deserted of -inhabitants, but found a few of the Athenians in the temple, with the -treasurers of the temple and some poor people; who, having fortified the -Acropolis with planks and stakes, tried to keep off the invaders: they -had not withdrawn to Salamis, partly through want of means, and moreover -they thought they had found out the meaning of the oracle which the -Pythian delivered to them, that the wooden wall "should be impregnable"; -imagining, that this was the refuge according to the oracle, and not the -ships. The Persians, posting themselves on the hill opposite the -Acropolis, which the Athenians call the Areopagus, wrapped tow round -their arrows, and setting fire to it, shot them at the fence. But those -Athenians who were besieged, still defended themselves, though driven to -the last extremity, and the fence had failed them; nor, when the -Pisistratidæ proposed them, would they listen to terms of capitulation; -but still defending themselves, they contrived other means of defence, -and when the barbarians approached the gates, they hurled down large -round stones; so that Xerxes was for a long time kept in perplexity, not -being able to capture them. At length, in the midst of these -difficulties, an entrance was discovered by the barbarians; for it was -necessary, according to the oracle, that all Attica, on the continent, -should be subdued by the Persians. In front of the Acropolis, but behind -the gates and where no one kept guard, nor would ever have expected that -any man would ascend, there some of them ascended near the temple of -Cecrops' daughter Aglauros. When the Athenians saw that the enemy were -in the Acropolis, some threw themselves down from the wall and perished, -and others took refuge in the recess of the temple. But the Persians who -had ascended first turned to the gates, opened them, and put the -suppliants to death: and when all were thrown prostrate, they pillaged -the temple and set fire to the whole Acropolis. - -The Greeks at Salamis, when intelligence was brought them how matters -stood in Athens, were thrown into such consternation, that some of the -generals would not wait until the subject before them was decided on, -but rushed to their ships and hoisted sail, as about to hurry away; by -such of them as remained it was determined to come to an engagement -before the Isthmus. Night came on, and they, being dismissed from the -council, went on board their ships. Thereupon Mnesiphilus, an Athenian, -inquired of Themistocles, on his return to his ship, what had been -determined on by them. And being informed by him that it was resolved to -conduct the ships to the Isthmus, and to come to an engagement before -the Peloponnesus, he said, "If they remove the ships from Salamis, you -will no longer fight for any country; for they will each betake -themselves to their cities; and neither will Eurybiades nor any one else -be able to detain them, so that the fleet should not be dispersed; and -Greece will perish through want of counsel. But, if there is any -possible contrivance, go and endeavor to annul the decree, if by any -means you can induce Eurybiades to alter his determination, so as to -remain here." The suggestion pleased Themistocles exceedingly; and -without answer he went to the ship of Eurybiades, and said that he -wished to confer with him on public business. He desired him to come on -board his ship, and say what he wished. Thereupon Themistocles, seating -himself by him, repeated all that he had heard from Mnesiphilus, making -it his own, and adding much more, until he prevailed on him, by -entreaty, to leave his ship, and assemble the commanders in council. The -upshot of the matter was that Themistocles persuaded the generals in -council to remain and fight at Salamis. Day came, and at sunrise an -earthquake took place on land and at sea. They determined to pray to the -gods, and to invoke the Æacidæ as allies. For having prayed to all the -gods, they forthwith, from Salamis, invoked Ajax and Telamon; and sent a -ship to Ægina for Æacus, and the Æacidae. In the mean time, all the -admirals and captains of Xerxes' fleet advised engaging in a sea-fight, -except Artemisia, who spoke as follows: "Tell the king from me, -Mardonius, that I say this. It is right that I, sire, who proved myself -by no means a coward in the sea-fight off Eubœa, and performed -achievements not inferior to others, should declare my real opinion, and -state what I think best for your interest. Therefore I say this, abstain -from using your ships, nor risk a sea-fight; for these men are as much -superior to your men by sea, as men are to women. And why must you run a -risk by a naval engagement? Have you not possession of Athens, for the -sake of which you undertook this expedition, and have you not the rest -of Greece? They will not be able to hold out long against you; but will -soon disperse, and fly to their cities." - -Xerxes was very much pleased with the opinion of Artemisia; he had -before thought her an admirable woman, but now he praised her much more. -However, he gave orders to follow the advice of the majority in this -matter, thinking that they had behaved ill at Eubœa on purpose, because -he was not present. He now prepared in person to behold them engaging by -sea.[29] - -Meanwhile, those at Salamis were growing alarmed, and wondered at the -imprudence of Eurybiades; till at last their discontent broke out -openly, and a council was called, and much was said on the subject. Some -said that they ought to sail for the Peloponnesus, and hazard a battle -for that, and not stay and fight for a place already taken by the enemy; -but the Athenians, Æginetæ, and Megareans, declared that they should -stay there and defend themselves. Thereupon, Themistocles, when he saw -his opinion was overruled by the Peloponnesians, went secretly out of -the council, and despatched a man in a boat to the encampment of the -Medes instructing him what to say: his name was Sicinnus, and he was a -domestic, and preceptor to the children of Themistocles. After these -events, Themistocles got him made a Thespian, when the Thespians -augmented the number of their citizens, and gave him a competent -fortune. He, arriving in the boat, spoke as follows to the generals of -the barbarians: "The general of the Athenians has sent me, unknown to -the rest of the Greeks, (for he is in the interest of the king, and -wishes that your affairs may prosper, rather than those of the Greeks,) -to inform you that the Greeks, in great consternation, are deliberating -on flight; and you have now an opportunity of achieving the most -glorious of all enterprises, if you do not suffer them to escape. For -they do not agree among themselves, nor will they oppose you; but you -will see those who are in your interest, and those who are not, fighting -with one another." Having delivered this message to them, he immediately -departed. As these tidings appeared to them worthy of credit, they -immediately landed a considerable number of Persians on the little -island of Psyttalea, lying between Salamis and the continent; and, when -it was midnight, they got their western wing under way, drawing it in a -circle toward Salamis, and those who were stationed about Ceos and -Cynosura got under way and occupied the whole passage as far as Munychia -with their ships, so that the Greeks might have no way to escape, but, -being shut up in Salamis, might suffer punishment for the conflicts at -Artemisium; and they landed the Persians at the little island of -Psyttalea for this reason: that, when an engagement should take place, -as they expected the greater part of the men and wrecks would be driven -there, they might save the one and destroy the other. These things they -did in silence, that the enemy might not know what was going on. - -I am unable to speak against the truth of oracles, when I think of the -remarkable oracle of Bacis: "When they shall bridge with ships the -sacred shore of "Diana with the golden sword," and sea-girt Cynosura, -having with mad hope destroyed beautiful Athens, then divine Vengeance -shall quench strong Presumption, son of Insolence, when thinking to -subvert all things. For bronze shall engage with bronze, and Mars shall -redden the sea with blood. Then the far-thundering son of Saturn and -benign victory shall bring a day of freedom to Greece." After such a -prediction and its fulfilment, I neither dare myself say any thing in -contradiction to oracles, nor allow others to do so. - -All this night there was a great altercation between the generals at -Salamis. They did not yet know that the barbarians had surrounded them -with their ships. They supposed that they were in the same place where -they