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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d3cf620 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #55758 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55758) diff --git a/old/55758-0.txt b/old/55758-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 62aa6d0..0000000 --- a/old/55758-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10726 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Boys' and Girls' Herodotus, by John S. White - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Boys' and Girls' Herodotus - Being Parts of the History of Herodotus Edited for Boys and Girls - -Author: John S. White - -Release Date: October 16, 2017 [EBook #55758] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' HERODOTUS *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Chris Pinfield and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - -Transcriber's Note. - -Apparent typographical errors have been corrected. The inconsistent use -of hyphens has been retained, as has the use of both "king" and "King". - -Small capitals have been replaced by full capitals, while italics are -indicated by _underscores_. A phrase in black letter font is indicated -by +plus signs+. - -An advertisement for another work by the same author has been shifted to -the back of the book. - -The illustration titled "ALPHABET" does not identify which alphabet it -is, but it appears to illustrate Egyptian hieroglyphics. - -The "Synchronistical Table of the Principal Events in Herodotus" towards -the end of the book extends over two pages in small font: one on the -Greeks and one on the "Barbarians". The text on the Persian Empire is -spread over several columns on the second page. In this version the -table on each page has been split into two, and the text on the Persian -Empire placed at the end. - - - - -[Illustration: THE PYRAMIDS AND SPHINX.] - - - - - THE - BOYS' AND GIRLS' - HERODOTUS - - BEING - - PARTS OF THE HISTORY OF HERODOTUS - EDITED FOR BOYS AND GIRLS, WITH AN INTRODUCTION - - BY - - JOHN S. WHITE, LL.D. - HEAD-MASTER, BERKELEY SCHOOL; EDITOR OF THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH - - _WITH FIFTY ILLUSTRATIONS_ - - NEW YORK & LONDON - G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS - +The Knickerbocker Press+ - 1884 - - - COPYRIGHT BY - G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS - 1884 - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -Imagine yourself in the city of Athens near the close of the year 446 -B.C. The proud city, after many years of supremacy over the whole of -Central Greece, has passed her zenith, and is surely on the decline. She -has never recovered from the blow received at Coronea. The year has been -one of gloom and foreboding. The coming spring will bring the end of the -five years' truce; and an invasion from the Peloponnesus is imminent. -But, as the centre of learning, refinement, and the arts, the lustre of -her fame is yet undimmed, and men of education throughout the world deem -their lives incomplete until they have sought and reached this -intellectual Mecca. During this year a stranger from Halicarnassus, in -Asia Minor, after many years of travel in Asia, Scythia, Libya, Egypt, -and Magna Græcia, has taken up his abode at Athens. He is still a young -man, hardly thirty-seven, yet his fame is that of the first and greatest -of historians. Dramatists and poets immortal there have been, but never -man has written such exquisite prose. Twenty centuries and more shall -wear away, and his history will be read in a hundred different tongues, -as well as in the beautiful and simple Greek that he wrote. His name -will grow into a household word; the school-boy will revel in his -delightful tales, and wise men will call him the Father of History! For -weeks the people of Athens have listened entranced to the public reading -of his great work, and now the Assembly has passed a decree tendering to -him the city's thanks, together with a most substantial gift in -recognition of his talents—a purse of money equal to twelve thousand -American dollars. - -Such is the account which Eusebius gives, and others to whom we may -fairly accord belief; and it adds no slight tinge of romance to the -picture to discover among the listening throng the figure of the boy -Thucydides, moved to tears by the recital, who then and there received -the impulse that made of him also a great student and writer of history. -Herodotus, noticing how intensely his reading had affected the youth, -turned to Olorus, the father of Thucydides, who was standing near, and -said: "Olorus, thy son's soul yearns after knowledge." - -Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus, 484 B.C., and died at Thurium in -Italy, about the year 425. As in the case of Plutarch, our knowledge of -his personal history is very meagre, aside from the little we glean from -his own writings. His parents, Lyxes and Rhœo, appear to have been of -high rank and consideration in Halicarnassus, and possessed of ample -means; and his acquaintance both at home and in Athens was of the best. -A lover of poetry and a poet by nature, the whole plan of his work, the -tone and character of his thoughts, and a multitude of words and -expressions, show him to have been perfectly familiar with the Homeric -writings. There is scarcely an author previous to his time with whose -works he does not appear to have been thoroughly acquainted. Hecatæus, -to be sure, was almost the only writer of prose who had attained any -distinction, for prose composition was practically in its infancy; but -from him and from several others, too obscure even to be named, he -freely quotes, while the poets, Hesiod, Olen, Musæus, Archilochus, the -authors of the "Cypria" and the "Epigoni," Alcæus, Sappho, Solon, Æsop, -Aristeas, Simonides of Ceos, Phrynichus, Æschylus, and Pindar, are -referred to, or quoted, in such a way as to show an intimate -acquaintance with their works. - -The design of Herodotus was to record the struggles between the Greeks -and barbarians, but, in carrying it out, as Wheeler, the English analyst -of the writings of Herodotus, has happily expressed it, he is -perpetually led to trace the causes of the great events of his history; -to recount the origin of that mighty contest between liberty and -despotism which marked the whole period; to describe the wondrous -manners and mysterious religions of nations, and the marvellous -geography and fabulous productions of the various countries, as each -appeared on the great arena; to tell to an inquisitive and credulous -people of cities vast as provinces and splendid as empires; of -stupendous walls, temples and pyramids; of dreams, omens, and warnings -from the dead; of obscure traditions and their exact accomplishment;—and -thus to prepare their minds for the most wonderful story in the annals -of men, when all Asia united in one endless array to crush the states of -Greece; when armies bridged the seas and navies sailed through -mountains; when proud, stubborn-hearted men arose amid anxiety, terror, -confusion, and despair, and staked their lives and homes against the -overwhelming power of a foreign despot, till Heaven itself sympathized -with their struggles, and the winds and waves delivered their country, -and opened the way to victory and revenge. - -The personal character of Herodotus, reflected from every page that he -wrote, renders his vivid story all the more happily suited to the -reading and study of boys and girls. He is as honest as the sun; equally -impartial to friends and foes; candid in the statement of both sides of -a question; and an artist withal in the gift of delineating a character -or a people with a few rapid strokes, so bold and masterly that the -sketch is placed before you with stereoscopic distinctness. For so early -a writer he presents a surprising unity of plan, combined with a variety -of detail that is amazing. What if he does crowd and enrich his story -with a world of anecdote? What if he feels bound always to paint for you -the customs, manners, dress, and peculiarities of a people before he -begins their history? This very biographical style is the charm of his -pen. Like the flowers of the magnolia-tree, his bright stories and vivid -descriptions at times almost overwhelm the root and branch of his -narrative; yet, after all, we remember the magnolia more because of its -cloud of snowy bloom in the few fleeting days of May than for all its -green and shade in the other months. - -Herodotus, to be sure, lacks that far-seeing faculty of discerning -accurately the real causes of great movements, wars, and migrations of -men—a faculty possessed pre-eminently by Thucydides and largely by -Xenophon, but he is equally far removed from the coldness of the one and -the ostentatious display of the other. He is above all things natural, -simple, and direct. "He writes," says Aristotle, "sentences which have a -continuous flow, and which end only when the sense is complete." - -I have allowed Herodotus, as I did Plutarch, to tell you his story in -his own words, as closely as the English idiom can reproduce the spirit -and flow of the Greek, calling gratefully to my aid the labors of such -students, analysts, and translators of Herodotus as Rawlinson, Dahlmann, -Cary, and Wheeler; and I have discarded from the text only what is -indelicate to the modern ear, or what the young reader might find -tedious, redundant, or irrelevant to the main story. But so small a part -comes under this head, that I am sure I can fairly say to you: "This is -Herodotus himself." If you read him through and do not like him, who -will be the disappointed one? Not you, but I! - -NEW YORK, _June 15, 1884_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER. PAGE - - _BOOK I.—CLIO._ - - I. Origin of the War between the Greeks and Barbarians 1 - II. History of Lydia 4 - III. Origin of Athens and Sparta 17 - IV. Conquest of Lydia by Cyrus 25 - V. History of the Medes to the Reign of Cyrus 35 - VI. The Asiatic Greeks and the Lydian Revolt 54 - VII. The Conquest of Assyria and the War with the Massagetæ 65 - - - _BOOK II.—EUTERPE._ - - I. Physical History of Egypt 83 - II. Religion, Manners, Customs, Dress, and Animals - of the Egyptians 91 - III. God-Kings Prior to Menes 107 - IV. First Line of 330 Kings, only Three Mentioned 108 - V. From Sesostris to Sethon 110 - VI. Third Line from the Twelve Kings to Amasis 127 - - - _BOOK III.—THALIA._ - - I. Expeditions of Cambyses 138 - II. Usurpation of Smerdis the Magus and Accession of Darius 157 - III. Indians, Arabians, and Ethiopians 169 - IV. Reign of Darius to the Taking of Babylon 174 - - - _BOOK IV.—MELPOMENE._ - - I. Description of Scythia and the Neighboring Nations 188 - II. Invasion of Scythia by Darius 203 - III. Description of Libya 210 - - - _BOOK V.—TERPSICHORE._ - - I. Conquests of the Generals of Darius 219 - II. The Ionian Revolt 229 - - - _BOOK VI.—ERATO._ - - I. The Suppression of the Ionian Revolt 236 - II. Expedition of Mardonius 246 - III. Expedition of Datis and Artaphernes; - The Battle of Marathon 252 - - - _BOOK VII.—POLYMNIA._ - - I. Death of Darius and Reign of Xerxes 261 - II. Battle of Thermopylæ 280 - - - _BOOK VIII.—URANIA._ - - I. The Invasion of Attica and the Battle of Salamis 292 - II. Xerxes' Retreat 302 - - - _BOOK IX.—CALLIOPE._ - - I. The War Continued; Battle of Platæa and Siege of Thebes 307 - II. The Battle of Mycale 321 - Synchronistical Table of the Principal Events in Herodotus 326 - Herodotean Weights and Money, Dry and Liquid Measures, - and Measurements of Lengths 328 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PAGE - - The Pyramids and Sphinx _Frontispiece_ - Offering at the Temple of Delphi 14 - Athens from Mount Hymettus 19 - Assyrian Warriors in a Chariot 38 - Sphinx from S. W. Palace (Nimroud) 39 - Egyptian Hare 47 - Winged Human-Headed Lion 69 - Sepulchral Vases 80 - Map of Ægyptus 82 - The Two Great Pyramids at the Time of the Inundation 85 - Nile Boat 89 - The Trochilus 98 - Spearing the Crocodile 99 - Head of Rameses II. 109 - Bust of Thothmes I. 111 - Paris Carrying Away Helen 113 - Bes and Hi 117 - The Great Pyramid, without the Surface Stone 119 - Section of the Great Pyramid 121 - Section of Gallery in Pyramid 123 - Hall of Columns in the Great Temple of Karnak 125 - Egyptian Bell Capitals 129 - Harpoon and Fish-Hooks 129 - Egyptian Helmets 131 - The Great Sphinx 135 - Egyptian Pottery 139 - Sand Storm in the Desert 147 - Attack on Fort 153 - The Obelisk 155 - Mameluke Tomb, Cairo 163 - Egyptian War Chariot, Warrior, and Horse 167 - Military Drum 171 - Alphabet 175 - Infantry Drilled by Sergeant 185 - Light-Armed Troops Marching 187 - Olive Trees 217 - Head-Dress of a Riding Horse 221 - Amphitheatre at Pola 241 - Ruins of an Ancient Temple in Corinth 249 - Tripolitza 267 - The Tomb of Jonah, Konyunjik, and the Ruins Opposite Mosul 273 - Bridge over the Gortynius 277 - Cyclopean Walls at Cephalloma 281 - Island and Castle of Corfu 283 - Bridge at Corfu 287 - Plains of Argos 289 - Ancient Greek Walls Restored 293 - Celes Ridden by a Cupid 303 - Bœotia 309 - Coat of Mail 311 - The Fisherman 313 - Juno 315 - Elegant Vases and Amphoræ 317 - Bas-Relief of the Muses 325 - - - - -HERODOTUS. - - - - -_BOOK I. CLIO._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -ORIGIN OF THE WAR BETWEEN THE GREEKS AND BARBARIANS. - - -This is a publication of the researches of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, -made in order that the actions of men may not be effaced by time, and -that the great and wondrous deeds displayed both by Greeks and -barbarians[1] may not be deprived of renown; and, furthermore, that the -cause for which they waged war upon each other may be known. - -The learned among the Persians assert that the Phœnicians were the -original authors of the quarrel; that they migrated from that which is -called the Red Sea to the Mediterranean and, having settled in the -country which they now inhabit, forthwith applied themselves to distant -voyages; and that they exported Egyptian and Assyrian merchandise, -touching at other places, and also at Argos. Argos, at that period, -surpassed in every respect all those states which are now comprehended -under the general appellation of Greece. They say, that on their arrival -at Argos, the Phœnicians exposed their merchandise for sale, and that on -the fifth or sixth day after their arrival, when they had almost -disposed of their cargo, a great number of women came down to the -sea-shore, and among them Io the daughter of the king Inachus. While -these women were standing near the stern of the vessel, and were -bargaining for such things as most pleased them, the Phœnicians made an -attack upon them. Most of the women escaped, but Io with some others was -seized. Then the traders hurried on board and set sail for Egypt. Thus -the Persians say that Io went to Egypt, and that this was the beginning -of wrongs. After this certain Greeks (for they are unable to tell their -name), having touched at Tyre in Phœnicia, carried off the king's -daughter Europa. These must have been Cretans. Thus far they say that -they had only returned like for like, but that after this the Greeks -were guilty of the second provocation; for having sailed down in a -vessel of war to Æa, a city of Colchis on the river Phasis, when they -had accomplished the more immediate object of their expedition, they -carried off the king's daughter Medea; and the king of Colchis, having -despatched a herald to Greece, demanded satisfaction and the restitution -of the princess; but the Greeks replied, that as they of Asia had not -given satisfaction for the stealing of Io, they would not give any to -them. In the second generation after this, Alexander, the son of Priam, -having heard of these events, was desirous of obtaining a wife from -Greece by means of violence, being fully persuaded that he should not -have to give satisfaction, since the Greeks had not done so. When, -therefore, he had carried off Helen, the Greeks immediately sent -messengers to demand her back again and require satisfaction; but when -they brought forward these demands they were met with this reply: "You -who have not yourselves given satisfaction, nor made it when demanded, -now wish others to give it to you." After this the Greeks were greatly -to blame, for they levied war against Asia before the Asiatics did upon -Europe. Now, to carry off women by violence the Persians think is the -act of wicked men; to trouble one's self about avenging them when so -carried off is the act of foolish ones; and to pay no regard to them -when carried off, of wise men: for it is clear, that if they had not -been willing, they could not have been carried off. Accordingly the -Persians say, that they of Asia made no account of women that were -carried off; but that the Greeks for the sake of a Lacedæmonian woman -assembled a mighty fleet, sailed to Asia, and overthrew the empire of -Priam. From this event they had always considered the Greeks as their -enemies: for the Persians claim Asia, and the barbarous nations that -inhabit it, as their own, and consider Europe and the people of Greece -as totally distinct. - -Such is the Persian account; and to the capture of Troy they ascribe the -commencement of their enmity to the Greeks. As relates to Io, the -Phœnicians do not agree with this account of the Persians but affirm -that she voluntarily sailed away with the traders. I, however, am not -going to inquire further as to facts; but having pointed out the person -whom I myself know to have been the first guilty of injustice toward the -Greeks, I will then proceed with my history, touching as well on the -small as the great estates of men: for of those that were formerly -powerful many have become weak, and some that were formerly weak became -powerful in my time. Knowing, therefore, the precarious nature of human -prosperity, I shall commemorate both alike. - -Crœsus was a Lydian by birth, son of Alyattes, and sovereign of the -nations on this side the river Halys. This river flowing from the south -between the Syrians[2] and Paphlagonians, empties itself northward into -the Euxine Sea. This Crœsus was the first of the barbarians whom we know -of that subjected some of the Greeks to the payment of tribute, and -formed alliances with others. He subdued the Ionians and Æolians, and -those of the Dorians who had settled in Asia, and formed an alliance -with the Lacedæmonians; but before his reign all the Greeks were free. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -HISTORY OF LYDIA. - - -The government, which formerly belonged to the Heraclidæ, passed to the -family of Crœsus, who were called Mermnadæ. Candaules, whom the Greeks -call Myrsilus, was tyrant of Sardis, and a descendant of Alcæus, son of -Hercules. For Agron, son of Ninus, grandson of Belus, great-grandson of -Alcæus, was the first of the Heraclidæ who became king of Sardis; and -Candaules, son of Myrsus, was the last. They who ruled over this country -before Agron, were descendants of Lydus, son of Atys, from whom this -whole people, anciently called Mæonians, derived the name of Lydians. -The Heraclidæ, descended from a female slave of Jardanus and Hercules, -having been intrusted with the government by these princes, retained the -supreme power in obedience to the declaration of an oracle: they reigned -for twenty-two generations, a space of five hundred and five years, the -son succeeding to the father to the time of Candaules, son of Myrsus. -Candaules was murdered by his favorite, Gyges, who thus obtained the -kingdom, and was confirmed in it by the oracle at Delphi. For when the -Lydians resented the murder of Candaules, and were up in arms, the -partisans of Gyges and the other Lydians came to the following -agreement, that if the oracle should pronounce him king of the Lydians, -he should reign; if not, he should restore the power to the Heraclidæ. -The oracle answered that Gyges should become king. But the Pythian added -this, "that the Heraclidæ should be avenged on the fifth descendant of -Gyges." Of this prediction neither the Lydians nor their kings took any -notice until it was actually accomplished. - -Thus the Mermnadæ deprived the Heraclidæ of the supreme power. Gyges -sent many offerings to Delphi; indeed most of the silver offerings at -Delphi are his; and besides the silver, he gave a vast quantity of gold; -among the rest six bowls of gold, which now stand in the treasury of the -Corinthians, and are thirty talents in weight; though, to tell the -truth, this treasury does not belong to the people of Corinth, but -Cypselus son of Eetion. Gyges was the first of the barbarians of whom we -know who made offerings at Delphi, except Midas, son of Gordius, the -king of Phrygia, who dedicated the royal throne, on which he used to sit -and administer justice, a piece of workmanship deserving of admiration. -The throne stands in the same place as the bowls of Gyges. - -Periander the son of Cypselus was king of Corinth, and the Corinthians -say (and the Lesbians confirm their account) that a wonderful prodigy -occurred in his life-time. Arion of Methymna, second to none of his time -in accompanying the harp, and the first who composed, named, and -represented the dithyrambus at Corinth, was carried to Tænarus on the -back of a dolphin. Arion, having continued a long time with Periander, -made a voyage to Italy and Sicily, acquired great wealth there, and -determined to return to Corinth. He set out from Tarentum, and hired a -ship of some Corinthians, because he put more confidence in them than in -any other nation; but these men, when they were in the open sea, -conspired together to throw him overboard and seize his money. Learning -of this he offered them his money, and entreated them to spare his life. -But he could not prevail on them; the sailors ordered him either to kill -himself, that he might be buried ashore, or to leap immediately into the -sea. Arion, reduced to this strait, entreated them, since such was their -determination, to permit him to stand on the stern of the vessel in his -full dress and sing, and he promised when he had sung to make way with -himself. The seamen, pleased that they should hear the best singer in -the world, retired from the stern to the middle of the vessel. Arion put -on all his robes, took his harp in his hands, stood on the rowing -benches and went through the Orthian strain; the strain ended, he leaped -into the sea as he was, in full dress; the sailors continuing their -voyage to Corinth: but a dolphin caught him upon his back, and carried -him to Tænarus; so that, having landed, he proceeded to Corinth in his -full dress, and upon his arrival there, related all that happened. -Periander gave no credit to his relation, put Arion under close -confinement, and watched anxiously for the arrival of the seamen. When -they appeared, he summoned them and inquired if they could give any -account of Arion. They answered that he was safe in Italy, and that they -had left him flourishing at Tarentum. At that instant Arion appeared -before them just as he was when he leaped into the sea; at which they -were so astonished that, being fully convicted, they could no longer -deny the fact. These things are reported by the Corinthians and -Lesbians; and there is a little bronze statue of Arion at Tænarus, -representing a man sitting on a dolphin. - -Alyattes the Lydian and father of Crœsus, having waged a long war -against the Milesians, died after a reign of fifty-seven years. Once -upon recovery from an illness he dedicated at Delphi a large silver -bowl, with a saucer of iron inlaid; an object that deserves attention -above all the offerings at Delphi. It was made by Glaucus the Chian, who -first invented the art of inlaying iron. - -At the death of Alyattes, Crœsus, then thirty-five years of age, -succeeded to the kingdom. He attacked the Ephesians before any other -Greek people. The Ephesians being besieged by him, consecrated their -city to Diana, by fastening a rope from the temple to the wall. The -distance between the old town, which was then besieged, and the temple, -is seven stadia. Crœsus afterward attacked the several cities of the -Ionians and Æolians in succession, alleging different pretences against -the various states. After he had reduced the Greeks in Asia to the -payment of tribute, he formed a design to build ships and attack the -Islanders. But when all things were ready for the building of ships, -Bias of Priene (or, as others say, Pittacus of Mitylene) arriving at -Sardis, put a stop to his ship-building by making this reply, when -Crœsus inquired if he had any news from Greece: "O king, the Islanders -are enlisting a large body of cavalry, with the intention of making war -upon you and Sardis." Crœsus, thinking he had spoken the truth, said: -"May the gods put such a thought into the Islanders, as to attack the -sons of the Lydians with horse." The other answering said: "Sire, you -appear to wish above all things to see the Islanders on horseback upon -the continent; and not without reason. But what can you imagine the -Islanders more earnestly desire, after having heard of your resolution -to build a fleet to attack them, than to catch the Lydians at sea, that -they may revenge on you the cause of those Greeks who dwell on the -continent, whom you hold in subjection?" Crœsus, much pleased with the -conclusion, and convinced, (for he appeared to speak to the purpose,) -put a stop to the ship-building, and made an alliance with the Ionians -that inhabit the islands. - -In course of time, when nearly all the nations that dwell within the -river Halys, except the Cilicians and Lycians, were subdued, and Crœsus -had added them to the Lydians, all the wise men of that time, as each -had opportunity, came from Greece to Sardis, which had then attained to -the highest degree of prosperity; and amongst them Solon, an Athenian, -who made laws for the Athenians at their request, and absented himself -for ten years, sailing away under pretence of seeing the world, that he -might not be compelled to abrogate any of the laws he had established: -for the Athenians could not do it themselves, since they were bound by -solemn oaths to observe for ten years whatever laws Solon should enact -for them. On his arrival Solon was hospitably entertained by Crœsus, and -on the third or fourth day, by order of the king, the attendants -conducted him round the treasury, and showed him all their grand and -costly contents. After he had seen and examined every thing -sufficiently, Crœsus asked him this question: "My Athenian guest, the -great fame as well of your wisdom as of your travels has reached even to -us; I am therefore desirous of asking you who is the most happy man you -have seen?" He asked this question because he thought himself the most -happy of men. But Solon, speaking the truth freely, without any -flattery, answered, "Tellus, the Athenian." Crœsus, astonished at his -answer, eagerly asked him: "On what account do you deem Tellus the -happiest?" He replied: "Tellus, in the first place, lived in a -well-governed commonwealth; had sons who were virtuous and good; and he -saw children born to them all, and all surviving. In the next place, -when he had lived as happily as the condition of human affairs will -permit, he ended his life in a most glorious manner. For coming to the -assistance of the Athenians in a battle with their neighbors of Eleusis, -he put the enemy to flight and died nobly. The Athenians buried him at -the public charge in the place where he fell, and honored him greatly." - -When Solon had roused the attention of Crœsus by relating many happy -circumstances concerning Tellus, Crœsus, expecting at least to obtain -the second place, asked, whom he had seen next to him. "Cleobis," said -he, "and Biton, natives of Argos, for they possessed a sufficient -fortune, and had withal such strength of body, that they were both alike -victorious in the public games; and moreover the following story is -related of them:—When the Argives were celebrating a festival of Juno, -it was necessary that their mother should be drawn to the temple in a -chariot; but the oxen did not come from the field in time, the young men -therefore put themselves beneath the yoke, and drew the car in which -their mother sat; and having conveyed it forty-five stades, they reached -the temple. After they had done this in sight of the assembled people, a -most happy termination was put to their lives; and in them the Deity -clearly showed that it is better for a man to die than to live. For the -men of Argos, who stood round, commended the strength of the youths, and -the women blessed her as the mother of such sons; but the mother -herself, transported with joy both on account of the action and its -renown, stood before the image and prayed that the goddess would grant -to Cleobis and Biton, her own sons, who had so highly honored her, the -greatest blessing man could receive. After this prayer, when they had -sacrificed and partaken of the feast, the youths fell asleep in the -temple itself, and never woke more, but met with such a termination of -life. Upon this the Argives, in commemoration of their filial affection, -caused their statues to be made and dedicated at Delphi." - -Thus Solon adjudged the second place of felicity to these youths. Then -Crœsus was enraged, and said: "My Athenian friend, is my happiness then -so slighted by you as worth nothing, that you do not think me of so much -value as private men?" He answered: "Crœsus, do you inquire of me -concerning human affairs—of me, who know that the divinity is always -jealous, and delights in confusion. For in lapse of time men are -constrained to see many things they would not willingly see, and to -suffer many things they would not willingly suffer. Now I put the term -of man's life at seventy years; these seventy years then give -twenty-five thousand two hundred days, without including the intercalary -months of the leap years, and if we add that month to every other year, -in order that the seasons arriving at the proper time may agree, the -intercalary months will be thirty-five more in the seventy years, and -the days of these months will be one thousand and fifty. Yet in all this -number of twenty-six thousand two hundred and fifty days, that compose -these seventy years, one day produces nothing exactly the same as -another. Thus, then, O Crœsus, man is altogether the sport of fortune. -You appear to me to be master of immense treasures, and king of many -nations; but as relates to what you inquire of me, I cannot say, till I -hear that you have ended your life happily. For the richest of men is -not more happy than he that has a sufficiency for a day, unless good -fortune attend him to the grave, so that he ends his life in happiness. -Many men who abound in wealth are unhappy; and many who have only a -moderate competency are fortunate. He that abounds in wealth, and is yet -unhappy, surpasses the other only in two things; but the other surpasses -the wealthy and the miserable in many things. The former indeed is -better able to gratify desire and to bear the blow of adversity. But the -latter surpasses him in this; he is not indeed equally able to bear -misfortune or satisfy desire, but his good fortune wards off these -things from him; and he enjoys the full use of his limbs, he is free -from disease and misfortune, he is blessed with good children and a fine -form, and if, in addition to all these things, he shall end his life -well, he is the man you seek and may justly be called happy; but before -he die we ought to suspend our judgment, and not pronounce him happy, -but fortunate." - -When Solon had spoken thus to Crœsus, Crœsus did not confer any favor on -him, but holding him in no account, dismissed him as a very ignorant -man, because he overlooked present prosperity, and bade men look to the -end of every thing. - -After the departure of Solon, the indignation of the gods fell heavily -upon Crœsus, probably because he thought himself the most happy of all -men. A dream soon after visited him while sleeping, which pointed out to -him the truth of the misfortunes that were about to befall him in the -person of one of his sons. For Crœsus had two sons, of whom one was -grievously afflicted, for he was dumb; but the other, whose name was -Atys, far surpassed all the young men of his age. Now the dream -intimated to Crœsus that he would lose this Atys by a wound inflicted -with the point of an iron weapon. When he awoke, and had considered the -matter with himself, he relieved Atys from the command of the Lydian -troops, and never after sent him out on that business; and causing all -spears, lances, and such other weapons as men use in war, to be removed -from the men's apartments, he had them laid up in private chambers, that -none of them being suspended might fall upon his son. While Crœsus was -engaged with the nuptials of his son, a man oppressed by misfortune, and -whose hands were polluted, a Phrygian by birth, and of royal family, -arrived at Sardis. This man, having come to the palace of Crœsus, sought -permission to obtain purification according to the custom of the -country. Crœsus purified him, performing the usual ceremony, and then -inquired: "Stranger, who art thou, and from what part of Phrygia hast -thou come as a suppliant to my hearth? and what man or woman hast thou -slain?" The stranger answered: "I am the son of Gordius, and grandson of -Midas, and am called Adrastus. I unwittingly slew my own brother, and -being banished by my father and deprived of every thing, I have come -hither." Then said Crœsus: "You were born of parents who are our -friends, and you have come to friends, among whom, if you will stay, you -shall want nothing; and by bearing your misfortune as lightly as -possible you will be the greatest gainer." So Adrastus took up his abode -in the palace of Crœsus. - -At this time a boar of enormous size appeared in Mysian Olympus, and -rushing down from that mountain, ravaged the fields of the Mysians. The -Mysians, though they often went out against him, could not hurt him, but -suffered much from him. At last deputies from the Mysians came to Crœsus -and said: "O king, a boar of enormous size has appeared in our country, -and ravages our fields: though we have often endeavored to take him, we -cannot. We therefore earnestly beg, that you will send with us your son -and some chosen youths with dogs, that we may drive him from the -country." But Crœsus, remembering the warning of his dream, answered: -"Make no further mention of my son; I shall not send him with you, -because he is lately married, but I will give you chosen Lydians, and -the whole hunting train, and will order them to assist you with their -best endeavors in driving the monster from your country." The Mysians -were content with this, but Atys, who had heard of their request, came -in, and earnestly protested: "Father, you used to permit me to signalize -myself in the two most noble and becoming exercises of war and hunting; -but now you keep me excluded from both, without having observed in me -either cowardice or want of spirit. How will men look on me when I go or -return from the forum? What kind of a man shall I appear to my -fellow-citizens? What to my newly married wife? Either let me then go to -this hunt, or convince me that it is better for me to do as you would -have me." "My son," said Crœsus, "I act thus, not because I have seen -any cowardice, or any thing else unbecoming in you; but a vision in a -dream warned me that you would be short-lived, and would die by the -point of an iron weapon. It was on account of this that I hastened your -marriage, and now refuse to send you on this expedition; taking care to -preserve you, if by any means I can, as long as I live; for you are my -only son; the other, who is deprived of his hearing, I consider as -lost." The youth answered: "You are not to blame, my father, if after -such a dream you take so much care of me; but you say the dream -signified that I should die by the point of an iron weapon. What hand, -or what pointed iron weapon has a boar, to occasion such fears in you? -Had it said I should lose my life by a tusk, you might do as you have, -but it said by the point of a weapon; then since we have not to contend -against men, let me go." "You have outdone me," replied Crœsus, "in -explaining the import of the dream, you shall go to the chase." - -Then turning to the Phrygian Adrastus, he exclaimed: "Adrastus, I beg -you to be my son's guardian, when he goes to the chase, and take care -that no skulking villains show themselves in the way to do him harm. -Besides, you ought to go for your own sake, where you may signalize -yourself by your exploits; this was the glory of your ancestors, and you -are besides in full vigor." Adrastus answered: "On no other account, my -lord, would I take part in this enterprise; it is not fitting that one -in my unfortunate circumstances should join with his prosperous -compeers. But since you urge me, I ought to oblige you. Rest assured, -that your son, whom you bid me take care of, shall, as far as his -guardian is concerned, return to you uninjured." - -Then all went away, well provided with chosen youths and dogs, and, -having arrived at Mount Olympus, they sought the wild beast, found him -and encircled him around. Among the rest, the stranger, Adrastus, -throwing his javelin at the boar, missed him, and struck the son of -Crœsus; thus fulfilling the warning of the dream. Upon this, some one -ran off to tell Crœsus what had happened, and having arrived at Sardis, -gave him an account of the action, and of his son's fate. Crœsus, -exceedingly distressed by the death of his son, lamented it the more -bitterly, because he fell by the hand of one, whom he himself had -purified from blood; and vehemently deploring his misfortune, he invoked -Jove the Expiator, attesting what he had suffered by this stranger. He -invoked also the same deity, by the name of the god of hospitality and -private friendship: as the god of hospitality, because by receiving a -stranger into his house, he had unawares fostered the murderer of his -son; as the god of private friendship, because, having sent him as a -guardian, he found him his greatest enemy. Soon the Lydians approached, -bearing the corpse, and behind it followed the murderer. He, having -advanced in front of the body, delivered himself up to Crœsus, -stretching out his hands and begging him to kill him upon it; for he -ought to live no longer. When Crœsus heard this, though his own -affliction was so great, he pitied Adrastus, and said to him: "You have -made me full satisfaction by condemning yourself to die. You are not the -author of this misfortune, except as far as you were the involuntary -agent; but that god, whoever he was, that long since foreshowed what was -about to happen." Crœsus buried his son as the dignity of his birth -required; but the son of Gordius, when all was silent around, judging -himself the most heavily afflicted of all men, killed himself on the -tomb. - -Some time after, the overthrow of the kingdom of Astyages, son of -Cyaxares, by Cyrus, son of Cambyses, and the growing power of the -Persians, put an end to the grief of Crœsus; and it entered into his -thoughts whether he could by any means check the growing power of the -Persians before they became formidable. After he had formed this -purpose, he determined to make trial as well of the oracles in Greece as -of that in Lydia; and sent different persons to different places, some -to Delphi, some to Abæ of Phocis, and some to Dodona. - -[Illustration: OFFERING AT THE TEMPLE OF DELPHI.] - -He endeavored to propitiate the god at Delphi by magnificent sacrifices; -for he offered three thousand head of cattle of every kind fit for -sacrifice, and having heaped up a great pile, he burned on it beds of -gold and silver, vials of gold, and robes of purple and garments; hoping -by that means more completely to conciliate the god. When the sacrifice -was ended, having melted down a vast quantity of gold, he cast -half-bricks from it; of which the longest were six palms in length, the -shortest three, and in thickness one palm: their number was one hundred -and seventeen: four of these, of pure gold, weighed each two talents and -a half; the other half-bricks of pale gold, weighed two talents each. He -made also the figure of a lion of fine gold, weighing ten talents. This -lion, when the temple of Delphi was burned down, fell from the -half-bricks, for it had been placed on them; and it now lies in the -treasury of the Corinthians, weighing six talents and a half; for three -talents and a half were melted from it. Crœsus, having finished these -things sent them to Delphi, and with them these following: two large -bowls, one of gold, the other of silver; that of gold was placed on the -right hand as you enter the temple, and that of silver on the left; but -these also were removed when the temple was burnt down; and the golden -one weighing eight talents and a half and twelve minæ, is placed in the -treasury of Clazomenæ; the silver one, containing six hundred amphoræ, -lies in a corner of the vestibule, and is used by the Delphians for -mixing the wine on the Theophanian festival. The Delphians say it was -the workmanship of Theodorus the Samian; and I think so too, for it -appears to be no common work. He also sent four casks of silver, which -stand in the treasury of the Corinthians; and he dedicated two lustral -vases, one of gold, the other of silver: on the golden one is an -inscription, OF THE LACEDÆMONIANS, who say that it was their offering, -but wrongfully, for it was given by Crœsus: a certain Delphian made the -inscription, in order to please the Lacedæmonians; I know his name, but -forbear to mention it. The boy, indeed, through whose hand the water -flows, is their gift; but neither of the lustral vases. At the same time -Crœsus sent many other offerings without an inscription: amongst them -some round silver covers; and a statue of a woman in gold three cubits -high, which the Delphians say is the image of Crœsus's baking woman; and -to all these things he added the necklaces and girdles of his wife. - -These were the offerings he sent to Delphi; and to Amphiaraus, having -ascertained his virtue and sufferings, he dedicated a shield all of -gold, and a lance of solid gold, the shaft as well as the points being -of gold. These are now at Thebes in the temple of Ismenian Apollo. - -To the Lydians appointed to convey these presents to the temples, Crœsus -gave it in charge to inquire of the oracles, whether he should make war -on the Persians, and if he should invite any other nation as an ally. -Accordingly, when the Lydians arrived at the places to which they were -sent, and had dedicated the offerings, they consulted the oracles, -saying: "Crœsus, king of the Lydians and of other Nations, esteeming -these to be the only oracles among men, sends these presents in -acknowledgment of your discoveries; and now asks whether he should lead -an army against the Persians, and whether he should join any auxiliary -forces with his own?" Such were their questions; and the opinions of -both oracles concurred, foretelling: "That if Crœsus should make war on -the Persians, he would destroy a mighty empire;" and they advised him to -engage the most powerful of the Greeks in his alliance. When Crœsus -heard the answers that were brought back, he was beyond measure -delighted with the oracles; and fully expecting that he should destroy -the kingdom of Cyrus, he again sent to Delphi, and having ascertained -the number of the inhabitants, presented each of them with two staters -of gold. In return for this, the Delphians gave Crœsus and the Lydians -the right to consult the oracle before any others, and exemption from -tribute, and the first seats in the temple, and the privilege of being -made citizens of Delphi, to as many as should desire it in all future -time. Crœsus, having made these presents to the Delphians, sent a third -time to consult the oracle. For after he had ascertained the veracity of -the oracle, he had frequent recourse to it. His demand now was whether -he should long enjoy the kingdom? to which the Pythian gave this answer: -"When a mule shall become king of the Medes, then, tender-footed Lydian, -flee over pebbly Hermus, nor tarry, nor blush to be a coward." With this -answer, when reported to him, Crœsus was more than ever delighted, -thinking that a mule should never be king of the Medes instead of a man, -and consequently that neither he nor his posterity should ever be -deprived of the kingdom. In the next place he began to enquire carefully -who were the most powerful of the Greeks whom he might gain over as -allies; and on inquiry found that the Lacedæmonians and Athenians -excelled the rest, the former being of Dorian, the latter of Ionic -descent: for these were in ancient time the most distinguished, the -latter being a Pelasgian, the other an Hellenic nation. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -ORIGIN OF ATHENS AND SPARTA. - - -What language the Pelasgians used I cannot with certainty affirm; but if -I may form a conjecture from those Pelasgians who now exist, and inhabit -the town of Crestona above the Tyrrhenians, and from those Pelasgians -settled at Placia and Scylace on the Hellespont, they spoke a barbarous -language. And if the whole Pelasgian body did so, the Attic race, being -Pelasgic, must at the time they changed into Hellenes have altered their -language. The Hellenic race, however, appears to have used the same -language from the time they became a people. At first insignificant, yet -from a small beginning they have increased to a multitude of nations, -chiefly by a union with many other barbarous nations. But the Pelasgic -race, being barbarous, never increased to any great extent. - -Of these nations Crœsus learnt that the Attic was oppressed and -distracted by Pisistratus, then reigning in Athens. When a quarrel -happened between those who dwelt on the sea-coast and the Athenians, the -former headed by Megacles, the latter by Lycurgus, Pisistratus aiming at -the sovereign power, formed a third party; and having assembled his -partisans under color of protecting those of the mountains, he contrived -this stratagem. He wounded himself and his mules, drove his chariot into -the public square, as if he had escaped from enemies that designed to -murder him in his way to the country, and besought the people to grant -him a guard, having before acquired renown in the expedition against -Megara, by taking its port, Nisæa, and displaying other illustrious -deeds. The people of Athens, deceived by this, gave him such of the -citizens as he selected, who were not to be his javelin men, but -club-bearers, for they attended him with clubs of wood. These men, -joining in revolt with Pisistratus seized the Acropolis, and Pisistratus -assumed the government of the Athenians, neither disturbing the existing -magistracies, nor altering the laws; but he administered the government -according to the established institutions, liberally and well. Not long -after, the partisans of Megacles and Lycurgus became reconciled and -drove him out. In this manner Pisistratus first made himself master of -Athens, and, his power not being firmly rooted, lost it. But those who -expelled Pisistratus quarrelled anew with one another; and Megacles, -harassed by the sedition, sent a herald to Pisistratus to ask if he was -willing to marry his daughter, on condition of having the sovereignty. -Pisistratus having accepted the proposal and agreed to his terms, in -order to his restitution, they contrive the most ridiculous project -that, I think, was ever imagined; especially if we consider, that the -Greeks have from old been distinguished from the barbarians as being -more acute and free from all foolish simplicity, and more particularly -as they played this trick upon the Athenians, who are esteemed among the -wisest of the Greeks. In the Pæanean tribe was a woman named Phya, four -cubits high, wanting three fingers, and in other respects handsome; this -woman they dressed in a complete suit of armor, placed her on a chariot, -and having shown her beforehand how to assume the most becoming -demeanor, they drove her to the city, with heralds before, who, on their -arrival in the city, proclaimed what was ordered in these terms: "O -Athenians, receive with kind wishes Pisistratus whom Minerva herself -honoring above all men now conducts back to her own citadel." The report -was presently spread among the people that Minerva was bringing back -Pisistratus; and the people in the city believing this woman to be the -goddess, both adored a human being, and received Pisistratus. - -[Illustration: ATHENS FROM MOUNT HYMETTUS.] - -Pisistratus having recovered the sovereignty in the manner above -described, married the daughter of Megacles in accordance with his -agreement, but Pisistratus soon hearing of designs that were being -formed against him, withdrew entirely out of the country, and arriving -in Eretria, consulted with his sons. The opinion of Hippias prevailing, -to recover the kingdom, they immediately began to collect contributions -from those cities which felt any gratitude to them for benefits -received; and though many gave large sums, the Thebans surpassed the -rest in liberality. At length (not to give a detailed account) time -passed, and every thing was ready for their return, for Argive -mercenaries arrived from Peloponnesus; and a man of Naxos, named -Lygdamis, who had come as a volunteer, and brought both men and money, -showed great zeal in the cause. Setting out from Eretria, they came back -in the eleventh year of their exile, and first of all possessed -themselves of Marathon. While they lay encamped in this place, their -partisans from the city joined them, and others from the various -districts, to whom a tyranny was more welcome than liberty, crowded to -them. The Athenians of the city, on the other hand, had shown very -little concern all the time Pisistratus was collecting money, or even -when he took possession of Marathon. But when they heard that he was -marching from Marathon against the city, they at length went out to -resist him; and marched with their whole force against the invaders. In -the mean time Pisistratus's party, advanced towards the city, and -arrived in a body at the temple of the Pallenian Minerva, and there took -up their position. Here Amphilytus, a prophet of Acarnania, moved by -divine impulse, approached Pisistratus, and pronounced this oracle in -hexameter verse: - - "The cast is thrown—the net expanded wide— - At night the tunnies in the snare will glide." - -He, inspired by the god, uttered this prophecy; and Pisistratus, -comprehending the oracle, and saying he accepted the omen, led on his -army. The Athenians of the city were then engaged at their breakfast, -and some of them after breakfast had betaken themselves to dice, others -to sleep; so that the army of Pisistratus, falling upon them by -surprise, soon put them to flight. As they were flying, Pisistratus -contrived a clever stratagem to prevent their rallying again, and forced -them thoroughly to disperse. He mounted his sons on horseback and sent -them forward. They, overtaking the fugitives, spoke as they were ordered -by Pisistratus, bidding them be of good cheer, and to depart every man -to his own home. The Athenians yielded a ready obedience, and thus -Pisistratus, having a third time possessed himself of Athens, secured -his power, more firmly, both by the aid of auxiliary forces, and by -revenues partly collected at home and partly drawn from the mines along -the river Strymon. He seized as hostages the sons of the Athenians who -had held out against him, and had not immediately fled, and settled them -at Naxos. He moreover purified the island of Delos, in obedience to an -oracle, and having dug up the dead bodies, as far as the prospect from -the temple reached, he removed them to another part of Delos. - -Crœsus was informed that such was, at that time, the condition of the -Athenians; and that the Lacedæmonians, having extricated themselves out -of great difficulties, had gained the mastery over the Tegeans in war. -They had formerly been governed by the worst laws of all the people in -Greece, both as regarded their dealings with one another, and in holding -no intercourse with strangers. But they changed to a good government in -the following manner: Lycurgus, a man much esteemed by the Spartans, -having arrived at Delphi to consult the oracle, no sooner entered the -temple, than the Pythian spoke as follows: - - "Lycurgus, thou art come to my rich fane, - Beloved by Zeus and all the heavenly train, - But whether god or man I fear to say, - Yet god thou must be more than mortal clay." - -Some men say that, besides this, the Pythian also communicated to him -that form of government now established among the Spartans. But, as the -Lacedæmonians themselves affirm, Lycurgus being appointed guardian to -his nephew Leobotis,[3] king of Sparta, brought those institutions from -Crete. For as soon as he had taken the guardianship, he altered all -their customs, and took care that no one should transgress them. -Afterwards he established military regulations, and instituted the -ephori and senators. Thus, having changed their laws, they established -good institutions in their stead. They erected a temple to Lycurgus -after his death, and held him in the highest reverence. As they had a -good soil and abundant population, they quickly sprang up and -flourished. And now they were no longer content to live in peace; but -proudly considering themselves superior to the Arcadians, they sent to -consult the oracle at Delphi, touching the conquest of the whole country -of the Arcadians; and the Pythian gave them this answer: "Dost thou ask -of me Arcadia? thou askest a great deal; I cannot grant it thee. There -are many acorn-eating men in Arcadia, who will hinder thee. But I do not -grudge thee all; I will give thee Tegea to dance on with beating of the -feet, and a fair plain to measure out by the rod." When the -Lacedæmonians heard this answer reported, they laid aside their design -against all Arcadia; and relying on an equivocal oracle, led an army -against Tegea only, carrying fetters with them, as if they would surely -reduce the Tegeans to slavery. But being defeated in an engagement, as -many of them as were taken alive, were compelled to work, wearing the -fetters they had brought, and measuring the lands of the Tegeans with a -rod. Those fetters in which they were bound, were, even in my time, -preserved in Tegea, suspended around the temple of Alean Minerva. - -In the first war, therefore, they had constantly fought against the -Tegeans with ill success, but in the time of Crœsus, and during the -reign of Anaxandrides and Ariston at Lacedæmon, they at length became -superior in the following manner: When they had always been worsted in -battle by the Tegeans, they sent to enquire of the oracle at Delphi, -what god they should propitiate, in order to become victorious over the -Tegeans. The Pythian answered, they should become so, when they had -brought back the bones of Orestes the son of Agamemnon. But as they were -unable to find the sepulchre of Orestes, they sent again to inquire of -the god in what spot Orestes lay interred, and the Pythian gave this -answer to the inquiries of those who came to consult her: - - "Down in Arcadia's level plain I know, - Tegea lies:—and where woe lies on woe— - Where two bound winds impatient of the yoke, - Are forced to blow—where stroke replies to stroke: - Beneath the earth lies Agamemnon's son, - Bear him to Sparta and Tegea's won." - -When the Lacedæmonians heard this, they were as far off the discovery as -ever, though they searched every where, till Lichas, one of the Spartans -who are called Agathoergi, found it. These Agathoergi consist of -citizens who are discharged from serving in the cavalry, such as are -senior, five in every year. It is their duty during the year in which -they are discharged from the cavalry, not to remain inactive, but go to -different places where they are sent by the Spartan commonwealth. -Lichas, who was one of these persons, discovered it in Tegea, both -meeting with good fortune and employing sagacity. For as the -Lacedæmonians had at that time intercourse with the Tegeans, he, coming -to a smithy, looked attentively at the iron being forged, and was struck -with wonder when he saw what was done. The smith perceiving his -astonishment desisted from his work, and said: "O Laconian stranger, you -would certainly have been astonished had you seen what I saw, since you -are so surprised at the working of iron. For as I was endeavoring to -sink a well in this enclosure, in digging, I came to a coffin seven -cubits long; and because I did not believe that men were ever taller -than they now are, I opened it and saw that the body was equal to the -coffin in length, and after I had measured it I covered it up again." -The man told him what he had seen, and Lichas, reflecting on what was -said, conjectured from the words of the oracle, that this must be the -body of Orestes, forming his conjecture on the following reasons: seeing -the smith's two bellows he discerned in them the two winds, and in the -anvil and hammer the stroke answering to stroke, and in the iron that -was being forged the woe that lay on woe; representing it in this way, -that iron had been invented to the injury of man. He then returned to -Sparta, and gave the Lacedæmonians an account of the whole matter; but -they brought a feigned charge against him and sent him into banishment. -He, going back to Tegea, related his misfortune to the smith, and wished -to hire the enclosure from him, but he would not let it. But in time, -when he had persuaded him, he took up his abode there; and having opened -the sepulchre and collected the bones, he carried them away with him to -Sparta. From that time, whenever they made trial of each other's -strength, the Lacedæmonians were by far superior in war; and the greater -part of Peloponnesus had been already subdued by them. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -CONQUEST OF LYDIA BY CYRUS. - - -Crœsus being informed of all these things, sent ambassadors to Sparta, -with presents, and to request their alliance, having given them orders -what to say; and when they were arrived they spoke as follows: "Crœsus, -king of the Lydians and of other nations, has sent us with this message: -'O Lacedæmonians, since the deity has directed me by an oracle to unite -myself to a Grecian friend, therefore (for I am informed that you are -pre-eminent in Greece), I invite you in obedience to the oracle, being -desirous of becoming your friend and ally, without treachery or guile.'" -But the Lacedæmonians, who had before heard of the answer given by the -oracle to Crœsus, were gratified at the coming of the Lydians, and -exchanged pledges of friendship and alliance; and indeed certain favors -had been formerly conferred on them by Crœsus; for when the -Lacedæmonians sent to Sardis to purchase gold, wishing to use it in -erecting the statue of Apollo that now stands at Thornax in Laconia, -Crœsus gave it as a present to them. For this reason, and because he had -selected them from all the Greeks, and desired their friendship, the -Lacedæmonians accepted his offer of alliance; and in the first place -they promised to be ready at his summons; and in the next, having made a -great bronze bowl, capable of containing three hundred amphoræ, and -covered it outside to the rim with various figures, they sent it to him, -being desirous of making Crœsus a present in return. But this bowl never -reached Sardis, for one of the two following reasons: the Lacedæmonians -say, that when the bowl, on its way to Sardis, was off Samos, the -Samains having heard of it, sailed out in long ships, and took it away -by force. On the other hand the Samains affirm, that when the -Lacedæmonians who were conveying the bowl found they were too late, and -heard that Sardis was taken and Crœsus a prisoner, they sold the bowl in -Samos, and that some private persons, who bought it dedicated it in the -temple of Juno. - -Crœsus, mistaking the oracle, prepared to invade Cappadocia, hoping to -overthrow Cyrus and the power of the Persians. Whilst Crœsus was -preparing for his expedition against the Persians, a Lydian named -Sandanis, who before that time was esteemed a wise man, and on this -occasion acquired a very great name in Lydia, gave him advice in these -words: "O king, you are preparing to make war against a people who wear -leather trousers, and the rest of their garments of leather; who inhabit -a barren country, and feed not on such things as they choose, but such -as they can get. Besides they do not habitually use wine, but drink -water; nor have they figs to eat, nor any thing that is good. In the -first place, then, if you should conquer, what will you take from them, -since they have nothing? On the other hand, if you should be conquered, -consider what good things you will lose. For when they have tasted of -our good things, they will become fond of them, nor will they be driven -from them. As for me, I thank the gods, that they have not put it into -the thoughts of the Persians to make war on the Lydians." Sandanis did -not, however, persuade Crœsus, for he proceeded to invade Cappadocia, as -well from a desire of adding it to his own dominions, as a wish to -punish Cyrus on account of Astyages. For Cyrus, son of Cambyses, had -subjugated Astyages, son of Cyaxares, who was brother-in-law of Crœsus, -and king of Medes. - -Crœsus, alleging this against him, sent to ask the oracle, if he should -make war on the Persians; and when an ambiguous answer came back, he, -interpreting it to his own advantage, led his army against the territory -of the Persians. When he arrived at the river Halys, Crœsus transported -his forces, as I believe, by the bridges which are now there. But the -common opinion of the Greeks is, that Thales the Milesian procured him a -passage in the following way: Whilst Crœsus was in doubt how his army -should pass over the river, for they say that these bridges were not at -that time in existence, Thales, who was in the camp, caused the stream, -which flowed along the left of the army, to flow on the right instead. -He contrived it thus: having begun above the camp, he dug a deep trench, -in the shape of a half-moon, so that the river, being turned into this -from its old channel, might pass in the rear of the camp pitched where -it then was, and afterward, having passed by the camp, might fall into -its former course; so that as soon as the river was divided into two -streams it became fordable in both. Some say, that the ancient channel -of the river was entirely dried up; but this I cannot assent to; for how -then could they have crossed it on their return? - -However, Crœsus, having passed the river with his army, came to a place -called Pteria, in Cappadocia. (Now Pteria is the strongest position of -the whole of this country, and is situated over against Sinope, a city -on the Euxine Sea.) Here he encamped and ravaged the lands of the -Syrians; and took the city of the Pterians, and enslaved the -inhabitants; he also took all the adjacent places, and expelled the -inhabitants, who had given him no cause for blame. But Cyrus, assembling -his own army, and taking with him all who inhabited the intermediate -country, went to meet Crœsus. But before he began to advance, he sent -heralds to the Ionians, to persuade them to revolt from Crœsus, which -the Ionians refused to do. When Cyrus had come up and encamped opposite -Crœsus, they made trial of each other's strength on the plains of -Pteria; but when an obstinate battle took place, and many fell on both -sides, they at last parted, on the approach of night, neither having -been victorious. - -Crœsus laying the blame on his own army on account of the smallness of -its numbers, for his forces that engaged were far fewer than those of -Cyrus,—marched back to Sardis, designing to summon the Egyptians -according to treaty, and to require the presence of the Lacedæmonians at -a fixed time: having collected these together, and assembled his own -army, he purposed, when winter was over, to attack the Persians in the -beginning of the spring. With this design, when he reached Sardis, he -despatched ambassadors to his different allies, requiring them to meet -at Sardis before the end of five months; but the army that was with him, -and that had fought with the Persians, which was composed of mercenary -troops, he entirely disbanded, not imagining that Cyrus, who had come -off on such equal terms, would venture to advance upon Sardis. While -Crœsus was forming these plans the whole suburbs were filled with -serpents, and when they appeared, the horses, forsaking their pastures, -came and devoured them. When Crœsus beheld this, he considered it to be, -as it really was, a prodigy, and sent immediately to consult the -interpreters at Telmessus; but the messengers having arrived there, and -learnt from the Telmessians what the prodigy portended, were unable to -report it to Crœsus, for before they sailed back to Sardis, Crœsus had -been taken prisoner. The Telmessians had pronounced as follows: "that -Crœsus must expect a foreign army to invade his country, which, on its -arrival, would subdue the natives, because, they said, the serpent is a -son of the earth, but the horse is an enemy and a stranger." - -Cyrus, as soon as Crœsus had retreated after the battle at Pteria, -having discovered that it was the intention of Crœsus to disband his -army, saw that it would be to his advantage to march with all possible -expedition on Sardis, before the forces of the Lydians could be a second -time assembled. Whereupon Crœsus, thrown into great perplexity, seeing -that matters had turned out contrary to his expectations, drew out the -Lydians to battle. At that time no nation in Asia was more valiant and -warlike than the Lydians. Their mode of fighting was from on horseback; -they were armed with long lances, and managed their horses with -admirable address. - -The place where they met was the plain that lies before the city of -Sardis, which is extensive and bare; the Hyllus and several other rivers -flowing through it force a passage into the greatest, called the Hermus, -which, flowing from the sacred mountain of mother Cybele, falls into the -sea near the city of Phocæa. Here Cyrus, when he saw the Lydians drawn -up in order of battle, alarmed at the cavalry, had recourse to the -following stratagem, on the suggestion of Harpagus, a Mede. Collecting -together all the camels that followed his army with provisions and -baggage, and causing their burdens to be taken off, he mounted men upon -them equipped in cavalry accoutrements, and ordered them to go in -advance of the rest of his army against the Lydian horse; his infantry -he bade follow the camels, and placed the whole of his cavalry behind -the infantry. When all were drawn up in order, he charged them not to -spare any of the Lydians, but to kill every one they met; but on no -account to kill Crœsus, even if he should offer resistance when taken. -He drew up the camels in the front of the cavalry for this reason: a -horse is afraid of a camel, and cannot endure either to see its form or -to scent its smell; this then would render the cavalry useless to -Crœsus, by which the Lydian expected to signalize himself. Accordingly, -when they joined battle, the horses no sooner smelt the camels and saw -them, than they wheeled round, and the hopes of Crœsus were destroyed. -Nevertheless, the Lydians were not discouraged, but leaped from their -horses and engaged with the Persians on foot; but at last, when many had -fallen on both sides, the Lydians were put to flight, and being shut up -within the walls, were besieged by the Persians. - -Sardis was taken in the following manner. On the fourteenth day after -Crœsus had been besieged, Cyrus sent horsemen throughout his army, and -proclaimed that he would liberally reward the man who should first mount -the wall; upon this several attempts were made, and as often failed; -till, after the rest had desisted, a Mardian, whose name was Hyrœades, -endeavored to climb up on that part of the citadel where no guard was -stationed, for on that side the citadel was precipitous and -impracticable. Hyrœades had seen a Lydian the day before come down this -precipice for a helmet that had rolled down, and carry it up again. He -thereupon ascended the same way, followed by divers Persians; and when -great numbers had gone up, Sardis was thus taken, and the whole town -plundered. - -The following incidents befel Crœsus himself. He had a son of whom I -have before made mention, who was dumb. Now, in the time of his former -prosperity, Crœsus had done every thing he could for him, and among -other expedients had sent to consult the oracle of Delphi concerning -him; but the Pythian gave him this answer: - - "O foolish king of Lydia, do not seek - To hear thy son within thy palace speak! - Better for thee that pleasure to forego— - The day he speaks will be a day of woe." - -When the city was taken, one of the Persians, not knowing Crœsus, was -about to kill him; Crœsus, though he saw him approach, took no heed of -him, caring not if he should die by the blow; but this speechless son of -his, when he saw the Persian advancing against him, through dread and -anguish, burst into speech, and said: "Man, kill not Crœsus." These were -the first words he ever uttered; but from that time he continued to -speak during the remainder of his life. So the Persians got possession -of Sardis, and made Crœsus prisoner, after he had reigned fourteen -years, been besieged fourteen days, and lost his great empire, as the -oracle had predicted. The Persians, having taken him, conducted him to -Cyrus; and he, having heaped up a great pile, placed Crœsus upon it, -bound with fetters, and with him fourteen young Lydians; designing -either to offer this sacrifice to some god, as the first fruits of his -victory, or wishing to perform a vow; or perhaps, having heard that -Crœsus was a religious person, he placed him on the pile for the purpose -of discovering whether any deity would save him from being burned alive. -When Crœsus stood upon the pile, notwithstanding the weight of his -misfortunes, the words of Solon recurred to him, as spoken by -inspiration of the deity, that "No living man could be justly called -happy." When this occurred to him, it is said, that after a long silence -he recovered himself, and uttering a groan, thrice pronounced the name -of Solon; when Cyrus heard him, he commanded his interpreters to ask -Crœsus whom it was he called upon; Crœsus for some time kept silence; -but at last, being constrained to speak, said: "I named a man, whose -discourses I more desire all tyrants might hear, than to be possessor of -the greatest riches." When he gave them this obscure answer, they again -inquired what he said, and were very importunate; he at length told them -that Solon, an Athenian, formerly visited him, and having viewed all his -treasures, made no account of them; telling, in a word, how every thing -had befallen him as Solon had warned him, though his discourse related -to all mankind as much as to himself, and especially to those who -imagine themselves happy. The pile now was kindled, and the outer parts -began to burn; when Cyrus, informed by the interpreters of what Crœsus -had said, relented, considering that being but a man, he was yet going -to burn another man alive, who had been no way inferior to himself in -prosperity; and moreover, fearing retribution, and reflecting that -nothing human is constant, commanded the fire to be instantly -extinguished, and Crœsus, with those who were about him, to be taken -down. But they with all their endeavors were unable to master the fire. -Crœsus, perceiving that Cyrus had altered his resolution, when he saw -every man endeavoring to put out the fire, but unable to get the better -of it, shouted aloud, invoking Apollo, and besought him, if ever any of -his offerings had been agreeable to him, to protect and deliver him from -the present danger. And the Lydians relate, as he with tears invoked the -god, on a sudden clouds were seen gathering in the air, which before was -serene, and that a violent storm burst forth and vehement rain fell and -extinguished the flames; by which Cyrus perceiving that Crœsus was -beloved by the gods, and a good man, when he had had him taken down from -the pile, asked him the following question: "Who persuaded you, Crœsus, -to invade my territories, and to become my enemy instead of my friend?" -He answered: "O king, I have done this for your good but my own evil -fortune, and the god of the Greeks who encouraged me to make war is the -cause of all. For no man is so void of understanding as to prefer war -before peace; for in the latter children bury their fathers; in the -former, fathers bury their children. But, I suppose, it pleased the gods -that these things should be so." - -Cyrus, having set him at liberty, placed him by his own side, and showed -him great respect. But Crœsus, absorbed in thought remained silent; and -presently turning round and beholding the Persians sacking the city of -the Lydians, he said, "Does it become me, O king, to tell you what is -passing through my mind, or to keep silence?" Cyrus bade him say with -confidence whatever he wished; upon which Crœsus asked him, "What is -this vast crowd so earnestly employed about?" He answered, "They are -sacking your city, and plundering your riches." "Not so," Crœsus -replied, "they are neither sacking my city, nor plundering my riches, -for they are no longer mine; they are ravaging what belongs to you." The -reply of Crœsus attracted the attention of Cyrus; he therefore ordered -all the rest to withdraw, and asked Crœsus what he thought should be -done in the present conjuncture. He answered: "Since the gods have made -me your servant, I think it my duty to acquaint you, if I perceive -anything deserving of remark. The Persians, who are by nature -overbearing, are poor. If, therefore, you permit them to plunder and -possess great riches, you may expect the following results; whoso -acquires the greatest riches, be assured, will be ready to rebel. -Therefore, if you approve what I say, adopt the following plan: place -some of your body-guard as sentinels at every gate, with orders to take -the booty from all those who would go out, and to acquaint them that the -tenth must of necessity be consecrated to Jupiter; thus you will not -incur the odium of taking away their property; and they, acknowledging -your intention to be just, will readily obey." Cyrus was exceedingly -delighted at this suggestion, and ordered his guards to carry it out, -then turning to Crœsus, he said: "Since you are resolved to display the -deeds and words of a true king, ask whatever boon you desire on the -instant." "Sir," he answered, "the most acceptable favor you can bestow -upon me is, to let me send my fetters to the god of the Greeks, whom I -have honored more than any other deity, and to ask him, if it be his -custom to deceive those who deserve well of him." Certain Lydians were -accordingly sent to Delphi, with orders to lay his fetters at the -entrance of the temple, and to ask the god, if he were not ashamed to -have encouraged Crœsus by his oracles to make war on the Persians -assuring him that he would put an end to the power of Cyrus, of which -war such were the first-fruits (commanding them at these words to show -the fetters), and at the same time to ask if it were the custom of the -Grecian gods to be ungrateful. When the Lydians arrived at Delphi, and -had delivered their message, the Pythian is reported to have made this -answer: "The god himself even cannot avoid the decrees of fate; and -Crœsus has atoned for the crime of Gyges his ancestor in the fifth -generation, who, being one of the body-guard of the Heraclidæ, murdered -his master, Candaules, and usurped his dignity, to which he had no -right. But although Apollo was desirous that the fall of Sardis might -happen in the time of the sons of Crœsus, and not during his reign, yet -it was not in his power to avert the fates; but so far as they allowed -he accomplished, and conferred the boon on him; for he delayed the -capture of Sardis for the space of three years. Let Crœsus know, -therefore, that he was taken prisoner three years later than the fates -had ordained; and in the next place, he came to his relief, when he was -upon the point of being burnt alive. Then, as to the prediction of the -oracle, Crœsus has no right to complain; for Apollo foretold him that if -he made war on the Persians, he would subvert a great empire; and had he -desired to be truly informed, he ought to have sent again to inquire, -whether his own or that of Cyrus was meant. But since he neither -understood the oracle, nor inquired again, let him lay the blame on -himself. And when he last consulted the oracle, he did not understand -the answer concerning the mule; for Cyrus was that mule; inasmuch as he -was born of parents of different nations, the mother superior, but the -father inferior. For she was a Mede, and daughter of Astyages, king of -Media; but he was a Persian, subject to the Medes." When Crœsus heard -this reply of the priestess of Apollo, he acknowledged the fault to be -his and not the god's. - -The customs of the Lydians differ little from those of the Greeks. They -are the first of all nations we know of that introduced the art of -coining gold and silver; and they were the first retailers. The Lydians -themselves say that the games which are now common to themselves and the -Greeks, were invented by them during the reign of Atys, when a great -scarcity of corn pervaded all Lydia. For when they saw famine staring -them in the face they sought for remedies, and some devised one thing, -some another; and at that time the games of dice, knucklebones, ball, -and all other kinds of games except draughts, were invented, (for the -Lydians do not claim the invention of this ancient game,) and having -made these inventions to alleviate the famine, they employed them as -follows: they used to play one whole day that they might not be in want -of food; and on the next, they ate and abstained from play. Thus they -passed eighteen years; but when the evil did not abate, but on the -contrary, became still more virulent, their king divided the whole -people into two parts, and cast lots which should remain and which quit -the country, and over that part whose lot it should be to stay he -appointed himself king; and over that part which was to emigrate he -appointed his own son, whose name was Tyrrhenus. Those to whose lot it -fell to leave their country went down to Smyrna, built ships, and having -put all their movables which were of use on board, set sail in search of -food and land, till having passed by many nations, they reached the -Ombrici, where they built towns, and dwell to this day. From being -called Lydians, they changed their name to one after the king's son, who -led them out; from him they gave themselves the appellation of -Tyrrhenians. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -HISTORY OF THE MEDES TO THE REIGN OF CYRUS. - - -My history hence proceeds to inquire who Cyrus was that overthrew the -power of Crœsus, and how the Persians became masters of Asia. In which -narration I shall follow those Persians, who do not wish to magnify the -actions of Cyrus, but to relate the plain truth; though I am aware that -there are three other ways of relating Cyrus's history. After the -Assyrians had ruled over Upper Asia five hundred and twenty years, the -Medes first began to revolt from them; and they it seems, in their -struggle with the Assyrians for liberty, proved themselves brave men; -and having shaken off the yoke, became free: afterward the other nations -also did the same as the Medes. When all throughout the continent were -independent, they were again reduced under a despotic government. There -was among the Medes a man famous for wisdom, named Deioces, son of -Phraortes. This Deioces, aiming at absolute power, had recourse to the -following plan. The Medes were at that time distributed into villages, -and Deioces, who was already highly esteemed in his own district, -applied himself with great zeal to the exercise of justice; and this he -did, since great lawlessness prevailed throughout the whole of Media, -and he knew that injustice and justice are ever at variance. The Medes -of the same village, observing his conduct, chose him for their judge; -and he, constantly keeping the sovereign power in view, showed himself -upright and just. By this conduct he acquired no slight praise from his -fellow citizens, so much so that the inhabitants of other villages, -hearing that Deioces was the only one who judged uprightly, having -before met with unjust sentences, when they heard of him gladly came -from all parts to Deioces, in order to submit their quarrels to his -decision; and at last they would commit the decision to no one else. In -the end, when the number of those who had recourse to him continually -increased as men heard of the justice of his decisions, Deioces, seeing -the whole devolved upon himself, would no longer occupy the seat where -he used to sit to determine differences, and refused to act as judge any -more, for it was of no advantage to him to neglect his own affairs, and -spend the day in deciding the quarrels of others. Upon this, rapine and -lawlessness growing far more frequent throughout the villages than -before, the Medes called an assembly and consulted together about the -present state of things, but, as I suspect, the partisans of Deioces -spoke to the following purpose: "Since it is impossible for us to -inhabit the country if we continue in our present condition, let us -constitute a king over us, and so the country will be governed by good -laws, and we ourselves shall be able to attend to our business, nor be -any longer driven from our homes by lawlessness." By some such words -they persuaded them to submit to a kingly government. Upon their -immediately putting the question, whom they should appoint king, Deioces -was unanimously preferred and commended: so that at last they agreed -that he should be their king. But he required them to build him a palace -suitable to the dignity of a king, and give him guards for security of -his person. The Medes accordingly did so: and built him a strong and -spacious palace in the part of the country that he selected, and -permitted him to choose guards for his person out of all the Medes. -Being thus possessed of the power, he compelled the Medes to build one -city, and having carefully adorned that, to pay less attention to the -others. As the Medes obeyed him in this also, he built lofty and strong -walls, which now go under the name of Ecbatana,[4] one placed in a -circle within the other; and this fortification was so contrived, that -each circle was raised above the other by the height of the battlements -only. The situation of the ground, rising by an easy ascent, was very -favorable to the design. There were seven circles altogether, the king's -palace and the treasury, situated within the innermost of them. The -largest of these walls was about equal in circumference to the city of -Athens; the battlements of the first circle were white, of the second -black, of the third purple, of the fourth blue, of the fifth bright red. -Thus the battlements of all circles were painted with different colors; -but the two last had their battlements plated, the one with silver, the -other with gold.