had seen them stationed during the day. While the generals were -disputing, Aristides, son of Lysimachus, crossed over from the Ægina. He -was an Athenian, but had been banished by ostracism. From what I have -heard of his manner of life, I consider him to have been the best and -most upright man in Athens. He, standing at the entrance of the council, -called Themistocles out, who was not indeed his friend, but his most -bitter enemy; yet from the greatness of the impending danger, he forgot -that, and called him, for he had already heard that those from -Peloponnesus were anxious to get the ships under way for the Isthmus. -When Themistocles came out, Aristides spoke as follows: "It is right -that we should strive, both on other occasions, and particularly on -this, which of us shall do the greatest service to our country. I assure -you, that to say little or much to the Peloponnesians about sailing from -here is a waste of breath; for I, an eye-witness, tell you, now, even if -they would, neither the Corinthians, nor Eurybiades himself, will be -able to sail away; for we are on all sides enclosed by the enemy. Go in, -and acquaint them with this." But Themistocles bade Aristides go in -himself and convey the tidings. This he did, but the generals would not -even then give credence to his report until there arrived a trireme of -Tenians that had deserted, which Panætius, son of Socimenes, commanded, -and which brought an account of the whole truth. For that action the -name of the Tenians was engraved on the tripod at Delphi, among those -who had defeated the barbarian. With this ship that came over at -Salamis, and with the Lemnian before, off Artemisium, the Grecian fleet -was made up to the full number of three hundred and eighty ships; for -before it wanted two of that number. - -Day dawned, and when they had mustered the marines, Themistocles, above -all the others, harangued them most eloquently. His speech was entirely -taken up in contrasting better things with worse, exhorting them to -choose the best of all those things which depended on the nature and -condition of man. As soon as the trireme from Ægina, which had gone to -fetch the Æacidæ returned the Greeks got all their ships under way. The -barbarians immediately fell upon them. Now all the other Greeks began to -back water and make for the shore; but Aminias of Pallene, an Athenian, -being carried onward, attacked a ship; and his ship becoming entangled -with the other, and the crew not being able to clear, the rest thereupon -came to the assistance of Aminias and engaged. Thus the Athenians say -the battle commenced; but the Æginetæ affirm that the ship which went to -Ægina to fetch the Æacidæ, was the first to begin. It is also said, that -a phantom of a woman appeared to them, that she cheered them on, so that -the whole fleet of Greeks heard her, after she had first reproached them -in these words: "Dastards, how long will you back water?" Opposite the -Athenians the Phœnicians were drawn up, for they occupied the wing -toward Eleusis and westward; opposite the Lacedæmonians, the Ionians -occupied the wing toward the east and the Piræus. Of these some few -behaved ill on purpose, in compliance with the injunctions of -Themistocles. The greater part of the ships were run down at Salamis; -some being destroyed by the Athenians, others by the Æginetæ. For the -Greeks fought in good order, in line, but the barbarians were neither -properly formed nor did any thing with judgment. However they proved -themselves to be far braver on this day than off Eubœa, every one -exerting himself vigorously, and dreading Xerxes; for each thought that -he himself was observed by the king. - -I am unable to say with certainty how each of the barbarians or Greeks -fought; but with respect to Artemisia, the following incident occurred, -by which she obtained still greater credit with the king. For when the -king's forces were in great confusion, the ship of Artemisia was chased -by an Attic ship, and not being able to escape, she resolved upon a -stratagem. For being pursued by the Athenian, she bore down upon a -friendly ship, manned by Calyndians, and with Damasithymus himself, king -of the Calyndians, on board; whether she had any quarrel with him while -they were at the Hellespont, I am unable to say, or whether she did it -on purpose, or whether the ship of the Calyndians happened by chance to -be in her way; however, she ran it down, and sunk it, and by good -fortune gained a double advantage to herself. For when the captain of -the Attic ship saw her bearing down on a ship of the barbarians, he -concluded Artemisia's ship to be either a Greek or one that had deserted -from the enemy and was assisting them, and so turned aside and attacked -others. Thus she escaped, and in consequence of it became still more in -favor with Xerxes. For it is said that Xerxes, looking on, observed her -ship making the attack, and that some near him said: "Sire, do you see -how well Artemisia fights; she has sunk one of the enemy's ships?" -Whereupon he asked if it was in truth the exploit of Artemisia; they -answered "that they knew the ensign of her ship perfectly well." But -they thought that it was an enemy that was sunk; for no one of the crew -of the Calyndian ship lived to tell the tale and accuse her. And it is -related that Xerxes exclaimed: "My men have become women, and my women -men." - -In this battle perished the admiral, Ariabignes, son of Darius, and -brother of Xerxes, and many other illustrious men of the Persians and -Medes, and the other allies; but only a very few of the Greeks: for as -they knew how to swim, they whose ships were destroyed, and who did not -perish in actual conflict, swam safe to Salamis; whereas, many of the -barbarians, not knowing how to swim, perished in the sea. When the -foremost ships were put to flight, then the greatest number were -destroyed; for those who were stationed behind, endeavoring to pass on -with their ships to the front, that they, too, might give the king some -proof of their courage, fell foul of their own flying ships. The -following event also occurred in this confusion. Some Phœnicians, whose -ships were destroyed, went to the king and accused the Ionians of -destroying their ships and betraying him. It, however, turned out that -the Ionian captains were not put to death, but that those Phœnicians who -accused them, received the following reward. For while they were yet -speaking, a Samothracian ship bore down on an Athenian ship and sunk it. -Just then an Æginetan ship, coming up, sunk the ship of the -Samothracians. But the Samothracians being javelin-men, by hurling their -javelins, drove the marines from the ship that had sunk them, and -boarded and got possession of it. This action saved the Ionians: for -when Xerxes saw them perform so great an exploit, he turned round upon -the Phœnicians, and ordered their heads to be struck off, that they who -had proved themselves cowards, might no more accuse those who were -braver. - -The barbarians turned to flight, and sailing away towards Phalerus, the -Æginetæ waylaid them in the strait, and performed actions worthy of -record. For the Athenians in the rout ran down both those ships that -resisted and those that fled; and the Æginetæ, those that sailed away -from the battle: so that when any escaped the Athenians they fell into -the hands of the Æginetæ. - -In this engagement the Æginetæ obtained the greatest renown; and next, -the Athenians. Aristides, of whom I made mention a little before as a -most upright man, in this confusion that took place about Salamis, took -with him a considerable number of heavy-armed men, who were stationed -along the shore of the Salaminian territory and were Athenians by race, -landed them on the island of Psyttalea, and put to the sword all the -Persians who were on that little island. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -XERXES' RETREAT. - - -When the sea-fight was ended, the Greeks hauled on shore at Salamis all -the wrecks that still happened to be there and held themselves ready for -another battle, expecting the king would still make use of the ships -that survived. But a west wind carrying away many of the wrecks, drove -them on the shore of Attica, which is called Colias, so as to fulfil -both all the other oracles delivered by Bacis and Musæus concerning this -battle, and also that relating to the wrecks which were drifted on this -shore, which many years before had been delivered by Lysistratus, an -Athenian augur, but had not been understood by any of the Greeks: "The -Colian women shall broil their meat with oars." - -When Xerxes saw the defeat he had sustained he was afraid that some of -the Ionians might suggest to the Greeks, or might themselves resolve to -sail to the Hellespont, for the purpose of breaking up the bridges, and -shut him up in Europe. So he planned immediate flight. But wishing that -his intention should not be known either to the Greeks or his own -people, he pretended to throw a mound across to Salamis. He fastened -together Phœnician merchantmen, that they might serve instead of a raft -and a wall, and made preparation for war, as if about to fight another -battle at sea. Every body who saw him thus occupied, was firmly -convinced that he had seriously determined to stay and continue the war, -except Mardonius, who was well acquainted with his design. At the same -time Xerxes despatched a messenger to the Persians, to inform them of -the misfortune that had befallen him. There is nothing mortal that -reaches its destination more rapidly than these couriers of the -Persians. They say that as many days as are occupied in the whole -journey, so many horses and men are posted at regular intervals; neither -snow nor rain, nor heat, nor night, prevents them from performing their -appointed stage as quickly as possible. The first courier delivers his -orders to the second, the second to the third, and so it passes -throughout, being delivered from one to the other, just like the -torch-bearing among the Greeks, which they perform in honor of Vulcan. -The first message that reached Susa, with the news that Xerxes was in -possession of Athens, caused so great joy among the Persians who had -been left behind, that they strewed all the roads with myrtle, burnt -perfumes, and gave themselves up to sacrifices and festivity. But the -arrival of the second messenger threw them into such consternation, that -they all rent their garments, and uttered unbounded shouts and -lamentations, laying the blame on Mardonius, not so much grieved for the -ships as anxious for Xerxes himself. And this the Persians continued to -do until Xerxes himself arrived home. - -[Illustration: CELES RIDDEN BY A CUPID.] - -Mardonius, seeing Xerxes much afflicted by the defeat at Salamis, and -suspecting he was meditating a retreat, thus addressed the king: "Sire, -do not think you have suffered any great loss in consequence of what has -happened; for the contest with us does not depend on wood alone, but on -men and horses. Be not discouraged; for the Greeks have no means of -escape from rendering an account of what they have done now and -formerly, and from becoming your slaves. If you have resolved not to -stay here, return to Susa, and take with you the greatest part of the -army; but give me three hundred thousand picked men and I will deliver -Greece to you reduced to slavery." Xerxes, delighted and relieved, -granted Mardonius his request. As to Xerxes himself, if all the men and -women of the world had advised him to stay, in my opinion, he would not -have yielded, so great was his terror. Leaving Mardonius in Thessaly, he -marched in all haste to the Hellespont; and arrived at the place of -crossing in forty-five days, bringing back no part of his army, so to -speak. Wherever, and among whatever nation, they happened to be -marching, they seized and consumed their corn; but if they found no -fruit, overcome by hunger, they ate up the herbage as it sprung from the -ground, and from sheer hunger stripped off the bark of trees, and -gathered leaves, both of wild and cultivated plants. But a pestilence -and dysentery falling on the army, destroyed them on their march. Such -of them as were sick, Xerxes left behind, ordering the cities through -which he happened to be passing, to take care of and feed them: some in -Thessaly, others at Siris of Pæonia, and in Macedonia. It was here he -had left the sacred chariot of Jupiter, when he marched against Greece, -but he did not receive it back, as he returned; for the Pæonians had -given it to the Thracians, and when Xerxes demanded it back, said that -the mares had been stolen, as they were feeding, by the upper Thracians, -who dwell round the sources of the Strymon. There the king of the -Bisaltæ and of the Crestonian territory, a Thracian, perpetrated a most -unnatural deed; he declared that he would not willingly be a slave to -Xerxes, but he went up to the top of Mount Rhodope, and enjoined his -sons not to join the expedition against Greece. They, however, -disregarded his prohibition, from a desire to see the war, and served in -the army with the Persian: but when they all returned safe, six in -number, their father had their eyes put out for this disobedience. - -The Persians, in great haste crossed over the Hellespont to Abydos in -their ships; for they found the rafts no longer stretched across, but -broken up by a storm. While detained there, they got more food than on -their march, and having filled themselves immoderately, and drunk of -different water, a great part of the army that survived, died; the rest -with Xerxes reached Sardis. Another account is also given, that when -Xerxes in his retreat from Athens arrived at Eïon on the Strymon, from -there he no longer continued his journey by land, but committed the army -to Hydarnes to conduct to the Hellespont, and he himself went on board a -Phœnician ship to pass over to Asia. During his voyage a violent and -tempestuous wind from the Strymon overtook him; the storm increased in -violence, and the ship was overloaded, many of the Persians having -accompanied Xerxes. Then the king, becoming alarmed, calling aloud, and -asked the pilot if there was any hope of safety for them; and he said: -"There is none, sire, unless we get rid of some of this crowd of -passengers." Xerxes, hearing this answer, said: "O Persians, now let -some among you show his regard for the king, for on you my safety seems -to depend." Many having done homage, leapt into the sea, and the ship, -being lighted, thus got safe to Asia. It is added, that Xerxes, -immediately after he landed, presented the pilot with a golden crown, -because he had saved the king's life; but ordered his head to be struck -off, because he had occasioned the loss of many Persians. This story -appears to me not at all deserving of credit, for if such a speech had -been made by the pilot to Xerxes, I should not find one opinion in ten -thousand to deny that the king would have sent down into the hold of the -ship those who were on deck, since they were Persians, and Persians of -high rank, and would have thrown into the sea a number of Phœnicians, -equal to that of the Persians. - -When the division of the booty, after the battle of Salamis was -completed, the Greeks sailed to the Isthmus, for the purpose of -conferring the palm of valor upon him among the Greeks who had proved -himself most deserving throughout the war. The generals distributed the -ballots at the altar of Neptune, selecting the first and second out of -all; thereupon every one gave his vote for himself, each thinking -himself the most valiant; but with respect to the second place, the -majority concurred in selecting Themistocles. So each had but one vote, -for first place, but Themistocles had a great majority for the second -honor. Though the Greeks, out of envy, would not determine this matter, -but returned to their several countries without coming to a decision, -yet Themistocles was applauded and extolled throughout all Greece, as -being by far the wisest man of the Greeks. Because he was not honored by -those who fought at Salamis, although victorious, he immediately -afterward went to Lacedæmon, hoping to be honored there. The -Lacedæmonians received him nobly, and paid him the greatest honors. They -gave the prize of valor to Eurybiades, a crown of olive; and of wisdom -and dexterity to Themistocles, also a crown of olive. And they presented -him with the most magnificent chariot in Sparta; praising him highly, -and on his departure, three hundred chosen Spartans, called knights, -escorted him as far as the Tegean boundaries. He is the only man that we -know of whom the Spartans ever escorted on his journey. - -Mardonius' first movement was to send Alexander, son of Amyntas, a -Macedonian, as an ambassador to Athens; as well because the Persians -were related to him as because he had been informed that Alexander was a -friend and benefactor of the Athenians. For in this way he thought he -should best be able to gain over the Athenians, having heard that they -were a numerous and valiant people; and besides, he knew that the -Athenians had been the principal cause of the late disaster of the -Persians at sea. If these were won over, he hoped that he should easily -become master at sea, which indeed would have been the case; and on land -he imagined that he was much superior: thus he calculated that his power -would get the upper hand of the Greeks. But the Athenians gave the -following answer to Alexander: "We ourselves are aware that the power of -the Medes is far greater than ours; so that there is no need to insult -us with that. But do not you attempt to persuade us to come to terms -with the barbarian, for we will not. Go, and tell Mardonius that the -Athenians say: 'So long as the sun shall continue in the same course as -now, we will never make terms with Xerxes; but we will go out to oppose -him, trusting in the gods, who fight for us, and in the heroes, whose -temples and images he has burned. Know, therefore, if you did not know -it before, that so long as one Athenian is left alive, the fight shall -be continued.'" - -[29] Seated on the mountain side upon a magnificent throne of ivory -and gold, as others relate. - - - - -_BOOK IX. CALLIOPE._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE WAR CONTINUED; BATTLE OF PLATÆA AND SIEGE OF THEBES. - - -When Alexander returned and made known to Mardonius the answer of the -Athenians, he set out from Thessaly, and led his army in haste against -Athens; and wherever he arrived from time to time, he joined the people -to his own forces. So far were the leaders of Thessaly from repenting of -what had been before done, that they urged on the Persian much more: and -Thorax of Larissa, who had assisted in escorting Xerxes in his flight, -now openly gave Mardonius a passage into Greece. When the army on its -march arrived among the Bœotians, the Thebans endeavored to restrain -Mardonius from advancing farther, assuring him that to take up his -station there would be equivalent to subduing the whole of Greece -without a battle. For if the Greeks should continue firmly united, as -they had done before, it would be difficult even for all mankind to -overcome them. "But," they continued, "if you do what we advise, you -will without difficulty frustrate all their plans. Send money to the -most powerful men in the cities; split Greece into parties, and then, -with the assistance of those who side with you, you may easily subdue -those who are not in your interest." But he was infatuated with a -vehement desire to taking Athens a second time, and fondly hoped, by -signal-fires across the islands, to make known to the king while he was -at Sardis, that he was in possession of Athens. When he arrived in -Attica, he did not find the Athenians there; but was informed that most -of them were at Salamis on board their ships. So he took the deserted -city ten months after its capture by the king. - -But Mardonius was by no means desirous to stay longer in Attica. He -lingered awhile there to see what the Athenians would do, but neither -ravaged nor injured the Attic territory, being in expectation all along -that they would come to terms. But when he could not persuade them he -withdrew, before the Spartans, under Pausanias, could reach the Isthmus, -having first set fire to Athens, and if any part of the walls, or -houses, or temples happened to be standing, these he threw down and laid -all in ruins. He marched out for the reason that the Attic country was -not adapted for cavalry; and if he should be conquered in an engagement, -there was no way to escape except through a narrow pass, so that a very -small number of men could intercept them. He determined therefore to -retire to Thebes, and to fight near a friendly city, and in a country -adapted for cavalry. - -[Illustration: BŒOTIA.] - -The Lacedæmonians arrived at the Isthmus and went into camp. When the -rest of the Peloponnesians, who favored the better cause, saw the -Spartans marching out, they thought it would be a disgrace to absent -themselves from the expedition of the Lacedæmonians. Accordingly, when -the victims proved favorable, they all marched out from the Isthmus and -advanced to Eleusis. The Athenians crossed over from Salamis, and joined -them there. At Erythræ in Bœotia, they learnt that the barbarians were -encamped on the Asopus, at which they consulted together, and formed -opposite, at the foot of Mount Cithæron. When the Greeks did not come -down to the plain, Mardonius sent against them all his cavalry, under -command of Masistius, a man highly esteemed among the Persians. He was -mounted on a Nisæan horse, that had a golden bit, and was otherwise -gorgeously caparisoned. When the cavalry rode up to the Greeks, they -charged them in squadrons, and called them women. By chance the -Megarians happened to be stationed in that part which was most exposed, -and there the cavalry chiefly made their attack. The Megarians, being -hard pressed, sent a herald to the Greek generals with this message: -"The Megarians say, We, O confederates, are not able alone to sustain -the Persian cavalry. So far we have held out against them by our -constancy and courage, though hard pressed; but now, unless you will -send some others to relieve us, we must abandon our post." Pausanias -immediately called for volunteers to go to that position, and relieve -the Megarians. When all the others refused, three hundred chosen men of -the Athenians undertook to do it, whom Olympiodorus, son of Lampon, -commanded. After a short but spirited battle, as the cavalry were -charging, the horse of Masistius, being in advance of the others, was -wounded in the flank by an arrow, and in pain, reared and threw -Masistius. As he fell, the Athenians immediately seized his horse and -attacked him. At first they were unable to kill Masistius, he was so -thoroughly armed. Underneath he had a golden cuirass covered with -scales, and over the cuirass a purple cloak. By striking against the -cuirass they did nothing; until one of them, perceiving what was the -matter, pierced him in the eye. So he fell and died. The whole Persian -army, and Mardonius most of all, mourned the loss of Masistius. They cut -off their own hair and that of their horses and beasts of burden, and -gave themselves up to unbounded lamentations. The sound reached over all -Bœotia, of mourning for the loss of a man who, next to Mardonius, was -most esteemed by the Persians and the king. - -The Greeks placed the body on a carriage, and carried it along the -line—an object worthy of admiration, on account of its stature and -beauty—and the men, leaving their ranks, came out to view Masistius. -After this, they determined to go down toward Platæa, for the Platæan -territory appeared to be much more convenient for them to encamp in than -the Erythræan, as it was better supplied with water. Over the foot of -Mount Cithæron near Hysiæ, into the Platæan territory they marched, and -formed in line, nation by nation, near the fountain of Gargaphia, and -the precinct of the hero Androcrates, on slight elevations and the level -plain. The whole Grecian army assembled at Platæa, reckoning heavy-armed -and light-armed fighting men, amounted to one hundred and ten thousand. - -When the barbarians, with Mardonius, had ceased to mourn for Masistius, -they also marched to the Asopus, which flows by Platæa, and on their -arrival were drawn up by Mardonius. Of barbarians there were three -hundred thousand, as has been already shown; but of Greeks who were -allies of Mardonius no one knows the number, for they were not reckoned -up; but, to make a guess, I conjecture that they were assembled to the -number of fifty thousand. These were infantry; the cavalry were -marshalled apart. - -On the second day, both sides offered sacrifices. For the Greeks, -Tisamenus, son of Antiochus, was the person who sacrificed, for he -accompanied this army as diviner. The sacrifices were favorable to the -Greeks, if they stood on the defensive; but if they crossed the Asopus, -and began the battle, not so. - -[Illustration: COAT OF MAIL.] - -To Mardonius, who was very desirous to begin the battle, the sacrifices -were not propitious; but to him also, if he stood on the defensive, they -were favorable: for he too adopted the Greek sacrifices, having for his -diviner Hegesistratus, an Elean, and the most renowned of the Telliadæ. -This man, before these events, the Spartans had taken and bound for -death, because they had suffered many atrocious things from him. In this -sad condition, as being in peril for his life, and having to suffer many -tortures before death, he performed a deed beyond belief. For as he was -confined in stocks bound with iron, he got possession of a knife, which -had by some means been carried in, and immediately cut off the broad -part of his foot—the most resolute deed I ever heard of. Then, as he was -guarded by sentinels, he dug a hole through the wall and escaped to -Tegea, travelling by night, and by day hiding himself in the woods and -tarrying there. Thus, though the