[5] - -Deioces then built these fortifications for himself, and round his own -palace; and he commanded the rest of the people to fix their habitations -round the fortification; and when all the buildings were completed he, -for the first time, established the following regulations: that no man -should be admitted to the king's presence, but every one should consult -him by means of messengers, and, moreover, that it should be accounted -indecency for any one to laugh or spit before him. He established such -ceremony about his own person, in order that those who were brought up -with him, and of no meaner family, nor inferior to him in manly -qualities, might not, when they saw him, grieve and conspire against -him; but that he might appear to be of a different nature to those who -did not see him. When he had established these regulations, and settled -himself in the tyranny, he was very severe in the distribution of -justice. And the parties contending were obliged to send him their case -in writing. All other things were regulated by him: so that, if he -received information that any man had injured another, he would send for -him, and punish him in proportion to his offence. For this purpose he -had spies and eaves-droppers in every part of his dominions. - -Now Deioces collected the Medes into one nation, and ruled over it. The -following are the tribes of the Medes, the Busæ, Parataceni, Struchates, -Arizanti, Budii, and the Magi. Deioces had a son, Phraortes, who, when -his father died, after a reign of fifty-three years, succeeded him in -the kingdom; but having so succeeded, he was not content to rule over -the Medes only, but made war on the Persians, and reduced them under the -dominion of the Medes. And afterward being master of these two nations, -both of them powerful, he subdued Asia, attacking one nation after -another; till at last he invaded the Assyrians, who inhabited the city -of Nineveh, and having made war on them, perished with the greater part -of his army, after he had reigned twenty-two years. - -[Illustration: ASSYRIAN WARRIORS IN A CHARIOT.] - -When Phraortes was dead, Cyaxares his son, grandson of Deioces, -succeeded him. He is said to have been more warlike than his ancestors. -He was the first to divide the people of Asia into cohorts, and then -into spearmen, archers, and cavalry; whereas before they had been -confusedly mixed together. It was he that fought with the Lydians, when -the day was turned into night, as they were fighting; and who subjected -the whole of Asia above the river Halys. He assembled the forces of all -his subjects, and marched against Nineveh to avenge his father, and -destroy that city. He took Nineveh (how they took it, I will relate in -another work),[6] and reduced the Assyrians into subjection, with the -exception of the Babylonian district. Having accomplished these things, -Cyaxares died, after a reign of forty years. - -[Illustration: SPHINX FROM S. W. PALACE (NIMROUD).] - -Astyages the son of Cyaxares succeeded him in the kingdom. He had a -daughter, to whom he gave the name of Mandane. When she arrived at a -marriageable age he gave her to no one of the Medes who was worthy of -her, but to a Persian, named Cambyses, whom he found descended of a good -family, and of a peaceful disposition, deeming him far superior to a -Mede of moderate rank. In the first year after Mandane was married to -Cambyses, Astyages saw a vision: it appeared to him that a vine sprang -from his daughter, and spread over all Asia. Having seen this and -communicated it to the interpreters of dreams, he sent to Persia for his -daughter, and her son the infant Cyrus, and upon her arrival he put her -under a guard, resolving to destroy her child, for the Magian -interpreters had signified to him from his vision, that the issue of his -daughter would reign in his stead. Astyages therefore, sent for -Harpagus, a kinsman of his, and the most faithful of all the Medes, and -the manager of all his affairs, and said to him: "Harpagus, on no -account fail to perform the business I now charge you with; nor expose -me to danger by deceiving me; nor, by preferring another, draw ruin upon -thy own head. Take the child of Mandane carry him to your own house and -kill him, and afterward bury him in whatever way you think fit." -Harpagus answered: "O king, you have never yet observed any ingratitude -in me, and I shall take care never to offend you for the future. If it -is your pleasure that this thing should be done, it is fitting that I -readily obey you." Harpagus, having given this answer, when the child -had been put into his hands, adorned as if for death, returned home -weeping; and upon his arrival he told his wife all that Astyages had -said. She asked him, "What then do you purpose to do?" He answered: "Not -as Astyages has commanded; though he should be yet more outrageous and -mad than he is, I will not comply with his wishes, nor will I submit to -him by performing such a murder: and for many reasons I will not murder -the child; both because he is my own relation, and because Astyages is -old, and has no male offspring; besides, if, after his death, the -sovereignty should devolve on his daughter, whose son he would now -murder by my means, what else remains for me but the greatest danger? It -is necessary, however, for my safety that the child should die, but as -necessary that one of Astyages' people should be the executioner, and -not one of mine." He accordingly sent a messenger for one of Astyages' -herdsmen, who he knew grazed his cattle on pastures most convenient for -the purpose, and on mountains abounding with wild beasts. His name was -Mitradates, and he had married his fellow-servant. The foot of the -mountains at which this herdsman grazed his cattle, lies to the north of -Ecbatana, toward the Euxine Sea. For the Medic territory on this side -toward the Saspires, is very mountainous, lofty, and covered with -forests; while all the rest of Media is level. When the herdsman, -summoned in great haste, arrived, Harpagus addressed him as follows: -"Astyages bids thee take this infant, and expose him on the bleakest -part of the mountains, that he may speedily perish; and has charged me -to add, that if thou by any means shouldst save the child, thou shalt -die by the most cruel death; and I am appointed to see the child -exposed." The herdsman, having heard these words, took the infant, -returned by the same way, and reached his cottage. It so happened that -an infant of his own lay dead at home. When he returned and came up to -his wife she asked him why Harpagus had sent for him in such haste. -"Wife," said he, "when I reached the city, I saw and heard what I wish I -had never seen, nor had ever befallen our masters. The whole house of -Harpagus was filled with lamentations; I, greatly alarmed, went in, and -as soon as I entered, I saw an infant lying before me, panting and -crying, dressed in gold and a robe of various colors. Harpagus bade me -to take up the child directly, and carry him away, and expose him in the -part of the mountain most frequented by wild beasts; telling me at the -same time, that it was Astyages who imposed this task on me, and -threatening the severest punishment if I should fail to do it. I took up -the infant and carried him away, supposing him to belong to one of the -servants; for I had then no suspicion whence he came; though I was -astonished at seeing him dressed in gold and fine apparel; and also at -the sorrow which evidently prevailed in the house of Harpagus. But soon -after, on my way home, I learnt the whole truth, from a servant who -accompanied me out of the city, and delivered the child into my hands; -that he was born of Mandane, Astyages' daughter, and of Cambyses son of -Cyrus, and that Astyages had commanded him to be put to death." - -As the herdsman uttered these last words, he uncovered the child, and -showed it to his wife; she seeing that the child was large and of a -beautiful form, embraced the knees of her husband, and with tears -besought him by no means to expose it. He said that it was impossible to -do otherwise; for spies would come from Harpagus to see the thing done, -and he must himself die the most cruel death if he should fail to do it. -"Since, then" said she "I cannot persuade you not to expose the child, -do this: take our own dead child and expose it, and let us bring up the -son of Astyages' daughter as our own. Thus you will neither be convicted -of having wronged our masters, nor shall we have consulted ill for our -own interests; for the child that is dead will have a royal burial, and -the one that survives will not be deprived of life." The herdsman, happy -at the suggestion of his wife, gave to her the child that he had brought -for the purpose of putting to death, and his own, which was dead, he put -into the basket in which he had brought the other, and having dressed it -in all the finery of the other child, exposed it in the most desolate -part of the mountains. On the third day after the infant had been -exposed, the herdsman, having left one of his assistants as a guard, -went to the city, and arriving at the house of Harpagus, told him he was -ready to show the dead body of the infant. Harpagus accordingly sent -some of the most trusty of his guards, and by that means saw the body, -and buried the herdsman's child. The other, who afterwards had the name -of Cyrus, was brought up by the herdsman's wife, who gave him some other -name, and not that of Cyrus. - -When the child attained the age of ten years, the following circumstance -discovered him. He was playing in the village in which the ox-stalls -were, with boys of his own age in the road. The boys had chosen this -reputed son of the herdsman for their king. He in sport appointed some -of them to build houses, and others to be his body-guards; one of them -to be the king's eye, and to another he gave the office of bringing -messages to him, assigning to each his proper duty. One of these boys -who was playing with him, son of Artembares, a man of rank among the -Medes, refused to obey the orders of Cyrus; he therefore commanded the -others to seize him, and when they obeyed, Cyrus scourged the boy very -severely. But the boy, as soon as he was let loose, considering that he -had been treated with great indignity, took it very much to heart, and -hastening to the city, complained to his father of the treatment he had -met with from the son of Astyages' herdsman. Artembares, in a transport -of anger, went immediately to Astyages, and taking his son with him, -said that he suffered treatment that was not to be borne, adding, "Thus, -O king, are we insulted by your slave, the son of a herdsman;" showing -the boy's shoulders. Astyages having heard and seen what was done, -resolving, on account of the rank of Artembares, to avenge the indignity -offered to the youth, sent for the herdsman and his son. When both came -into his presence, Astyages, looking upon Cyrus, said: "Have you, who -are the son of such a man as this, dared to treat the son of one of the -principal persons in my kingdom with such indignity?" But Cyrus -answered: "Sir, I treated him as I did with justice. For the boys of our -village, of whom he was one, in their play made me their king, because I -appeared to them the most fitted for that office. All the other boys -performed what they were ordered, but he refused to obey and paid no -attention to my commands, so he was punished: if I deserve punishment -for this here I am ready to submit to it." As the boy spoke Astyages -recognised him; the character of his face appeared like his own, and his -answer more free than accorded with his condition; the time also of the -exposure seemed to agree with the age of the boy. Alarmed at this -discovery, he was for some time speechless; and at last, having with -difficulty recovered himself (being desirous of sending Artembares away -in order that he might examine the herdsman in private), he said: -"Artembares, I will take care that neither you nor your son shall have -any cause of complaint," and dismissed him; but the servants, at the -command of Astyages, conducted Cyrus into an inner room; and when the -herdsman remained alone, he asked him in the absence of witnesses, -whence he had the boy, and from whose hands he received him? He affirmed -that the boy was his own son, and that the mother who bore him was still -living with him. Astyages told him, that he did not consult his own -safety in wishing to be put to the torture; and as he said this he made -a signal to his guards to seize him. The man, when brought to the -torture, discovered the whole matter, speaking the truth throughout; and -concluded with prayers and entreaties for pardon. Astyages, when the -herdsman had confessed the truth, did not concern himself much about him -afterwards; but attaching great blame to Harpagus, he ordered his guards -to summon him; and when Astyages asked, "Harpagus, by what kind of death -did you dispose of the child which I delivered to you, born of my -daughter?" Harpagus, seeing the herdsman present, had not recourse to -falsehood, lest he should be detected and convicted, but said, "O king, -when I had received the infant, I carefully considered how I could act -according to your wish and command, and, without offending you, I might -be free from the crime of murder both in your daughter's sight and in -yours. I therefore sent for this herdsman and gave him the child, saying -that you had commanded him to put it to death, and in saying this I did -not speak falsely, for such indeed were your orders. In this manner I -delivered the infant to him, charging him to place it in some desert -mountain, and to stay and watch till the child was dead, threatening the -severest punishment if he should not fully carry out these injunctions. -When he had executed these orders, and the child was dead, I sent some -of the most trusty of my servants, and by means of them beheld the body, -and buried it. This is the whole truth, O king, and such was the fate of -the child." - -Thus Harpagus told the real truth; but Astyages, dissembling the anger -which he felt on account of what had been done, again related to -Harpagus the whole matter as he had heard it from the herdsman; and -afterwards, when he had repeated it throughout, he ended by saying that -the child was alive and all was well. "For," he added, "I suffered much -on account of what had been done regarding this child, and could not -easily bear the reproaches of my daughter; therefore, since fortune has -taken a more favorable turn, do you, in the first place, send your own -son to accompany the boy I have recovered; and, in the next place, (for -I propose to offer a sacrifice for the preservation of the child to the -gods, to whom that honor is due), do you be with me at supper." - -Harpagus on hearing these words, when he had paid his homage, and had -congratulated himself that his fault had turned to so good account, and -that he was invited to the feast under such auspicious circumstances, -went to his own home. And as soon as he entered he sent his only son, -who was about thirteen years of age, and bade him go to Astyages, and do -whatever he should command; and then, being full of joy, he told his -wife what had happened. But when the son of Harpagus arrived, having -slain him and cut him into joints, Astyages roasted some parts of his -flesh and boiled others, and having had them well dressed, kept them in -readiness. At the appointed hour, when the other guests and Harpagus -were come, tables full of mutton were placed before the rest and -Astyages himself, but before Harpagus all the body of his son, except -the head, the hands and the feet; these were laid apart in a basket -covered over. When Harpagus seemed to have eaten enough, Astyages asked -him if he was pleased with the entertainment; and when Harpagus replied -that he was highly delighted, the officers appointed for that purpose -brought him the head of his son covered up with the hands and feet, and -standing before Harpagus, they bade him uncover the basket and take what -he chose. Harpagus doing as they desired, and uncovering the basket, saw -the remains of his son's body, but he expressed no alarm at the sight, -and retained his presence of mind; whereupon Astyages asked him if he -knew of what animal he had been eating. He said he knew very well, and -that whatever a king did was agreeable to him. After he had given this -answer he gathered the remains of the flesh and went home, purposing, as -I conjecture, to collect all that he could and bury it. - -Astyages thus punished Harpagus; and then, considering what he should do -with Cyrus, summoned the Magi, who had formerly interpreted his dream. -When they were come, Astyages asked them in what way they had -interpreted his vision. They gave the same answer as before; and said -that if the boy was still alive, and had not already died, he must of -necessity be king. He answered them as follows: "The boy still survives, -and while living in the country, the boys of the village made him king, -and he has already performed all such things as kings really do, for he -has appointed guards, door-keepers, messengers, and all other things in -like manner; and now I desire to know to what do these things appear to -you to tend." The Magi answered, "If the boy be living and has already -been a king by no settled plan, you may take courage on his account and -make your mind easy, for he will not reign a second time. For some of -our predictions terminate in trifling results; and dreams, and things -like them, are fulfilled by slight events." To this Astyages replied: "I -too, O Magi, am very much of the same opinion, that since the child has -been named king, the dream is accomplished, and that the boy is no -longer an object of alarm to me; yet consider well, and carefully weigh -what will be the safest course for my family and yourselves." The Magi -answered: "O king, it is of great importance to us that your empire -should be firmly established, for otherwise it is alienated, passing -over to this boy, who is a Persian, and we, who are Medes, shall be -enslaved by Persians, and held in no account as being foreigners; -whereas while you, who are of our own country, are king, we have a share -in the government, and enjoy great honors at your hands. Thus, then, we -must on every account provide for your safety and that of your -government; and now if we saw any thing to occasion alarm we should tell -you of it beforehand; but now, since the dream has issued in a trifling -event, we ourselves take courage, and advise you to do the like, and to -send the boy out of your sight to his parents in Persia." When Astyages -heard this he was delighted, and, calling for Cyrus, said to him: -"Child, I have been unjust to you, by reason of a vain dream; but you -survive by your own destiny. Now go in happiness to Persia, and I will -send an escort to attend you; when you arrive there you will find a -father and mother very different from the herdsman Mitradates and his -wife." - -Astyages thus sent Cyrus away, and, upon his arrival at the house of -Cambyses, his parents received him with the greatest tenderness and joy, -having been assured that he had died immediately after his birth; and -they inquired of him by what means his life had been preserved. He told -them, that till that time he believed he was the son of Astyages' -herdsman. He related that he had been brought up by the herdsman's wife; -and he went on constantly praising her. - -[Illustration: EGYPTIAN HARE.] - -When Cyrus had reached man's estate, and proved the most manly and -beloved of his equals in age, Harpagus paid great court to him, sending -him presents, from his desire to be avenged on Astyages; for he did not -see that he himself, who was but a private man, could be able to take -vengeance on Astyages; perceiving, therefore, that Cyrus was growing up -to be his avenger, he contracted a friendship with him, comparing the -sufferings of Cyrus with his own. And before this he had made the -following preparations. Seeing Astyages severe in his treatment of the -Medes, Harpagus holding intercourse with the chief persons of the -nation, one after another, persuaded them that they ought to place him -at their head, and depose Astyages. When he had effected his purpose, -and all was ready, Harpagus, wishing to discover his designs to Cyrus, -who resided in Persia, and having no other way left, because the roads -were all guarded, contrived the following artifice. Having cunningly -contrived a hare, by opening its belly, and tearing off none of the -hair, he put a letter, containing what he thought necessary to write, -into the body; and having sewed up the belly of the hare, he gave it -with some nets to the most trusty of his servants, dressed as a hunter, -and sent him to Persia; having by word of mouth commanded him to bid -Cyrus, as he gave him the hare, to open it with his own hand, and not to -suffer any one to be present when he did so. This was accordingly done, -and Cyrus having received the hare, opened it; and found the letter -which was in it, to the following purport: "Son of Cambyses, seeing the -gods watch over you, (for otherwise you could never have arrived at your -present fortune), do you now avenge yourself on your murderer Astyages; -for as far as regards his purpose you are long since dead, but by the -care of the gods and of me you survive. I suppose you have been long -since informed both what was done regarding yourself, and what I -suffered at the hands of Astyages, because I did not put you to death, -but gave you to the herdsman. Then, if you will follow my counsel, you -shall rule over the whole territory that Astyages now governs. Persuade -the Persians to revolt, and invade Media; and whether I or any other -illustrious Mede be appointed to command the army opposed to you, every -thing will turn out as you wish; for they, on the first onset, having -revolted from him, and siding with you, will endeavor to depose him. -Since, then, every thing is ready here, do as I advise, and do it -quickly." - -Cyrus, upon receiving this intelligence, began to consider by what -measures he could best persuade the Persians to revolt. Having written -such a letter as he thought fit, he called an assembly of the Persians, -read the letter and said that Astyages had appointed him general of the -Persians: "Now," he continued, "I require you to attend me, every man -with a sickle." When all had come with their sickles, as had been -ordered, Cyrus selected a tract of land in Persia, about eighteen or -twenty stadia square (nearly two and one half miles), which was -overgrown with briers, and directed them to clear it during the day: -when the Persians had finished the appointed task, he bade them come -again on the next day, washed and well attired. In the meantime Cyrus -collected all his father's flocks and herds, had them killed and -dressed, to entertain the Persian forces, and provided wine and bread in -abundance. The next day, when the Persians had assembled, he made them -lie down on the turf, and feasted them; and, after the repast was over, -asked them whether the treatment they had received the day before, or -the present, was preferable. They answered, that the difference was -great; for on the preceding day they had every hardship, but on the -present everything that was good. Then Cyrus discovered his intentions, -and said: "Men of Persia, the case stands thus; if you will hearken to -me, you may enjoy these, and numberless other advantages, without any -kind of servile labor; but if you will not hearken to me, innumerable -hardships, like those of yesterday, await you. Now, therefore, obey me, -and be free; for I am persuaded I am born by divine providence to -undertake this work; and I deem you to be men in no way inferior to the -Medes, either in other respects or in war; then revolt with all speed -from Astyages." - -The Persians under such a leader, gladly asserted their freedom, having -for a long time felt indignant at being governed by the Medes. Astyages, -informed of what Cyrus was doing, sent a messenger and summoned him; but -Cyrus bade the messenger take back word, "that he would come to him -sooner than Astyages desired." When Astyages heard this, he armed all -the Medes; and, as if the gods had deprived him of understanding, made -Harpagus their general, utterly forgetting the outrage he had done him. -And when the Medes came to an engagement with the Persians, such of them -as knew nothing of the plot, fought; but others went over to the -Persians; and the far greater part purposely behaved as cowards and -fled. As soon as the news was brought to Astyages that the Medes were -thus shamefully dispersed, he exclaimed: "Not even so shall Cyrus have -occasion to rejoice." His first act was to impale the Magi, who had -interpreted his dream, and advised him to let Cyrus go; then he armed -all the Medes that were left in the city, old and young; and leading -them out, engaged the Persians, and was defeated. Astyages himself was -made prisoner, and lost all the Medes whom he had led out. Harpagus, -standing by Astyages after he was taken, exulted over him and jeered at -him; and among other galling words, he asked him about the supper, at -which he had feasted him with his son's flesh, and inquired, "how he -liked slavery in exchange for a kingdom." Astyages, looking steadfastly -on Harpagus, asked in return, whether he thought himself the author of -Cyrus's success. Harpagus said, he did, for, as he had written, the -achievement was justly due to himself. Astyages thereupon proved him to -be "the weakest and most unjust of all men; the weakest, in giving the -kingdom to another, which he might have assumed to himself, if indeed he -had effected this change; and the most unjust, because he had enslaved -the whole nation of the Medes on account of the supper." - -So Astyages, after he had reigned thirty-five years, was deposed. But -Cyrus kept him with him till he died, without doing him any further -injury. Thus did Cyrus come to the throne, conquer Crœsus, and become -master of all Asia. - -The Persians, according to my own knowledge, observe the following -customs:—It is not their practice to erect statues, or temples, or -altars, but they charge those with folly who do so; because, as I -conjecture, they do not think the gods have human forms, as the Greeks -do. They are accustomed to ascend the highest parts of the mountains, -and offer sacrifice to Jupiter, and they call the whole circle of the -heavens by the name of Jupiter. They sacrifice to the sun and moon, to -the earth, fire, water, and the winds. To these alone they sacrificed in -the earliest times: but they have since learnt from the Arabians and -Assyrians to sacrifice to Venus Urania, whom the Assyrians call Venus -Mylitta, the Arabians, Alitta, and the Persians Mitra. They do not erect -altars nor kindle fires when about to sacrifice; they do not use -libations, or flutes, or fillets, or cakes; but, when any one wishes to -offer sacrifice to any one of these deities, he leads the victim to a -clean spot, and invokes the god, usually having his tiara decked with -myrtle. He that sacrifices is not permitted to pray for blessings for -himself alone; but he is obliged to offer prayers for the prosperity of -all the Persians, and the king, for he is himself included in the -Persians. When he has cut the victim into small pieces, and boiled the -flesh, he strews under it a bed of tender grass, generally trefoil, and -then lays all the flesh upon it; when he has put every thing in order, -one of the Magi standing by sings an ode concerning the original of the -gods, which they say is the incantation; and without one of the Magi it -is not lawful for them to sacrifice. After having waited a short time, -he that has sacrificed carries away the flesh and disposes of it as he -thinks fit. It is their custom to honor their birthday above all other -days; and on this day they furnish their table in a more plentiful -manner than at other times. The rich then produce an ox, a horse, a -camel, and an ass, roasted whole in an oven; but the poor produce -smaller cattle. They are moderate at their meals, but eat of many -after-dishes, and those not served up together. On this account the -Persians say, "that the Greeks rise hungry from the table, because -nothing worth mentioning is brought in after dinner, and that if -anything were brought in, they would not leave off eating." The Persians -are much addicted to wine. They are accustomed to debate the most -important affairs when intoxicated; but whatever they have determined on -in such deliberation, is on the following day, when they are sober, -proposed to them by the master of the house where they have met to -consult; and if they approve of it when sober also, then they adopt it; -if not, they reject it. And whatever they have first resolved on when -sober, they reconsider when intoxicated. When they meet one another in -the streets, one may discover by the following custom, whether those who -meet are equals. For instead of accosting one another, they kiss on the -mouth; if one be a little inferior to the other, they kiss the cheek; -but if he be of a much lower rank, he prostrates himself before the -other. - -The Persians are of all nations the most ready to adopt foreign customs; -for they wear the Medic costume, thinking it handsomer than their own; -and in war they use the Egyptian cuirass. From the age of five years to -twenty, they instruct their sons in three things only: to ride, to use -the bow, and to speak the truth. Before he is five years of age, a son -is not admitted to the presence of his father, but lives entirely with -the women: the reason of this custom is, that if he should die in -childhood, he may occasion no grief to his father. - -Now I much approve of the above custom, as also of the following, that -not even the king is allowed to put any one to death for a single crime, -nor any private Persian exercise extreme severity against any of his -domestics for one fault, but if on examination he should find that his -misdeeds are more numerous and greater than his services, he may in that -case give vent to his anger. They say that no one ever yet killed his -own father or mother. To tell a lie is considered by them the greatest -disgrace; next to that, to be in debt; for the reason that one who is in -debt must of necessity tell lies. Whosoever of the citizens has the -leprosy or scrofula, is not permitted to stay within a town, nor to have -communication with other Persians; and they say that a man is afflicted -with these diseases from having committed some offence against the sun. -Every stranger that is seized with these distempers they drive out of -the country; and they do the same to white pigeons, making the same -charge against them. They neither spit, nor wash their hands in a river, -but pay extreme veneration to all rivers. Another circumstance is also -peculiar to them which has escaped the notice of the Persians -themselves, but not of us. Their names, which correspond with their -personal forms and their rank, all terminate in the same letter (s) -which the Dorians call _San_, and the Ionians _Sigma_. If you inquire -into this you will find, that all Persian names, without exception, end -in the same letter. These things I can with certainty affirm to be true, -since I myself know them. But what follows, relating to the dead, is -only secretly mentioned, viz.: that the dead body of a Persian is never -buried until it has been torn by some bird or dog; but I know for a -certainty that the Magi do this, for they do it openly. The Persians -then, having covered the body with wax, conceal it in the ground. The -Magi differ very much from all other men, and particularly from the -Egyptian priests, for the latter hold it matter of religion not to kill -any thing that has life, except such things as they offer in sacrifice; -whereas the Magi kill every thing with their own hands, except a dog or -a man; and they think they do a meritorious thing, when they kill ants, -serpents, and other reptiles and birds. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE ASIATIC GREEKS AND THE LYDIAN REVOLT. - - -The Ionians and Æolians, as soon as the Lydians were subdued by the -Persians, sent ambassadors to Cyrus at Sardis, wishing to become subject -to him, on the same terms as they had been to Crœsus. But, when he heard -their proposal, he told them this story: "A piper seeing some fishes in -the sea, began to pipe, expecting that they would come to shore; but -finding his hopes disappointed, he took a casting-net, with which he -caught a great number of fishes, and drew them out. When he saw them -leaping about, he said to the fishes: 'Cease your dancing, since when I -piped you would not come out and dance.'" Cyrus told this story to the -Ionians and Æolians, because the Ionians, when Cyrus pressed them by his -ambassador to revolt from Crœsus, refused to consent, and now, when the -business was done, were ready to listen to him. When the Ionians heard -this message, they severally fortified themselves with walls, and met -together at the Panionium, with the exception of the Milesians; for -Cyrus made an alliance with them on the same terms as the Lydians had -done. The rest of the Ionians resolved unanimously to send ambassadors -to Sparta, to implore them to succor the Ionians. These Ionians, to whom -the Panionium belongs, have built their cities under the finest sky and -climate of the world that we know of; for neither the regions that are -above it, nor those that are below, nor the parts to the east or west, -are at all equal to Ionia; for some of them are oppressed by cold and -rain, others by heat and drought. These Ionians do not all use the same -language, but have four varieties of dialect. Miletus, the first of -them, lies toward the south. - -The Milesians were sheltered from danger, as they had made an alliance. -The islanders also had nothing to fear; for the Phœnicians were not yet -subject to the Persians, nor were the Persians themselves at all -acquainted with maritime affairs. Now the Milesians had seceded from the -rest of the Ionians only for this reason, that weak as the Grecian race -then was, the Ionian was weakest of all, and of least account; for -except Athens, there was no other city of note. The other Ionians, -therefore, and the Athenians shunned the name, and would not be called -Ionians; and even now many of them appear to me to be ashamed of the -name. But these twelve cities gloried in the name, and built a temple -for their own use, to which they gave the name of Panionium. - -When the ambassadors of the Ionians and Æolians arrived at Sparta, they -made choice of a Phocæan, whose name was Pythermus, to speak in behalf -of all. Putting on a purple robe, in order that as many as possible of -the Spartans might hear of it and assemble, he addressed them at length, -imploring their assistance. But the Lacedæmonians would not listen to -him, and determined not to assist the Ionians: they therefore returned -home. Yet the Lacedæmonians, though they had rejected the Ionian -ambassadors, despatched men in a penteconter, to keep an eye upon the -affairs of Cyrus and Ionia. These men arriving in Phocæa, sent the most -eminent person among them, whose name was Lacrines, to Sardis, to warn -Cyrus in the name of the Lacedæmonians, "not to injure any city on the -Grecian territory, for in that case they would not pass it by -unnoticed." When the herald gave this message, it is related that Cyrus -inquired of the Greeks who were present, who the Lacedæmonians were, and -how many in number, that they sent him such a warning. And when -informed, he said to the Spartan herald, "I was never yet afraid of -those, who in the midst of their city have a place set apart, in which -they collect and cheat one another by false oaths; and if I continue in -health, not the calamities of the Ionians shall be talked about, but -their own." This taunt of Cyrus was levelled at the Greeks in general, -who have markets for the purposes of buying and selling; for the -Persians have no such a thing as a market. After this, Cyrus intrusted -Tabalus a Persian with the government of Sardis, and appointed Pactyas a -Lydian to bring away the gold, both that belonging to Crœsus and to the -other Lydians, and departed with Cyrus for Ecbatana, for from the first -he took no account of the Ionians. But Babylon was an obstacle to him, -as were also the Bactrians, the Sacæ, and the Egyptians; against whom he -resolved to lead an army in person, and to send some other general -against the Ionians. But as soon as Cyrus had marched from Sardis, -Pactyas prevailed on the Lydians to revolt from Tabalus and Cyrus; and -going down to the sea-coast, with all the gold taken from Sardis in his -possession, he hired mercenaries and persuaded the inhabitants of the -coast to join him; and then having marched against Sardis, he besieged -Tabalus, who was shut up in the citadel. - -When Cyrus heard this news on his march, he said to Crœsus; - -"Crœsus, what will be the end of these things? the Lydians, it seems, -will never cease to give trouble to me, and to themselves. I am in doubt -whether it will not be better to reduce them to slavery; for I appear to -have acted like one who, having killed the father, has spared the -children; so I am carrying away you, who have been something more than a -father to the Lydians, and have intrusted their city to the Lydians -themselves: and then I wonder at their rebellion!" Crœsus, fearing lest -he should utterly destroy Sardis, answered: "Sir, you have but too much -reason for what you say; yet do not give full vent to your anger, nor -utterly destroy an ancient city, which is innocent as well of the former -as of the present offence: for of the former I myself was guilty, and -now bear the punishment on my own head; but in the present instance -Pactyas, to whom you intrusted Sardis, is the culprit; let him therefore -pay the penalty. But pardon the Lydians, and enjoin them to observe the -following regulations, to the end that they may never more revolt, nor -be troublesome to you: send to them and order them to keep no weapons of -war in their possession; and enjoin them to wear tunics under their -cloaks, and buskins on their feet; and require them to teach their sons -to play on the cithara, to strike the guitar, and to sell by retail; and -then you will soon see them becoming women instead of men, so that they -will never give you any apprehensions about their revolting." Crœsus -suggested this plan, thinking it would be more desirable for the -Lydians, than that they should be sold for slaves; and being persuaded, -that unless he could suggest some feasible proposal, he should not -prevail with him to alter his resolution: and he dreaded also, that the -Lydians, if they should escape the present danger, might hereafter -revolt from the Persians, and bring utter ruin on themselves. Cyrus, -pleased with the expedient, laid aside his anger, and said that he would -follow his advice: then having sent for Mazares, a Mede, he commanded -him to order the Lydians to conform themselves to the regulations -proposed by Crœsus, and moreover to enslave all the rest who had joined -the Lydians in the attack on Sardis; but by all means to bring Pactyas -to him alive. Cyrus having given these orders on his way, proceeded to -the settlements of the Persians. But Pactyas heard that the army which -was coming against him was close at hand, and fled in great -consternation to Cyme. Mazares marched against Sardis with an -inconsiderable division of Cyrus's army, but found that Pactyas and his -party were no longer there. He, however, compelled the Lydians to -conform to the injunctions of Cyrus; who, by his order, completely -changed their mode of life: after this Mazares despatched messengers to -Cyme, requiring them to deliver up Pactyas. But the Cymæans, in order to -come to a decision, resolved to refer the matter to the deity at -Branchidæ, for an oracular shrine was there erected in former times, -which all the Ionians and Æolians were in the practice of consulting. -The Cymæans asked the oracle "what course they should pursue respecting -Pactyas, that would be most pleasing to the gods:" the answer to their -question was, that they should deliver up Pactyas to the Persians. When -this answer was reported, they determined to give him up; but, -Aristodicus the son of Heraclides, a man of high repute among the -citizens, distrusting the oracle, and suspecting the sincerity of the -consulters, prevented them from doing so; till at last other messengers, -among whom was Aristodicus, went to inquire a second time concerning -Pactyas. When they arrived at Branchidæ, Aristodicus consulted the -oracle in the name of all, inquiring in these words: "O king, Pactyas, a -Lydian, has come to us as a suppliant, to avoid a violent death at the -hands of the Persians. They now demand him, and require the Cymæans to -give him up. We, however, though we dread the Persian power, have not -yet dared to surrender the suppliant, till it be plainly declared by -thee what we ought to do." The oracle gave the same answer as before. -Upon this Aristodicus deliberately acted as follows; walking round the -temple, he took away all the sparrows and all other kinds of birds that -had built nests in the temple; whereupon a voice issued from the -sanctuary; addressing Aristodicus, it spoke as follows: "O most impious -of men, how darest thou do this? Dost thou tear my suppliants from my -temple?" Aristodicus without hesitation answered, "O king, art thou then -so careful to succor thy suppliants, but biddest the Cymæans to deliver -up theirs?" The oracle again rejoined: "Yes, I bid you do so; that -having acted impiously, ye may the sooner perish, and never more come -and consult the oracle about the delivering up of suppliants." When the -Cymæans heard this latter answer, not wishing to bring destruction on -themselves by surrendering Pactyas, or to subject themselves to a siege -by protecting him, they sent him away to Mitylene. But the Mitylenæans, -when Mazares sent a message to them requiring them to deliver up -Pactyas, were preparing to do so for some remuneration; what, I am -unable to say precisely, for the proposal was never completed. For the -Cymæans, being informed of what was being done by the Mitylenæans, -despatched a vessel to Lesbos, and transported Pactyas to Chios, whence -he was torn by violence from the temple of Minerva Poliuchus by the -Chians, and delivered up. The Chians delivered him up in exchange for -Atarneus, a place situate in Mysia, opposite Lesbos. In this manner -Pactyas fell into the hands of the Persians; who kept him under guard in -order that they might deliver him to Cyrus. For a long time after this, -none of the Chians would offer barley-meal from Atarneus to any of the -gods, or make any cakes of the fruit that came from them; but all the -productions of that country were excluded from the temples. Mazares, -after this, marched against those who had assisted in besieging Tabalus; -and in the first place reduced the Prienians to slavery, and in the next -overran the whole plain of the Mæander, and gave it to his army to -pillage; and he treated Magnesia in the same manner: but shortly -afterward fell sick and died. - -On his death Harpagus came down as his successor in the command; he also -was by birth a Mede, the same whom Astyages king of the Medes -entertained at the impious feast, and who assisted Cyrus in ascending -the throne. This man being appointed general by Cyrus, on his arrival in -Ionia, took several cities by means of earth-works; for he forced the -people to retire within their fortifications, and then, having heaped up -mounds against the walls, he carried the cities by storm. Phocæa was the -first place in Ionia that he attacked. - -These Phocæans were the first of all the Greeks who undertook long -voyages, and they are the people who discovered the Adriatic and -Tyrrhenian seas, Iberia, and Tartessus.[7] They made their voyages in -fifty-oared galleys, and not in merchant-ships. When they arrived at -Tartessus they were kindly received by the king of the Tartessians, -whose name was Arganthonius; he reigned eighty years over Tartessus, and -lived to the age of one hundred and twenty. The Phocæans became such -great favorites with him, that he at first solicited them to abandon -Ionia, and to settle in any part of his territory they should choose; -but afterward, finding he could not prevail with them to accept his -offer, and hearing from them the increasing power of the Mede, he gave -them money for the purpose of building a wall around their city; he must -have given it unsparingly, for the wall is not a few stades in -circumference, and is entirely built of large and well-compacted stones. -When Harpagus had marched his army against the Phocæans, he besieged -them, but offered these terms: "that he would be content if the Phocæans -would throw down only one of their battlements, and consecrate one house -_to the king's use_." The Phocæans, detesting slavery, said, "that they -wished for one day to deliberate, and would then give their answer"; but -while they were deliberating they required him to draw off his forces -from the wall. Harpagus said, that "though he well knew their design, -yet he would permit them to consult together." In the interval, then, -during which Harpagus withdrew his army from the wall, the Phocæans -launched their fifty-oared galleys, and having put their wives, -children, and goods on board, together with the images from the temples -and other offerings, except works of bronze or stone, or pictures, they -embarked themselves, and set sail for Chios: and the Persians took -possession of Phocæa, abandoned by all its inhabitants. The Phocæans, -when the Chians refused to sell them the Œnyssæ Islands, for fear they -should become the seat of trade, and their own island be thereby -excluded, directed their course to Cyrnus; where, by the admonition of -an oracle, they had twenty years before built a city, named Alalia. But -Arganthonius was at that time dead. On their passage to Cyrnus, having -first sailed down to Phocæa, they put to death the Persian garrison -which had been left by Harpagus to guard the city. Afterward, when this -was accomplished, they pronounced terrible imprecations on any who -should desert the fleet; besides this, they sunk a mass of red-hot iron, -and swore "that they would never return to Phocæa, till this burning -mass should appear again." Nevertheless, as they were on their way -toward Cyrnus, more than one half of the citizens were seized with -regret and yearning for their city and dwellings in the country, and -violating their oaths, sailed back to Phocæa; but such of them as kept -to their oath weighed anchor and sailed from the Œnyssæ Islands. On -their arrival at Cyrnus they lived for five years in common with the -former settlers: but as they ravaged the territories of all their -neighbors, the Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians combined together to make -war against them, each with sixty ships: and the Phocæans, on their -part, having manned their ships, consisting of sixty in number, met them -in the Sardinian Sea; and having engaged, the Phocæans obtained a kind -of Cadmean victory;[8] for forty of their own ships were destroyed, and -the twenty that survived were disabled, for their prows were blunted. -They therefore sailed back to Alalia, took on board their wives and -children, with what property their ships were able to carry, and leaving -Cyrnus, sailed to Rhegium. As to the men belonging to the ships -destroyed, most of them fell into the hands of the Carthaginians and -Tyrrhenians, who took them on shore and stoned them to death. But -afterward all animals belonging to the Argyllæans that passed by the -spot where the Phocæans who had been stoned lay, became distorted, -maimed, and crippled, as well sheep, as beasts of burden and men. The -Argyllæans, therefore, being anxious to expiate the guilt, sent to -Delphi; and the Pythian enjoined them to use those rites which they -still observe; for they commemorate their death with great magnificence, -and have established gymnastic and equestrian contests. This was the -fate of these Phocæans; but the others, who fled to Rhegium, left that -place, and got possession of the town in the territory of Œnotria, which -is now called Hyela, which they colonized by the advice of a certain -Posidonian, who told them the Pythia had directed them to establish -sacred rites to Cyrnus as being a hero, but not to colonize the island -of that name. - -The Teians also acted nearly in the same manner as the Phocæans. For -when Harpagus by means of his earth-works had made himself master of -their walls, they all went on board their ships, and sailed away to -Thrace, and there settled in the city of Abdera; which Timesius of -Clazomenæ having formerly founded, did not enjoy, but was driven out by -the Thracians, and is now honored as a hero by the Teians of Abdera. - -These were the only Ionians who abandoned their country rather than -submit to servitude. The rest, except the Milesians, gave battle to -Harpagus, and as well as those who abandoned their country, proved -themselves brave men, each fighting for his own; but defeated and -subdued, they remained in their own countries, and submitted to the -commands imposed on them. The Milesians, as I have before mentioned, -having made a league with Cyrus, remained quiet. So was Ionia a second -time enslaved, and the islanders, dreading the same fate, made their -submission to Cyrus. When the Ionians were brought into this wretched -condition, and nevertheless still held assemblies at Panionium, I am -informed that Bias of Priene gave them most salutary advice, which, had -they harkened to him, would have made them the most flourishing of all -the Greeks. He advised, "that the Ionians, should sail in one common -fleet to Sardinia, and there build one city for all the Ionians; thus -being freed from servitude, they would flourish, inhabiting the most -considerable of the islands, and governing the rest; whereas if they -remained in Ionia, he saw no hope of recovering their liberty." But -before Ionia was ruined, the suggestion of Thales, the Milesian, who was -of Phœnician extraction, was also good, who advised that the Ionians -should constitute one general council in Teos, which stands in the -centre of Ionia; and that the rest of the inhabited cities should be -governed as independent states. - -Harpagus having subdued Ionia, marched against the Carians, Cannians, -Lycians, Ionians, and Æolians; of whom the Carians were by far the most -famous of all nations in those times. They introduced three inventions -which the Greeks have adopted. For the Carians set the example of -fastening crests upon helmets and of putting devices on shields; they -are also the first who attached handles to shields; until their time all -who used shields carried them without handles, guiding them with -leathern thongs, having them slung round their necks and left shoulders. - -The Lycians were originally sprung from Crete, for in ancient time Crete -was entirely in the possession of barbarians. But a dispute having -arisen between Sarpedon and Minos, sons of Europa, respecting the -sovereign power, when Minos got the upper hand in the struggle, he drove -out Sarpedon with his partisans; and they being expelled came to the -land of Milyas in Asia, and were afterwards joined by Lycus son of -Pandion of Athens, who was likewise driven out by his brother Ægeus, and -came to be called Lycians after him. Their customs are partly Cretan and -partly Carian; but they have one peculiar to themselves, in which they -differ from all other nations: they take their name from their mothers -and not from their fathers; so that if any one asks another who he is, -he will describe himself by his mother's side, and reckon his ancestry -in the female line. And if a free-born woman marry a slave, the children -are accounted of pure birth; but if a man though a citizen, and of high -rank, marry a foreigner, the children are considered low born. - -All Cnidia, except a small space, is surrounded by water; for the -Ceramic gulf bounds it on the north, and on the south the sea by Syme -and Rhodes: now this small space, which is about five stades in breadth, -the Cnidians, wishing to make their territory insular, designed to dig -through, while Harpagus was subduing Ionia. For the whole of their -dominions were within the isthmus; and where the Cnidian territory -terminates toward the continent, there is the isthmus that they designed -to dig through. But, as they were carrying on the work with great -diligence, the workmen appeared to be wounded to a greater extent and in -a more strange manner than usual, both in other parts of the body, and -particularly in the eyes, by the chipping of the rock; they therefore -sent deputies to Delphi to inquire what was the cause of the -obstruction; and, as the Cnidians say, the Pythia answered as follows in -trimeter verse: "Build not a tower on the isthmus, nor dig it through, -for Jove would have made it an island had he so willed." So the Cnidians -desisted from their work, and surrendered without resistance to -Harpagus, as soon as he approached with his army. The Pedasians were -situated inland above Halicarnassus. When any mischief is about to -befall them or their neighbors, the priestess of Minerva has a long -beard: this has three times occurred. These were the only people about -Caria who opposed Harpagus for any time and gave him much trouble, by -fortifying a mountain called Lyda. After some time, however, they were -subdued. The Lycians, when Harpagus marched his army toward the Xanthian -plain, went out to meet him, and engaging with very inferior numbers, -displayed great feats of valor. But being defeated and shut up within -their city, they collected their wives, children, property, and servants -within the citadel, and then set fire to it and burnt it to the ground. -When they had done this, and engaged themselves by the strongest oaths, -all the Xanthians went out and died fighting. Of the modern Lycians, who -are said to be Xanthians, all, except eighty families, are strangers; -but these eighty families happened at the time to be away from home and -so survived. Thus Harpagus got possession of Xanthus and Caunia almost -in the same manner; for the Caunians generally followed the example of -the Lycians. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE CONQUEST OF ASSYRIA AND THE WAR WITH THE MASSAGETÆ. - - -While Harpagus was reducing the lower parts of Asia, Cyrus had conquered -the upper parts, subduing every nation without exception. The greatest -parts of these I shall pass by without notice; but I will make mention -of those which gave him most trouble, and are most worthy of being -recorded. - -Assyria contains many large cities, the most renowned and the strongest -of which, where the seat of government was established after the -destruction of Nineveh, was Babylon, which is of the following -description. The city stands in a spacious plain, and is quadrangular, -and shows a front on every side of one hundred and twenty stades [15 -miles]; these stades make up the sum of four hundred and eighty in the -whole circumference. It was adorned in a manner surpassing any city we -are acquainted with. In the first place, a moat deep, wide, and full of -water, runs entirely round it; next, there is a wall fifty royal cubits -in breadth [about 84 feet], and in height two hundred [270 feet], but -the royal cubit is larger than the common one by three fingers' breadth. -And here I think I ought to explain how the earth, taken out of the -moat, was consumed, and in what manner the wall was built. As they dug -the moat they made bricks of the earth that was taken out; and when they -had moulded a sufficient number they baked them in kilns. Then making -use of hot asphalt for cement, and laying wattled reeds between the -thirty bottom courses of bricks, they first built up the sides of the -moat, and afterward the wall itself in the same manner; and on the top -of the wall, at the edges, they built dwellings of one story, fronting -each other, having spaces between these dwellings wide enough to turn a -chariot with four horses. In the circumference of the wall there were a -hundred gates, all of bronze, as also were the posts and lintels. Eight -days' journey from Babylon [200 miles] stands another city, called Is, -on a small river of the same name, which discharges its stream into the -Euphrates; this river brings down with its water many lumps of bitumen, -from which the bitumen used in the wall of Babylon was taken. The city -consists of two divisions, for the Euphrates, separates it in the -middle: this river, which is broad, deep, and rapid, flows from Armenia, -and falls into the Red Sea. The wall on either bank has an elbow carried -down to the river; and thence along the curvatures of each bank runs a -wall of baked bricks. The city itself, which is full of houses three and -four stories high, is cut up into straight streets running at right -angles to each other. At the end of each street a little gate is formed -in the wall along the river side, in number equal to the streets; and -they are all made of bronze, and lead down to the edge of the river. -This outer wall is the chief defence, but another wall runs round -within, not much inferior to the other in strength, though narrower. In -the middle of each division of the city fortified buildings were -erected; in one, the royal palace, with a spacious and strong enclosure, -bronze-gated; and in the other, the precinct of Jupiter Belus, which in -my time was still in existence, a square building of two stades [¼ of a -mile] on every side. In the midst of this precinct is built a solid -tower of one stade both in length and breadth, and on this tower rose -another, and another upon that, to the number of eight. And there is an -ascent to these outside, running spirally round all the towers. About -the middle of the ascent there is a landing-place and seats on which -those who go up may rest themselves; and in the uppermost tower stands a -spacious temple, handsomely furnished, and in it a large couch, with a -table of gold by its side. No statue has been erected within it, but as -the Chaldæans, who are priests of this deity, assert, though I cannot -credit what they say, the god himself comes to the temple and reclines -on the bed, in the same manner as the Egyptians say happens at Thebes in -Egypt. - -There is also another temple below, within the precinct at Babylon; in -it is a large golden statue of Jupiter seated, and near it a great table -of gold; the throne also and the step are of gold, which together weigh -eight hundred talents [twenty-two tons], as the Chaldæans affirm. -Outside the temple is a golden altar; and another large altar, where -full-grown sheep are sacrificed; for on the golden altar only sucklings -may be offered. On the great altar the Chaldæans consume yearly a -thousand talents [twenty-seven tons] of frankincense when they celebrate -the festival of this god. There was also at that time within the -precincts of this temple a statue of solid gold, twelve cubits high -[eighteen feet]; I, indeed, did not see it, but only relate what is said -by the Chaldæans. Darius, son of Hystaspes, formed a design to take away -this statue, but dared not do so; but Xerxes, son of Darius, took it, -and killed the priest who forbade him to remove it. - -There were many others who reigned over Babylon, whom I shall mention in -my Assyrian history, who beautified the walls and temples, and amongst -them were two women. The first of these, named Semiramis, lived five -generations before the other; she raised mounds along the plain, which -are worthy of admiration; for before, the river used to overflow the -whole plain like a sea. But the other, who was queen next after her, and -whose name was Nitocris, (and she was much more sagacious than the other -queen,) in the first place left monuments of herself, which I shall -presently describe; and in the next place, when she saw the power of the -Medes growing formidable and restless, and that, among other cities, -Nineveh was captured by them, she took every possible precaution for her -own defence. First of all, the River Euphrates, which before ran in a -straight line, and which flows through the middle of the city, by having -channels dug above, she made so winding, that in its course it touched -three times at one and the same village in Assyria, called Arderica: and -to this day, those who go from our sea to Babylon, if they travel by the -Euphrates, come three times to this village on three successive days. -She also raised on either bank of the river a mound, astonishing for its -magnitude and height. At a considerable distance above Babylon, she had -a reservoir for a lake dug, carrying it out some distance from the -river, and in the depth digging down to water, and in width making its -circumference of four hundred and twenty stades [about fifty-two and a -half miles]: she consumed the soil from this excavation by heaping it up -on the banks of the river, and when it was completely dug, she had -stones brought and built a casing to it all round. She had both these -works done, the river made winding, and the whole excavation a lake, in -order that the current, being broken by frequent turnings, might be more -slow, and the navigation to Babylon tedious, and that after the voyage, -a long march round the lake might follow. All this was done in that part -of the country where the approach to Babylon is nearest, and where is -the shortest way for the Medes; in order that the Medes might not, by -holding intercourse with her people, become acquainted with her affairs. -She enclosed herself, therefore, with these defences by digging, and -immediately afterwards made the following addition. As the city -consisted of two divisions, which were separated by the river, during -the reign of former kings, when any one had occasion to cross from one -division to the other, he was obliged to cross in a boat: and this, in -my opinion, was very troublesome: she therefore provided for this, for -after she had dug the reservoir for the lake, she left this other -monument built by similar toil. She had large blocks of stone cut, and -when they were ready and the place was completely dug out, she turned -the whole stream of the river into the place she had dug: while this was -filling, and the ancient channel had become dry, in the first place, she -lined with burnt bricks the banks of the river throughout the city, and -the descents that lead from the gates to the river, in the same manner -as the walls. In the next place, about the middle of the city, she built -a bridge with the stones she had prepared, and bound them together with -plates of lead and iron. Upon these stones she laid, during the day, -square planks of timber, on which the Babylonians might pass over; but -at night these planks were removed, to prevent people from crossing by -night and robbing one another. When the hollow that was dug had become a -lake filled by the river, and the bridge was finished, she brought back -the river to its ancient channel from the lake. - -[Illustration: WINGED HUMAN-HEADED LION.] - -The same queen also contrived the following deception. Over the most -frequented gate of the city she prepared a sepulchre for herself, high -up above the gate itself; and on the sepulchre she had engraved, -SHOULD ANY ONE OF MY SUCCESSORS, KINGS OF BABYLON, FIND HIMSELF IN -WANT OF MONEY, LET HIM OPEN THIS SEPULCHRE, AND TAKE AS MUCH AS HE -CHOOSES; BUT IF HE BE NOT IN WANT, LET HIM NOT OPEN IT; FOR THAT WERE -NOT WELL. This monument remained undisturbed, until the kingdom -fell to Darius; but it seemed hard to Darius that this gate should be of -no use, and that when money was lying there, and this money inviting him -to take it, he should not do so; but no use was made of this gate for -this reason, that a dead body was over the head of any one who passed -through it. He therefore opened the sepulchre, and instead of money, -found only the body, and these words written: HADST THOU NOT BEEN -INSATIABLY COVETOUS, AND GREEDY OF THE MOST SORDID GAIN, THOU WOULDEST -NOT HAVE OPENED THE CHAMBERS OF THE DEAD. - -Cyrus made war against the son of this queen, who bore the name of his -father Labynetus, and had the empire of Assyria. Now when the great king -leads his army in person, he carries with him from home well prepared -provisions and cattle; and he takes with him water from the river -Choaspes, which flows past Susa, of which alone, the king drinks. A -great number of four-wheeled carriages drawn by mules carry the water of -this river, after it has been boiled in silver vessels, and follow him -from place to place wherever he marches. Cyrus, in his march against -Babylon, arrived at the river Gyndes, whose fountains are in the -Matianian mountains, and which flows through the land of the Dardanians, -and falls into another river, the Tigris; the latter, flowing by the -city of Opis, discharges itself into the Red Sea. When Cyrus was -endeavoring to cross this river Gyndes, which can be passed only in -boats, one of the sacred white horses through wantonness plunged into -the stream, and attempted to swim over, but the stream having carried -him away and drowned him, Cyrus was much enraged with the river for this -affront, and threatened to make his stream so weak, that henceforth -women should easily cross it without wetting their knees. After this -menace, deferring his expedition against Babylon, he divided his army -into two parts; and marked out by lines one hundred and eighty channels, -on each side of the river, diverging every way; then having distributed -his army, he commanded them to dig. His design was indeed executed by -the great numbers he employed; but they spent the whole summer in the -work. When Cyrus had avenged himself on the river Gyndes, by -distributing it into three hundred and sixty channels, and the second -spring began to shine, he then advanced against Babylon. But the -Babylonians, having taken the field, awaited his coming; and when he had -advanced near the city, the Babylonians gave battle, and, being -defeated, were shut up in the city. But as they had been long aware of -the restless spirit of Cyrus, and saw that he attacked all nations -alike, they had laid up provisions for many years; and therefore were -under no apprehensions about a siege. On the other hand, Cyrus found -himself in difficulty, since much time had elapsed, and his affairs were -not at all advanced. Whether therefore some one else made the suggestion -to him in his perplexity, or whether he himself devised the plan, he had -recourse to the following stratagem. Having stationed the bulk of his -army near the passage of the river where it enters Babylon, and again -having stationed another division beyond the city, where the river makes -its exit, he gave orders to his forces to enter the city as soon as they -should see the stream fordable. Having thus stationed his forces, and -given these directions, he himself marched away with the ineffective -part of his army; and coming to the lake, Cyrus did the same with -respect to the river and the lake as the queen of the Babylonians had -done. For having diverted the river, by means of a canal, into the lake, -which was before a swamp, he made the ancient channel fordable by the -sinking of the river. When this took place, the Persians who were -appointed to that purpose close to the stream of the river, which had -now subsided to about the middle of a man's thigh, entered Babylon by -this passage. If, however, the Babylonians had been aware of it -beforehand, or had known what Cyrus was about, they would not have -suffered the Persians to enter the city, but would have utterly -destroyed them; for having shut all the little gates that lead down to -the river, and mounting the walls that extend along the banks of the -river, they would have caught them as in a net; whereas the Persians -came upon them by surprise. It is related by the people who inhabited -this city, that on account of its great extent, when they who were at -the extremities were taken, those of the Babylonians who inhabited the -centre knew nothing of the capture (for it happened to be a festival) -but they were dancing at the time, and enjoying themselves, till they -received certain information of the truth. Thus was Babylon taken for -the first time.[9] - -How great was the power of the Babylonians, I can prove by many other -circumstances, and especially by the following. The whole territory over -which the great king reigns, is divided into districts for the purpose -of furnishing subsistence for him and his army, in addition to the usual -tribute; of the twelve months in the year, the Babylonian territory -provides him with subsistence for four, and all the rest of Asia for the -remaining eight; so that the territory of Assyria amounts to a third -part of the power of all Asia, and the government of this region, which -the Persians call a satrapy, is remunerative; since it yielded a full -artabe of silver every day to Tritæchmes son of Artabazus, who held this -district from the king: the artabe is a Persian measure, containing -three Attic chœnices more than the Attic medimnus [or about twelve and a -half gallons]. And he had a private stud of horses, in addition to those -used in war, of eight hundred stallions, and sixteen thousand mares. He -kept, too, such a number of Indian dogs, that four considerable towns in -the plain were exempted from all other taxes and appointed to find food -for the dogs. Such were the advantages accruing to the governor of -Babylon. The land of Assyria is but little watered by rain, only enough -in fact to nourish the root of the corn; the stalk grows up, and the -grain comes to maturity only by being irrigated from the river, not, as -in Egypt, by the river overflowing the fields, but by the hand and by -engines. The Babylonian territory, like Egypt, is intersected by canals; -and the largest of these is navigable, stretching in the direction of -the winter sunrise[10]; and it extends from the Euphrates to another -river, the Tigris, on which the city of Nineveh stood. This is, of all -lands with which we are acquainted, by far the best for the growth of -corn: but it does not carry produce trees of any kind, either the fig, -or the vine, or the olive; yet it is so fruitful in the produce of corn, -that it yields continually two hundred-fold, and when it produces its -best, it yields even three hundred-fold. The blades of wheat and barley -grow there to fully four fingers (three inches) in breadth; and though I -well know to what a height millet and sesama grow, I shall not mention -it; for I am well assured, that to those who have never been in the -Babylonian country, what has been said concerning its productions will -appear to many incredible. They use no other oil than such as is drawn -from sesama. They have palm-trees growing all over the plain; most of -these bear fruit from which they make bread, wine, and honey. They also -tie the fruit of that which the Greeks call the male palm, about those -trees that bear dates, in order that the fly entering the date may ripen -it, lest otherwise the fruit may fall before maturity; for the male -palms have flies in the fruit, just like wild fig-trees. - -The most wonderful thing of all, next to the city itself, is what I am -now going to describe: their vessels that sail down the river to Babylon -are circular, and made of leather. For when they have cut the ribs out -of willows that grow in Armenia above Babylon, they cover them with -hides extended on the outside, by way of a bottom; not making any -distinction in the stern, nor contracting the prow, but making them -circular like a buckler; then having lined this vessel throughout with -reeds, they suffer it to be carried down by the river freighted with -merchandise, chiefly casks of palm-wine. The vessel is steered by two -spars, held by two men standing upright, one of whom draws his spar in -and the other thrusts his out. Some of these vessels are made very -large, and others of a smaller size; but the largest of them carry a -cargo of five thousand talents [about one hundred and thirty-five tons]. -Every vessel has a live ass on board, and the larger ones more. For -after they arrive at Babylon, and have disposed of their freight, they -sell the ribs of the boat and all the reeds by public auction; then -having piled the skins on the asses, they return by land to Armenia, for -it is not possible by any means to sail up the river because of the -rapidity of the current: and for this reason they make their vessels of -skins and not of wood, and upon their return to Armenia with their -asses, they construct other vessels in the same manner. For their dress, -they wear a linen tunic that reaches down to the feet; over this they -put another garment of wool, and over all a short white cloak; they have -sandals peculiar to the country, very much like the Bœotian clogs. They -wear long hair, binding their heads with turbans, and anoint the whole -body with perfumes. Every man has a seal, and a staff curiously wrought; -and on every staff is carved either an apple, a rose, a lily, an eagle, -or something of the kind; for it is not allowable to wear a stick -without a device. - -Many curious customs prevail amongst them. This, in my opinion, is the -wisest, which I hear the Venetians, of Illyria, also practise. Once a -year, in every village, whatever maidens are of a marriageable age, they -collect together and bring in a body to one place; around them gathers a -crowd of men. Then a crier having made them stand up one by one, offers -them for sale, beginning with the most beautiful; and when she has been -sold for a large sum, he puts up another who is next in beauty. They are -sold on condition that they shall be married. Such men among the -Babylonians as are rich and desirous of marrying, bid against one -another, and purchase the handsomest. But such of the lower classes as -are desirous of marrying, do not require a beautiful form, but are -willing to take the plainer damsels with a sum of money. So when the -crier has finished selling the handsomest of the maidens, he makes the -ugliest stand up, or one that is a cripple, and puts her up to auction, -for the person who will marry her with the smallest sum, until she is -knocked down to the man who offers to take the least. This money is that -obtained from the sale of the handsome maidens; so that the beautiful -ones portion out the ugly and the crippled. A father is not allowed to -give his daughter in marriage to whom he pleases, nor can a purchaser -carry off a maiden without security; but he is first obliged to give -security that he will certainly marry her, and then he may take her -away. If they do not agree, a law has been enacted that the money shall -be repaid. It is also lawful for any one who pleases to come from -another village and purchase. They have also this other custom, second -only to the former in wisdom. They bring their sick to the market-place, -for they have no physicians; then those who pass by the sick person -confer with him about the disease, to discover whether they have -themselves been afflicted with the same disease, or have seen others so -afflicted. They then advise him to have recourse to the same treatment -as that by which they escaped a similar disease, or have known to cure -others. And no one passes by a sick person in silence, without inquiring -into the nature of his distemper. They embalm their dead in honey, and -their funeral lamentations are like those of the Egyptians. - -There are three tribes among them that eat nothing but fish; these, when -they have taken and dried them in the sun, they treat in the following -manner: they put them into a mortar, and having pounded them with a -pestle, sift them through a fine cloth; then, whoever pleases, kneads -them into a cake, or bakes them like bread. - -When Cyrus had conquered this nation, he was anxious to reduce the -Massagetæ to subjection. This nation is said to be both powerful and -valiant, dwelling toward the east and the rising sun beyond the river -Araxes, over against the Issedonians; there are some who say that this -nation is Scythian. The Araxes is reported by some persons to be -greater, by others less, than the Ister; they say that there are many -islands in it, some nearly equal in size to Lesbos; and that in them are -men, who during the summer feed upon all manner of roots, which they dig -out of the ground; and that they store up for food ripe fruits which -they find on the trees, and feed upon these during the winter. They add, -that they have discovered other trees that produce fruit of a peculiar -kind, which the inhabitants, when they meet together in companies, and -have lighted a fire, throw on it, as they sit around in a circle; and -that, inhaling the fumes of the burning fruit that has been thrown on, -they become intoxicated by the odor, just as the Greeks do by wine; and -that the more fruit is thrown on, the more intoxicated they become, -until they rise up to dance and betake themselves to singing. The river -Araxes flows from the Matienian mountains, whence also springs the river -Gyndes, which Cyrus distributed into the three hundred and sixty -trenches; and it gushes out from forty springs, all of which, except -one, discharge themselves into fens and swamps, in which it is said men -live who feed on raw fish, and clothe themselves in the skins of -sea-calves; but the one stream of the Araxes flows through an -unobstructed channel into the Caspian Sea. The Caspian is a sea by -itself, having no communication with any other sea; for the whole of -that which the Greeks navigate, and that beyond the Pillars, called the -Atlantic, and the Red Sea, are all one. But the Caspian is a separate -sea of itself; being in length a fifteen-days' voyage for a rowing boat; -and in breadth, where it is widest, an eight-days' voyage. On the -western shore of this sea stretches the Caucasus, which is in extent the -largest, and in height the loftiest, of all mountains; it contains -within itself many various nations of men, who for the most part live -upon the produce of wild fruit-trees. In this country, it is said, there -are trees which produce leaves of such a nature, that by rubbing them -and mixing them with water the people paint figures on their garments; -these figures do not wash out, but grow old with the wool, as if they -had been woven in from the first. East of the Caspian is a plain in -extent unbounded in the prospect. A great portion of this extensive -plain is inhabited by the Massagetæ, against whom Cyrus resolved to make -war; for the motives that urged and incited him to this enterprise were -many and powerful: first of all his birth, which he thought was -something more than human; and secondly, the good fortune which had -attended him in his wars; for wherever Cyrus directed his arms, it was -impossible for that nation to escape. - -A woman whose husband was dead, was queen of the Massagetæ; her name was -Tomyris; and Cyrus sent ambassadors under pretence of wooing her, and -made her an offer of marriage. But Tomyris, being aware that he was not -wooing her, but the kingdom of the Massagetæ, forbade their approach. -Upon this Cyrus, perceiving his artifice ineffectual, marched to the -Araxes, and openly prepared to make war on the Massagetæ, by throwing -bridges over the river, and building turrets on the boats which carried -over his army. While he was employed in this work Tomyris sent a herald -to him with this message: "King of the Medes, desist from your great -exertions; for you cannot know if they will terminate to your advantage; -and having desisted, reign over your own dominions, and bear to see me -governing what is mine. But if you will not attend to my advice, and -prefer every thing before peace; in a word, if you are very anxious to -make trial of the Massagetæ, toil no longer in throwing a bridge over -the river; but do you cross over to our side, while we retire three -days' march from the river; or if you had rather receive us on your -side, do you the like." When Cyrus heard this proposal, he called a -council of the principal Persians, laid the matter before them, and -demanded their opinion as to what he should do: they unanimously advised -him to let Tomyris pass with her army into his territory. But Crœsus the -Lydian, who was present and disapproved this advice, delivered a -contrary opinion to that which was put forward, and said: "O king, I -assured you long ago, that since Jupiter delivered me into your hands, I -would to the utmost of my power avert whatever misfortune I should see -impending over your house; and my own calamities,[11] sad as they are, -have been lessons to me. If you think yourself immortal, and that you -command an army that is so too, it is needless for me to make known to -you my opinion. But if you know that you too are a man, and that you -command such as are men, learn this first of all, that there is a wheel -in human affairs, which, continually revolving, does not suffer the same -persons to be always successful. My opinion touching the matter before -us is wholly at variance with that already given. For if we shall -receive the enemy into this country, there is danger that if you are -defeated, you will lose, besides, your whole empire; for it is plain -that if the Massagetæ are victorious, they will not flee home again, but -will march upon your territories: and if you are victorious, your -victory is not so complete as if, having crossed over into their -territory, you should conquer the Massagetæ and put them to flight; for -then you can march directly into the dominions of Tomyris. It is a -disgrace too that Cyrus the son of Cambyses should give way and retreat -before a woman. My opinion, therefore, is, that you should pass over and -advance as far as they retire; and then, by the following stratagem, -endeavor to get the better of them. I hear the Massagetæ are -unacquainted with the Persian luxuries, and are unused to the comforts -of life. Suppose then that you cut up and dress an abundance of cattle, -and lay out a feast in our camp for these men; and besides, bowls of -unmixed wine without stint; then leave the weakest part of your army -behind, while the rest return again toward the river; for the Massagetæ, -if I mistake not, when they see so much excellent fare, will turn to -immediately, and after that there remains for us the display of mighty -achievements." - -Cyrus approved the suggestions of Crœsus and bade Tomyris retire, as he -would cross over to her. She accordingly retired, as she had promised. -Cyrus placed Crœsus in the hands of his son Cambyses, to whom he also -intrusted the kingdom, and having strictly charged him to honor Crœsus, -and treat him well in case his inroad on the Massagetæ should fail, sent -them back to Persia and crossed the river with his army. When he had -passed the Araxes, and night came on, he saw a vision, as he was -sleeping in the country of the Massagetæ. He fancied that he saw the -eldest son of Hystaspes with wings on his shoulders; and that with one -of these he overshadowed Asia, and with the other Europe. Now Darius, -who was then about twenty years of age, was the eldest son of Hystaspes, -son of Arsames, one of the Achæmenides; and he had been left in Persia, -for he had not yet attained the age of military service. When Cyrus -awoke he considered his dream with attention; and as it seemed to him of -great moment, he summoned Hystaspes, and taking him aside, said: -"Hystaspes, your son has been detected plotting against me and my -empire; and I will show you how I know it for a certainty. The gods -watch over me and forewarn me of every thing that is about to befall me. -Now, last night, as I was sleeping, I saw the eldest of your sons with -wings on his shoulders, and with one of these he overshadowed Asia, and -Europe with the other; from this vision, it cannot be otherwise than -that your son is forming designs against me; do you therefore go back to -Persia with all speed, and take care, that when I have conquered these -people and return home, you bring your son before me to be examined." -Cyrus spoke thus under a persuasion that Darius was plotting against -him; but the deity forewarned him that he himself would die in that very -expedition, and that his kingdom would devolve on Darius. Hystaspes, -however, answered in these words: "God forbid, O king, that a Persian -should be born who would plot against you! But if any such there be, may -sudden destruction overtake him, for you have made the Persians free -instead of being slaves, and instead of being ruled over by others to -rule over all; but if any vision informs you that my son is forming any -plot against you, I freely surrender him to you to deal with as you -please." And Hystaspes repassed the Araxes and went to Persia, for the -purpose of keeping his son Darius in custody for Cyrus. - -[Illustration: SEPULCHRAL VASES.] - -Cyrus having advanced one day's march from the Araxes, proceeded to act -according to the suggestion of Crœsus. After this, when Cyrus and the -effective part of the Persian army had marched back to the Araxes, -leaving the ineffective part behind, a third division of the army of the -Massagetæ attacked those of Cyrus' forces that had been left behind, -and, after some resistance, put them to death. Then, seeing the feast -laid out, as soon as they had overcome their enemies they lay down and -feasted; and being filled with food and wine, fell asleep. Then the -Persians attacked them, and put many of them to death, and took a still -greater number prisoners, among them the son of Queen Tomyris, who -commanded the Massagetæ, and whose name was Spargapises. When she heard -what had befallen her army and her son, she sent a herald to Cyrus with -the following message: "Cyrus, insatiate with blood, be not elated with -what has now happened, that by the fruit of the vine, with which ye -yourselves, when filled with it, so rave, that when it descends into -your bodies, evil words float on your lips; be not elated, that by such -a poison you have deceived and conquered my son, instead of by prowess -in battle. But take the good advice that I offer you. Restore my son; -depart out of this country unpunished for having insolently disgraced a -third division of the army of the Massagetæ. But if you will not do -this, I swear by the sun, the Lord of the Massagetæ, that, insatiable as -you are, I will glut you with blood." Cyrus, however, paid no attention -to this message; but Spargapises, the son of Queen Tomyris, as soon as -he recovered from the effects of the wine, and perceived in what a -plight he was, begged of Cyrus that he might be freed from his fetters; -and as soon as he was set free, and found his hands at liberty, he put -himself to death. But Tomyris, finding Cyrus did not listen to her, -assembled all her forces, and engaged with him. I think that this battle -was the most obstinate that was ever fought between barbarians. First of -all, they stood at a distance and used their bows; afterward, when they -had emptied their quivers, they engaged in close fight with their swords -and spears, and thus they continued fighting for a long time, and -neither was willing to give way; but at length the Massagetæ got the -better, and the greater part of the Persian army was cut in pieces on -the spot, and Cyrus himself was killed, after he had reigned twenty-nine -years. Tomyris filled a skin with human blood, sought for the body of -Cyrus among the slain of the Persians, and thrust the head into the -skin, and insulting the dead body, said: "Thou hast indeed ruined me -though alive and victorious in battle, since thou hast taken my son by -stratagem; but I will now glut thee with blood, as I threatened." Of the -many accounts given of the end of Cyrus, this appears to me most worthy -of credit. - -The Massagetæ resemble the Scythians in their dress and mode of living; -they have both horse and foot bow-men, and javelin-men, who are -accustomed to carry battle-axes: they use gold and bronze for every -thing; for in whatever concerns spears, and arrow-points, and -battle-axes, they use bronze; but the head, and belts, and -shoulder-pieces, are ornamented with gold. In like manner with regard to -the chest of horses, they put on breastplates of bronze; but the -bridle-bit and cheek-pieces are ornamented with gold. They make no use -of silver or iron, for neither of those metals are found in their -country, but they have bronze and gold in abundance. Their manners are -as follows: when a man has attained a great age, all his kinsmen meet, -and sacrifice him, together with cattle of several kinds; and when they -have boiled the flesh, they feast on it. This death they account the -most happy; but they do not eat the bodies of those who die of disease; -but bury them in the earth, and think it a great misfortune that they -did not reach the age to be sacrificed. They sow nothing, but live on -cattle, and fish which the river Araxes yields in abundance, and they -are drinkers of milk. They worship the sun only of all the gods, and -sacrifice horses to him; and they assign as the reason of this custom -that they think it right to offer the swiftest of all animals to the -swiftest of all the gods. - -[1] Under the name "barbarians" the Greeks included all who were not -sprung from themselves—all who did not speak the Greek language. - -[2] Syria was at that time the name of Cappadocia, as Herodotus himself -elsewhere states. - -[3] It is generally agreed that the name of Lycurgus's nephew was not -Leobotas, but Charilaus. See the life of Lycurgus in the "Boys' and -Girls' Plutarch." - -[4] There is a Scriptural account of Ecbatana, in the Apocrypha. Judith -i 1-4. - -[5] Major Robinson states that the seven colors described by Herodotus, -are those employed by the Orientals, to denote the seven planetary -bodies. - -[6] Several passages of our author seem to prove that Herodotus wrote -other histories than those which have come down to us. Elsewhere in this -book he speaks of his Assyrian history; and the second of the Libyan. - -[7] Tartessus was situated between the two branches of the Bœtis, now -the Guadalquiver. - -[8] A proverbial expression signifying "that the victors suffered more -than the vanquished." - -[9] It was again taken by Darius; see end of Book III. - -[10] That is, southeast. - -[11] These words "pathemata mathemata" seem to have been a proverb in -the Greek. - -[Illustration: ÆGYPTUS] - - - - -_BOOK II. EUTERPE._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -PHYSICAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. - - -After the death of Cyrus, Cambyses succeeded to the kingdom. He was son -of Cyrus, and Cassandane the daughter of Pharnaspes; she having died -some time before, Cyrus deeply mourned for her himself, and commanded -all his subjects to mourn. Cambyses then considered the Ionians and -Æolians as his hereditary slaves, and when he made an expedition against -Egypt, he took with him some of the Greeks over whom he bore rule. - -The Egyptians, before the reign of Psammitichus, considered themselves -to be the most ancient of mankind. But after Psammitichus came to the -throne, he endeavored to ascertain who really were the most ancient, and -from that time they have considered the Phrygians to have been an older -race than themselves. When Psammitichus was unable, by inquiry, to -discover any solution of the question, who were the most ancient of men, -he devised this expedient. He gave two new-born children of poor parents -to a shepherd, to be brought up among his flocks, with strict orders -that no one should utter a word in their presence, that they should lie -in a solitary room by themselves, and that the shepherd should bring -goats' milk to them at certain times, and listen to discover what word -the children would first articulate, after they had given over their -insignificant mewlings. When the shepherd had pursued this plan for the -space of two years, one day as he opened the door and went in, both the -children fell upon him, and holding out their hands, cried "Becos." At -first the shepherd said nothing; but as this same word was repeated to -him whenever he went and tended the children, he at length acquainted -his master, and by his command brought the children into his presence. -When Psammitichus heard it he inquired what people call any thing by the -name of "Becos"; and discovered that the Phrygians call bread by that -name. So the Egyptians, convinced by the experiment, allowed that the -Phrygians were more ancient than themselves. This relation I had from -the priests of Vulcan at Memphis. But the Greeks tell many other foolish -things, among them, that Psammitichus, having had the tongues of some -women cut out, had the children brought up by them. - -The Egyptians were the first to discover the year, which they divided -into twelve parts, making this discovery from the stars; and so, I -think, they act more wisely than the Greeks, who insert an intercalary -month every third year, on account of the seasons; while the Egyptians, -reckoning twelve months of thirty days each, add five days each year -above that number, so that the circle of the seasons comes round to the -same point. They say also, that the Egyptians were the first who -introduced the names of the twelve gods, and that the Greeks borrowed -those names from them; that they were the first to assign altars, -images, and temples to the gods, and to carve the figures of animals on -stone. They add that Menes was the first mortal who reigned over Egypt, -and that in his time all Egypt, except the district of Thebes, was a -morass, and that no part of the land that now exists below Lake Myris -was then above water; to this place from the sea is a seven-days' -passage up the river. It is evident to a man of common understanding, -who sees it, that the part of Egypt which the Greeks frequent with their -shipping, is land reclaimed by the Egyptians, and a gift from the river; -for when you are at the distance of a day's sail from land, if you cast -the lead you will bring up mud, yet find yourself in eleven fathoms of -water; showing the immense alluvial deposit. - -[Illustration: THE TWO GREAT PYRAMIDS AT THE TIME OF THE INUNDATION.] - -The length of Egypt along the sea-coast is sixty schœni (450 miles) from -the Plinthinetic Bay to Lake Serbonis, near which Mount Casius -stretches. Men who are short of land measure their territory by fathoms; -those who have some possessions, by stades; those who have much, by -parasangs; and such as have a very great extent, by schœni. A parasang -is equal to thirty stades, and each schœnus, which is an Egyptian -measure, is equal to sixty stades. So the whole coast of Egypt is three -thousand six hundred stades in length. As far as Heliopolis, inland, -Egypt is wide, flat, without water, and a swamp. The distance to -Heliopolis, as one goes up from the sea, is about equal in length to the -road from Athens—that is to say, from the altar of the twelve gods,—to -Pisa and the temple of Olympian Jupiter, or about fifteen hundred -stades. From Heliopolis upward Egypt is narrow, for on one side the -table-land of Arabia extends from north to south and southwest, -stretching up continuously to that which is called the Red Sea. In this -plateau are the stone quarries which were cut for the pyramids at -Memphis. Where its length is the greatest, I have heard that it is a -two-months' journey from east to west; and that eastward its confines -produce frankincense. On that side of Egypt which borders upon Libya -extends another rocky table-land covered with sand, on which the -pyramids stand, stretching in the same direction as that part of the -Arabian mountain that runs southward. - -The greater part of all this country, as the priests informed me, has -been reclaimed by the Egyptians from the sea and the marshes. For the -space beyond the city of Memphis seems to me to have been formerly a bay -of the sea; as is the case also with the parts about Ilium, Teuthrania, -Ephesus, and the plain of the Mæander, if I may be permitted to compare -small things with great. There are other rivers not equal in size to the -Nile, which have wrought great works; amongst them one of the most -remarkable is the Achelous which, flowing through Acarnania, and falling -into the sea, has already converted one half of the Echinades islands -into a continent. There is in the Arabian territory, not far from Egypt, -branching from the Red Sea, a bay of the sea of such a length that the -voyage, from the innermost part of this bay to the broad sea, occupies -forty days for a vessel with oars; but the width, where the bay is -widest, only half a day's passage, and in it an ebb and flow takes place -daily; and I am of opinion that Egypt was formerly a similar bay; this -stretching from the Northern Sea toward Ethiopia; and the Arabian Bay, -which I am describing, from the south toward Syria; and that they almost -perforated their recesses so as to meet each other, overlapping to some -small extent. Now, if the Nile were to turn its stream into this Arabian -gulf, what could hinder it from being filled with soil by the river -within twenty thousand years?—for my part, I think it would be filled -within ten thousand. How, then, in the time that has elapsed before I -was born, might not even a much greater bay than this have been filled -up by such a great and powerful river? I therefore give credit to those -who relate these things concerning Egypt, when I see that Egypt projects -beyond the adjoining land; that shells are found on the mountains; that -a saline humor forms on the surface so as even to corrode the pyramids; -and that this mountain which is above Memphis is the only one in Egypt -that abounds in sand: add to which, that Egypt, in its soil, is neither -like Arabia or its confines, nor Libya, nor Syria, but is black and -crumbling, as if it were mud and alluvial deposit, brought down by the -river from Ethiopia; whereas we know that the earth of Libya is reddish, -and somewhat more sandy; and that of Arabia and Syria is clayey and -flinty. - -The priests relate that in the reign of Mœris, when the river rose at -least eight cubits, it irrigated all Egypt below Memphis; and yet Mœris -had not been nine hundred years dead when I received this information. -But now, unless the river rises sixteen cubits, or fifteen at least, it -does not overflow the country. It appears to me, therefore, that if the -soil continues to grow in height, in the same proportion, those -Egyptians below Lake Mœris, who inhabit other districts than that which -is called Delta, must, by reason of the Nile not overflowing their land, -for ever suffer the same calamity which they used to say the Greeks -would suffer from. For hearing that all the lands of Greece were watered -by rain, and not by rivers, as their own was, they said "that the Greeks -at some time or other would suffer miserably from famine." But let me -state how the matter stands with the Egyptians themselves: if, as I said -before, the land below Memphis should continue to increase in height in -the same proportion as it has done in time past, what else will happen -but that the Egyptians who inhabit this part will starve, if their land -shall neither be watered by rain, nor the river be able to inundate the -fields? Now, indeed, they gather in the fruits of the earth with less -labor than any other people, for they have not the toil of breaking up -the furrows with the plough, nor of hoeing, nor of any other work which -all other men must labor at to obtain a crop of corn; but when the river -has come of its own accord and irrigated their fields, and again -subsided, then each man sows his own land and turns swine into it; and -when the seed has been trodden in by the swine, he waits for -harvest-time; then he treads out the corn with his swine, and gathers it -in. - -All Egypt, beginning from the cataracts and the city of Elephantine, is -divided into two parts, and partakes of both names; one belongs to -Libya, and the other to Asia. The Nile, beginning from the cataracts, -flows to the sea, dividing Egypt in the middle. Now, as far as the city -of Cercasorus, the Nile flows in one stream; but from that point it is -divided into three channels. That which runs eastward is called the -Pelusiac mouth; another of the channels bends westward, and is called -the Canopic mouth; but the direct channel of the Nile is the following: -descending from above, it comes to the point of the Delta, where it -divides the Delta in the middle, and discharges itself into the sea, -supplying by this channel, not by any means the least quantity of water, -nor the least renowned; this is called the Sebennytic mouth. There are -also two other mouths, that diverge from the Sebennytic and flow into -the sea,—the Saitic, and the Mendesian. The Bolbitine and Bucolic mouths -are not natural, but artificial. The Nile, when full, inundates not only -Delta, but also part of the country said to belong to Libya and Arabia, -to the extent of about two days' journey on each side. - -At the summer solstice it fills and overflows for a hundred days; then -falls short in its stream, and retires; so that it continues low all the -winter, until the return of the summer solstice. In parts of Ethiopia, -out of which the Nile flows, the inhabitants become black from the -excessive heat; kites and swallows continue there all the year; and the -cranes, to avoid the cold of Scythia, migrate to these parts as -winter-quarters. - -[Illustration: NILE BOAT.] - -With respect to the sources of the Nile, no man of all the Egyptians, -Libyans, or Greeks with whom I have conversed, ever pretended to know -any thing; except the registrar of Minerva's treasury at Sais in Egypt. -But even he seemed to be trifling with me, when he said he knew -perfectly well. His account was: "That there are two mountains rising -into a sharp peak, situated between the cities of Syene and Elephantine; -the names of these mountains are Crophi and Mophi. The sources of the -Nile, which are bottomless, flow from between these mountains, and half -of the water flows north over Egypt, and the other half to the southward -over Ethiopia. That the fountains of the Nile are bottomless, he said, -Psammitichus, king of Egypt, proved by experiment; for he twisted a line -many thousand fathoms in length and let it down, but could not find a -bottom." In my opinion, this simply proves that there are strong -whirlpools and an eddy here; so that the water beating against the -rocks, a sounding-line, when let down, cannot reach the bottom. As you -ascend the river above the city of Elephantine, the country is so steep -that it is necessary to attach a rope on both sides of a boat as you do -with an ox in a plough, and so proceed; but if the rope should happen to -break, the boat is carried away by the force of the stream. This kind of -country lasts for a four-days' passage (or eighty miles), and the Nile -here winds as much as the Mæander. After that you come to a level plain, -where the Nile flows round an island named Tachompso. Ethiopians inhabit -the country immediately above Elephantine, and one half of the island; -the other half is inhabited by Egyptians. Near to this island lies a -vast lake, on the borders of which Ethiopian nomads dwell; after sailing -through this lake, you come to the channel of the Nile, which flows into -it: then you have to land and travel forty days by the side of the -river, for sharp rocks rise in the Nile, and there are many sunken ones, -through which it is not possible to navigate a boat; you then must go on -board another boat, and sail for twelve days; and will at last arrive at -a large city called Meroe: this city is said to be the capital of all -Ethiopia. The inhabitants worship no other gods than Jupiter and -Bacchus; but these they honor with great magnificence; they have also an -oracle of Jupiter; and they make war, whenever that god bids them by an -oracular warning, and against whatever country he bids them. Sailing -from this city, you will arrive at the country of the Automoli, in a -space of time equal to that which you took in coming from Elephantine to -the capital of the Ethiopians. These Automoli are called by the name of -Asmak, which in the language of Greece signifies, "those that stand at -the left hand of the king." These, to the number of two hundred and -forty thousand of the Egyptian war-tribe, once revolted to the -Ethiopians, whose king made them the following recompense. There were -certain Ethiopians disaffected toward him; he bade them expel these, and -take possession of their land; by the settlement of these men among -them, the Ethiopians became more civilized, and learned the manners of -the Egyptians. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -RELIGION, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, DRESS, AND ANIMALS OF THE EGYPTIANS. - - -Egypt possesses more wonders than any other country, and exhibits works -greater than can be described, in comparison with all other regions; -therefore more must be said about it. The Egyptians besides having a -peculiar climate and a river differing in its nature from all other -rivers, have adopted customs and usages in almost every respect -different from the rest of mankind. Amongst them the women attend -markets and traffic, but the men stay at home and weave. Other nations, -in weaving, throw the wool upward; the Egyptians, downward. The men -carry burdens on their heads; the women, on their shoulders. No woman -can serve the office for any god or goddess; but men are employed for -both offices. Sons are not compelled to support their parents unless -they choose, but daughters are compelled to do so, whether they choose -or not. In other countries the priests of the gods wear long hair; in -Egypt they have it shaved. With other men it is customary in mourning -for the nearest relations to have their heads shorn; the Egyptians, on -occasions of death, let the hair grow both on the head and face, though -till then shaven. Other men feed on wheat and barley, but it is a very -great disgrace for an Egyptian to make food of them; but they make bread -from spelt, which some call zea. They knead the dough with their feet; -but mix clay with their hands. Every man wears two garments; the women, -but one. Other men fasten the rings and sheets of their sails outside; -but the Egyptians, inside. The Greeks write and cipher, moving the hand -from left to right; but the Egyptians, from right to left: and doing so, -they say they do it right-ways, and the Greeks left-ways. They have two -sorts of letters, one of which is called sacred, the other common. - -They are of all men the most excessively attentive to the worship of the -gods, and observe the following ceremonies: They drink from cups of -bronze, which they scour every day. They wear linen garments, constantly -fresh-washed, thinking it better to be clean than handsome. The priests -shave their whole body every third day, that no impurity may be found -upon them when engaged in the service of the gods. The priests wear -linen only, and shoes of byblus, and are not permitted to wear any other -garments, or other shoes. They wash themselves in cold water twice every -day and twice every night, and use a great number of ceremonies. On the -other hand, they enjoy no slight advantages, for they do not consume or -expend any of their private property; but sacred food is cooked for -them, and a great quantity of beef and geese is allowed each of them -every day, with wine from the grape; but they must not taste of fish. -Beans the Egyptians do not sow at all in their country, nor do they eat -those that happen to grow there. The priests abhor the sight of that -pulse, accounting it impure. The service of each god is performed, not -by one, but by many priests, of whom one is chief; and, when one of them -dies, his son is put in his place. The male kine they deem sacred to -Epaphus, and to that end prove them in the following manner: If the -examiner finds one black hair upon him, he adjudges him to be unclean; -one of the priests appointed for this purpose makes this examination, -both when the animal is standing up and lying down; and he draws out the -tongue, to see if it is pure as to the prescribed marks, which I shall -mention in another part of my history. He also looks at the hairs of his -tail, to see whether they grow naturally. If the beast is found pure in -all these respects, he marks it by rolling a piece of byblus round the -horns, and then having put on it some sealing earth, he impresses it -with his signet; and so they drive him away. Any one who sacrifices one -that is unmarked is punished with death. The established mode of -sacrifice is this: they lead the victim, properly marked, to the altar -where they intend to sacrifice, and kindle a fire; then having poured -wine upon the altar, near the victim, they invoke the god, and kill it; -then cut off the head, and flay the body of the animal. Having -pronounced many imprecations on the head, they who have a market and -Greek merchants dwelling amongst them, carry it there and sell it; but -those who have no Greeks amongst them throw it into the river; and they -pronounce the following imprecations on the head: "If any evil is about -to befall either those that now sacrifice, or Egypt in general, may it -be averted on this head." But a different mode of disembowelling and -burning the victims prevails in different sacrifices. The practice with -regard to the goddess whom they consider the greatest, and in whose -honor they celebrate the most magnificent festival, is this: When they -have flayed the bullocks, having first offered up prayers, they take out -all the intestines, and leave the vitals with the fat in the carcass: -they then cut off the legs and the extremity of the hip, with the -shoulders and neck, and fill the body of the bullock with fine bread, -honey, raisins, figs, frankincense, myrrh, and other perfumes, and burn -it, pouring on it a great quantity of oil. They sacrifice after they -have fasted; and while the sacred things are being burnt, they all beat -themselves; after which they spread a banquet of what remains of the -victims. - -All the Egyptians sacrifice the pure male kine and calves, but they are -not allowed to sacrifice the females, for they are sacred to Isis; the -image of Isis is made in the form of a woman with the horns of a cow, as -the Greeks represent Io; and all Egyptians alike pay a far greater -reverence to cows than to any other cattle. No Egyptian man or woman -will kiss a Greek on the mouth; or use the knife, spit, or cauldron of a -Greek, or taste of the flesh of a pure ox that has been divided by a -Greek knife. They bury the kine that die in the following manner: The -females they throw into the river, and the males they inter in the -suburbs, with one horn, or both, appearing above the ground, for a mark. -When it is putrified, and the appointed time arrives, a raft comes to -each city from the island called Prosopitis, in the Delta, which is nine -schœni in circumference. Now in this island Prosopitis there are several -cities; but that from which the rafts come to take away the bones of the -oxen, is called Atarbechis; in it a temple of Venus has been erected. -From this city then many persons go about to other towns; and having dug -up the bones, carry them away, and bury them in one place; and they bury -all other cattle that die in the same way that they do the oxen; for -they do not kill any of them. All those who have a temple erected to -Theban Jupiter, or belong to the Theban district, abstain from sheep, -and sacrifice goats only. For the Egyptians do not all worship the same -gods in the same manner, except Isis and Osiris, who, they say, is -Bacchus. On the other hand, those who frequent the temple of Mendes, and -belong to the Mendesian district, abstain from goats, and sacrifice -sheep. The Thebans say that this custom was established among them in -the following way: that Hercules was very desirous of seeing Jupiter, -but Jupiter was unwilling to be seen by him; at last, however, as -Hercules persisted, Jupiter flayed a ram, cut off the head, and held it -before himself, and then having put on the fleece, showed himself to -Hercules. From this circumstance the Egyptians make the image of Jupiter -with a ram's face; and the Ammonians, who are a colony of Egyptians and -Ethiopians, and who speak a language between both, have adopted the same -practice; and, as I conjecture, the Ammonians thus derived their name, -for the Egyptians call Jupiter, Ammon. The Thebans then do not sacrifice -rams, being for this reason accounted sacred by them; on one day in the -year, however, at the festival of Jupiter, they kill and flay one ram, -put it on this image of Jupiter, and bring an image of Hercules to it; -then all who are in the temple beat themselves in mourning for the ram, -and bury him in a sacred vault. - -Of this Hercules I have heard that he is one of the twelve gods; but of -the other Hercules, who is known to the Greeks, I could never hear in -any part of Egypt. That the Egyptians did not derive the name of -Hercules from the Greeks, but rather the Greeks from the Egyptians, I -have many proofs to show. The parents of this Hercules, Amphitryon and -Alcmene, were both of Egyptian descent, and the Egyptians say they do -not know the names of Neptune and the Dioscuri, yet if they had derived -the name of any deity from the Greeks, they would certainly have -mentioned these above all others, since even at that time they made -voyages, and some of the Greeks were sailors. But Hercules is one of the -ancient gods of the Egyptians; and they say themselves it was seventeen -thousand years before the reign of Amasis, when the number of their gods -was increased from eight to twelve, of whom Hercules was accounted one. -Being desirous of obtaining certain information from whatever source I -could, I sailed to Tyre in Phœnicia, having heard that there was there a -temple dedicated to Hercules; and I saw it richly adorned with a great -variety of offerings, and in it were two pillars, one of fine gold, the -other of emerald stone, both shining exceedingly at night. Conversing -with the priests of this god, I inquired how long this temple had been -built, and I found that they did not agree with the Greeks. For they -said that the temple was built at the time when Tyre was founded, and -that two thousand three hundred years had elapsed since the foundation -of Tyre. In this city I also saw another temple dedicated to Hercules by -the name of Thasian; I went therefore to Thasos, and found there a -temple of Hercules built by the Phœnicians, who founded Thasos, when -they sailed in search of Europa, and this occurred five generations -before Hercules the son of Amphitryon appeared in Greece. The researches -then that I have made evidently prove that Hercules is a god of great -antiquity, and therefore those Greeks appear to me to have acted most -correctly, who have built two kinds of temples sacred to Hercules, and -who sacrifice to one as an immortal, under the name of Olympian, and -paid honor to the other as a hero. The Mendesians pay reverence to all -goats; at the death of a he-goat public mourning is observed throughout -the whole Mendesian district. - -The Egyptians consider the pig to be an impure beast, and therefore if a -man in passing by a pig should touch him only with his garments, he -forthwith goes to the river and plunges in; and in the next place, -swineherds, although native Egyptians, are the only men who are not -allowed to enter any of their temples; neither will any man give his -daughter in marriage to one of them, nor take a wife from among them; -but the swineherds intermarry among themselves. The Egyptians do not -think it right to sacrifice swine to any deities but the moon and -Bacchus. In this sacrifice of pigs to the moon, when the sacrificer has -slain the victim, he puts together the tip of the tail, with the spleen -and the caul, covers them with the fat found about the belly of the -animal, and consumes them with fire: the rest of the flesh they eat -during the full moon in which they offer the sacrifices; but on no other -day would any one even taste it. The poor amongst them, through want of -means, form pigs of dough, and having baked them, offer them in -sacrifice. - -Whence each of the gods sprung, whether they existed always, and of what -form they were, was, so to speak, unknown till yesterday. For I am of -opinion that Hesiod and Homer lived four hundred years before my time, -and not more, and these were they who framed a theogony for the Greeks, -and gave names to the gods, and assigned to them honors and arts, and -declared their several forms. - -The Egyptians were also the first who introduced public festivals, -processions, and solemn supplications; and the Greeks learned these from -them. The Egyptians hold public festivals several times in a year; that -which is best and most rigidly observed is in the city of Bubastis, in -honor of Diana; the second, in the city of Busiris, is in honor of Isis; -the largest temple of Isis is in this city, in the middle of the -Egyptian Delta. Isis is in the Grecian language called Demeter. The -third festival is held at Sais, in honor of Minerva; the fourth, at -Heliopolis, in honor of the sun; the fifth, at the city of Buto, in -honor of Latona; the sixth, at the city of Papremis, in honor of Mars. -When they are assembled at the sacrifice, in the city of Sais, they all -on a certain night kindle a great number of lamps in the open air, -around their houses; the lamps are flat vessels filled with salt and -oil, the wick floats on the surface and burns all night; hence the -festival is named "the lighting of lamps." The Egyptians who do not come -to this public assembly observe the rite of sacrifice, and all kindle -lamps, not only in Sais, but throughout all Egypt. - -Egypt, though bordering on Libya, does not abound in wild beasts; but -all that they have are accounted sacred. Superintendents, consisting -both of men and women, are appointed to feed every kind separately; and -the son succeeds the father in this office. All the inhabitants of the -cities perform their vows to the superintendents. Having made a vow to -the god to whom the animal belongs, they shave either the whole heads of -their children, or a half, or a third part of the head, and then weigh -the hair in a scale against silver, and whatever the weight may be, they -give to the superintendent of the animals; she in return cuts up some -fish, and gives it as food to the animals; such is the usual mode of -feeding them. Should any one kill one of these beasts, if wilfully, -death is the punishment; if by accident, he pays such fine as the -priests choose to impose. But whoever kills an ibis or a hawk, whether -wilfully or by accident, must necessarily be put to death. When a -conflagration takes place, a supernatural impulse seizes on the cats. -The Egyptians, standing at a distance, take care of the cats, and -neglect to put out the fire; but the cats often make their escape, leap -over the men, and throw themselves into the fire; when this happens -great lamentations are made among the Egyptians. In whatever house a cat -dies of a natural death, all the family shave their eyebrows; but if a -dog die, they shave the whole body and the head. All cats that die are -carried to certain sacred houses, where they are first embalmed, and -then buried in the city of Bubastis. All persons bury their dogs in -sacred vaults within their own city; and ichneumons are buried in the -same manner as the dogs; but field-mice and hawks they carry to the city -of Buto; the ibis to Hermopolis; the bears, which are few in number, and -the wolves, which are not much larger than foxes, they bury wherever -they are found lying. - -[Illustration: THE TROCHILUS.] - -This is the nature of the crocodile:—During the four coldest months it -eats nothing, and though it has four feet, it is amphibious. It lays its -eggs on land, and there hatches them. It spends the greater part of the -day on the dry ground, but the whole night in the river; for the water -is then warmer than the air and dew. Of all living things with which we -are acquainted, this, from the least beginning, grows to be the largest. -For it lays eggs little larger than those of a goose, and the young is -at first in proportion to the egg; but when grown up it reaches to the -length of seventeen cubits (25½ feet), and even more. It has the eyes of -a pig, large teeth, and projecting tusks: it is the only animal that has -no tongue: it does not move the lower jaw, but is the only animal that -brings down its upper jaw to the under one. It has strong claws, and a -skin covered with scales, that cannot be broken on the back. It is blind -in the water, but very quick-sighted on land; and because it lives for -the most part in the water, its mouth is filled with leeches. All other -birds and beasts avoid him, but he is at peace with the trochilus, -because he receives benefit from that bird. For when the crocodile gets -out of the water on land, and then opens its jaws, which it does most -commonly toward the west, the trochilus enters its mouth and swallows -the leeches: the crocodile is so well pleased with this service that it -never hurts the trochilus. With some of the Egyptians crocodiles are -sacred; with others not, but they treat them as enemies. Those who dwell -about Thebes, and Lake Mœris consider them to be very sacred; and they -each of them train up a crocodile, which is taught to be quite tame; and -put crystal and gold ear-rings into their ears, and bracelets on their -fore paws; they give them appointed and sacred food, and treat them as -well as possible while alive, and when dead they embalm them, and bury -them in sacred vaults. But the people who dwell about the city of -Elephantine eat them, not considering them sacred. They are not called -crocodiles by the Egyptians, but "champsæ"; the Ionians gave them the -name of crocodiles, because they thought they resembled lizards, which -are also so called, and which are found in the hedges of their country. -The modes of taking the crocodile are many and various, but I shall only -describe that which seems to me most worthy of relation. When the -fisherman has baited a hook with the chine of a pig, he lets it down -into the middle of the river, and holding a young live pig on the brink -of the river, beats it; the crocodile, hearing the noise, goes in its -direction, and meeting with the chine, swallows it, and the men draw it -to land; when it is drawn out on shore, the sportsman first of all -plasters its eyes with mud, after which he manages it very easily; but -until he has done this, he has a great deal of trouble. The hippopotamus -is esteemed sacred in the district of Papremis, but not so by the rest -of the Egyptians. It is a quadruped, cloven-footed, with the hoofs of an -ox, snub-nosed, has the mane of a horse, projecting tusks, and the tail -and neigh of a horse. In size he is equal to a very large ox: his hide -is so thick that spear-handles are made of it when dry. Otters are also -met with in the river, which are deemed sacred; and amongst fish, they -consider that which is called the lepidotus, and the eel, sacred; these -they say are sacred to the Nile; and among birds, the vulpanser. - -[Illustration: SPEARING THE CROCODILE.] - -There is also another sacred bird, called the phœnix, which I have never -seen except in a picture; for it makes its appearance amongst them only -once in five hundred years, as the Heliopolitans affirm: they say that -it comes on the death of its sire. If he is like the picture, he is of -the following size and description: the plumage of his wings is partly -golden-colored, and partly red; in outline and size he is like an eagle. -They tell this incredible story about him:—They say that he comes from -Arabia, and brings the body of his father, enclosed in myrrh, to the -temple of the sun, and there buries him in the temple. He brings him in -this manner: first he moulds an egg of myrrh as large as he thinks -himself able to carry; then he tries to carry it, and when he has made -the experiment, he hollows out the egg, puts his parent into it, and -stops up with some more myrrh the hole through which he introduced the -body, so when his father is put inside, the weight is the same as -before; then he carries him to the temple of the sun in Egypt. - -In the neighborhood of Thebes there are sacred serpents not at all -hurtful to men: they are diminutive in size, and carry two horns that -grow on the top of the head. When these serpents die they bury them in -the temple of Jupiter, for they say they are sacred to that God. There -is a place in Arabia, situated very near the city of Buto, to which I -went, on hearing of some winged serpents; there I saw bones and spines -of serpents in such quantities as it would be impossible to describe: -there were heaps upon heaps, some large, some smaller, scattered in a -narrow pass between two mountains, which leads into a spacious plain, -contiguous to the plain of Egypt: it is reported that at the beginning -of spring, winged serpents fly from Arabia toward Egypt; but that -ibises, a sort of bird, meet them at the pass, and do not allow the -serpents to go by, but kill them: for this service the Arabians say that -the ibis is highly reverenced by the Egyptians; and the Egyptians -acknowledge it. The ibis is all over a deep black; it has the legs of a -crane, its beak is much curved, and it is about the size of the crex. -Such is the form of the black ones, that fight with the serpents. But -those that are best known, for there are two species, are bare on the -head and the whole neck, have white plumage, except on the head, the -throat, and the tips of the wings and extremity of the tail; in all -these parts they are of a deep black; in their legs and beak they are -like the other kind. The form of the serpent is like that of the -water-snake; but he has wings without feathers, and as like as possible -to the wings of a bat. This must suffice for the description of sacred -animals. - -Of the Egyptians, those who inhabit that part of Egypt which is sown -with corn, cultivate the memory of past events more than any other -people, and are the best-informed men I ever met. Their manner of life -is this: They purge themselves every month for three days successively, -seeking to preserve health by emetics and clysters, for they suppose -that all diseases to which men are subject proceed from the food they -use. And indeed in other respects the Egyptians, next to the Libyans, -are the most healthy people in the world, as I think, on account of the -seasons, because they are not liable to change; for men are most subject -to disease at periods of change, and above all others at the change of -the seasons. They feed on bread made into loaves of spelt, which they -call cyllestis; and they use wine made of barley, for they have no vines -in that country. Some fish they dry in the sun and eat raw, others -salted with brine; and of birds they eat quail, ducks, and smaller birds -raw, salting them first. All other things, whether birds or fishes, that -they have, except such as are accounted sacred, they eat either roasted -or boiled. At their convivial banquets, among the wealthy classes, when -they have finished supper, a man carries round in a coffin the image of -a dead body carved in wood, made as perfect a counterfeit as possible in -color and workmanship, and in size generally about one or two cubits in -length; and showing this to each of the company, he says: "Look upon -this, then drink and enjoy yourself; for when dead you will be like -this." - -They observe their ancient customs and acquire no new ones. Among other -memorable customs they have just one song called "Linus," which is sung -in Phœnicia, Cyprus, and elsewhere; in different nations it bears a -different name, but it agrees almost exactly with the same which the -Greeks sing, under the name of Linus. So that among the many wonderful -things in Egypt, the greatest wonder of all is where they got this -Linus; for they seem to have sung it from time immemorial. The "Linus" -in the Egyptian language is called Maneros; and the Egyptians say that -he was the only son of the first king of Egypt, and that happening to -die prematurely, he was honored by the Egyptians in this mourning dirge, -the first and only song they have. In the following particular the -Egyptians resemble the Lacedæmonians only among all the Greeks: the -young men, when they meet their elders, give way and turn aside; and -rise from their seats when they approach. But, unlike any nation of the -Greeks, instead of addressing one another in the streets, they salute by -letting the hand fall down as far as the knee. They wear linen tunics -fringed round the legs, which they call calasiris, and over these they -throw white woollen mantles; woollen clothes, however, are not carried -into the temples, nor are they buried with them, as this is accounted -profane—agreeing in this respect with the worshippers of Orpheus and -Bacchus, who are Egyptians and Pythagoreans: for they consider it -profane for one who is initiated in these mysteries to be buried in -woollen garments for some religious reason or other. The Egyptians have -discovered more prodigies than all the rest of the world. They have -amongst them oracles of Hercules, Apollo, Minerva, Diana, Mars, and -Jupiter; but that which they honor above all others is the oracle of -Latona in the city of Buto. The art of medicine is divided amongst them -into specialties, each physician applying himself to one disease only. -All places abound in physicians, some for the eyes, others for the head, -others for the teeth, others for cutaneous diseases, and others still -for internal disorders. - -Their manner of mourning and burying is as follows: When a man of any -consideration dies, all the women of that family besmear their heads and -faces with mud, leave the body in the house, and wander about the city, -beating themselves, having their clothes girt up, their neck and breast -exposed, and all their relations accompany them. The men, too, beat -themselves in the same way. When they have done this, they carry out the -body to be embalmed. There are persons who are specially appointed for -this purpose; when the dead body is brought to them, they show to the -bearers wooden models of corpses, skilfully painted to illustrate the -various methods of embalming. They first show the most expensive manner -of embalming; then the second, which is inferior and less expensive; and -lastly, the third and cheapest. The relations stipulate which style they -prefer, agree on the price, and depart. To embalm a body in the most -expensive manner, they first draw out the brains through the nostrils -with an iron hook, perfecting the operation by the infusion of drugs. -Then with a sharp Ethiopian stone they make an incision in the side, and -take out all the bowels; and having cleansed the abdomen and rinsed it -with palm-wine, they next sprinkle it with pounded perfumes. Then they -fill the belly with pure myrrh pounded, and cassia, and other perfumes, -frankincense excepted, and sew it up again; this done, they steep it in -natrum, leaving it under for seventy days; a longer time than which it -is not lawful to steep it. At the expiration of the seventy days they -wash the corpse, and wrap the whole body in bandages of flaxen cloth, -smearing it with gum, which the Egyptians commonly use instead of glue. -After this the relations take the body back again, make a wooden case in -the shape of a man, enclose the body in it, and store it in a sepulchral -chamber, setting it upright against the wall. For those who, to avoid -great expense, desire the middle way, they prepare in the following -manner. Charging syringes with oil made from cedar, they fill the -abdomen of the corpse without making any incision or taking out the -bowels, but inject it at the fundament; and having prevented the -injection from escaping, they steep the body in natrum for the -prescribed number of days, on the last of which they let out from the -abdomen the oil of cedar which has such power that it brings away the -intestines and vitals in a state of dissolution; the natrum dissolves -the flesh, and nothing of the body remains but the skin and the bones. -The operation is then complete. The third method of embalming, which is -used only for the poorer sort, consists in thoroughly rinsing the -abdomen in syrmæa, and steeping it with natrum for the seventy days. -Should any person, whether Egyptian or stranger, be found to have been -seized by a crocodile, or drowned in the river, to whatever city the -body may be carried, the inhabitants are by law compelled to have the -body embalmed, and adorned in the handsomest manner, and buried in the -sacred vaults. Nor is it lawful for any one else, whether relations or -friends, to touch him; but the priests of the Nile bury the corpse with -their own hands, as being something more than human. - -They avoid using Grecian customs; and, in a word, the customs of all -other people whatsoever. - -The Egyptians who dwell in the morasses, have the same customs as the -rest of the Egyptians, and each man has but one wife, like the Greeks. -But to obtain food more easily, they have the following inventions: when -the river is full, and has made the plains like a sea, great numbers of -lilies, which the Egyptians call lotus, spring up in the water: these -they gather and dry in the sun; then having pounded the middle of the -lotus, which resembles a poppy, they make bread of it and bake it. The -root also of this lotus is fit for food, and is tolerably sweet; it is -round, and of the size of an apple. There are also other lilies, like -roses, that grow in the river, the fruit of which is contained in a -separate pod, that springs up from the root in form very much like a -wasp's nest; in this there are many berries fit to be eaten, of the size -of an olive stone, and they are eaten both fresh and dried. The byblus, -an annual plant, is found in the fens. They cut off the top and put it -to some other uses, but the lower part that is left, to the length of a -cubit, they eat and sell. Those who are anxious to eat the byblus -dressed in the most delicate manner, stew it in a hot pan and then eat -it. - -The Egyptians who live about the fens use an oil drawn from the fruit of -the sillicypria, which they call cici: they plant and cultivate these -sillicypria, which in Greece grow spontaneous and wild, on the banks of -the rivers and lakes: under cultivation these bear an abundance of -fruit, though of an offensive smell. Some bruise it and press out the -oil; others boil and stew it, and collect the liquid that flows from it; -this is fat, and no less suited for lamps than olive oil; but it emits a -disgusting smell. They contrive in various ways to protect themselves -from the mosquitoes, which are very abundant. Towers are of great -service to those who inhabit the upper parts of the marshes; for the -mosquitoes are prevented by the winds from flying high: but those who -live round the marshes have contrived another expedient. Every man has a -net, with which in the daytime he takes fish, and at night, in whatever -bed he sleeps, he throws the net around it, and crawls in underneath; if -he should wrap himself up in his clothes or in linen, the mosquitoes -would bite through them, but they never attempt to bite through the net. - -Their ships in which they convey merchandise are made of the acacia, -which in shape is much like the Cyrenæan lotus, and exudes a gum. From -this acacia they cut planks about two cubits in length and join them -together like bricks, building their ships in the following manner: They -fasten the planks of two cubits length round stout and long ties: when -they have thus built the hulls, they lay benches across them. They make -no use of ribs, but caulk the seams inside with byblus. They make only -one rudder, and that is driven through the keel. They use a mast of -acacia, and sails of byblus. These vessels are unable to sail up the -stream unless a fair wind prevails, but are towed from the shore. They -are thus carried down the stream: there is a hurdle made of tamarisk, -wattled with a band of reeds, and a stone with a hole in the middle, of -about two talents in weight; of these two, the hurdle is fastened to a -cable, and let down at the prow of the vessel to be carried on by the -stream; and the stone by another cable at the stern; and by this means -the hurdle, by the stream bearing hard upon it, moves quickly and draws -along "the baris" (for this is the name given to these vessels), but the -stone being dragged at the stern, and sunk to the bottom, keeps the -vessel in its course. They have very many of these vessels, and some of -them carry many thousand talents. When the Nile inundates the country, -the cities alone are seen above its surface, like the islands dotting -the Ægean Sea. When this happens, they navigate no longer by the channel -of the river, but straight across the country. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -GOD-KINGS PRIOR TO MENES. - - -In former time, the priests of Jupiter did to Hecatæus the historian, -when he was tracing his own genealogy, and connecting his family with a -god in the sixteenth degree, the same as they did to me, though I did -not endeavor to trace my genealogy. Conducting me into the interior of a -spacious edifice, and showing me four hundred and forty-five wooden -colossuses, they counted them over; for every high-priest places an -image of himself there during his lifetime; the priests pointed out that -the succession from father to son was unbroken. But when Hecatæus traced -his own genealogy, and connected himself with a god in the sixteenth -degree, they controverted his genealogy by computation, not admitting -that a man could be born from a god; and said that each of the -colossuses was a Piromis, sprung from a Piromis; until they pointed out -the three hundred and forty-five colossuses, each a Piromis, sprung from -a Piromis, and they did not connect them with any god or hero. Piromis -means, in the Grecian language, "a noble and good man." They said that -these were very far from being gods; but before the time of these men, -gods had been the rulers of Egypt, and had dwelt amongst men; and that -one of them always had the supreme power, and that Orus, the son of -Osiris, was the last who reigned over it. Now, Osiris in the Greek -language means Bacchus, and Orus is the equivalent of Apollo. - -All the revenue from the city of Anthylla, which is of much importance, -is assigned to purchase shoes for the wife of the reigning king of Egypt. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -FIRST LINE OF 330 KINGS, ONLY THREE MENTIONED. - - -The priests informed me, that Menes, who first ruled over Egypt, in the -first place protected Memphis by a mound; for the whole river formerly -ran close to the sandy mountain on the side of Libya; but Menes, -beginning about a hundred stades above Memphis, filled in the elbow -toward the south, dried up the old channel, and conducted the river into -a canal, so as to make it flow between the mountains. This bend of the -Nile is still carefully upheld by the Persians, and made secure every -year; for if the river should break through and overflow in this part, -there would be danger lest all Memphis should be flooded. When the part -cut off had been made firm land by this Menes, who was first king, he -built on it the city that is now called Memphis; and outside of it he -excavated a lake from the river toward the north and the west; for the -Nile itself bounds it toward the east. In the next place, they relate -that he built in it the temple of Vulcan, which is vast and well worthy -of mention. After this the priests enumerated from a book the names of -three hundred and thirty other kings. In so many generations of men, -there were eighteen Ethiopians and one native queen, the rest were -Egyptians. The name of this woman who reigned, was the same as that of -the Babylonian queen, Nitocris: they said that she avenged her brother, -whom the Egyptians had slain, while reigning over them. After they had -slain him, they delivered the kingdom to her; and she, to avenge him, -destroyed many of the Egyptians by this stratagem: she caused an -extensive apartment to be made underground, and pretended that she was -going to consecrate it, then inviting those of the Egyptians whom she -knew to have been principally concerned in the murder, she gave them a -great banquet, and in the midst of the feast let in the river upon them, -through a large concealed channel. Of the other kings they did not say -that they were in any respect renowned, except the last, Mœris; he -accomplished some memorable works, as the portal of Vulcan's temple, -facing the north wind; and dug a lake, and built pyramids in it, the -size of which I shall mention when I come to speak of the lake itself. - -[Illustration: HEAD OF RAMESES II.] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -FROM SESOSTRIS TO SETHON. - - -I shall next mention king Sesostris. The priests said that he was the -first who, setting out in ships of war from the Arabian Gulf, subdued -those nations that dwell by the Red Sea. - -There are also in Ionia two images of this king, carved on rocks, one on -the way from Ephesia to Phocæa, the other from Sardis to Smyrna. In both -places a man is carved, four cubits and a half high, holding a spear in -his right hand, and a bow in his left, and the rest of his equipment in -unison, for it is partly Egyptian and partly Ethiopian; from one -shoulder to the other across the breast extend sacred Egyptian -characters engraved, which have the following meaning: "I ACQUIRED -THIS REGION BY MY OWN SHOULDERS." - -The priests tell a yarn of this Egyptian Sesostris, that returning and -bringing with him many men from the nations whose territories he had -subdued, when he arrived at the Pelusian Daphnæ, his brother, to whom he -had committed the government of Egypt, invited him to an entertainment, -and his sons with him, and caused wood to be piled up round the house -and set on fire: but that Sesostris, being informed of this, immediately -consulted with his wife, for he had taken his wife with him; she advised -him to extend two of his six sons across the fire, and form a bridge -over the burning mass, and that the rest should step on them and make -their escape. Sesostris did so, and two of his sons were in this manner -burned to death, but the rest, together with their father, were saved. -Sesostris having returned to Egypt, and taken revenge on his brother, -employed the multitude of prisoners whom he brought from the countries -he had subdued in many remarkable works: these were the men who drew the -huge stones which, in the time of this king, were conveyed to the temple -of Vulcan; they, too, were compelled to dig all the canals now seen in -Egypt; and thus by their involuntary labor made Egypt, which before was -throughout practicable for horses and carriages, unfit for these -purposes. But the king intersected the country with this network of -canals for the reason that such of the Egyptians as occupied the inland -cities, being in want of water when the river receded, were forced to -use a brackish beverage unfit to drink, which they drew from wells. They -said also that this king divided the country amongst all the Egyptians, -giving an equal square allotment to each; and thence drew his revenues -by requiring them to pay a fixed tax every year; if the river happened -to take away a part of any one's allotment, he was to come to him and -make known what had happened; whereupon the king sent persons to inspect -and measure how much the land was diminished, that in future he might -pay a proportionate part of the appointed tax. Land-measuring appears to -me to have had its beginning from this act, and to have passed over into -Greece; for the pole [12] and the sundial, and the division of the day -into twelve parts, the Greeks learned from the Babylonians. This king -was the only Egyptian that ever ruled over Ethiopia; he left as -memorials in front of Vulcan's temple statues of stone: two of thirty -cubits, of himself and his wife; and four, each of twenty cubits, of his -sons. A long time after, the priest of Vulcan would not suffer Darius -the Persian to place his statue before them, saying, "that deeds had not -been achieved by him equal to those of Sesostris the Egyptian: for -Sesostris had subdued other nations, not fewer than Darius had done, and -the Scythians besides; but that Darius was not able to conquer the -Scythians; wherefore it was not right for one who had not surpassed him -in achievements to place his statue before his offerings." They relate, -however, that Darius pardoned these observations. - -[Illustration: BUST OF THOTHMES I.] - -After the death of Sesostris, his son Pheron succeeded to the kingdom; -he undertook no military expedition, and happened to become blind -through the following occurrence: the river having risen to a very great -height for that time, eighteen cubits, it overflowed the fields, a storm -of wind arose, and the river was tossed about in waves; whereupon they -say that the king with great arrogance laid hold of a javelin, and threw -it into the midst of the eddies of the river; and that immediately -afterward he was seized with a pain in his eyes, and became blind. He -continued blind for ten years; but in the eleventh, having escaped from -this calamity, he dedicated offerings throughout all the celebrated -temples, the most worthy of mention being two stone obelisks to the -temple of the sun, each consisting of a single block of granite, and -each a hundred cubits in length and eight cubits in breadth. - -A native of Memphis succeeded him in the kingdom, whose name in the -Grecian language is Proteus; there is to this day an enclosure sacred to -him at Memphis, which is very beautiful and richly adorned, situated to -the south side of the temple of Vulcan. The priests told me that when -Paris had carried Helen off from Sparta, violent winds drove him out of -his course in the Ægean into the Egyptian Sea, and from there (for the -gale did not abate) he came to Egypt, and in Egypt to that which is now -called the Canopic mouth of the Nile. - -[Illustration: PARIS CARRYING AWAY HELEN.] - -And Homer appears to me to have heard this relation; but as it was not -so well suited to epic poetry as the other which he has made use of, he -rejected it. He has told in the Iliad the wanderings of Paris; how, -while he was carrying off Helen, he was driven out of his course, and -wandered to other places, and how he arrived at Sidon of Phœnicia; and -in the exploits of Diomede, his verses are as follows: "Where were the -variegated robes, works of Sidonian women, which god-like Paris himself -brought from Sidon, sailing over the wide sea, along the course by which -he conveyed high-born Helen."[13] He mentions it also in the Odyssey, in -the following lines: "Such well-chosen drugs had the daughter of Jove, -of excellent quality, which Polydamna gave her, the Egyptian wife of -Thonis, where the fruitful earth produces many drugs, many excellent -when mixed, and many noxious."[14] Menelaus also says the following to -Telemachus: "The gods detained me in Egypt, though anxious to return -hither, because I did not offer perfect hecatombs to them."[15] He shows -in these verses, that he was acquainted with the wandering of Paris in -Egypt; for Syria borders on Egypt, and the Phœnicians, to whom Sidon -belongs, inhabit Syria. From these verses, and this first passage -especially, it is clear that Homer was not the author of the Cyprian -verses, but some other person. For in the Cyprian verses it is said, -that Paris reached Ilium from Sparta on the third day, when he carried -off Helen, having met with a favorable wind and a smooth sea; whereas -Homer in the Iliad says that he wandered far while taking her with him. - -Rhampsinitus succeeded Proteus in the kingdom: He left as a monument the -portico of the temple of Vulcan, fronting to the west; and erected two -statues before the portico, twenty-five cubits high. Of these, the one -standing to the north the Egyptians call Summer; and that to the south, -Winter: and the one that they call Summer, they worship and do honor to; -but the one called Winter, they treat in a quite contrary way. - -This king, they said, possessed a great quantity of money, such as no -one of the succeeding kings was able to attain. Wishing to treasure up -his wealth in safety, he built a chamber of stone, one of the walls of -which adjoined the outside of the palace. But the builder, forming a -plan against it, devised the following contrivance; he fitted one of the -stones so that it might be easily taken out by two men, or even one. -When the chamber was finished, the king laid up his treasures in it; in -the course of time the builder, finding his end approaching, called his -two sons to him, and described to them how he had provided when he was -building the king's treasury that they might have abundant sustenance; -and having clearly explained to them every thing relating to the removal -of the stone, he gave them its dimensions, and told them, if they would -observe his instructions, they would be stewards of the king's riches. -He died, and the sons were not long in applying themselves to the work; -coming by night to the palace, they found the stone in the building, -easily removed it, and carried off a great quantity of treasure. When -the king happened to open the chamber, he was astonished at seeing the -vessels deficient in treasure; but was not able to accuse any one, as -the seals were unbroken, and the chamber well secured. When on opening -it two or three times, the treasures were always evidently diminished -(for the thieves did not cease plundering), he adopted the following -plan: he ordered traps to be made, and placed them round the vessels in -which the treasures were. But when the thieves came as before, and one -of them had entered, as soon as he went near a vessel, he was -straightway caught in the trap; perceiving, therefore, in what a -predicament he was, he immediately called to his brother, and told him -what had happened, and bade him enter as quick as possible, and cut off -his head, lest, if he was seen and recognized, he should ruin him also: -the other thought that he spoke well, and did as he was advised; then, -having fitted in the stone, he returned home, taking with him his -brother's head. When day came, the king entered the chamber, and was -astonished at seeing the body of the thief in the trap without the head, -but the chamber secure, and without any means of entrance or exit. In -this perplexity he contrived another plan: he hung up the body of the -thief on a public wall, and having placed sentinels there, ordered them -to seize and bring before him whomsoever they should see weeping or -expressing commiseration at the spectacle. The mother was greatly -grieved at the body being suspended, and coming to words with her -surviving son, commanded him, by any means he could, to contrive how he -might take down and bring away the corpse of his brother; and if he -should neglect to do so, she threatened to go to the king, and inform -him that he had the treasures. Having got some asses, and filled some -skins with wine, he put them on the asses, and then drove them along; -but when he came near the sentinels that guarded the suspended corpse, -he drew out two or three of the necks of the skins that hung down, and -loosened them; and, as the wine ran out, he beat his head, and cried out -aloud, as if he knew not to which of the asses he should turn first. The -sentinels, when they saw wine flowing in abundance, ran into the road, -with vessels in their hands, caught the wine that was being spilt, -thinking it all their own gain; but the man, feigning anger, railed -bitterly against them all; however, as the sentinels soothed him, he at -length pretended to be pacified; and at last drove his asses out of the -road, and set them to rights again. When more conversation passed, and -one of the sentinels joked with him and set him laughing, he gave them -another of the skins; and they, just as they were, lay down and set to -to drink, and invited him to stay and drink with them. He was persuaded, -and remained with them; and as they treated him kindly during the -drinking, he gave them another of the skins; and the sentinels, having -taken very copious draughts, became royally drunk, and, overpowered by -the wine, fell asleep on the spot. Then he took down the body of his -brother, and having by way of insult shaved the right cheeks of all the -sentinels, laid the corpse on the asses, and drove home, having -performed his mother's injunctions. The king, upon being informed that -the body of the thief had been stolen, was exceedingly indignant, but -being unable by any means to find out the contriver of this artifice, he -grew so astonished at the shrewdness and daring of the man, that at -last, sending throughout all the cities, he caused a proclamation to be -made, offering a free pardon, and promising great reward to the man, if -he would discover himself. The thief, relying on this promise, went to -the king's palace; and Rhampsinitus greatly admired him, and gave him -his daughter in marriage, accounting him the most knowing of all men; -for while the Egyptians were superior to all others, he was superior to -the Egyptians. - -After this, they said that this king descended alive into the place -which the Greeks call Hades, and there played at dice with Ceres, and -sometimes won, and other times lost; and that he came up again and -brought with him as a present from her a napkin of gold. Any person to -whom such things appear credible may adopt the accounts given by the -Egyptians; it is my object, however, throughout the whole history, to -write what I hear from each people. The Egyptians say that Ceres and -Bacchus hold the chief sway in the infernal regions; and the Egyptians -were also the first who asserted the doctrine that the soul of man is -immortal, and that when the body perishes the soul enters into some -other animal, constantly springing into existence; and when it has -passed through the different kinds of terrestrial, marine, and aërial -beings, it again enters into the body of a man that is born; and that -this revolution is made in three thousand years. - -[Illustration: BES AND HI.] - -Now, they told me that down to the reign of Rhampsinitus there was a -perfect distribution of justice, and that all Egypt was in a high state -of prosperity; but that after him Cheops, coming to reign over them, -plunged into every kind of wickedness. For, having shut up all the -temples, he first of all forbade them to offer sacrifice, and afterward -ordered all the Egyptians to work for him; some, accordingly, were -appointed to draw stones from the quarries in the Arabian mountain down -to the Nile, others he ordered to receive the stones when transported in -vessels across the river, and to drag them to the mountain called the -Libyan. And they worked to the number of a hundred thousand men at a -time, each party during three months. The time during which the people -were thus harassed by toil lasted ten years on the road which they -constructed, along which they drew the stones, a work, in my opinion, -not much less than the pyramid: for its length is five stades, and its -width ten orgyæ, and its height, where it is the highest, eight orgyæ; -and it is of polished stone, with figures carved on it: ten years, then, -were expended on this road, and in forming the subterraneous apartments -on the hill, on which the pyramids stand, which he had made as a burial -vault for himself, in an island, formed by draining a canal from the -Nile. Twenty years were spent in erecting the pyramid itself: of this, -which is square, each face is eight plethra, and the height is the same; -it is composed of polished stones, and joined with the greatest -exactness; none of the stones are less than thirty feet in length. This -pyramid was built in the form of steps, which some call crosssæ, others -bomides. When they had first built it in this manner, they raised the -stones for covering the surface by machines made of short pieces of -wood: having lifted them from the ground to the first range of steps, -when the stone arrived there it was put on another machine that stood -ready on the first range; from this it was drawn to the second range on -another machine; for the machines were equal in number to the ranges of -steps; or they removed the machine, which was only one, and portable, to -each range in succession, whenever they wished to raise the stone -higher; for I should relate it in both ways, as it was related to me. -The highest parts of it were first finished, and last of all the parts -on the ground. On the pyramid is shown an inscription, in Egyptian -characters, how much was expended in radishes, onions, and garlic for -the workmen; which the interpreter, as I well remember, reading the -inscription, told me amounted to one thousand six hundred talents of -silver. If this be really the case, how much more was probably expended -in iron tools, in bread, and in clothes for the laborers, since they -occupied in building the works the time which I mentioned, and no short -time besides, as I think, in cutting and drawing the stones, and in -forming the subterraneous excavation. It is related that Cheops in his -cruelty subjected his daughter to every sort of disgrace, but she -contrived to leave a monument of herself, and asked every one that she -met to give her a stone toward the edifice she designed: of these stones -they said the pyramid was built that stands in the middle of the three, -before the great pyramid, each side of which is a plethron and a half in -length. The Egyptians say that this Cheops reigned fifty years; and when -he died, his brother Chephren succeeded to the kingdom; and he followed -the same practices as the other, both in other respects, and in building -a pyramid. This does not come up to the dimensions of his brother's, for -I myself measured them; nor has it subterraneous chambers; nor does a -channel from the Nile flow to it, as to the other; but this flows -through an artificial aqueduct round an island within, in which they say -the body of Cheops is laid. Having laid the first course of variegated -Ethiopian stones, less in height than the other by forty feet, he built -it near the large pyramid. They both stand on the same hill, which is -about a hundred feet high. Chephren, they said, reigned fifty-six years. -Thus one hundred and six years are reckoned, during which the Egyptians -suffered all kinds of calamities, and for this length of time the -temples were never opened. From the hatred they bear them the Egyptians -are not very willing to mention their names; but call the pyramids after -Philition, a shepherd, who at that time kept his cattle in those parts. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT PYRAMID, WITHOUT THE SURFACE STONE.] - -They said that after him, Mycerinus, son of Cheops, reigned over Egypt; -that the conduct of his father was displeasing to him; and that he -opened the temples, and permitted the people, who were worn down to the -last extremity, to return to their employments, and to sacrifices; and -that he made the most just decisions of all their kings. On this -account, of all the kings that ever reigned in Egypt, they praise him -most, for he both judged well in other respects, and moreover, when any -man complained of his decision, he used to make him some present out of -his own treasury and pacify his anger. To this beneficent Mycerinus, the -beginning of misfortunes was the death of his daughter, who was his only -child; whereupon he, extremely afflicted, and wishing to bury her in a -more costly manner than usual, caused a hollow wooden image of a cow to -be made and covered with gold, into which he put the body of his -deceased daughter. This cow was not interred in the ground, but even in -my time was exposed to view in the city of Sais, placed in the royal -palace, in a richly furnished chamber. They burn near it all kinds of -aromatics every day, and a lamp is kept burning by it throughout each -night. - -The cow is covered with a purple cloth, except the head and the neck, -which are overlaid with very thick gold; and the orb of the sun imitated -in gold is placed between the horns. The cow is kneeling; in size equal -to a large, living cow. - -[Illustration: SECTION OF THE GREAT PYRAMID.] - -After the loss of his daughter, a second calamity befell this king: an -oracle reached him from the city of Buto, importing, "that he had no -more than six years to live, and should die in the seventh." Thinking -this very hard, he sent a reproachful message to the god, complaining, -"that his father and uncle, who had shut up the temples, and paid no -regard to the gods, and moreover had oppressed men, had lived long; -whereas he who was religious must die so soon." But a second message -came to him from the oracle, stating, "that for this very reason his -life was shortened, because he had not done what he ought to have done; -for it was needful that Egypt should be afflicted during one hundred and -fifty years; and the two who were kings before him understood this, but -he did not." When Mycerinus heard this, and saw that this sentence was -now pronounced against him, he ordered a great number of lamps to be -made, which were lighted whenever night came on, and he drank and -enjoyed himself, never ceasing night or day, roving about the marshes -and groves, wherever he could hear of places most suited for pleasure. -He had recourse to this artifice for the purpose of convicting the -oracle of falsehood, that by turning the nights into days, he might have -twelve years instead of six. - -This king also left a pyramid, but much smaller than that of his father, -being on each side twenty feet short of three plethra; it is -quadrangular, and built half way up of Ethiopian stone. - -After Mycerinus, the priests said, that Asychis became king of Egypt, -and that he built the eastern portico to the temple of Vulcan, which is -by far the largest and most beautiful in its wealth of sculptured -figures and infinite variety of architecture. This king, being desirous -of surpassing his predecessors, left a pyramid, as a memorial, made of -bricks; on which is an inscription carved on stone, in the following -words: "Do not despise me in comparison with the pyramids of stone, for -I excel them as much as Jupiter, the other gods. For by plunging a pole -into a lake, and collecting the mire that stuck to the pole, men made -bricks, and in this manner built me." - -[Illustration: SECTION OF GALLERY IN PYRAMID.] - -After him there reigned a blind man of the city of Anysis, whose name -was Anysis. During his reign, the Ethiopians and their king, Sabacon, -invaded Egypt with a large force; whereupon this blind king fled to the -fens; and the Ethiopian reigned over Egypt for fifty years, during which -time he performed the following actions: When any Egyptians committed -any crime, he would not have any of them put to death, but passed -sentence upon each according to the magnitude of his offence, enjoining -them to heap up mounds of earth, each offender against his own city, and -by this means the cities were made much higher; for first of all they -had been raised considerably by those who dug the canals in the time of -king Sesostris. Although other cities in Egypt were carried to a great -height, in my opinion the greatest mounds were thrown up about the city -of Bubastis, in which is a beautiful temple of Bubastis corresponding to -the Grecian Diana. Her sacred precinct is thus situated: all except the -entrance is an island; for two canals from the Nile extend to it, not -mingling with each other, but each reaches as far as the entrance to the -precinct, one flowing round it on one side, the other on the other. Each -is a hundred feet broad, and shaded with trees. The portico is ten orgyæ -in height, and is adorned with figures six cubits high, that are -deserving of notice. This precinct, being in the middle of the city, is -visible on every side to a person going round it; for while the city has -been mounded up to a considerable height, the temple has not been moved, -so that it is conspicuous as it was originally built. A wall sculptured -with figures runs round it; and within is a grove of lofty trees, -planted round a large temple in which the image is placed. The width and -length of the precinct is each way a stade. Along the entrance is a road -paved with stone, four plethra in width and about three stades in -length, leading through the square eastward toward the temple of -Mercury; on each side of the road grow trees of enormous height. They -told me that the final departure of the Ethiopian occurred in the -following manner: it appeared to him in a vision that a man, standing by -him, advised him to assemble all the priests in Egypt, and to cut them -in two down the middle; but he, fearing that the gods held out this as a -pretext to him, in order that he, having been guilty of impiety in -reference to sacred things, might draw down some evil on himself from -gods or from men, would not do so; but as the time had expired during -which it was foretold that he should reign over Egypt, he departed -hastily from the country. When Sabacon of his own accord had departed -from Egypt, the blind king resumed the government, having returned from -the fens, where he had lived fifty years, on an island formed of ashes -and earth. For when any of the Egyptians came to him bringing -provisions, as they were severally ordered to do unknown to the -Ethiopian, he bade them bring some ashes also as a present. The kings -who preceded Amyrtæus were unable, for more than seven hundred years, to -find out where this island was. It was called Elbo, and was about ten -stades square. - -After him reigned a priest of Vulcan, whose name was Sethon: he held in -no account the military caste of the Egyptians, as not having need of -their services; and accordingly, among other indignities, he took away -their lands; to each of whom, under former kings, twelve chosen acres -had been assigned. After this, when Sennacherib, king of the Arabians -and Assyrians, marched a large army against Egypt, the Egyptian warriors -refused to assist him; and the priest, being reduced to a strait, -entered the temple, and bewailed before the image the calamities he was -in danger of suffering. While he was lamenting, sleep fell upon him, and -it appeared to him in a vision, that the god stood by and encouraged -him, assuring him that he should suffer nothing disagreeable in meeting -the Arabian army, for he would himself send assistants to him. Confiding -in this vision, he took with him such of the Egyptians as were willing -to follow him, and encamped in Pelusium, at the entrance into Egypt; but -none of the military caste followed him, only tradesmen, mechanics, and -sutlers. When they arrived there, a number of field mice, pouring in -upon their enemies, devoured their quivers and their bows, and the -handles of their shields; so that on the next day, when they fled bereft -of their arms, many of them fell. And to this day, a stone statue of -this king stands in the temple of Vulcan, with a mouse in his hand, and -an inscription to the following effect: "Whoever looks on me, let him -revere the gods." - -[Illustration: HALL OF COLUMNS IN THE GREAT TEMPLE OF KARNAK.] - -The Egyptians and the priests show that from the first king to this -priest of Vulcan who last reigned, were three hundred and forty-one -generations of men; and the same number of chief priests and kings. Now, -three hundred generations are equal to ten thousand years, for three -generations of men are one hundred years; and the forty-one remaining -generations that were over the three hundred, make one thousand three -hundred and forty years. Thus, they say, in eleven thousand three -hundred and forty years, no god has assumed the form of a man. They -relate that during this time the sun has four times risen out of his -usual quarter, and that he has twice risen where he now sets, and twice -set where he now rises; yet, that no change in the things in Egypt was -occasioned by this, either in respect to the productions of the earth or -the river, or to diseases or deaths. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THIRD LINE; FROM THE TWELVE KINGS TO AMASIS. - - -What things both other men and the Egyptians agree in saying occurred in -this country, I shall now proceed to relate, and shall add to them some -things of my own observation. The Egyptians having become free, after -the reign of the priest of Vulcan, since they were at no time able to -live without a king, divided all Egypt into twelve parts and established -twelve others. These contracted intermarriages, and agreed that they -would not attempt the subversion of one another, and would maintain the -strictest friendship. They made these regulations and strictly upheld -them, for the reason that it had been foretold them by an oracle when -they first assumed the government, "that whoever among them should offer -a libation in the temple of Vulcan from a bronze bowl, should be king of -all Egypt"; for they used to assemble in all the temples. Now, being -determined to leave in common a memorial of themselves, they built a -labyrinth, a little above the lake of Mœris, situated near that called -the city of Crocodiles; this I have myself seen, and found it greater -than can be described. For if any one should reckon up all the buildings -and public works of the Greeks, they would be found to have cost less -labor and expense than this labyrinth alone, though the temple in -Ephesus is deserving of mention, and also that in Samos. The pyramids -likewise were beyond description, and each of them comparable to many of -the great Greek structures. Yet the labyrinth surpasses even the -pyramids. For it has twelve courts enclosed with walls, with doors -opposite each other, six facing the north, and six the south, contiguous -to one another; and the same exterior wall encloses them. It contains -two kinds of rooms, some under ground and some above, to the number of -three thousand, fifteen hundred of each. The rooms above ground I myself -went through and saw, and relate from personal inspection. But the -underground rooms I know only from report; for the Egyptians who have -charge of the building would, on no account, show me them, saying that -they held the sepulchres of the kings who originally built this -labyrinth, and of the sacred crocodiles. I can therefore only relate -what I have learnt by hearsay concerning the lower rooms; but the upper -ones, which surpass all human works, I myself saw. The passages through -the corridors, and the windings through the courts, from their great -variety, presented a thousand occasions of wonder, as I passed from a -court to the rooms, and from the rooms to halls, and to other corridors -from the halls, and to other courts from the rooms. The roofs of all -these are of stone, as also are the walls; but the walls are full of -sculptured figures. Each court is surrounded with a colonnade of white -stone, closely fitted. And adjoining the extremity of the labyrinth is a -pyramid, forty orgyæ in height, on which large figures are carved, and a -way to it has been made under ground. - -Yet more wonderful than this labyrinth is the lake named from Mœris, -near which this labyrinth is built; its circumference measures three -thousand six hundred stades, or a distance equal to the sea-coast of -Egypt. The lake stretches lengthways, north and south, being in depth in -the deepest part fifty orgyæ. That it is made by hand and dry, this -circumstance proves, for about the middle of the lake stand two -pyramids, each rising fifty orgyæ above the surface of the water, and -the part built under water extends to an equal depth; on each of these -is placed a stone statue, seated on a throne. Thus these pyramids are -one hundred orgyæ in height. The water in this lake does not spring from -the soil, for these parts are excessively dry, but it is conveyed -through a channel from the Nile, and for six months it flows into the -lake, and six months out again into the Nile. And during the six months -that it flows out it yields a talent of silver every day to the king's -treasury from the fish; but when the water is flowing into it, twenty -minæ. The people of the country told me that this lake discharges itself -under ground into the Syrtis of Libya, running westward toward the -interior by the mountain above Memphis. But when I did not see anywhere -a heap of soil from this excavation, for this was an object of curiosity -to me, I inquired of the people who lived nearest the lake, where the -soil that had been dug out was to be found; they told me where it had -been carried, and easily persuaded me, because I had heard that a -similar thing had been done at Nineveh, in Assyria. For certain thieves -formed a design to carry away the treasures of Sardanapalus, King of -Nineveh, which were very large, and preserved in subterraneous -treasuries; the thieves, therefore, beginning from their own dwellings, -dug under ground by estimated measurement to the royal palace, and the -soil that was taken out of the excavations, when night came on, they -threw into the river Tigris, that flows by Nineveh; and so they -proceeded until they had effected their purpose. The same method I heard -was adopted in digging the lake in Egypt, except that it was not done by -night, but during the day; for the Egyptians who dug out the soil -carried it to the Nile, and the river receiving it, soon dispersed it. - -[Illustration: EGYPTIAN BELL CAPITALS.] - -[Illustration: HARPOON AND FISH HOOKS.] - -While the twelve kings continued to observe justice, in course of time, -as they were sacrificing in the temple of Vulcan, and were about to -offer a libation on the last day of the festival, the high priest, -mistaking the number, brought out eleven of the twelve golden bowls with -which he used to make the libation. Whereupon he who stood last of them, -Psammitichus, since he had not a bowl, having taken off his helmet, -which was of bronze, held it out and made the libation. All the other -kings were in the habit of wearing helmets, and at that time had them -on. Psammitichus therefore, without any sinister intention, held out his -helmet; but they having taken into consideration what was done by -Psammitichus, and the oracle that had foretold to them, "that whoever -among them should offer a libation from a bronze bowl, should be sole -king of Egypt"; calling to mind the oracle, did not think it right to -put him to death, since upon examination they found that he had done it -by no premeditated design. But they determined to banish him to the -marshes, having divested him of the greatest part of his power; and they -forbade him to leave the marshes, or have any intercourse with the rest -of Egypt. With the design of avenging himself on his persecutors, he -sent to the city of Buto to consult the oracle of Latona, the truest -oracle that the Egyptians have, and the answer was returned "that -vengeance would come from the sea, when men of bronze should appear." He -was very incredulous that men of bronze would come to assist him; but -not long after a stress of weather compelled some Ionians and Carians, -who had sailed out for the purpose of piracy, to bear away to Egypt; and -when they had disembarked and were clad in bronze armor, an Egyptian, -who had never before seen men clad in such manner, went to the marshes -to Psammitichus, and told him that men of bronze had arrived from the -sea, and were ravaging the plains. He felt at once that the oracle was -accomplished, and treated these Ionians and Carians in a friendly -manner, and by promising them great things, persuaded them to join with -him; and, with their help and that of such Egyptians as were well -disposed toward him, he overcame the other kings. - -[Illustration: EGYPTIAN HELMETS.] - -Psammitichus, now master of all Egypt, constructed the portico to -Vulcan's temple at Memphis that faces the south wind; he built a court -for Apis, in which he is fed whenever he appears, opposite the portico, -surrounded by a colonnade, and full of sculptured figures; and instead -of pillars, statues twelve cubits high are placed under the piazza. -Apis, in the language of the Greeks, means Epaphus. To the Ionians, and -those who with them had assisted him, Psammitichus gave lands opposite -each other, with the Nile flowing between. These bear the name of -"Camps." He royally fulfilled all his promises; and he moreover put -Egyptian children under their care to be instructed in the Greek -language; from whom the present interpreters in Egypt are descended. The -Ionians and the Carians continued for a long time to inhabit these -lands, situated near the sea, a little below the city of Bubastis. They -were the first people of a different language who settled in Egypt. The -docks for their ships, and the ruins of their buildings, were to be seen -in my time in the places from which they had removed. - -Psammitichus reigned in Egypt fifty-four years; during twenty-nine of -which he sat down before and besieged Azotus, a large city of Syria, -until he took it. This Azotus, of all the cities we know of, held out -against a siege the longest period. Neco was son of Psammitichus, and -became king of Egypt: he first set about the canal that leads to the Red -Sea, which Darius the Persian afterward completed. Its length is a -voyage of four days, and in width it was dug so that two triremes might -sail rowed abreast. The water is drawn into it from the Nile, and enters -it a little above the city Bubastis. The canal passes near the Arabian -city Patumos, and reaches to the Red Sea. In the digging of it one -hundred and twenty thousand Egyptians perished in the reign of Neco. - -Psammis his son reigned only six years over Egypt. He made an expedition -into Ethiopia, and shortly afterward died, Apries his son succeeding to -the kingdom. He, next to his grandfather Psammitichus, enjoyed greater -prosperity than any of the former kings, during a reign of five and -twenty years, in which period he marched an army against Sidon, and -engaged the Tyrians by sea. But it was destined for him to meet with -adversity. For, having sent an army against the Cyrenæans, he met with a -signal defeat. And the Egyptians, complaining of this, revolted from -him, suspecting that Apries had designedly sent them to certain ruin, in -order that they might be destroyed, and he might govern the rest of the -Egyptians with greater security. Both those that returned and the -friends of those who perished, being very indignant at this, openly -revolted against him. Apries, having heard of this, sent Amasis to -appease them by persuasion. But when he had come to them, and was urging -them to desist from their enterprise, one of the Egyptians, standing -behind him, placed a helmet on his head, and said: "I put this on you to -make you king." And this action was not at all disagreeable to Amasis, -as he presently showed. When Apries heard of this, he armed his -auxiliaries and marched against the Egyptians with Carian and Ionian -auxiliaries to the number of thirty thousand. They met near the city -Momemphis, and prepared to engage with each other. Apries had a palace -in the city of Sais that was spacious and magnificent. - -There are seven classes of people among the Egyptians—priests, warriors, -herdsmen, swineherds, tradesmen, interpreters, and pilots. Their -warriors are called Calasiries or Hermotybies. The Hermotybies number, -when they are most numerous, a hundred and sixty thousand. None of these -learn any business or mechanical art, but apply themselves wholly to -military affairs. The Calasiries number two hundred and fifty thousand -men: nor are these allowed to practise any art, but they devote -themselves to military pursuits alone, the son succeeding to his father. - -When Apries, leading his auxiliaries, and Amasis, all the Egyptians, met -together at Momemphis, the foreigners fought well, but being far -inferior in numbers, were, on that account, defeated. Apries is said to -have been of opinion that not even a god could deprive him of his -kingdom, so securely did he think himself established; but he was -beaten, taken prisoner, and carried back to Sais, to that which was -formerly his own palace, but which now belonged to Amasis: here he was -maintained for some time in the royal palace, and Amasis treated him -well. But at length the Egyptians complaining that he did not act -rightly in preserving a man who was the greatest enemy both to them and -to him, he delivered Apries to the Egyptians. They strangled him, and -buried him in his ancestral sepulchre, in the sacred precinct of -Minerva, very near the temple, on the left hand as you enter. - -Apries being thus dethroned, Amasis, who was of the Saitic district, -reigned in his stead; the name of the city from which he came was Siuph. -At first the Egyptians held him in no great estimation, as having been -formerly a private person, and of no illustrious family; but afterward -he conciliated them by an act of address, without any arrogance. He had -an infinite number of treasures among them a golden foot-pan, in which -Amasis himself and all his guests were accustomed to wash their feet. -This he broke in pieces, had the statue of a god made from it, and -placed it in the most suitable part of the city. The Egyptians flocked -to the image and paid it the greatest reverence. Thus, Amasis called the -Egyptians together and said: "This statue was made out of the foot-pan -in which the Egyptians formerly spat and washed their feet, and which -they then so greatly reverenced; now, the same has happened to me as to -the foot-pan; for though I was before but a private person, I now am -your king; you must therefore honor and respect me." By this means he -won over the Egyptians, so that they thought fit to obey him. He adopted -the following method of managing his affairs: early in the morning, -until the time of full-market, he assiduously despatched the business -brought before him; after that he drank and jested with his companions, -and talked loosely and sportively. But his friends, offended at this, -admonished him, saying: "You do not, O king, control yourself properly, -in making yourself too common. For it becomes you, who sit on a -venerable throne, to pass the day in transacting public business; thus -the Egyptians would know that they are governed by a great man, and you -would be better spoken of. But now you act in a manner not at all -becoming a king." But he answered them: "They who have bows, when they -want to use them, bend them; but when they have done using them, they -unbend them; for if the bow were to be kept always bent, it would break. -Such is the condition of man; if he should incessantly attend to serious -business, and not give himself up sometimes to sport, he would shortly -become mad or stupefied. I, being well aware of this, give up a portion -of my time to each." - -He built an admirable portico to the temple of Minerva at Sais, far -surpassing all others both in height and size, as well as in the -dimensions and quality of the stones; he likewise dedicated large -statues, and huge andro-sphinxes, and brought other stones of a -prodigious size for repairs: some from the quarries near Memphis; but -those of greatest magnitude, from the city of Elephantine, distant from -Sais a passage of twenty days. But that which I rather the most admire, -is this: he brought a building of one stone from the city of -Elephantine, and two thousand men, who were appointed to convey it, were -occupied three whole years in its transport, and these men were all -pilots. The length of this chamber, outside, is twenty-one cubits, the -breadth fourteen, and the height eight. But inside, the length is -eighteen cubits and twenty digits, the width twelve cubits, and the -height five cubits. This chamber is placed near the entrance of the -sacred precinct; for they say that he did not draw it within the -precinct for the following reason: the architect, as the chamber was -being drawn along, heaved a deep sigh, being wearied with the work, over -which so long a time had been spent; whereupon Amasis, making a -religious scruple of this, would not suffer it to be drawn any farther. -Some persons however say, that one of the men employed at the levers was -crushed to death by it, and that on that account it was not drawn into -the precinct. Amasis dedicated in all the most famous temples, works -admirable for their magnitude; and amongst them, at Memphis, the -reclining colossus before the temple of Vulcan, of which the length is -seventy-five feet; and on the same base stand two statues of Ethiopian -stone, each twenty feet in height, one on each side of the temple. There -is also at Sais another similar statue, lying in the same manner as that -at Memphis. It was Amasis also who built the temple to Isis at Memphis, -which is spacious and well worthy of notice. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT SPHINX.] - -Under the reign of Amasis, Egypt is said to have enjoyed the greatest -prosperity, both in respect to the benefits derived from the river to -the land, and from the land to the people; and it is said to have -contained at that time twenty thousand inhabited cities. Amasis it was -who established the law among the Egyptians, that every Egyptian should -annually declare to the governor of his district, by what means he -maintained himself; and if he failed to do this, or did not show that he -lived by honest means, he should be punished with death. Solon the -Athenian brought this law from Egypt and established it at Athens. -Amasis, being partial to the Greeks, bestowed other favors on various of -the Greeks, and gave the city of Naucratis for such as arrived in Egypt -to dwell in; and to such as did not wish to settle there, but only to -trade by sea, he granted places where they might erect altars and -temples to the gods. Now, the most spacious of these sacred buildings, -which is also the most renowned and frequented, called the Hellenium, -was erected at the common charge of the following cities: of the -Ionians,—Chios, Teos, Phocæa, and Clazomenæ; of the Dorians,—Rhodes, -Cnidus, Halicarnassus, Phaselis; and of the Æolians,—Mitylene alone. So -that this temple belongs to them, and these cities appoint officers to -preside over the mart: and whatever other cities claim a share in it, -claim what does not belong to them. Besides this, the people of Ægina -built a temple to Jupiter for themselves; and the Samians another to -Juno, and the Milesians one to Apollo. Naucratis was anciently the only -place of resort for merchants, and there was no other in Egypt: and if a -man arrived at any other mouth of the Nile, he was obliged to swear -"that he had come there against his will"; and having taken such an -oath, he must sail in the same ship to the Canopic mouth; but if he -should be prevented by contrary winds from doing so, he was forced to -unload his goods and carry them in barges round the Delta until he -reached Naucratis. So great were the privileges of Naucratis. When the -Amphyctions contracted to build the temple that now stands at Delphi for -three hundred talents—for the temple that was formerly there had been -burned by accident, and it fell upon the Delphians to supply a fourth -part of the sum—the Delphians went about from city to city to solicit -contributions, and brought home no small amount from Egypt. For Amasis -gave them a thousand talents of alum, and the Greeks who were settled in -Egypt twenty minæ. - -Amasis also dedicated offerings in Greece. In the first place, a gilded -statue of Minerva at Cyrene, and his own portrait painted; secondly, to -Minerva in Lindus two stone statues and a linen corselet well worthy of -notice; thirdly, to Juno at Samos two images of himself carved in wood, -which stood in the large temple even in my time, behind the doors. He -was the first who conquered Cyprus, and subjected it to the payment of -tribute. - -[12] By the Greek word Πόλος Herodotus means "a concave dial," shaped -like the vault of heaven. - -[13] Iliad, vi., 289. - -[14] Odyssey, iv., 227. - -[15] Odyssey, iv., 351. - - - - -_BOOK III. THALIA._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -EXPEDITIONS OF CAMBYSES. - - -Cambyses, son of Cyrus, made war against Amasis, leading with him his -own subjects, together with Greeks, Ionians and Æolians. The cause of -the war was this: Cambyses sent a herald into Egypt to demand the -daughter of Amasis. The suggestion was made by an Egyptian physician, -who out of spite served Amasis in this manner, because Amasis had -selected him out of all the physicians in Egypt, torn him from his wife -and children, and sent him as a present to the Persians, when Cyrus had -sent to Amasis, and required of him the best oculist in Egypt. The -Egyptian therefore, having this spite against him, urged on Cambyses by -his suggestions, bidding him demand the daughter of Amasis, in order -that if he should comply he might be grieved, or if he refused he might -incur the hatred of Cambyses. But Amasis, dreading the power of the -Persians, resorted to a piece of deceit. There was a daughter of Apries, -the former king, very tall and beautiful, the only survivor of the -family, named Nitetis. This damsel, Amasis adorned with cloth of gold, -and sent to Persia as his own daughter. After a time, when Cambyses -saluted her, addressing her by her father's name, the damsel said to -him: "O king, you do not perceive that you have been imposed upon by -Amasis, who dressed me in rich attire, and sent me to you, presenting me -as his own daughter; whereas, I am really the daughter of Apries, whom -he put to death, after he had incited the Egyptians to revolt." These -words enraged Cambyses, and led him to invade Egypt. - -[Illustration: EGYPTIAN POTTERY.] - -A circumstance that few of those who have made voyages to Egypt have -noticed, I shall now proceed to mention. From every part of Greece, and -also from Phœnicia, earthen vessels filled with wine are imported into -Egypt twice every year, and yet not a single one of these wine jars is -afterward to be seen. In what way, then, you may ask, are they disposed -of? Every magistrate is obliged to collect all the vessels from his own -city, and send them to Memphis; the people of that city fill them with -water, and convey them to the arid parts of Syria; so that the earthen -vessels continually imported and landed in Egypt, are added to those -already in Syria. The Persians, as soon as they became masters of Egypt, -facilitated the passage into that country, by supplying it with water in -this manner. But as, at that time, water was not provided, Cambyses, by -the advice of a Halicarnassian stranger, sent ambassadors to the -Arabian, and requested a safe passage, which he obtained, giving to, and -receiving from him, pledges of faith. - -The Arabians observe pledges as religiously as any people: when any wish -to pledge their faith, a third person, standing between the two parties, -makes an incision with a sharp stone in the palm of the hand, near the -longest fingers, of both the contractors; then taking some of the nap -from the garment of each, he smears seven stones, placed between them, -with the blood; and as he does this, he invokes Bacchus and Urania. When -this ceremony is completed, the person who pledges his faith, binds his -friends as sureties to the stranger, or the citizen, if the contract be -made with a citizen, and the friends also hold themselves obliged to -observe the engagement. They acknowledge no other gods than Bacchus and -Urania, and they say that their hair is cut in the same way as Bacchus' -is cut, in a circular form, banged round the temples. They call Bacchus, -Orotal; and Urania, Alilat. When the Arabian had exchanged pledges with -the ambassadors who came from Cambyses, he filled camels' skins with -water, loaded them on all his living camels, and drove them to the arid -region, and there awaited the army of Cambyses. This is the most -credible of the accounts that are given; yet it is right that one less -credible should be mentioned, since it is likewise affirmed. There is a -large river in Arabia called Corys, which discharges itself into the Red -Sea. From this river it is said that the king of the Arabians, having -sewn together a pipe of ox-hides and other skins, reaching in length to -the desert, conveyed the water through it; and that in the arid region -he dug large reservoirs, to receive and preserve the water. It is a -twelve days' journey from the river to the desert, yet he conveyed water -through three pipes into three different places. - -Amasis died after a reign of forty-four years, during which no great -calamity had befallen him. He was embalmed and buried in the sepulchre -within the sacred precinct, which he himself had built. During the reign -of Psammenitus, son of Amasis, a most remarkable prodigy befell the -Egyptians; rain fell at Egyptian Thebes, which had never happened -before, nor since, to my time, as the Thebans themselves affirm. For no -rain ever falls in the upper regions of Egypt; but at that time rain -fell in drops at Thebes. The Persians, having marched through the arid -region, halted near the Egyptians, as if with a design of engaging; -there the auxiliaries of the Egyptians, consisting of Greeks and -Carians, condemning Phanes because he had led a foreign army against -Egypt, adopted the following expedient against him: Phanes had left his -sons in Egypt; these they brought to the camp, within sight of their -father, placed a bowl midway between the two armies, then dragging the -children one by one, they slew them over the bowl, into which they also -poured wine and water; then all the auxiliaries drank of the blood, and -immediately joined battle. After a hard fight, when great numbers had -fallen on both sides, the Egyptians were put to flight. Here I saw a -very surprising fact, of which the people of the country informed me. As -the bones of those who were killed in that battle lie scattered about -separately, the bones of the Persians in one place, and those of the -Egyptians in another, the skulls of the Persians were so weak that if -you should hit one with a single pebble, you would break a hole in it; -whereas those of the Egyptians are so hard, that you could scarcely -fracture them by striking them with a stone. The cause of this, they -told me (and I readily assented), is that the Egyptians begin from -childhood to shave their heads, and the bone is thickened by exposure to -the sun; from the same cause also they are less subject to baldness, and -one sees fewer persons bald in Egypt than in any other country. But the -Persians have weak skulls, because they shade them from the first, -wearing tiaras for hats. - -The Egyptians fled in complete disorder from the battle. When they had -shut themselves up in Memphis, Cambyses sent a Mitylenæan bark up the -river, with a Persian herald on board, to invite the Egyptians to terms. -But when they saw the bark entering Memphis they rushed in a mass from -the wall, destroyed the ship, and having torn the crew to pieces, limb -by limb, they carried them into the citadel. After this the Egyptians -were besieged, and at length surrounded. The neighboring Libyans, -fearing what had befallen Egypt, gave themselves up without resistance, -submitted to pay a tribute, and sent presents, which Cambyses received -very graciously. - -On the tenth day after Cambyses had taken the citadel of Memphis, he -seated Psammenitus, the King of the Egyptians, who had reigned only six -months, at the entrance of the city. And by way of insult, he dressed -his daughter in the habit of a slave, and sent her with a pitcher to -fetch water, with other maidens selected from the principal families, -dressed in the same manner. As the girls, with loud lamentation and -weeping, came into the presence of their fathers, all the other fathers -answered them with wailing and weeping, when they beheld their children -thus humiliated. But Psammenitus only bent his eyes to the ground. When -these water-carriers had passed by, he next sent his son, with two -thousand Egyptians of the same age, with halters about their necks, and -a bridle in their mouths; and they were led out to suffer retribution -for those Mitylenæans who had perished at Memphis with the ship. For the -royal judges had given sentence, that for each man ten of the principal -Egyptians should be put to death. Yet, when he saw them passing by, and -knew that his son was being led out to death, though all the rest of the -Egyptians who sat round him wept and made loud lamentations, he did the -same as he had done in his daughter's case. But just then it happened -that one of his boon-companions, a man somewhat advanced in years, who -had lost his all, and possessed nothing but such things as a beggar has, -asking alms of the soldiery, passed by Psammenitus, and the Egyptians -seated in the suburbs. Then, indeed, he wept bitterly, and calling his -companion by name, smote his head. Cambyses, surprised at this behavior, -sent a messenger to say: "Psammenitus, your master Cambyses inquires -why, when you saw your daughter humiliated and your son led to -execution, you did not bewail or lament; and have been so highly -concerned for a beggar, who is no way related to you, as he is -informed." Psammenitus answered: "Son of Cyrus, the calamities of my -family are too great to be expressed by lamentation; but the griefs of -my friend were worthy of tears, who, having fallen from abundance and -prosperity, has come to beggary on the threshold of old age." When this -answer was brought back by the messenger, it appeared to Cambyses to be -well said; and, as the Egyptians relate, Crœsus wept, for he had -attended Cambyses into Egypt, and the Persians that were present wept -also; Cambyses himself, touched with pity, gave immediate orders to -preserve his son out of those who were to perish, but those who were -sent found the son no longer alive, having been the first that suffered; -but Psammenitus himself they conducted to Cambyses, with whom he -afterward lived, without experiencing any violence. And had it not been -suspected that he was planning innovations, he would probably have -recovered Egypt, so as to have the government intrusted to him. For the -Persians are accustomed to honor the sons of kings, and even if they -have revolted from them, sometimes bestow the government upon their -children. Psammenitus, devising mischief, received his reward, for he -was discovered inciting the Egyptians to revolt; and when he was -detected by Cambyses he was compelled to drink the blood of a bull, and -died immediately. - -Cambyses proceeded from Memphis to the city of Sais, and entering the -palace of Amasis, commanded the dead body of Amasis to be brought out of -the sepulchre; he gave orders then to scourge it, to pull off the hair, -to prick it, and to abuse it in every possible manner. But when they -were wearied with this employment, for the dead body, since it was -embalmed, resisted, and did not at all fall in pieces, Cambyses gave -orders to burn it, commanding what is impious. For to burn the dead is -on no account allowed by either nation: not by the Persians, for they -consider fire to be a god, and say it is not right to offer to a god the -dead body of a man; nor by the Egyptians, as fire is held by them to be -a living beast, which devours every thing it can lay hold of, and when -it is glutted with food it expires with what it has consumed; therefore, -as it is their law on no account to give a dead body to wild beasts, for -that reason they embalm them, that they may not lie and be eaten by -worms. - -Cambyses determined to send to Elephantine for some of the Ichthyophagi, -who understood the Ethiopian language, that he might despatch them as -spies to Ethiopia. When the Ichthyophagi came, he despatched them to the -Ethiopians, having instructed them what to say, carrying presents, -consisting of a purple cloak, a golden necklace, bracelets, an alabaster -box of ointment, and a cask of palm wine. These Ethiopians, to whom -Cambyses sent, are said to be the tallest and handsomest of all men; and -have customs different from those of other nations, especially with -regard to the regal power; for they confer the sovereignty upon the man -whom they consider to be of the largest stature, and to possess strength -proportionate to his size. - -When the Ichthyophagi arrived among this people, they gave the presents -to the king, and addressed him as follows: "Cambyses, King of the -Persians, desirous of becoming your friend and ally, has sent us to -confer with you, and he presents you with these gifts, which are such as -he himself most delights in." But the Ethiopian, knowing that they came -as spies, spoke thus to them: "Neither has the king of the Persians sent -you with presents to me, because he valued my alliance; nor do you speak -the truth; for ye are come as spies of my kingdom. Nor is he a just man; -for if he were just, he would not desire any other territory than his -own; nor would he reduce people into servitude who have done him no -injury. However, give him this bow, and say these words to him: 'The -king of the Ethiopians advises the king of the Persians, when the -Persians can thus easily draw a bow of this size, then to make war on -the Macrobian Ethiopians with more numerous forces; but until that time -let him thank the gods, who have not inspired the sons of the Ethiopians -with a desire of adding another land to their own.'" Having spoken thus -and unstrung the bow, he delivered it to the comers. Then taking up the -purple cloak, he asked what it was, and how made; and when the -Ichthyophagi told him the truth respecting the purple, and the manner of -dyeing, he said that the men are deceptive, and their garments are -deceptive also. Next he inquired about the necklace and bracelets, and -when the Ichthyophagi explained to him their use as ornaments, the king, -laughing, and supposing them to be fetters, said that they have stronger -fetters than these. Thirdly, he inquired about the ointment; and when -they told him about its composition and use, he made the same remark as -he had on the cloak. But when he came to the wine, and inquired how it -was made, being very much delighted with the draught, he further asked -what food the king made use of, and what was the longest age to which a -Persian lived. They answered, that he fed on bread, describing the -nature of wheat; and that the longest period of the life of a Persian -was eighty years. Upon this the Ethiopian said, that he was not at all -surprised if men who fed on earth lived so few years; and he was sure -they would not be able to live even so many years, if they did not -refresh themselves with this beverage, showing the wine to the -Ichthyophagi: for in this he admitted they were surpassed by the -Persians. The Ichthyophagi inquiring in turn of the king concerning the -life and diet of the Ethiopians, he said, that most of them attained to -a hundred and twenty years, and some even exceeded that term, and that -their food was boiled flesh, and their drink milk. When the spies -expressed their astonishment at the number of years, he led them to a -fountain, by washing in which they became more sleek, as if it had been -of oil, and an odor proceeded from it as of violets. The water of this -fountain, the spies said, is so weak, that nothing is able to float upon -it, neither wood, nor such things as are lighter than wood; but every -thing sinks to the bottom. If this water is truly such as it is said to -be, it may be they are long-lived by reason of the abundant use of it. -Leaving this fountain, he conducted them to the common prison, where all -were fettered with golden chains; for among these Ethiopians bronze is -the most rare and precious of all metals. After this, they visited last -of all their sepulchres, which are said to be prepared from crystal in -the following manner. When they have dried the body, either as the -Egyptians do, or in some other way, they plaster it all over with -gypsum, and paint it, making it as much as possible to resemble real -life; they then put round it a hollow column made of crystal, which they -dig up in abundance, and is easily wrought. The body being in the middle -of the column is plainly seen, and it does not emit an unpleasant smell, -nor is it in any way offensive; and it is all visible[16] as the body -itself. The nearest relations keep the column in their houses for a -year, offering to it the first-fruits of all, and performing sacrifices; -after that time they carry it out and place it somewhere near the city. - -When the spies returned home and reported all that had passed, Cambyses, -in a great rage, immediately marched against the Ethiopians, without -making any provision for the subsistence of his army, or once -considering that he was going to carry his arms to the remotest parts of -the world; but, as a madman, and not in possession of his senses, as -soon as he heard the report of the Icthyophagi, he set out on his march, -ordering the Greeks who were present to stay behind, and taking with him -all his land forces. When the army reached Thebes, he detached about -fifty thousand men, and ordered them to reduce the Ammonians to slavery, -and to burn the oracular temple of Jupiter, while he with the rest of -his army marched against the Ethiopians. But before the army had passed -over a fifth part of the way, all the provisions that they had were -exhausted, and the beasts of burden themselves were eaten. Now if -Cambyses had at this juncture altered his purpose, and had led back his -army, he would have proved himself to be a wise man. But he obstinately -continued advancing. The soldiers supported life by eating herbs as long -as they could gather any from the ground; but when they reached the -sands, some of them had recourse to a dreadful expedient, for taking one -man in ten by lot, they devoured him: when Cambyses heard this, shocked -at their eating one another, he abandoned his expedition against the -Ethiopians, marched back and reached Thebes, after losing a great part -of his army. From Thebes he went down to Memphis, and suffered the -Greeks to sail away. Thus ended the expedition against the Ethiopians. -Those who had been sent against the Ammonians, after having set out from -Thebes, under the conduct of guides, are known to have reached the city -Oasis, which is inhabited by Samians, distant seven days' march from -Thebes, across the sands. This country in the Greek language is called -the Island of the Blessed. But afterward none, except the Ammonians and -those who have heard their report, are able to give any account of them; -for they neither reached the Ammonians, nor returned back. But the -Ammonians make the following report: When they had advanced from this -Oasis toward them across the sands, and were about half-way between them -and Oasis, as they were taking dinner, a vehement south wind blew, -carrying with it heaps of sand, and completely destroyed the whole army. - -[Illustration: SAND STORM IN THE DESERT.] - -When Cambyses arrived at Memphis, Apis, whom the Greeks call Epaphus, -appeared to the Egyptians; and when this manifestation took place, the -Egyptians immediately put on their richest apparel, and kept festive -holiday. Cambyses, seeing them thus occupied, and concluding that they -made these rejoicings on account of his ill success, summoned the -magistrates of Memphis; and when they came into his presence, he asked -"why the Egyptians had done nothing of the kind when he was at Memphis -before, but did so now, when he had returned with the loss of a great -part of his army." They answered, that their god appeared to them, who -was accustomed to manifest himself at intervals, and that when he did -appear, then all the Egyptians were accustomed to rejoice and keep a -feast. Cambyses, having heard this, said they were liars, and put them -to death. Then he summoned the priests into his presence, and when the -priests gave the same account, he said, that he would find out whether a -god so tractable had come among the Egyptians; and commanded the priests -to bring Apis to him. This Apis, or Epaphus, the Egyptians say, is the -calf of a cow upon which the lightning has descended from heaven. It is -black, and has a square spot of white on the forehead; on the back the -figure of an eagle; and in the tail double hairs; and on the tongue a -beetle. When the priests brought Apis, Cambyses, like one almost out of -his senses, drew his dagger, meaning to strike the belly of Apis, but -hit the thigh; then falling into a fit of laughter, he said to the -priests: "Ye blockheads, are there such gods as these, consisting of -blood and flesh, and sensible of steel? This, truly, is a god worthy of -the Egyptians. But you shall not mock me with impunity." Then he gave -orders to scourge the priests, and kill all the Egyptians who should be -found feasting. Apis, wounded in the thigh, lay and languished in the -temple; and at length, when he had died of the wound, the priests buried -him without the knowledge of Cambyses. - -But Cambyses, as the Egyptians say, immediately became mad in -consequence of this atrocity, though he really was not of sound mind -before. His first crime he committed against his brother Smerdis, who -was born of the same father and mother; him he sent back from Egypt to -Persia through envy, because he alone of all the Persians had drawn the -bow, which the Ichthyophagi brought from the Ethiopian, within two -fingers' breadth; of the other Persians no one was able to do this. -After the departure of Smerdis for Persia, Cambyses saw the following -vision in his sleep: he imagined that a messenger arrived from Persia -and informed him that Smerdis was seated on the royal throne, and -touched the heavens with his head. Upon this, fearing for himself, lest -his brother should kill him, and reign, he sent Prexaspes, the most -faithful to him of the Persians, to Persia, with orders to kill Smerdis. -Having gone up to Susa, he killed Smerdis; some say, when he had taken -him out to hunt; but others, that he led him to the Red Sea and drowned -him. This they say was the first of the crimes of Cambyses; the second -was that of marrying his own sister, who had accompanied him into Egypt. - -The Greeks say, that one day Cambyses made the whelp of a lion fight -with a young dog; and this wife was also looking on; the dog being -over-matched, another puppy of the same litter broke his chain, and came -to his assistance, and thus the two dogs united got the better of the -whelp. Cambyses was delighted at the sight, but she, sitting by him, -shed tears. Cambyses, observing this, asked her why she wept. She -answered, that she wept seeing the puppy come to the assistance of his -brother, remembering Smerdis, and knowing that there was no one to -avenge him. The Greeks say, that for this speech she was put to death by -Cambyses. But the Egyptians say, that as they were sitting at table, his -wife took a lettuce, stripped off its leaves, and then asked her husband -"whether the lettuce stripped of its leaves, or thick with foliage, was -the handsomer." He said: "When thick with foliage." Whereupon she -remarked: "Then you have imitated this lettuce, in dismembering the -house of Cyrus." Whereupon he, in rage, kicked her and inflicted such -injuries that she died. - -Thus madly did Cambyses behave toward his own family; whether on account -of Apis, or from some other cause, from which, in many ways, misfortunes -are wont to befall mankind. For Cambyses is said, even from infancy, to -have been afflicted with a certain severe malady, which some called the -sacred disease.