Lacedæmonians searched for him with -their whole population, on the third night he arrived at Tegea; but they -were struck with great amazement at his daring, when they saw half his -foot lying on the ground, and were not able to find him. In time, cured -of his wounds, he procured a wooden foot, and became an avowed enemy to -the Lacedæmonians. However, at last his hatred conceived against the -Lacedæmonians did not benefit him; for he was taken by them when acting -as diviner at Zacynthus, and put to death. The death of Hegesistratus -took place after the battle of Platæa: but at that time, on the Asopus, -he was hired by Mardonius for no small sum to sacrifice, and was very -zealous, both from hatred to the Lacedæmonians and from a love of gain. - -Meantime, Timagenides, a Theban, advised Mardonius to guard the passes -of Mount Cithæron; saying, that the Greeks were continually pouring in -every day, and that he would intercept great numbers. Eight days had -already elapsed since they had been posted opposite each other; but -Mardonius thought the suggestion good, and as soon as it was night, sent -some cavalry to the passes of Cithæron, that lead to Platæa, which the -Bœotians call The Three Heads; but the Athenians, The Heads of Oak. The -horsemen that were sent did not arrive in vain; for issuing on the -plain, they took five hundred beasts carrying provisions from -Peloponnesus to the army, with the men who attended the beasts of -burden. The Persians not only took the booty, but killed without mercy, -sparing neither beast nor man. Two more days passed, neither being -willing to begin the battle; but when the eleventh day after the two -armies had been encamped opposite each other in Platæa was almost gone, -and the night was far advanced, and silence appeared to prevail -throughout the camps, Alexander, son of Amyntas, who was general and -king of the Macedonians, rode up on horseback to the sentries of the -Athenians, and desired to confer with their generals. Most of the -sentries remained at their posts, while some ran to the generals, and -told them, "that a man had come on horseback from the camp of the Medes, -who uttered not a word more, but, naming the generals, said he wished to -confer with them." They immediately repaired to the out-posts, and -Alexander addressed them as follows: "O Athenians, I leave these words -with you as a deposit, entreating you to keep them secret, and not tell -them to any other than Pausanias, lest you should ruin me. I should not -utter them, were I not extremely concerned for the safety of all Greece; -for I am myself a Greek by origin, and would by no means wish to see -Greece enslaved instead of free. I tell you, then, that the victims have -not been favorable to Mardonius and his army, or else you would have -fought long ago; but now, he has determined to dismiss the victims, and -to come to an engagement at dawn of day; fearing, as I conjecture, that -you may assemble in greater numbers. Therefore be ready. But if -Mardonius should defer the engagement, and not undertake it, persevere -remaining where you are, for in a few days provisions will fail him. And -if this war should terminate according to your wishes, it is right that -you should bear it in mind to effect my freedom, who on behalf of the -Greeks have undertaken so hazardous a task, as to acquaint you with the -intention of Mardonius, in order that the barbarians may not fall upon -you unexpectedly. I am Alexander the Macedonian." Thus having spoken, he -rode back to the camp and his own station. - -[Illustration: THE FISHERMAN.] - -The generals of the Athenians went to the right wing, and told Pausanias -what they had heard from Alexander; but as the army was deprived of -water and harassed by the cavalry of Mardonius, they remained to -deliberate on these and other matters. They had no longer any -provisions, and their attendants, who had been despatched to the -Peloponnesus to get provisions, were shut out by the cavalry, and unable -to reach the camp. - -On consultation the generals of the allies resolved, if the Persians -should defer making the attack on that day, to remove to the island of -Oëroë, ten stades distant from the Asopus, on which they were then -encamped. This is an island in the midst of the continent. For the -river, dividing higher up, flows down to the plain from Mount Cithæron, -having its streams about three stades separate from each other, and -united together below. To this place they determined to remove, that -they might have an abundant supply of water, and the cavalry might not -harass them, as when they were directly opposite. So, in the night, at -the hour agreed upon, they fled from the cavalry toward the city of the -Platæans until they arrived at the temple of Juno, which stands before -the city of the Platæans, twenty stades distant from the fountain of -Gargaphia. They then encamped round the Heræum and stood to their arms -before the sacred precinct. - -When Mardonius was informed that the Greeks had withdrawn under cover of -night, and saw the place deserted, he summoned Thorax, of Larissa, and -said: "O son of Aleuas, what will you say now, when you see this ground -deserted? For you, their neighbor, said that the Lacedæmonians never -fled from battle, but were the first of men in matters of war; but now -we all see that they have fled away during the past night, in terror of -us, who are truly the most valiant in the world." Then without more ado -he led the Persians at full speed, crossing the Asopus in the track of -the Greeks, as if they had betaken themselves to flight. He directed his -course only against the Lacedæmonians and Tegeans; for on account of the -hills he did not espy the Athenians, who had turned into the plain. The -rest of the commanders of the barbarians' brigades, seeing the Persians -advancing to pursue the Greeks, all immediately took up their standards, -and pursued, each as quick as he could, without observing either rank or -order; thus they advanced with a shout and in a throng, as if they were -about to overwhelm the Greeks. - -The Persians made a fence with their osier-shields, and let fly their -arrows so incessantly that the Spartans being hard pressed, and the -victims continuing unfavorable, Pausanias looked toward the temple of -Juno of the Platæans, and invoked the goddess, praying that they might -not be disappointed of their hopes. - -[Illustration: JUNO.] - -While he was yet making this invocation, the Tegeans, starting first, -advanced against the barbarians; and immediately after the prayer of -Pausanias, the victims became favorable to the Lacedæmonians. Then they -advanced against the Persians, who withstood them, laying aside their -bows. First of all a battle took place about the fence of bucklers; and -when that was thrown down, a long, obstinate fight ensued near the -temple of Ceres, till at last they came to close conflict, when the -barbarians laid hold of the Spartan spears and broke them. Indeed, in -courage and strength, the Persians were not inferior, but were lightly -armed, ignorant of military discipline, and not equal to their -adversaries in skill. They rushed forward upon the Spartans, only to -perish. In that part where Mardonius happened to be, fighting upon a -white horse, at the head of a thousand chosen men, the best of the -Persians, there they pressed their adversaries most vigorously. For as -long as Mardonius survived, they held out, defended themselves, and -overthrew many of the Lacedæmonians; but when Mardonius had died, and -the troops stationed round him, which were the strongest, had fallen, -then the rest turned to flight, and gave way to the Lacedæmonians. Their -dress, too, was particularly disadvantageous to them, being destitute of -defensive armor. Here satisfaction for the death of Leonidas, according -to the oracle, was paid to the Spartans by Mardonius; and Pausanias -obtained the most signal victory we have ever heard of. Mardonius died -by the hand of Aïmnestus, a man of distinction at Sparta, who, some time -after the Medic affairs, at the head of three hundred men, engaged at -Stenyclerus with all the Messenians, and he himself perished and his -three hundred. When the Persians at Platæa were put to flight by the -Lacedæmonians, they fled in disorder to their own camp, and to the -wooden fortification which they had made in the Theban territory. It is -a wonder to me that, when they fought near the grove of Ceres, not one -of the barbarians was seen to enter into the sacred enclosure, or to die -in it, but most fell round the precinct in unconsecrated ground. I am of -opinion, if it is allowable to form an opinion concerning divine things, -that the goddess would not receive them because they had burnt her royal -temple at Eleusis. - -When the Persians and the rest of the throng arrived in their flight at -the wooden wall, they mounted the towers before the Lacedæmonians came -up, and defended the wall in the best way they could; so that when the -Lacedæmonians arrived, a vigorous battle took place before the walls. So -long as the Athenians were absent, the barbarians defended themselves, -and had much the advantage over the Lacedæmonians, as they were not -skilled in attacking fortifications; but when the Athenians came, then a -vehement fight at the walls took place, and continued for a long time. -But at length the Athenians, by their valor and pluck, surmounted the -wall, and made a breach; there at length the Greeks poured in. The -Tegeans entered first, and plundered the tent of Mardonius, and among -other things took away the manger for his horse, all of bronze, and well -worth seeing. This manger of Mardonius the Tegeans placed in the temple -of the Alean Minerva; but all the other things they took they carried to -the same place as the rest of the Greeks. The barbarians no longer kept -in close order, nor did any one think of valor; but they were in a state -of consternation, as so many myriads of men were enclosed within so -small a space; and the Greeks had such an easy opportunity of -slaughtering them, that of an army of three hundred thousand men, except -forty thousand with whom Artabazus fled, not three thousand survived. Of -Lacedæmonians from Sparta, all that died in the engagement were -ninety-one; of Tegeans, sixteen; and of Athenians, fifty-two. - -[Illustration: ELEGANT VASES AND AMPHORÆ.] - -Pausanias made proclamation that no one should touch the booty, and -commanded the helots to bring together all the treasures. Dispersing -themselves through the camp, they found tents decked with gold and -silver, and couches gilt and plated, and golden bowls, and cups, and -other drinking vessels; they also found sacks on the waggons, in which -were discovered gold and silver cauldrons: and from the bodies that lay -dead they stripped bracelets, necklaces, and scimetars of gold; but no -account at all was taken of the variegated apparel. Of this the helots -stole a great deal and sold it to the Æginetæ, so that the great wealth -of the Æginetæ here had its beginning, for they purchased gold from the -helots as if it had been bronze. They collected the treasures together, -and took from them a tithe for the god at Delphi, from which the golden -tripod was dedicated, which stands on the three-headed bronze serpent, -close to the altar; they also took a tithe for the god at Olympia, from -which they dedicated the bronze Jupiter, ten cubits high; and a tithe to -the god at the Isthmus, from which was made the bronze Neptune, seven -cubits high. They divided the rest, and each took the share he was -entitled to, of the gold, silver, and other treasures, and beasts of -burden. Now what choice treasures were given those others who most -distinguished themselves at Platæa, is mentioned by no one. But for -Pausanias, ten of every thing was selected and given him—slaves, horses, -talents, camels, and all other treasures in like manner. It is said also -that when Xerxes fled from Greece, he left all his own equipage to -Mardonius; Pausanias, therefore, seeing Mardonius' equipage furnished -with gold, silver, and various-colored hangings, ordered the bakers and -cooks to prepare a supper in the same manner as for Mardonius: and, -astonished at the profusion set before him of gold and silver couches -handsomely carved, and gold and silver tables, and magnificent -preparations for the supper, he in derision ordered his own attendants -to prepare a Laconian supper by the side of it, and when the repast was -spread, the difference was so ridiculous that he laughed, and sent for -the generals of the Greeks and said: "Men of Greece, I have called you -together to show you the folly of the leader of the Medes, who left such -sumptuous fare as this, to come to us, who have such poor fare, to take -it from us." A considerable time after these events, many of the -Platæans found chests of gold and silver, and other precious things. And -still later was discovered a skull without any seam, consisting of one -bone, and an upper jaw which had teeth growing in a piece, all in one -bone, both the front teeth and the grinders; and there was likewise -discovered the skeleton of a man five cubits high. - -When the Greeks had buried their dead in Platæa, they immediately -determined, on consultation, to march against Thebes, and to demand the -surrender of those who had sided with the Medes, amongst the first of -them Timegenides and Attaginus, who were the chief leaders; and, if they -should not give them up, they resolved not to depart from the city -before they had taken it. On the eleventh day after the engagement, they -arrived and besieged the Thebans, requiring them to give up the men; -and, receiving "No" for an answer, they ravaged the country, and -attacked the walls. As they did not cease damaging them, on the -twentieth day Timegenides spoke thus to the Thebans: "Men of Thebes, -since the Greeks have so resolved that they will not give over besieging -us until either they have taken Thebes, or you have delivered us up to -them, let not the Bœotian territory suffer any more on our account. But -if, being desirous of money, they demand us as a pretence, let us give -them money from the public treasury; for we sided with the Mede by -general consent, and not of ourselves alone. If, however, they carry on -the siege really because they want us, we will present ourselves before -them to plead our cause." He appeared to speak well and to the purpose; -and the Thebans immediately sent a herald to Pausanias, expressing their -willingness to surrender the men. When they had agreed on these terms, -Attaginus escaped from the city, and his sons, who were brought before -him, Pausanias acquitted from the charge, saying that boys could have no -part in the guilt of siding with the Mede. As to the others whom the -Thebans delivered up, they thought that they should be admitted to plead -their cause, and moreover trusted to repel the charge by bribery; but -he, as soon as he had them in his power, suspecting this very thing, -dismissed the whole army of the allies, and, conducting the men to -Corinth, put them to death. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE BATTLE OF MYCALE. - - -On the same day on which the defeat at Platæa occurred, another happened -to take place at Mycale in Ionia. For while the Greeks were stationed at -Delos, there came to them as ambassadors from Samos, Lampon, -Athenagoras, and Hegesistratus, being sent by the Samians, unknown to -the Persians. When they came to the generals, Hegesistratus urged that -"if only the Ionians should see them, they would revolt from the -Persians, and that the barbarians would not withstand them; or, if they -should withstand them, the Greeks would not find any other such booty." -Invoking, too, their common gods, he besought them to deliver Grecian -men from servitude, and to repel the barbarian; and he said, "that this -would be easy for them to do, for their ships sailed badly, and were not -fit to fight with them; and, if they suspected at all that they were -leading them on deceitfully, they were themselves ready to go on board -their ships as hostages." The Samian stranger was so earnest in his -entreaties, that Leotychides asked: "O Samian friend, what is your -name?" "Hegesistratus," he answered; upon which, interrupting the -rest of his discourse, Leotychides exclaimed: "I accept the -"Hegesistratus,"[30] my Samian friend; only do you take care that before -you sail away both you yourself and those who are with you, pledge your -faith that the Samians will be zealous allies to us." The Samians -immediately pledged their faith and made oath of confederacy with the -Greeks. The others sailed home, but he ordered Hegesistratus to sail -with the fleet, regarding his name as an omen. The Greeks tarried that -day, and on the next sacrificed auspiciously, Deiphonus, son of Evenius, -of Apollonia in the Ionian gulf, acting as diviner. - -The following incident befel his father, Evenius. There are in this -Apollonia sheep sacred to the sun, which by day feed near the river that -flows from Mount Lacmon through the Apollonian territory into the sea, -near the port of Oricus; but by night, chosen men, the most eminent of -the citizens for wealth and birth, keep watch over them, each for a -year: for the Apollonians set a high value upon these sheep, in -consequence of some oracle. They are folded in a cavern at a distance -from