[17] In that case, it was not at all surprising that, -when his body was so diseased, his mind should not be sound. And toward -the other Persians he behaved madly in the following instances: for it -is reported that he said to Prexaspes, whom he highly honored, and whose -office it was to bring messages to him, whose son was cupbearer to -Cambyses, no trifling honor by any means, he is reported to have said: -"Prexaspes, what sort of a man do the Persians think me? and what -remarks do they make about me?" He answered: "Sir, you are highly -extolled in every other respect, but they say you are too much addicted -to wine." The king enraged cried out: "Do the Persians indeed say that, -by being addicted to wine, I am beside myself, and am not in my senses? -then their former words were not true." For, on a former occasion, when -the Persians and Crœsus were sitting with him, Cambyses asked, what sort -of a man he appeared to be in comparison with his father Cyrus; they -answered, that he was superior to his father, because he held all that -Cyrus possessed, and had acquired besides Egypt and the empire of the -sea. Crœsus, who was not pleased with this decision, spoke thus to -Cambyses: "To me, O son of Cyrus, you do not appear comparable to your -father, for you have not yet such a son as he left behind him." Cambyses -was delighted at hearing this, and commended the judgment of Crœsus. So, -remembering this, he said in anger to Prexaspes: "Observe now yourself, -whether the Persians have spoken the truth, or whether they who say such -things are not out of their senses: for if I shoot that son of yours who -stands under the portico, and hit him in the heart, the Persians will -appear to have said nothing to the purpose; but if I miss, then say that -the Persians have spoken the truth, and that I am not of sound mind." -Having said this, and bent his bow, he hit the boy; and when the boy had -fallen, he ordered them to open him and examine the wound; and when the -arrow was found in the heart, he said to the boy's father, laughing: -"Prexaspes, it has been clearly shown to you that I am not mad, but that -the Persians are out of their senses. Now tell me, did you ever see a -man take so true an aim?" But Prexaspes, perceiving him to be out of his -mind, and being in fear for his own life, said: "Sir, I believe that a -god himself could not have shot so well." At another time, having, -without any just cause, seized twelve Persians of the first rank, he had -them buried alive up to the head. - -While he was acting in this manner, Crœsus the Lydian thought fit to -admonish him in the following terms: "O king, do not yield entirely to -your youthful impulses and anger, but possess and restrain yourself. It -is a good thing to be provident, and wise to have forethought. You put -men to death who are your own subjects, having seized them without any -just cause; and you slay their children. If you persist in such a -course, beware lest the Persians revolt from you. Your father Cyrus -strictly charged me to admonish you, and suggest whatever I might -discover for your good." He thus manifested his good-will, in giving -this advice; but Cambyses answered: "Do you presume to give me advice, -you, who so wisely managed your own country; and so well advised my -father, when you persuaded him to pass the river Araxes, and advance -against the Massagetæ, when they were willing to cross over into our -territory? You have first ruined yourself by badly governing your own -country, and then ruined Cyrus, who was persuaded by your advice. But -you shall have no reason to rejoice; for I have long wanted to find a -pretext against you." So saying, he took up his bow for the purpose of -shooting him; but Crœsus jumped up and ran out. Cambyses, unable to -shoot him, commanded his attendants to seize him, and put him to death. -But the attendants, knowing his temper, concealed Crœsus for the -following reason, that if Cambyses should repent, and inquire for -Crœsus, they, by producing him, might receive rewards for preserving him -alive; or if he should not repent, or sorrow for him, then they would -put him to death. Not long afterward Cambyses did regret the loss of -Crœsus, whereupon the attendants acquainted him that he was still -living; on which Cambyses said: "I am rejoiced that Crœsus is still -alive; they, however, who disobeyed my orders and saved him, shall not -escape with impunity, but I will have them put to death." And he made -good his word. - -He committed many such mad actions, both against the Persians and his -allies, while he stayed at Memphis opening ancient sepulchres, and -examining the dead bodies; he also entered the temple of Vulcan, and -derided the image, for the image of Vulcan is very much like the -Phœnician Pataici, which the Phœnicians place at the prows of their -triremes, and is a representation of a pigmy. He likewise entered the -temple of the Cabeiri, (into which it is unlawful for any one except the -priest to enter) and these images he burnt, after he had ridiculed them -in various ways: these also are like that of Vulcan; and they say that -they are the sons of this latter. It is in every way clear to me that -Cambyses was outrageously mad; otherwise he would not have attempted to -deride sacred things and established customs. For if any one should -propose to all men, to select the best institutions of all that exist, -each, after considering them all, would choose his own; so certain is it -that each thinks his own institutions by far the best. It is not -therefore probable, that any but a madman would make such things the -subject of ridicule. That all men are of this mind respecting their own -institutions may be inferred from many proofs, but is well illustrated -by the following incident: Darius once summoned some Greeks under his -sway, and asked them "for what sum they would feed upon the dead bodies -of their parents." They answered, that they would not do it for any sum. -Then Darius called to him some of the Indians called Callatians, who are -accustomed to eat their parents, and asked them, in the presence of the -Greeks, "for what sum they would consent to burn their fathers when they -die." But they made loud exclamations and begged he would speak words of -good omen. Such then is the effect of custom: and Pindar appears to me -to have said rightly "that custom is the king of all men." - -[Illustration: ATTACK ON FORT.] - -Whilst Cambyses was invading Egypt, the Lacedæmonians made an expedition -against Polycrates, who had made an insurrection and seized on Samos. At -first, having divided the state into three parts, he had shared it with -his brothers Pantagnotus and Syloson; but afterward, having put one of -them to death, and expelled Syloson, the younger, he held the whole of -Samos, and made a treaty of friendship with Amasis, King of Egypt, -sending presents, and receiving others from him in return. In a very -short time the power of Polycrates increased, and was noised abroad -throughout Ionia and the rest of Greece; for wherever he turned his -arms, everything turned out prosperously. He had a hundred fifty-oared -galleys, and a thousand archers. And he plundered all without -distinction; for he said that he gratified a friend more by restoring -what he had seized, than by taking nothing at all. He accordingly took -many of the islands, and many cities on the continent; he moreover -overcame in a sea-fight, and took prisoners, the Lesbians, who came to -assist the Milesians with all their forces; these, being put in chains, -dug the whole trench that surrounds the walls of Samos. - -The Lacedæmonians, arriving with a great armament, besieged Samos, -attacked the fortifications, and passed beyond the tower that faced the -sea near the suburbs; but afterward, when Polycrates himself advanced -with a large force, they were driven back, and after forty days had been -spent in besieging Samos, finding their affairs were not at all -advanced, they returned to Peloponnesus; though a groundless report got -abroad, that Polycrates coined a large quantity of the money of the -country in lead, had it gilt, and gave it to them; whereupon they took -their departure. This was the first expedition that the Lacedæmonian -Dorians undertook against Asia. - -Those of the Samians who had fomented the war against Polycrates set -sail for Siphnus when the Lacedæmonians were about to abandon them, for -they were in want of money. The Siphnians were at that time the richest -of all the islanders, having such gold and silver mines, that from the -tenth of the money accruing from them, a treasure was laid up at Delphi -equal to the richest; and they used every year to divide the product of -the mines. When they established this treasure, they asked the oracle, -whether their present prosperity would continue with them for a long -time; but the Pythian answered as follows: "When the Prytaneum in -Siphnus shall be white, and the market white-fronted, then shall there -be need of a prudent man to guard against a wooden ambush and a crimson -herald." The market and Prytaneum of the Siphnians were then adorned -with Parian marble. As soon as the Samians reached Siphnus, they sent -ambassadors to the city in a ship which, like all ships at that time, -was painted red. And this was what the Pythian meant by a wooden ambush -and a crimson herald. These ambassadors requested the Siphnians to lend -them ten talents; the Siphnians refused the loan, and the Samians -proceeded to ravage their territory. The Siphnians were beaten, and -compelled to give a hundred talents. - -[Illustration: THE OBELISK.] - -I have dwelt longer on the affairs of the Samians, because they have the -three greatest works that have been accomplished by all the Greeks. The -first is a mountain, one hundred and fifty orgyæ in height, in which is -dug a tunnel, beginning from the base, with an opening at each side. The -length of the excavation is seven stades, and the height and breadth -eight feet each; through the whole length of it is dug another -excavation twenty cubits deep, and three feet broad, through which the -water conveyed by pipes reaches the city, drawn from a copious fountain. -The architect of this excavation was a Megarian, Eupalinus, son of -Naustrophus. The second work is a mound in the sea round the harbor, in -depth about one hundred orgyæ; and in length more than two stades. The -third is a temple, the largest of all we have ever seen; of this, the -architect was Rhœcus, son of Phileus, a native. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -USURPATION OF SMERDIS THE MAGUS AND ACCESSION OF DARIUS. - - -While Cambyses, son of Cyrus, tarried in Egypt, and was acting madly, -two magi, who were brothers, revolted. One of these, Cambyses had left -steward of his palace, the other was a person very much like Smerdis, -son of Cyrus, whom Cambyses, his own brother, had put to death. The -magus Patizithes, having persuaded this man that he would manage every -thing for him, set him on the throne; and sent heralds in various -directions, particularly to Egypt, to proclaim to the army, that they -must in future obey Smerdis, son of Cyrus, and not Cambyses. The herald -who was appointed to Egypt, finding Cambyses and his army at Ecbatana in -Syria, stood in the midst and proclaimed what had been ordered by the -magus. Cambyses, believing that he spoke the truth, and that he had -himself been betrayed by Prexaspes, and that he, when sent to kill -Smerdis, had not done so, looked toward Prexaspes, and said: "Prexaspes, -hast thou thus performed the business I enjoined upon thee?" But he -answered: "Sire, it is not true that your brother Smerdis has revolted -against you, nor that you can have any quarrel, great or small, with -him. For I myself put your order into execution, and buried him with my -own hands. I think I understand the whole matter, O king: the magi are -the persons who have revolted against you,—Patizithes, whom you left -steward of the palace, and his brother Smerdis." When Cambyses heard the -name of Smerdis, the truth of this account and of the dream struck him: -for he fancied in his sleep that some one announced to him that Smerdis, -seated on the royal throne, touched the heavens with his head. -Perceiving, therefore, that he had destroyed his brother without a -cause, he wept bitterly for him, deplored the whole calamity, and leapt -upon his horse, resolving with all speed to march to Susa against the -magus. But as he was leaping on his horse, the chape of his sword's -scabbard fell off, and the blade, being laid bare, struck the thigh; -wounding him in that part where he himself had formerly smitten the -Egyptian god Apis. Mortally wounded, he asked what was the name of the -city. They said it was Ecbatana. And it had been before prophesied to -him from the city of Buto, that he should end his life in Ecbatana. He -had imagined that he should die an old man in Ecbatana of Media, where -all his treasures were; but the oracle in truth meant in Ecbatana of -Syria. When he had thus been informed of the name of the city, though -smitten by misfortune, he returned to his right mind; and comprehending -the oracle, said: "Here it is fated that Cambyses, son of Cyrus, should -die." - -Twenty days later he summoned the principal men of the Persians who were -with him, told them his vision and his great mistake, shed bitter tears, -and charged them never to permit the government to return into the hands -of the Medes. When the Persians saw their king weep, all rent the -garments they had on, and gave themselves up to lamentation. Soon the -bone became infected, the thigh mortified, and Cambyses, son of Cyrus, -died, after he had reigned in all seven years and five months, having -never had any children. Great incredulity stole over the Persians who -were present, as to the story that the magi had possession of the -government, and agreed that it must be Smerdis, son of Cyrus, who had -risen up and seized the kingdom. Prexaspes, moreover, vehemently denied -that he had killed Smerdis; for it was not safe for him, now that -Cambyses was dead, to own that he had killed the son of Cyrus with his -own hand. - -The magus, after the death of Cambyses, relying on his having the same -name as Smerdis the son of Cyrus, reigned securely during the seven -months that remained to complete the eighth year of Cambyses; in which -time he treated all his subjects with such beneficence, that at his -death, all the people of Asia, except the Persians, regretted his loss. -For the magus, on assuming the sovereignty, despatched messengers to -every nation he ruled over, and proclaimed a general exemption from -military service and tribute for the space of three years. But in the -eighth month he was discovered in the following manner. Otanes, son of -Pharnaspes, was by birth and fortune equal to the first of the Persians. -This Otanes first suspected the magus not to be Smerdis the son of -Cyrus, from the fact, that he never went out of the citadel, and that he -never summoned any of the principal men of Persia to his presence. -Having conceived suspicion of him, he contrived the following artifice. -Cambyses had married his daughter, whose name was Phædyma; the magus of -course had her as his wife, as well as all the rest of the wives of -Cambyses. Otanes therefore, sending to his daughter, inquired whether -her husband was Smerdis, son of Cyrus, or some other person; she sent -back word to him, saying that she did not know. Otanes sent a second -time, saying: "If you do not yourself know Smerdis, son of Cyrus, then -inquire of Atossa, for she must of necessity know her own brother." To -this his daughter replied: "I can neither have any conversation with -Atossa, nor see any of the women who used to live with me; for as soon -as this man, whoever he is, succeeded to the throne, he dispersed us -all, assigning us separate apartments." When Otanes heard this, the -matter appeared much more plain; and he sent a third message to her in -these words: "Daughter, it becomes you, being of noble birth, to -undertake any peril that your father may require you to incur. For if -this Smerdis is not the son of Cyrus, but the person whom I suspect, it -is not fit that he should escape with impunity, but suffer the -punishment due to his offences. Now follow my directions: watch your -opportunity, and whenever you discover him to be sound asleep, touch his -ears; and if you find he has ears, be assured that he is Smerdis, son of -Cyrus; but if he has none, then he is Smerdis the magus." To this -message Phædyma answered, saying "that she should incur very great -danger by doing so; for he kept the sides of his head concealed, and if -he had no ears, and she should be discovered touching him, she well knew -that he would put her to death; nevertheless she would make the -attempt." Cyrus, during his reign, had cut off the ears of this Smerdis -the magus, for some grave offence. Phædyma, therefore, determining to -execute all that she had promised her father, catching the magus sound -asleep on his couch one day felt for his ears, and perceiving without -any difficulty that the man had no ears, as soon as it was day, she sent -and made known to her father what the case was. - -Thereupon Otanes, having taken with him Aspathines and Gobryas, who were -the noblest of the Persians, and persons on whom he could best rely, -related to them the whole affair; and they agreed that each should -associate with himself a Persian in whom he could place most reliance. -Otanes accordingly introduced Intaphernes; Gobryas, Megabyzus; and -Aspathines, Hydarnes. Just at this time Darius, son of Hystaspes, -arrived at Susa from Persia, where his father was governor, and the six -Persians determined to admit Darius to the confederacy. These seven met, -exchanged pledges with each other, and conferred together. When it came -to the turn of Darius to declare his opinion, he addressed them as -follows: "I thought that I was the only person who knew that it was the -magus who reigns, and that Smerdis, son of Cyrus, is dead; and for this -very reason I hastened hither in order to contrive the death of the -magus. But since it proves that you also are acquainted with the fact, -it appears to me that we should act immediately." Otanes said to this: -"Son of Hystaspes, you are born of a noble father, and show yourself not -at all inferior to him; do not, however, so inconsiderately hasten this -enterprise, but set about it with more caution; for we must increase our -numbers, and then attempt it." Darius replied to this: "Be assured, ye -men who are here present, if you adopt the plan proposed by Otanes, you -will all miserably perish; for some one will discover it to the magus, -consulting his own private advantage; indeed, you ought to have carried -out your project immediately, without communicating it to any one else; -but since you have thought fit to refer it to others, and have disclosed -it to me, let us carry it out this very day, or be assured, that if this -day passes over, no one shall be beforehand with me and become my -accuser, but I myself will denounce you to the magus." Otanes, seeing -Darius so eager, replied: "Since you compel us to precipitate our -enterprise, and will not permit us to defer it, tell us in what way we -are to enter the palace and attack him; for you yourself know that -guards are stationed at intervals; and how shall we pass them?" "There -are many things," said Darius, "that can not be made clear by words, but -may by action; and there are other things that seem practicable in -description, but no signal effect proceeds from them. Be assured that -the guards stationed there will not be at all difficult to pass by: for -in the first place, seeing our rank, there is no one who will not allow -us to pass, partly from respect, and partly from fear; and in the next -place, I have a most specious pretext by which we shall gain admission, -for I will say that I have just arrived from Persia, and wish to report -a message to the king from my father. For when a lie must be told, let -it be told. Whoever of the doorkeepers shall willingly let us pass, -shall be rewarded in due time; but whoever offers to oppose us must -instantly be treated as an enemy." After this Gobryas said: "Friends, -shall we ever have a better opportunity to recover the sovereign power, -or if we shall be unable to do so, to die? seeing we who are Persians, -are governed by an earless Medic magus. Those among you who were present -with Cambyses when he lay sick, well remember the imprecations he -uttered at the point of death against the Persians, if they should not -attempt to repossess themselves of the sovereign power: we did not then -believe this story, but thought that Cambyses spoke from ill-will. I -give my voice that we yield to Darius, and that on breaking up this -conference we go direct to the magus." And all assented to his proposal. - -Meantime the magi, on consultation, determined to make Prexaspes their -friend: both because he had suffered grievous wrong from Cambyses, who -shot his son dead with an arrow; and because he alone of all the -Persians knew of the death of Smerdis, son of Cyrus, as he had -despatched him with his own hand; and moreover, Prexaspes was in high -repute with the Persians. Therefore, having sent for Prexaspes, they -endeavored to win his friendship, binding him by pledges and oaths, that -he would never divulge to any man the cheat they had put upon the -Persians, assuring him that in return they would give him every thing -his heart could desire. When Prexaspes had promised that he would do as -the magi wished, they made a second proposal, saying, that they would -assemble all the Persians under the walls of the palace, and desired -that he would ascend a tower, and assure them that they were governed by -Smerdis, son of Cyrus. Prexaspes assented, and the magi, having convoked -the Persians, placed him on the top of a turret, and commanded him to -harangue the people. But he purposely forgot what they desired him to -say, and, beginning from Achæmenes, described the genealogy of Cyrus' -family; told them what great benefits Cyrus had done the Persians; and -finally declared the whole truth, saying that he had before concealed -it, as it was not safe for him to tell what had happened; but that in -the present emergency necessity constrained him to make it known. He -accordingly told them that he, being compelled by Cambyses, had put -Smerdis, son of Cyrus, to death, and that it was the magi who then -reigned. After he had uttered many imprecations against the Persians, if -they should not recover back the sovereign power, and punish the magi, -he threw himself headlong from the tower. Thus died Prexaspes, a man -highly esteemed during the course of his whole life. - -[Illustration: MAMELUKE TOMB, CAIRO.] - -The seven Persians, resolving to attack the magi without delay, had -offered prayers to the gods, and were in the midst of their way when -they were informed of all that Prexaspes had done, whereupon they again -conferred together; and some, with Otanes, strongly advised to defer the -enterprise while affairs were in such a ferment; but others, with -Darius, urged to proceed at once. While hotly disputing there appeared -seven pairs of hawks pursuing two pairs of vultures, and plucking and -tearing them. The seven, on seeing this, all approved the opinion of -Darius, and forthwith proceeded to the palace, emboldened by the omen. -When they approached the gates, it happened as Darius had supposed; for -the guards, out of respect for men of highest rank among the Persians, -and not suspecting any such design on their part, let them pass by, -moved as they were by divine impulse; nor did any one question them. But -when they reached the hall, they fell in with the eunuchs appointed to -carry in messages, who inquired of them for what purpose they had come; -and at the same time that they questioned them they threatened the -doorkeepers for permitting them to pass, and endeavored to prevent the -seven from proceeding any farther. They instantly drew their daggers, -stabbed all that opposed their passage on the spot, and then rushed to -the men's apartment. The magi happened to be both within at the time, -and were consulting about the conduct of Prexaspes. But seeing the -eunuchs in confusion, and hearing their outcry, they hurried out, and -put themselves on the defensive. One snatched up a bow, and the other a -javelin, and the parties engaged with each other. The one who had taken -up the bow, seeing his enemies were near and pressing upon them, found -it of no use; but the other made resistance with his spear, and first -wounded Aspathines in the thigh, and next Intaphernes in the eye; and -Intaphernes lost his eye from the wound, but did not die. The other -magus, when he found his bow of no service, fled to a chamber adjoining -the men's apartment, purposing to shut to the door, and two of the -seven, Darius and Gobryas, rushed in with him; and as Gobryas was -grappling with the magus, Darius standing by was in perplexity, fearing -that he should strike Gobryas in the dark; but Gobryas, seeing that he -stood by inactive, asked him why he did not use his hand. He answered: -"Fearing for you, lest I should strike you." "Never mind," said Gobryas, -"drive your sword through both of us." Darius obeyed, thrust with his -dagger, and by good fortune hit the magus. - -Having slain the magi, and cut off their heads, they left the wounded of -their own party there, as well on account of their exhaustion as to -guard the acropolis; but the other five of them, carrying the heads of -the magi, ran out with shouting and clamor, and called upon the rest of -the Persians, relating what they had done, and showing them the heads; -and at the same time they slew every one of the magi that came in their -way. The Persians, informed of what had been done by the seven, and of -the fraud of the magi, determined themselves also to do the like; and -having drawn their daggers, they slew every magus they could find; and -if the night coming on had not prevented, they would not have left a -single magus alive. This day the Persians observe in common more than -any other, and in it they celebrate a great festival, which they call -"The Slaughter of the Magi." On that day no magus is allowed to be seen -in public. - -When the tumult had subsided, and five days had elapsed, those who had -risen up against the magi deliberated on the state of affairs. Otanes -advised that they should commit the government to the Persians at large, -"for," said he, "how can a monarchy be a well-constituted government, -where one man is allowed to do whatever he pleases without control?" -Megabyzus advised them to intrust the government to an oligarchy, and -said: "Let us choose an association of the best men, and commit the -sovereign power to them, for among them we ourselves shall be included, -and it is reasonable to expect that the best counsels will proceed from -the best men." Darius expressed his opinion the third, saying: "What -Megabyzus has said concerning the people was spoken rightly, but if -three forms are proposed, and each the best in its kind, democracy, -oligarchy, and monarchy, I contend that the last is far superior. For -nothing can be found better than one man, who is the best; since acting -upon equally wise plans, he would govern the people without blame, and -would keep his designs most secret from the ill-affected. But in an -oligarchy, whilst many are exerting their energies for the public good, -strong private enmities commonly spring up; for each wishing to be -chief, and to carry his own opinions, they come to deep animosities one -against another, whence seditions arise; and from seditions, murder; and -from murder recourse is always had to a monarchy; and thus it is proved -that this form of government is the best. Also when the people rule, it -is impossible that evil should not spring up, and powerful combinations, -for they who injure the commonwealth act in concert; and this lasts -until some one of the people stands forward and puts them down; and on -this account, being admired by the people, he becomes a monarch; this -again shows that a monarchy is best. Moreover, we should not subvert the -institutions of our ancestors, when we see how good they are." - -Four of the seven adhered to this opinion. Then said Otanes: -"Associates, since it is evident that some one of us must be made king, -I will not enter into competition with you; for I wish neither to govern -nor be governed. But on this condition I give up all claim to the -government, that neither I nor any of my posterity may be subject to any -one of you." The six agreed to these terms, and he withdrew from the -assembly; and this family alone, of all the Persians, retains its -liberty to this day, and yields obedience only so far as it pleases, but -without transgressing the laws of the Persians. The rest of the seven -consulted how they might appoint a king on the most equitable terms; and -they determined that Otanes and his posterity forever should be given a -Median vest yearly, by way of distinction, together with all such -presents as are accounted most honorable among the Persians, for he -first advised the enterprise, and associated them together. And they -made the resolution that every one of the seven should have liberty to -enter into the palace without being introduced, and that the king should -not be allowed to marry a wife out of any other family than of the -conspirators. With regard to the kingdom, they determined that he whose -horse should first neigh in the suburbs at sunrise, while they were -mounted, should have the kingdom. - -Darius had a groom, a shrewd man, whose name was Œbares, to whom, when -the assembly had broken up, Darius said: "Œbares, we have determined -that he whose horse shall neigh first at sunrise, when we ourselves are -mounted, is to have the kingdom. Now, if you have any ingenuity, -contrive that I may obtain this honor, and not another." Œbares -answered: "If, sir, it depends on this, whether you shall be king or -not, keep up your spirits; for no one else shall be king before you; I -know a trick that will make him neigh." At dawn of day, the six, as they -had agreed, met together on horseback; and as they were riding round the -suburbs, Darius' horse, at the signal from Œbares, ran forward and -neighed, and at that instant lightning and thunder came from a clear -sky. These things consummated the auspices, as if done by appointment, -and the others, dismounting from their horses, did obeisance to Darius -as king. - -[Illustration: EGYPTIAN WAR CHARIOT, WARRIOR AND HORSES.] - -Accordingly Darius, son of Hystaspes, was declared king, and all the -people of Asia, except the Arabians, were subject to him. The Arabians -never submitted to the Persian yoke, but were on friendly terms, and -gave Cambyses a free passage into Egypt; for without the consent of the -Arabians the Persians could not have penetrated into Egypt. Darius -contracted his first marriages with Persians; he married two daughters -of Cyrus, Atossa and Artystona; Atossa, you remember, had been before -married to her brother Cambyses, and afterward to the magus. He married -another also, daughter of Smerdis, son of Cyrus, whose name was Parmys; -and he had besides, the daughter of Otanes who detected the magus. His -power was fully established on all sides. He erected a stone statue, -representing a man on horseback; and he had engraved on it the following -inscription: "Darius, son of Hystaspes, by the sagacity of his horse, -(here mentioning the name,) and by the address of Œbares, his groom, -obtained the empire of the Persians." In Persia, he constituted twenty -governments, which they call satrapies; set governors over them, and -appointed tributes to be paid to him from each. In consequence of this -imposition of tribute, and other things of a similar kind, the Persians -say Darius was a trader, Cambyses a master, and Cyrus a father. The -first, because he made profit of every thing; the second, because he was -severe and arrogant; the last, because he was mild, and always aimed at -the good of his people. If the total of all his revenues is computed -together, fourteen thousand five hundred and sixty Euboic talents were -collected by Darius as an annual tribute,[18] passing over many small -sums which I do not mention. This tribute accrued to Darius from Asia -and a small part of Libya; but in the course of time another revenue -accrued from the islands, and the inhabitants of Europe as far as -Thessaly. This treasure the king melts and pours into earthen jars, and -knocking away the earthen mould when he wants money he cuts off as much -as he has occasion to use. - -The Cilicians were required to send each year to Darius three hundred -and sixty white horses, one for every day. The Persian territory alone -was not subject to tribute; but the Persians brought gifts. The -Ethiopians bordering on Egypt, whom Cambyses subdued when he marched -against the Macrobian Ethiopians, and who dwell about the sacred city of -Nysa, celebrate festivals of Bacchus, use the same grain as the -Calantian Indians, and live in subterraneous dwellings. These brought -every third year two chœnices of unmolten gold, two hundred blocks of -ebony, five Ethiopian boys, and twenty large elephants' tusks. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -INDIANS, ARABIANS, AND ETHIOPIANS. - - -That part of India toward the rising sun is all sand; for of the people -with whom we are acquainted, and of whom any thing certain is told, the -Indians live the farthest toward the east of all the inhabitants of -Asia; and the Indians' country toward the east is a desert, by reason of -the sands. There are many nations of Indians, and they do not all speak -the same language; some of them are nomads, and they inhabit the marshes -of the river, and feed on raw fish, which they take going out in boats -made of bamboo, one joint of which makes a boat. These Indians wear a -garment made of rushes cut from the river, beaten flat, platted like a -mat, and worn as a corselet. Other Indians, living to the east of these, -are nomads, and eat raw flesh; they are called Padæans. When any one of -this community is sick, if it be a man, the men who are his nearest -connections put him to death, alleging that if he wasted by disease his -flesh would be spoiled; and no matter if he denies that he is sick, they -are not likely to agree with him, but kill and feast upon him. And if a -woman be sick, the women who are most intimate with her do the same as -the men. And whoever reaches to old age, they sacrifice and feast upon; -but few among them succeed in growing old, for before that, every one -that falls into any distemper is put to death. Other Indians have -different customs: they neither kill any thing that has life, nor sow -any thing, nor are they wont to have houses, but they live upon herbs, -and have a grain of the size of millet, in a pod, which springs -spontaneously from the earth; this they gather, and boil and eat it with -the pod. When any one of them falls ill, he goes and lies down in the -desert, and no one takes any thought about him, whether dead or sick. -All these Indians whom I have mentioned have a complexion closely -resembling the Ethiopians. They are situated very far from the Persians, -toward the south, and were never subject to Darius. - -Those who border on the city of Caspatyrus and the country of Pactyica -are the most warlike of the Indians, and these are they who are sent to -procure the gold. In this desert, and in the sand, there are ants in -size somewhat less indeed than dogs, but larger than foxes. Some of them -which were taken there, are in the possession of the king of the -Persians. These ants, forming their habitations under ground, heap up -the sand, as the ants in Greece do, and in the same manner; and they are -very much like them in shape. The sand thus heaped up is mixed with -gold. The Indians go to the desert to get this sand, each man having -three camels, on either side a male harnessed to draw by the side, and a -female in the middle; this last the man mounts himself, having taken -care to yoke one that has been separated from her young as recently born -as possible; for camels are not inferior to horses in swiftness, and are -much better able to carry burdens. What kind of figure the camel has I -shall not describe to the Greeks, as they are acquainted with it; but -what is not known respecting it I will mention. A camel has four thighs -and four knees in his hinder legs. The Indians then, adopting such a -plan of harnessing, set out for the gold, having before calculated the -time, so as to be engaged in their plunder during the hottest part of -the day, for during the heat the ants hide themselves under ground. -Amongst these people the sun is hottest in the morning, and not, as with -us, at mid-day; during this time it scorches much more than at mid-day -in Greece; so that, it is said, they then refresh themselves in water. -But as the day declines, the sun becomes to them as it is in the morning -to others; and after this, as it proceeds it becomes still colder, until -sunset, then it is very cold. When the Indians arrive at the spot with -their sacks, they fill them with the sand, and return as fast as -possible. For the ants, as the Persians say, immediately discovering -them by the smell, pursue them, and they are equalled in swiftness by no -other animal, so that if the Indians did not get the start of the ants -while they were assembling, not a man of them could be saved. Now the -male camels (for they are inferior in speed to the females) would -otherwise slacken their pace, dragging on, not both equally; but the -females, mindful of the young they have left, do not slacken their pace. -Thus the Indians obtain the greatest part of their gold. - -[Illustration: MILITARY DRUM.] - -The extreme parts of the inhabited world somehow possess the most -excellent products; while Greece enjoys by far the best-tempered -climate. In India, the farthest part of the inhabited world toward the -east, all animals, both quadrupeds and birds, are much larger than they -are in other countries, with the exception of horses; in this respect -they are surpassed by the Medic breed called the Nysæan horses. Then -there is an abundance of gold there, partly dug, partly brought down by -the rivers, and partly seized in the manner I have described. And -certain wild trees there bear wool instead of fruit, which in beauty and -quality excels that of sheep; and the Indians make their clothing from -these trees. Again, Arabia is the farthest of inhabited countries toward -the south; and this is the only region in which grow frankincense, -myrrh, cassia, cinnamon, and ledanum. All these, except myrrh, the -Arabians gather with difficulty. The frankincense they gather by burning -styrax, which the Phœnicians import into Greece. Winged serpents, small -in size, and various in form, guard the trees that bear frankincense, a -great number round each tree. These are the same serpents that invade -Egypt. They are driven from the trees by nothing else but the smoke of -the styrax. Vipers are found in all parts of the world; but flying -serpents in Arabia, and nowhere else; there they appear to be very -numerous. - -The Arabians obtain the cassia, which grows in marshes or shallow lakes, -by covering their whole body and face, except the eyes, with hides and -skins, and thus avoiding the attacks of the winged animals, like bats, -which infest the marshes, and screech fearfully, and are exceedingly -fierce. The cinnamon they collect in a still more wonderful manner. -Where it grows and what land produces it they are unable to tell; except -that some say it grows in those countries in which Bacchus was nursed. -Large birds bring those rolls of bark, which we, from the Phœnicians, -call cinnamon, for their nests, which are built with clay, against -precipitous mountains, where there is no access for man. The Arabians, -to surmount this difficulty, cut up into large pieces the limbs of dead -oxen, and asses, and other beasts of burden, carry them to these spots, -lay them near the nests, and retire to a distance. The birds fly down -and carry up the limbs of the beasts to their nests, which not being -strong enough to support the weight, break and fall to the ground. Then -the men, coming up, gather the cinnamon, much of which they export to -other countries. Still more wonderful is the fragrant ledanum. For it is -found sticking like gum to the beards of he-goats, which collect it from -the wood. It is useful for many ointments, and the Arabians burn it very -generally as a perfume. They are famous for their perfumes; and there -breathes from Arabia, as it were, a divine odor. They have two kinds of -sheep worthy of admiration, which are seen nowhere else. One kind has -large tails, not less than three cubits in length, which, if suffered to -trail, would ulcerate, by the tails rubbing on the ground. But every -shepherd knows enough of the carpenter's art to prevent this, for they -make little carts and fasten them under the tails, binding the tail of -each separate sheep to a separate cart. The other kind of sheep have -broad tails, even to a cubit in breadth. Where the meridian declines[19] -toward the setting sun, the Ethiopian territory extends, being the -extreme part of the habitable world. It produces much gold, huge -elephants, wild trees of all kinds, ebony, and men of large stature, -very handsome, and long-lived. - -Such are the extremities of Asia and Libya. Concerning the western -extremities of Europe I am unable to speak with certainty, for I do not -admit that there is a river, called by barbarians Eridanus, which -discharges itself into the sea toward the north, from which amber is -said to come; nor am I acquainted with the Cassiterides Islands, whence -our tin comes. For in the first place, the name Eridanus shows that it -is Grecian and not barbarian, and coined by some poet; in the next -place, though I have diligently inquired, I have never been able to hear -from any man who has himself seen it, that there is a sea on that side -of Europe. However, both tin and amber come to us from the remotest -parts. Toward the north of Europe there is evidently a very great -quantity of gold, but how procured I am unable to say with certainty; -though it is said that the Arimaspians, a one-eyed people, steal it from -the griffins. Nor do I believe this, that any men are born with one eye, -and yet in other respects resemble the rest of mankind. However, the -extremities of the world seem to surround and enclose the rest of the -earth, and to possess those productions which we account most excellent -and rare. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -REIGN OF DARIUS TO THE TAKING OF BABYLON. - - -Of the seven men that conspired against the magus, it happened that one -of them, Intaphernes, by an act of insolence, lost his life shortly -after the revolution. He wished to enter the palace in order to confer -with Darius; but the door-keeper and the messenger would not let him -pass, saying, that the king was engaged, but Intaphernes, suspecting -they told a falsehood, drew his scimetar, cut off their ears and noses, -and having strung them to straps taken from his bridle, hung them round -their necks, and dismissed them. They presented themselves to the king, -and told him the cause for which they had been so treated. Darius, -fearing lest the six had done this in concert, sent for them, one by -one, and endeavored to discover whether they approved of what had been -done. When he found that Intaphernes had not done this with their -knowledge, he seized Intaphernes himself, and his children, and all his -family, having many reasons to suspect that he, with his relations, -would raise a rebellion against him. And he bound them as for death: but -the wife of Intaphernes, going to the gates of the palace, wept and -lamented aloud; and prevailed on Darius to have compassion on her. He -therefore sent a messenger to say as follows: "Madam, king Darius allows -you to release one of your relations who are now in prison, whichever of -them all you please." She deliberated, and answered: "Since the king -grants me the life of one, I choose my brother from them all." Darius, -wondering at her choice, asked: "Madam, the king inquires the reason -why, leaving your husband and children, you have chosen that your -brother should survive; who is not so near related to you as your -children, and less dear to you than your husband?" "O king," she -answered, "I may have another husband if God will, and other children if -I lose these; but as my father and mother are no longer alive, I cannot -by any means have another brother; for this reason I spoke as I did." -This pleased Darius so well that he granted to her the one whom she -asked, and also her eldest son; all the rest he put to death. - -[Illustration: ALPHABET.] - -It happened not long after this that Darius, in leaping from his horse -while hunting, twisted his foot with such violence that the ankle-bone -was dislocated. At first thinking he had about him Egyptians who had the -first reputation for skill in the healing art, he made use of their -assistance. But they, by twisting the foot, and using force, made the -evil worse; and from the pain which he felt, Darius lay seven days and -seven nights without sleep. On the eighth day, as he still continued in -a bad state, some one who had before heard at Sardis of the skill of -Democedes the Crotonian, made it known to Darius; and he ordered them to -bring him to him as quickly as possible. They found him among the slaves -altogether neglected; and brought him forward, dragging fetters behind -him, and clothed in rags. As he stood before him, Darius asked him -whether he understood the art. He denied that he did, fearing lest, if -he discovered himself, he should be altogether precluded from returning -to Greece. But he appeared to Darius to dissemble, although he was -skilled in the art; he therefore commanded those who had brought him -thither to bring out whips and goads. Whereupon he owned up, saying that -he did not know it perfectly, but having been intimate with a physician, -he had some poor knowledge of the art. Upon which Darius put himself -under his care, and by using Grecian medicines, and applying lenitives -after violent remedies, he caused him to sleep, and in a little time -restored him to his health, though Darius had begun to despair of ever -recovering the use of his foot. After this cure, Darius presented him -with two pairs of golden fetters; but Democedes asked him, if he -purposely gave him a double evil because he had restored him to health. -Darius, pleased with the speech, introduced him to his wives, with the -remark that this was the man who had saved the king's life; whereupon -each of them dipped a goblet into a chest of gold, and presented it -brimful to Democedes—so munificent a gift, that a servant named Sciton, -following behind, picked up enough staters that fell from the goblets to -make him a rich man. - -This Democedes had been so harshly treated at Crotona by his father, who -was of a severe temper, that he left him and went to Ægina; having -settled there, in the first year, though he was unprovided with means, -and had none of the instruments necessary for the exercise of his art, -he surpassed the most skilful of their physicians. In the second year, -the Æginetæ engaged him for a talent out of the public treasury; and in -the third year the Athenians, for a hundred minæ; and in the fourth year -Polycrates, for two talents; thus he came to Samos. From this man the -Crotonian physicians obtained a great reputation; for at this period the -physicians of Crotona were said to be the first throughout Greece, and -the Cyrenæans the second. At the same time the Argives were accounted -the most skilful of the Greeks in the art of music. Democedes, having -completely cured Darius at Susa, had a very large house, and a seat at -the king's table; and he had every thing he could wish for, except the -liberty of returning to Greece. He obtained from the king a pardon for -the Egyptian physicians who first attended the king, and were about to -be empaled, because they had been outdone by a Greek physician; and in -the next place he procured the liberty of a prophet of Elis, who had -attended Polycrates, and lay neglected among the slaves. In short, -Democedes had great influence with the king. - -Not long after Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, and wife to Darius, had a -tumor on her breast; after some time it burst, and spread considerably. -As long as it was small, she concealed it, and from delicacy informed no -one of it; when it became dangerous, she sent for Democedes and showed -it to him. He said that he could cure her, but exacted a solemn promise, -that she in return would perform for him whatever he should require of -her, but added that he would ask nothing which might bring disgrace on -her. When therefore he had healed her, and restored her to health, -Atossa, instructed by Democedes, addressed Darius, in the following -words: "O king, you, who possess so great power, sit idle, and do not -add any nation or power to the Persians. It is right that a man who is -both young and master of such vast treasures should render himself -considerable by his actions, that the Persians may know that they are -governed by a man. Two motives should influence you, to such a course: -first, that the Persians may know that it is a worthy man who rules over -them; and secondly, that they may be worn in war, and not tempted by too -much ease to plot against you. You must perform some illustrious action -while you are in the flower of your age; for the mind grows with the -growth of the body, and as it grows old, grows old with it, and dull for -every action." She spoke thus according to her instructions, and he -answered: "Lady, you have mentioned the very things that I myself -propose to do; for I have determined to make a bridge and march from -this continent to the other, against the Scythians; and this shall -shortly be put in execution." Atossa replied: "Give up the thought of -marching first against the Scythians, for they will be in your power -whenever you choose; but take my advice, and lead an army into Greece; -for from the account I have heard, I am anxious to have Lacedæmonian, -Argive, Athenian, and Corinthian attendants: and you have the fittest -man in the world to show and inform you of every thing concerning -Greece; I mean the person who cured your foot." Said Darius: "Well, -since you think I ought to make my first attempt against Greece, I think -it better first to send some Persians thither as spies with the man you -mention; they, when they are informed of and have seen every particular, -will make a report to me; and then, being thoroughly informed, I will -turn my arms against them." No sooner said than done; for as soon as day -dawned, he summoned fifteen eminent Persians, and commanded them to -accompany Democedes along the maritime parts of Greece; and to take care -that Democedes did not escape from them, but they must by all means -bring him back again. He next summoned Democedes himself, and requested -that when he should have conducted the Persians through all Greece, and -shown it to them, to return; he also commanded him to take with him all -his movables as presents to his father and brothers, promising to give -him many times as much instead. Moreover, he said, that for the purpose -of transporting the presents he would give a merchant-ship, filled with -all kinds of precious things, which should accompany him on his voyage. -Now Darius, in my opinion, promised him these things without any -deceitful intention; but Democedes, fearing lest Darius was making trial -of him, received all that was given, without eagerness, but said that he -would leave his own goods where they were, that he might have them on -his return; the merchant-ship he said he would accept. - -In Sidon, a city of Phœnicia, they manned two triremes, and with them -also a large trading vessel, laden with all kinds of precious things; -and set sail for Greece. Keeping to the shore, they surveyed the coasts, -and made notes in writing; at length, having inspected the greatest part -of it, and whatever was most remarkable, they proceeded to Tarentum in -Italy. There, out of kindness toward Democedes, Aristophilides, king of -the Tarentines, took off the rudders of the Median ships, and shut up -the Persians as spies. While they were in this condition Democedes went -to Crotona and when he had reached his own home, Aristophilides set the -Persians at liberty, and restored what he had taken from their ships. -The Persians pursuing Democedes, arrived at Crotona, found him in the -public market, and laid hands on him. Some of the Crotonians, dreading -the Persian power, were ready to deliver him up; but others seized the -Persians in turn, and beat them with staves, though they expostulated in -these terms: "Men of Crotona, have a care what you do, you are rescuing -a man who is a runaway from the king; how will king Darius endure to be -thus insulted? How can what you do end well, if you force this man from -us? What city shall we sooner attack than this? What sooner shall we -endeavor to reduce to slavery?" But they could not persuade the -Crotonians; so launching a small boat they sailed back to Asia; nor, as -they were deprived of their guide, did they attempt to explore Greece -any further. At their departure Democedes enjoined them to tell Darius -that he had Milo's daughter affianced to him as his wife, for the name -of Milo, the wrestler, stood high with the king; and on this account it -appears to me that Democedes spared no expense to hasten this marriage, -that he might appear to Darius to be a man of consequence in his own -country. - -After these things, king Darius took Samos, first of all the cities, -either Grecian or barbarian, and for the following reason. When -Cambyses, son of Cyrus, invaded Egypt, many Greeks resorted thither; -some, as one may conjecture, on account of trade; others, to serve as -soldiers; others, to view the country. Of these, the last was Syloson, -son of Æaces, brother to Polycrates, and an exile from Samos. The -following piece of good luck befel this Syloson: having put on a scarlet -cloak, he walked in the streets of Memphis; and Darius, who was one of -Cambyses' guard, and as yet a man of no great account, took a fancy to -the cloak, and coming up, wished to purchase it. But Syloson, perceiving -that Darius was very anxious to have the cloak, impelled by a divine -impulse, said: "I will not sell it for any sum, but I will give it you -for nothing, if so it must needs be." Darius accepted his offer with -thanks and took the cloak. Syloson thought afterward that he had lost it -through his good nature, but when, in course of time, Cambyses died, and -the seven rose up against the magus, and of the seven, Darius possessed -the throne, Syloson heard that the kingdom had devolved on the man to -whom he had given his cloak in Egypt on his requesting it; so he went up -to Susa and seated himself at the threshold of the king's palace, and -said he had been a benefactor to Darius. The porter reported it to the -king; who said: "What Greek is my benefactor, to whom I owe a debt of -gratitude, having so lately come to the throne? Scarcely one of them has -as yet come here; nor can I mention any thing that I owe to a Greek. -However, bring him in, that I may know the meaning of what he says." The -porter introduced Syloson, who related the story of the cloak, and said -that he was the person who gave it. "Most generous of men!" exclaimed -the king, "art thou then the man who, when as yet I had no power, made -me a present, small as it was? yet the obligation is the same as if I -were now to receive a thing of great value. In return I will give thee -abundance of gold and silver, so that thou shalt never repent having -conferred a favor on Darius son of Hystaspes." To this Syloson replied: -"O king, give me neither gold nor silver; but recover and give me back -my country, Samos, which now, since my brother Polycrates died by the -hands of Orœtes, a slave of ours has possessed. Give me this without -bloodshed and bondage." Then Darius sent an army under the conduct of -Otanes, one of the seven, with orders to accomplish whatever Syloson -should desire. - -Mæandrius held the government of Samos, having had the administration -intrusted to him by Polycrates: though he wished to prove himself the -most just of men, he was unable to effect his purpose. For when the -death of Polycrates was made known to him, he erected an altar to -Jupiter Liberator, and marked round it the sacred enclosure, which is -now in the suburbs. Afterward, he summoned an assembly of all the -citizens, and said: "To me, as you know, the sceptre and all the power -of Polycrates has been intrusted, and I am now able to retain the -government. But what I condemn in another, I will myself, to the utmost -of my ability, abstain from doing. For neither did Polycrates please me -in exercising despotic power over men equal to himself, nor would any -other who should do the like. Now Polycrates has accomplished his fate; -and I, surrendering the government into your hands, proclaim equality to -all. I require, however, that the following remuneration should be -granted to myself; that six talents should be given me out of the -treasures of Polycrates; and in addition, I claim for myself and my -descendants for ever, the priesthood of the temple of Jupiter Liberator, -to whom I have erected an altar, and under whose auspices I restore to -you your liberties." But one of them rising up said, "You forsooth are -not worthy to rule over us, being as you are a base and pestilent -fellow; rather think how you will render an account of the wealth that -you have had the management of." Thus spoke a man of eminence among the -citizens, whose name was Telesarchus. But Mæandrius, perceiving that if -he should lay down the power, some other would set himself up as a -tyrant in his place, no longer thought of laying it down. To which end, -when he had withdrawn to the citadel, sending for each one severally, as -if about to give an account of the treasures, he seized them and put -them in chains. They were kept in confinement; but after this, disease -attacked Mæandrius; and his brother, whose name was Lycaretus, supposing -that he would die, in order that he might the more easily possess -himself of the government of Samos, put all the prisoners to death; for, -as it seems, they were not willing to be free. - -When the Persians arrived at Samos, bringing Syloson with them, no one -raised a hand against them, and the partisans of Mæandrius, and -Mæandrius himself, said they were ready to quit the island under a -treaty; and when Otanes had assented to this, and had ratified the -agreement, the principal men of the Persians, having had seats placed -for them, sat down opposite the citadel. The tyrant Mæandrius had a -brother somewhat out of his senses, whose name was Charilaus; he, for -some fault he had committed, was confined in a dungeon; and having at -that time overheard what was doing, and having peeped through his -dungeon, when he saw the Persians sitting quietly down, he shouted and -said that he wished to speak with Mæandrius. Mæandrius commanded him to -be released, and brought into his presence; and as soon as he was -brought there, upbraiding and reviling his brother, he urged him to -attack the Persians, saying: "Me, O vilest of men, who am your own -brother, and have done nothing worthy of bonds, you have bound and -adjudged to a dungeon; but when you see the Persians driving you out and -making you houseless, you dare not avenge yourself, though they are so -easy to be subdued. But if you are in dread of them, lend me your -auxiliaries, and I will punish them for coming here, and I am ready also -to send you out of the island." Mæandrius accepted his offer, as I -think, not that he had reached such a pitch of folly as to imagine that -his own power could overcome that of the king, but rather out of envy to -Syloson, if without a struggle he should possess himself of the city -uninjured. Having therefore provoked the Persians, he wished to make the -Samian power as weak as possible, and then give it up; being well -assured that the Persians, if they suffered any ill-treatment, would be -exasperated against the Samians; and knowing also that he himself had a -safe retreat from the island, whenever he chose, for he had had a secret -passage dug leading from the citadel to the sea. Accordingly Mæandrius -himself sailed away from Samos; but Charilaus armed all the auxiliaries, -threw open the gates, sallied out upon the Persians, who did not expect -any thing of the kind, and slew those of the Persians who were seated in -chairs, and who were the principal men among them. But the rest of the -Persian army came to their assistance, and the auxiliaries, being hard -pressed, were shut up again within the citadel. But Otanes, the general, -when he saw that the Persians had suffered great loss, purposely -neglected to obey the orders which Darius had given him at his -departure, that he should neither kill nor take prisoner any of the -Samians, but deliver the island to Syloson without damage; on the -contrary, he commanded his army to put to death every one they met with, -both man and child alike. Whereupon, one part of the army besieged the -citadel, and the rest killed every one that came in their way, all they -met, as well within the temples as without. Mæandrius in the meantime -sailed to Lacedæmon, and carried with him all his treasures. One day -when he had set out his silver and golden cups, his servants began to -clean them; and he, at the same time, holding a conversation with -Cleomenes, son of Anaxandrides, then king of Sparta, led him on to his -house. When the king saw the cups, he was struck with wonder and -astonishment; upon which Mæandrius bade him take whatever he pleased, -and when Mæandrius had repeated this offer two or three times, Cleomenes -showed himself a man of the highest integrity, for he refused to accept -what was offered; and being informed that by giving to other citizens he -would gain their support, he went to the Ephori, and said that it would -be better for Sparta that this Samian stranger should quit the -Peloponnesus, lest he should persuade him or some other of the Spartans -to become base. They immediately banished Mæandrius by public -proclamation. The Persians, having drawn Samos as with a net, delivered -it to Syloson, utterly destitute of inhabitants. Afterward, however, -Otanes, the general, repeopled it, in consequence of a vision in a dream. - -Whilst the naval armament was on its way to Samos, the Babylonians -revolted, having very well prepared themselves. For during all the time -the magus reigned, and the seven were rising up against him, they had -made preparations for a siege, and somehow in the confusion this had -escaped observation. But when they openly revolted they resorted to this -extraordinary means of husbanding their resources: gathering together -all the women, except their mothers, and one woman apiece, besides, whom -each one chose from his own family, they strangled them; the one woman -each man selected to cook his food, and they strangled the rest, that -they might not consume their provisions. When Darius was informed of -this, he collected all his forces, and marched against Babylon. But upon -laying siege to them he found that they were not at all solicitous about -the event, for the Babylonians mounted the ramparts, and danced, and -derided Darius and his army, and cried: "Why sit ye there, Persians? -will ye not be off? It will be a long day before you will take us." - -When the nineteenth month of the siege had passed, Zopyrus, son of that -Megabyzus, who was one of the seven who dethroned the magus, went to -Darius and asked him whether he deemed the taking of Babylon of very -great importance. Learning that he valued it at a high price, he went -away and inflicted on himself an irremediable mutilation, for he cut off -his nose and ears, chopped his hair in a disgraceful manner, scourged -himself, and then presented himself before Darius. The latter was very -much grieved when he beheld a man of high rank so mutilated, and -starting from his throne, he shouted aloud and asked who had mutilated -him, and for what cause. He answered: "O King, there is no man except -yourself who could have power to treat me thus; no stranger has done it, -but I myself, deeming it a great indignity that the Assyrians should -deride the Persians." "Foolish man," said Darius, "because you are -mutilated, will the enemy sooner submit? Have you lost your senses, that -you have thus ruined yourself?" "If I had communicated to you what I was -about to do," he answered, "you would not have permitted me, but now, if -you are not wanting to your own interests, we shall take Babylon. For I, -as I am, will desert to the city, and will tell them that I have been -thus treated by you; and I think that when I have persuaded them that -such is the case, I shall obtain the command of their army. Do you then, -on the tenth day after I shall have entered the city, station a thousand -men of that part of your army whose loss you would least regret over -against the gates called after Semiramis; again, on the seventh day -after the tenth, station two thousand more against the gate called from -Nineveh; and from the seventh day let an interval of twenty days elapse, -and then place four thousand more against the gate called from the -Chaldæans; but let them carry no defensive arms except swords. After the -twentieth day, command the rest of the army to invest the wall on all -sides, but station the Persians for me at those called the Belidian and -Cissian gates; for, as I think, when I have performed great exploits, -the Babylonians will intrust every thing to me, and, moreover, the keys -of the gates, and then it will be mine and the Persians' care to do what -remains to be done." - -[Illustration: INFANTRY DRILLED BY SERGEANT.] - -Having given these injunctions, he went to the gates, turning round as -if he were really a deserter. Those who were stationed in that quarter, -seeing him from the turrets, ran down and opened one door of the gate a -little, and asked him who he was, and for what purpose he came. He told -them that he was Zopyrus, and had deserted to them: the door-keepers -then conducted him to the assembly of the Babylonians, and standing -before them he deplored his condition, saying that he had suffered from -Darius these injuries, and that he was so treated because he had advised -to raise the siege, since there appeared no means of taking the city. -"Now, therefore," he said, "I come to you, O Babylonians, as your -greatest blessing; and to Darius, his army, and the Persians, the -greatest mischief; for he shall not escape with impunity, having thus -mutilated me; and I am acquainted with all his designs." And the -Babylonians, seeing a man of distinction among the Persians deprived of -his ears and nose, and covered with stripes and blood, thoroughly -believing that he spoke the truth, and that he had come as an ally to -them, were ready to intrust him with whatever he should ask; and he, -having obtained the command of the forces, acted as he had preconcerted -with Darius; for on the tenth he led out the army of the Babylonians, -and surrounded the thousand whom he had instructed Darius to station -there, and cut them all in pieces. Then the Babylonians, perceiving that -he performed deeds such as he promised, were ready to obey him in every -thing. He then suffered the appointed number of days to elapse, and -again selected a body of Babylonians, led them out, and slaughtered the -two thousand of Darius' soldiers. The Babylonians witnessing this action -also, all had the praises of Zopyrus on their tongues. Then he again, -after the appointed number of days had elapsed, led out his troops -according to the settled plan, surrounded the four thousand, and cut -them in pieces. And when he had accomplished this, Zopyrus was every -thing to the Babylonians, and was appointed commander-in-chief and -guardian of the walls. But when Darius, according to agreement, invested -the wall all round, then Zopyrus discovered his whole treachery; for -while the Babylonians, mounting the wall, repelled the army of Darius -that was attacking them, Zopyrus opened the Cissian and Belidian gates -and led the Persians within the wall. Those of the Babylonians who saw -what was done, fled into the temple of Jupiter Belus; and those who did -not see it, remained each at his post, until they also discovered that -they had been betrayed. - -[Illustration: LIGHT ARMED TROOPS MARCHING.] - -Thus Babylon was taken a second time. But when Darius had made himself -master of the Babylonians, first of all, he demolished the walls and -bore away all the gates, for when Cyrus had taken Babylon before, he did -neither of these things; and secondly, Darius impaled about three -thousand of the principal citizens, and allowed the rest of the -Babylonians to inhabit the city. And that the Babylonians might have -wives to take the place of those they had strangled, Darius ordered the -neighboring provinces to send women to Babylon, taxing each at a certain -number, so that a total of fifty thousand women came together; and from -these the Babylonians of our time are descended. No Persian, in the -opinion of Darius, either of those who came after, or who lived before, -surpassed Zopyrus in great achievements, Cyrus only excepted; for with -him no Persian ever ventured to compare himself. It is also reported -that Darius frequently expressed this opinion, that he would rather -Zopyrus had not suffered such ignominious treatment than acquire twenty -Babylons in addition to that he had. And he honored him exceedingly; for -he every year presented him with those gifts which are most prized by -the Persians, and he assigned him Babylon to hold free from taxes during -his life. - -[16] The Egyptian mummies could only be seen in front, the back being -covered by a box or coffin; the Ethiopian bodies could be seen all -round, as the column of glass was transparent. - -[17] Epilepsy. - -[18] Nearly $18,000,000 in all. - -[19] That is, "southwest." - - - - -_BOOK IV. MELPOMENE._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -DESCRIPTION OF SCYTHIA AND THE NEIGHBORING NATIONS. - - -After the capture of Babylon, Darius made an expedition against the -Scythians, for as Asia was flourishing in men, and large revenues came -in, Darius was desirous of revenging himself upon the Scythians, because -they had formerly invaded the Median territory, and defeated in battle -those that opposed them. For the Scythians ruled over Upper Asia for -twenty-eight years. But when those Scythians returned to their own -country, after such an interval, a task no less than the invasion of -Media awaited them; for they found an army of no inconsiderable force -ready to oppose them; the wives of the Scythians, seeing their husbands -were a long time absent, had married their slaves. The Scythians deprive -all their slaves of sight for the sake of the milk which they drink, -doing as follows: when they have taken bone tubes very like flutes, they -thrust them into the veins of the mares, and blow with their mouth; -while some blow, others milk. They say they do this because the veins of -the mare, being inflated, become filled, and the udder is depressed. -When they have finished milking, they pour the milk into hollow wooden -vessels, and having placed the blind men round about the vessels, they -agitate the milk: then they skim off that which swims on the surface, -considering it the most valuable, but that which subsides is of less -value than the other. On this account the Scythians put out the eyes of -every prisoner they take; for they are not agriculturists, but feeders -of cattle. From these slaves then and the women a race of youths had -grown up, who, when they knew their own extraction, opposed those who -were returning from Media. And first they cut off the country by digging -a wide ditch, stretching from Mount Taurus to the lake Mæotis, which is -of great extent, and afterward encamping opposite, they came to an -engagement with the Scythians, who were endeavoring to enter. When -several battles had been fought, and the Scythians were unable to obtain -any advantage, one of them said: "Men of Scythia, what are we doing? by -fighting with our slaves not only are we ourselves by being slain -becoming fewer in number, but by killing them we shall hereafter have -fewer to rule over. So it seems to me that we should lay aside our -spears and bows, and that every one, taking a horsewhip, should go -directly to them; for so long as they saw us with arms, they considered -themselves equal to us, and born of equal birth; but when they shall see -us with our whips instead of arms, they will soon learn that they are -our slaves, and will no longer resist." The Scythians adopted the advice -on the spot; and the slaves, struck with astonishment, forgot to fight, -and fled. - -As the Scythians say, theirs is the most recent of all nations. The -first man that appeared in this country, which was a wilderness, was -named Targitaus; they say that the parents of this Targitaus, in my -opinion relating what is incredible, were Jupiter and a daughter of the -river Borysthenes; and that Targitaus had three sons, who went by the -names of Lipoxais, Apovais, and Colaxais; that during their reign a -plough, a yoke, an axe, and a bowl of golden workmanship, dropping down -from heaven, fell on the Scythian territory; that the eldest, seeing -them first, approached, intending to take them up, but as he came near, -the gold began to burn; when he had retired the second went up, and it -did the same again; but when the youngest approached, the burning gold -became extinguished, and he carried the things home with him; and the -elder brothers, in consequence of this, giving way, surrendered the -whole authority to Alaxais the youngest. The Scythians reckon the whole -number of years from their beginning, from King Targitaus to the time -that Darius crossed over against them, to be just a thousand years. This -sacred gold the kings watch with the greatest care, and annually -approach it with magnificent sacrifices to render it propitious. If he -who has the sacred gold happens to fall asleep in the open air on the -festival, the Scythians say he cannot survive the year, and on this -account they give him as much land as he can ride round on horseback in -one day. The country being very extensive, Colaxais established three of -the kingdoms for his sons, and made that one the largest in which the -gold is kept. The parts beyond the north of the inhabited districts the -Scythians say can neither be seen nor passed through, by reason of the -feathers shed there; for the earth and air are so full of feathers that -the view is intercepted. With respect to these feathers I entertain the -following opinion: in the upper parts of this country it continually -snows, less in summer than in winter, as is reasonable; now, whoever has -seen snow falling thick near him, will know what I mean; for snow is -like feathers; and on account of the winter being so severe, the -northern parts of this continent are uninhabited. - -Such is the account the Scythians give of themselves, and of the country -above them; but the Greeks who inhabit Pontus give the following -account: they say that Hercules, as he was driving away the herds of -Geryon, arrived in this country, which was then a desert, and that -Geryon, fixing his abode outside the Pontus, inhabited the island which -the Greeks call Erythia, situated near Gades, beyond the columns of -Hercules in the ocean. The ocean, they say, beginning from the sunrise, -flows round the whole earth, that Hercules thence came to the country -now called Scythia, and as a storm and frost overtook him, he drew his -lion's skin over him, and went to sleep; and in the meanwhile, his -mares, which were feeding apart from his chariot, vanished by some -divine chance. They add that when Hercules awoke, he sought for them; -and that having gone over the whole country, he at length came to the -land called Hylæa; there he found a monster, having two natures, half -virgin, half viper, of which the upper parts resembled a woman, and the -lower parts a serpent: in astonishment he asked her if she had anywhere -seen his strayed mares. She said that she herself had them, and would -not restore them to him unless he would make her his wife. Hercules -agreed. She, however, delayed giving back the mares, out of a desire to -detain Hercules as long as she could; but as he was desirous of -recovering them and departing, she at last restored the mares, saying: -"These mares that strayed hither I preserved for you, but now that you -will go away and leave me, tell me what I must do with our three sons -when they are grown up; shall I establish them here, for I possess the -rule over this country, or shall I send them to you?" He replied: "When -you see the children arrived at the age of men, you cannot err if you do -this: whichever of them you see able thus to bend this bow, and thus -girding himself with this girdle, make him an inhabitant of this -country; and whichever fails in these tasks which I enjoin, send out of -the country. If you do this you will please yourself and do wisely." -Then having drawn out one of his bows, for Hercules carried two at that -time, and having shown her the belt, he gave her both the bow and the -belt, which had a golden cup at the extremity of the clasp, and -departed. When the sons had attained to the age of men she gave them -names; to the first, Agathyrsis, to the second, Gelonus, and to the -youngest, Scythes; and, in the next place, she did what had been -enjoined; and two of her sons, Agathyrsis and Gelonus, being unable to -come up to the proposed task, left the country, being expelled by their -mother; but the youngest of them, Scythes, having accomplished it, -remained there. From this Scythes, son of Hercules, are descended those -who have been successively kings of the Scythians; and from the cup, the -Scythians even to this day wear cups hung from their belts. - -Aristeas, of Proconnesus, says in his epic verses, that, inspired by -Apollo, he came to the Issedones; that beyond the Issedones dwell the -Arimaspians, a people that have only one eye; beyond them the -gold-guarding griffins; and beyond these the Hyperboreans, who reach to -the sea: that all these, except the Hyperboreans, beginning from the -Arimaspians, continually encroached upon their neighbors; that the -Issedones were expelled from their country by the Arimaspians, the -Scythians by the Issedones, and that the Cimmerians, who inhabited on -the South Sea, being pressed by the Scythians, abandoned their country. - -No one knows with certainty what is beyond the country about which this -account speaks. But as far as we have been able to arrive at the truth -with accuracy from hearsay, the whole shall be related. From the port of -the Borysthenitæ, for this is the most central part of the sea-coast of -all Scythia, the first people are the Callipidæ, being Greek-Scythians; -beyond these is another nation called Alazones. These and the Callipidæ, -in other respects, follow the usages, of the Scythians, but they both -sow and feed on wheat, onions, garlic, lentils, and millet; but beyond -the Alazones dwell husbandmen, who do not sow wheat for food but for -sale. Beyond these the Neuri dwell; and to the north of the Neuri the -country is utterly uninhabited, as far as I know. These nations are by -the side of the river Hypanis, to the west of the Borysthenes. But if -one crosses the Borysthenes, the first country from the sea is Hylæa; -and from this higher up live Scythian agriculturists, where the Greeks -settled on the river Hypanis. These Scythian husbandmen occupy the -country eastward, for three days' journey, extending to the river whose -name is Panticapes; and northward a passage of eleven days up the -Borysthenes. Beyond this region the country is a desert for a great -distance; and beyond the desert Androphagi dwell, who are a distinct -people, not in any respect Scythian. Beyond this is really desert, and -no nation of men is found there, as far as we know. The country eastward -of these Scythian agriculturists, when one crosses the river Panticapes, -nomads occupy, who neither sow at all nor plough; and all this country -is destitute of trees except Hylæa. The nomads occupy a tract eastward -for fourteen days' journey, stretching to the river Gerrhus. Beyond the -Gerrhus are the parts called the Royal, and the most valiant and -numerous of the Scythians, who deem all other Scythians to be their -slaves. These extend southward to Taurica, and eastward to the trench, -which those sprung from the blind men dug, and to the port on the lake -Mæotis, which is called Cremni, and some of them reach to the river -Tanais. The parts above to the north of the Royal Scythians, the -Melanchlæni inhabit, a distinct race, and not Scythian. But above the -Melanchlæni are lakes, and an uninhabited desert, as far as we know. - -After one crosses the river Tanais, it is no longer Scythian, but the -first region belongs to the Sauromatæ, who, beginning from the recess of -the lake Mæotis, occupy the country northward, for a fifteen days' -journey, all destitute both of wild and cultivated trees. Above these -dwell the Budini, occupying the second region, and possessing a country -thickly covered with all sorts of trees. Above the Budini, toward the -north, there is first a desert of seven days' journey, and next to the -desert, if one turns somewhat toward the east, dwell the Thyssagetæ, a -numerous and distinct race, and they live by hunting. Contiguous to -these, in the same regions, dwell those who are called Iyrcæ, who also -live by hunting in the following manner: the huntsman, having climbed a -tree, lies in ambush (and the whole country is thickly wooded), and each -man has a horse ready taught to lie on his belly, that he may not be -much above the ground, and a dog besides. When he sees any game from the -tree, having let fly an arrow, he mounts his horse, and goes in pursuit, -and the dog keeps close to him. Above these, as one bends toward the -east, dwell other Scythians, who revolted from the Royal Scythians, and -so came to this country. As far as the territory of these Scythians, the -whole country that has been described is level and deep-soiled; but -after this it is stony and rugged. When one has passed through a -considerable extent of the rugged country, a people are found living at -the foot of lofty mountains, who are said to be all bald from their -birth, both men and women, and are flat-nosed, and have large chins; -they speak a peculiar language, wear the Scythian costume, and live on -the fruit of a tree; the name of the tree on which they live is called -ponticon, and is about the size of a figtree; it bears fruit like a -bean, and has a stone. When this is ripe they strain it through a cloth, -and a thick and black liquor flows from it, to which they give the name -of aschy; this they suck, and drink mingled with milk; from the thick -sediment of the pulp they make cakes to eat, for they have not many -cattle in these parts, as the pastures there are not good. Every man -lives under a tree, which, in the winter, he covers with a thick white -woollen covering. No man does any injury to this people, for they are -accounted sacred; nor do they possess any warlike weapon. They determine -by arbitration the differences that arise among their neighbors; and -whoever takes refuge among them is injured by no one. They are called -Argippæi. - -As far, then, as these bald people, our knowledge respecting the country -and the nations before them is very good, for some Scythians frequently -go there from whom it is not difficult to obtain information, as well as -some Greeks belonging to the ports in Pontus. The Scythians who go to -them transact business by means of seven interpreters and seven -languages, but beyond the bald men no one can speak with certainty, for -lofty and impassable mountains form their boundary, which no one has -ever crossed; but these bald men say, what to me is incredible, that men -with goats' feet inhabit these mountains; and when one has passed beyond -them, other men are found, who sleep six months at a time, but this I do -not at all admit. However, the country eastward of the bald men is well -known, being inhabited by Issedones, who are said to observe this -extraordinary custom. When a man's father dies all his relations bring -cattle, which they sacrifice, and, having cut up the flesh, they cut up -also the dead parent of their host, and mingling all the flesh together, -they spread out a banquet; then making bare and cleansing his head they -gild it; and afterward treat it as a sacred image, performing grand -annual sacrifices to it. A son does this to his father, as the Greeks -celebrate the anniversary of their father's death. These people are -likewise accounted just; and the women have equal authority with the men. - -Above them, the Issedones affirm, are the men with only one eye, and the -gold-guarding griffins. The Scythians repeat this account, having -received it from them; and we have adopted it from the Scythians, and -call them in the Scythian language, Arimaspi; for _Arima_, in the -Scythian language, signifies one, and _Spou_, the eye. All this country -which I have been speaking of is subject to such a severe winter, that -for eight months the frost is intolerable, so that if you pour water on -the ground you will not make mud, but if you light a fire you will. Even -the sea freezes, and the whole Cimmerian Bosphorus; and the Scythians -who live within the trench lead their armies and drive their chariots -over the ice to the Sindians, on the other side. Thus winter continues -eight months, and even during the other four it is cold there. And this -winter is different in character from the winters in all other -countries; for in this no rain worth mentioning falls in the usual -season, but during the summer it never leaves off raining. At the time -when there is thunder elsewhere there is none there, but in summer it is -violent: if there should be thunder in winter, it is counted a prodigy -to be wondered at. So, should there be an earthquake, whether in summer -or winter, in Scythia it is accounted a prodigy. Their horses endure -this cold, but asses and mules cannot endure it at all; whereas in other -places in the world horses that stand exposed to frost become -frost-bitten and waste away, but asses and mules endure it. On this -account also the race of beeves appears to me to be defective there, and -not to have horns; and the following verse of Homer, in his Odyssey, -confirms my opinion: "And Libya, where the lambs soon put forth their -horns," rightly observing, that in warm climates horns shoot out -quickly; but in very severe cold, the cattle do not produce them at all, -or with difficulty. Concerning the Hyperboreans, I do not relate the -story of Abaris, who was said to have carried an arrow round the whole -earth without eating any thing. But I smile when I see many persons -describing the circumference of the earth, who have no sound reason to -guide them; they describe the ocean as flowing around the earth, which -is made circular as if by a lathe, and make Asia equal to Europe. - -In length Europe extends along both Libya and Asia, but in respect to -width, it is evidently much larger. Libya shows itself to be surrounded -by water, except so much of it as borders upon Asia. Neco, King of -Egypt, was the first whom we know of that proved this; when he had -ceased digging the canal leading from the Nile to the Arabian Gulf, he -sent certain Phœnicians in ships, with orders to sail back through the -pillars of Hercules into the Mediterranean Sea, and so return to Egypt. -The Phœnicians accordingly, setting out from the Red Sea, navigated the -southern sea; when autumn came they went ashore and sowed the land, by -whatever part of Libya they happened to be sailing, and waited for -harvest; then having reaped the corn, they put to sea again. When two -years had thus passed, in the third they doubled the pillars of -Hercules, arrived in Egypt, and related what to me does not seem -credible, but may to others, that as they sailed round Libya, they had -the sun on their right hand.[20] Ever since that the Carthaginians say -that Libya is surrounded by water. - -A great part of Asia was explored under the direction of Darius. Being -desirous to know where the Indus, which is the second river that -produces crocodiles, discharges itself into the sea, he sent in ships -Scylax of Caryanda and others on whom he could rely to make a true -report. They accordingly set out from the city of Caspatyrus, sailed -down the river toward the sunrise to the sea; then sailing on the sea -westward, they arrived in the thirtieth month at that place where the -king of Egypt despatched the Phœnicians, whom I before mentioned, to -sail round Libya. After this Darius subdued the Indians, and frequented -this sea. Thus the other parts of Asia, except toward the rising sun, -are found to exhibit things similar to Libya. - -Whether Europe is surrounded by water either toward the east or toward -the north, has not been fully discovered by any man; but in length it is -known to extend beyond both the other continents. Nor can I conjecture -for what reason three different names have been given to the earth, -which is but one, and why those should be derived from the names of -women, Libya is said by most of the Greeks to take its name from a -native woman of the name of Libya; and Asia, from the wife of -Prometheus. But the Lydians claim this name, saying that Asia was so -called after Asius, son of Cotys, son of Manes, and not after Asia the -wife of Prometheus; from whom also a tribe in Sardis is called the Asian -tribe; nor is it clear whence Europe received its name, nor who gave it, -unless we say that the region received the name from the Tyrian Europa: -yet she evidently belonged to Asia, and never came into the country -which is now called Europe by the Greeks. - -The Euxine Sea exhibits the most ignorant nations: for we are unable to -mention any one nation of those on this side the Pontus that has any -pretensions to intelligence; nor have we ever heard of any learned man -among them, except the Scythian nation and Anacharsis. By the Scythian -nation one of the most important of human devices has been contrived -more wisely than by any others whom we know; their other customs, -however, I do not admire. This device has been contrived so that no one -who attacks them can escape; and that, if they do not choose to be -found, no one is able to overtake them. For they have neither cities nor -fortifications, but carry their houses with them; they are all -equestrian archers, living not from the cultivation of the earth, but -from cattle, and their dwellings are wagons,—how must not such a people -be invincible, and difficult to engage with? The country and the rivers -aid them: for the country, being level, abounds in herbage and is well -watered; and rivers flow through it almost as numerous as the canals in -Egypt. The Ister, which is the greatest of all the rivers we know, flows -always with an equal stream both in summer and winter, and has five -mouths. - -In each district of the Scythians, in the place where the magistrates -assemble, is erected a structure sacred to Mars, of the following kind. -Bundles of faggots are heaped up to the length and breadth of three -stades, but less in height; on the top of this a square platform is -formed; and three of the sides are perpendicular, but on the fourth it -is accessible. Every year they heap on it one hundred and fifty -wagon-loads of faggots, for it is continually sinking by reason of the -weather. On this heap an old iron scimetar is placed by each tribe, and -this is the image of Mars; they bring yearly sacrifices of cattle and -horses; and to these _scimetars_ they offer more sacrifices than to the -rest of the gods. Whatever enemies they take alive, of these they -sacrifice one in a hundred, not in the same manner as they do the -cattle, but in a different manner; for after they have poured a libation -of wine on their heads, they cut the throats of the men over a bowl; -then having carried _the bowl_ on the heap of faggots, they pour the -blood over the scimetar. Below at the sacred precinct, they do as -follows: having cut off all the right shoulders of the men that have -been killed, with the arms, they throw them into the air; and then, -having finished the rest of the sacrificial rites, they depart; but the -arm lies wherever it has fallen, and the body apart. Swine they never -use, nor suffer them to be used in their country at all. - -When a Scythian overthrows his first enemy, he drinks his blood; and -presents the king with the heads of the enemies he has killed in battle; -for if he brings a head, he shares the booty that they take; but not, if -he does not bring one. He skins it in the following manner. Having made -a circular incision round the ears and taking hold of the skin, he -shakes it from the skull; then having scraped off the flesh with the rib -of an ox, he softens the skin with his hands, makes it supple, and uses -it as a napkin; each man hangs it on the bridle of the horse which he -rides, and prides himself on it; for whoever has the greatest number of -these skin napkins is accounted the most valiant man. Many of them make -cloaks of these skins, to throw over themselves, sewing them together -like shepherd's coats; and many, having flayed the right hands of their -enemies that are dead, together with the nails, make coverings for their -quivers; the skin of a man, which is both thick and shining, surpasses -almost all other skins in the brightness of its white. Many, having -flayed men whole, and stretched the skin on wood, carry it about on -horseback. The heads themselves, not indeed of all, but of their -greatest enemies, they treat as follows: each, having sawn off all below -the eye-brows, cleanses it, and if the man is poor, he covers only the -outside with leather, and so uses it; but if he is rich, he covers it -with leather, and gilds the inside, and so uses it for a drinking-cup. -They do this also to their relatives, if they are at variance, and one -prevails over another in the presence of the king. When strangers of -consideration come to him, he produces these heads, and relates how, -though they were his relatives, they made war against him, and he -overcame them, considering this a proof of bravery. Once in every year, -the governor of a district, each in his own district, mingles a bowl of -wine, from which those Scythians drink by whom enemies have been -captured; but they who have not achieved this, do not taste of this -wine, but sit at a distance in dishonor; this is accounted the greatest -disgrace: such of them as have killed very many men, having two cups at -once, drink them together. - -Soothsayers among the Scythians are numerous, who divine by the help of -a number of willow rods, in the following manner. They lay large bundles -of twigs on the ground and untie them; and having placed each rod apart, -they utter their predictions; and whilst they are pronouncing them, they -gather up the rods again, and put them together again one by one. This -is their national mode of divination. But the Enarees, or Androgyni, say -that Venus gave them the power of divining by means of the bark of a -linden tree: when a man has split the linden-tree in three pieces, -twisting it round his own fingers, and then untwisting it, he utters a -response. - -When the king of the Scythians is sick, he sends for three of the most -famous of the prophets, who prophesy in the manner above mentioned. When -any of these prophets are proved to have sworn falsely, they put them to -death in the following manner: they fill a wagon with faggots, and yoke -oxen to it, then tie the feet of the prophets, bind their hands behind -them, gag them, and enclose them in the midst of the faggots; then -having set fire to them, they terrify the oxen, and let them go. Many -oxen are burnt with the prophets, and many escape very much scorched, -when the pole has been burnt asunder. Of the children of those whom he -puts to death, the king kills all the males, but does not hurt the -females. - -The sepulchres of the kings are in the country of the Gerrhi. There, -when their king dies, they dig a large square hole in the ground, to -receive the corpse. Then, having the body covered with wax, the belly -opened and cleaned, filled with bruised cypress, incense, parsley and -anise-seed, and sewn up again, they carry it in a chariot to another -nation; those who receive the corpse, brought to them, do the same as -the Royal Scythians; they cut off part of their ear, shave off their -hair, wound themselves on the arms, lacerate their forehead and nose, -and drive arrows through their left hand. Thence they carry the corpse -of the king to another nation whom they govern; and those to whom they -first came accompany them. When they have carried the corpse round all -the provinces, they arrive at the sepulchres among the Gerrhi, who are -the most remote of the nations they rule over. Then, when they have -placed the corpse in the grave on a bed of leaves, having fixed spears -on each side of the dead body, they lay pieces of wood over it, and -cover it over with mats. In the remaining space of the grave they bury -one of the king's wives, having strangled her, and his cup-bearer, a -cook, a groom, a page, a courier, and horses, and firstlings of -everything else, and golden goblets; they make no use of silver or -bronze. Then they all heap up a large mound, vieing with each other to -make it as large as possible. At the expiration of a year, they take the -most fitting of his remaining servants, all native Scythians; for -whomsoever the king may order serve him, and they have no servants -bought with money. Now when they have strangled fifty of these servants, -and fifty of the finest horses, they take out their bowels, cleanse -them, fill them with chaff, and sew them up again. Then placing the half -of a wheel, with its concave side uppermost, on two pieces of wood, and -the other half on two other pieces of wood, and preparing many of these -in the same manner, they thrust thick pieces of wood through the horses -lengthwise, up to the neck, mount them on the half-wheels; the foremost -part of the half-wheels supporting the shoulders of the horses, and the -hinder part the belly near the thighs, while the legs on both sides are -suspended in the air; then, having put bridles and bits on the horses, -they stretch them in front, and fasten them to a stake; they then mount -upon each horse one of the fifty young men that have been strangled. -They drive a straight piece of wood along the spine as far as the neck, -and a part of this wood which projects from the bottom they fix into a -hole bored in the other piece of wood that passes through the horse. The -horsemen are then placed round the monument, and they depart. - -When the other Scythians die, their nearest relations carry them about -among their friends, laid in chariots; each one receives and entertains -the attendants, and sets the same things before the dead body, as before -the rest. In this manner private persons are carried about for forty -days, and then buried. After the burial the Scythians purify themselves -by wiping and thoroughly washing their heads and bodies. They set up -three pieces of wood leaning against each other, extend around them -woollen cloths; and having joined them together as closely as possible, -they throw red-hot stones into a vessel placed in the middle of the -pieces of wood and the cloths. They have a sort of hemp growing in this -country, much like flax, except in thickness and height; in this respect -the hemp is far superior: it grows both spontaneously and from -cultivation; and from it the Thracians make garments like linen, nor -would any one who is not well skilled in such matters distinguish -whether they are made of flax or hemp, but a person who has never seen -this hemp would think the garment was made of flax. The Scythians take -seed of this hemp, creep under the cloths, and put the seed on the -red-hot stones; this smokes, and produces such a steam, as no Grecian -vapor-bath could surpass. Transported with vapor, they shout aloud; and -this serves them instead of washing, for they never bathe the body in -water. Their women pound on a rough stone pieces of cypress, cedar, and -incense-tree, pouring on water; and then this pounded matter, when it is -thick, they smear over the whole body and face. This at the same time -gives them an agreeable odor, and when they take off the cataplasm on -the following day, they become clean and shining. - -I have never been able to learn with accuracy the amount of the -population of the Scythians. There is a spot between the river -Borysthenes and the Hypanis, called Exampæus, containing a fountain of -bitter water, which renders the Hypanis unfit to be drunk. In this spot -lies a bronze cauldron, in size six times as large as the bowl at the -mouth of the Pontus, which Pausanias, son of Cleombrotus, dedicated. For -the benefit of any one who has never seen this, I will describe it: The -cauldron easily contains six hundred amphoræ; and is six fingers in -thickness. The inhabitants say that it was made from the points of -arrows; for their king, Ariantas, wishing to know the population of the -Scythians, commanded the Scythians to bring him each one point of an -arrow, and threatened death on whosoever should fail to bring it. -Accordingly, a vast number of arrow points were brought, and resolving -to leave a monument made from them, he made this bronze bowl, and -dedicated it at Exampæus. Their country has nothing wonderful, except -the rivers, which are very large and very many in number, and the -extensive plains. They show the print of the foot of Hercules upon a -rock near the river Tyras; it resembles the footstep of man, and is two -cubits in length. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -INVASION OF SCYTHIA BY DARIUS. - - -Whilst Darius was making preparations against the Scythians, and sending -messages to command some to contribute land forces, and others a fleet, -and others to bridge over the Thracian Bosphorus, Artabanus, the son of -Hystaspes, and brother of Darius, entreated him on no account to make an -expedition against the Scythians, representing the poverty of Scythia; -but he could not persuade him. At that time Œobazus, a Persian, who had -three sons all serving in the army, besought Darius that one might be -left at home for him. The king answered him, as a friend, and one who -had made a moderate request, that he would leave him all his sons; he -therefore was exceedingly delighted, hoping that his sons would be -discharged from the army. But at Darius' command the proper officers put -all the sons of Œobazus to death, and left them on the spot. - -When Darius, marching from Susa, reached Chalcedon on the Bosphorus, a -bridge was already laid across. There, sitting in the temple, he took a -view of the Euxine Sea, which is worthy of admiration, for of all seas -it is by nature the most wonderful. - -Darius, pleased with the bridge, presented its architect, Mandrocles the -Samian, with ten of every thing, and he painted a picture of the whole -junction of the Bosphorus, with King Darius seated on a throne, and his -army crossing over, and dedicated it as first fruits in the temple of -Juno. - -When Darius reached the river Tearus he was so delighted with it that he -erected a pillar with this inscription: THE SPRINGS OF THE TEARUS -YIELD THE BEST AND FINEST WATER OF ALL RIVERS; AND A MAN, THE BEST AND -FINEST OF ALL MEN, CAME TO THEM, LEADING AN ARMY AGAINST THE SCYTHIANS, -DARIUS, SON OF HYSTASPES, KING OF THE PERSIANS, AND OF THE WHOLE -CONTINENT. - -Before he reached the Ister, he subdued the Getæ, who think themselves -immortal, supposing that they themselves do not die, but that the -deceased go to the deity Zalmoxis. Every fifth year they dispatch one of -themselves, taken by lot, to Zalmoxis, with orders to let him know on -each occasion what they want. Their mode of sending him is this. Some -who are appointed hold three javelins; whilst others take up the man who -is to be sent to Zalmoxis by the hands and feet, swing him round, and -throw him into the air, upon the points. If he is transfixed and dies, -they think the god is propitious to them; if he does not die, they blame -the messenger himself, saying that he is a bad man, and dispatch another. - -When Darius and his land forces reached the Ister and all had crossed, -Coes, general of the Mitylenians, advised the king to let the bridge -remain over it, leaving the men who constructed it as its guard. "Not," -said he, "that I am at all afraid that we shall be conquered in battle -by the Scythians, but rather that, being unable to find them, we may -suffer somewhat in our wanderings." "Lesbian friend," replied Darius, -"when I am safe back in my own palace, fail not to present yourself to -me, that I may requite you for good advice with good deeds." Tying sixty -knots in a thong, he summoned the Ionian commanders to his presence, and -said: "Men of Ionia, I have changed my resolution concerning the bridge; -so take this thong, and as soon as you see me march against the -Scythians, untie one of these knots every day; and if I return not until -the days numbered by the knots have passed, sail away to your own -country. Till that time, since I have changed my determination, guard -the bridge, and apply the utmost care to preserve and secure it." - -The Scythians determined to fight no battle in the open field, because -their allies did not come to their assistance; but to retreat and draw -off covertly, and fill up the wells and the springs as they passed by, -and destroy the herbage on the ground. They sent forward the best of -their cavalry as an advanced guard; but the wagons, in which all their -children and wives lived, they left behind. - -Advancing with his army as quick as possible, he fell in with the -Scythian divisions and pursued them, but they kept a day's march before -him. The Scythians, for Darius did not relax his pursuit, fled, as had -been determined, toward those nations that had refused to assist them. -When this had continued for a considerable time, Darius sent a horseman -to Indathyrsus, king of the Scythians, with the following message: "Most -miserable of men, why dost thou continually fly, when it is in thy power -to do one of these two other things? For if thou thinkest thou art able -to resist my power, stand, and having ceased thy wanderings, fight; but -if thou art conscious of thy inferiority, in that case also cease thy -hurried march, and bringing earth and water as presents to thy master, -come to a conference." To this Indathyrsus, the king of the Scythians, -answered: "This is the case with me, O Persian; I never yet fled from -any man out of fear, nor do I now so flee from thee; nor have I done any -thing different now from what I am wont to do, even in time of peace; -but why I do not forthwith fight thee, I will explain. We have no cities -nor cultivated lands, for which we are under any apprehension lest they -should be taken or ravaged. Yet, if it is by all means necessary to come -to battle at once, we have the sepulchres of our ancestors, come, find -these, and attempt to disturb them, then you will know whether we will -fight for our sepulchres or not; but before that, unless we choose, we -will not engage with thee. The only masters I acknowledge are Jupiter my -progenitor, and Vesta, queen of the Scythians; but to thee, instead of -presents of earth and water, I will send such presents as are proper to -come to thee. And in answer to thy boast, that thou art my master, I bid -thee weep." (This is a Scythian saying.) The herald therefore departed -carrying this answer to Darius. - -When the kings of the Scythians heard the name of servitude, they were -filled with indignation; whereupon they sent the division united with -the Sauromatæ, which Scopasis commanded, with orders to confer with the -Ionians, who guarded the bridge over the Ister. Those who were left -resolved no longer to lead the Persians about, but to attack them -whenever they were taking their meals; accordingly, observing the -soldiers of Darius taking their meals, they put their design in -execution. The Scythian cavalry always routed the Persian cavalry, but -the Persian horsemen in their flight fell back on the infantry, and the -infantry supported them. The Scythians, having beaten back the cavalry, -wheeled around through fear of the infantry. A very remarkable -circumstance, that was advantageous to the Persians and adverse to the -Scythians, when they attacked the camp of Darius, was the braying of the -asses and the appearance of the mules, for Scythia produces neither ass -nor mule; there is not in the whole Scythian territory a single ass or -mule, by reason of cold. The asses, then, growing playful, put the -Scythian horses into confusion; and frequently, as they were advancing -upon the Persians, when the horses heard, midway, the braying of the -asses, they wheeled round in confusion, and were greatly amazed, -pricking up their ears, as having never before heard such a sound, nor -seen such a shape; and this circumstance in some slight degree affected -the fortune of the war. - -When the Scythians saw the Persians in great commotion, to detain them -longer in Scythia they left some of their own cattle in the care of the -herdsmen and withdrew to another spot; and the Persians coming up, took -the cattle and exulted in what they had done. When this had happened -several times, Darius at last was in a great strait, and the kings of -the Scythians, having ascertained this, sent a herald, bearing as gifts -to Darius, a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows. The Persians asked -the bearer of the gifts the meaning of this present; but he answered -that he had no other orders than to deliver them and return immediately; -and he advised the Persians, if they were wise, to discover what the -gifts meant. Darius' opinion was that the Scythians meant to give -themselves up to him, as well as earth and water; forming his conjecture -thus: since a mouse is bred in the earth, and subsists on the same food -as a man; a frog lives in the water; a bird is very like a horse; and -the arrows they deliver up as their whole strength. But Gobryas, one of -the seven who had deposed the magus, did not coincide with this; he -conjectured that the presents intimated: "Unless, O Persians, ye become -birds and fly into the air, or become mice and hide yourselves beneath -the earth, or become frogs and leap into the lakes, ye shall never -return home again, but be stricken by these arrows." And thus the other -Persians interpreted the gifts. - -The rest of the Scythians, after they had sent the presents to Darius, -drew themselves up opposite the Persians with their foot and horse, as -if they intended to come to an engagement; and as the Scythians were -standing in their ranks, a hare started in the midst of them; and each -went in pursuit of it. The Scythians being in great confusion, and -shouting loudly, Darius asked the meaning of the uproar in the enemy's -ranks; but when he heard that they were pursuing a hare, he said to -those he was accustomed to address on such occasions: "These men treat -us with great contempt; and I am convinced that Gobryas spoke rightly -concerning the Scythian presents. I feel that we have need of the best -advice, how our return home may be effected in safety." To this Gobryas -answered: "O king, I was in some measure acquainted by report with these -men; but I have learned much more since I came hither, and seen how they -make sport of us. My opinion is, that as soon as night draws on we -should light fires, as we are accustomed to do, and having deceived and -left behind those soldiers who are least able to bear hardships, and -having tethered all the asses, should depart before the Scythians direct -their march to the Ister, for the purpose of destroying the bridge, or -the Ionians take any resolution which may occasion our ruin." Darius -acted on this opinion: the infirm amongst the soldiers, and those whose -loss would be of the least consequence, he left on the spot in the camp. -And he left the asses, that they might make a noise; and the men were -left on this pretext, that he with the strength of his army was about to -attack the Scythians, and they, during that time, would defend the camp. -So Darius laid these injunctions on those he was preparing to abandon, -caused the fires to be lighted, and marched away with all speed toward -the Ister. The asses, deserted by the multitude, began to bray much -louder than usual; so that the Scythians, hearing them, supposed of -course that the Persians were still at their station. When day appeared, -the men that were abandoned, discovering that they had been betrayed by -Darius, extended their hands to the Scythians, and told them what had -occurred; when they heard this the divisions of the Scythians joined -forces as quickly as possible and pursued the Persians straight toward -the Ister. But as a great part of the Persian army consisted of -infantry, and they did not know the way, there being no roads cut, and -as the Scythian army consisted of cavalry, and knew the shortest route, -they missed each other, and the Scythians arrived at the bridge much -before the Persians. Finding that the Persians were not yet arrived, -they spoke to the Ionians who were on board the ships in these terms: -"Men of Ionia, the number of days appointed for your stay is already -passed, and you do not as you ought in continuing here; but if you -remained before through fear, now break up the passage and depart as -quickly as possible, rejoicing that you are free, and give thanks to the -gods and the Scythians. As for the man who before was your master, we -will so deal with him that he shall never hereafter make war on any -people." - -Upon this the Ionians held a consultation. The opinion of Miltiades the -Athenian, who commanded and reigned over the Chersonesites on the -Hellespont, was, that they should comply with the request of the -Scythians, and restore liberty to Ionia. But Histiæus the Milesian was -of a contrary opinion, and said, "that every one reigned over his own -city through Darius; and if Darius' power should be destroyed, neither -would he himself continue master of Miletus, nor any of the rest of -other places; because every one of the cities would choose to be -governed rather by a democracy than a tyranny." Histiæus had no sooner -delivered this opinion, than all went over to his side, who had before -assented to that of Miltiades. Approving of the opinion of Histiæus, -they determined to add to it the following acts and words. To break up -the bridge on the Scythian side, as far as a bow-shot might reach, that -they might seem to do something, when in effect they did nothing; and -that the Scythians might not attempt to use violence and purpose to -cross the Ister by the bridge; and to say, while they were breaking up -the bridge on the Scythian side, they would do every thing that might be -agreeable to the Scythians. And, Histiæus delivered the answer in the -name of all, saying as follows: "Men of Scythia, you have brought us -good advice, and urge it seasonably; you, on your part, have pointed out -the right way to us, and we on ours readily submit to you; for, as you -see, we are breaking up the passage, and will use all diligence, -desiring to be free. But while we are breaking it up, it is fitting you -should seek for them, and having found them, avenge us and yourselves on -them, as they deserve." The Scythians, believing a second time that the -Ionians were sincere, turned back to seek the Persians; but entirely -missed the way they had taken. The Scythians themselves were the cause -of this, as they had destroyed the pastures for the horses in this -direction, and filled in the wells; for if they had not done this, they -might easily have found the Persians; but now they erred in the very -thing which they thought they had contrived for the best. For the -Scythians sought the enemy by traversing those parts of the country -where there was forage and water for the horses, thinking that they too -would make their retreat by that way. But the Persians carefully -observing their former track, returned by it, and thus with difficulty -found the passage. As they arrived in the night, and perceived the -bridge broken off, they fell into the utmost consternation, lest the -Ionians had abandoned them. There was with Darius an Egyptian, who had -an exceedingly loud voice. This man Darius commanded to stand on the -bank of the Ister, and called Histiæus the Milesian. He did so, and -Histiæus, having heard the first shout, brought up all the ships to -carry the army across, and joined the bridge. Thus the Persians escaped. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -DESCRIPTION OF LIBYA. - - -Beginning from Egypt the Adrymachidæ are the first of the Libyans we -meet with: they for the most part observe the usages of Egypt, but they -wear the same dress as the other Libyans. The women wear a chain of -bronze on each leg, and allow their hair to grow long. Next to these are -the Giligammæ, who occupy the country westward, as far as the island -Aphrodisias. Midway on this coast the island of Platea is situated, -which the Cyrenæans colonized. The Asbystæ adjoin the Giligammæ -westward; they inhabit the country above Cyrene, but do not reach to the -sea; for the Cyrenæans occupy the sea-coast. They drive four-horsed -chariots, more than any of the Libyans, and endeavor to imitate most of -the customs of the Cyrenæans. The Nasamones, a very numerous people, -live to the westward. In summer they leave their cattle on the coast, -and go up to the region of Augila, in order to gather the fruit of the -palm-trees, which grow in great numbers to a large size, and are all -productive. They catch locusts, dry them in the sun, reduce them to -powder, and sprinkling them in milk, drink them. In their oaths and -divinations they swear, laying their hands on the sepulchres of those -who are generally esteemed to have been the most just and excellent -persons among them; and they divine, going to the tombs of their -ancestors, and after having prayed, they lie down to sleep, and whatever -dream they have, they avail themselves of. In pledging their faith, each -party gives the other to drink out of his hand, and drinks in turn from -the other's hand; and if they have no liquid, they take up some dust -from the ground and lick it. - -Above these to the north, in a country abounding with wild beasts, live -the Garamantes, who avoid all men and the society of any others; they do -not possess any warlike weapon, nor do they know how to defend -themselves. The Macæ adjoin them on the sea-coast, westward; these shave -their heads so as to leave a tuft, and allowing the middle hair to grow, -keep both sides shaved close to the skin; in war they wear the skins of -ostriches for defensive armor. The river Cinyps, flowing through their -country from a hill called the Graces, discharges itself into the sea. -This hill of the Graces is thickly covered with trees, though all the -rest of Libya is bare. From the sea to this hill is a distance of two -hundred stades. The Lotophagi occupy the coast that projects to the sea -in front; they subsist only on the fruit of the lotus, which is equal in -size to the mastic berry, and in sweetness resembles the fruit of the -palm-tree. The Lotophagi make wine also from this fruit. - -The Machlyes, who also use the lotus, but in a less degree than those -before mentioned, adjoin the Lotophagi on the sea-coast. They extend as -far as a large river called Triton, which discharges itself into the -great lake Tritonis; and in it is an island named Phla. They say that -the Lacedæmonians were commanded by an oracle to colonize this island. -The following story is also told: that Jason, when the building of the -Argo was finished at the foot of Mount Pelion, having put a hecatomb on -board, and a bronze tripod, sailed round the Peloponnesus, purposing to -go to Delphi; and as he was sailing off Malea, a north wind caught him -and drove him to Libya; and before he could descern the land, he found -himself in the shallows of the lake Tritonis; and as he was in doubt how -to extricate his ship, the story goes that a Triton appeared to him, and -bade Jason give him the tripod, promising that he would show them the -passage, and conduct them away in safety. Jason consented, and the -Triton showed them the passage out of the shallows, and placed the -tripod in his own temple; then pronouncing an oracle from the tripod, he -declared to Jason and his companions all that should happen,—that "when -one of the descendants of those who sailed with him in the Argo should -carry away the tripod, then it was fated that a hundred Grecian cities -should be built about the lake Tritonis." The neighboring nations of the -Libyans, when they heard this, concealed the tripods. The Auses adjoin -these Machlyes; they, as well as the Machlyes, dwell round the lake -Tritonis, and the Triton forms the boundary between them. The Machlyes -let the hair grow on the back of the head, and the Auses on the front. -At the annual festival of Minerva, their virgins, dividing themselves -into two companies, fight together with stones and staves, affirming -that they perform the ancient rites to their native goddess, whom we -call Minerva; and those of the virgins who die from their wounds they -call false virgins. But before they leave off fighting, they, with one -consent, deck the maiden that excels in beauty, with a Corinthian -helmet, and a suit of Grecian armor, and placing her in a chariot -conduct her round the lake. In what way they formerly decorated the -maidens before the Greeks settled in their neighborhood, I am unable to -say; but I conjecture that they were decked in Egyptian armor, for I am -of opinion that the shield and helmet were brought from Egypt into -Greece. - -Above these nomadic tribes, inland, Libya abounds in wild beasts; beyond -the wild-beast tract is a ridge of sand, stretching from the Egyptian -Thebes to the columns of Hercules. At intervals of a ten days' journey -in this ridge, there are pieces of salt in large lumps on hills; and at -the top of each hill, from the midst of the salt, cool, sweet water -gushes up. The first people you come to after a ten days' journey from -Thebes, are the Ammonians, who have a temple resembling that of Theban -Jupiter. For the image of Jupiter at Thebes has the head of a ram. They -have also another kind of spring water which in the morning is tepid, -becomes colder about the time of full forum, and at midday is very cold; -at that time they water their gardens. As the day declines it generally -loses its coldness, till the sun sets, then the water becomes tepid -again, and continuing to increase in heat till midnight, it then boils -and bubbles up; when midnight is passed, it gets cooler until morning. -This fountain is called after the sun. Next to the Ammonians, along the -ridge of sand, at the end of another ten days' journey, there is a hill -of salt, like that of the Ammonians, and water, and men live round it; -the name of this region is Augila; and thither the Nasamonians go to -gather dates. From the Augilæ, at the end of another ten days' journey, -is another hill of salt and water, and many fruit-bearing palm-trees, as -also in other places; and men inhabit it who are called Garamantes, a -very powerful nation; they lay earth upon the salt, and then sow their -ground. From these to the Lotophagi the shortest route is a journey of -thirty days; amongst them cattle that feed backwards are met with, -having horns that are so bent forward, that they are unable to feed -forwards, because their horns would stick in the ground. They differ -from other kine in no other respect, except that their hide is thicker -and harder. These Garamantes hunt the Ethiopian Troglodytes in -four-horse chariots; these Ethiopian Troglodytes are the swiftest of -foot of all men of whom we have heard any account given. The Troglodytes -feed upon serpents and lizards, and such kinds of reptiles; they speak a -language like no other, but screech like bats. - -At the distance of another ten days' journey from the Garamantes is -another hill of salt and water, around which a people live who are -called Atarantes; they are the only race we know of who have not -personal names. For the name Atarantes belongs to them collectively, and -to each one of them no name is given. They curse the sun as he passes -over their heads, and moreover utter against him the foulest invectives, -because he consumes by his scorching heat, the men themselves and their -country. Afterward, at the end of still another ten days' journey, there -is one more hill of salt and water, and men live round it, near a -mountain called Atlas; it is narrow and circular on all sides, and is -said to be so lofty that its top can never be seen; it is never free -from clouds, either in summer or winter. The inhabitants say that it is -the Pillar of Heaven. From this mountain the men derive their -appellation, for they are called Atlantes. They are said neither to eat -the flesh of any animal, nor to see visions. As far, then, as these -Atlantes, I am able to mention the names of the nations that inhabit -this ridge, but not beyond them. This ridge, however, extends as far as -the pillars of Hercules, and even beyond; and there is a mine of salt in -it at intervals of ten days' journey, and men dwelling there. The houses -of them all are built of blocks of salt, for in these parts of Libya no -rain falls; walls being of salt could not of course stand long if rain -did fall. The salt dug out there is white and purple in appearance. -Above this ridge, to the south and interior of Libya, the country is a -desert, without water, without animals, without rain, and without wood; -and there is no kind of moisture in it. - -Westward of lake Tritonis, the Libyans are no longer nomads, nor do they -follow the same customs, with respect to their children, as the nomads -are accustomed to do; for the nomadic Libyans, whether all I am unable -to say with certainty, but many of them, when their children are four -years old, burn the veins on the crown of their heads, with uncleaned -sheep's wool; and some of them do so on the veins in the temples; to the -end that humors flowing down from the head may not injure them as long -as they live: and, for this reason, they say they are so very healthy, -for the Libyans are in truth the most healthy of all men with whom we -are acquainted. But I simply repeat what the Libyans themselves say. -From the Libyan women the Greeks derived the attire and ægis of -Minerva's statues; for, except that the dress of the Libyan women is -leather, and the fringes that hang from the ægis are not serpents, but -made of thongs, they are otherwise equipped in the same way; and, -moreover, the very name proves that the garb of the Palladia comes from -Libya; for the Libyan women throw over their dress, goats' skins without -the hair, fringed and dyed with red. From these goats' skins the Greeks -have borrowed the name of Ægis. And the howlings in the temples were, I -think, first derived from there; for the Libyan women practise the same -custom, and do it well. The Greeks also learnt from the Libyans to yoke -four horses abreast. All the nomads, except the Nasamonians, inter their -dead in the same manner as the Greeks; these bury them in a sitting -posture, watching when one is about to expire, that they may set him up, -and he may not die supine. Their dwellings are compacted of the asphodel -shrub, interwoven with rushes, and are portable. - -To the west of the river Triton, Libyans who are husbandmen next adjoin -the Auses; they are accustomed to live in houses, and are called Maxyes. -They let the hair grow on the right side of the head, and shave the -left; and bedaub the body with vermilion: they say that they are -descended from men who came from Troy. This region, and all the rest of -Libya westward, is much more infested by wild beasts and more thickly -wooded than the country of the nomads; for the eastern country of Libya, -which the nomads inhabit, is low and sandy, as far as the river Triton; -but the country westward of this, which is occupied by agriculturists, -is very mountainous, woody, and abounds with wild beasts. For amongst -them there are enormous serpents, and lions, elephants, bears, asps, -asses with horns, and monsters with dogs' heads and without heads, who -have eyes in their breasts, at least as the Libyans say, together with -wild men and wild women. None of these things are found among the -nomads, but others of the following kind: pygargi, antelopes, buffaloes, -and asses, not such as have horns, but others that never drink; and -oryes, from the horns of which are made the elbows of the Phœnician -citherns; in size this beast is equal to an ox; and foxes, hyænas, -porcupines, wild rams, dictyes, thoes, panthers, boryes, and land -crocodiles about three cubits long, very much like lizards; ostriches, -and small serpents, each with one horn. These, then, are the wild -animals in that country, besides such as are met with elsewhere, except -the stag and the wild boar; but the stag and the wild boar are never -seen in Libya. They have three sorts of mice there; some called dipodes, -or two-footed; others, zegeries, this name is Libyan, and means the same -as the word signifying hillocks in Greek; and hedgehogs. There are also -weasels produced in the silphium, like those at Tartessus. - -The Zaveces adjoin the Maxyan Libyans; their women drive their chariots -in war. The Gyzantes adjoin them; amongst them bees make a great -quantity of honey, and it is said that confectioners make much more. All -these paint themselves with vermilion, and eat monkeys, which abound in -their mountains. Near them, the Carthaginians say, lies an island called -Cyraunis, two hundred stades in length, inconsiderable in breadth, easy -of access from the continent, and abounding in olive trees and vines. In -it is a lake, from the mud of which the girls of the country draw up -gold dust by means of feathers daubed with pitch. Whether this is true I -know not, but I write what is related; it may be so, however, for I have -myself seen pitch drawn up out of a lake and from water in Zacynthus; -and there are several lakes there, the largest of them is seventy feet -every way, and two orgyæ in depth; into this they let down a pole with a -myrtle branch fastened to the end, and then draw up pitch adhering to -the myrtle; it has the smell of asphalt, but is in other respects better -than the pitch of Pieria. They pour it into a cistern dug near the lake, -and when they have collected a sufficient quantity, draw it off from the -cistern into jars. All that falls into the lake passes under ground, and -appears again upon the surface of the sea, which is about four stades -distant from the lake. This account given of the island may probably be -true. The Carthaginians further say, that beyond the pillars of Hercules -there is an inhabited region of Libya; when they arrive among these -people and have unloaded their merchandise, they set it in order on the -shore, go on board their ships, and make a great smoke; the inhabitants, -seeing the smoke, come down to the sea, deposit gold in exchange for the -merchandise, and withdraw to some distance from the merchandise; the -Carthaginians then, going ashore, examine the gold, and if the quantity -seems sufficient for the merchandise they take it up and sail away; but -if it is not sufficient, they go on board their ships again and wait; -the natives then approach and deposit more gold, until they have -satisfied them; neither party ever wrongs the other; for they do not -touch the gold before it is made adequate to the value of the -merchandise, nor do the natives touch the merchandise before the other -party has taken the gold. - -No part of Libya appears to me so good in fertility as to be compared -with Asia or Europe, except only the district of Cinyps; for the land -bears the same name as the river, and is equal to the best land for the -production of corn; nor is it at all like the rest of Libya; for the -soil is black, and well watered with springs, and it is neither affected -at all by drought, nor is it injured by imbibing too much rain, which -falls in this part of Libya. The proportion of the produce of this land -equals that of Babylon. The land also which the Euesperides occupy is -good; for when it yields its best, it produces a hundred-fold; but that -in Cinyps three hundred-fold. The district of Cyrene, which is the -highest of that part of Libya which the nomads occupy, has three -seasons, a circumstance worthy of admiration; for the first fruits near -the sea swell so as to be ready for the harvest and vintage; when these -are gathered in, the fruits of the middle region, away from the sea, -swell so as to be gathered in, these they call uplands; and just as this -middle harvest has been gathered in, that in the highest part becomes -ripe and swells. So that when the first crop has been drunk and eaten, -the last comes in. Thus harvest occupies the Cyrenæans during eight -months. This maybe sufficient to say concerning these things. - -[Illustration: OLIVE TREES.] - -The Persians once upon a time, sent against the city of Barce, laid -siege to it for nine months, digging passages under ground that reached -to the walls, and making vigorous assaults. Now these excavations were -discovered by a worker of bronze, carrying a bronze shield round within -the wall, and applying it to the ground within the city: in other places -to which he applied it, it made no noise, but at the parts that were -excavated, the metal of the shield sounded. The Barcæans, therefore, -countermining them in that part, slew the Persians who were employed in -the excavation. When much time had been spent, and many had fallen on -both sides, and not the fewest on the side of the Persians, Amasis, -general of the land forces, had recourse to the following stratagem: -Finding that the Barcæans could not be taken by force, but might be by -artifice, he dug a wide pit by night, laid weak planks of wood over it, -and on the surface over the planks he spread a heap of earth, making it -level with the rest of the ground. At daybreak he invited the Barcæans -to a conference; they gladly assented, thinking that at last they were -pleased to come to terms: and they made an agreement of the following -nature, concluding the treaty over the concealed pit: "That as long as -this earth shall remain as it is, the treaty should continue in force; -and that the Barcæans should pay a reasonable tribute to the king, and -that the Persians should form no new designs against the Barcæans." -After the treaty the Barcæans, confiding in the Persians, went freely -out of the city, and allowed any one of the Persians who chose to pass -within the wall, throwing open all the gates. But the Persians, having -broken down the concealed bridge, rushed within the wall: having not -fully kept their oath. The Persians reduced the Barcæans to slavery and -took their departure. But king Darius gave them a village in the -district of Bactria, to dwell in, and the name of Barce was given to -this village, which was still inhabited in my time, in the Bactrian -territory. - -[20] Herodotus means that south of the equator the sun was in the north. - - - - -_BOOK V. TERPSICHORE._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -CONQUESTS OF THE GENERALS OF DARIUS. - - -The Persians, left in Europe by Darius under the command of Megabazus, -subdued the Perinthians first of the Hellespontines, who were unwilling -to submit to Darius, and had been before roughly handled by the -Pæonians. For an oracle had admonished the Pæonians to invade the -Perinthians, and if the Perinthians, when encamped against them, should -challenge them, shouting to them by name, then to attack, but if they -should not shout out to them, not to attack. A threefold single combat -took place between them according to a challenge; for they matched a man -with a man, a horse with a horse, and a dog with a dog. The Perinthians, -victorious in two of these combats, through excess of joy sang the Pæon, -whereupon the Pæonians conjectured that this was the meaning of the -oracle, and said among themselves: "Now surely the oracle must be -accomplished; now it is our part to act." The Pæonians attacked the -Perinthians as they were singing the Pæon, gained a complete victory, -and left but few of them alive. - -The nation of the Thracians is the greatest of all among men, except the -Indians; and if they were governed by one man, or acted in concert, they -would, in my opinion, be invincible, and by far the most powerful of all -nations. But as this is impracticable, and it is impossible that they -should ever be united, they are weak. - -Beyond the Ister appears to be an interminable desert, and the only men -that I am able to hear of as dwelling there are those called Sigynnæ, -who wear the Medic dress; their horses are shaggy all over the body, to -five fingers in depth of hair; they are small, flat-nosed, and unable to -carry men; but when yoked to chariots are very fleet. They say that -these people are a colony of Medes. How they can have been a colony of -Medes I cannot comprehend; but any thing may happen in the course of -time. - -There is a curious people who inhabit Lake Prasias itself, who were not -at all subdued by Megabazus;—they live upon the lake in dwellings -erected upon planks fitted on lofty piles, which are driven in the -middle of the lake, with a narrow entrance from the main land by a -single bridge. These piles that support the planks all the citizens -anciently placed there at the common charge; but afterward they -established a law to the following effect: Whenever a man marries, for -each wife he sinks three piles, bringing wood from a mountain called -Orbelus: but every man has several wives. Each one has a hut on the -planks, in which he dwells, with a trap-door closely fitted in the -planks, and leading down to the lake. They tie the young children with a -cord around the foot, for fear they should fall into the lake beneath. -To their horses and beasts of burden they give fish for fodder; of which -there is such an abundance, that you have simply to open your trap-door, -let down an empty basket by a cord into the lake, when, after waiting a -short time, you draw it up full of fish. - -[Illustration: HEAD-DRESS OF A RIDING HORSE.] - -Megabazus, after conquering the Pæonians, arrived at the Hellespont, -crossed over, and came to Sardis. In the meantime, Histiæus the Milesian -was building a wall around the place, which, at his own request, he had -received from Darius as a reward for his services in preserving the -bridge: this place was near the river Strymon, and its name Myrcinus. -Megabazus, upon learning what was being done by Histiæus, as soon as he -reached Sardis said to Darius: "O king, what have you done, in allowing -a crafty and subtle Greek to possess a city in Thrace, where there is an -abundance of timber fit for building ships and plenty of wood for oars, -and silver mines? A great multitude of Greeks and barbarians dwell -around, who, when they have obtained him as a leader, will do whatever -he may command, both by day and by night. Put a stop therefore to the -proceedings of this man, that you may not be harassed by a domestic war; -send for him in a gentle manner, and stop him: and when you have him in -your power, take care that he never returns to the Greeks." Megabazus -easily persuaded Darius, since he wisely foresaw what was to happen. So -Darius sent a messenger to Myrcinus, who spoke as follows: "Histiæus, -King Darius says thus: I find on consideration that there is no man -better affected to me and my affairs than thyself; and this I have -learnt, not by words, but actions; now, since I have great designs to -put in execution, come to me by all means, that I may communicate them -to thee." Histiæus, giving credit to these words, and at the time -considering it a great honor to become a counsellor of the king, went to -Sardis: when he arrived, Darius said, "Histiæus, I have sent for you on -this occasion. As soon as I returned from Scythia, and you were out of -my sight, I have wished for nothing so much as to see you and converse -with you again; being persuaded that a friend who is both intelligent -and well affected, is the most valuable of all possessions; both of -which I am able to testify from my own knowledge concur in you, as -regards my affairs. You have done well in coming, and I make you this -offer: Think no more of Miletus, nor of the new-founded city in Thrace; -but follow me to Susa, have the same that I have, and be the partner of -my table and counsels." And Darius appointed Artaphernes, his brother by -the same father, to be governor of Sardis, and departed for Susa, taking -Histiæus with him. He first nominated Otanes to be general of the forces -on the coast, whose father, Sisamnes, one of the royal judges, King -Cambyses had put to death and flayed, because he had given an unjust -judgment for a sum of money. He had his skin torn off, and cut into -thongs, and extended it on the bench on which he used to sit, when he -pronounced judgment; then Cambyses appointed as judge in the room of -Sisamnes, whom he had slain and flayed, the son of Sisamnes, admonishing -him to remember on what seat he sat to administer justice. This very -Otanes, then, being now appointed successor to Megabazus in the command -of the army, subdued the Byzantians and Chalcedonians, and took -Antandros, which belongs to the territory of Troas, and Lamponium; and -obtaining ships from the Lesbians, he took Lemnos and Imbrus, both of -which were then inhabited by Pelasgians. The Lemnians fought valiantly, -and defended themselves for some time, but were at length overcome; and -over those who survived, the Persians set up Lycaretus as governor, the -brother of Mæandrius, who had reigned in Samos. Otanes enslaved and -subdued them all for various alleged reasons: some he charged with -desertion to the Scythians; others he accused of having harassed Darius' -army in their return home from the Scythians. - -Afterward, for the intermission from misfortune was not of long -duration, evils arose a second time to the Ionians from Naxos and -Miletus. For, on the one hand, Naxos surpassed all the islands in -opulence; and on the other, Miletus, at the same time, had attained the -summit of its prosperity, and was accounted the ornament of Ionia. Some -of the opulent men, exiled from Naxos by the people, went to Miletus: -the governor of Miletus happened to be Aristagoras, son of Molpagoras, -son-in-law and cousin of Histiæus, whom Darius detained at Susa. These -Naxians arrived at Miletus, entreated Aristagoras, if he could, by any -means, to give them some assistance so that they might return to their -own country. He, perceiving that if by his means they should return to -their city, he might get the dominion of Naxos, used the friendship of -Histiæus as a pretence, and addressed the following discourse to them: -"I am not able of myself to furnish you with a force sufficient to -reinstate you against the wishes of the Naxians, who are in possession -of the city, for I hear that the Naxians have eight thousand heavy-armed -men, and a considerable number of ships of war. Yet I will contrive some -way, and use my best endeavors; my scheme is this: Artaphernes happens -to be my friend; he is son of Hystaspes and brother of king Darius, and -commands all the maritime parts of Asia, and has a large army and navy. -This man, I am persuaded, will do whatever we desire." The Naxians urged -Aristagoras to go about it in the best way he could, and bade him -promise presents, and their expenses to the army, for they would repay -it; having great expectation that when they should appear at Naxos the -Naxians would do whatever they should order, as also would the other -islanders; for of these Cyclades islands not one was as yet subject to -Darius. - -Accordingly Aristagoras journeyed to Sardis, and told Artaphernes, that -Naxos was an island of no great extent, to be sure, but beautiful and -fertile, and near Ionia, and in it was much wealth and many slaves. "Do -send an army against this country, to reinstate those who have been -banished; and if you do this, I have, in the first place, a large sum of -money ready, in addition to the expenses of the expedition, for it is -just that we who lead you on should supply that; and in the next, you -will acquire for the king Naxos itself, and the islands dependent upon -it, Paros, Andros, and the rest that are called Cyclades. Setting out -from there you will easily attack Eubœa, a large and wealthy island, not -less than Cyprus, and very easy to be taken. A hundred ships are -sufficient to subdue them all." The reply was quickly given: "You -propose things advantageous to the king's house, and advise every thing -well, except the number of ships; instead of one hundred, two hundred -shall be ready at the commencement of the spring. But it is necessary -that the king himself should approve of the design." Aristagoras, wild -with delight, went back to Miletus. And Artaphernes, finding that Darius -himself approved of the plan, made ready two hundred triremes, and a -very numerous body of Persians and other allies: and he appointed -Megabates general, a Persian of the family of the Archimenidæ, his own -and Darius' nephew, whose daughter, if the report be true, was afterward -betrothed to Pausanias, son of Cleombrotus the Lacedæmonian, who aspired -to become tyrant of Greece. Artaphernes, having appointed Megabates -general, sent forward the army to Aristagoras. - -Megabates, with Aristagoras, the Ionian forces, and the Naxians, sailed -professedly for the Hellespont; but when he arrived at Chios, anchored -at Caucasa, that he might cross over from there to Naxos by a north -wind. However, it was fated that the Naxians were not to perish by this -armament, as the following event occurred: As Megabates was going round -the watches on board the ships, he found no one on guard on board a -Myndian ship; indignant at this, he ordered his body-guards to find the -captain of this ship, whose name was Scylax, and to bind him with his -body half-way through the lower row-lock of the vessel, so that his head -should be on the outside of the vessel, and his legs within. Some one -told Aristagoras that Megabates had bound and disgraced his Myndian -friend. He went therefore and interceded for him with the Persian, but, -when he found he could obtain nothing, went himself and released him. -Megabates, hearing of this, was very indignant, and enraged at -Aristagoras, and told him so; "but," said Aristagoras, "what have you to -do with these matters? Did not Artaphernes send you to obey me, and to -sail wheresoever I should command?" Megabates, still more exasperated at -this, as soon as night arrived, dispatched men in a ship to Naxos, to -inform the Naxians of the impending danger. The Naxians, who had not a -suspicion that this armament was coming against them, immediately -carried every thing from the fields into the town, and, with plenty of -food and drink, prepared to undergo a siege, so the Persians had to -attack men well fortified, and after besieging them four months, -consumed all the supplies they had brought with them, together with -large sums furnished by Aristagoras, and wanting still more to carry on -the siege, they were forced to build a fortress for the Naxian exiles, -and retire to the continent unsuccessful. - -Aristagoras was thus unable to fulfil his promise to Artaphernes; while -at the same time the expenses of the expedition pressed heavily on him -on account of the ill success of the army; and having incurred the ill -will of Megabates to such an extent that he feared that he should be -deprived of the government of Miletus, he meditated a revolt. It -happened at the same time that a messenger with his head tattooed came -from Susa from Histiæus, urging Aristagoras to revolt from the king. For -Histiæus, being desirous to communicate to Aristagoras his wish for him -to revolt, had no other means of signifying it with safety, because the -roads were guarded; therefore, having shaved the head of the most -trustworthy of his slaves, he marked it with a sharp iron, and waited -till the hair had grown again, then sent him to Miletus without other -instructions except that when he arrived at Miletus he should desire -Aristagoras to shave off his hair and look upon his head: the punctures, -as I have said before, signified a wish for him to revolt. Histiæus did -this because he looked upon his detention at Susa as a great misfortune; -while if a revolt should take place he had great hopes that he should be -sent down to the coast; but if Miletus made no new attempt, he thought -that he should never go there again. It was resolved to revolt, and -messengers were sent to the force that had returned from Naxos, and -which was at Myus, to seize the captains on board the ships. Aristagoras -thus openly revolted, devising every thing he could against Darius. And -first, in pretence, having laid aside the sovereignty, he established an -equality in Miletus, in order that the Milesians might more readily join -with him in the revolt. Afterward he effected the same throughout the -rest of Ionia, expelling some of the tyrants; and he delivered up those -whom he had taken from on board the ships that had sailed with him -against Naxos, to the cities, in order to gratify the people, giving -them up to the respective cities, from whence each came. The -Mityleneans, as soon as they received Coes, led him out, and stoned him -to death; but the Cymeans let their tyrant go; and in like manner most -of the others let theirs go. Accordingly there was a suppression of -tyrants throughout the cities. But Aristagoras enjoined them all to -appoint magistrates in each of the cities, and went himself in a trireme -as ambassador to Sparta, for it was necessary for him to procure some -powerful alliance. - -Aristagoras arrived at Sparta, when Cleomenes held the government; and -he went to confer with him, as the Lacedæmonians say, carrying a bronze -tablet, on which was engraved the circumference of the whole earth, the -whole sea, and all rivers. "Wonder not, Cleomenes," said Aristagoras, -"at my eagerness in coming here, for it is a great sorrow to us that the -children of Ionians should be slaves instead of free, and above all -others it is a disgrace to you, inasmuch as you are at the head of -Greece. I adjure you by the Grecian gods, rescue the Ionians, who are of -your own blood, from servitude. It is easy for you to effect this, for -the barbarians are not valiant; whereas you, in matters relating to war, -have attained to the utmost height of glory; their mode of fighting is, -with bows and short spears, and they engage in battle wearing loose -trousers, and turbans on their heads, so that they are easy to be -overcome. Besides, there are treasures belonging to those who inhabit -that continent, such as are not possessed by all other nations together; -gold, silver, bronze, variegated garments, beasts of burden, and slaves; -all these you may have if you will. They live adjoining one another as I -will show you. Next to these Ionians are the Lydians, who inhabit a -fertile country, and abound in silver." As he said this he showed the -map of the earth, which he had brought with him, engraved on a tablet. -"Next to the Lydians," proceeded Aristagoras, "are these Phrygians to -the eastward, who are the richest in cattle and in corn of all with whom -I am acquainted. Next to the Phrygians are the Cappadocians, whom we -call Syrians; and bordering on them, the Cilicians, extending to this -sea in which the island of Cyprus is situated; they pay an annual -tribute of five hundred talents to the king. Next to the Cilicians are -these Armenians, who also abound in cattle; and next to the Armenians -are the Metienians, who occupy this country; and next them this -territory of Cissia, in which Susa is situated, on this river Choaspes, -and here the great king resides, and here are his treasures of wealth. -If you take this city, you may boldly contend with Jupiter in wealth. As -it is, you carry on war for a country of small extent, and not very -fertile, and of narrow limits, with the Messenians, who are your equals -in valor, and with the Arcadians and Argives, who have nothing akin to -gold or silver, the desire of which induces men to hazard their lives in -battle. But when an opportunity is offered to conquer all Asia with -ease, will you prefer any thing else?" "Milesian friend," said -Cleomenes, "I defer to give you an answer until the third day." They met -at the appointed time and place, and Cleomenes asked Aristagoras, how -many days' journey it was from the sea of the Ionians to the king. -Aristagoras, though he was cunning in other things, and had deceived him -with much address, made a slip in this; for he should not have told the -real fact, if he wished to draw the Spartans into Asia; whereas he told -him frankly that it was a three months' journey up there. Cutting short -the rest of the description which Aristagoras was proceeding to give of -the journey, Cleomenes said: "My friend, from Miletus, depart from -Sparta before sunset; for you speak no agreeable language to the -Lacedæmonians, in wishing to lead them a three months' journey from the -sea;" and Cleomenes went home. Aristagoras, nothing daunted, taking an -olive-branch in his hand, went to the house of Cleomenes, entered in, as -a suppliant, and besought Cleomenes to listen to him. The latter's -little child, a daughter, whose name was Gorgo, stood by him; she -happened to be his only child, and was about eight or nine years of age. -Cleomenes bade him say what he wished, and not mind the presence of the -little girl. Thereupon Aristagoras promised him ten talents, if he would -do as he desired; and as Cleomenes refused, Aristagoras went on -increasing his offers, until he promised fifty talents, when little -Gorgo cried out, "Papa, this stranger will corrupt you, if you don't -quickly depart." Cleomenes, pleased with the advice of the child, -retired to another apartment; and Aristagoras was forced to leave Sparta -altogether, without ever getting another opportunity to give further -particulars of the route to the city of the great king. - -With respect to this road, the case is as follows: There are royal -stations all along, and excellent inns, and the whole road is through an -inhabited and safe country. There are twenty stations extending through -Lydia and Phrygia, and the distance is ninety-four parasangs and a half. -After Phrygia, the river Halys is met with, at which there are gates, -which it is absolutely necessary to pass through, and thus to cross the -river; there is also a considerable fort on it. When you cross over into -Cappadocia, and traverse that country to the borders of Cilicia, there -are eight and twenty stations, and one hundred and four parasangs; and -on the borders of these people, you go through two gates, and pass by -two forts. When you have gone through these and made the journey through -Cilicia, there are three stations, and fifteen parasangs and a half. The -boundary of Cilicia and Armenia is a river that is crossed in boats, -called the Euphrates. In Armenia there are fifteen stations for -resting-places, and fifty-six parasangs and a half; there is also a fort -at the stations. Four rivers that are crossed in boats flow through this -country, which it is absolutely necessary to ferry over. First, the -Tigris; then the second and third have the same name, though they are -not the same river, nor flow from the same source. For the first -mentioned of these flows from the Armenians, and the latter from the -Matienians. The fourth river is called the Gyndes, which Cyrus once -distributed into three hundred and sixty channels. As you enter from -Armenia into the country of Matiene, there are four stations; and from -thence as you proceed to the Cissian territory there are eleven -stations, and forty-two parasangs and a half, to the river Choaspes, -which also must be crossed in boats; on this Susa is built. All these -stations amount to one hundred and eleven,[21] as you go up from Sardis -to Susa. Now if the royal road has been correctly measured in parasangs, -and if the parasang is equal to thirty stades, as indeed it is, from -Sardis to the royal palace, called Memnonia, is a distance of thirteen -thousand five hundred stades, the parasangs being four hundred and -fifty; and by those who travel one hundred and fifty stades every day, -just ninety days are spent on the journey. So Aristagoras spoke -correctly when he stated the distance to Susa. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE IONIAN REVOLT. - - -Aristagoras the Milesian, having been expelled from Sparta by Cleomenes -the Lacedæmonian, repaired to Athens; for this city was much more -powerful than the rest. Presenting himself before the people, he said -the same that he had done at Sparta, respecting the wealth of Asia and -the Persian mode of warfare, how they used neither shield nor spear, and -could be easily conquered. He said also that the Milesians were a colony -of the Athenians, and it was but reasonable that they, having such great -power, should rescue them. And as there was nothing he did not promise, -being very much in earnest, at length he persuaded them. It appears to -be more easy to impose upon a multitude than one man; this schemer, you -see, was not able to impose upon Cleomenes the Lacedæmonian singly, but -did upon thirty thousand Athenians. Twenty ships were sent to succor the -Ionians, and Melanthius commander over them, a citizen who was -universally esteemed. These ships proved the source of calamities both -to Greeks and barbarians. Aristagoras sailed first, arrived at Miletus, -and had recourse to a project from which no advantage could result to -the Ionians; nor did he employ it for that purpose, but that he might -vex king Darius. He sent a man into Phrygia, to the Pæonians, who had -been carried away captive by Megabazus, from the river Strymon, and -occupied a tract in Phrygia, and a village by themselves. Arrived among -the Pæonians, the messenger spoke as follows: "Men of Pæonia, -Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus, has sent me to suggest to you a mode of -deliverance, if you will take his advice. For all Ionia has revolted -from the king, and offers you an opportunity of returning safe to your -own country; as far as to the coast take care of yourselves, and we will -provide for the rest." When the Pæonians heard these words, they -considered it a very joyful event, and taking with them their children -and wives, fled to the coast; though some of them, through fear, -remained where they were. When the Pæonians reached the coast, they -crossed over to Chios, when a large body of Persian cavalry came on -their heels, and sent orders to Chios to the Pæonians, commanding them -to return. The Pæonians did not listen to the proposal; but the Chians -conveyed them to Lesbos, and the Lesbians forwarded them to Doriscus; -thence proceeding on foot they reached Pæonia. - -The Athenians arrived with twenty ships, bringing with them five -triremes of the Eretrians, who engaged in this expedition out of -good-will to the Milesians, in order to repay a former obligation; for -the Milesians had formerly joined the Eretrians in the war against the -Chalcidians. When these had arrived, and the rest of the allies had come -up, Aristagoras resolved to make an expedition to Sardis. He himself did -not march with the army, but remained at Miletus, and appointed as -generals of the Milesians, his own brother Charopinus, and of the other -citizens Hermophantus. The Ionians arrived at Ephesus with this force, -left their ships at Coressus, in the Ephesian territory, and advanced -with a numerous army, taking Ephesians for their guides; and marching by -the side of the river Cayster, they crossed Mount Tmolus, and reached -and took Sardis without opposition; all except the citadel, for -Artaphernes with a strong garrison defended the citadel. The following -accident prevented them, after they had taken the city, from plundering -it. Most of the houses in Sardis were built with reeds; and such of them -as were built with brick, had roof of reeds. A soldier happened to set -fire to one of these, and immediately the flame spread from house to -house, and consumed the whole city. While the city was burning, the -Lydians, and as many of the Persians as were in the city, being enclosed -on every side, and having no means of escaping from the city, rushed -together to the market-place, and to the river Pactolus, which, bringing -down grains of gold from Mount Tmolus, flows through the middle of the -market-place, and then discharges itself into the river Hermus, and that -into the sea. The Lydians and Persians, being assembled on this Pactolus -and at the market-place, were constrained to defend themselves: and the -Ionians, seeing some of the enemy standing on their defence, and others -coming up in great numbers, retired through fear to the mountain called -Tmolus, and thence under favor of the night retreated to their ships. -Thus Sardis was burnt, and in it the temple of the native goddess -Cybebe; the Persians, making a pretext of this, afterwards burnt in -retaliation the temples of Greece. As soon as the Persians who had -settlements on this side the river Halys were informed of these things, -they drew together and marched to assist the Lydians; the Ionians were -no longer at Sardis; but following on their track they overtook them at -Ephesus, where the Ionians drew out in battle-array against them, and -coming to an engagement, were sorely beaten; and the Persians slew many -of them, among other persons of distinction, Eualcis, general of the -Eretrians, who had gained the prize in the contests for the crown, and -had been much celebrated by Simonides the Cean. Those who escaped from -the battle were dispersed throughout the cities. - -Such was the result of the encounter. Afterward, the Athenians, totally -abandoning the Ionians, though Aristagoras urgently solicited them by -ambassadors, refused to send them any assistance. The Ionians, deprived -of the alliance of the Athenians, (for they had conducted themselves in -such a manner toward Darius from the first,) nevertheless prepared for -war with the king. And sailing to the Hellespont, they reduced Byzantium -and all the other cities in that quarter to their obedience. They then -sailed out of the Hellespont, and gained over to their alliance the -greater part of Caria; for the city of Caunus, which before would not -join their alliance, when they had burnt Sardis, came over to their side. - -When it was told king Darius, that Sardis had been taken and burnt by -the Athenians and Ionians, and that Aristagoras the Milesian was the -chief of the confederacy and the contriver of that enterprise, it is -related that he took no account of the Ionians, well knowing that they -would not escape unpunished for their rebellion, but inquired where the -Athenians were; then having been informed, he called for a bow, put an -arrow into it, let it fly toward heaven, and as he shot it into the air, -exclaimed: "O Jupiter, grant that I may revenge myself on the -Athenians!" Then he commanded one of his attendants, every time dinner -was set before him, to say thrice: "Sire, remember the Athenians." -Summoning to his presence Histiæus the Milesian, whom he had already -detained a long time, Darius said: "I am informed, Histiæus, that your -lieutenant, to whom you intrusted Miletus, has attempted innovations -against me; for he has brought men from the other continent, and with -them Ionians, who shall give me satisfaction for what they have done; -and has deprived me of Sardis. Now, can it appear to you that this is -right? Could such a thing have been done without your advice? Beware -lest hereafter you expose yourself to blame." To this Histiæus answered: -"O king, what have you said? That I should advise a thing from which any -grief, great or little, should ensue to you! With what object should I -do so? What am I in want of? I, who have all things the same as you, and -am deemed worthy to share all your counsels? But if my lieutenant has -done any such thing as you mention, be assured he has done it of his own -contrivance. But I do not believe the account, that the Milesians and my -lieutenant have attempted any innovations against your authority. Yet if -you have heard the truth, consider, O king, what mischief you have done -in withdrawing me from the coast. For the Ionians seem, when I was out -of their sight, to have done what they long ago desired to do; and had I -been in Ionia not one city would have stirred. Suffer me therefore to go -with all speed to Ionia, that I may restore all things there to their -former condition, and deliver into your hands this lieutenant of -Miletus, who has plotted the whole. When I have done this according to -your mind, I swear by the royal gods, not to put off the garments which -I shall wear when I go down to Ionia, before I have made the great -island Sardinia tributary to you." His speaking thus deceived the king; -Darius was persuaded, and let him go, charging him to return to Susa, as -soon as he should have accomplished what he had promised. - -While the news concerning Sardis was going up to the king, tidings were -brought to Onesilus the Salaminian, as he was besieging the Amathusians, -that Artybius, a Persian, leading a large Persian force on shipboard, -was to be expected in Cyprus. Onesilus accordingly sent heralds to the -different parts of Ionia, inviting them to assist him; and the Ionians, -without any protracted deliberation, arrived at Cyprus with a large -armament. The Persians crossed over in ships from Cilicia, and marched -by land against Salamis. - -Then the kings of the Cyprians drew up their forces in line, and -stationed the best of the Salaminians and Solians against the Persians. -Onesilus voluntarily took up his position directly against Artybius, the -general of the Persians. Artybius used to ride on a horse, that had been -taught to rear up against an armed enemy. Onesilus had a shield-bearer, -a Carian, well skilled in matters of war, and otherwise full of courage, -to whom he said: "I am informed that the horse of Artybius rears up, and -with his feet and mouth attacks whomsoever he is made to engage with; -tell me which you will watch and strike, whether the horse or Artybius -himself." His attendant answered: "I am ready to do both, or either of -them, but a king and a general ought, I think, to engage with a king and -a general. If you vanquish one who is a general, your glory is great; -while if he should vanquish you, which may the gods avert, to fall by a -noble hand is but half the calamity. We servants should engage with -other servants, and also against a horse, whose tricks you need not fear -at all; for I promise you he shall never again rear up against any man." -Forthwith the forces joined battle by land and sea. Now, the Ionians -fought valiantly on that day, when the armies met in close combat; and -when Artybius, seated on his horse, bore down upon Onesilus. Onesilus, -as he had concerted with his shield-bearer, struck Artybius himself; and -as the horse was throwing his feet against the shield of Onesilus, the -Carian with a scythe cut off the horse's feet. So that Artybius, the -general of the Persians, fell together with his horse on the spot. While -the rest were fighting, Stesenor, of Curium, deserted with no -inconsiderable body of men, and the chariots of war belonging to the -Salaminians did the same as the Curians. Consequently the Persians -became superior to the Cyprians. The army was put to flight, many fell, -and amongst them Onesilus, and the king of the Solians, Aristocyprus, -son of the Philocyprus whom Solon the Athenian, when he visited Cyprus, -celebrated in his verses above all tyrants. The Amathusians cut off the -head of Onesilus, because he had besieged them, took it to Amathus, and -suspended it over the gates; and when the head had become hollow, a -swarm of bees entered it, and filled it with honey-comb. An answer was -given to the Amathusians, who consulted the oracle respecting it, "that -they should take down the head and bury it, and sacrifice annually to -Onesilus, as to a hero, and that it would turn out better for them." - -Afterward, the Persians crossed the Mæander and engaged the Carians on -the banks of the river Marsyas. They fought an obstinate battle, and at -last overpowered them. Of the Persians there fell about two thousand, -and of the Carians ten thousand. The Carians, however, afterward -recovered from this wound, and renewed the contest. For hearing that the -Persians designed to invade their cities, they placed an ambuscade on -the way to Pedasus, into which the Persians, falling by night, were cut -in pieces, with their generals Daurises, Amorges, and Sisamaces. - -Hymees, who was one of those who pursued the Ionians that had attacked -Sardis, bending his march toward the Propontis, took Cius of Mysia. When -he heard that Daurises had quitted the Hellespont, and was marching -against Caria, he abandoned the Propontis, and led his army on the -Hellespont. He subdued all the Æolians who inhabited the territory of -Ilium, and subdued the Gergithæ, the remaining descendants of the -ancient Teucrians. Just then, however, he died of disease in the Troad. -But Artaphernes, governor of Sardis, and Otanes, who were appointed to -invade Ionia and the neighboring territory of Æolia, took Clazomenæ and -Cyme. - -Aristagoras the Milesian, for he was not, as it proved, a man of strong -courage, after he had thus thrown Ionia into confusion, and raised great -disturbances, thought of flight, when he saw these results. Besides, it -appeared to him impossible to overcome King Darius; so calling his -partisans together, he suggested "that it would be better for them to -have some sure place of refuge, in case they should be expelled from -Miletus." He asked, therefore, whether he should lead them to Sardinia, -to found a colony, or to Myrcinus of the Edonians, which Histiæus had -begun to fortify, having received it as a gift from Darius. However, the -opinion of Hecatæus the historian, son of Hegesander, was, that they -should set out for neither of these places, but should build a fortress -in the island of Leros, and remain quiet, if they were compelled to quit -Miletus. But Aristagoras himself was decidedly in favor of proceeding to -Myrcinus; he therefore intrusted Miletus to Pythagoras, a citizen of -distinction, and, taking with him all who were willing, sailed to -Thrace, and took possession of the region to which he was bound. But -both Aristagoras himself and all his army perished while he was laying -siege to a city in Thrace. - -[21] The detail of stations above-mentioned gives only eighty-one -instead of one hundred and eleven. The discrepancy can only be accounted -for by a supposed defect in the manuscripts. - - - - -_BOOK VI. ERATO._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE SUPPRESSION OF THE IONIAN REVOLT. - - -Aristagoras thus induced the Ionians to revolt, and died; and Histiæus, -tyrant of Miletus, repaired to Sardis. When he arrived from Susa, -Artaphernes, Governor of Sardis, asked him for what reason he supposed -the Ionians had revolted. Histiæus said he did not know, and seemed -surprised at what had happened, as if he knew nothing of the present -state of affairs. But Artaphernes saw that he was dissembling, and being -aware of the exact truth as to the revolt, said: "Histiæus, the state of -the case is this: you made the shoe and Aristagoras has put it on." -Histiæus in alarm fled to the coast as soon as night came on, and -although he had promised to reduce the great island of Sardinia for -Darius, he insinuated himself into the command of the Ionians in the war -against him. At Chios he was taken and put in chains, being suspected by -the Chians of planning some new design against them in favor of Darius. -However, the Chians, being assured that he was an enemy to the king, -released him, and conveyed him to Miletus, at his own request; but the -Milesians, delighted at being rid of Aristagoras, were by no means -desirous to receive another tyrant into their country, as they had -tasted of freedom. Thereupon Histiæus, going down to Miletus by night, -endeavored to enter it by force, but was wounded in the thigh by one of -the Milesians. When he was repulsed from his own country, he went back -to Chios, and from there, since he could not persuade the Chians to help -him, he crossed over to Mitylene, and prevailed with the Lesbians to -furnish him with ships; they manned eight triremes, and sailed with -Histiæus to Byzantium. There taking up their station, they took all the -ships that sailed out of the Pontus, except such of them as said they -were ready to submit to Histiæus. - -But a large naval and land-force was expected against Miletus itself. -For the Persian generals had united their forces and formed one camp to -march to Miletus, deeming the other cities of less consequence. The -Ionians, hearing of this, sent their respective deputies to the -Panionium, and determined not to assemble any land-forces to oppose the -Persians; but bade the Milesians themselves defend their walls, while -they should man their navy, without leaving a single ship behind, and -assemble as soon as possible at Lade, to fight in defence of Miletus. -Lade is a small island lying off the city of the Milesians. Soon the -Ionians came up with their ships manned, and formed their line, a fleet -three hundred and fifty-three triremes strong. On the side of the -barbarians the number of ships amounted to six hundred, and when they -arrived on the Milesian coast, and all their land-forces had come up, -the Persian generals began to fear they should not be strong enough to -overcome them, and so should be also unable to take Miletus, since they -were not masters at sea, and then might be in danger of receiving -punishment at the hands of Darius. Taking these things into -consideration, they summoned the tyrants of the Ionians, who had been -deprived of their governments by Aristagoras, and had fled to the Medes, -and who happened at that time to be serving in the army against Miletus. -"Men of Ionia," they said, "let each of you now show his zeal for the -king's house. For let each of you endeavor to detach his own countrymen -from the rest of the confederacy, and proclaim this, that they shall -suffer no hurt on account of their rebellion, nor shall their buildings, -whether sacred or profane, be burnt, nor shall they be treated with more -severity than they were before. But if they do not do this, and will at -all events come to the hazard of a battle, threaten that, when conquered -in battle, they shall all be enslaved." And the tyrants of the Ionians -sent each by night to his own countrymen, to make known the warning. But -the Ionians to whom these messages came, continued firm to their purpose -and would not listen to treachery; for each thought that the Persians -had sent this message. - -When the Ionians had assembled at Lade, a council was held, and the -Phocæan general Dionysius spoke as follows: "Our affairs are in a -critical[22] state, O Ionians; we are to be freemen or slaves, and that -too run-away slaves. But if you are willing to undergo hardships, for -the present you will have to toil, but will be enabled, by overcoming -your enemies, to be free; on the other hand, if you abandon yourselves -to ease and disorder, I have no hope that you will escape punishment at -the hands of the king for your revolt. But be persuaded by me, and -entrust yourselves to my guidance, and I promise you, that if the gods -are impartial, either our enemies will not fight us at all, or if they -do fight with us, they will be completely beaten." The Ionians intrusted -themselves to the guidance of Dionysius without hesitation who daily led -out the ships into a line, exercised the rowers, by practising the -manœuvre of cutting through one another's line, put the marines under -arms, and kept the ships at anchor for the rest of the day. For seven -days they continued to obey, but on the eighth the Ionians, unaccustomed -to such toil, and worn down by hardships and the heat of the sun, -grumbled to each other in such terms as these: "What deity have we -offended to fill up this measure of affliction? we who were so beside -ourselves, as to have intrusted ourselves to the guidance of a -presumptuous Phocæan, who, all told, contributed only three ships, but -having got us under his control, afflicts us with intolerable hardships. -Many of us have already fallen into distempers, and many more must -expect to meet with the same fate. Instead of these evils, it would be -better for us to suffer anything else, and to endure the impending -servitude, be it what it may, than be oppressed by the present, Come, -let us no longer obey him." And from that moment no one would obey; but, -pitching their tents on the island, they continued under the shade, and -would not go on board the ships, or perform their exercise. When the -generals of the Samians observed what was passing among the Ionians, and -saw great disorder among them, they accepted the proposal of Æaces, son -of Syloson, which he had before sent them at the desire of the Persians, -exhorting them to abandon the confederacy of the Ionians. Besides, it -was clearly impossible for them to overcome the power of the king, -because they were convinced, that if they should overcome Darius with -his present fleet, another five times as large would come against them. -So laying hold of this pretext, as soon as they saw the Ionians refusing -to behave well, they deemed it for their advantage to preserve their own -buildings, sacred and profane. - -When therefore the Phœnicians sailed against them, the Ionians drew out -their ships in line to oppose them; but when they came near and opposed -each other, I am unable to affirm with certainty who of the Ionians -proved themselves cowards, or brave men, in this sea-fight; for they -mutually accuse each other. The Samians however are said at that moment -to have hoisted sail, in pursuance of their agreement with Æaces, and -steered out of the line to Samos, with the exception of eleven ships; -the captains of which stayed and fought, refusing to obey their -commanders; and for this action the commonwealth of the Samians -conferred upon them the honor of having their names and ancestry -engraved on a column, as those who had proved themselves valiant men; -and this column now stands in the forum. The Lesbians also, seeing those -stationed next them flee, did the same as the Samians; and most of the -Ionians followed their example. Of those that persisted in the battle, -the Chians were most roughly handled, as they displayed signal proofs of -valor, and would not act as cowards. They had contributed one hundred -ships, and on board each of them forty chosen citizens served as -marines; and though they saw most of the confederates abandoning the -common cause, they disdained to follow the example of their treachery; -but choosing rather to remain with the few allies, they continued the -fight, cutting through the enemies' line, until, after they had taken -many of the enemies' ships, they lost most of their own. The Chians then -fled to their own country with the remainder of their fleet. Those -Chians whose ships were disabled in the fight, took refuge in Mycale, -ran their ships aground, and left them there, and marched over-land -across the continent. On their return they entered the territory of -Ephesus, and arrived near the city by night, at a time when the women -were celebrating the Thesmophoria; thereupon, the Ephesians, not having -before heard how it had fared with the Chians, and seeing an army enter -their territory, thinking they were certainly robbers, and had come to -seize their women, rushed out in a body, and slew the Chians. When -Dionysius the Phocæan perceived that the affairs of the Ionians were -utterly ruined, he took three of the enemies' ships and sailed away, not -indeed to Phocæa, well knowing that it would be enslaved with the rest -of Ionia, but directly to Phœnicia; and there having disabled some -merchantmen, and obtained great wealth, he sailed to Sicily, where he -established himself as a pirate, attacking none of the Greeks, but only -Carthaginians and Tyrrhenians. - -When the Persians had conquered the Ionians in the sea-fight they -besieged Miletus by land and sea, undermined the walls, and bringing up -all kinds of military engines against it, took it completely, in the -sixth year after the revolt of Aristagoras. They reduced the city to -slavery, so that the event coincided with the oracle delivered -concerning Miletus. For when the Argives consulted the oracle at Delphi -respecting the preservation of their city, a double answer was given; -part concerning themselves, and the addition concerning the Milesians. -The part relating to the Argives I will mention when I come to that part -of the history; the words the Pythian uttered relative to the Milesians, -who were not present, were these: "Then Miletus, contriver of wicked -deeds, thou shalt become a feast and a rich gift to many: thy wives -shall wash the feet of many long-haired masters, and our temple at -Didymi shall be tended by others." These things befell the Milesians at -that time; for most of the men were killed by the Persians, who wear -long hair, their women and children were treated as slaves, and the -sacred enclosure at Didymi, both the temple and the shrine, were -pillaged and burnt. Of the riches in this temple I have frequently made -mention in other parts of my history. Such of the Milesians as were -taken alive were afterward conveyed to Susa; and King Darius did them no -harm, but settled them on the Red Sea, in the city of Ampe, near by -which the Tigris falls into the sea. Of the Milesian territory, the -Persians themselves retained the parts round the city and the plain; the -mountainous parts they gave to the Carians of Pedasus to occupy. When -the Milesians suffered this at the hands of the Persians, the Sybarites, -who inhabited Laos and Scydrus, did not show equal sympathy. But when -Sybaris was taken by the Crotonians, all the Milesians of every age had -shaved their heads and displayed marks of deep mourning: for these two -cities had been more strictly united in friendship than any others we -are acquainted with. The Athenians behaved in a very different manner; -for the Athenians made it evident that they were excessively grieved at -the capture of Miletus, both in many other ways, and more particularly -when Phrynichus had composed a drama of the capture of Miletus, and -represented it, the whole theatre burst into tears, and fined him a -thousand drachmas[23] for renewing the memory of their domestic -misfortunes; and they gave order that henceforth no one should act this -drama. - -[Illustration: AMPHITHEATRE AT POLA.] - -While Histiæus the Milesian was near Byzantium, intercepting the trading -ships of the Ionians that sailed out of the Pontus, news was brought him -of what had taken place at Miletus; he therefore intrusted his affairs -on the Hellespont to Bisaltes, son of Apollophanes, of Abydos, and with -the Lesbians sailed to Chios, and engaged with a garrison of Chians, -that would not admit him, at a place called Cœli in the Chian territory, -and killed great numbers of them. The deity is wont to give some -previous warning when any great calamities are about to befall city or -nation, and before these misfortunes great warnings happened to the -Chians. For in the first place, when they sent to Delphi a band of one -hundred youths, two only of them returned home, for a pestilence seized -and carried off the remaining ninety-eight. In the next place, a little -before the sea-fight, a house in the city fell in upon some boys, as -they were learning to read, so that of one hundred and twenty boys one -only escaped. After this, the sea-fight following, threw the city -prostrate; and after the sea-fight Histiæus with the Lesbians came upon -them; and as the Chians had been much shattered, he easily reduced them -to subjection. From there Histiæus proceeded to attack Thasus with a -large body of Ionians and Æolians; and while he was besieging Thasus, -Harpagus, the Persian, general of a considerable army, who, happening to -be in those parts, engaged with him after his landing, took Histiæus -himself prisoner, and destroyed the greater part of his army. - -Now if, when Histiæus was taken prisoner, he had been conducted to king -Darius, in my opinion, he would have suffered no punishment, and the -king would have forgiven him his fault. But for this very reason, lest -by escaping he should again regain his influence with the king, -Artaphernes, Governor of Sardis, and Harpagus, who received him as soon -as he was conducted to Sardis, impaled his body on the spot, and -embalmed the head and sent it to Darius at Susa. Darius blamed those -that had done it, because they had not brought him alive into his -presence, and gave orders that they should wash and adorn the head of -Histiæus, and inter it honorably, as the remains of a man who had been a -great benefactor to himself and the Persians. - -The naval force of the Persians wintered near Miletus. In the second -year it set sail for the islands lying near the continent, Chios, -Lesbos, and Tenedos, which it easily subdued. When they took any one of -these islands, the barbarians netted the inhabitants in this manner: -Taking one another by the hand, they would extend from the northern to -the southern sea, and so march over the island, hunting out the -inhabitants. They also took the Ionian cities on the continent with the -same ease; but did not net the inhabitants, for that was impossible. -Thus the Ionians were for the third time reduced to slavery; first by -the Lydians, then twice successively by the Persians. The naval force, -departing from Ionia, reduced all the places on the left of the -Hellespont as one sails in; and all the cities of the Chersonese, except -Cardia, they subdued. - -Till that time Miltiades, son of Cimon, was tyrant of these cities, -Miltiades, son of Cypselus, having formally acquired this government in -the following manner: The Thracian Dolonci possessed this Chersonese; -these Dolonci, being pressed in war by the Apsynthians, sent their kings -to Delphi to consult the oracle concerning the war; the Pythian answered -them, "that they should take that man with them to their country to -found a colony, who after their departure from the temple should first -offer them hospitality." Accordingly the Dolonci, going by the sacred -way, went through the territories of the Phocians and Bœotians, and when -no one invited them, turned out of the road toward Athens. At that time -Pisistratus had the supreme power at Athens; but Miltiades, son of -Cypselus, had considerable influence; he was of a family that maintained -horses for the chariot-races, and was originally descended from Æacus -and Ægina, but in later times was an Athenian, Philæus, son of Ajax, -having been the first Athenian of that family. This Miltiades, being -seated in his own portico, and seeing the Dolonci passing by, wearing a -dress not belonging to the country, and carrying javelins, called out to -them: and upon their coming to him, he offered them shelter and -hospitality. They, grateful for their entertainment, made known to him -the whole oracle, and entreated him to obey the deity. Their words -persuaded Miltiades as soon as he heard them, for he was troubled with -the government of Pisistratus, and desired to get out of his way. He -therefore immediately set out to Delphi to ask the oracle whether he -should do that which the Dolonci requested of him. The Pythian having -bade him do so, Miltiades took with him all such Athenians as were -willing to join in the expedition, and set sail with the Dolonci, and -took possession of the country; and they who introduced him appointed -him tyrant. He, first of all, built a wall on the isthmus of the -Chersonese, from the city of Cardia to Pactya, in order that the -Apsynthians might not be able to injure them by making incursions into -their country. The width of this isthmus is thirty-six stades; and from -this isthmus the whole Chersonese inward is four hundred and twenty -stades in length. Miltiades next made war upon the Lampsacenians, who -laid an ambush and took him prisoner. But Miltiades was well known to -Crœsus, who, on hearing of this event, sent and commanded the -Lampsacenians to release Miltiades; if not, he threatened that he would -destroy them like a pine-tree. The Lampsacenians, uncertain as to what -was the meaning of this saying, discovered, with some difficulty, from -one of the elders, that the pine alone of all trees, when cut down, does -not send forth any more shoots, but perishes entirely: whereupon the -Lampsacenians, dreading the power of Crœsus, set Miltiades at liberty. -He accordingly escaped by means of Crœsus, and afterward died childless, -having bequeathed the government and his property to Stesagoras, his -brother by the same mother. When he was dead the Chersonesians -sacrificed to him, as is usual to a founder, and instituted equestrian -and gymnastic exercises, in which no Lampsacenian is permitted to -contend. The war with the Lampsacenians still continuing, it also befell -Stesagoras to die childless; being struck on the head with an axe in the -prytaneum, by a man who in pretence was a deserter, but was in fact an -enemy, and a very vehement one. - -Upon the death of Stesagoras, the Pisistratidæ sent Miltiades, son of -Cimon, and brother of Stesagoras who had died, with one ship to the -Chersonese, to assume the government; they had also treated him with -kindness at Athens, as if they had not been parties to the death of his -father Cimon. Miltiades having arrived in the Chersonese, kept himself -at home under color of honoring the memory of his brother Stesagoras, -and the principal persons of all the cities assembled together from -every quarter, and came in a body with the intention of condoling with -him, whereupon they were all thrown into chains by him. Thus Miltiades -got possession of the Chersonese, maintaining five hundred auxiliaries, -and married Hegesipyle, daughter of Olorus, King of the Thracians. This -Miltiades, son of Cimon, had lately arrived in the Chersonese, but -having heard that the Phœnicians were at Tenedos, he loaded five -triremes with the property he had at hand, and sailed away for Athens. -But when he had set out from the city of Cardia, he sailed through the -gulf of Melas, and as he was passing by the Chersonese, the Phœnicians -fell in with his ships. Miltiades himself escaped with four of the ships -to Imbrus, but the fifth the Phœnicians pursued and took; of this ship, -Metiochus, the eldest of the sons of Miltiades, happened to be -commander, whom the Phœnicians took together with the ship. When they -heard that he was son of Miltiades, they took him up to the king, -thinking that they should obtain great favor for themselves, because -Miltiades had given an opinion to the Ionians advising them to comply -with the Scythians, when the Scythians requested them to loose the -bridge and return to their own country. But Darius did the young man no -injury, but many favors; for he gave him a house and an estate, and a -Persian wife, by whom he had children, who were reckoned among the -Persians. Meantime Miltiades arrived safely at Athens. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -EXPEDITION OF MARDONIUS. - - -In the beginning of the spring, the other generals were dismissed by the -king, but Mardonius, son of Gobryas, went down to the coast, taking with -him a very large land-army, and a numerous naval force: he was young in -years, and had lately married king Darius' daughter, Artazostra. When he -arrived in Cilicia, and had gone in person on board ship, he proceeded -with the rest of the fleet, while the other generals led the land-army -to the Hellespont. When Mardonius reached Ionia, he did a thing, which, -when I mention it, will be a matter of very great astonishment to those -Greeks, who cannot believe that Otanes, one of the seven Persians, gave -an opinion that it was right for the Persians to be governed by a -democracy; for Mardonius deposed the tyrants of the Ionians, and -established democracies in the cities. - -After this, Darius made trial of what were the intentions of the Greeks, -whether to make war with him or to deliver themselves up. He therefore -despatched heralds, appointing different persons to go to different -parts throughout Greece, with orders to ask earth and water for the -king, the Persian method of demanding submission. These he sent to -Greece, and despatched other heralds to the tributary cities on the -coast, with orders to build ships of war and transports for horses. To -the heralds who came to Greece many of the inhabitants of the continent -gave what the Persian demanded, as did all the islanders also, and -moreover the Æginetæ, whereupon the Athenians forthwith threatened them, -thinking that the Æginetæ had given earth and water out of ill-will -toward themselves, in order that they might make war on them in -conjunction with the Persian. And the Athenians laying hold of the -pretext, sent to Sparta to accuse the Æginetæ of what they had done as -betraying Greece. - -The Spartans say, that once upon a time there lived in Lacedæmon one -Glaucus, son of Epicydes. This man attained to the first rank in all -respects, and bore the highest character for justice of all who at that -time dwelt at Lacedæmon. In the course of time a certain Milesian came -to Sparta and wished to have a conference with him, and said: "I am a -Milesian, and have come, Glaucus, with the desire of profiting by your -justice, of which, throughout all the rest of Greece, and particularly -in Ionia, there is great talk. Ionia is so continually exposed to great -dangers, while with us one can never see the same persons retaining -property. Having, therefore, reflected and deliberated on these things, -I determined to change half of my whole substance into silver and -deposit it with you, being well assured that with you, it would be safe. -Do you, then, take this money, and preserve these tokens; and whosoever -possessing these shall demand it back again, restore it to him." So -spoke the stranger who came from Miletus, and Glaucus received the -deposit, on the condition mentioned. After a long time had elapsed, the -sons of this man who had deposited the money came to Sparta, and -addressed themselves to Glaucus, showed the tokens, and demanded back -the money. Glaucus repulsed them, answering as follows: "I don't -remember the matter, nor any of the circumstances you mention; but if I -can recall it to my mind, I am willing to do every thing that is just; -if I really received it, I wish to restore it correctly; but if I have -not received it at all, I shall have recourse to the laws of the Greeks -against you. I therefore defer settling this matter with you for four -months from the present time." The Milesians in disappointment departed, -taking greatly to heart the loss of their money. But Glaucus went to -Delphi to consult the oracle; and, when he asked the oracle whether he -should make a booty of the money by an oath, the Pythian assailed him in -the following words: "Glaucus, son of Epicydes, thus to prevail by an -oath, and to make a booty of the money, will be a present gain. But -there is a nameless son of Perjury, who has neither hands nor feet; he -pursues swiftly, until he has seized and destroyed the whole race, and -all the house of him who has falsely sworn. But the race of a man who -keeps his oath is afterward more blessed." Glaucus, hearing this, -entreated the god to pardon the words he had spoken. But the Pythian -said, that to tempt the god, and to commit the crime, were the same -thing. So Glaucus sent for the Milesian strangers, and restored them the -money. There is at present not a single descendant of Glaucus, nor any -house which is supposed to have belonged to Glaucus; but he is utterly -extirpated from Sparta. Thus it is right to have no other thought -concerning a deposit, than to restore it when it is demanded. - -[Illustration: RUINS OF AN ANCIENT TEMPLE IN CORINTH.] - -The Æginetæ, offended at what they considered a great affront, prepared -to revenge themselves on the Athenians: and as the Athenians happened to -have a five-benched galley at Sunium, they formed an ambuscade and took -the ship "Theoris"[24] filled with the principal Athenians, and put the -men in chains. The Athenians, thus treated by the Æginetæ, no longer -delayed to devise all sorts of plans against them. Now there was in -Ægina an eminent man named Nicodromus, son of Cnœthus; incensed against -the Æginetæ on account of his former banishment from the island, and now -hearing that the Athenians were preparing to do a mischief to the -Æginetæ, he entered into an agreement with the Athenians for the -betrayal of Ægina, mentioning on what day he would make the attempt, and -on what it would be necessary for them to come to his assistance. -Nicodromus, according to his agreement, on the appointed day seized that -which is called the old town. The Athenians, however, did not arrive at -the proper time, for they happened not to have a sufficient number of -ships to engage with the Æginetæ; and while they were entreating the -Corinthians to furnish them with ships, their plan was ruined. The -Corinthians, for they were then on very friendly terms with them, at -their request supplied the Athenians with twenty ships, hiring them out -at a nominal price of five drachmæ each; because by their laws they were -forbidden to give them for nothing. The Athenians, taking these and -their own, manned seventy ships in all, sailed to Ægina, and arrived one -day after that agreed upon. When the Athenians did not arrive at the -proper time, Nicodromus embarked on shipboard and made his escape from -Ægina; and others of the Æginetæ accompanied him, to whom the Athenians -gave Sunium for a habitation; and they, sallying from thence, plundered -the Æginetæ in the island. This, however, happened subsequently. In the -meantime the most wealthy of the Æginetæ overpowered the common people, -who, together with Nicodromus, had revolted against them, and led them -out to execution. On this occasion they incurred a guilt, which they -were unable to expiate by any contrivance, as they were ejected out of -the island before the goddess became propitious to them. For having -taken seven hundred of the common people prisoners, they led them out to -execution; and one of them, who escaped from his bonds, fled to the -porch of Ceres the lawgiver, and seizing the door-handle, held it fast; -when they were unable by dragging to tear him away, they cut off his -hands, and so took him away; and the hands were left sticking on the -door-handles. So did the Æginetæ treat their own people. But when the -Athenians arrived with their seventy ships, they came to an engagement, -and being conquered in the sea-fight, they called upon the same persons -as before for assistance, that is, on the Argives. They, however, would -not any longer succor them, but complained that the ships of the -Æginetæ, having been forcibly seized by Cleomenes, had touched on the -territory of Argos, and the crews had disembarked with the -Lacedæmonians. Some men had also disembarked from Sicyonian ships in the -same invasion; and a penalty was imposed upon them by the Argives, to -pay a thousand talents, five hundred each. The Sicyonians, acknowledging -that they had acted unjustly, made an agreement to pay one hundred -talents, and be free from the rest; but the Æginetæ would not own -themselves in the wrong, and were very obstinate. On this account, -therefore, none of the Argives were sent by the commonwealth to assist -them; but, on their request, volunteers went to the number of a -thousand; a general, whose name was Eurybates, and who had practised for -the pentathlon, led them. The greater number of these never returned -home, but were slain by the Athenians in Ægina. The general, Eurybates, -engaging in single combat, killed three several antagonists in that -manner, but was slain by the fourth, Sophanes of Decelea. But the -Æginetæ attacked the fleet of the Athenians when they were in disorder, -and obtained a victory, and took four of their ships with the men on -board. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -EXPEDITION OF DATIS AND ARTAPHERNES; THE BATTLE -OF MARATHON. - - -War was accordingly kindled between the Athenians and Æginetæ. But the -Persian pursued his own design, for the servant continually reminded him -to remember the Athenians, and the Pisistratidæ constantly importuned -him and accused the Athenians; and at the same time Darius was desirous -of subduing those people of Greece who had refused to give him earth and -water. He therefore dismissed Mardonius from his command, because he had -succeeded ill in his expedition; and appointed other generals, whom he -sent against Eretria and Athens, namely, Datis, who was a Mede by birth, -and Artaphernes, son of Artaphernes, his own nephew; and he despatched -them with strict orders to enslave Athens and Eretria, and bring the -bondsmen into his presence. When these generals who were appointed left -the king, and reached the Aleian plain of Cilicia, bringing with them a -numerous and well-equipped army, they encamped there until the whole -naval force required from each people came up: the horse-transports were -also present, which Darius in the preceding year had commanded his -tributaries to prepare. They put the horses on board of these, and -embarked the land-forces in the ships, and sailed for Ionia with six -hundred triremes. From there they did not steer their ships along the -continent direct to the Hellespont and Thrace; but parting from Samos -they bent their course across the Icarian sea, and through the islands, -dreading the circumnavigation of Athos, because in the preceding year, -in attempting a passage that way, they had sustained great loss. - -While they were doing this, the Delians also, abandoning Delos, fled to -Tenos; but as the fleet was sailing down toward it, Datis would not -permit the ships to anchor near the island, but further on, off Rhenea; -and he, having ascertained where the Delians were, sent a herald and -addressed them as follows: "Sacred men, why have you fled, forming an -unfavorable opinion of me? For both I myself have so much wisdom, and am -so ordered by the king, that in the region where the two deities[25] -were born, no harm should be done either to the country itself or its -inhabitants. Return, therefore, to your houses, and resume possession of -the island." This message he sent to the Delians by means of a herald; -and afterward heaped up three hundred talents of frankincense upon the -altar, and burnt it. Then Datis sailed with the army first against -Eretria, taking with him both Ionians and Æolians. But after he had put -out to sea from there, Delos was shaken by an earthquake, as the Delians -say, the first and last time that it was ever so affected. And the deity -assuredly by this portent intimated to men the evils that were about to -befall them. For during the three successive reigns of Darius, son of -Hystaspes, of Xerxes, son of Darius, and of Artaxerxes, son of Xerxes, -more disasters befell Greece than during the twenty generations that -preceded the time of Darius, partly brought upon it by the Persians, and -partly by the chief men amongst them contending for power. So that it is -not at all improbable that Delos should be moved at that time, though -until then unmoved; and in an oracle respecting it, it had been thus -written: "I will move even Delos, although hitherto unmoved." And in the -Greek language these names mean: Darius, "one who restrains"; Xerxes, "a -warrior"; and Artaxerxes, "a mighty warrior." - -After the barbarians had parted from Delos, and touched at the islands, -they took with them men to serve in the army, and carried away the sons -of the islanders for hostages. Having subdued Eretria, and rested a few -days, they sailed to Attica, pressing the inhabitants very close, and -expecting to treat them in the same way as they had the Eretrians. Now -as Marathon was the spot in Attica best adapted for cavalry, and nearest -to Eretria, they gathered their forces there. When the Athenians heard -of this, they also sent their forces to Marathon: and ten generals led -them, of whom the tenth was Miltiades, whose father, Cimon, had been -banished from Athens by Pisistratus. During his exile, it was his good -fortune to obtain the Olympic prize in the four-horse chariot race, the -honor of which victory he transferred to Miltiades, his brother by the -same mother; afterward, in the next Olympiad, being victorious with the -same mares, he permitted Pisistratus to be proclaimed victor, and -returned home under terms. But after he had gained a third Olympic prize -with the same mares, it happened that he died by the hands of the sons -of Pisistratus, when Pisistratus himself was no longer alive; they slew -him near the Prytaneum, having placed men to waylay him by night. Cimon -was buried in front of the city, beyond that which is called the road to -Cœla, and opposite him these same mares were buried, which won the three -Olympic prizes. Stesagoras, the elder son of Cimon, was at that time -being educated by his uncle in the Chersonese, but the younger by Cimon -himself at Athens, and he had the name of Miltiades, from Miltiades, the -founder of the Chersonese. At that time, then, this Miltiades, coming -from the Chersonese, and having escaped a twofold death, became general -of the Athenians; for in the first place, the Phœnicians pursued him as -far as Imbros, exceedingly desirous of seizing him and carrying him up -to the king; and in the next, when he had escaped them, and had returned -to his own country, and thought himself in safety, his enemies attacked -him, and brought him before a court of justice, to prosecute him for -tyranny in the Chersonese. These also he escaped, and was at length -appointed general of the Athenians by the choice of the people. - -And first, while the generals were yet in the city, they despatched a -herald to Sparta, one Phidippides, an Athenian, a courier by profession, -who arrived in Sparta on the following day after his departure from the -city of the Athenians, and on coming in presence of the magistrates, -said: "Lacedæmonians, the Athenians entreat you to assist them, and not -to suffer the most ancient city among the Greeks to fall into bondage to -barbarians; for Eretria is already reduced to slavery, and Greece has -become weaker by the loss of a renowned city." He delivered the message -according to his instructions, and they resolved to assist the -Athenians; but it was out of their power to do so immediately, as they -were unwilling to violate the law; for it was the ninth day of the -current month; and they said they could not march out until the moon's -circle should be full. - -Meanwhile the traitor Hippias, son of Pisistratus, had guided the -barbarians to Marathon. He first of all landed the slaves from Eretria -on the island of the Styreans, called Ægilia; and next he moored the -ships as they came to Marathon, and drew up the barbarians as they -disembarked on land. But as he was busied in doing this, it happened -that he sneezed and coughed more violently than he was accustomed; and -as he was far advanced in years, several of his teeth were loose, so -that through the violence of his cough he threw out one of these teeth. -It fell on the sand, and he used every endeavor to find it; but when the -tooth could nowhere be found, he drew a deep sigh, and said to the -bystanders: "This country is not ours, nor shall we be able to subdue -it; whatever share belongeth to me, my tooth possesses." - -When the Athenians were drawn up in a place sacred to Hercules, the -Platæans came to their assistance with all their forces. For the -Platæans had given themselves up to the Athenians, as the Athenians had -already undergone many toils on their account. - -The opinions of the Athenian generals were divided: one party not -consenting to engage, "because they were too few to engage with the army -of the Medes"; and the others, among whom was Miltiades, urging them to -give battle. There was an eleventh voter who was appointed minister of -war among the Athenians, who had an equal vote with the generals, and at -that time Callimachus of Aphidnæ was minister of war. To him Miltiades -came and spoke as follows: "It now depends on you, Callimachus, either -to enslave Athens, or, by preserving its liberty, to leave a memorial of -yourself to every age, such as not even Harmodius and Aristogeiton have -left. For the Athenians were never in so great danger from the time they -were first a people. If they succumb to the Medes, it has been -determined what they are to suffer when delivered up to Hippias; but if -the city survives, it will become the first of the Greek cities. How, -then, this can be brought to pass, and how the power of deciding the -matter depends on you, I will now proceed to explain. The opinions of us -generals, who are ten, are equally divided; the one party urging that we -should engage, the other that we should not. Now, if we do not engage, I -expect that some great dissension arising amongst us will shake the -minds of the Athenians so as to induce them to a compliance with the -Medes. But if we engage before any dastardly thought arises in the minds -of some of the Athenians, if the gods are impartial, we shall be able to -get the better in the engagement. All these things now entirely depend -on you. For if you will support my opinion, your country will be free, -and the city the first in Greece; but if you join with those who would -dissuade us from an engagement, the contrary of the advantages I have -enumerated will fall to your lot." Miltiades, by these words, gained -over Callimachus, and it was determined to engage. Afterward the -generals whose opinions had been given to engage, as the command for the -day devolved upon each of them, gave it up to Miltiades; but though he -accepted it, he would not come to an engagement before his own turn to -command came. - -The war-minister, Callimachus, commanded the right wing, for the law at -that time was so settled among the Athenians; the Platæans were drawn -out last of all, occupying the left wing. Now, ever since that battle, -when the Athenians offer sacrifices and celebrate the public festivals -which take place every five years, the Athenian herald prays, saying: -"May blessings attend both the Athenians and the Platæans." Their line -was equal in extent to the Medic line, but the middle of it was but few -deep, and there the line was weakest, while each wing was strong in -numbers. When they were drawn up, and the victims were favorable, the -Athenians, at the order to charge, advanced against the barbarians in -double-quick time; and the space between them was not less than eight -stades. The Persians, seeing them charging at full speed, prepared to -receive them, laughing at their madness when they saw that they were so -few in number, and that they rushed on at full speed without cavalry or -archers. The Athenians, however, when they engaged in close ranks with -the barbarians, fought in a manner worthy of record. For they, the first -of all the Greeks whom we know of, charged the enemy at full speed, and -first endured the sight of the Medic garb and the men that wore it; for -until that time the very name of the Medes was a terror to the Greeks. -The battle at Marathon lasted a long time: and in the middle of the -line, where the Persians themselves and the Sacæ were arrayed, the -barbarians were victorious, and having broken the line, pursued to the -interior; but in both wings the Athenians and the Platæans were -victorious. Here they allowed the defeated portion of the barbarians to -flee; and having united both wings, they fought with those who had -broken their centre until at last the Athenians were victorious. They -followed the Persians in their flight, cutting them to pieces, till, -reaching the shore, they called for fire and attacked the ships. - -In this battle the brave war-minister, Callimachus, was killed, and -among the generals, Stesilaus, son of Thrasylas, perished; Cynægeirus, -son of Euphorion, laid hold of a ship's stern and had his hand severed -by an axe and fell; and besides, many other distinguished Athenians were -slain. In this manner the Athenians made themselves masters of seven -ships: but with the rest the barbarians rowed rapidly back, and after -taking off the Eretrian slaves from the island in which they had left -them, sailed round Sunium, wishing to anticipate the Athenians in -reaching the city. But the Athenians marched with all speed to the -assistance of the city, and reached it before the barbarians arrived; -and as they had come from the precinct of Hercules at Marathon, they -took up their station in another precinct of Hercules at Cynosarges. The -barbarians, having laid to with their fleet off Phalerum for a time, -soon sailed away for Asia. In this battle at Marathon there died of the -barbarians about six thousand four hundred men; and of the Athenians, -one hundred and ninety-two. An Athenian, Epizelus, son of Cuphagoras, -while fighting in the medley, and behaving valiantly, was deprived of -sight, though wounded in no part of his body, nor struck from a -distance; and he continued to be blind from that time for the remainder -of his life. I have heard that he used to give the following account of -his loss. He thought that a large heavy-armed man stood before him, -whose beard shaded the whole of his shield; that this spectre passed by -him, and killed the man that stood by his side, smiting him with this -loss as it passed. - -King Darius, before the Eretrians were made captive, harbored a deep -resentment against them, as the Eretrians had been the first to begin -acts of injustice: but when he saw them brought into his presence, and -subject to his power, he did them no other harm, but settled them in the -Cissian territory at a station of his own, the name of which is -Ardericca; it is two hundred and ten stades distant from Susa, and forty -from the well which produces three different substances; for asphalt, -salt, and oil are drawn up from it, in the following manner. It is -pumped up by means of a swipe, and, instead of a bucket, half of a -wine-skin is attached to it; having dipped down with this, a man draws -it up and then pours the contents into a receiver; and being poured from -this into another, it assumes three different forms: the asphalt and the -salt immediately become solid, but the oil they collect, and the -Persians call it rhadinace; it is black and emits a strong odor. Here -king Darius settled the Eretrians; who, even to my time, occupied this -territory, retaining their ancient language. Two thousand of the -Lacedæmonians came to Athens after the full moon, making such haste to -be in time, that they arrived in Attica on the third day after leaving -Sparta. Too late for the battle, they, nevertheless, proceeded to -Marathon, saw the slain, commended the Athenians and their achievement, -and returned home. - -After the defeat of the Persians at Marathon, Miltiades, asked of the -Athenians seventy ships, and troops, and money, without telling them -what country he purposed to invade, but saying that he would make them -rich if they would follow him, for he would take them to a country, from -which they would easily bring an abundance of gold, and the Athenians, -elated by these hopes, granted the ships. Miltiades, accordingly took -the troops and sailed against Paros, alleging as a pretext, that the -Parians had first begun hostilities by sending a trireme with the -Persians to Marathon. But his real reason was that he had a grudge -against the Parians on account of Lysagoras, son of Tisias, who was a -Parian by birth and who had calumniated him to Hydarnes the Persian. -Miltiades arrived with his forces and besieged the Parians, who were -driven within their walls; and sent a herald to them to demand a hundred -talents, saying, that if they did not furnish him that sum, he would not -draw off his army until he had destroyed them. The Parians never -entertained the thought of giving Miltiades any money; but devised means -by which they might defend the city; and in several parts where the wall -was most exposed to attack, they raised it, during the night, to double -its former height. Up to this point of the story all the Greeks agree; -but after this the Parians themselves say that it happened as follows. -That when Miltiades was in a state of perplexity, a captive woman, by -birth a Parian, and named Timo, conferred with him; she was an inferior -priestess of the infernal goddesses. When she came into the presence of -Miltiades, she advised him, if he deemed it of great consequence to take -Paros, to act as she should suggest. Following out her suggestions he -came to the mound before the city and leaped over the fence of Ceres -Thesmophora, as he was unable to open the door; and went to the temple, -for the purpose either to move some of the things that may not be moved, -or to do something or other, I know not what. He was just at the door, -when suddenly a thrill of horror came over him, and he went back by the -same way; and in leaping over the fence his thigh was dislocated, or his -knee was hurt. Miltiades, in a bad plight, sailed back home, neither -bringing money to the Athenians, nor having reduced Paros, but having -besieged it for six and twenty days, and ravaged the island. When the -Parians were informed that Timo, the priestess of the goddesses, had -directed Miltiades, they desired to punish her, and sent deputies to the -oracle at Delphi, as soon as they were relieved from the siege, to -inquire whether they should put to death the priestess of the goddesses, -for having made known to the enemy the means of capturing the country, -and for having discovered to Miltiades sacred things, which ought not to -be revealed to the male sex. But the Pythian did not allow them, but -said, "that Timo was not to blame for this, but that it was fated -Miltiades should come to a miserable end, and she had appeared to him as -a guide to misfortune." When Miltiades returned from Paros, the -Athenians were loud in their complaints against him, especially -Xanthippus, son of Ariphron, who brought a capital charge against -Miltiades before the people, and prosecuted him for deception. -Miltiades, though present in person, made no defence, through inability, -as his thigh had begun to mortify. But while he lay on a couch his -friends made a defence for him, dwelling much on the battle that had -been fought at Marathon, and on the capture of Lemnos; since he had -taken Lemnos, and inflicted vengeance on the Pelasgians, and had given -it up to the Athenians. The people so far favored him as to acquit him -of the capital offence, but fined him fifty talents for the injury he -had done. Miltiades soon after ended his life by the mortification of -his thigh, and his son Cimon paid the fifty talents. - -[22] The Greek words, literally translated, mean "on a razor's edge." - -[23] There is very good reason to believe that this fine was really -imposed for the adoption of a modern theme by Phrynichus, when hitherto -only the gods and heroes had been permissible subjects. - -[24] The "Theoris" was a vessel which was sent every year to Delos to -offer sacrifice to Apollo. - -[25] Apollo and Diana. - - - - -_BOOK VII. POLYMNIA._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -DEATH OF DARIUS AND REIGN OF XERXES. - - -When the news of the battle fought at Marathon reached Darius, who was -before much exasperated with the Athenians on account of the attack upon -Sardis, he grew still more eager to prosecute the war against Greece. He -therefore immediately sent messengers to the several cities, and bade -them prepare an army much greater than they had furnished before, and -ships, horses, corn, and transports. Asia was thrown into agitation -during the space of three years, the bravest men being enrolled and -prepared for the purpose of invading Greece. In the fourth year the -Egyptians, who had been subdued by Cambyses, revolted from the Persians; -whereupon Darius only became the more eager to march against both. Just -then a violent dissension arose between the sons of Darius concerning -the sovereignty; for by the customs of the Persians he was obliged to -nominate his successor before he marched out on any expedition. Before -Darius became king, he had three sons born to him by his former wife, -the daughter of Gobryas; and after his accession to the throne, four -others by Atossa, daughter of Cyrus. Of the former, Artabazanes was the -eldest; of those born after, Xerxes: and these two, not being of the -same mother, were at variance. Artabazanes urged that he was the eldest -of all the sons, and that it was the established usage among all men -that the eldest son should succeed to the sovereignty: on the other -hand, Xerxes alleged that he was son of Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, and -that it was Cyrus who had acquired freedom for the Persians. At this -very juncture, when Darius had not yet declared his opinion, Demaratus, -son of Ariston, happened to come up to Susa, deprived of his kingly -office at Sparta, and having imposed on himself a voluntary exile from -Lacedæmon. This man went to Xerxes, as report has it, and advised him to -say in addition to what he had already said, that "he was born after his -father Darius had become king, and was possessed of the empire of the -Persians; whereas Artabazanes was born while he was yet a private -person; wherefore it was not reasonable or just that any other should -possess that dignity in preference to himself." "Since in Sparta also," -Demaratus continued to suggest, "this custom prevailed, that if some -children were born before their father became king, and one was born -subsequently, when he had come to the throne, this last-born son should -succeed to the kingdom." Darius acknowledged this point, and declared -Xerxes king. But it appears to me that even without this suggestion -Xerxes would have been made king, for Atossa had unbounded influence. So -Darius appointed Xerxes to be king over the Persians, and prepared to -march. But just at this juncture, and in the year after the revolt of -Egypt, Darius himself, while making preparations, died, having reigned -thirty-six years in all; nor was he able to avenge himself either on the -Egyptians, who had revolted, or on the Athenians; and when Darius was -dead, the kingdom devolved on his son Xerxes. - -Xerxes was at first by no means inclined to make war against Greece, but -he levied forces for the reduction of Egypt. Mardonius, son of Gobryas, -who was cousin to Xerxes, and son of Darius' sister, and who had the -greatest influence with him of all the Persians, constantly held the -following language: "Sire, it is not right that the Athenians, who have -already done so much mischief to the Persians, should go unpunished? -However, for the present, finish the enterprise you have in hand; and -when you have quelled the insolence of Egypt, lead your army against -Athens; that you may acquire a good reputation among men, and any one -for the future may be cautious of marching against your territory." This -language was used by him for the purpose of revenge, but he frequently -made the following addition to it, that "Europe was a very beautiful -country, and produced all kinds of cultivated trees,—and was very -fertile, and worthy to be possessed by the king alone of all mortals." -Mardonius was desirous of new enterprises, and wished to be himself -governor of Greece, and in time he persuaded Xerxes to do as he advised. -Xerxes, in the second year after the death of Darius, reduced all Egypt -to a worse state of servitude than ever under Darius, and committed the -government to Achæmenes, his brother. - -He then convoked an assembly of the principal Persians, that he might -hear their opinions, and make known his intentions to them all. "Men of -Persia," said Xerxes, "I learn from older men that we have never -remained inactive since we wrested the sovereign power from the Medes, -and Cyrus overthrew Astyages; but the deity has led the way, and we have -followed his guidance to our advantage. What deeds Cyrus and Cambyses -and my father Darius have achieved, and what nations they have added to -our empire, no one need mention to you who know them well. But since I -have succeeded to the throne, I have carefully considered how I may not -fall short of my predecessors in honor, nor acquire less additional -power to the Persians." - -"I have now called you together, that I may communicate to you what I -purpose to do. I intend to throw a bridge over the Hellespont, and to -march an army through Europe against Greece, that I may punish the -Athenians for the injuries they have done to the Persians and to my -father. You have already seen Darius preparing to make war against those -people; but he died, and had it not in his power to avenge himself. But -I, in his cause and that of the other Persians, will not rest till I -have taken and burnt Athens; for they began by doing acts of injustice -against my father and me. First they came to Sardis, with Aristagoras -the Milesian, our servant, and burnt down the groves and the temples. -You all know well enough how they treated us on our making a descent on -their territory, when Datis and Artaphernes led our forces. For these -reasons, therefore, I have resolved to make war upon them. And I am sure -that if we subdue them, and their neighbors, who inhabit the country of -Pelops the Phrygian, we shall make the Persian territory co-extensive -with the air of heaven, for the sun will not look down upon any land -that borders on ours. When I shall have informed you of the time, it -will be the duty of each of you to come promptly. And whosoever shall -appear with the best-appointed troops, to him I will give such presents -as are accounted most honorable in our country." - -After this, when Xerxes had resolved to undertake the expedition, a -vision appeared to him in his sleep, which the magi interpreted to -signify that all mankind should serve him. Xerxes imagined that he was -crowned with the sprig of an olive tree, whose branches covered the -whole earth; and that afterward the crown that was placed on his head -disappeared. After the magi had given this interpretation, all the -Persians who were assembled departed immediately to their own -governments, and used all diligence to execute what had been ordered, -every man hoping to obtain the proposed reward; Xerxes thus levied his -army, searching out every region of the continent. He was employed four -whole years in assembling his forces and providing things necessary for -the expedition. In the fifth he began his march with a vast multitude of -men. For this was by far the greatest of all the expeditions with which -we are acquainted. What nation did not Xerxes lead out of Asia against -Greece? what stream, except that of great rivers, did not his army drink -dry? Some supplied ships; others were ordered to furnish men for the -infantry, others cavalry, some transports for horses, together with men -to serve in the army; others had to furnish long ships for the bridges, -and others provisions and vessels. - -And first of all, as those who had first attempted to double Mount Athos -had met with disaster, preparations were made for nearly three years to -cut Athos off by a canal. Triremes were stationed at Eleus in the -Chersonese, and from there men of every nation from the army dug under -the lash. They went in succession; and the people who dwelt round Athos -dug also. Bubares, son of Megabazus, and Artachæus, son of Artæus, both -Persians, presided over the work. Athos is a vast and celebrated -mountain, stretching into the sea, and inhabited by men. Where the -mountain terminates toward the continent, it is in the form of a -peninsula connected with the continent by an isthmus of about twelve -stades; this is a plain with hills of no great height from the sea of -the Acanthians to the sea which is opposite Torone. On this isthmus -stands Sana, a Grecian city; and on Athos itself are the cities of Dion, -Olophyxus, Acrothoon, Thyssus, and Cleonæ. To make the excavation the -barbarians divided the ground among the several nations, having drawn a -straight line near the city of Sana. When the trench was deep, some -stood at the bottom and continued to dig, and others handed the soil -that was dug out to men who stood above on ladders; they again in turn -handed it to others, until they reached those that were at the top; the -last carried it off and threw it away. In the case of all, except the -Phœnicians, the brink of the excavation fell in and gave double labor, -for as they made the upper and the lower opening of equal dimensions, -this must necessarily happen. But the Phœnicians, who show their skill -in other works, did so especially in this; for they dug the portion that -fell to their share, making the upper opening of the trench twice as -large as it was necessary for the trench itself to be; and as the work -proceeded they contracted it gradually, so that when they came to the -bottom the work was equal in width to the rest; near adjoining is a -meadow, where they had a market and bazaar, and great abundance of meal -was brought to them from Asia. According to my deliberate opinion, -Xerxes ordered this excavation to be made from motives of ostentation, -wishing to display his power, and to leave a memorial of himself. For -though it was possible, without any great labor, to have drawn the ships -over the isthmus, he commanded them to dig a channel for the sea of such -a width that two triremes might pass through rowed abreast. And the same -persons, to whom the excavation was committed, were ordered also to -throw a bridge over the river Strymon. He also caused cables of papyrus -and of white flax to be prepared for the bridges, and ordered the -Phœnicians and Egyptians to lay up provisions for the army, that neither -the men nor the beasts of burden might suffer from famine on their march -toward Greece, conveying them to various quarters in merchant-ships and -transports from all parts of Asia. - -While these men were employed in their appointed task, the whole -land-forces marched with Xerxes to Sardis, setting out from Critalla in -Cappadocia, where it had been ordered that all the troops throughout the -continent should assemble. They crossed the river Halys, entered -Phrygia, and arrived at Celænæ, where rise the springs of the Mæander, -and of another river not less than the Mæander, which is called the -Catarractes, which, springing up in the very forum of the Celænians, -discharges itself into the Mæander; in this city the skin of Silenus -Marsyas is suspended, which, as the Phrygians report, was stripped off -and suspended by Apollo. In this city Pythius, son of Atys, a Lydian, -being in waiting, entertained the whole army of the king, and Xerxes -himself, with most sumptuous feasts; and he offered to contribute money -toward the expense of the war. Xerxes asked the Persians near him who -this Pythius was, and what riches he possessed, that he made such an -offer. They answered: "O king, this is the person who presented your -father Darius with the golden plane tree and the vine; and he is now the -richest man we know of in the world, next to yourself." Xerxes in -surprise next asked Pythius what was the amount of his wealth. He said: -"O king, as soon as I heard you were coming down to the Grecian sea, -wishing to present you with money for the war, I made inquiry, and found -by computation that I had two thousand talents of silver, and of gold -four millions of Doric staters, lacking seven thousand. These I freely -give you; for myself I have sufficient subsistence from my slaves and -lands." Xerxes, delighted with his offer, replied: "My Lydian friend, -since I left the Persian country I have met with no man to the present -moment who was willing to entertain my army, or who, having come into my -presence, has voluntarily offered to contribute money toward the war. -But you have entertained my army magnificently, and have offered me vast -sums; in return for this, I make you my friend. Keep what you have -acquired, and I will myself make up to you the seven thousand staters -which you lack of four millions. Be careful always to continue such as -you are, and you shall never repent hereafter." - -[Illustration: TRIPOLITZA.] - -From Phrygia he entered Lydia, crossed the river Mæander, and passed by -the city of Callatebus, in which confectioners make honey with tamarisk -and wheat. Xerxes, by the way, met with a plane-tree, which, on account -of its beauty, he presented with golden ornaments, and having committed -it to the care of one of the Immortals,[26] on the next day he arrived -at Sardis, the capital of the Lydians. - -In the meanwhile those who were appointed had joined the Hellespont from -Asia to Europe. There is in the Chersonese on the Hellespont, between -the city of Sestos and Madytus, a craggy shore extending into the sea, -directly opposite Abydos. From this shore to Abydos, they had -constructed two bridges, the Phœnicians one with white flax, and the -Egyptians the other with papyrus. The distance is seven stades. When the -strait was thus united, a violent storm arose and broke in pieces and -scattered the whole work. When Xerxes heard of this, exceedingly -indignant, he commanded that the Hellespont should be stricken with -three hundred lashes with a scourge, and that a pair of fetters should -be let down into the sea. I have moreover heard that with them he -likewise sent branding instruments to brand the Hellespont. He certainly -charged those who flogged the waters to utter these barbarous and -impious words: "Thou bitter water! thy master inflicts this punishment -upon thee, because thou hast injured him, although thou hadst not -suffered any harm from him. And king Xerxes will cross over thee, -whether thou wilt or not; it is with justice that no man sacrifices to -thee, because thou art both a deceitful and briny river!" He accordingly -commanded them to chastise the sea in this manner, and to cut off the -heads of those who had to superintend the joining of the Hellespont. -They on whom this thankless office was imposed, carried it into -execution; and other engineers constructed bridges in the following -manner. They connected together penteconters and triremes, under the -bridge toward the Euxine sea, three hundred and sixty; and under the -other, three hundred and fourteen, obliquely to the Pontus, but in the -direction of the current of the Hellespont, that it might keep up the -tension of the cables. They then let down very long anchors, some on the -bridge toward the Pontus, on account of the winds that blew from it -within; others on the other bridge toward the west and the Ægean, on -account of the south and southeast winds. They left an opening as a -passage through between the penteconters, in three places, that any one -who wished might be able to sail into the Pontus in light vessels, and -from the Pontus outward. Having done this, they stretched the cables -from the shore, twisting them with wooden capstans, not as before using -the two kinds separately, but assigning to each two of white flax and -four of papyrus. The thickness and quality was the same, but those of -flax were stronger in proportion, every cubit weighing a full talent. -When the passage was bridged over, they sawed up trunks of trees, equal -in length to the width of the bridge, and laid them upon the extended -cables in regular order, fastening them securely together. They put -brush-wood on the top, and earth over the whole; and having pressed down -the earth, they drew a fence on each side, that the beasts of burden and -horses might not be frightened by looking down upon the sea. - -At last the works at the bridges and Mount Athos were completed, as well -as the mounds at the mouths of the canal which had been made on account -of the tide in order that the mouths of the trench might not be choked -up. News was brought that all was ready, and the army, fresh from their -winter at Sardis, set out fully prepared at the beginning of the spring -toward Abydos. But just as they were on the point of starting, the sun -quit his seat in the heavens and disappeared, though there were no -clouds, and the air was perfectly serene, and night ensued in the place -of day. This occasioned Xerxes much uneasiness; but the magi said "The -deity foreshows to the Greeks the extinction of their cities; the sun is -the portender of the future to the Greeks, and the moon to the -Persians." Xerxes, at this, was much delighted, and set out upon his -march. As he was leading his army away, Pythius the Lydian, terrified by -the prodigy in the heavens, and emboldened by the gifts of Xerxes, went -to the king and spoke thus: "Sire, would you indulge me by granting a -boon I wish to obtain, which is easy for you to grant, and of much -importance to me." Xerxes, expecting that he would wish for anything -rather than what he did ask, said that he would grant his request, and -bade him declare what he wanted. "Sire," said he, "I have five sons; and -it happens that they are all attending you in the expedition against -Greece. But pity me, O king, who am advanced in years, and release one -of my sons from the service, that he may take care of me and my -property. Take the other four with you, accomplish your designs, and -return home." Xerxes was highly incensed, and answered: "Base man! hast -thou dared, when I am marching in person against Greece, and taking with -me my children, and brothers, and kinsmen, and friends to make mention -of thy son? thou who art my slave, and who wert bound in duty to follow -me with all thy family, even with thy wife. But I promise to grant your -request; I will leave your dearest son." When he had given this answer, -he immediately commanded to find out the eldest of the sons of Pythius, -and to cut his body into two halves, and to stand one on the right of -the road, and the other on the left, while the army should pass between -them. - -This done the army passed between. The baggage-bearers and beasts of -burden first led the way; after them came a host of all nations. When -more than one half of the army had passed, an interval was left that -they might not mix with the king's troops. Before him a thousand -horsemen led the van, chosen from among all the Persians; and next to -them a thousand spearmen, these also chosen from among all, carrying -their lances turned downwards to the earth. After these, ten immense -sacred horses, gorgeously caparisoned, called Nisæan, from the plain in -the Medic territory, which produces them; then came the sacred chariot -of Jupiter, drawn by eight white horses, followed by a charioteer on -foot, holding the reins; for no mortal ever ascends this seat. Behind -this came Xerxes himself on a chariot drawn by Nisæan horses; and a -charioteer walked at his side, whose name was Patiramphes. In this -manner Xerxes marched out of Sardis, and whenever he thought right, he -used to pass from the chariot to a covered carriage. Behind him marched -a thousand spearmen, the bravest and noblest of the Persians, carrying -their spears in the usual manner; and after them another body of a -thousand horse, chosen from among the Persians; then ten thousand chosen -Persian infantry. Of these, one thousand had golden pomegranates on -their spears instead of ferrules, and they enclosed the others all -round; the nine thousand within had silver pomegranates. Those also that -carried their spears turned to the earth had golden pomegranates, and -those that followed nearest to Xerxes had golden apples. Behind the ten -thousand foot were placed ten thousand Persian cavalry; and after the -cavalry was left an interval of two stades; then the rest of the throng -followed promiscuously. - -Once when the army halted during the night under Mount Ida, thunder and -lightning fell upon them, and destroyed a considerable number of the -troops on the spot. At the Scamander, the first river on their march -from Sardis, the stream failed and did not afford sufficient drink for -the army and beasts of burden. Here Xerxes went up to the Pergamus or -citadel of Priam, and sacrificed a thousand oxen to the Ilian Minerva, -and the magi poured out libations in honor of the heroes of the Trojan -War. At Abydos, Xerxes wished to behold the whole army. And there had -been previously erected on a hill at this place, for his use, a lofty -throne of white marble; the people of Abydos had made it, in obedience -to an order of the king. Seated there, he beheld both the land army and -the fleet; he desired also to see a contest take place between the -ships, in which the Sidonian Phœnicians were victorious. Exceedingly -gratified he was, both with the contest and the army. But while he was -viewing the whole Hellespont covered by the ships, and all the shores -and the plains of Abydos full of men, he suddenly burst into tears. -Artabanus, his paternal uncle, observed him, and exclaimed: "O king, a -moment ago you pronounced yourself happy, but now you weep." "Alas," he -answered: "Commiseration seized me, when I considered how brief all -human life is, since of these, numerous as they are, not one will be -alive in a hundred years!" - -That day they made preparations for the passage over; and on the -following they waited for the sun, as they wished to see it rising, in -the mean time burning all sorts of perfumes on the bridges, and strewing -the road with myrtle branches. When the sun rose, Xerxes poured a -libation into the sea out of a golden cup, and offered up a prayer to -the sun, that no such accident might befall him as would prevent him -from subduing Europe, until he had reached its utmost limits. After the -prayer, he threw the cup into the Hellespont, and a golden bowl, and a -Persian sword, which they call acinace. But I cannot determine with -certainty, whether he dropped these things into the sea as an offering -to the sun, or whether he repented of having scourged the Hellespont, -and presented these gifts to the sea as a compensation. These ceremonies -finished, the infantry and all the cavalry crossed over by that bridge -which was toward the Pontus; and the beasts of burden and the attendants -by that toward the Ægean. I have heard that Xerxes crossed over last of -all. In seven days and seven nights without a halt his army crossed. On -this occasion it is related, that when Xerxes had crossed over the -Hellespont, a certain Hellespontine said: "O Jupiter, why, assuming the -form of a Persian, and taking the name of Xerxes, do you wish to subvert -Greece, bringing all mankind with you? since without them it was in your -power to do this." - -[Illustration: THE TOMB OF JONAH, KONYUNJIK, AND THE RUINS OPPOSITE -MOSUL.] - -Doriscus is a shore and extensive plain of Thrace. Through it flows a -large river, the Hebrus. A royal fort had been built, and a Persian -garrison had been established in it by Darius, from the time that he -marched against the Scythians. At Doriscus Xerxes numbered his army. The -whole land forces were found to be seventeen hundred thousand. They were -computed in this manner: having drawn together ten thousand men in one -place, and crowded them as close together as it was possible, they -traced a circle on the outside; removed the ten thousand, threw up a -stone fence on the circle, a yard high, and made others enter within the -enclosed space, until they had in this manner computed all. - -The Persians were equipped as follows: On their heads they wore loose -coverings, called tiaras; on the body various-colored sleeved -breastplates, with iron scales like those of fish; and on their legs, -loose trousers; instead of shields they had bucklers made of osiers; and -under them their quivers were hung. They had short spears, long bows, -and arrows made of cane, besides daggers suspended from the girdle on -the right thigh. They had for their general, Otanes, father of Amestris, -wife of Xerxes. They were formerly called Cephenes by the Grecians, but -by themselves and neighbors, Artæans. But when Perseus, son of Danae and -Jupiter, came to Cepheus, son of Belus, and married his daughter -Andromeda, he had a son to whom he gave the name of Perses; and from him -they derived their appellation. The Medes marched equipped in the same -manner as the Persians; for the above is a Medic and not a Persian -costume. The Medes had for their general, Tigranes, of the family of the -Achæmenidæ: they were formerly called Arians by all nations; but when -Medea of Colchis came from Athens to these Arians, they also changed -their names. The Assyrians who served in the army had helmets of bronze, -twisted in a barbarous fashion, not easy to describe; and shields and -spears, with daggers similar to those of the Egyptians, besides wooden -clubs knotted with iron, and linen cuirasses. By the Greeks they were -called Syrians, but by the barbarians, Assyrians. Among them were the -Chaldeans; and Otaspes, son of Artachæus commanded them. The Bactrians -had turbans on their heads, very much like those of the Medes, and bows -made of cane peculiar to their country, and short spears. The Sacæ, who -are Scythians, had on their heads caps, which came to a point and stood -erect: they also wore loose trousers, and carried bows peculiar to their -country, and daggers, and also battle-axes, called sagares. The Indians, -clad with garments made of cotton, had bows of cane, and arrows of cane -tipped with iron. - -The Arabians wore cloaks fastened by a girdle; and carried on their -right sides long bows which bent backward. The Ethiopians were clothed -in panthers' and lions' skins, and carried long bows, not less than four -cubits in length, made from branches of the palm-tree; and on them they -placed short arrows made of cane, instead of iron, tipped with a stone, -which was made sharp, and of the sort on which they engrave seals. -Besides, they had javelins, and at the tip was an antelope's horn, made -sharp, like a lance; they had also knotted clubs. When they were going -to battle, they smeared one half of their body with chalk, and the other -half with red ochre. The Arabians and Ethiopians who dwell above Egypt -were commanded by Arsames, son of Darius and Artystone, daughter of -Cyrus, whom Darius loved more than all his wives, and whose image he had -made of beaten gold. The Ethiopians from the sun-rise (for two kinds -served in the expedition) were marshalled with the Indians, and did not -at all differ from the others in appearance, except in their language -and their hair. For the eastern Ethiopians are straight-haired; but -those of Libya have hair more curly than that of any other people. These -Ethiopians from Asia were accoutred almost the same as the Indians; but -they wore on their heads skins of horses' heads, as masks, stripped off -with the ears and mane; and the mane served instead of a crest, and the -horses' ears were fixed erect; and as defensive armor they used the -skins of cranes instead of shields. The Libyans marched, clad in -leathern garments, and made use of javelins hardened by fire. They had -for their general, Massages, son of Oarizus. The Paphlagonians joined -the expedition, wearing on their heads plated helmets, and carried small -shields, and not large spears, besides javelins and daggers: and on -their feet they wore boots, peculiar to their country, reaching up to -the middle of the leg. The Thracians wore fox-skins on their heads, and -tunics around their bodies, and over them they were clothed with -various-colored cloaks, and on their feet and legs they had buskins of -fawn-skin, and carried javelins, light bucklers, and small daggers. -These people having crossed over into Asia, were called Bithynians; but -formerly, as they themselves say, were called Strymonians, as they dwelt -on the river Strymon. - -These, with very many others, were the nations that marched on the -continent and composed the infantry. Over these and the whole infantry -was appointed as general, Mardonius, son of Gobryas. But of the ten -thousand chosen Persians, Hydarnes was general. These Persians were -called Immortal, for the following reason: If any one of them made a -deficiency in the number, compelled either by death or disease, another -was ready chosen to supply his place; so that they were never either -more or less than ten thousand. The Persians displayed the greatest -splendor of all, and were also the bravest; their equipment was such as -has been described; but besides this, they were conspicuous from having -a great profusion of gold. They also brought with them covered chariots -and a numerous and well-equipped train of attendants. Camels and other -beasts of burden conveyed their provisions, apart from that of the rest -of the soldiers. - -[Illustration: BRIDGE OVER THE GORTYNIUS.] - -All these nations have cavalry; they did not, however, all furnish -horse, but only the following. First, the Persians, equipped in the same -manner as their infantry, except that on their heads some of them wore -bronze and wrought-steel ornaments. There is a certain nomadic race, -called Sagartians, of Persian extraction and language, who wear a dress -fashioned between the Persian and the Pactyan fashion; they furnished -eight thousand horse, but they are not accustomed to carry arms either -of bronze or iron, except daggers: they use lassos made of twisted -thongs. The mode of fighting of these men is as follows: When they -engage with the enemy they throw out the ropes, which have nooses at the -end, and whatever any one catches, whether horse or man, he drags toward -himself; and they that are entangled in the coils are put to death. The -Arabians had the same dress as their infantry, but all rode camels not -inferior to horses in speed. The number of the horse amounted to eighty -thousand, besides the camels and chariots. All the rest of the cavalry -were marshalled in troops; but the Arabians were stationed in the rear, -as horses cannot endure camels. Armamithres and Tithæus, sons of Datis, -were generals of the cavalry. Their third colleague in command, -Pharnuches, had been left at Sardis sick. For as they were setting out -from Sardis he met with a sad accident. When he was mounted, a dog ran -under the legs of his horse, and the horse, frightened, reared and threw -Pharnuches, who vomited blood, and the disease turned to a consumption. -With respect to the horse, his servants immediately led him to the place -where he had thrown his master, and cut off his legs at the knees. - -The number of the triremes amounted to twelve hundred and seven. - -Persians, Medes, and Sacæ served as marines on board all the ships. Of -these the Phœnicians furnished the best sailing ships, and of the -Phœnicians the Sidonians. The admirals of the navy were: Ariabignes, son -of Darius; Prexaspes, son of Aspathines; Megabazus son of Megabates; and -Achæmenes, son of Darius. Of the other captains I make no mention, as I -deem it unnecessary, except of Artemisia, whom I most admire, as having, -though a woman, joined this expedition against Greece. Her husband was -dead, but, holding the sovereignty while her son was under age, she -joined the expedition from a feeling of courage and manly spirit, though -there was no necessity for her doing so. Her name was Artemisia, and she -was the daughter of Lygdamis, by birth of Halicarnassus on her father's -side, and on her mother's a Cretan. She commanded the Halicarnassians, -the Coans, the Nisyrians, and the Calyndians, having contributed five -ships: and of the whole fleet, next to the Sidonians, she furnished the -most renowned ships, and of all the allies, gave the best advice to the -king. The cities which I have mentioned as being under her command, I -pronounce to be all of Doric origin; the Halicarnassians being -Trœzenians, and the rest Epidaurians. - -When Xerxes had numbered his forces, and the army was drawn up he -desired to pass through and inspect them in person. Accordingly he drove -through in a chariot, by each separate nation, made inquiries, and his -secretaries wrote down the answers; until he had gone from one extremity -to the other, both of the horse and foot. When he had finished this, and -the ships had been launched into the sea, Xerxes, in a Sidonian ship, -under a gilded canopy, sailed by the prows of the ships, asking -questions of each, as he had done with the land-forces, and having the -answers written down. - -When Xerxes arrived at Therma, he ordered his army to halt. And seeing -from Therma the Thessalonian mountains, Olympus and Ossa, which are of -vast size, and having learnt that there was a narrow pass between them, -through which the river Peneus runs, and hearing that at that spot there -was a road leading to Thessaly, very much wished to sail and see the -mouth of the Peneus. When Xerxes arrived, and beheld its mouth, he was -struck with great astonishment. For several rivers, five of them greatly -noted, the Peneus, the Apidanus, the Onochonus, the Enipeus, and the -Pamisus, meeting together in this plain from the mountains that enclose -Thessaly, discharge themselves into the sea through one channel, and -that a narrow one; but as soon as they have mingled together, from that -spot the names of the other rivers merge in that of the Peneus.[27] The -Thessalians say, that Neptune made the pass through which the Peneus -flows; and their story is probable. For whoever thinks that Neptune -shakes the earth, and that rents occasioned by earthquakes are the works -of this god, on seeing this, would say that Neptune formed it. For it -appears evident to me, that the separation of these mountains is the -effect of an earthquake. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -BATTLE OF THERMOPYLÆ. - - -When the Greeks arrived at the Isthmus they consulted in what way and in -what places they should prosecute the war. The opinion which prevailed -was that they should defend the pass at Thermopylæ; for it appeared to -be narrower than that into Thessaly, and at the same time nearer to -their own territories. On the western side of Thermopylæ is an -inaccessible and precipitous mountain, stretching to Mount Œta; and on -the eastern side of the way is the sea and a morass. In this passage -there are hot baths, which the inhabitants call Chytri, and above these -is an altar to Hercules. A wall had been built in this pass, and -formerly there were gates in it. The Phocians built it through fear, -when the Thessalians came from Thesprotia to settle in the Æolian -territory which they now possess, apprehending that the Thessalians -would attempt to subdue them; at the same time they diverted the hot -water into the entrance, that the place might be broken into clefts; -having recourse to every contrivance to prevent the Thessalians from -making inroads into their country. Now this old wall had been built a -long time, and the greater part of it had already fallen through age; -but they determined to rebuild it, and in that place to repel the -barbarian from Greece. Very near this road there is a village called -Alpeni, from which they expected to obtain provisions. - -[Illustration: CYCLOPEAN WALLS AT CEPHALLOMA.] - -The naval forces of Xerxes, setting out from the city of Therma, -advanced with ten of the fastest sailing ships straight to Scyathus, -where were three Greek ships keeping a look-out, a Trœzenian an -Æginetan, and an Athenian. These, seeing the ships of the barbarians at -a distance, betook themselves to flight. The Trœzenian ship, which -Praxinus commanded, the barbarians pursued and soon captured; and then, -having led the handsomest of the marines to the prow of the ship, they -slew him, deeming it a good omen that the first Greek they had taken was -also very handsome. The name of the man that was slain was Leon, and -perhaps he in some measure reaped the fruits of his name. The Æginetan -ship, which Asonides commanded, gave them some trouble, Pytheas, son of -Ischenous, being a marine on board, a man who on this day displayed the -most consummate valor; who, when the ship was taken, continued fighting -until he was almost cut to pieces. But when they found that he was not -dead, but still breathed, the Persians who served on board the ships -were very anxious to save him alive, on account of his valor, healing -his wounds with myrrh, and binding them with bandages of flaxen cloth. -And when they returned to their own camp, they showed him with -admiration to the whole army, and treated him well; but the others, whom -they took in this ship, they treated as slaves. Thus, two of the ships -were taken; but the third, which Phormus, an Athenian, commanded, in its -flight ran ashore at the mouth of the Peneus; and the barbarians got -possession of the ship, but not of the men: for as soon as the Athenians -had run the ship aground, they leaped out, and, proceeding through -Thessaly, reached Athens. The Greeks who were stationed at Artemisium -were informed of this event by signal-fires from Scyathus. - -As far as Thermopylæ, the army of Xerxes had suffered no loss, and the -numbers were at that time, as I find by calculation of those in ships -from Asia, a total of five hundred and seventeen thousand six hundred -and ten. Of infantry there were seventeen hundred thousand, and of -cavalry eighty thousand; to these I add the Arabians who rode camels, -and the Libyans who drove chariots, reckoning the number of twenty -thousand men. Accordingly, the numbers on board the ships and on the -land added together, make up two millions three hundred and seventeen -thousand six hundred and ten, exclusive of the servants that followed, -and the provision ships, and the men that were on board them. But the -force brought from Europe must still be added to this whole number, of -which I suppose that there were three hundred thousand men. So that -these myriads added to those from Asia, make a total of two millions six -hundred and forty one thousand six hundred and ten fighting men. I think -that the servants who followed them, together with those on board the -provision ships and other vessels that sailed with the fleet, were not -fewer than the fighting men, probably more numerous; but supposing them -to be equal in number with the fighting men, Xerxes, son of Darius, led -five millions two hundred and eighty-three thousand two hundred and -twenty men to Thermopylæ. This, then, was the number of the whole force -of Xerxes. But the number of women who made bread, wives of officers, -and servants, no one could mention with accuracy; nor of draught-cattle -and other beasts of burden; nor of Indian dogs that followed. I am not -astonished that the streams of some rivers failed; rather is it a wonder -to me how the provisions held out for so many myriads. For I find by -calculation, if each man had a chœnix of wheat daily, and no more, one -hundred and ten thousand three hundred and forty medimni must have been -consumed every day; and I have not reckoned the food for the women, -beasts of burden, and dogs. But, of so many myriads of men, not one of -them, for beauty and stature, was more entitled than Xerxes himself to -possess this power. - -[Illustration: ISLAND AND CASTLE OF CORFU.] - -The Greeks who awaited the Persian at Thermopylæ were: of Spartans three -hundred heavy-armed men; of Tegeans and Mantineans one thousand, half of -each; from Orchomenus in Arcadia one hundred and twenty; and from the -rest of Arcadia one thousand; from Corinth four hundred; from Phlius two -hundred men, and from Mycenæ eighty. These came from Peloponnesus. From -Bœotia, of Thespians seven hundred, and of Thebans four hundred. In -addition to these, the Opuntian Locrians, being invited, came with all -their forces, and a thousand Phocians. These nations had separate -generals for their several cities; but the one most admired, and who -commanded the whole army, was a Lacedæmonian, Leonidas, son of -Anaxandrides, and a descendant of Hercules, who had unexpectedly -succeeded to the throne of Sparta. For as he had two elder brothers, -Cleomenes and Dorieus, he was far from any thought of the kingdom. -However, Cleomenes and Dorieus both died, and the kingdom thus devolved -upon Leonidas. He had chosen the three hundred men allowed by law, and -marched to Thermopylæ. - -When the Persian came near the pass, the Greeks, alarmed, consulted -about a retreat, and it seemed best to the other Peloponnesians to -retire to Peloponnesus, and guard the Isthmus; but Leonidas, perceiving -the Phocians and Locrians very indignant at this proposition, determined -to stay there, and to despatch messengers to the cities, desiring them -to come to their assistance, as being too few to repel the army of the -Medes. Meantime Xerxes sent a scout on horseback, to see how many they -were, and what they were doing. For while he was still in Thessaly, he -had heard that a small army had been assembled at that spot, whose -leader was Leonidas, of the race of Hercules. When the horseman rode up -to the camp, he reconnoitred, and saw not indeed the whole camp, for it -was not possible that they should be seen who were posted within the -wall, but he had a clear view of those on the outside, whose arms were -piled in front of the wall. At this some of the Lacedæmonians were -performing gymnastic exercises, and others combing their hair. On -beholding this he was astonished, but having ascertained their number, -he rode back at his leisure, for no one pursued him, and he met with -general contempt. On his return he gave an account to Xerxes of all that -he had seen, who could not comprehend the truth, that the Greeks were -preparing to be slain and to slay to the utmost of their power. - -Xerxes let five days pass, constantly expecting that they would betake -themselves to flight. But on the fifth day, as they had not retreated, -but appeared to him to stay through arrogance and rashness, in rage he -sent the Medes and Cissians against them, with orders to take them -alive, and bring them into his presence. When the Medes bore down -impetuously upon the Greeks, many of them fell; others followed to the -charge, and were not repulsed, though they suffered greatly. But they -made it evident to every one, and not least of all to the king himself, -that they were indeed many men, but few soldiers. The engagement lasted -through the day. The Medes, roughly handled, retired; and the Persians -whom the king called "Immortal," and whom Hydarnes commanded, took their -place and advanced to the attack, thinking that they indeed should -easily settle the business. But they succeeded no better than the Medic -troops, but just the same, as they fought in a narrow space, and used -shorter spears than the Greeks, and were unable to avail themselves of -their numbers. The Lacedæmonians fought memorably, showing that they -knew how to fight with men who knew not, and whenever they turned their -backs, they retreated in close order; but the barbarians seeing them -retreat, followed with a shout and clamor; then they, being overtaken, -wheeled round so as to front the barbarians and overthrew an -inconceivable number of the Persians; and then some few of the Spartans -themselves fell. So that when the Persians were unable to gain any thing -in their attempt on the pass, by attacking in troops and in every -possible manner, they retired. It is said that during these onsets of -the battle, the king, who witnessed them, thrice sprang from his throne, -being alarmed for his army. On the following day the barbarians fought -with no better success; for considering that the Greeks were few in -number, and expecting that they were covered with wounds, and would not -be able to raise their heads against them any more, they renewed the -contest. But the Greeks were marshalled in companies and according to -their several nations, and each fought in turn, except the Phocians, who -were stationed at the mountain to guard the pathway. Again the Persians -failed and retired. - -While the king was in doubt what course to take, Ephialtes, son of -Eurydemus, a Malian, obtained an audience of him, expecting that he -should receive a great reward from the king, and informed him of the -path which leads over the mountain to Thermopylæ; and by that means -caused the destruction of those Greeks who were stationed there. -Afterwards, fearing the Lacedæmonians, he fled to Thessaly, and a price -was set on his head by the Pylagori, when the Amphictyons were assembled -at Pylæ. But some time after, he went down to Anticyra, and was killed -by Athenades, a Trachinian. This Athenades killed him for another -reason, which I shall mention in a subsequent part of my history;[28] he -was however rewarded none the less by the Lacedæmonians. Xerxes, -exceedingly delighted with what Ephialtes promised to perform, -immediately despatched Hydarnes with his troops from the camp about the -hour of lamp-lighting. - -All night long the Persians marched, and at dawn reached the summit of -the mountain. Here, as I have already mentioned, a thousand heavy-armed -Phocians kept guard, to defend their own country, and to secure the -pathway. The whole mountain was covered with oaks; there was a perfect -calm, and as a considerable rustling took place from the leaves strewn -under foot, the Phocians sprang up and put on their arms, just as the -barbarians made their appearance. Hit by many thick-falling arrows, the -Phocians fled to the summit of the mountain, prepared to perish. But the -Persians took no further notice of the Phocians, but marched down the -mountain with all speed. - -[Illustration: BRIDGE AT CORFU.] - -To the Greeks at Thermopylæ, the augur Megistias, having inspected the -sacrifices, first made known the death that would befall them in the -morning; certain deserters afterwards came and brought intelligence of -the circuit the Persians were taking while it was yet night; and, -thirdly, the scouts running down from the heights, as soon as day -dawned, brought the same intelligence. It had been announced to the -Spartans, by the oracle of Apollo, when they went to consult concerning -this war, "that either Lacedæmon must be overthrown by the barbarians, -or their king perish." This answer the prophetess gave in hexameter -verses to this effect: - - "Hear me, ye men of spacious Lacedæmon! - Either your glorious town must be destroyed, - By the fell hand of warriors sprung from Perseus, - Or else the confines of fair Lacedæmon - Must mourn a king of Heracleidan race, - For all the strength of lions or of bulls - Is nought to him who has the strength of Zeus; - And never shall that monarch be restrained - Until he takes your city or your king." - -Xerxes poured out libations at sun-rise, waited a short time, and began -his attack about the time of full market, as he had been instructed by -Ephialtes. The Greeks with Leonidas, marching out as if for certain -death, now advanced much farther than before into the wide part of the -defile. For the fortification of the wall had protected them, on the -preceding day, in the narrow part. But now engaging outside the narrows, -great numbers of the barbarians fell. The officers of the companies from -behind, with scourges, flogged every man, constantly urging them -forward, so that many of them falling into the sea, perished, and many -more were trampled alive under foot by one another; and no regard was -paid to any that perished. The Greeks, knowing that death awaited them -at the hands of those who were going round the mountain, were desperate, -and regardless of their own lives, displayed the utmost possible valor -against the barbarians. Already were most of their javelins broken, and -they had begun to despatch the Persians with their swords. In this part -of the struggle fell Leonidas, fighting valiantly, and with him other -eminent Spartans, whose names, seeing they were deserving men, I have -ascertained; indeed I have ascertained the names of the whole three -hundred. On the side of the Persians, also, many other eminent men fell -on this occasion, amongst them two sons of Darius, Abrocomes and -Hyperanthes, fighting for the body of Leonidas; and there was a violent -struggle between the Persians and Lacedæmonians, until at last the -Greeks rescued it by their valor, and four times repulsed the enemy. -Thus the contest continued until the Greeks heard that those with -Ephialtes were approaching. Then they retreated to the narrow part of -the way, and, passing beyond the wall, came and took up their position -on the rising ground, all in a compact body, with the exception of the -Thebans: the rising ground is at the entrance where the stone lion now -stands to the memory of Leonidas. On this spot they defended themselves, -first with their swords, then with their hands and teeth, until the -barbarians overwhelmed them with missiles in front, and from above, and -on every side. - -[Illustration: PLAINS OF ARGOS.] - -Dieneces, a Spartan, is said to have been the bravest man. They relate -that before the engagement with the Medes, having heard a Trachinian -say, that when the barbarians let fly their arrows, they would obscure -the sun by the multitude of their shafts, so great were their numbers, -he replied, not at all alarmed: "That's good; we shall have the -pleasure, then, of fighting in the shade." In honor of the slain, who -were buried on the spot where they fell, and of those who died before, -these inscriptions have been engraved upon stones above them; the first: - - "From Peloponnesus came four thousand men; - And on this spot fought with three hundred myriads." - -The second was in honor of the three hundred Spartans: - - "Go, stranger! tell the Lacedæmonians, here - We lie, obedient to their stern commands!" - -An engraved monument was also erected to Megistias the augur, by his -friend Simonides, and was as follows: - - "The monument of famed Megistias,— - Slain by the Medes what time they passed the Sperchius; - A seer, who though he knew impending fate, - Would not desert the gallant chiefs of Sparta." - -Two of these three hundred, Eurytus and Aristodemus, had been dismissed -from the camp by Leonidas, and were lying at Alpeni desperately -afflicted with a disease of the eyes. But when Eurytus heard of the -circuit made by the Persians, he called for his arms and ordered his -helot to lead him to the combatants; and, while the slave in terror ran -away, his brave half-blind master rushed into the midst of the throng -and perished; but Aristodemus, failing in courage, was left behind. Now -if it had happened that Aristodemus had returned sick to Sparta, or if -both had gone home together, in my opinion the Spartans would not have -shown any anger against them. But since one of them perished, and the -other, who had only the same excuse, refused to die, they must needs get -exceedingly angry with Aristodemus. On his return to Lacedæmon he was -met with insults and infamy. Not one of the Spartans would either give -him fire or converse with him: and he was jeered and hooted at by the -boys who called him "Aristodemus the coward." However, in the battle of -Platæa he removed all the disgrace that attached to him, for he earned -the title of the bravest of the Spartans, and recklessly lost his life. -Xerxes after the massacre passed through among the dead; and having -heard that Leonidas was king and general of the Lacedæmonians, he -commanded them to cut off his head, and fix it upon a pole. It is clear -to me from many other proofs, and not least of all from this, that king -Xerxes was more highly incensed against Leonidas during his life, than -against any other man; for otherwise he would never have violated the -respect due to his dead body; since the Persians, most of all men with -whom I am acquainted, are wont to honor men who are brave in war. - -[26] One of the ten thousand chosen men called Immortals, of whom we -shall hear more hereafter. - -[23] Literally, "the river Peneus gaining the victory as to the name, -causes the others to be nameless." - -[28] The promised account is no where given in any extant writings of -the historian. - - - - -_BOOK VIII. URANIA._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE INVASION OF ATTICA AND THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS. - - -The Greek fleet from Artemisium put in at Salamis at the request of the -Athenians, who wished to remove their children and wives out of Attica, -and consult what measures were to be taken. The Athenians caused -proclamation to be made, "that every one should save his children and -family by the best means he could." Thereupon the greatest part sent -away their families to Trœzen, some to Ægina, and others to Salamis. -They used all diligence to remove them to a place of safety, from a -desire to obey the oracle, but more particularly for the following -reason. The Athenians say that a large serpent used to live in the -temple as a guard to the Acropolis; they used to do it honor by placing -before it its monthly food, consisting of a honey-cake: this honey-cake -in former time had always been consumed, but now it remained untouched. -When the priestess made this known, the Athenians, with more readiness, -abandoned the city, since even the goddess had forsaken the Acropolis. -As soon as every thing had been deposited in a place of safety, they -sailed to the encampment. Many more ships were assembled together than -had fought at Artemisium, and from a greater number of cities. The same -admiral commanded them as at Artemisium, Eurybiades, son of Euryclides, -a Spartan, though he was not of the royal family. The Athenians, -however, furnished by far the most and the best sailing ships. The whole -number of ships besides the penteconters, amounted to three hundred and -seventy-eight. - -When the leaders from the various cities met together at Salamis, they -held a council, in which Eurybiades proposed that any one who chose -should deliver his opinion, where he thought it would be most -advantageous to come to an engagement by sea, of all the places of which -they were still in possession: for Attica was already given up. Most of -the opinions of those who spoke coincided, that they should sail to the -Isthmus, and fight before Peloponnesus; alleging this reason, that if -they should be conquered by sea while they were at Salamis, they would -be besieged in the island, where no succor could reach them; but if at -the Isthmus, they might escape to their own cities. - -[Illustration: ANCIENT GREEK WALLS RESTORED.] - -While the commanders from Peloponnesus were debating these matters, an -Athenian arrived with intelligence, that the barbarian had entered -Attica, and was devastating the whole of it by fire. The army with -Xerxes were thus three months en route from the passage over the -Hellespont, till they arrived at Athens. They took the city, deserted of -inhabitants, but found a few of the Athenians in the temple, with the -treasurers of the temple and some poor people; who, having fortified the -Acropolis with planks and stakes, tried to keep off the invaders: they -had not withdrawn to Salamis, partly through want of means, and moreover -they thought they had found out the meaning of the oracle which the -Pythian delivered to them, that the wooden wall "should be impregnable"; -imagining, that this was the refuge according to the oracle, and not the -ships. The Persians, posting themselves on the hill opposite the -Acropolis, which the Athenians call the Areopagus, wrapped tow round -their arrows, and setting fire to it, shot them at the fence. But those -Athenians who were besieged, still defended themselves, though driven to -the last extremity, and the fence had failed them; nor, when the -Pisistratidæ proposed them, would they listen to terms of capitulation; -but still defending themselves, they contrived other means of defence, -and when the barbarians approached the gates, they hurled down large -round stones; so that Xerxes was for a long time kept in perplexity, not -being able to capture them. At length, in the midst of these -difficulties, an entrance was discovered by the barbarians; for it was -necessary, according to the oracle, that all Attica, on the continent, -should be subdued by the Persians. In front of the Acropolis, but behind -the gates and where no one kept guard, nor would ever have expected that -any man would ascend, there some of them ascended near the temple of -Cecrops' daughter Aglauros. When the Athenians saw that the enemy were -in the Acropolis, some threw themselves down from the wall and perished, -and others took refuge in the recess of the temple. But the Persians who -had ascended first turned to the gates, opened them, and put the -suppliants to death: and when all were thrown prostrate, they pillaged -the temple and set fire to the whole Acropolis. - -The Greeks at Salamis, when intelligence was brought them how matters -stood in Athens, were thrown into such consternation, that some of the -generals would not wait until the subject before them was decided on, -but rushed to their ships and hoisted sail, as about to hurry away; by -such of them as remained it was determined to come to an engagement -before the Isthmus. Night came on, and they, being dismissed from the -council, went on board their ships. Thereupon Mnesiphilus, an Athenian, -inquired of Themistocles, on his return to his ship, what had been -determined on by them. And being informed by him that it was resolved to -conduct the ships to the Isthmus, and to come to an engagement before -the Peloponnesus, he said, "If they remove the ships from Salamis, you -will no longer fight for any country; for they will each betake -themselves to their cities; and neither will Eurybiades nor any one else -be able to detain them, so that the fleet should not be dispersed; and -Greece will perish through want of counsel. But, if there is any -possible contrivance, go and endeavor to annul the decree, if by any -means you can induce Eurybiades to alter his determination, so as to -remain here." The suggestion pleased Themistocles exceedingly; and -without answer he went to the ship of Eurybiades, and said that he -wished to confer with him on public business. He desired him to come on -board his ship, and say what he wished. Thereupon Themistocles, seating -himself by him, repeated all that he had heard from Mnesiphilus, making -it his own, and adding much more, until he prevailed on him, by -entreaty, to leave his ship, and assemble the commanders in council. The -upshot of the matter was that Themistocles persuaded the generals in -council to remain and fight at Salamis. Day came, and at sunrise an -earthquake took place on land and at sea. They determined to pray to the -gods, and to invoke the Æacidæ as allies. For having prayed to all the -gods, they forthwith, from Salamis, invoked Ajax and Telamon; and sent a -ship to Ægina for Æacus, and the Æacidae. In the mean time, all the -admirals and captains of Xerxes' fleet advised engaging in a sea-fight, -except Artemisia, who spoke as follows: "Tell the king from me, -Mardonius, that I say this. It is right that I, sire, who proved myself -by no means a coward in the sea-fight off Eubœa, and performed -achievements not inferior to others, should declare my real opinion, and -state what I think best for your interest. Therefore I say this, abstain -from using your ships, nor risk a sea-fight; for these men are as much -superior to your men by sea, as men are to women. And why must you run a -risk by a naval engagement? Have you not possession of Athens, for the -sake of which you undertook this expedition, and have you not the rest -of Greece? They will not be able to hold out long against you; but will -soon disperse, and fly to their cities." - -Xerxes was very much pleased with the opinion of Artemisia; he had -before thought her an admirable woman, but now he praised her much more. -However, he gave orders to follow the advice of the majority in this -matter, thinking that they had behaved ill at Eubœa on purpose, because -he was not present. He now prepared in person to behold them engaging by -sea.[29] - -Meanwhile, those at Salamis were growing alarmed, and wondered at the -imprudence of Eurybiades; till at last their discontent broke out -openly, and a council was called, and much was said on the subject. Some -said that they ought to sail for the Peloponnesus, and hazard a battle -for that, and not stay and fight for a place already taken by the enemy; -but the Athenians, Æginetæ, and Megareans, declared that they should -stay there and defend themselves. Thereupon, Themistocles, when he saw -his opinion was overruled by the Peloponnesians, went secretly out of -the council, and despatched a man in a boat to the encampment of the -Medes instructing him what to say: his name was Sicinnus, and he was a -domestic, and preceptor to the children of Themistocles. After these -events, Themistocles got him made a Thespian, when the Thespians -augmented the number of their citizens, and gave him a competent -fortune. He, arriving in the boat, spoke as follows to the generals of -the barbarians: "The general of the Athenians has sent me, unknown to -the rest of the Greeks, (for he is in the interest of the king, and -wishes that your affairs may prosper, rather than those of the Greeks,) -to inform you that the Greeks, in great consternation, are deliberating -on flight; and you have now an opportunity of achieving the most -glorious of all enterprises, if you do not suffer them to escape. For -they do not agree among themselves, nor will they oppose you; but you -will see those who are in your interest, and those who are not, fighting -with one another." Having delivered this message to them, he immediately -departed. As these tidings appeared to them worthy of credit, they -immediately landed a considerable number of Persians on the little -island of Psyttalea, lying between Salamis and the continent; and, when -it was midnight, they got their western wing under way, drawing it in a -circle toward Salamis, and those who were stationed about Ceos and -Cynosura got under way and occupied the whole passage as far as Munychia -with their ships, so that the Greeks might have no way to escape, but, -being shut up in Salamis, might suffer punishment for the conflicts at -Artemisium; and they landed the Persians at the little island of -Psyttalea for this reason: that, when an engagement should take place, -as they expected the greater part of the men and wrecks would be driven -there, they might save the one and destroy the other. These things they -did in silence, that the enemy might not know what was going on. - -I am unable to speak against the truth of oracles, when I think of the -remarkable oracle of Bacis: "When they shall bridge with ships the -sacred shore of "Diana with the golden sword," and sea-girt Cynosura, -having with mad hope destroyed beautiful Athens, then divine Vengeance -shall quench strong Presumption, son of Insolence, when thinking to -subvert all things. For bronze shall engage with bronze, and Mars shall -redden the sea with blood. Then the far-thundering son of Saturn and -benign victory shall bring a day of freedom to Greece." After such a -prediction and its fulfilment, I neither dare myself say any thing in -contradiction to oracles, nor allow others to do so. - -All this night there was a great altercation between the generals at -Salamis. They did not yet know that the barbarians had surrounded them -with their ships. They supposed that they were in the same place where -they had seen them stationed during the day. While the generals were -disputing, Aristides, son of Lysimachus, crossed over from the Ægina. He -was an Athenian, but had been banished by ostracism. From what I have -heard of his manner of life, I consider him to have been the best and -most upright man in Athens. He, standing at the entrance of the council, -called Themistocles out, who was not indeed his friend, but his most -bitter enemy; yet from the greatness of the impending danger, he forgot -that, and called him, for he had already heard that those from -Peloponnesus were anxious to get the ships under way for the Isthmus. -When Themistocles came out, Aristides spoke as follows: "It is right -that we should strive, both on other occasions, and particularly on -this, which of us shall do the greatest service to our country. I assure -you, that to say little or much to the Peloponnesians about sailing from -here is a waste of breath; for I, an eye-witness, tell you, now, even if -they would, neither the Corinthians, nor Eurybiades himself, will be -able to sail away; for we are on all sides enclosed by the enemy. Go in, -and acquaint them with this." But Themistocles bade Aristides go in -himself and convey the tidings. This he did, but the generals would not -even then give credence to his report until there arrived a trireme of -Tenians that had deserted, which Panætius, son of Socimenes, commanded, -and which brought an account of the whole truth. For that action the -name of the Tenians was engraved on the tripod at Delphi, among those -who had defeated the barbarian. With this ship that came over at -Salamis, and with the Lemnian before, off Artemisium, the Grecian fleet -was made up to the full number of three hundred and eighty ships; for -before it wanted two of that number. - -Day dawned, and when they had mustered the marines, Themistocles, above -all the others, harangued them most eloquently. His speech was entirely -taken up in contrasting better things with worse, exhorting them to -choose the best of all those things which depended on the nature and -condition of man. As soon as the trireme from Ægina, which had gone to -fetch the Æacidæ returned the Greeks got all their ships under way. The -barbarians immediately fell upon them. Now all the other Greeks began to -back water and make for the shore; but Aminias of Pallene, an Athenian, -being carried onward, attacked a ship; and his ship becoming entangled -with the other, and the crew not being able to clear, the rest thereupon -came to the assistance of Aminias and engaged. Thus the Athenians say -the battle commenced; but the Æginetæ affirm that the ship which went to -Ægina to fetch the Æacidæ, was the first to begin. It is also said, that -a phantom of a woman appeared to them, that she cheered them on, so that -the whole fleet of Greeks heard her, after she had first reproached them -in these words: "Dastards, how long will you back water?" Opposite the -Athenians the Phœnicians were drawn up, for they occupied the wing -toward Eleusis and westward; opposite the Lacedæmonians, the Ionians -occupied the wing toward the east and the Piræus. Of these some few -behaved ill on purpose, in compliance with the injunctions of -Themistocles. The greater part of the ships were run down at Salamis; -some being destroyed by the Athenians, others by the Æginetæ. For the -Greeks fought in good order, in line, but the barbarians were neither -properly formed nor did any thing with judgment. However they proved -themselves to be far braver on this day than off Eubœa, every one -exerting himself vigorously, and dreading Xerxes; for each thought that -he himself was observed by the king. - -I am unable to say with certainty how each of the barbarians or Greeks -fought; but with respect to Artemisia, the following incident occurred, -by which she obtained still greater credit with the king. For when the -king's forces were in great confusion, the ship of Artemisia was chased -by an Attic ship, and not being able to escape, she resolved upon a -stratagem. For being pursued by the Athenian, she bore down upon a -friendly ship, manned by Calyndians, and with Damasithymus himself, king -of the Calyndians, on board; whether she had any quarrel with him while -they were at the Hellespont, I am unable to say, or whether she did it -on purpose, or whether the ship of the Calyndians happened by chance to -be in her way; however, she ran it down, and sunk it, and by good -fortune gained a double advantage to herself. For when the captain of -the Attic ship saw her bearing down on a ship of the barbarians, he -concluded Artemisia's ship to be either a Greek or one that had deserted -from the enemy and was assisting them, and so turned aside and attacked -others. Thus she escaped, and in consequence of it became still more in -favor with Xerxes. For it is said that Xerxes, looking on, observed her -ship making the attack, and that some near him said: "Sire, do you see -how well Artemisia fights; she has sunk one of the enemy's ships?" -Whereupon he asked if it was in truth the exploit of Artemisia; they -answered "that they knew the ensign of her ship perfectly well." But -they thought that it was an enemy that was sunk; for no one of the crew -of the Calyndian ship lived to tell the tale and accuse her. And it is -related that Xerxes exclaimed: "My men have become women, and my women -men." - -In this battle perished the admiral, Ariabignes, son of Darius, and -brother of Xerxes, and many other illustrious men of the Persians and -Medes, and the other allies; but only a very few of the Greeks: for as -they knew how to swim, they whose ships were destroyed, and who did not -perish in actual conflict, swam safe to Salamis; whereas, many of the -barbarians, not knowing how to swim, perished in the sea. When the -foremost ships were put to flight, then the greatest number were -destroyed; for those who were stationed behind, endeavoring to pass on -with their ships to the front, that they, too, might give the king some -proof of their courage, fell foul of their own flying ships. The -following event also occurred in this confusion. Some Phœnicians, whose -ships were destroyed, went to the king and accused the Ionians of -destroying their ships and betraying him. It, however, turned out that -the Ionian captains were not put to death, but that those Phœnicians who -accused them, received the following reward. For while they were yet -speaking, a Samothracian ship bore down on an Athenian ship and sunk it. -Just then an Æginetan ship, coming up, sunk the ship of the -Samothracians. But the Samothracians being javelin-men, by hurling their -javelins, drove the marines from the ship that had sunk them, and -boarded and got possession of it. This action saved the Ionians: for -when Xerxes saw them perform so great an exploit, he turned round upon -the Phœnicians, and ordered their heads to be struck off, that they who -had proved themselves cowards, might no more accuse those who were -braver. - -The barbarians turned to flight, and sailing away towards Phalerus, the -Æginetæ waylaid them in the strait, and performed actions worthy of -record. For the Athenians in the rout ran down both those ships that -resisted and those that fled; and the Æginetæ, those that sailed away -from the battle: so that when any escaped the Athenians they fell into -the hands of the Æginetæ. - -In this engagement the Æginetæ obtained the greatest renown; and next, -the Athenians. Aristides, of whom I made mention a little before as a -most upright man, in this confusion that took place about Salamis, took -with him a considerable number of heavy-armed men, who were stationed -along the shore of the Salaminian territory and were Athenians by race, -landed them on the island of Psyttalea, and put to the sword all the -Persians who were on that little island. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -XERXES' RETREAT. - - -When the sea-fight was ended, the Greeks hauled on shore at Salamis all -the wrecks that still happened to be there and held themselves ready for -another battle, expecting the king would still make use of the ships -that survived. But a west wind carrying away many of the wrecks, drove -them on the shore of Attica, which is called Colias, so as to fulfil -both all the other oracles delivered by Bacis and Musæus concerning this -battle, and also that relating to the wrecks which were drifted on this -shore, which many years before had been delivered by Lysistratus, an -Athenian augur, but had not been understood by any of the Greeks: "The -Colian women shall broil their meat with oars." - -When Xerxes saw the defeat he had sustained he was afraid that some of -the Ionians might suggest to the Greeks, or might themselves resolve to -sail to the Hellespont, for the purpose of breaking up the bridges, and -shut him up in Europe. So he planned immediate flight. But wishing that -his intention should not be known either to the Greeks or his own -people, he pretended to throw a mound across to Salamis. He fastened -together Phœnician merchantmen, that they might serve instead of a raft -and a wall, and made preparation for war, as if about to fight another -battle at sea. Every body who saw him thus occupied, was firmly -convinced that he had seriously determined to stay and continue the war, -except Mardonius, who was well acquainted with his design. At the same -time Xerxes despatched a messenger to the Persians, to inform them of -the misfortune that had befallen him. There is nothing mortal that -reaches its destination more rapidly than these couriers of the -Persians. They say that as many days as are occupied in the whole -journey, so many horses and men are posted at regular intervals; neither -snow nor rain, nor heat, nor night, prevents them from performing their -appointed stage as quickly as possible. The first courier delivers his -orders to the second, the second to the third, and so it passes -throughout, being delivered from one to the other, just like the -torch-bearing among the Greeks, which they perform in honor of Vulcan. -The first message that reached Susa, with the news that Xerxes was in -possession of Athens, caused so great joy among the Persians who had -been left behind, that they strewed all the roads with myrtle, burnt -perfumes, and gave themselves up to sacrifices and festivity. But the -arrival of the second messenger threw them into such consternation, that -they all rent their garments, and uttered unbounded shouts and -lamentations, laying the blame on Mardonius, not so much grieved for the -ships as anxious for Xerxes himself. And this the Persians continued to -do until Xerxes himself arrived home. - -[Illustration: CELES RIDDEN BY A CUPID.] - -Mardonius, seeing Xerxes much afflicted by the defeat at Salamis, and -suspecting he was meditating a retreat, thus addressed the king: "Sire, -do not think you have suffered any great loss in consequence of what has -happened; for the contest with us does not depend on wood alone, but on -men and horses. Be not discouraged; for the Greeks have no means of -escape from rendering an account of what they have done now and -formerly, and from becoming your slaves. If you have resolved not to -stay here, return to Susa, and take with you the greatest part of the -army; but give me three hundred thousand picked men and I will deliver -Greece to you reduced to slavery." Xerxes, delighted and relieved, -granted Mardonius his request. As to Xerxes himself, if all the men and -women of the world had advised him to stay, in my opinion, he would not -have yielded, so great was his terror. Leaving Mardonius in Thessaly, he -marched in all haste to the Hellespont; and arrived at the place of -crossing in forty-five days, bringing back no part of his army, so to -speak. Wherever, and among whatever nation, they happened to be -marching, they seized and consumed their corn; but if they found no -fruit, overcome by hunger, they ate up the herbage as it sprung from the -ground, and from sheer hunger stripped off the bark of trees, and -gathered leaves, both of wild and cultivated plants. But a pestilence -and dysentery falling on the army, destroyed them on their march. Such -of them as were sick, Xerxes left behind, ordering the cities through -which he happened to be passing, to take care of and feed them: some in -Thessaly, others at Siris of Pæonia, and in Macedonia. It was here he -had left the sacred chariot of Jupiter, when he marched against Greece, -but he did not receive it back, as he returned; for the Pæonians had -given it to the Thracians, and when Xerxes demanded it back, said that -the mares had been stolen, as they were feeding, by the upper Thracians, -who dwell round the sources of the Strymon. There the king of the -Bisaltæ and of the Crestonian territory, a Thracian, perpetrated a most -unnatural deed; he declared that he would not willingly be a slave to -Xerxes, but he went up to the top of Mount Rhodope, and enjoined his -sons not to join the expedition against Greece. They, however, -disregarded his prohibition, from a desire to see the war, and served in -the army with the Persian: but when they all returned safe, six in -number, their father had their eyes put out for this disobedience. - -The Persians, in great haste crossed over the Hellespont to Abydos in -their ships; for they found the rafts no longer stretched across, but -broken up by a storm. While detained there, they got more food than on -their march, and having filled themselves immoderately, and drunk of -different water, a great part of the army that survived, died; the rest -with Xerxes reached Sardis. Another account is also given, that when -Xerxes in his retreat from Athens arrived at Eïon on the Strymon, from -there he no longer continued his journey by land, but committed the army -to Hydarnes to conduct to the Hellespont, and he himself went on board a -Phœnician ship to pass over to Asia. During his voyage a violent and -tempestuous wind from the Strymon overtook him; the storm increased in -violence, and the ship was overloaded, many of the Persians having -accompanied Xerxes. Then the king, becoming alarmed, calling aloud, and -asked the pilot if there was any hope of safety for them; and he said: -"There is none, sire, unless we get rid of some of this crowd of -passengers." Xerxes, hearing this answer, said: "O Persians, now let -some among you show his regard for the king, for on you my safety seems -to depend." Many having done homage, leapt into the sea, and the ship, -being lighted, thus got safe to Asia. It is added, that Xerxes, -immediately after he landed, presented the pilot with a golden crown, -because he had saved the king's life; but ordered his head to be struck -off, because he had occasioned the loss of many Persians. This story -appears to me not at all deserving of credit, for if such a speech had -been made by the pilot to Xerxes, I should not find one opinion in ten -thousand to deny that the king would have sent down into the hold of the -ship those who were on deck, since they were Persians, and Persians of -high rank, and would have thrown into the sea a number of Phœnicians, -equal to that of the Persians. - -When the division of the booty, after the battle of Salamis was -completed, the Greeks sailed to the Isthmus, for the purpose of -conferring the palm of valor upon him among the Greeks who had proved -himself most deserving throughout the war. The generals distributed the -ballots at the altar of Neptune, selecting the first and second out of -all; thereupon every one gave his vote for himself, each thinking -himself the most valiant; but with respect to the second place, the -majority concurred in selecting Themistocles. So each had but one vote, -for first place, but Themistocles had a great majority for the second -honor. Though the Greeks, out of envy, would not determine this matter, -but returned to their several countries without coming to a decision, -yet Themistocles was applauded and extolled throughout all Greece, as -being by far the wisest man of the Greeks. Because he was not honored by -those who fought at Salamis, although victorious, he immediately -afterward went to Lacedæmon, hoping to be honored there. The -Lacedæmonians received him nobly, and paid him the greatest honors. They -gave the prize of valor to Eurybiades, a crown of olive; and of wisdom -and dexterity to Themistocles, also a crown of olive. And they presented -him with the most magnificent chariot in Sparta; praising him highly, -and on his departure, three hundred chosen Spartans, called knights, -escorted him as far as the Tegean boundaries. He is the only man that we -know of whom the Spartans ever escorted on his journey. - -Mardonius' first movement was to send Alexander, son of Amyntas, a -Macedonian, as an ambassador to Athens; as well because the Persians -were related to him as because he had been informed that Alexander was a -friend and benefactor of the Athenians. For in this way he thought he -should best be able to gain over the Athenians, having heard that they -were a numerous and valiant people; and besides, he knew that the -Athenians had been the principal cause of the late disaster of the -Persians at sea. If these were won over, he hoped that he should easily -become master at sea, which indeed would have been the case; and on land -he imagined that he was much superior: thus he calculated that his power -would get the upper hand of the Greeks. But the Athenians gave the -following answer to Alexander: "We ourselves are aware that the power of -the Medes is far greater than ours; so that there is no need to insult -us with that. But do not you attempt to persuade us to come to terms -with the barbarian, for we will not. Go, and tell Mardonius that the -Athenians say: 'So long as the sun shall continue in the same course as -now, we will never make terms with Xerxes; but we will go out to oppose -him, trusting in the gods, who fight for us, and in the heroes, whose -temples and images he has burned. Know, therefore, if you did not know -it before, that so long as one Athenian is left alive, the fight shall -be continued.'" - -[29] Seated on the mountain side upon a magnificent throne of ivory -and gold, as others relate. - - - - -_BOOK IX. CALLIOPE._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE WAR CONTINUED; BATTLE OF PLATÆA AND SIEGE OF THEBES. - - -When Alexander returned and made known to Mardonius the answer of the -Athenians, he set out from Thessaly, and led his army in haste against -Athens; and wherever he arrived from time to time, he joined the people -to his own forces. So far were the leaders of Thessaly from repenting of -what had been before done, that they urged on the Persian much more: and -Thorax of Larissa, who had assisted in escorting Xerxes in his flight, -now openly gave Mardonius a passage into Greece. When the army on its -march arrived among the Bœotians, the Thebans endeavored to restrain -Mardonius from advancing farther, assuring him that to take up his -station there would be equivalent to subduing the whole of Greece -without a battle. For if the Greeks should continue firmly united, as -they had done before, it would be difficult even for all mankind to -overcome them. "But," they continued, "if you do what we advise, you -will without difficulty frustrate all their plans. Send money to the -most powerful men in the cities; split Greece into parties, and then, -with the assistance of those who side with you, you may easily subdue -those who are not in your interest." But he was infatuated with a -vehement desire to taking Athens a second time, and fondly hoped, by -signal-fires across the islands, to make known to the king while he was -at Sardis, that he was in possession of Athens. When he arrived in -Attica, he did not find the Athenians there; but was informed that most -of them were at Salamis on board their ships. So he took the deserted -city ten months after its capture by the king. - -But Mardonius was by no means desirous to stay longer in Attica. He -lingered awhile there to see what the Athenians would do, but neither -ravaged nor injured the Attic territory, being in expectation all along -that they would come to terms. But when he could not persuade them he -withdrew, before the Spartans, under Pausanias, could reach the Isthmus, -having first set fire to Athens, and if any part of the walls, or -houses, or temples happened to be standing, these he threw down and laid -all in ruins. He marched out for the reason that the Attic country was -not adapted for cavalry; and if he should be conquered in an engagement, -there was no way to escape except through a narrow pass, so that a very -small number of men could intercept them. He determined therefore to -retire to Thebes, and to fight near a friendly city, and in a country -adapted for cavalry. - -[Illustration: BŒOTIA.] - -The Lacedæmonians arrived at the Isthmus and went into camp. When the -rest of the Peloponnesians, who favored the better cause, saw the -Spartans marching out, they thought it would be a disgrace to absent -themselves from the expedition of the Lacedæmonians. Accordingly, when -the victims proved favorable, they all marched out from the Isthmus and -advanced to Eleusis. The Athenians crossed over from Salamis, and joined -them there. At Erythræ in Bœotia, they learnt that the barbarians were -encamped on the Asopus, at which they consulted together, and formed -opposite, at the foot of Mount Cithæron. When the Greeks did not come -down to the plain, Mardonius sent against them all his cavalry, under -command of Masistius, a man highly esteemed among the Persians. He was -mounted on a Nisæan horse, that had a golden bit, and was otherwise -gorgeously caparisoned. When the cavalry rode up to the Greeks, they -charged them in squadrons, and called them women. By chance the -Megarians happened to be stationed in that part which was most exposed, -and there the cavalry chiefly made their attack. The Megarians, being -hard pressed, sent a herald to the Greek generals with this message: -"The Megarians say, We, O confederates, are not able alone to sustain -the Persian cavalry. So far we have held out against them by our -constancy and courage, though hard pressed; but now, unless you will -send some others to relieve us, we must abandon our post." Pausanias -immediately called for volunteers to go to that position, and relieve -the Megarians. When all the others refused, three hundred chosen men of -the Athenians undertook to do it, whom Olympiodorus, son of Lampon, -commanded. After a short but spirited battle, as the cavalry were -charging, the horse of Masistius, being in advance of the others, was -wounded in the flank by an arrow, and in pain, reared and threw -Masistius. As he fell, the Athenians immediately seized his horse and -attacked him. At first they were unable to kill Masistius, he was so -thoroughly armed. Underneath he had a golden cuirass covered with -scales, and over the cuirass a purple cloak. By striking against the -cuirass they did nothing; until one of them, perceiving what was the -matter, pierced him in the eye. So he fell and died. The whole Persian -army, and Mardonius most of all, mourned the loss of Masistius. They cut -off their own hair and that of their horses and beasts of burden, and -gave themselves up to unbounded lamentations. The sound reached over all -Bœotia, of mourning for the loss of a man who, next to Mardonius, was -most esteemed by the Persians and the king. - -The Greeks placed the body on a carriage, and carried it along the -line—an object worthy of admiration, on account of its stature and -beauty—and the men, leaving their ranks, came out to view Masistius. -After this, they determined to go down toward Platæa, for the Platæan -territory appeared to be much more convenient for them to encamp in than -the Erythræan, as it was better supplied with water. Over the foot of -Mount Cithæron near Hysiæ, into the Platæan territory they marched, and -formed in line, nation by nation, near the fountain of Gargaphia, and -the precinct of the hero Androcrates, on slight elevations and the level -plain. The whole Grecian army assembled at Platæa, reckoning heavy-armed -and light-armed fighting men, amounted to one hundred and ten thousand. - -When the barbarians, with Mardonius, had ceased to mourn for Masistius, -they also marched to the Asopus, which flows by Platæa, and on their -arrival were drawn up by Mardonius. Of barbarians there were three -hundred thousand, as has been already shown; but of Greeks who were -allies of Mardonius no one knows the number, for they were not reckoned -up; but, to make a guess, I conjecture that they were assembled to the -number of fifty thousand. These were infantry; the cavalry were -marshalled apart. - -On the second day, both sides offered sacrifices. For the Greeks, -Tisamenus, son of Antiochus, was the person who sacrificed, for he -accompanied this army as diviner. The sacrifices were favorable to the -Greeks, if they stood on the defensive; but if they crossed the Asopus, -and began the battle, not so. - -[Illustration: COAT OF MAIL.] - -To Mardonius, who was very desirous to begin the battle, the sacrifices -were not propitious; but to him also, if he stood on the defensive, they -were favorable: for he too adopted the Greek sacrifices, having for his -diviner Hegesistratus, an Elean, and the most renowned of the Telliadæ. -This man, before these events, the Spartans had taken and bound for -death, because they had suffered many atrocious things from him. In this -sad condition, as being in peril for his life, and having to suffer many -tortures before death, he performed a deed beyond belief. For as he was -confined in stocks bound with iron, he got possession of a knife, which -had by some means been carried in, and immediately cut off the broad -part of his foot—the most resolute deed I ever heard of. Then, as he was -guarded by sentinels, he dug a hole through the wall and escaped to -Tegea, travelling by night, and by day hiding himself in the woods and -tarrying there. Thus, though the Lacedæmonians searched for him with -their whole population, on the third night he arrived at Tegea; but they -were struck with great amazement at his daring, when they saw half his -foot lying on the ground, and were not able to find him. In time, cured -of his wounds, he procured a wooden foot, and became an avowed enemy to -the Lacedæmonians. However, at last his hatred conceived against the -Lacedæmonians did not benefit him; for he was taken by them when acting -as diviner at Zacynthus, and put to death. The death of Hegesistratus -took place after the battle of Platæa: but at that time, on the Asopus, -he was hired by Mardonius for no small sum to sacrifice, and was very -zealous, both from hatred to the Lacedæmonians and from a love of gain. - -Meantime, Timagenides, a Theban, advised Mardonius to guard the passes -of Mount Cithæron; saying, that the Greeks were continually pouring in -every day, and that he would intercept great numbers. Eight days had -already elapsed since they had been posted opposite each other; but -Mardonius thought the suggestion good, and as soon as it was night, sent -some cavalry to the passes of Cithæron, that lead to Platæa, which the -Bœotians call The Three Heads; but the Athenians, The Heads of Oak. The -horsemen that were sent did not arrive in vain; for issuing on the -plain, they took five hundred beasts carrying provisions from -Peloponnesus to the army, with the men who attended the beasts of -burden. The Persians not only took the booty, but killed without mercy, -sparing neither beast nor man. Two more days passed, neither being -willing to begin the battle; but when the eleventh day after the two -armies had been encamped opposite each other in Platæa was almost gone, -and the night was far advanced, and silence appeared to prevail -throughout the camps, Alexander, son of Amyntas, who was general and -king of the Macedonians, rode up on horseback to the sentries of the -Athenians, and desired to confer with their generals. Most of the -sentries remained at their posts, while some ran to the generals, and -told them, "that a man had come on horseback from the camp of the Medes, -who uttered not a word more, but, naming the generals, said he wished to -confer with them." They immediately repaired to the out-posts, and -Alexander addressed them as follows: "O Athenians, I leave these words -with you as a deposit, entreating you to keep them secret, and not tell -them to any other than Pausanias, lest you should ruin me. I should not -utter them, were I not extremely concerned for the safety of all Greece; -for I am myself a Greek by origin, and would by no means wish to see -Greece enslaved instead of free. I tell you, then, that the victims have -not been favorable to Mardonius and his army, or else you would have -fought long ago; but now, he has determined to dismiss the victims, and -to come to an engagement at dawn of day; fearing, as I conjecture, that -you may assemble in greater numbers. Therefore be ready. But if -Mardonius should defer the engagement, and not undertake it, persevere -remaining where you are, for in a few days provisions will fail him. And -if this war should terminate according to your wishes, it is right that -you should bear it in mind to effect my freedom, who on behalf of the -Greeks have undertaken so hazardous a task, as to acquaint you with the -intention of Mardonius, in order that the barbarians may not fall upon -you unexpectedly. I am Alexander the Macedonian." Thus having spoken, he -rode back to the camp and his own station. - -[Illustration: THE FISHERMAN.] - -The generals of the Athenians went to the right wing, and told Pausanias -what they had heard from Alexander; but as the army was deprived of -water and harassed by the cavalry of Mardonius, they remained to -deliberate on these and other matters. They had no longer any -provisions, and their attendants, who had been despatched to the -Peloponnesus to get provisions, were shut out by the cavalry, and unable -to reach the camp. - -On consultation the generals of the allies resolved, if the Persians -should defer making the attack on that day, to remove to the island of -Oëroë, ten stades distant from the Asopus, on which they were then -encamped. This is an island in the midst of the continent. For the -river, dividing higher up, flows down to the plain from Mount Cithæron, -having its streams about three stades separate from each other, and -united together below. To this place they determined to remove, that -they might have an abundant supply of water, and the cavalry might not -harass them, as when they were directly opposite. So, in the night, at -the hour agreed upon, they fled from the cavalry toward the city of the -Platæans until they arrived at the temple of Juno, which stands before -the city of the Platæans, twenty stades distant from the fountain of -Gargaphia. They then encamped round the Heræum and stood to their arms -before the sacred precinct. - -When Mardonius was informed that the Greeks had withdrawn under cover of -night, and saw the place deserted, he summoned Thorax, of Larissa, and -said: "O son of Aleuas, what will you say now, when you see this ground -deserted? For you, their neighbor, said that the Lacedæmonians never -fled from battle, but were the first of men in matters of war; but now -we all see that they have fled away during the past night, in terror of -us, who are truly the most valiant in the world." Then without more ado -he led the Persians at full speed, crossing the Asopus in the track of -the Greeks, as if they had betaken themselves to flight. He directed his -course only against the Lacedæmonians and Tegeans; for on account of the -hills he did not espy the Athenians, who had turned into the plain. The -rest of the commanders of the barbarians' brigades, seeing the Persians -advancing to pursue the Greeks, all immediately took up their standards, -and pursued, each as quick as he could, without observing either rank or -order; thus they advanced with a shout and in a throng, as if they were -about to overwhelm the Greeks. - -The Persians made a fence with their osier-shields, and let fly their -arrows so incessantly that the Spartans being hard pressed, and the -victims continuing unfavorable, Pausanias looked toward the temple of -Juno of the Platæans, and invoked the goddess, praying that they might -not be disappointed of their hopes. - -[Illustration: JUNO.] - -While he was yet making this invocation, the Tegeans, starting first, -advanced against the barbarians; and immediately after the prayer of -Pausanias, the victims became favorable to the Lacedæmonians. Then they -advanced against the Persians, who withstood them, laying aside their -bows. First of all a battle took place about the fence of bucklers; and -when that was thrown down, a long, obstinate fight ensued near the -temple of Ceres, till at last they came to close conflict, when the -barbarians laid hold of the Spartan spears and broke them. Indeed, in -courage and strength, the Persians were not inferior, but were lightly -armed, ignorant of military discipline, and not equal to their -adversaries in skill. They rushed forward upon the Spartans, only to -perish. In that part where Mardonius happened to be, fighting upon a -white horse, at the head of a thousand chosen men, the best of the -Persians, there they pressed their adversaries most vigorously. For as -long as Mardonius survived, they held out, defended themselves, and -overthrew many of the Lacedæmonians; but when Mardonius had died, and -the troops stationed round him, which were the strongest, had fallen, -then the rest turned to flight, and gave way to the Lacedæmonians. Their -dress, too, was particularly disadvantageous to them, being destitute of -defensive armor. Here satisfaction for the death of Leonidas, according -to the oracle, was paid to the Spartans by Mardonius; and Pausanias -obtained the most signal victory we have ever heard of. Mardonius died -by the hand of Aïmnestus, a man of distinction at Sparta, who, some time -after the Medic affairs, at the head of three hundred men, engaged at -Stenyclerus with all the Messenians, and he himself perished and his -three hundred. When the Persians at Platæa were put to flight by the -Lacedæmonians, they fled in disorder to their own camp, and to the -wooden fortification which they had made in the Theban territory. It is -a wonder to me that, when they fought near the grove of Ceres, not one -of the barbarians was seen to enter into the sacred enclosure, or to die -in it, but most fell round the precinct in unconsecrated ground. I am of -opinion, if it is allowable to form an opinion concerning divine things, -that the goddess would not receive them because they had burnt her royal -temple at Eleusis. - -When the Persians and the rest of the throng arrived in their flight at -the wooden wall, they mounted the towers before the Lacedæmonians came -up, and defended the wall in the best way they could; so that when the -Lacedæmonians arrived, a vigorous battle took place before the walls. So -long as the Athenians were absent, the barbarians defended themselves, -and had much the advantage over the Lacedæmonians, as they were not -skilled in attacking fortifications; but when the Athenians came, then a -vehement fight at the walls took place, and continued for a long time. -But at length the Athenians, by their valor and pluck, surmounted the -wall, and made a breach; there at length the Greeks poured in. The -Tegeans entered first, and plundered the tent of Mardonius, and among -other things took away the manger for his horse, all of bronze, and well -worth seeing. This manger of Mardonius the Tegeans placed in the temple -of the Alean Minerva; but all the other things they took they carried to -the same place as the rest of the Greeks. The barbarians no longer kept -in close order, nor did any one think of valor; but they were in a state -of consternation, as so many myriads of men were enclosed within so -small a space; and the Greeks had such an easy opportunity of -slaughtering them, that of an army of three hundred thousand men, except -forty thousand with whom Artabazus fled, not three thousand survived. Of -Lacedæmonians from Sparta, all that died in the engagement were -ninety-one; of Tegeans, sixteen; and of Athenians, fifty-two. - -[Illustration: ELEGANT VASES AND AMPHORÆ.] - -Pausanias made proclamation that no one should touch the booty, and -commanded the helots to bring together all the treasures. Dispersing -themselves through the camp, they found tents decked with gold and -silver, and couches gilt and plated, and golden bowls, and cups, and -other drinking vessels; they also found sacks on the waggons, in which -were discovered gold and silver cauldrons: and from the bodies that lay -dead they stripped bracelets, necklaces, and scimetars of gold; but no -account at all was taken of the variegated apparel. Of this the helots -stole a great deal and sold it to the Æginetæ, so that the great wealth -of the Æginetæ here had its beginning, for they purchased gold from the -helots as if it had been bronze. They collected the treasures together, -and took from them a tithe for the god at Delphi, from which the golden -tripod was dedicated, which stands on the three-headed bronze serpent, -close to the altar; they also took a tithe for the god at Olympia, from -which they dedicated the bronze Jupiter, ten cubits high; and a tithe to -the god at the Isthmus, from which was made the bronze Neptune, seven -cubits high. They divided the rest, and each took the share he was -entitled to, of the gold, silver, and other treasures, and beasts of -burden. Now what choice treasures were given those others who most -distinguished themselves at Platæa, is mentioned by no one. But for -Pausanias, ten of every thing was selected and given him—slaves, horses, -talents, camels, and all other treasures in like manner. It is said also -that when Xerxes fled from Greece, he left all his own equipage to -Mardonius; Pausanias, therefore, seeing Mardonius' equipage furnished -with gold, silver, and various-colored hangings, ordered the bakers and -cooks to prepare a supper in the same manner as for Mardonius: and, -astonished at the profusion set before him of gold and silver couches -handsomely carved, and gold and silver tables, and magnificent -preparations for the supper, he in derision ordered his own attendants -to prepare a Laconian supper by the side of it, and when the repast was -spread, the difference was so ridiculous that he laughed, and sent for -the generals of the Greeks and said: "Men of Greece, I have called you -together to show you the folly of the leader of the Medes, who left such -sumptuous fare as this, to come to us, who have such poor fare, to take -it from us." A considerable time after these events, many of the -Platæans found chests of gold and silver, and other precious things. And -still later was discovered a skull without any seam, consisting of one -bone, and an upper jaw which had teeth growing in a piece, all in one -bone, both the front teeth and the grinders; and there was likewise -discovered the skeleton of a man five cubits high. - -When the Greeks had buried their dead in Platæa, they immediately -determined, on consultation, to march against Thebes, and to demand the -surrender of those who had sided with the Medes, amongst the first of -them Timegenides and Attaginus, who were the chief leaders; and, if they -should not give them up, they resolved not to depart from the city -before they had taken it. On the eleventh day after the engagement, they -arrived and besieged the Thebans, requiring them to give up the men; -and, receiving "No" for an answer, they ravaged the country, and -attacked the walls. As they did not cease damaging them, on the -twentieth day Timegenides spoke thus to the Thebans: "Men of Thebes, -since the Greeks have so resolved that they will not give over besieging -us until either they have taken Thebes, or you have delivered us up to -them, let not the Bœotian territory suffer any more on our account. But -if, being desirous of money, they demand us as a pretence, let us give -them money from the public treasury; for we sided with the Mede by -general consent, and not of ourselves alone. If, however, they carry on -the siege really because they want us, we will present ourselves before -them to plead our cause." He appeared to speak well and to the purpose; -and the Thebans immediately sent a herald to Pausanias, expressing their -willingness to surrender the men. When they had agreed on these terms, -Attaginus escaped from the city, and his sons, who were brought before -him, Pausanias acquitted from the charge, saying that boys could have no -part in the guilt of siding with the Mede. As to the others whom the -Thebans delivered up, they thought that they should be admitted to plead -their cause, and moreover trusted to repel the charge by bribery; but -he, as soon as he had them in his power, suspecting this very thing, -dismissed the whole army of the allies, and, conducting the men to -Corinth, put them to death. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE BATTLE OF MYCALE. - - -On the same day on which the defeat at Platæa occurred, another happened -to take place at Mycale in Ionia. For while the Greeks were stationed at -Delos, there came to them as ambassadors from Samos, Lampon, -Athenagoras, and Hegesistratus, being sent by the Samians, unknown to -the Persians. When they came to the generals, Hegesistratus urged that -"if only the Ionians should see them, they would revolt from the -Persians, and that the barbarians would not withstand them; or, if they -should withstand them, the Greeks would not find any other such booty." -Invoking, too, their common gods, he besought them to deliver Grecian -men from servitude, and to repel the barbarian; and he said, "that this -would be easy for them to do, for their ships sailed badly, and were not -fit to fight with them; and, if they suspected at all that they were -leading them on deceitfully, they were themselves ready to go on board -their ships as hostages." The Samian stranger was so earnest in his -entreaties, that Leotychides asked: "O Samian friend, what is your -name?" "Hegesistratus," he answered; upon which, interrupting the -rest of his discourse, Leotychides exclaimed: "I accept the -"Hegesistratus,"[30] my Samian friend; only do you take care that before -you sail away both you yourself and those who are with you, pledge your -faith that the Samians will be zealous allies to us." The Samians -immediately pledged their faith and made oath of confederacy with the -Greeks. The others sailed home, but he ordered Hegesistratus to sail -with the fleet, regarding his name as an omen. The Greeks tarried that -day, and on the next sacrificed auspiciously, Deiphonus, son of Evenius, -of Apollonia in the Ionian gulf, acting as diviner. - -The following incident befel his father, Evenius. There are in this -Apollonia sheep sacred to the sun, which by day feed near the river that -flows from Mount Lacmon through the Apollonian territory into the sea, -near the port of Oricus; but by night, chosen men, the most eminent of -the citizens for wealth and birth, keep watch over them, each for a -year: for the Apollonians set a high value upon these sheep, in -consequence of some oracle. They are folded in a cavern at a distance -from the city. There, once on a time, Evenius, being chosen, kept watch, -and one night when he had fallen asleep during his watch, wolves entered -the cave, and destroyed about sixty of the sheep. When he discovered -what had happened, he mentioned it to no one, purposing to buy others, -and put them in their place. This occurrence, however, did not escape -the notice of the Apollonians; and as soon as they discovered it, they -brought him to trial, and gave sentence that, for having fallen asleep -during his watch, he should be deprived of sight. But after they had -blinded Evenius, from that time forward neither did their sheep -multiply, nor did the land yield its usual fruit. An admonition was -given them at Dodona and Delphi, when they inquired of the prophets the -cause of the present calamities "that they had unjustly deprived -Evenius, the keeper of the sacred sheep, of his sight; for they -themselves had sent the wolves, and would not cease avenging him, until -the people should give such satisfaction for what they had done, as he -himself should choose, and think sufficient: then, the gods themselves -would give such a present to Evenius, that most men would pronounce him -happy, from possessing it." The Apollonians, keeping this answer secret, -deputed some of their citizens to negociate the matter with Evenius. One -day when he was seated on a bench, they went and sat down by him, and -conversed on different subjects, till at length they began to -commiserate his misfortune, and leading him artfully on, they asked, -"what reparation he would choose, if the Apollonians were willing to -give him satisfaction for what they had done." Not having heard of the -oracle he made this choice, "if any one would give him the lands of -certain citizens," naming those who he knew had the two best estates in -Apollonia, "and besides these a house," which he knew was the handsomest -in the city, he said, "he would thenceforth forego his anger, and this -reparation would content him." Immediately taking him up they said, "the -Apollonians make you this reparation for the loss of your eyes, in -obedience to an oracle they have received." He thereupon was very -indignant, on hearing the whole truth, for he had been deceived; but the -Apollonians bought the property from the owners, and gave him what he -had chosen, and immediately the gift of divination was implanted in him, -so that he became very celebrated. - -Deiphonus, the son of this Evenius, was brought by the Corinthians to -officiate as diviner to the army. - -The Greeks at length determined to sail to the continent: having -therefore prepared boarding-ladders, and all other things that were -necessary for a sea-fight, they sailed to Mycale. No one was seen near -the camp, ready to meet them, but they beheld the ships drawn up within -the fortification, and a numerous land-force disposed along the beach, -thereupon Leotychides, advancing first in a ship, and nearing the beach -as closely as possible, made proclamation by a herald to the Ionians, -saying: "Men of Ionia, as many of you as hear me, attend to what I say; -for the Persians will understand nothing of the advice I give you. When -we engage, it behooves every one first of all to remember Liberty; and -next the watch-word, Hebe; and let him who does not hear this, learn it -from those who do hear." The meaning of this proceeding was the same as -that of Themistocles at Artemisium; for either these words, being -concealed from the barbarians, would induce the Ionians to revolt, or, -if they should be reported to the barbarians, would make them -distrustful of the Greeks. Then the Greeks put their ships to shore, -landed on the beach, and drew up in order of battle. But when the -Persians saw them preparing for action, and knew that they had -admonished the Ionians, they suspected that the Samians favored the -Greeks, and took away their arms. - -Then the Greeks advanced toward the barbarians; and a rumor flew through -the whole army that a herald's staff was seen lying on the beach and -that the Greeks had fought and conquered the army of Mardonius in -Bœotia. Thus the interposition of heaven is manifest by many plain -signs; since on this same day on which the defeat at Platæa took place, -and when that at Mycale was just about to happen, a rumor reached the -Greeks in this latter place; so that the army was inspired with much -greater courage, and was more eager to meet danger. - -The Athenians, and those who were drawn up next to them, forming about -half the army, had to advance along the shore over level ground; but the -Lacedæmonians and their associates, along a ravine and some hills. So -that whilst the Lacedæmonians were making a circuit, those in the other -wing were already engaged. Now, so long as the bucklers of the Persians -remained standing, they defended themselves strenuously, and had not the -worst of the battle; but when the Athenians and their comrades mutually -encouraged one another, in order that the victory might belong to them, -and not to the Lacedæmonians, they flew with such vigor into the battle, -that the face of affairs was immediately changed. They broke through the -bucklers and fell in a body upon the Persians. They sustained the attack -and defended themselves for a time but at last fled to the -fortification. The Athenians, Corinthians, Sicyonians, and Trœzenians, -drawn up in order together, following close upon them, rushed into the -fortification at the same time. When the fortification was taken, the -barbarians no longer thought of resisting, but all except the Persians -betook themselves to flight; they, in small detachments, fought with the -Greeks who were continually rushing within the fortification. And of the -Persian generals, two made their escape, and two died. Artayntes and -Ithramitres, commanders of the naval forces escaped; but Mardontes, and -Tigranes, generals of the land army, died fighting. While the Persians -were still fighting, the Lacedæmonians came up, and assisted in -accomplishing the rest. Of the Greeks themselves many fell on this -occasion, especially the Sicyonians, and their general Perilaus. The -Samians, who were in the camp of the Medes and had been deprived of -their arms, as soon as they saw the battle turning, did all they could, -wishing to help the Greeks; and the rest of the Ionians, as the Samians -led the way, fled from the Persians and attacked the barbarians. The -Milesians had been appointed to guard the passes for the Persians so -that in the event of failure they might have guides to conduct them to -the heights of Mycale. They, however, did every thing contrary to what -was ordered; guiding them in their flight by other ways which led to the -enemy, and at last themselves assisted in slaying them. Thus Ionia -revolted a second time from the Persians. In this battle of the Greeks, -the Athenians most distinguished themselves. When they had killed most -of the barbarians, some fighting and others flying, they brought out all -the booty on the beach, including several chests of money, and burnt the -ships and the whole fortification. Then they took into their alliance -the Samians, Chians, Lesbians, and other islanders, who were then -serving with the Greeks, bound them by pledges and oaths that they would -remain firm and not revolt; then sailed to the Hellespont, and home. - -[Illustration: BAS-RELIEF OF THE MUSES.] - - - - -SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN HERODOTUS. - - -GREEKS. - - ------------------------------------------------ - _Peloponnesus._ - - ------------------------------------------------ - B.C. - Rape of Io from Argos 1687 - Pelops conq. the Pelopon 1362 - Eurystheus conquered 1311 - Rape of Helen 1290 - Aristodemus conq. the Pelo. 1190 - - _Lacedæmon._ | _Corinth._ - | - Procles and Eurysthenes | Oligarchy of - kings 1178 | Bacchiadæ. - Theras col. Callista | Cypselus born 700 - (Thera) 1150 | - Lycurgus 884 | Seizes the - Battus migrates | trannny 663 - from Cal. and | Periander 633 - founds Cyrene 632 | Banishes - First war with | Lycophron 575 - Tegea 620 | Sends 300 - Ariston and | Corcyræan - Anaxandrides, | boys to - kings of Lacedæmon 574 | Alyattes 565 - Ally with Crœsus 554 | Dies 563 - | Miltiades, son - Tegea taken 546 | of Cypselus, - War with Argives | founds - about Thyrea 545 | Chersonesus 560 - Send troops ag't. | - Polycrates 525 | - Demaratus 520 | Stesagoras - Cleomenes 515 | succeeds 531 - Dorieus migrates | - to Libya 515 | Miltiades, son of - Cleo. violates the | Cimon, succeeds - Argive grove 514 | 515 - Cleomenes expels | - Clisthenes | - from Athens 508 | Takes Lemnos 510 - Invades Attica 507 | - Demaratus exiled 492 | Retires before the - | Scythians 507 - Leotychides king 492 | - Cleomenes kills | Escapes from the - himself 490 | Persians to - Leonidas slain at | Imbros 497 - Thermopylæ 480 | - Pausanias wins | - at Platæa 479 | At the battle - Leotychides at | of Salamis 480 - Mycale 479 | - - ---------------------------+------------------------- - _Attica, Bœotia, | _Greeks in Asia - Phocis, Ætolia, etc._ | and the Islands._ - ---------------------------+------------------------- - B.C. | B.C. - Deucalion 1570 | Ion goes to Asia 1391 - Cecrops 1550 | - Erectheus 1510 | Æolian migrations - Ion, son of Xuthus 1427 | under Orestes, - Rape of Medea by the | Penthilus, and - Argonauts 1349 | Echelatus 1210-1174 - Theseus defeated | - Eurystheus 1311 | Ionian migrations - Decaleans give up | (driven from the - Helen to the Tyndaridæ | Pelop. by the - 1296 | Achæans) 1130 - Pelasgians expelled | - from Attica, conquer | Dorian migration - Lemnos 1162 | Samians reach - Codrus 1153 | Tartessus 640 - Rape of Ath. women | Thrasybulus 625 - from Brauron 1152 | Conquered by - Alcmæon, the last | Crœsus - Archon 683 | Conquered by - Conspiracy of Ceylon 612 | Harpagus 542 - Legislation of Solon 594 | Phocæans defeat - Megacles mar. Clisthenes' | Carthaginians, - daughter 570 | etc. - Pisistratus, tyrant 561 | Found Hyela 535 - Expelled 559 | Polycrates tyrant - Re-established 555 | at Samos 532-523 - Re-expelled 553 | - Regains it 542 | Samians found - Dies 528 | Cydonia 524 - Hipparchus succeeds 528 | Syloson obtains - Assassina. of Cimon 527 | Samos 512 - Hipparchus assassinated | Ionians commence - 514 | disturbances 504 - Hippias succeeds 514 | - Expelled 510 | Burn Sardis 503 - Factions of Clisthenes | Joined by the - and Isagoras 509 | Cyprians 502 - Clisthenes expelled 508 | Miletus taken 498 - Inv. of Cleomenes 507 | Aristagoras slain 498 - Athenians defeat the | - Bœotians, invade | Samians take Zancle 497 - Eubœa, and conquer | Chios, Tenedos, - the Chalcidians 506 | etc., taken by - Miltiades gains the | the Persians 497 - battle of Marathon 490 | Phocians defeat - Dies 489 | Thessalians 482 - Xerxes takes Athens 480 | - Battle of Salamis 480 | Ionians join the - Mardonius retakes | allies at Mycale 479 - Athens 479 | - - -BARBARIANs - - -------------------+---------------------+------------------- - | | _Scythians - _Phœnicians._ | _Egyptians._ | and - | | Cimmerians._ - -------------------+---------------------+------------------- - | | - Migrated | God-kings, | Cimmerians - from the | 17570 | invade - Erythræan | to | Asia, - to | 15570. | but - Phoenicia, | | expelled - about | Menes | by the - 2267. | to | Scythians - | Mœris, | about - Colonized | 2235 | 624. - Thasos, | to | - 1550. | 1416. | Scythians - | | rule - Founded | Sesostris | Upper - Carthage, | to | Asia, - 819. | Sethon, | 624 - | 1416 | to - Circumnavigate | to | 596. - Libya, | 671. | - 609. | | Invaded - | Twelve kings | by - | to | Darius, - | Amasis | 508. - | 671 | - | to | Invade - | 525. | the - | | Chersonesus; - | | Miltiades - | | retires, - | | 507. - - -----------------------------------------+----------------- - | - _Assyrians and Babylonians._ | _Lydians._ - | - -----------------------------------------+----------------- - B.C. | - Empire 1221-711 | Atyadæ to - Semiramis 747-733 | 1221. - Medic revolt 711 | Heraclidæ - | 1221-716. - _Babylonia._ | _Media, etc._ | Gyges, 716. - | | Ardys, 678. - Nitocris, | Deioces, 700. | Cimmerians - 604-561. | Div. the Medes. | take Sardis, - Turns the | Phraortes, 647. | 634. - Euphrates | Invades Assyria | Sadyattes, - and improves | Perished before | 629. - Babylon. | Nineveh. | Milesian war, - | Cyaxares, 625. | 622-610. - Labynetus | Conq. Assyria. | Alyattes, 617. - (Belshazzar), | Besieges | Drove out - son of | Nineveh, 603. | Cimmerians, - Nitocris, | Scythian invasion, | 613. - succeeds. | 624-596. | War with - Arbitrates | Astyages, 585. | Cyaxares, 602. - between | CYRUS born, | Crœsus, 560. - Cyaxares | 571. | - and | King in sport, | Conquers - Alyattes. | 561. | Greeks. - | | - | | Visited by - | | Solon. - | _Persian Empire_ | - -CYRUS, king 550. - -Attacked by Crœsus. Conquers Lydia, and takes Sardis. Mazares punishes -Lydian rebels. Harpagus takes Phocæa, conquers Ionia and Æolis. - -Babylon taken by Cyrus, 536. - -Massagetan expedition. Cyrus slain, 530. - -CAMBYSES, 530-523. Conquers Egypt, 525. Unsuccessful expedition against -the Ethiopians and Ammonians. Wounds Apis. Goes mad. Slays his brother -Smerdis. Marries and kills his sister. Magian revolt. Dies, 523. - -SMERDIS MAGUS, 523. Conspiracy of the Seven. Death of the Magi. - -DARIUS, 522-485. Sends Democydes to spy Greece. Babylonian revolt. -Babylon taken by Zopyrus, 516. Restores Syloson to Samos, 512. Barca -conquered, 512. Invades Scythia, 508. Megabazus subdues Thrace. Otanes -subdues Lemnos and Imbros. Disturbances in Ionia. Burning of Sardis, -503. Cyprians join the revolt, 502; conquered, 501. Miletus taken, 498. -Pacification of Ionia, 497. Mardonius marches against Greece, 495. -Wrecked at Athos. Darius sends to Greece for earth and water, 493. -Expedition of Datis and Artaphernes, 492; enslave Naxos and Eretria, -490. Marathon, 490. Preparations for another invasion, 489. Egyptian -revolt, 486. - -XERXES, 485-479. Subdues Egypt, 484. Prepares for a Greek expedition. -Leaves Susa, April, 481. Winters at Sardis. Battle of Thermopylæ, 480. -Takes Athens, 480. Battle of Salamis, Sept., 480. Retires to Asia. -Mardonius defeated at Platæa, and the Persian fleet at Mycale, the same -day, Sept. 22, 479. - - - - - HERODOTEAN WEIGHTS AND MONEY, DRY AND LIQUID MEASURES, - AND MEASUREMENTS OF LENGTH. - - -_Eubœic or Attic Silver Weights and Money._ - - WEIGHT (Avoirdupois). VALUE. - lbs. oz. grs. - 1 Obol — — 11.08 $.033 - 6 Obols 1 Drachma — — 66.5 .198 - 100 Drachmæ 1 Mina — 15 33.75 19.784 - 60 Minæ 1 Talent 56 15¼ 100.32 1187.00 - -_Æginetan Silver Weights and Money._ - - lbs. oz. grs. - 1 Obol — — 16 $.04½ - 6 Obols 1 Drachma — — 96 27.00 - 100 Drachmæ 1 Mina 1 5¾ 78.96 — - 60 Minæ 1 Talent 82 3¾ 30.46 1620.00 - -The gold Stater of Crœsus and the gold Daric are each supposed to be -worth about 20 Attic silver drachmæ, or about $4.00 in our money. - -Herodotus makes the Babylonian Talent equal to 70 Eubœic Minæ, but -Hussey calculates its weight at 71_lbs._ 1½_oz._ 69.45_grs._ If, -however, these are reckoned by comparison with our gold money, they are -worth much more. - - -_Attic Dry Measures._ - - Gallons. Quarts. - 1 Chœnix — 1 - 48 Chœnices 1 Medimnus 12 — - 1 Medimnus and } - 3 Chœnices } 1 Persian Artaba 12 3 - -_Liquid Measures._ - - Gallons. Pints. - 1 Chœnix — 1½ - 48 Chœnices 1 Amphora 9 — - -Hesychius considers the Aryster to be the same as the Cotyla, which -Hussey calculates to hold half a pint. - -_Measures of Length._ - - Miles. Yards. Feet. Inches. - 1 Digit (finger's breadth) — — — .7584 - 4 Digits 1 Palm (hand-breadth) — — — 3.0336 - 3 Palms 1 Span — — — 9.1008 - 4 Palms 1 Foot — — 1 0.135 - 2 Spans or 6 Palms 1 Cubit — — 1 6.2016 - 1 Cubit and 6 Digits 1 Royal Cubit — — 1 8.4768 - 4 Cubits 1 Fathom (Orgya) — — 6 0.81 - 100 Feet or 16⅔ Orgyæ 1 Plethrum — 33 2 1.5 - 6 Plethra 1 Stadium — 202 0 9 - 30 Stadia 1 Persian Parasan 3 787 1 6 - 2 Parasangs 1 Schœnus 6½ 494 3 0 - -The Egyptian Cubit contained nearly 17¾ inches. - -The Arura contained 21,904 square English feet, or a fraction over half -an acre. - -[30] Hegesistratus means "leader of an army." - - - - -UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME. - - -PLUTARCH FOR BOYS AND GIRLS. Selected and edited by Prof. John S. White. -Quarto, with many illustrations $3 00. - -This edition contains all the "Lives" and "Parallels" in Plutarch's own -words, with such omissions only as were necessary to adapt them for -young readers. There is also an Introduction and Life of Plutarch by the -editor. As a standard work, adapted to both boys and girls, its wealth -of anecdote and faithful portrayal of character render it peculiarly -valuable. - -"Precious ore and no dross."—_Home Journal._ - -"It is a pleasure to see in so beautiful and elegant a form, one -of the great books of the world. The best Plutarch for young -readers."—_Literary World._ - -"Shows admirable scholarship and judgment."—_The Critic._ - - G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, - NEW YORK AND LONDON. - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Boys' and Girls' Herodotus, by John S. 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} - .x-large { font-size: x-large; } - .small { font-size: small; } - .x-small { font-size: x-small; } - .gap-above { margin-top: 2em; } - -@media handheld { - .image-float-right { - float: none; - text-align: center; - margin-left: 0; - } - .chapt-begin { - page-break-before: always; - } - .h2.no-break { - page-break-before: avoid; - } - } - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's The Boys' and Girls' Herodotus, by John S. White - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Boys' and Girls' Herodotus - Being Parts of the History of Herodotus Edited for Boys and Girls - -Author: John S. White - -Release Date: October 16, 2017 [EBook #55758] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' HERODOTUS *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Chris Pinfield and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div id="tnote"> - -<p>Transcriber's Note</p> - -<p>Apparent typographical errors have been corrected. The inconsistent use -of hyphens has been retained, as has the use of both "king" and "King". -A phrase in black letter font has been bolded.</p> - -<p>An advertisement for another work by the same author has been shifted to -the back of the book.</p> - -<p>The illustration titled "ALPHABET" does not identify which alphabet it -is, but it appears to illustrate Egyptian hieroglyphics.</p> - -<p>The "Synchronistical Table of the Principal Events in Herodotus" -towards the end of the book extends over two pages in small font: one on -the Greeks and one on the "Barbarians". The text on the Persian Empire -is spread over several columns on the second page. In this version the -table on each page has been split into two, and the text on the Persian -Empire placed at the end.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="section"><a name="frontis" id="frontis"></a></div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="600" height="411" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>THE PYRAMIDS AND SPHINX.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="front"> - - <h1><span class="small">THE</span><br /> - BOYS' AND GIRLS'<br /> - HERODOTUS</h1> - - <p class="x-small">BEING</p> - - <p>PARTS OF THE HISTORY OF HERODOTUS</p> - - <p class="smcap">Edited for Boys and Girls, with an Introduction</p> - - <p class="x-small">BY</p> - - <p>JOHN S. WHITE, LL.D.<br /> - <span class="x-small">HEAD-MASTER, - BERKELEY SCHOOL; EDITOR OF THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' PLUTARCH</span></p> - - <p><i>WITH FIFTY ILLUSTRATIONS</i></p> - - <hr /> - - <p class="gap-above"><span class="small">NEW YORK & LONDON</span><br /> - G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS<br /> - <span class="small"><b>The Knickerbocker Press</b><br /> - 1884</span></p> - - <p class="gap-above"><span class="small">COPYRIGHT BY</span><br /> - G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS<br /> - <span class="small">1884</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">{iii}</a></div> - -<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2> - -<p><span class="smcap">Imagine</span> yourself in the city of Athens near the close of the -year 446 <small>B.C.</small> The proud city, after many years of supremacy over -the whole of Central Greece, has passed her zenith, and is surely -on the decline. She has never recovered from the blow received -at Coronea. The year has been one of gloom and foreboding. -The coming spring will bring the end of the five years' truce; and -an invasion from the Peloponnesus is imminent. But, as the centre -of learning, refinement, and the arts, the lustre of her fame is yet -undimmed, and men of education throughout the world deem their -lives incomplete until they have sought and reached this intellectual -Mecca. During this year a stranger from Halicarnassus, in -Asia Minor, after many years of travel in Asia, Scythia, Libya, -Egypt, and Magna Græcia, has taken up his abode at Athens. He -is still a young man, hardly thirty-seven, yet his fame is that of the -first and greatest of historians. Dramatists and poets immortal -there have been, but never man has written such exquisite prose. -Twenty centuries and more shall wear away, and his history will -be read in a hundred different tongues, as well as in the beautiful -and simple Greek that he wrote. His name will grow into a -household word; the school-boy will revel in his delightful tales, -and wise men will call him the Father of History! For weeks the -people of Athens have listened entranced to the public reading of -his great work, and now the Assembly has passed a decree tendering -to him the city's thanks, together with a most substantial gift in -recognition of his talents—a purse of money equal to twelve -thousand American dollars.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">{iv}</a></span> -Such is the account which Eusebius gives, and others to whom -we may fairly accord belief; and it adds no slight tinge of romance -to the picture to discover among the listening throng the figure of -the boy Thucydides, moved to tears by the recital, who then and -there received the impulse that made of him also a great student -and writer of history. Herodotus, noticing how intensely his -reading had affected the youth, turned to Olorus, the father of -Thucydides, who was standing near, and said: "Olorus, thy son's -soul yearns after knowledge."</p> - -<p>Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus, 484 <small>B.C.</small>, and died -at Thurium in Italy, about the year 425. As in the case of -Plutarch, our knowledge of his personal history is very meagre, -aside from the little we glean from his own writings. His parents, -Lyxes and Rhœo, appear to have been of high rank and consideration -in Halicarnassus, and possessed of ample means; and his -acquaintance both at home and in Athens was of the best. A -lover of poetry and a poet by nature, the whole plan of his work, -the tone and character of his thoughts, and a multitude of words -and expressions, show him to have been perfectly familiar with the -Homeric writings. There is scarcely an author previous to his time -with whose works he does not appear to have been thoroughly -acquainted. Hecatæus, to be sure, was almost the only writer of -prose who had attained any distinction, for prose composition was -practically in its infancy; but from him and from several others, too -obscure even to be named, he freely quotes, while the poets, -Hesiod, Olen, Musæus, Archilochus, the authors of the "Cypria" and -the "Epigoni," Alcæus, Sappho, Solon, Æsop, Aristeas, Simonides -of Ceos, Phrynichus, Æschylus, and Pindar, are referred to, or -quoted, in such a way as to show an intimate acquaintance with -their works.</p> - -<p>The design of Herodotus was to record the struggles between -the Greeks and barbarians, but, in carrying it out, as Wheeler, the -English analyst of the writings of Herodotus, has happily expressed -it, he is perpetually led to trace the causes of the great events of -his history; to recount the origin of that mighty contest between -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">{v}</a></span> -liberty and despotism which marked the whole period; to describe -the wondrous manners and mysterious religions of nations, and the -marvellous geography and fabulous productions of the various -countries, as each appeared on the great arena; to tell to an inquisitive -and credulous people of cities vast as provinces and -splendid as empires; of stupendous walls, temples and pyramids; -of dreams, omens, and warnings from the dead; of obscure traditions -and their exact accomplishment;—and thus to prepare -their minds for the most wonderful story in the annals of men, -when all Asia united in one endless array to crush the states of -Greece; when armies bridged the seas and navies sailed through -mountains; when proud, stubborn-hearted men arose amid anxiety, -terror, confusion, and despair, and staked their lives and homes -against the overwhelming power of a foreign despot, till Heaven -itself sympathized with their struggles, and the winds and waves -delivered their country, and opened the way to victory and revenge.</p> - -<p>The personal character of Herodotus, reflected from every page -that he wrote, renders his vivid story all the more happily suited -to the reading and study of boys and girls. He is as honest as -the sun; equally impartial to friends and foes; candid in the statement -of both sides of a question; and an artist withal in the gift -of delineating a character or a people with a few rapid strokes, so -bold and masterly that the sketch is placed before you with stereoscopic -distinctness. For so early a writer he presents a surprising -unity of plan, combined with a variety of detail that is amazing. -What if he does crowd and enrich his story with a world of anecdote? -What if he feels bound always to paint for you the customs, -manners, dress, and peculiarities of a people before he begins their -history? This very biographical style is the charm of his pen. -Like the flowers of the magnolia-tree, his bright stories and vivid -descriptions at times almost overwhelm the root and branch of his -narrative; yet, after all, we remember the magnolia more because -of its cloud of snowy bloom in the few fleeting days of May than -for all its green and shade in the other months.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">{vi}</a></span> -Herodotus, to be sure, lacks that far-seeing faculty of discerning -accurately the real causes of great movements, wars, and migrations -of men—a faculty possessed pre-eminently by Thucydides -and largely by Xenophon, but he is equally far removed from the -coldness of the one and the ostentatious display of the other. He -is above all things natural, simple, and direct. "He writes," says -Aristotle, "sentences which have a continuous flow, and which end -only when the sense is complete."</p> - -<p>I have allowed Herodotus, as I did Plutarch, to tell you his -story in his own words, as closely as the English idiom can reproduce -the spirit and flow of the Greek, calling gratefully to my aid -the labors of such students, analysts, and translators of Herodotus -as Rawlinson, Dahlmann, Cary, and Wheeler; and I have discarded -from the text only what is indelicate to the modern ear, or -what the young reader might find tedious, redundant, or irrelevant -to the main story. But so small a part comes under this head, -that I am sure I can fairly say to you: "This is Herodotus himself." -If you read him through and do not like him, who will be -the disappointed one? Not you, but I!</p> - -<p class="gap-above"><span class="smcap">New York</span>, <i>June 15, 1884</i>.</p> - -<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> - -<table class="toc" summary="ToC"> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num x-small">CHAPTER</td> - <td colspan="2" class="pag x-small">PAGE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="book">BOOK I.—CLIO</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">I.</td> - <td class="title">Origin of the War between the Greeks and Barbarians</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">II.</td> - <td class="title">History of Lydia</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">III.</td> - <td class="title">Origin of Athens and Sparta</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">IV.</td> - <td class="title">Conquest of Lydia by Cyrus</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">V.</td> - <td class="title">History of the Medes to the Reign of Cyrus</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">VI.</td> - <td class="title">The Asiatic Greeks and the Lydian Revolt</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">VII.</td> - <td class="title">The Conquest of Assyria and the War with the Massagetæ</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="book">BOOK II.—EUTERPE.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">I.</td> - <td class="title">Physical History of Egypt</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">II.</td> - <td class="title">Religion, Manners, Customs, Dress, and Animals of the Egyptians</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">III.</td> - <td class="title">God-Kings Prior to Menes</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">IV.</td> - <td class="title">First Line of 330 Kings, only Three Mentioned</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">V.</td> - <td class="title">From Sesostris to Sethon</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">VI.</td> - <td class="title">Third Line from the Twelve Kings to Amasis</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="book">BOOK III.—THALIA.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">I.</td> - <td class="title">Expeditions of Cambyses</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">II.</td> - <td class="title">Usurpation of Smerdis the Magus and Accession of Darius</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">III.</td> - <td class="title">Indians, Arabians, and Ethiopians</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">IV.</td> - <td class="title">Reign of Darius to the Taking of Babylon</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="book">BOOK IV.—MELPOMENE.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">I.</td> - <td class="title">Description of Scythia and the Neighboring Nations</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">II.</td> - <td class="title">Invasion of Scythia by Darius</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">III.</td> - <td class="title">Description of Libya</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="book">BOOK V.—TERPSICHORE.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">I.</td> - <td class="title">Conquests of the Generals of Darius</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">II.</td> - <td class="title">The Ionian Revolt</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="book">BOOK VI.—ERATO.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">I.</td> - <td class="title">The Suppression of the Ionian Revolt</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">II.</td> - <td class="title">Expedition of Mardonius</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">III.</td> - <td class="title">Expedition of Datis and Artaphernes; The Battle of Marathon</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="book">BOOK VII.—POLYMNIA.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">I.</td> - <td class="title">Death of Darius and Reign of Xerxes</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">II.</td> - <td class="title">Battle of Thermopylæ</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="book">BOOK VIII.—URANIA.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">I.</td> - <td class="title">The Invasion of Attica and the Battle of Salamis</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_292">292</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">II.</td> - <td class="title">Xerxes' Retreat</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_302">302</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="book">BOOK IX.—CALLIOPE.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">I.</td> - <td class="title">The War Continued; Battle of Platæa and Siege of Thebes</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="chap-num">II.</td> - <td class="title">The Battle of Mycale</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="2" class="title2">Synchronistical Table of the Principal Events in Herodotus</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="2" class="title2">Herodotean Weights and Money, - Dry and Liquid Measures, and Measurements of Lengths</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> - -<table class="toi" summary="ToI"> - -<tr> - <td colspan="2" class="pag x-small">PAGE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">The Pyramids and Sphinx</td> - <td class="pag small"><a href="#frontis"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Offering at the Temple of Delphi</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Athens from Mount Hymettus</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Assyrian Warriors in a Chariot</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Sphinx from S. W. Palace (Nimroud)</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Egyptian Hare</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Winged Human-Headed Lion</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Sepulchral Vases</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Map of Ægyptus</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">The Two Great Pyramids at the Time of the Inundation</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Nile Boat</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">The Trochilus</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Spearing the Crocodile</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Head of Rameses II.</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Bust of Thothmes I.</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Paris Carrying Away Helen</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Bes and Hi</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">The Great Pyramid, without the Surface Stone</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Section of the Great Pyramid</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Section of Gallery in Pyramid</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Hall of Columns in the Great Temple of Karnak</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Egyptian Bell Capitals</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Harpoon and Fish-Hooks</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Egyptian Helmets</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">The Great Sphinx</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Egyptian Pottery</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Sand Storm in the Desert</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Attack on Fort</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">The Obelisk</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Mameluke Tomb, Cairo</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Egyptian War Chariot, Warrior, and Horse</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Military Drum</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Alphabet</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Infantry Drilled by Sergeant</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Light-Armed Troops Marching</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Olive Trees</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Head-Dress of a Riding Horse</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Amphitheatre at Pola</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Ruins of an Ancient Temple in Corinth</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Tripolitza</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">The Tomb of Jonah, Konyunjik, and the Ruins Opposite Mosul</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Bridge over the Gortynius</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Cyclopean Walls at Cephalloma</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_281">281</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Island and Castle of Corfu</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Bridge at Corfu</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Plains of Argos</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Ancient Greek Walls Restored</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Celes Ridden by a Cupid</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Bœotia</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Coat of Mail</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">The Fisherman</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_313">313</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Juno</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Elegant Vases and Amphoræ</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="title">Bas-Relief of the Muses</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">{1}</a></div> - -<p class="gap-above center x-large">HERODOTUS.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2><i>BOOK I. CLIO.</i></h2> - -<h3>CHAPTER I.<br /> -<small>ORIGIN OF THE WAR BETWEEN THE GREEKS AND BARBARIANS.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">This</span> is a publication of the researches of Herodotus of Halicarnassus, -made in order that the actions of men may not be effaced -by time, and that the great and wondrous deeds displayed both by -Greeks and barbarians<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_1" id="Ref_1" href="#Foot_1">[1]</a></span> -may not be deprived of renown; and, -furthermore, that the cause for which they waged war upon each -other may be known.</p> - -<p>The learned among the Persians assert that the Phœnicians -were the original authors of the quarrel; that they migrated from -that which is called the Red Sea to the Mediterranean and, having -settled in the country which they now inhabit, forthwith applied -themselves to distant voyages; and that they exported Egyptian -and Assyrian merchandise, touching at other places, and also at -Argos. Argos, at that period, surpassed in every respect all those -states which are now comprehended under the general appellation -of Greece. They say, that on their arrival at Argos, the Phœnicians -exposed their merchandise for sale, and that on the fifth or sixth -day after their arrival, when they had almost disposed of their cargo, -a great number of women came down to the sea-shore, and among -them Io the daughter of the king Inachus. While these women -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">{2}</a></span> -were standing near the stern of the vessel, and were bargaining -for such things as most pleased them, the Phœnicians made an -attack upon them. Most of the women escaped, but Io with some -others was seized. Then the traders hurried on board and set -sail for Egypt. Thus the Persians say that Io went to Egypt, and -that this was the beginning of wrongs. After this certain Greeks -(for they are unable to tell their name), having touched at -Tyre in Phœnicia, carried off the king's daughter Europa. These -must have been Cretans. Thus far they say that they had only -returned like for like, but that after this the Greeks were guilty of -the second provocation; for having sailed down in a vessel of war -to Æa, a city of Colchis on the river Phasis, when they had accomplished -the more immediate object of their expedition, they carried -off the king's daughter Medea; and the king of Colchis, having -despatched a herald to Greece, demanded satisfaction and the -restitution of the princess; but the Greeks replied, that as they of -Asia had not given satisfaction for the stealing of Io, they would -not give any to them. In the second generation after this, Alexander, -the son of Priam, having heard of these events, was desirous -of obtaining a wife from Greece by means of violence, being fully -persuaded that he should not have to give satisfaction, since the -Greeks had not done so. When, therefore, he had carried off -Helen, the Greeks immediately sent messengers to demand her -back again and require satisfaction; but when they brought forward -these demands they were met with this reply: "You who -have not yourselves given satisfaction, nor made it when demanded, -now wish others to give it to you." After this the Greeks were -greatly to blame, for they levied war against Asia before the -Asiatics did upon Europe. Now, to carry off women by violence -the Persians think is the act of wicked men; to trouble one's self -about avenging them when so carried off is the act of foolish ones; -and to pay no regard to them when carried off, of wise men: for -it is clear, that if they had not been willing, they could not have -been carried off. Accordingly the Persians say, that they of Asia -made no account of women that were carried off; but that the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">{3}</a></span> -Greeks for the sake of a Lacedæmonian woman assembled a -mighty fleet, sailed to Asia, and overthrew the empire of Priam. -From this event they had always considered the Greeks as their -enemies: for the Persians claim Asia, and the barbarous nations -that inhabit it, as their own, and consider Europe and the people -of Greece as totally distinct.</p> - -<p>Such is the Persian account; and to the capture of Troy they -ascribe the commencement of their enmity to the Greeks. As relates -to Io, the Phœnicians do not agree with this account of the -Persians but affirm that she voluntarily sailed away with the -traders. I, however, am not going to inquire further as to facts; -but having pointed out the person whom I myself know to have -been the first guilty of injustice toward the Greeks, I will then proceed -with my history, touching as well on the small as the great -estates of men: for of those that were formerly powerful many -have become weak, and some that were formerly weak became -powerful in my time. Knowing, therefore, the precarious nature of -human prosperity, I shall commemorate both alike.</p> - -<p>Crœsus was a Lydian by birth, son of Alyattes, and sovereign -of the nations on this side the river Halys. This river flowing from -the south between the Syrians<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_2" id="Ref_2" href="#Foot_2">[2]</a></span> -and Paphlagonians, empties itself -northward into the Euxine Sea. This Crœsus was the first of the -barbarians whom we know of that subjected some of the Greeks -to the payment of tribute, and formed alliances with others. He -subdued the Ionians and Æolians, and those of the Dorians who -had settled in Asia, and formed an alliance with the Lacedæmonians; -but before his reign all the Greeks were free.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">{4}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER II.<br /> -<small>HISTORY OF LYDIA.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> government, which formerly belonged to the Heraclidæ, -passed to the family of Crœsus, who were called Mermnadæ. -Candaules, whom the Greeks call Myrsilus, was tyrant of Sardis, -and a descendant of Alcæus, son of Hercules. For Agron, son of -Ninus, grandson of Belus, great-grandson of Alcæus, was the first -of the Heraclidæ who became king of Sardis; and Candaules, son -of Myrsus, was the last. They who ruled over this country before -Agron, were descendants of Lydus, son of Atys, from whom this -whole people, anciently called Mæonians, derived the name of -Lydians. The Heraclidæ, descended from a female slave of Jardanus -and Hercules, having been intrusted with the government by these -princes, retained the supreme power in obedience to the declaration -of an oracle: they reigned for twenty-two generations, a space -of five hundred and five years, the son succeeding to the father to -the time of Candaules, son of Myrsus. Candaules was murdered -by his favorite, Gyges, who thus obtained the kingdom, -and was confirmed in it by the oracle at Delphi. For -when the Lydians resented the murder of Candaules, and were -up in arms, the partisans of Gyges and the other Lydians came to -the following agreement, that if the oracle should pronounce him -king of the Lydians, he should reign; if not, he should restore the -power to the Heraclidæ. The oracle answered that Gyges should -become king. But the Pythian added this, "that the Heraclidæ -should be avenged on the fifth descendant of Gyges." Of this prediction -neither the Lydians nor their kings took any notice until it -was actually accomplished.</p> - -<p>Thus the Mermnadæ deprived the Heraclidæ of the supreme -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">{5}</a></span> -power. Gyges sent many offerings to Delphi; indeed most of the -silver offerings at Delphi are his; and besides the silver, he gave -a vast quantity of gold; among the rest six bowls of gold, which -now stand in the treasury of the Corinthians, and are thirty -talents in weight; though, to tell the truth, this treasury does not -belong to the people of Corinth, but Cypselus son of Eetion. -Gyges was the first of the barbarians of whom we know who made -offerings at Delphi, except Midas, son of Gordius, the king of -Phrygia, who dedicated the royal throne, on which he used to sit -and administer justice, a piece of workmanship deserving of admiration. -The throne stands in the same place as the bowls of -Gyges.</p> - -<p>Periander the son of Cypselus was king of Corinth, and the -Corinthians say (and the Lesbians confirm their account) that a -wonderful prodigy occurred in his life-time. Arion of Methymna, -second to none of his time in accompanying the harp, and the first -who composed, named, and represented the dithyrambus at -Corinth, was carried to Tænarus on the back of a dolphin. -Arion, having continued a long time with Periander, made a voyage -to Italy and Sicily, acquired great wealth there, and determined -to return to Corinth. He set out from Tarentum, and hired -a ship of some Corinthians, because he put more confidence in -them than in any other nation; but these men, when they were in -the open sea, conspired together to throw him overboard and seize -his money. Learning of this he offered them his money, and -entreated them to spare his life. But he could not prevail on -them; the sailors ordered him either to kill himself, that he might -be buried ashore, or to leap immediately into the sea. Arion, -reduced to this strait, entreated them, since such was their determination, -to permit him to stand on the stern of the vessel in his full -dress and sing, and he promised when he had sung to make way -with himself. The seamen, pleased that they should hear the -best singer in the world, retired from the stern to the middle of -the vessel. Arion put on all his robes, took his harp in his hands, -stood on the rowing benches and went through the Orthian strain; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">{6}</a></span> -the strain ended, he leaped into the sea as he was, in full dress; -the sailors continuing their voyage to Corinth: but a dolphin -caught him upon his back, and carried him to Tænarus; so that, -having landed, he proceeded to Corinth in his full dress, and upon -his arrival there, related all that happened. Periander gave no -credit to his relation, put Arion under close confinement, and -watched anxiously for the arrival of the seamen. When they -appeared, he summoned them and inquired if they could give any -account of Arion. They answered that he was safe in Italy, -and that they had left him flourishing at Tarentum. At that -instant Arion appeared before them just as he was when he leaped -into the sea; at which they were so astonished that, being fully -convicted, they could no longer deny the fact. These things are -reported by the Corinthians and Lesbians; and there is a little -bronze statue of Arion at Tænarus, representing a man sitting on -a dolphin.</p> - -<p>Alyattes the Lydian and father of Crœsus, having waged a long -war against the Milesians, died after a reign of fifty-seven years. -Once upon recovery from an illness he dedicated at Delphi a large -silver bowl, with a saucer of iron inlaid; an object that deserves -attention above all the offerings at Delphi. It was made by -Glaucus the Chian, who first invented the art of inlaying iron.</p> - -<p>At the death of Alyattes, Crœsus, then thirty-five years of age, -succeeded to the kingdom. He attacked the Ephesians before -any other Greek people. The Ephesians being besieged by him, -consecrated their city to Diana, by fastening a rope from the -temple to the wall. The distance between the old town, which -was then besieged, and the temple, is seven stadia. Crœsus afterward -attacked the several cities of the Ionians and Æolians in -succession, alleging different pretences against the various states. -After he had reduced the Greeks in Asia to the payment of tribute, -he formed a design to build ships and attack the Islanders. But -when all things were ready for the building of ships, Bias of Priene -(or, as others say, Pittacus of Mitylene) arriving at Sardis, put a -stop to his ship-building by making this reply, when Crœsus -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">{7}</a></span> -inquired if he had any news from Greece: "O king, the Islanders -are enlisting a large body of cavalry, with the intention of making -war upon you and Sardis." Crœsus, thinking he had spoken the -truth, said: "May the gods put such a thought into the Islanders, -as to attack the sons of the Lydians with horse." The other -answering said: "Sire, you appear to wish above all things to -see the Islanders on horseback upon the continent; and not without -reason. But what can you imagine the Islanders more earnestly -desire, after having heard of your resolution to build a fleet -to attack them, than to catch the Lydians at sea, that they may -revenge on you the cause of those Greeks who dwell on the continent, -whom you hold in subjection?" Crœsus, much pleased with -the conclusion, and convinced, (for he appeared to speak to the -purpose,) put a stop to the ship-building, and made an alliance with -the Ionians that inhabit the islands.</p> - -<p>In course of time, when nearly all the nations that dwell within -the river Halys, except the Cilicians and Lycians, were subdued, -and Crœsus had added them to the Lydians, all the wise men of -that time, as each had opportunity, came from Greece to Sardis, -which had then attained to the highest degree of prosperity; and -amongst them Solon, an Athenian, who made laws for the Athenians -at their request, and absented himself for ten years, sailing -away under pretence of seeing the world, that he might not be -compelled to abrogate any of the laws he had established: for -the Athenians could not do it themselves, since they were bound -by solemn oaths to observe for ten years whatever laws Solon -should enact for them. On his arrival Solon was hospitably entertained -by Crœsus, and on the third or fourth day, by order of the -king, the attendants conducted him round the treasury, and -showed him all their grand and costly contents. After he had seen -and examined every thing sufficiently, Crœsus asked him this question: -"My Athenian guest, the great fame as well of your wisdom -as of your travels has reached even to us; I am therefore desirous -of asking you who is the most happy man you have seen?" He -asked this question because he thought himself the most happy -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">{8}</a></span> -of men. But Solon, speaking the truth freely, without any flattery, -answered, "Tellus, the Athenian." Crœsus, astonished at his answer, -eagerly asked him: "On what account do you deem Tellus -the happiest?" He replied: "Tellus, in the first place, lived in a -well-governed commonwealth; had sons who were virtuous and -good; and he saw children born to them all, and all surviving. In -the next place, when he had lived as happily as the condition of human -affairs will permit, he ended his life in a most glorious manner. -For coming to the assistance of the Athenians in a battle -with their neighbors of Eleusis, he put the enemy to flight and -died nobly. The Athenians buried him at the public charge in the -place where he fell, and honored him greatly."</p> - -<p>When Solon had roused the attention of Crœsus by relating -many happy circumstances concerning Tellus, Crœsus, expecting -at least to obtain the second place, asked, whom he had seen next -to him. "Cleobis," said he, "and Biton, natives of Argos, for they -possessed a sufficient fortune, and had withal such strength of body, -that they were both alike victorious in the public games; and -moreover the following story is related of them:—When the Argives -were celebrating a festival of Juno, it was necessary that their -mother should be drawn to the temple in a chariot; but the oxen -did not come from the field in time, the young men therefore put -themselves beneath the yoke, and drew the car in which their -mother sat; and having conveyed it forty-five stades, they reached -the temple. After they had done this in sight of the assembled -people, a most happy termination was put to their lives; and in -them the Deity clearly showed that it is better for a man to die -than to live. For the men of Argos, who stood round, commended -the strength of the youths, and the women blessed her as the -mother of such sons; but the mother herself, transported with joy -both on account of the action and its renown, stood before the -image and prayed that the goddess would grant to Cleobis and -Biton, her own sons, who had so highly honored her, the greatest -blessing man could receive. After this prayer, when they had -sacrificed and partaken of the feast, the youths fell asleep in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">{9}</a></span> -temple itself, and never woke more, but met with such a termination -of life. Upon this the Argives, in commemoration of their -filial affection, caused their statues to be made and dedicated at -Delphi."</p> - -<p>Thus Solon adjudged the second place of felicity to these -youths. Then Crœsus was enraged, and said: "My Athenian -friend, is my happiness then so slighted by you as worth nothing, -that you do not think me of so much value as private men?" He -answered: "Crœsus, do you inquire of me concerning human affairs—of -me, who know that the divinity is always jealous, and delights -in confusion. For in lapse of time men are constrained to -see many things they would not willingly see, and to suffer -many things they would not willingly suffer. Now I put the -term of man's life at seventy years; these seventy years then give -twenty-five thousand two hundred days, without including the intercalary -months of the leap years, and if we add that month -to every other year, in order that the seasons arriving at the -proper time may agree, the intercalary months will be thirty-five -more in the seventy years, and the days of these months will be -one thousand and fifty. Yet in all this number of twenty-six -thousand two hundred and fifty days, that compose these seventy -years, one day produces nothing exactly the same as another. -Thus, then, O Crœsus, man is altogether the sport of fortune. You -appear to me to be master of immense treasures, and king of many -nations; but as relates to what you inquire of me, I cannot say, -till I hear that you have ended your life happily. For the richest -of men is not more happy than he that has a sufficiency for a day, -unless good fortune attend him to the grave, so that he ends his -life in happiness. Many men who abound in wealth are unhappy; -and many who have only a moderate competency are fortunate. -He that abounds in wealth, and is yet unhappy, surpasses the other -only in two things; but the other surpasses the wealthy and the -miserable in many things. The former indeed is better able to -gratify desire and to bear the blow of adversity. But the latter -surpasses him in this; he is not indeed equally able to bear misfortune -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">{10}</a></span> -or satisfy desire, but his good fortune wards off these things -from him; and he enjoys the full use of his limbs, he is free from -disease and misfortune, he is blessed with good children and a fine -form, and if, in addition to all these things, he shall end his life -well, he is the man you seek and may justly be called happy; but -before he die we ought to suspend our judgment, and not pronounce -him happy, but fortunate."</p> - -<p>When Solon had spoken thus to Crœsus, Crœsus did not confer -any favor on him, but holding him in no account, dismissed him -as a very ignorant man, because he overlooked present prosperity, -and bade men look to the end of every thing.</p> - -<p>After the departure of Solon, the indignation of the gods fell -heavily upon Crœsus, probably because he thought himself the -most happy of all men. A dream soon after visited him while -sleeping, which pointed out to him the truth of the misfortunes that -were about to befall him in the person of one of his sons. For -Crœsus had two sons, of whom one was grievously afflicted, for he -was dumb; but the other, whose name was Atys, far surpassed all -the young men of his age. Now the dream intimated to Crœsus -that he would lose this Atys by a wound inflicted with the point of -an iron weapon. When he awoke, and had considered the matter -with himself, he relieved Atys from the command of the Lydian -troops, and never after sent him out on that business; and causing -all spears, lances, and such other weapons as men use in war, to be -removed from the men's apartments, he had them laid up in private -chambers, that none of them being suspended might fall upon his -son. While Crœsus was engaged with the nuptials of his son, a -man oppressed by misfortune, and whose hands were polluted, a -Phrygian by birth, and of royal family, arrived at Sardis. This -man, having come to the palace of Crœsus, sought permission to -obtain purification according to the custom of the country. Crœsus -purified him, performing the usual ceremony, and then inquired: -"Stranger, who art thou, and from what part of Phrygia hast thou -come as a suppliant to my hearth? and what man or woman hast -thou slain?" The stranger answered: "I am the son of Gordius, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">{11}</a></span> -and grandson of Midas, and am called Adrastus. I unwittingly -slew my own brother, and being banished by my father and -deprived of every thing, I have come hither." Then said Crœsus: -"You were born of parents who are our friends, and you have -come to friends, among whom, if you will stay, you shall want -nothing; and by bearing your misfortune as lightly as possible you -will be the greatest gainer." So Adrastus took up his abode in -the palace of Crœsus.</p> - -<p>At this time a boar of enormous size appeared in Mysian -Olympus, and rushing down from that mountain, ravaged the fields -of the Mysians. The Mysians, though they often went out against -him, could not hurt him, but suffered much from him. At last -deputies from the Mysians came to Crœsus and said: "O king, -a boar of enormous size has appeared in our country, and ravages -our fields: though we have often endeavored to take him, we cannot. -We therefore earnestly beg, that you will send with us your -son and some chosen youths with dogs, that we may drive him -from the country." But Crœsus, remembering the warning of his -dream, answered: "Make no further mention of my son; I shall -not send him with you, because he is lately married, but I will give -you chosen Lydians, and the whole hunting train, and will order -them to assist you with their best endeavors in driving the monster -from your country." The Mysians were content with this, but -Atys, who had heard of their request, came in, and earnestly protested: -"Father, you used to permit me to signalize myself in -the two most noble and becoming exercises of war and hunting; -but now you keep me excluded from both, without having observed -in me either cowardice or want of spirit. How will men look on -me when I go or return from the forum? What kind of a man -shall I appear to my fellow-citizens? What to my newly married -wife? Either let me then go to this hunt, or convince me that -it is better for me to do as you would have me." "My son," said -Crœsus, "I act thus, not because I have seen any cowardice, or -any thing else unbecoming in you; but a vision in a dream warned -me that you would be short-lived, and would die by the point of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">{12}</a></span> -an iron weapon. It was on account of this that I hastened your -marriage, and now refuse to send you on this expedition; taking -care to preserve you, if by any means I can, as long as I live; for -you are my only son; the other, who is deprived of his hearing, -I consider as lost." The youth answered: "You are not to blame, -my father, if after such a dream you take so much care of me; but -you say the dream signified that I should die by the point of an -iron weapon. What hand, or what pointed iron weapon has a -boar, to occasion such fears in you? Had it said I should lose my -life by a tusk, you might do as you have, but it said by the point -of a weapon; then since we have not to contend against men, let -me go." "You have outdone me," replied Crœsus, "in explaining -the import of the dream, you shall go to the chase."</p> - -<p>Then turning to the Phrygian Adrastus, he exclaimed: "Adrastus, -I beg you to be my son's guardian, when he goes to the chase, -and take care that no skulking villains show themselves in the way to -do him harm. Besides, you ought to go for your own sake, where you -may signalize yourself by your exploits; this was the glory of your -ancestors, and you are besides in full vigor." Adrastus answered: -"On no other account, my lord, would I take part in this enterprise; -it is not fitting that one in my unfortunate circumstances -should join with his prosperous compeers. But since you urge me, -I ought to oblige you. Rest assured, that your son, whom you bid -me take care of, shall, as far as his guardian is concerned, return -to you uninjured."</p> - -<p>Then all went away, well provided with chosen youths and dogs, -and, having arrived at Mount Olympus, they sought the wild beast, -found him and encircled him around. Among the rest, the stranger, -Adrastus, throwing his javelin at the boar, missed him, and struck -the son of Crœsus; thus fulfilling the warning of the dream. Upon -this, some one ran off to tell Crœsus what had happened, and having -arrived at Sardis, gave him an account of the action, and of -his son's fate. Crœsus, exceedingly distressed by the death of his -son, lamented it the more bitterly, because he fell by the hand of -one, whom he himself had purified from blood; and vehemently -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">{13}</a></span> -deploring his misfortune, he invoked Jove the Expiator, attesting -what he had suffered by this stranger. He invoked also the same -deity, by the name of the god of hospitality and private friendship: -as the god of hospitality, because by receiving a stranger into his -house, he had unawares fostered the murderer of his son; as the -god of private friendship, because, having sent him as a guardian, -he found him his greatest enemy. Soon the Lydians approached, -bearing the corpse, and behind it followed the murderer. He, -having advanced in front of the body, delivered himself up to -Crœsus, stretching out his hands and begging him to kill him upon -it; for he ought to live no longer. When Crœsus heard this, -though his own affliction was so great, he pitied Adrastus, and -said to him: "You have made me full satisfaction by condemning -yourself to die. You are not the author of this misfortune, except -as far as you were the involuntary agent; but that god, whoever -he was, that long since foreshowed what was about to happen." -Crœsus buried his son as the dignity of his birth required; but the -son of Gordius, when all was silent around, judging himself the -most heavily afflicted of all men, killed himself on the tomb.</p> - -<p>Some time after, the overthrow of the kingdom of Astyages, -son of Cyaxares, by Cyrus, son of Cambyses, and the growing -power of the Persians, put an end to the grief of Crœsus; and it -entered into his thoughts whether he could by any means check -the growing power of the Persians before they became formidable. -After he had formed this purpose, he determined to make trial as -well of the oracles in Greece as of that in Lydia; and sent different -persons to different places, some to Delphi, some to Abæ of Phocis, -and some to Dodona.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/p014.jpg" width="400" height="269" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>OFFERING AT THE TEMPLE OF DELPHI.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>He endeavored to propitiate the god at Delphi by magnificent -sacrifices; for he offered three thousand head of cattle of every -kind fit for sacrifice, and having heaped up a great pile, he burned -on it beds of gold and silver, vials of gold, and robes of purple and -garments; hoping by that means more completely to conciliate -the god. When the sacrifice was ended, having melted down a -vast quantity of gold, he cast half-bricks from it; of which the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">{14}</a></span> -longest were six palms in length, the shortest three, and in thickness -one palm: their number was one hundred and seventeen: -four of these, of pure gold, weighed each two talents and a half; -the other half-bricks of pale gold, weighed two talents each. He -made also the figure of a lion of fine gold, weighing ten talents. -This lion, when the temple of Delphi was burned down, fell from -the half-bricks, for it had been placed on them; and it now lies in -the treasury of the Corinthians, weighing six talents and a half; -for three talents and a half were melted from it. Crœsus, having -finished these things sent them to Delphi, and with them these following: -two large bowls, one of gold, the other of silver; that of -gold was placed on the right hand as you enter the temple, and -that of silver on the left; but these also were removed when the -temple was burnt down; and the golden one weighing eight -talents and a half and twelve minæ, is placed in the treasury of -Clazomenæ; the silver one, containing six hundred amphoræ, lies -in a corner of the vestibule, and is used by the Delphians for mixing -the wine on the Theophanian festival. The Delphians say it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">{15}</a></span> -was the workmanship of Theodorus the Samian; and I think so -too, for it appears to be no common work. He also sent four -casks of silver, which stand in the treasury of the Corinthians; and -he dedicated two lustral vases, one of gold, the other of silver: on -the golden one is an inscription, OF THE LACEDÆMONIANS, -who say that it was their offering, but wrongfully, for it was given -by Crœsus: a certain Delphian made the inscription, in order to -please the Lacedæmonians; I know his name, but forbear to -mention it. The boy, indeed, through whose hand the water flows, -is their gift; but neither of the lustral vases. At the same time -Crœsus sent many other offerings without an inscription: amongst -them some round silver covers; and a statue of a woman in gold -three cubits high, which the Delphians say is the image of -Crœsus's baking woman; and to all these things he added the -necklaces and girdles of his wife.</p> - -<p>These were the offerings he sent to Delphi; and to Amphiaraus, -having ascertained his virtue and sufferings, he dedicated a shield -all of gold, and a lance of solid gold, the shaft as well as the points -being of gold. These are now at Thebes in the temple of Ismenian -Apollo.</p> - -<p>To the Lydians appointed to convey these presents to the -temples, Crœsus gave it in charge to inquire of the oracles, whether -he should make war on the Persians, and if he should invite any -other nation as an ally. Accordingly, when the Lydians arrived at -the places to which they were sent, and had dedicated the offerings, -they consulted the oracles, saying: "Crœsus, king of the -Lydians and of other Nations, esteeming these to be the only -oracles among men, sends these presents in acknowledgment of -your discoveries; and now asks whether he should lead an army -against the Persians, and whether he should join any auxiliary -forces with his own?" Such were their questions; and the -opinions of both oracles concurred, foretelling: "That if Crœsus -should make war on the Persians, he would destroy a mighty empire;" -and they advised him to engage the most powerful of the -Greeks in his alliance. When Crœsus heard the answers that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">{16}</a></span> -were brought back, he was beyond measure delighted with the -oracles; and fully expecting that he should destroy the kingdom -of Cyrus, he again sent to Delphi, and having ascertained the -number of the inhabitants, presented each of them with two staters -of gold. In return for this, the Delphians gave Crœsus and the -Lydians the right to consult the oracle before any others, and exemption -from tribute, and the first seats in the temple, and the -privilege of being made citizens of Delphi, to as many as should -desire it in all future time. Crœsus, having made these presents -to the Delphians, sent a third time to consult the oracle. For -after he had ascertained the veracity of the oracle, he had frequent -recourse to it. His demand now was whether he should long enjoy -the kingdom? to which the Pythian gave this answer: "When -a mule shall become king of the Medes, then, tender-footed Lydian, -flee over pebbly Hermus, nor tarry, nor blush to be a coward." -With this answer, when reported to him, Crœsus was more than -ever delighted, thinking that a mule should never be king of the -Medes instead of a man, and consequently that neither he nor his -posterity should ever be deprived of the kingdom. In the next -place he began to enquire carefully who were the most powerful -of the Greeks whom he might gain over as allies; and on inquiry -found that the Lacedæmonians and Athenians excelled the rest, -the former being of Dorian, the latter of Ionic descent: for these -were in ancient time the most distinguished, the latter being a -Pelasgian, the other an Hellenic nation.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">{17}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER III.<br /> -<small>ORIGIN OF ATHENS AND SPARTA.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">What</span> language the Pelasgians used I cannot with certainty -affirm; but if I may form a conjecture from those Pelasgians who -now exist, and inhabit the town of Crestona above the Tyrrhenians, -and from those Pelasgians settled at Placia and Scylace on the -Hellespont, they spoke a barbarous language. And if the whole -Pelasgian body did so, the Attic race, being Pelasgic, must at the -time they changed into Hellenes have altered their language. The -Hellenic race, however, appears to have used the same language -from the time they became a people. At first insignificant, yet -from a small beginning they have increased to a multitude of -nations, chiefly by a union with many other barbarous nations. -But the Pelasgic race, being barbarous, never increased to any -great extent.</p> - -<p>Of these nations Crœsus learnt that the Attic was oppressed -and distracted by Pisistratus, then reigning in Athens. When a -quarrel happened between those who dwelt on the sea-coast and -the Athenians, the former headed by Megacles, the latter by -Lycurgus, Pisistratus aiming at the sovereign power, formed a -third party; and having assembled his partisans under color of -protecting those of the mountains, he contrived this stratagem. -He wounded himself and his mules, drove his chariot into the -public square, as if he had escaped from enemies that designed to -murder him in his way to the country, and besought the people -to grant him a guard, having before acquired renown in the expedition -against Megara, by taking its port, Nisæa, and displaying -other illustrious deeds. The people of Athens, deceived by this, -gave him such of the citizens as he selected, who were not to be -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">{18}</a></span> -his javelin men, but club-bearers, for they attended him with clubs -of wood. These men, joining in revolt with Pisistratus seized the -Acropolis, and Pisistratus assumed the government of the Athenians, -neither disturbing the existing magistracies, nor altering the -laws; but he administered the government according to the established -institutions, liberally and well. Not long after, the partisans -of Megacles and Lycurgus became reconciled and drove him out. -In this manner Pisistratus first made himself master of Athens, -and, his power not being firmly rooted, lost it. But those who -expelled Pisistratus quarrelled anew with one another; and -Megacles, harassed by the sedition, sent a herald to Pisistratus to -ask if he was willing to marry his daughter, on condition of having -the sovereignty. Pisistratus having accepted the proposal and -agreed to his terms, in order to his restitution, they contrive the -most ridiculous project that, I think, was ever imagined; especially -if we consider, that the Greeks have from old been distinguished -from the barbarians as being more acute and free from all foolish -simplicity, and more particularly as they played this trick upon the -Athenians, who are esteemed among the wisest of the Greeks. In -the Pæanean tribe was a woman named Phya, four cubits high, -wanting three fingers, and in other respects handsome; this woman -they dressed in a complete suit of armor, placed her on a chariot, -and having shown her beforehand how to assume the most becoming -demeanor, they drove her to the city, with heralds before, who, -on their arrival in the city, proclaimed what was ordered in these -terms: "O Athenians, receive with kind wishes Pisistratus whom -Minerva herself honoring above all men now conducts back to -her own citadel." The report was presently spread among the -people that Minerva was bringing back Pisistratus; and the people -in the city believing this woman to be the goddess, both adored a -human being, and received Pisistratus.</p> - -<div class="section"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a></div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/p019.jpg" width="600" height="423" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>ATHENS FROM MOUNT HYMETTUS.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Pisistratus having recovered the sovereignty in the manner -above described, married the daughter of Megacles in accordance -with his agreement, but Pisistratus soon hearing of designs that -were being formed against him, withdrew entirely out of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">{20}</a></span> -country, and arriving in Eretria, consulted with his sons. The -opinion of Hippias prevailing, to recover the kingdom, they immediately -began to collect contributions from those cities which felt -any gratitude to them for benefits received; and though many -gave large sums, the Thebans surpassed the rest in liberality. At -length (not to give a detailed account) time passed, and every -thing was ready for their return, for Argive mercenaries arrived -from Peloponnesus; and a man of Naxos, named Lygdamis, who -had come as a volunteer, and brought both men and money, -showed great zeal in the cause. Setting out from Eretria, -they came back in the eleventh year of their exile, and first of all -possessed themselves of Marathon. While they lay encamped in -this place, their partisans from the city joined them, and others -from the various districts, to whom a tyranny was more welcome -than liberty, crowded to them. The Athenians of the city, on the -other hand, had shown very little concern all the time Pisistratus -was collecting money, or even when he took possession of Marathon. -But when they heard that he was marching from Marathon -against the city, they at length went out to resist him; and -marched with their whole force against the invaders. In the mean -time Pisistratus's party, advanced towards the city, and arrived in -a body at the temple of the Pallenian Minerva, and there took up -their position. Here Amphilytus, a prophet of Acarnania, moved -by divine impulse, approached Pisistratus, and pronounced this -oracle in hexameter verse:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse quote">The cast is thrown—the net expanded wide—</div> -<div class="verse">At night the tunnies in the snare will glide."</div> -</div> - -</div> -</div> - -<p>He, inspired by the god, uttered this prophecy; and Pisistratus, -comprehending the oracle, and saying he accepted the -omen, led on his army. The Athenians of the city were then -engaged at their breakfast, and some of them after breakfast had -betaken themselves to dice, others to sleep; so that the army of -Pisistratus, falling upon them by surprise, soon put them to flight. -As they were flying, Pisistratus contrived a clever stratagem to -prevent their rallying again, and forced them thoroughly to disperse. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">{21}</a></span> -He mounted his sons on horseback and sent them forward. They, -overtaking the fugitives, spoke as they were ordered by Pisistratus, -bidding them be of good cheer, and to depart every man to -his own home. The Athenians yielded a ready obedience, and -thus Pisistratus, having a third time possessed himself of Athens, -secured his power, more firmly, both by the aid of auxiliary forces, -and by revenues partly collected at home and partly drawn from -the mines along the river Strymon. He seized as hostages the -sons of the Athenians who had held out against him, and had not -immediately fled, and settled them at Naxos. He moreover purified -the island of Delos, in obedience to an oracle, and having dug -up the dead bodies, as far as the prospect from the temple reached, -he removed them to another part of Delos.</p> - -<p>Crœsus was informed that such was, at that time, the condition -of the Athenians; and that the Lacedæmonians, having extricated -themselves out of great difficulties, had gained the mastery over -the Tegeans in war. They had formerly been governed by the -worst laws of all the people in Greece, both as regarded their -dealings with one another, and in holding no intercourse with -strangers. But they changed to a good government in the following -manner: Lycurgus, a man much esteemed by the Spartans, -having arrived at Delphi to consult the oracle, no sooner -entered the temple, than the Pythian spoke as follows:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse quote">"Lycurgus, thou art come to my rich fane,</div> -<div class="verse">Beloved by Zeus and all the heavenly train,</div> -<div class="verse">But whether god or man I fear to say,</div> -<div class="verse">Yet god thou must be more than mortal clay."</div> -</div> - -</div> -</div> - -<p class="nodent">Some men say that, besides this, the Pythian also communicated -to him that form of government now established among the Spartans. -But, as the Lacedæmonians themselves affirm, Lycurgus -being appointed guardian to his nephew Leobotis,<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_3" id="Ref_3" href="#Foot_3">[3]</a></span> -king of Sparta, brought those institutions from Crete. For as soon as he -had taken the guardianship, he altered all their customs, and took -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">{22}</a></span> -care that no one should transgress them. Afterwards he established -military regulations, and instituted the ephori and senators. -Thus, having changed their laws, they established good institutions -in their stead. They erected a temple to Lycurgus after his -death, and held him in the highest reverence. As they had a -good soil and abundant population, they quickly sprang up and -flourished. And now they were no longer content to live in -peace; but proudly considering themselves superior to the Arcadians, -they sent to consult the oracle at Delphi, touching the conquest -of the whole country of the Arcadians; and the Pythian -gave them this answer: "Dost thou ask of me Arcadia? thou -askest a great deal; I cannot grant it thee. There are many -acorn-eating men in Arcadia, who will hinder thee. But I do not -grudge thee all; I will give thee Tegea to dance on with beating -of the feet, and a fair plain to measure out by the rod." When -the Lacedæmonians heard this answer reported, they laid aside -their design against all Arcadia; and relying on an equivocal -oracle, led an army against Tegea only, carrying fetters with them, -as if they would surely reduce the Tegeans to slavery. But being -defeated in an engagement, as many of them as were taken alive, -were compelled to work, wearing the fetters they had brought, and -measuring the lands of the Tegeans with a rod. Those fetters in -which they were bound, were, even in my time, preserved in -Tegea, suspended around the temple of Alean Minerva.</p> - -<p>In the first war, therefore, they had constantly fought against -the Tegeans with ill success, but in the time of Crœsus, and during -the reign of Anaxandrides and Ariston at Lacedæmon, they at -length became superior in the following manner: When they had -always been worsted in battle by the Tegeans, they sent to enquire -of the oracle at Delphi, what god they should propitiate, in -order to become victorious over the Tegeans. The Pythian -answered, they should become so, when they had brought back the -bones of Orestes the son of Agamemnon. But as they were unable -to find the sepulchre of Orestes, they sent again to inquire -of the god in what spot Orestes lay interred, and the Pythian gave -this answer to the inquiries of those who came to consult her:</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">{23}</a></div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse quote">"Down in Arcadia's level plain I know,</div> -<div class="verse">Tegea lies:—and where woe lies on woe—</div> -<div class="verse">Where two bound winds impatient of the yoke,</div> -<div class="verse">Are forced to blow—where stroke replies to stroke:</div> -<div class="verse">Beneath the earth lies Agamemnon's son,</div> -<div class="verse">Bear him to Sparta and Tegea's won."</div> -</div> - -</div> -</div> - -<p class="nodent">When the Lacedæmonians heard this, they were as far off the discovery -as ever, though they searched every where, till Lichas, one -of the Spartans who are called Agathoergi, found it. These Agathoergi -consist of citizens who are discharged from serving in the -cavalry, such as are senior, five in every year. It is their duty -during the year in which they are discharged from the cavalry, -not to remain inactive, but go to different places where they are -sent by the Spartan commonwealth. Lichas, who was one of these -persons, discovered it in Tegea, both meeting with good fortune -and employing sagacity. For as the Lacedæmonians had at that -time intercourse with the Tegeans, he, coming to a smithy, looked -attentively at the iron being forged, and was struck with wonder -when he saw what was done. The smith perceiving his astonishment -desisted from his work, and said: "O Laconian stranger, you -would certainly have been astonished had you seen what I saw, -since you are so surprised at the working of iron. For as I was -endeavoring to sink a well in this enclosure, in digging, I came to -a coffin seven cubits long; and because I did not believe that men -were ever taller than they now are, I opened it and saw that the -body was equal to the coffin in length, and after I had measured -it I covered it up again." The man told him what he had seen, and -Lichas, reflecting on what was said, conjectured from the words of -the oracle, that this must be the body of Orestes, forming his conjecture -on the following reasons: seeing the smith's two bellows -he discerned in them the two winds, and in the anvil and hammer -the stroke answering to stroke, and in the iron that was being -forged the woe that lay on woe; representing it in this way, that -iron had been invented to the injury of man. He then returned -to Sparta, and gave the Lacedæmonians an account of the whole -matter; but they brought a feigned charge against him and sent -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">{24}</a></span> -him into banishment. He, going back to Tegea, related his misfortune -to the smith, and wished to hire the enclosure from him, -but he would not let it. But in time, when he had persuaded him, -he took up his abode there; and having opened the sepulchre and -collected the bones, he carried them away with him to Sparta. -From that time, whenever they made trial of each other's strength, -the Lacedæmonians were by far superior in war; and the greater -part of Peloponnesus had been already subdued by them.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">{25}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<small>CONQUEST OF LYDIA BY CYRUS.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Crœsus</span> being informed of all these things, sent ambassadors to -Sparta, with presents, and to request their alliance, having given -them orders what to say; and when they were arrived they spoke -as follows: "Crœsus, king of the Lydians and of other nations, has -sent us with this message: 'O Lacedæmonians, since the deity -has directed me by an oracle to unite myself to a Grecian friend, -therefore (for I am informed that you are pre-eminent in Greece), -I invite you in obedience to the oracle, being desirous of becoming -your friend and ally, without treachery or guile.'" But the -Lacedæmonians, who had before heard of the answer given by the -oracle to Crœsus, were gratified at the coming of the Lydians, and -exchanged pledges of friendship and alliance; and indeed certain -favors had been formerly conferred on them by Crœsus; for when -the Lacedæmonians sent to Sardis to purchase gold, wishing to -use it in erecting the statue of Apollo that now stands at Thornax -in Laconia, Crœsus gave it as a present to them. For this reason, -and because he had selected them from all the Greeks, and desired -their friendship, the Lacedæmonians accepted his offer of alliance; -and in the first place they promised to be ready at his summons; -and in the next, having made a great bronze bowl, capable of containing -three hundred amphoræ, and covered it outside to the rim -with various figures, they sent it to him, being desirous of making -Crœsus a present in return. But this bowl never reached Sardis, -for one of the two following reasons: the Lacedæmonians say, that -when the bowl, on its way to Sardis, was off Samos, the Samains -having heard of it, sailed out in long ships, and took it away by -force. On the other hand the Samains affirm, that when the Lacedæmonians -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">{26}</a></span> -who were conveying the bowl found they were too -late, and heard that Sardis was taken and Crœsus a prisoner, they -sold the bowl in Samos, and that some private persons, who bought -it dedicated it in the temple of Juno.</p> - -<p>Crœsus, mistaking the oracle, prepared to invade Cappadocia, -hoping to overthrow Cyrus and the power of the Persians. Whilst -Crœsus was preparing for his expedition against the Persians, a -Lydian named Sandanis, who before that time was esteemed a -wise man, and on this occasion acquired a very great name in -Lydia, gave him advice in these words: "O king, you are preparing -to make war against a people who wear leather trousers, -and the rest of their garments of leather; who inhabit a barren -country, and feed not on such things as they choose, but such as -they can get. Besides they do not habitually use wine, but drink -water; nor have they figs to eat, nor any thing that is good. In -the first place, then, if you should conquer, what will you take -from them, since they have nothing? On the other hand, if you -should be conquered, consider what good things you will lose. -For when they have tasted of our good things, they will become -fond of them, nor will they be driven from them. As for me, I -thank the gods, that they have not put it into the thoughts of the -Persians to make war on the Lydians." Sandanis did not, however, -persuade Crœsus, for he proceeded to invade Cappadocia, as -well from a desire of adding it to his own dominions, as a wish to -punish Cyrus on account of Astyages. For Cyrus, son of Cambyses, -had subjugated Astyages, son of Cyaxares, who was brother-in-law -of Crœsus, and king of Medes.</p> - -<p>Crœsus, alleging this against him, sent to ask the oracle, if he -should make war on the Persians; and when an ambiguous answer -came back, he, interpreting it to his own advantage, led his -army against the territory of the Persians. When he arrived at -the river Halys, Crœsus transported his forces, as I believe, by the -bridges which are now there. But the common opinion of the -Greeks is, that Thales the Milesian procured him a passage in the -following way: Whilst Crœsus was in doubt how his army should -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">{27}</a></span> -pass over the river, for they say that these bridges were not at that -time in existence, Thales, who was in the camp, caused the stream, -which flowed along the left of the army, to flow on the right instead. -He contrived it thus: having begun above the camp, he -dug a deep trench, in the shape of a half-moon, so that the river, -being turned into this from its old channel, might pass in the rear -of the camp pitched where it then was, and afterward, having -passed by the camp, might fall into its former course; so that as -soon as the river was divided into two streams it became fordable -in both. Some say, that the ancient channel of the river was entirely -dried up; but this I cannot assent to; for how then could -they have crossed it on their return?</p> - -<p>However, Crœsus, having passed the river with his army, came -to a place called Pteria, in Cappadocia. (Now Pteria is the -strongest position of the whole of this country, and is situated over -against Sinope, a city on the Euxine Sea.) Here he encamped -and ravaged the lands of the Syrians; and took the city of the -Pterians, and enslaved the inhabitants; he also took all the adjacent -places, and expelled the inhabitants, who had given him no -cause for blame. But Cyrus, assembling his own army, and taking -with him all who inhabited the intermediate country, went to meet -Crœsus. But before he began to advance, he sent heralds to the -Ionians, to persuade them to revolt from Crœsus, which the Ionians -refused to do. When Cyrus had come up and encamped -opposite Crœsus, they made trial of each other's strength on the -plains of Pteria; but when an obstinate battle took place, and many -fell on both sides, they at last parted, on the approach of night, -neither having been victorious.</p> - -<p>Crœsus laying the blame on his own army on account of the -smallness of its numbers, for his forces that engaged were far fewer -than those of Cyrus,—marched back to Sardis, designing to summon -the Egyptians according to treaty, and to require the presence -of the Lacedæmonians at a fixed time: having collected these together, -and assembled his own army, he purposed, when winter -was over, to attack the Persians in the beginning of the spring. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">{28}</a></span> -With this design, when he reached Sardis, he despatched ambassadors -to his different allies, requiring them to meet at Sardis before -the end of five months; but the army that was with him, and -that had fought with the Persians, which was composed of mercenary -troops, he entirely disbanded, not imagining that Cyrus, -who had come off on such equal terms, would venture to advance -upon Sardis. While Crœsus was forming these plans the whole -suburbs were filled with serpents, and when they appeared, the -horses, forsaking their pastures, came and devoured them. When -Crœsus beheld this, he considered it to be, as it really was, a -prodigy, and sent immediately to consult the interpreters at Telmessus; -but the messengers having arrived there, and learnt from -the Telmessians what the prodigy portended, were unable to report -it to Crœsus, for before they sailed back to Sardis, Crœsus had -been taken prisoner. The Telmessians had pronounced as follows: -"that Crœsus must expect a foreign army to invade his country, -which, on its arrival, would subdue the natives, because, they said, -the serpent is a son of the earth, but the horse is an enemy and a -stranger."</p> - -<p>Cyrus, as soon as Crœsus had retreated after the battle at Pteria, -having discovered that it was the intention of Crœsus to disband -his army, saw that it would be to his advantage to march with all -possible expedition on Sardis, before the forces of the Lydians -could be a second time assembled. Whereupon Crœsus, thrown -into great perplexity, seeing that matters had turned out contrary -to his expectations, drew out the Lydians to battle. At that time no -nation in Asia was more valiant and warlike than the Lydians. -Their mode of fighting was from on horseback; they were armed -with long lances, and managed their horses with admirable -address.</p> - -<p>The place where they met was the plain that lies before the city -of Sardis, which is extensive and bare; the Hyllus and several other -rivers flowing through it force a passage into the greatest, called -the Hermus, which, flowing from the sacred mountain of mother -Cybele, falls into the sea near the city of Phocæa. Here Cyrus, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">{29}</a></span> -when he saw the Lydians drawn up in order of battle, alarmed at -the cavalry, had recourse to the following stratagem, on the suggestion -of Harpagus, a Mede. Collecting together all the camels -that followed his army with provisions and baggage, and causing -their burdens to be taken off, he mounted men upon them equipped -in cavalry accoutrements, and ordered them to go in advance of -the rest of his army against the Lydian horse; his infantry he -bade follow the camels, and placed the whole of his cavalry behind -the infantry. When all were drawn up in order, he charged them -not to spare any of the Lydians, but to kill every one they met; -but on no account to kill Crœsus, even if he should offer resistance -when taken. He drew up the camels in the front of the cavalry -for this reason: a horse is afraid of a camel, and cannot endure -either to see its form or to scent its smell; this then would render -the cavalry useless to Crœsus, by which the Lydian expected to -signalize himself. Accordingly, when they joined battle, the horses -no sooner smelt the camels and saw them, than they wheeled -round, and the hopes of Crœsus were destroyed. Nevertheless, -the Lydians were not discouraged, but leaped from their horses -and engaged with the Persians on foot; but at last, when many -had fallen on both sides, the Lydians were put to flight, and being -shut up within the walls, were besieged by the Persians.</p> - -<p>Sardis was taken in the following manner. On the fourteenth -day after Crœsus had been besieged, Cyrus sent horsemen throughout -his army, and proclaimed that he would liberally reward the -man who should first mount the wall; upon this several attempts -were made, and as often failed; till, after the rest had desisted, a -Mardian, whose name was Hyrœades, endeavored to climb up on -that part of the citadel where no guard was stationed, for on that -side the citadel was precipitous and impracticable. Hyrœades had -seen a Lydian the day before come down this precipice for a helmet -that had rolled down, and carry it up again. He thereupon -ascended the same way, followed by divers Persians; and when -great numbers had gone up, Sardis was thus taken, and the whole -town plundered.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">{30}</a></span> -The following incidents befel Crœsus himself. He had a son of -whom I have before made mention, who was dumb. Now, in the -time of his former prosperity, Crœsus had done every thing he -could for him, and among other expedients had sent to consult the -oracle of Delphi concerning him; but the Pythian gave him this -answer:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse quote">"O foolish king of Lydia, do not seek</div> -<div class="verse">To hear thy son within thy palace speak!</div> -<div class="verse">Better for thee that pleasure to forego—</div> -<div class="verse">The day he speaks will be a day of woe."</div> -</div> - -</div> -</div> - -<p class="nodent">When the city was taken, one of the Persians, not knowing -Crœsus, was about to kill him; Crœsus, though he saw him approach, -took no heed of him, caring not if he should die by the -blow; but this speechless son of his, when he saw the Persian -advancing against him, through dread and anguish, burst into -speech, and said: "Man, kill not Crœsus." These were the first -words he ever uttered; but from that time he continued to speak -during the remainder of his life. So the Persians got possession -of Sardis, and made Crœsus prisoner, after he had reigned fourteen -years, been besieged fourteen days, and lost his great empire, -as the oracle had predicted. The Persians, having taken him, -conducted him to Cyrus; and he, having heaped up a great pile, -placed Crœsus upon it, bound with fetters, and with him fourteen -young Lydians; designing either to offer this sacrifice to some -god, as the first fruits of his victory, or wishing to perform a vow; -or perhaps, having heard that Crœsus was a religious person, he -placed him on the pile for the purpose of discovering whether any -deity would save him from being burned alive. When Crœsus -stood upon the pile, notwithstanding the weight of his misfortunes, -the words of Solon recurred to him, as spoken by inspiration of -the deity, that "No living man could be justly called happy." -When this occurred to him, it is said, that after a long silence he -recovered himself, and uttering a groan, thrice pronounced the -name of Solon; when Cyrus heard him, he commanded his interpreters -to ask Crœsus whom it was he called upon; Crœsus for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">{31}</a></span> -some time kept silence; but at last, being constrained to speak, -said: "I named a man, whose discourses I more desire all tyrants -might hear, than to be possessor of the greatest riches." When -he gave them this obscure answer, they again inquired what he -said, and were very importunate; he at length told them that -Solon, an Athenian, formerly visited him, and having viewed all -his treasures, made no account of them; telling, in a word, how -every thing had befallen him as Solon had warned him, though his -discourse related to all mankind as much as to himself, and especially -to those who imagine themselves happy. The pile now was -kindled, and the outer parts began to burn; when Cyrus, informed -by the interpreters of what Crœsus had said, relented, considering -that being but a man, he was yet going to burn another man alive, -who had been no way inferior to himself in prosperity; and moreover, -fearing retribution, and reflecting that nothing human is constant, -commanded the fire to be instantly extinguished, and Crœsus, -with those who were about him, to be taken down. But they with -all their endeavors were unable to master the fire. Crœsus, perceiving -that Cyrus had altered his resolution, when he saw every -man endeavoring to put out the fire, but unable to get the better -of it, shouted aloud, invoking Apollo, and besought him, if ever -any of his offerings had been agreeable to him, to protect and deliver -him from the present danger. And the Lydians relate, as he -with tears invoked the god, on a sudden clouds were seen gathering -in the air, which before was serene, and that a violent storm -burst forth and vehement rain fell and extinguished the flames; -by which Cyrus perceiving that Crœsus was beloved by the gods, -and a good man, when he had had him taken down from the pile, -asked him the following question: "Who persuaded you, Crœsus, -to invade my territories, and to become my enemy instead of my -friend?" He answered: "O king, I have done this for your good -but my own evil fortune, and the god of the Greeks who encouraged -me to make war is the cause of all. For no man is so void -of understanding as to prefer war before peace; for in the latter -children bury their fathers; in the former, fathers bury their children. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">{32}</a></span> -But, I suppose, it pleased the gods that these things should -be so."</p> - -<p>Cyrus, having set him at liberty, placed him by his own side, -and showed him great respect. But Crœsus, absorbed in thought -remained silent; and presently turning round and beholding the -Persians sacking the city of the Lydians, he said, "Does it become -me, O king, to tell you what is passing through my mind, or to -keep silence?" Cyrus bade him say with confidence whatever -he wished; upon which Crœsus asked him, "What is this vast -crowd so earnestly employed about?" He answered, "They are -sacking your city, and plundering your riches." "Not so," Crœsus -replied, "they are neither sacking my city, nor plundering my -riches, for they are no longer mine; they are ravaging what -belongs to you." The reply of Crœsus attracted the attention of -Cyrus; he therefore ordered all the rest to withdraw, and asked -Crœsus what he thought should be done in the present conjuncture. -He answered: "Since the gods have made me your servant, -I think it my duty to acquaint you, if I perceive anything -deserving of remark. The Persians, who are by nature overbearing, -are poor. If, therefore, you permit them to plunder and -possess great riches, you may expect the following results; whoso -acquires the greatest riches, be assured, will be ready to rebel. -Therefore, if you approve what I say, adopt the following plan: -place some of your body-guard as sentinels at every gate, with -orders to take the booty from all those who would go out, and to -acquaint them that the tenth must of necessity be consecrated to -Jupiter; thus you will not incur the odium of taking away their -property; and they, acknowledging your intention to be just, -will readily obey." Cyrus was exceedingly delighted at this suggestion, -and ordered his guards to carry it out, then turning to -Crœsus, he said: "Since you are resolved to display the deeds and -words of a true king, ask whatever boon you desire on the instant." -"Sir," he answered, "the most acceptable favor you can bestow -upon me is, to let me send my fetters to the god of the Greeks, -whom I have honored more than any other deity, and to ask him, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">{33}</a></span> -if it be his custom to deceive those who deserve well of him." -Certain Lydians were accordingly sent to Delphi, with orders to -lay his fetters at the entrance of the temple, and to ask the god, if -he were not ashamed to have encouraged Crœsus by his oracles -to make war on the Persians assuring him that he would put an -end to the power of Cyrus, of which war such were the first-fruits -(commanding them at these words to show the fetters), and at the -same time to ask if it were the custom of the Grecian gods to be -ungrateful. When the Lydians arrived at Delphi, and had delivered -their message, the Pythian is reported to have made this -answer: "The god himself even cannot avoid the decrees of -fate; and Crœsus has atoned for the crime of Gyges his ancestor in -the fifth generation, who, being one of the body-guard of the -Heraclidæ, murdered his master, Candaules, and usurped his dignity, -to which he had no right. But although Apollo was desirous -that the fall of Sardis might happen in the time of the sons of -Crœsus, and not during his reign, yet it was not in his power to -avert the fates; but so far as they allowed he accomplished, and -conferred the boon on him; for he delayed the capture of Sardis -for the space of three years. Let Crœsus know, therefore, that he -was taken prisoner three years later than the fates had ordained; -and in the next place, he came to his relief, when he was upon the -point of being burnt alive. Then, as to the prediction of the -oracle, Crœsus has no right to complain; for Apollo foretold him -that if he made war on the Persians, he would subvert a great -empire; and had he desired to be truly informed, he ought to have -sent again to inquire, whether his own or that of Cyrus was meant. -But since he neither understood the oracle, nor inquired again, let -him lay the blame on himself. And when he last consulted the -oracle, he did not understand the answer concerning the mule; -for Cyrus was that mule; inasmuch as he was born of parents of -different nations, the mother superior, but the father inferior. For -she was a Mede, and daughter of Astyages, king of Media; but -he was a Persian, subject to the Medes." When Crœsus heard this -reply of the priestess of Apollo, he acknowledged the fault to be -his and not the god's.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">{34}</a></span> -The customs of the Lydians differ little from those of the -Greeks. They are the first of all nations we know of that introduced -the art of coining gold and silver; and they were the first -retailers. The Lydians themselves say that the games which are -now common to themselves and the Greeks, were invented by -them during the reign of Atys, when a great scarcity of corn pervaded -all Lydia. For when they saw famine staring them in the -face they sought for remedies, and some devised one thing, some -another; and at that time the games of dice, knucklebones, ball, and -all other kinds of games except draughts, were invented, (for the -Lydians do not claim the invention of this ancient game,) and having -made these inventions to alleviate the famine, they employed -them as follows: they used to play one whole day that they might -not be in want of food; and on the next, they ate and abstained -from play. Thus they passed eighteen years; but when the evil -did not abate, but on the contrary, became still more virulent, their -king divided the whole people into two parts, and cast lots which -should remain and which quit the country, and over that part whose -lot it should be to stay he appointed himself king; and over that -part which was to emigrate he appointed his own son, whose name -was Tyrrhenus. Those to whose lot it fell to leave their country -went down to Smyrna, built ships, and having put all their movables -which were of use on board, set sail in search of food and land, till -having passed by many nations, they reached the Ombrici, where -they built towns, and dwell to this day. From being called Lydians, -they changed their name to one after the king's son, who led -them out; from him they gave themselves the appellation of -Tyrrhenians.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">{35}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER V.<br /> -<small>HISTORY OF THE MEDES TO THE REIGN OF CYRUS.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">My</span> history hence proceeds to inquire who Cyrus was that overthrew -the power of Crœsus, and how the Persians became masters -of Asia. In which narration I shall follow those Persians, who do -not wish to magnify the actions of Cyrus, but to relate the plain -truth; though I am aware that there are three other ways of relating -Cyrus's history. After the Assyrians had ruled over Upper -Asia five hundred and twenty years, the Medes first began to revolt -from them; and they it seems, in their struggle with the Assyrians -for liberty, proved themselves brave men; and having -shaken off the yoke, became free: afterward the other nations -also did the same as the Medes. When all throughout the continent -were independent, they were again reduced under a despotic -government. There was among the Medes a man famous for -wisdom, named Deioces, son of Phraortes. This Deioces, aiming at -absolute power, had recourse to the following plan. The Medes -were at that time distributed into villages, and Deioces, who was -already highly esteemed in his own district, applied himself with -great zeal to the exercise of justice; and this he did, since great -lawlessness prevailed throughout the whole of Media, and he knew -that injustice and justice are ever at variance. The Medes of the -same village, observing his conduct, chose him for their judge; and -he, constantly keeping the sovereign power in view, showed himself -upright and just. By this conduct he acquired no slight praise -from his fellow citizens, so much so that the inhabitants of other -villages, hearing that Deioces was the only one who judged uprightly, -having before met with unjust sentences, when they heard -of him gladly came from all parts to Deioces, in order to submit -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">{36}</a></span> -their quarrels to his decision; and at last they would commit the -decision to no one else. In the end, when the number of those -who had recourse to him continually increased as men heard of the -justice of his decisions, Deioces, seeing the whole devolved upon -himself, would no longer occupy the seat where he used to sit to -determine differences, and refused to act as judge any more, for it -was of no advantage to him to neglect his own affairs, and spend -the day in deciding the quarrels of others. Upon this, rapine and -lawlessness growing far more frequent throughout the villages than -before, the Medes called an assembly and consulted together about -the present state of things, but, as I suspect, the partisans of Deioces -spoke to the following purpose: "Since it is impossible for us to -inhabit the country if we continue in our present condition, let us -constitute a king over us, and so the country will be governed by -good laws, and we ourselves shall be able to attend to our business, -nor be any longer driven from our homes by lawlessness." By -some such words they persuaded them to submit to a kingly government. -Upon their immediately putting the question, whom -they should appoint king, Deioces was unanimously preferred and -commended: so that at last they agreed that he should be their -king. But he required them to build him a palace suitable to the -dignity of a king, and give him guards for security of his person. -The Medes accordingly did so: and built him a strong and spacious -palace in the part of the country that he selected, and permitted -him to choose guards for his person out of all the Medes. Being -thus possessed of the power, he compelled the Medes to build one -city, and having carefully adorned that, to pay less attention to the -others. As the Medes obeyed him in this also, he built lofty and -strong walls, which now go under the name of Ecbatana,<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_4" id="Ref_4" href="#Foot_4">[4]</a></span> -one placed in a circle within the other; and this fortification was so contrived, -that each circle was raised above the other by the height of -the battlements only. The situation of the ground, rising by an -easy ascent, was very favorable to the design. There were seven -circles altogether, the king's palace and the treasury, situated within -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">{37}</a></span> -the innermost of them. The largest of these walls was about equal -in circumference to the city of Athens; the battlements of the first -circle were white, of the second black, of the third purple, of the -fourth blue, of the fifth bright red. Thus the battlements of all -circles were painted with different colors; but the two last had -their battlements plated, the one with silver, the other with gold.<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_5" id="Ref_5" href="#Foot_5">[5]</a></span></p> - -<p>Deioces then built these fortifications for himself, and round his -own palace; and he commanded the rest of the people to fix their -habitations round the fortification; and when all the buildings were -completed he, for the first time, established the following regulations: -that no man should be admitted to the king's presence, but -every one should consult him by means of messengers, and, moreover, -that it should be accounted indecency for any one to laugh -or spit before him. He established such ceremony about his own -person, in order that those who were brought up with him, and of -no meaner family, nor inferior to him in manly qualities, might not, -when they saw him, grieve and conspire against him; but that he -might appear to be of a different nature to those who did not see -him. When he had established these regulations, and settled himself -in the tyranny, he was very severe in the distribution of justice. -And the parties contending were obliged to send him their case -in writing. All other things were regulated by him: so that, if he -received information that any man had injured another, he would -send for him, and punish him in proportion to his offence. For -this purpose he had spies and eaves-droppers in every part of his -dominions.</p> - -<p>Now Deioces collected the Medes into one nation, and ruled -over it. The following are the tribes of the Medes, the Busæ, Parataceni, -Struchates, Arizanti, Budii, and the Magi. Deioces had a -son, Phraortes, who, when his father died, after a reign of fifty-three -years, succeeded him in the kingdom; but having so succeeded, -he was not content to rule over the Medes only, but made -war on the Persians, and reduced them under the dominion of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">{38}</a></span> -Medes. And afterward being master of these two nations, both -of them powerful, he subdued Asia, attacking one nation after -another; till at last he invaded the Assyrians, who inhabited the -city of Nineveh, and having made war on them, perished with the -greater part of his army, after he had reigned twenty-two -years.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/p038.jpg" width="400" height="302" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>ASSYRIAN WARRIORS IN A CHARIOT.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>When Phraortes was dead, Cyaxares his son, grandson of -Deioces, succeeded him. He is said to have been more warlike -than his ancestors. He was the first to divide the people of Asia -into cohorts, and then into spearmen, archers, and cavalry; whereas -before they had been confusedly mixed together. It was he -that fought with the Lydians, when the day was turned into night, -as they were fighting; and who subjected the whole of Asia above -the river Halys. He assembled the forces of all his subjects, and -marched against Nineveh to avenge his father, and destroy that -city. He took Nineveh (how they took it, I will relate in another -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">{39}</a></span> -work),<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_6" id="Ref_6" href="#Foot_6">[6]</a></span> -and reduced the Assyrians into subjection, with the exception -of the Babylonian district. Having accomplished these things, -Cyaxares died, after a reign of forty years.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 250px;"> - <img src="images/p039.jpg" width="250" height="212" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>SPHINX FROM S. W. PALACE (NIMROUD).</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Astyages the son of Cyaxares succeeded him in the kingdom. -He had a daughter, to whom he gave the name of Mandane. -When she arrived at a marriageable age he gave her to no one of -the Medes who was worthy of her, but to a Persian, named Cambyses, -whom he found descended of a good family, and of a peaceful -disposition, deeming him far superior to a Mede of moderate -rank. In the first year after Mandane was married to Cambyses, -Astyages saw a vision: it appeared to him that a vine sprang -from his daughter, and spread over all Asia. Having seen this -and communicated it to the interpreters of dreams, he sent to -Persia for his daughter, and her son the infant Cyrus, and upon her -arrival he put her under a guard, resolving to destroy her child, -for the Magian interpreters had signified to him from his vision, -that the issue of his daughter would reign in his stead. Astyages -therefore, sent for Harpagus, a kinsman of his, and the most faithful -of all the Medes, and the manager of all his affairs, and said to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">{40}</a></span> -him: "Harpagus, on no account fail to perform the business I now -charge you with; nor expose me to danger by deceiving me; nor, -by preferring another, draw ruin upon thy own head. Take the -child of Mandane carry him to your own house and kill him, -and afterward bury him in whatever way you think fit." Harpagus -answered: "O king, you have never yet observed any ingratitude -in me, and I shall take care never to offend you for the future. If -it is your pleasure that this thing should be done, it is fitting that -I readily obey you." Harpagus, having given this answer, when -the child had been put into his hands, adorned as if for death, returned -home weeping; and upon his arrival he told his wife all -that Astyages had said. She asked him, "What then do you purpose -to do?" He answered: "Not as Astyages has commanded; -though he should be yet more outrageous and mad than he is, I will -not comply with his wishes, nor will I submit to him by performing -such a murder: and for many reasons I will not murder the child; -both because he is my own relation, and because Astyages is old, -and has no male offspring; besides, if, after his death, the sovereignty -should devolve on his daughter, whose son he would now -murder by my means, what else remains for me but the greatest -danger? It is necessary, however, for my safety that the child -should die, but as necessary that one of Astyages' people should be -the executioner, and not one of mine." He accordingly sent a -messenger for one of Astyages' herdsmen, who he knew grazed -his cattle on pastures most convenient for the purpose, and on -mountains abounding with wild beasts. His name was Mitradates, -and he had married his fellow-servant. The foot of the mountains -at which this herdsman grazed his cattle, lies to the north of Ecbatana, -toward the Euxine Sea. For the Medic territory on this side -toward the Saspires, is very mountainous, lofty, and covered with -forests; while all the rest of Media is level. When the herdsman, -summoned in great haste, arrived, Harpagus addressed him as -follows: "Astyages bids thee take this infant, and expose him on -the bleakest part of the mountains, that he may speedily perish; -and has charged me to add, that if thou by any means shouldst -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">{41}</a></span> -save the child, thou shalt die by the most cruel death; and I am -appointed to see the child exposed." The herdsman, having -heard these words, took the infant, returned by the same way, and -reached his cottage. It so happened that an infant of his own lay -dead at home. When he returned and came up to his wife she -asked him why Harpagus had sent for him in such haste. "Wife," -said he, "when I reached the city, I saw and heard what I wish I -had never seen, nor had ever befallen our masters. The whole -house of Harpagus was filled with lamentations; I, greatly alarmed, -went in, and as soon as I entered, I saw an infant lying before me, -panting and crying, dressed in gold and a robe of various colors. -Harpagus bade me to take up the child directly, and carry him -away, and expose him in the part of the mountain most frequented -by wild beasts; telling me at the same time, that it was Astyages -who imposed this task on me, and threatening the severest punishment -if I should fail to do it. I took up the infant and carried him -away, supposing him to belong to one of the servants; for I had -then no suspicion whence he came; though I was astonished at -seeing him dressed in gold and fine apparel; and also at the sorrow -which evidently prevailed in the house of Harpagus. But -soon after, on my way home, I learnt the whole truth, from a servant -who accompanied me out of the city, and delivered the child -into my hands; that he was born of Mandane, Astyages' daughter, -and of Cambyses son of Cyrus, and that Astyages had commanded -him to be put to death."</p> - -<p>As the herdsman uttered these last words, he uncovered the -child, and showed it to his wife; she seeing that the child was -large and of a beautiful form, embraced the knees of her husband, -and with tears besought him by no means to expose it. He said -that it was impossible to do otherwise; for spies would come from -Harpagus to see the thing done, and he must himself die the most -cruel death if he should fail to do it. "Since, then" said she "I cannot -persuade you not to expose the child, do this: take our own -dead child and expose it, and let us bring up the son of Astyages' -daughter as our own. Thus you will neither be convicted of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">{42}</a></span> -having wronged our masters, nor shall we have consulted ill for -our own interests; for the child that is dead will have a royal -burial, and the one that survives will not be deprived of life." The -herdsman, happy at the suggestion of his wife, gave to her the -child that he had brought for the purpose of putting to death, and -his own, which was dead, he put into the basket in which he had -brought the other, and having dressed it in all the finery of the -other child, exposed it in the most desolate part of the mountains. -On the third day after the infant had been exposed, the herdsman, -having left one of his assistants as a guard, went to the city, and -arriving at the house of Harpagus, told him he was ready to show -the dead body of the infant. Harpagus accordingly sent some of -the most trusty of his guards, and by that means saw the body, and -buried the herdsman's child. The other, who afterwards had the -name of Cyrus, was brought up by the herdsman's wife, who gave -him some other name, and not that of Cyrus.</p> - -<p>When the child attained the age of ten years, the following -circumstance discovered him. He was playing in the village in -which the ox-stalls were, with boys of his own age in the road. -The boys had chosen this reputed son of the herdsman for their -king. He in sport appointed some of them to build houses, and -others to be his body-guards; one of them to be the king's eye, -and to another he gave the office of bringing messages to him, -assigning to each his proper duty. One of these boys who was -playing with him, son of Artembares, a man of rank among the -Medes, refused to obey the orders of Cyrus; he therefore commanded -the others to seize him, and when they obeyed, Cyrus -scourged the boy very severely. But the boy, as soon as he was -let loose, considering that he had been treated with great indignity, -took it very much to heart, and hastening to the city, complained -to his father of the treatment he had met with from the -son of Astyages' herdsman. Artembares, in a transport of anger, -went immediately to Astyages, and taking his son with him, said -that he suffered treatment that was not to be borne, adding, -"Thus, O king, are we insulted by your slave, the son of a herdsman;" -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">{43}</a></span> -showing the boy's shoulders. Astyages having heard and -seen what was done, resolving, on account of the rank of Artembares, -to avenge the indignity offered to the youth, sent for the -herdsman and his son. When both came into his presence, Astyages, -looking upon Cyrus, said: "Have you, who are the son -of such a man as this, dared to treat the son of one of the principal -persons in my kingdom with such indignity?" But Cyrus -answered: "Sir, I treated him as I did with justice. For the -boys of our village, of whom he was one, in their play made me -their king, because I appeared to them the most fitted for that -office. All the other boys performed what they were ordered, but -he refused to obey and paid no attention to my commands, so he -was punished: if I deserve punishment for this here I am ready to -submit to it." As the boy spoke Astyages recognised him; the -character of his face appeared like his own, and his answer more -free than accorded with his condition; the time also of the exposure -seemed to agree with the age of the boy. Alarmed at this -discovery, he was for some time speechless; and at last, having -with difficulty recovered himself (being desirous of sending Artembares -away in order that he might examine the herdsman in private), -he said: "Artembares, I will take care that neither you nor -your son shall have any cause of complaint," and dismissed him; but -the servants, at the command of Astyages, conducted Cyrus into -an inner room; and when the herdsman remained alone, he asked -him in the absence of witnesses, whence he had the boy, and from -whose hands he received him? He affirmed that the boy was his -own son, and that the mother who bore him was still living with -him. Astyages told him, that he did not consult his own safety in -wishing to be put to the torture; and as he said this he made a -signal to his guards to seize him. The man, when brought to the -torture, discovered the whole matter, speaking the truth throughout; -and concluded with prayers and entreaties for pardon. Astyages, -when the herdsman had confessed the truth, did not concern -himself much about him afterwards; but attaching great blame to -Harpagus, he ordered his guards to summon him; and when -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">{44}</a></span> -Astyages asked, "Harpagus, by what kind of death did you dispose -of the child which I delivered to you, born of my daughter?" -Harpagus, seeing the herdsman present, had not recourse to falsehood, -lest he should be detected and convicted, but said, "O king, -when I had received the infant, I carefully considered how I could -act according to your wish and command, and, without offending -you, I might be free from the crime of murder both in your -daughter's sight and in yours. I therefore sent for this herdsman -and gave him the child, saying that you had commanded him to -put it to death, and in saying this I did not speak falsely, for such -indeed were your orders. In this manner I delivered the infant to -him, charging him to place it in some desert mountain, and to stay -and watch till the child was dead, threatening the severest punishment -if he should not fully carry out these injunctions. When he -had executed these orders, and the child was dead, I sent some of -the most trusty of my servants, and by means of them beheld the -body, and buried it. This is the whole truth, O king, and such -was the fate of the child."</p> - -<p>Thus Harpagus told the real truth; but Astyages, dissembling -the anger which he felt on account of what had been done, again -related to Harpagus the whole matter as he had heard it from the -herdsman; and afterwards, when he had repeated it throughout, -he ended by saying that the child was alive and all was well. -"For," he added, "I suffered much on account of what had been -done regarding this child, and could not easily bear the reproaches -of my daughter; therefore, since fortune has taken a more favorable -turn, do you, in the first place, send your own son to accompany -the boy I have recovered; and, in the next place, (for I propose -to offer a sacrifice for the preservation of the child to the -gods, to whom that honor is due), do you be with me at supper."</p> - -<p>Harpagus on hearing these words, when he had paid his homage, -and had congratulated himself that his fault had turned to so good -account, and that he was invited to the feast under such auspicious -circumstances, went to his own home. And as soon as he entered -he sent his only son, who was about thirteen years of age, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">{45}</a></span> -bade him go to Astyages, and do whatever he should command; -and then, being full of joy, he told his wife what had happened. -But when the son of Harpagus arrived, having slain him and cut -him into joints, Astyages roasted some parts of his flesh and boiled -others, and having had them well dressed, kept them in readiness. -At the appointed hour, when the other guests and Harpagus were -come, tables full of mutton were placed before the rest and Astyages -himself, but before Harpagus all the body of his son, except the -head, the hands and the feet; these were laid apart in a basket -covered over. When Harpagus seemed to have eaten enough, -Astyages asked him if he was pleased with the entertainment; -and when Harpagus replied that he was highly delighted, the -officers appointed for that purpose brought him the head of his son -covered up with the hands and feet, and standing before Harpagus, -they bade him uncover the basket and take what he chose. Harpagus -doing as they desired, and uncovering the basket, saw the remains -of his son's body, but he expressed no alarm at the sight, -and retained his presence of mind; whereupon Astyages asked -him if he knew of what animal he had been eating. He said he -knew very well, and that whatever a king did was agreeable to -him. After he had given this answer he gathered the remains of -the flesh and went home, purposing, as I conjecture, to collect -all that he could and bury it.</p> - -<p>Astyages thus punished Harpagus; and then, considering what -he should do with Cyrus, summoned the Magi, who had formerly -interpreted his dream. When they were come, Astyages asked -them in what way they had interpreted his vision. They gave the -same answer as before; and said that if the boy was still alive, -and had not already died, he must of necessity be king. He answered -them as follows: "The boy still survives, and while -living in the country, the boys of the village made him king, and -he has already performed all such things as kings really do, for he -has appointed guards, door-keepers, messengers, and all other things -in like manner; and now I desire to know to what do these things -appear to you to tend." The Magi answered, "If the boy be living -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">{46}</a></span> -and has already been a king by no settled plan, you may take -courage on his account and make your mind easy, for he will not -reign a second time. For some of our predictions terminate in -trifling results; and dreams, and things like them, are fulfilled by -slight events." To this Astyages replied: "I too, O Magi, am -very much of the same opinion, that since the child has been -named king, the dream is accomplished, and that the boy is no -longer an object of alarm to me; yet consider well, and carefully -weigh what will be the safest course for my family and yourselves." -The Magi answered: "O king, it is of great importance to us that -your empire should be firmly established, for otherwise it is alienated, -passing over to this boy, who is a Persian, and we, who are -Medes, shall be enslaved by Persians, and held in no account as -being foreigners; whereas while you, who are of our own country, -are king, we have a share in the government, and enjoy great -honors at your hands. Thus, then, we must on every account -provide for your safety and that of your government; and now if -we saw any thing to occasion alarm we should tell you of it beforehand; -but now, since the dream has issued in a trifling event, we -ourselves take courage, and advise you to do the like, and to send -the boy out of your sight to his parents in Persia." When Astyages -heard this he was delighted, and, calling for Cyrus, said to him: -"Child, I have been unjust to you, by reason of a vain dream; but -you survive by your own destiny. Now go in happiness to Persia, -and I will send an escort to attend you; when you arrive there you -will find a father and mother very different from the herdsman -Mitradates and his wife."</p> - -<p>Astyages thus sent Cyrus away, and, upon his arrival at the -house of Cambyses, his parents received him with the greatest tenderness -and joy, having been assured that he had died immediately -after his birth; and they inquired of him by what means his life -had been preserved. He told them, that till that time he believed -he was the son of Astyages' herdsman. He related that he had -been brought up by the herdsman's wife; and he went on constantly -praising her.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">{47}</a></div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/p047.jpg" width="300" height="244" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>EGYPTIAN HARE.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>When Cyrus had reached man's estate, and proved the most -manly and beloved of his equals in age, Harpagus paid great -court to him, sending him presents, from his desire to be -avenged on Astyages; for he did not see that he himself, who -was but a private man, could be able to take vengeance on Astyages; -perceiving, therefore, that Cyrus was growing up to be his -avenger, he contracted a friendship with him, comparing the sufferings -of Cyrus with his own. And before this he had made the -following preparations. Seeing Astyages severe in his treatment -of the Medes, Harpagus holding intercourse with the chief persons -of the nation, one after another, persuaded them that they ought -to place him at their head, and depose Astyages. When he had -effected his purpose, and all was ready, Harpagus, wishing to discover -his designs to Cyrus, who resided in Persia, and having no -other way left, because the roads were all guarded, contrived the -following artifice. Having cunningly contrived a hare, by opening -its belly, and tearing off none of the hair, he put a letter, containing -what he thought necessary to write, into the body; and having -sewed up the belly of the hare, he gave it with some nets to the -most trusty of his servants, dressed as a hunter, and sent him to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">{48}</a></span> -Persia; having by word of mouth commanded him to bid Cyrus, -as he gave him the hare, to open it with his own hand, and not to -suffer any one to be present when he did so. This was accordingly -done, and Cyrus having received the hare, opened it; and -found the letter which was in it, to the following purport: "Son of -Cambyses, seeing the gods watch over you, (for otherwise you -could never have arrived at your present fortune), do you now -avenge yourself on your murderer Astyages; for as far as regards -his purpose you are long since dead, but by the care of the gods -and of me you survive. I suppose you have been long since informed -both what was done regarding yourself, and what I suffered -at the hands of Astyages, because I did not put you to death, but -gave you to the herdsman. Then, if you will follow my counsel, -you shall rule over the whole territory that Astyages now governs. -Persuade the Persians to revolt, and invade Media; and whether -I or any other illustrious Mede be appointed to command the army -opposed to you, every thing will turn out as you wish; for they, -on the first onset, having revolted from him, and siding with you, -will endeavor to depose him. Since, then, every thing is ready -here, do as I advise, and do it quickly."</p> - -<p>Cyrus, upon receiving this intelligence, began to consider by -what measures he could best persuade the Persians to revolt. -Having written such a letter as he thought fit, he called an assembly -of the Persians, read the letter and said that Astyages had -appointed him general of the Persians: "Now," he continued, -"I require you to attend me, every man with a sickle." When all -had come with their sickles, as had been ordered, Cyrus selected a -tract of land in Persia, about eighteen or twenty stadia square -(nearly two and one half miles), which was overgrown with briers, -and directed them to clear it during the day: when the Persians -had finished the appointed task, he bade them come again on the -next day, washed and well attired. In the meantime Cyrus collected -all his father's flocks and herds, had them killed and dressed, -to entertain the Persian forces, and provided wine and bread in -abundance. The next day, when the Persians had assembled, he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">{49}</a></span> -made them lie down on the turf, and feasted them; and, after the -repast was over, asked them whether the treatment they had -received the day before, or the present, was preferable. They -answered, that the difference was great; for on the preceding day -they had every hardship, but on the present everything that was -good. Then Cyrus discovered his intentions, and said: "Men of -Persia, the case stands thus; if you will hearken to me, you may -enjoy these, and numberless other advantages, without any kind -of servile labor; but if you will not hearken to me, innumerable -hardships, like those of yesterday, await you. Now, therefore, -obey me, and be free; for I am persuaded I am born by divine -providence to undertake this work; and I deem you to be men -in no way inferior to the Medes, either in other respects or in war; -then revolt with all speed from Astyages."</p> - -<p>The Persians under such a leader, gladly asserted their freedom, -having for a long time felt indignant at being governed by the -Medes. Astyages, informed of what Cyrus was doing, sent a -messenger and summoned him; but Cyrus bade the messenger -take back word, "that he would come to him sooner than Astyages -desired." When Astyages heard this, he armed all the -Medes; and, as if the gods had deprived him of understanding, -made Harpagus their general, utterly forgetting the outrage he -had done him. And when the Medes came to an engagement -with the Persians, such of them as knew nothing of the plot, -fought; but others went over to the Persians; and the far greater -part purposely behaved as cowards and fled. As soon as the news -was brought to Astyages that the Medes were thus shamefully dispersed, -he exclaimed: "Not even so shall Cyrus have occasion to -rejoice." His first act was to impale the Magi, who had interpreted -his dream, and advised him to let Cyrus go; then he armed -all the Medes that were left in the city, old and young; and leading -them out, engaged the Persians, and was defeated. Astyages -himself was made prisoner, and lost all the Medes whom he had -led out. Harpagus, standing by Astyages after he was taken, -exulted over him and jeered at him; and among other galling -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">{50}</a></span> -words, he asked him about the supper, at which he had feasted -him with his son's flesh, and inquired, "how he liked slavery in -exchange for a kingdom." Astyages, looking steadfastly on Harpagus, -asked in return, whether he thought himself the author of -Cyrus's success. Harpagus said, he did, for, as he had written, -the achievement was justly due to himself. Astyages thereupon -proved him to be "the weakest and most unjust of all men; the -weakest, in giving the kingdom to another, which he might have -assumed to himself, if indeed he had effected this change; and the -most unjust, because he had enslaved the whole nation of the -Medes on account of the supper."</p> - -<p>So Astyages, after he had reigned thirty-five years, was deposed. -But Cyrus kept him with him till he died, without doing -him any further injury. Thus did Cyrus come to the throne, conquer -Crœsus, and become master of all Asia.</p> - -<p>The Persians, according to my own knowledge, observe the -following customs:—It is not their practice to erect statues, or -temples, or altars, but they charge those with folly who do so; because, -as I conjecture, they do not think the gods have human -forms, as the Greeks do. They are accustomed to ascend the -highest parts of the mountains, and offer sacrifice to Jupiter, and -they call the whole circle of the heavens by the name of Jupiter. -They sacrifice to the sun and moon, to the earth, fire, water, and -the winds. To these alone they sacrificed in the earliest times: -but they have since learnt from the Arabians and Assyrians to sacrifice -to Venus Urania, whom the Assyrians call Venus Mylitta, -the Arabians, Alitta, and the Persians Mitra. They do not erect -altars nor kindle fires when about to sacrifice; they do not use -libations, or flutes, or fillets, or cakes; but, when any one wishes -to offer sacrifice to any one of these deities, he leads the victim to -a clean spot, and invokes the god, usually having his tiara decked -with myrtle. He that sacrifices is not permitted to pray for blessings -for himself alone; but he is obliged to offer prayers for the -prosperity of all the Persians, and the king, for he is himself included -in the Persians. When he has cut the victim into small -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">{51}</a></span> -pieces, and boiled the flesh, he strews under it a bed of tender -grass, generally trefoil, and then lays all the flesh upon it; when -he has put every thing in order, one of the Magi standing by sings -an ode concerning the original of the gods, which they say is the -incantation; and without one of the Magi it is not lawful for them -to sacrifice. After having waited a short time, he that has sacrificed -carries away the flesh and disposes of it as he thinks fit. It -is their custom to honor their birthday above all other days; and -on this day they furnish their table in a more plentiful manner than -at other times. The rich then produce an ox, a horse, a camel, and -an ass, roasted whole in an oven; but the poor produce smaller -cattle. They are moderate at their meals, but eat of many after-dishes, -and those not served up together. On this account the -Persians say, "that the Greeks rise hungry from the table, because -nothing worth mentioning is brought in after dinner, and that if -anything were brought in, they would not leave off eating." The -Persians are much addicted to wine. They are accustomed to debate -the most important affairs when intoxicated; but whatever -they have determined on in such deliberation, is on the following -day, when they are sober, proposed to them by the master of the -house where they have met to consult; and if they approve of it -when sober also, then they adopt it; if not, they reject it. And -whatever they have first resolved on when sober, they reconsider -when intoxicated. When they meet one another in the streets, -one may discover by the following custom, whether those who -meet are equals. For instead of accosting one another, they kiss -on the mouth; if one be a little inferior to the other, they kiss the -cheek; but if he be of a much lower rank, he prostrates himself -before the other.</p> - -<p>The Persians are of all nations the most ready to adopt foreign -customs; for they wear the Medic costume, thinking it handsomer -than their own; and in war they use the Egyptian cuirass. From -the age of five years to twenty, they instruct their sons in three -things only: to ride, to use the bow, and to speak the truth. Before -he is five years of age, a son is not admitted to the presence -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">{52}</a></span> -of his father, but lives entirely with the women: the reason of this -custom is, that if he should die in childhood, he may occasion no -grief to his father.</p> - -<p>Now I much approve of the above custom, as also of the following, -that not even the king is allowed to put any one to death for -a single crime, nor any private Persian exercise extreme severity -against any of his domestics for one fault, but if on examination he -should find that his misdeeds are more numerous and greater than -his services, he may in that case give vent to his anger. They say -that no one ever yet killed his own father or mother. To tell a -lie is considered by them the greatest disgrace; next to that, to be -in debt; for the reason that one who is in debt must of necessity -tell lies. Whosoever of the citizens has the leprosy or scrofula, is -not permitted to stay within a town, nor to have communication -with other Persians; and they say that a man is afflicted with -these diseases from having committed some offence against the -sun. Every stranger that is seized with these distempers they -drive out of the country; and they do the same to white pigeons, -making the same charge against them. They neither spit, nor -wash their hands in a river, but pay extreme veneration to all -rivers. Another circumstance is also peculiar to them which has -escaped the notice of the Persians themselves, but not of us. Their -names, which correspond with their personal forms and their rank, -all terminate in the same letter (s) which the Dorians call <i>San</i>, and -the Ionians <i>Sigma</i>. If you inquire into this you will find, that all -Persian names, without exception, end in the same letter. These -things I can with certainty affirm to be true, since I myself know -them. But what follows, relating to the dead, is only secretly mentioned, -viz.: that the dead body of a Persian is never buried until -it has been torn by some bird or dog; but I know for a certainty -that the Magi do this, for they do it openly. The Persians then, -having covered the body with wax, conceal it in the ground. The -Magi differ very much from all other men, and particularly from -the Egyptian priests, for the latter hold it matter of religion not to -kill any thing that has life, except such things as they offer in sacrifice; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">{53}</a></span> -whereas the Magi kill every thing with their own hands, -except a dog or a man; and they think they do a meritorious -thing, when they kill ants, serpents, and other reptiles and -birds.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">{54}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<small>THE ASIATIC GREEKS AND THE LYDIAN REVOLT.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Ionians and Æolians, as soon as the Lydians were subdued -by the Persians, sent ambassadors to Cyrus at Sardis, wishing -to become subject to him, on the same terms as they had been -to Crœsus. But, when he heard their proposal, he told them this -story: "A piper seeing some fishes in the sea, began to pipe, -expecting that they would come to shore; but finding his hopes -disappointed, he took a casting-net, with which he caught a great -number of fishes, and drew them out. When he saw them leaping -about, he said to the fishes: 'Cease your dancing, since when I -piped you would not come out and dance.'" Cyrus told this story -to the Ionians and Æolians, because the Ionians, when Cyrus -pressed them by his ambassador to revolt from Crœsus, refused to -consent, and now, when the business was done, were ready to -listen to him. When the Ionians heard this message, they severally -fortified themselves with walls, and met together at the Panionium, -with the exception of the Milesians; for Cyrus made an alliance -with them on the same terms as the Lydians had done. The -rest of the Ionians resolved unanimously to send ambassadors to -Sparta, to implore them to succor the Ionians. These Ionians, to -whom the Panionium belongs, have built their cities under the -finest sky and climate of the world that we know of; for neither -the regions that are above it, nor those that are below, nor the -parts to the east or west, are at all equal to Ionia; for some of -them are oppressed by cold and rain, others by heat and drought. -These Ionians do not all use the same language, but have four -varieties of dialect. Miletus, the first of them, lies toward the -south.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">{55}</a></span> -The Milesians were sheltered from danger, as they had made -an alliance. The islanders also had nothing to fear; for the -Phœnicians were not yet subject to the Persians, nor were the -Persians themselves at all acquainted with maritime affairs. Now -the Milesians had seceded from the rest of the Ionians only for -this reason, that weak as the Grecian race then was, the Ionian -was weakest of all, and of least account; for except Athens, there -was no other city of note. The other Ionians, therefore, and the -Athenians shunned the name, and would not be called Ionians; -and even now many of them appear to me to be ashamed of the -name. But these twelve cities gloried in the name, and built a -temple for their own use, to which they gave the name of Panionium.</p> - -<p>When the ambassadors of the Ionians and Æolians arrived at -Sparta, they made choice of a Phocæan, whose name was Pythermus, -to speak in behalf of all. Putting on a purple robe, in order -that as many as possible of the Spartans might hear of it and -assemble, he addressed them at length, imploring their assistance. -But the Lacedæmonians would not listen to him, and determined -not to assist the Ionians: they therefore returned home. Yet the -Lacedæmonians, though they had rejected the Ionian ambassadors, -despatched men in a penteconter, to keep an eye upon the -affairs of Cyrus and Ionia. These men arriving in Phocæa, sent -the most eminent person among them, whose name was Lacrines, -to Sardis, to warn Cyrus in the name of the Lacedæmonians, "not -to injure any city on the Grecian territory, for in that case they -would not pass it by unnoticed." When the herald gave this -message, it is related that Cyrus inquired of the Greeks who were -present, who the Lacedæmonians were, and how many in number, -that they sent him such a warning. And when informed, he said -to the Spartan herald, "I was never yet afraid of those, who in the -midst of their city have a place set apart, in which they collect and -cheat one another by false oaths; and if I continue in health, not -the calamities of the Ionians shall be talked about, but their own." -This taunt of Cyrus was levelled at the Greeks in general, who -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">{56}</a></span> -have markets for the purposes of buying and selling; for the Persians -have no such a thing as a market. After this, Cyrus intrusted -Tabalus a Persian