the city. There, once on a time, Evenius, being chosen, kept watch, -and one night when he had fallen asleep during his watch, wolves entered -the cave, and destroyed about sixty of the sheep. When he discovered -what had happened, he mentioned it to no one, purposing to buy others, -and put them in their place. This occurrence, however, did not escape -the notice of the Apollonians; and as soon as they discovered it, they -brought him to trial, and gave sentence that, for having fallen asleep -during his watch, he should be deprived of sight. But after they had -blinded Evenius, from that time forward neither did their sheep -multiply, nor did the land yield its usual fruit. An admonition was -given them at Dodona and Delphi, when they inquired of the prophets the -cause of the present calamities "that they had unjustly deprived -Evenius, the keeper of the sacred sheep, of his sight; for they -themselves had sent the wolves, and would not cease avenging him, until -the people should give such satisfaction for what they had done, as he -himself should choose, and think sufficient: then, the gods themselves -would give such a present to Evenius, that most men would pronounce him -happy, from possessing it." The Apollonians, keeping this answer secret, -deputed some of their citizens to negociate the matter with Evenius. One -day when he was seated on a bench, they went and sat down by him, and -conversed on different subjects, till at length they began to -commiserate his misfortune, and leading him artfully on, they asked, -"what reparation he would choose, if the Apollonians were willing to -give him satisfaction for what they had done." Not having heard of the -oracle he made this choice, "if any one would give him the lands of -certain citizens," naming those who he knew had the two best estates in -Apollonia, "and besides these a house," which he knew was the handsomest -in the city, he said, "he would thenceforth forego his anger, and this -reparation would content him." Immediately taking him up they said, "the -Apollonians make you this reparation for the loss of your eyes, in -obedience to an oracle they have received." He thereupon was very -indignant, on hearing the whole truth, for he had been deceived; but the -Apollonians bought the property from the owners, and gave him what he -had chosen, and immediately the gift of divination was implanted in him, -so that he became very celebrated. - -Deiphonus, the son of this Evenius, was brought by the Corinthians to -officiate as diviner to the army. - -The Greeks at length determined to sail to the continent: having -therefore prepared boarding-ladders, and all other things that were -necessary for a sea-fight, they sailed to Mycale. No one was seen near -the camp, ready to meet them, but they beheld the ships drawn up within -the fortification, and a numerous land-force disposed along the beach, -thereupon Leotychides, advancing first in a ship, and nearing the beach -as closely as possible, made proclamation by a herald to the Ionians, -saying: "Men of Ionia, as many of you as hear me, attend to what I say; -for the Persians will understand nothing of the advice I give you. When -we engage, it behooves every one first of all to remember Liberty; and -next the watch-word, Hebe; and let him who does not hear this, learn it -from those who do hear." The meaning of this proceeding was the same as -that of Themistocles at Artemisium; for either these words, being -concealed from the barbarians, would induce the Ionians to revolt, or, -if they should be reported to the barbarians, would make them -distrustful of the Greeks. Then the Greeks put their ships to shore, -landed on the beach, and drew up in order of battle. But when the -Persians saw them preparing for action, and knew that they had -admonished the Ionians, they suspected that the Samians favored the -Greeks, and took away their arms. - -Then the Greeks advanced toward the barbarians; and a rumor flew through -the whole army that a herald's staff was seen lying on the beach and -that the Greeks had fought and conquered the army of Mardonius in -Bœotia. Thus the interposition of heaven is manifest by many plain -signs; since on this same day on which the defeat at Platæa took place, -and when that at Mycale was just about to happen, a rumor reached the -Greeks in this latter place; so that the army was inspired with much -greater courage, and was more eager to meet danger. - -The Athenians, and those who were drawn up next to them, forming about -half the army, had to advance along the shore over level ground; but the -Lacedæmonians and their associates, along a ravine and some hills. So -that whilst the Lacedæmonians were making a circuit, those in the other -wing were already engaged. Now, so long as the bucklers of the Persians -remained standing, they defended themselves strenuously, and had not the -worst of the battle; but when the Athenians and their comrades mutually -encouraged one another, in order that the victory might belong to them, -and not to the Lacedæmonians, they flew with such vigor into the battle, -that the face of affairs was immediately changed. They broke through the -bucklers and fell in a body upon the Persians. They sustained the attack -and defended themselves for a time but at last fled to the -fortification. The Athenians, Corinthians, Sicyonians, and Trœzenians, -drawn up in order together, following close upon them, rushed into the -fortification at the same time. When the fortification was taken, the -barbarians no longer thought of resisting, but all except the Persians -betook themselves to flight; they, in small detachments, fought with the -Greeks who were continually rushing within the fortification. And of the -Persian generals, two made their escape, and two died. Artayntes and -Ithramitres, commanders of the naval forces escaped; but Mardontes, and -Tigranes, generals of the land army, died fighting. While the Persians -were still fighting, the Lacedæmonians came up, and assisted in -accomplishing the rest. Of the Greeks themselves many fell on this -occasion, especially the Sicyonians, and their general Perilaus. The -Samians, who were in the camp of the Medes and had been deprived of -their arms, as soon as they saw the battle turning, did all they could, -wishing to help the Greeks; and the rest of the Ionians, as the Samians -led the way, fled from the Persians and attacked the barbarians. The -Milesians had been appointed to guard the passes for the Persians so -that in the event of failure they might have guides to conduct them to -the heights of Mycale. They, however, did every thing contrary to what -was ordered; guiding them in their flight by other ways which led to the -enemy, and at last themselves assisted in slaying them. Thus Ionia -revolted a second time from the Persians. In this battle of the Greeks, -the Athenians most distinguished themselves. When they had killed most -of the barbarians, some fighting and others flying, they brought out all -the booty on the beach, including several chests of money, and burnt the -ships and the whole fortification. Then they took into their alliance -the Samians, Chians, Lesbians, and other islanders, who were then -serving with the Greeks, bound them by pledges and oaths that they would -remain firm and not revolt; then sailed to the Hellespont, and home. - -[Illustration: BAS-RELIEF OF THE MUSES.] - - - - -SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN HERODOTUS. - - -GREEKS. - - ------------------------------------------------ - _Peloponnesus._ - - ------------------------------------------------ - B.C. - Rape of Io from Argos 1687 - Pelops conq. the Pelopon 1362 - Eurystheus conquered 1311 - Rape of Helen 1290 - Aristodemus conq. the Pelo. 1190 - - _Lacedæmon._ | _Corinth._ - | - Procles and Eurysthenes | Oligarchy of - kings 1178 | Bacchiadæ. - Theras col. Callista | Cypselus born 700 - (Thera) 1150 | - Lycurgus 884 | Seizes the - Battus migrates | trannny 663 - from Cal. and | Periander 633 - founds Cyrene 632 | Banishes - First war with | Lycophron 575 - Tegea 620 | Sends 300 - Ariston and | Corcyræan - Anaxandrides, | boys to - kings of Lacedæmon 574 | Alyattes 565 - Ally with Crœsus 554 | Dies 563 - | Miltiades, son - Tegea taken 546 | of Cypselus, - War with Argives | founds - about Thyrea 545 | Chersonesus 560 - Send troops ag't. | - Polycrates 525 | - Demaratus 520 | Stesagoras - Cleomenes 515 | succeeds 531 - Dorieus migrates | - to Libya 515 | Miltiades, son of - Cleo. violates the | Cimon, succeeds - Argive grove 514 | 515 - Cleomenes expels | - Clisthenes | - from Athens 508 | Takes Lemnos 510 - Invades Attica 507 | - Demaratus exiled 492 | Retires before the - | Scythians 507 - Leotychides king 492 | - Cleomenes kills | Escapes from the - himself 490 | Persians to - Leonidas slain at | Imbros 497 - Thermopylæ 480 | - Pausanias wins | - at Platæa 479 | At the battle - Leotychides at | of Salamis 480 - Mycale 479 | - - ---------------------------+------------------------- - _Attica, Bœotia, | _Greeks in Asia - Phocis, Ætolia, etc._ | and the Islands._ - ---------------------------+------------------------- - B.C. | B.C. - Deucalion 1570 | Ion goes to Asia 1391 - Cecrops 1550 | - Erectheus 1510 | Æolian migrations - Ion, son of Xuthus 1427 | under Orestes, - Rape of Medea by the | Penthilus, and - Argonauts 1349 | Echelatus 1210-1174 - Theseus defeated | - Eurystheus 1311 | Ionian migrations - Decaleans give up | (driven from the - Helen to the Tyndaridæ | Pelop. by the - 1296 | Achæans) 1130 - Pelasgians expelled | - from Attica, conquer | Dorian migration - Lemnos 1162 | Samians reach - Codrus 1153 | Tartessus 640 - Rape of Ath. women | Thrasybulus 625 - from Brauron 1152 | Conquered by - Alcmæon, the last | Crœsus - Archon 683 | Conquered by - Conspiracy of Ceylon 612 | Harpagus 542 - Legislation of Solon 594 | Phocæans defeat - Megacles mar. Clisthenes' | Carthaginians, - daughter 570 | etc. - Pisistratus, tyrant 561 | Found Hyela 535 - Expelled 559 | Polycrates tyrant - Re-established 555 | at Samos 532-523 - Re-expelled 553 | - Regains it 542 | Samians found - Dies 528 | Cydonia 524 - Hipparchus succeeds 528 | Syloson obtains - Assassina. of Cimon 527 | Samos 512 - Hipparchus assassinated | Ionians commence - 514 | disturbances 504 - Hippias succeeds 514 | - Expelled 510 | Burn Sardis 503 - Factions of Clisthenes | Joined by the - and Isagoras 509 | Cyprians 502 - Clisthenes expelled 508 | Miletus taken 498 - Inv. of Cleomenes 507 | Aristagoras slain 498 - Athenians defeat the | - Bœotians, invade | Samians take Zancle 497 - Eubœa, and conquer | Chios, Tenedos, - the Chalcidians 506 | etc., taken by - Miltiades gains the | the Persians 497 - battle of Marathon 490 | Phocians defeat - Dies 489 | Thessalians 482 - Xerxes takes Athens 480 | - Battle of Salamis 480 | Ionians join the - Mardonius retakes | allies at Mycale 479 - Athens 479 | - - -BARBARIANs - - -------------------+---------------------+------------------- - | | _Scythians - _Phœnicians._ | _Egyptians._ | and - | | Cimmerians._ - -------------------+---------------------+------------------- - | | - Migrated | God-kings, | Cimmerians - from the | 17570 | invade - Erythræan | to | Asia, - to | 15570. | but - Phoenicia, | | expelled - about | Menes | by the - 2267. | to | Scythians - | Mœris, | about - Colonized | 2235 | 624. - Thasos, | to | - 1550. | 1416. | Scythians - | | rule - Founded | Sesostris | Upper - Carthage, | to | Asia, - 819. | Sethon, | 624 - | 1416 | to - Circumnavigate | to | 596. - Libya, | 671. | - 609. | | Invaded - | Twelve kings | by - | to | Darius, - | Amasis | 508. - | 671 | - | to | Invade - | 525. | the - | | Chersonesus; - | | Miltiades - | | retires, - | | 507. - - -----------------------------------------+----------------- - | - _Assyrians and Babylonians._ | _Lydians._ - | - -----------------------------------------+----------------- - B.C. | - Empire 1221-711 | Atyadæ to - Semiramis 747-733 | 1221. - Medic revolt 711 | Heraclidæ - | 1221-716. - _Babylonia._ | _Media, etc._ | Gyges, 716. - | | Ardys, 678. - Nitocris, | Deioces, 700. | Cimmerians - 604-561. | Div. the Medes. | take Sardis, - Turns the | Phraortes, 647. | 634. - Euphrates | Invades Assyria | Sadyattes, - and improves | Perished before | 629. - Babylon. | Nineveh. | Milesian war, - | Cyaxares, 625. | 622-610. - Labynetus | Conq. Assyria. | Alyattes, 617. - (Belshazzar), | Besieges | Drove out - son of | Nineveh, 603. | Cimmerians, - Nitocris, | Scythian invasion, | 613. - succeeds. | 624-596. | War with - Arbitrates | Astyages, 585. | Cyaxares, 602. - between | CYRUS born, | Crœsus, 560. - Cyaxares | 571. | - and | King in sport, | Conquers - Alyattes. | 561. | Greeks. - | | - | | Visited by - | | Solon. - | _Persian Empire_ | - -CYRUS, king 550. - -Attacked by Crœsus. Conquers Lydia, and takes Sardis. Mazares punishes -Lydian rebels. Harpagus takes Phocæa, conquers Ionia and Æolis. - -Babylon taken by Cyrus, 536. - -Massagetan expedition. Cyrus slain, 530. - -CAMBYSES, 530-523. Conquers Egypt, 525. Unsuccessful expedition against -the Ethiopians and Ammonians. Wounds Apis. Goes mad. Slays his brother -Smerdis. Marries and kills his sister. Magian revolt. Dies, 523. - -SMERDIS MAGUS, 523. Conspiracy of the Seven. Death of the Magi. - -DARIUS, 522-485. Sends Democydes to spy Greece. Babylonian revolt. -Babylon taken by Zopyrus, 516. Restores Syloson to Samos, 512. Barca -conquered, 512. Invades Scythia, 508. Megabazus subdues Thrace. Otanes -subdues Lemnos and Imbros. Disturbances in Ionia. Burning of Sardis, -503. Cyprians join the revolt, 502; conquered, 501. Miletus taken, 498. -Pacification of Ionia, 497. Mardonius marches against Greece, 495. -Wrecked at Athos. Darius sends to Greece for earth and water, 493. -Expedition of Datis and Artaphernes, 492; enslave Naxos and Eretria, -490. Marathon, 490. Preparations for another invasion, 489. Egyptian -revolt, 486. - -XERXES, 485-479. Subdues Egypt, 484. Prepares for a Greek expedition. -Leaves Susa, April, 481. Winters at Sardis. Battle of Thermopylæ, 480. -Takes Athens, 480. Battle of Salamis, Sept., 480. Retires to Asia. -Mardonius defeated at Platæa, and the Persian fleet at Mycale, the same -day, Sept. 22, 479. - - - - - HERODOTEAN WEIGHTS AND MONEY, DRY AND LIQUID MEASURES, - AND MEASUREMENTS OF LENGTH. - - -_Eubœic or Attic Silver Weights and Money._ - - WEIGHT (Avoirdupois). VALUE. - lbs. oz. grs. - 1 Obol — — 11.08 $.033 - 6 Obols 1 Drachma — — 66.5 .198 - 100 Drachmæ 1 Mina — 15 33.75 19.784 - 60 Minæ 1 Talent 56 15¼ 100.32 1187.00 - -_Æginetan Silver Weights and Money._ - - lbs. oz. grs. - 1 Obol — — 16 $.04½ - 6 Obols 1 Drachma — — 96 27.00 - 100 Drachmæ 1 Mina 1 5¾ 78.96 — - 60 Minæ 1 Talent 82 3¾ 30.46 1620.00 - -The gold Stater of Crœsus and the gold Daric are each supposed to be -worth about 20 Attic silver drachmæ, or about $4.00 in our money. - -Herodotus makes the Babylonian Talent equal to 70 Eubœic Minæ, but -Hussey calculates its weight at 71_lbs._ 1½_oz._ 69.45_grs._ If, -however, these are reckoned by comparison with our gold money, they are -worth much more. - - -_Attic Dry Measures._ - - Gallons. Quarts. - 1 Chœnix — 1 - 48 Chœnices 1 Medimnus 12 — - 1 Medimnus and } - 3 Chœnices } 1 Persian Artaba 12 3 - -_Liquid Measures._ - - Gallons. Pints. - 1 Chœnix — 1½ - 48 Chœnices 1 Amphora 9 — - -Hesychius considers the Aryster to be the same as the Cotyla, which -Hussey calculates to hold half a pint. - -_Measures of Length._ - - Miles. Yards. Feet. Inches. - 1 Digit (finger's breadth) — — — .7584 - 4 Digits 1 Palm (hand-breadth) — — — 3.0336 - 3 Palms 1 Span — — — 9.1008 - 4 Palms 1 Foot — — 1 0.135 - 2 Spans or 6 Palms 1 Cubit — — 1 6.2016 - 1 Cubit and 6 Digits 1 Royal Cubit — — 1 8.4768 - 4 Cubits 1 Fathom (Orgya) — — 6 0.81 - 100 Feet or 16⅔ Orgyæ 1 Plethrum — 33 2 1.5 - 6 Plethra 1 Stadium — 202 0 9 - 30 Stadia 1 Persian Parasan 3 787 1 6 - 2 Parasangs 1 Schœnus 6½ 494 3 0 - -The Egyptian Cubit contained nearly 17¾ inches. - -The Arura contained 21,904 square English feet, or a fraction over half -an acre. - -[30] Hegesistratus means "leader of an army." - - - - -UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME. - - -PLUTARCH FOR BOYS AND GIRLS. Selected and edited by Prof. John S. White. -Quarto, with many illustrations $3 00. - -This edition contains all the "Lives" and "Parallels" in Plutarch's own -words, with such omissions only as were necessary to adapt them for -young readers. There is also an Introduction and Life of Plutarch by the -editor. As a standard work, adapted to both boys and girls, its wealth -of anecdote and faithful portrayal of character render it peculiarly -valuable. - -"Precious ore and no dross."—_Home Journal._ - -"It is a pleasure to see in so beautiful and elegant a form, one -of the great books of the world. The best Plutarch for young -readers."—_Literary World._ - -"Shows admirable scholarship and judgment."—_The Critic._ - - G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, - NEW YORK AND LONDON. - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Boys' and Girls' Herodotus, by John S. White - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' HERODOTUS *** - -***** This file should be named 55758-0.txt or 55758-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/7/5/55758/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Chris Pinfield and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - |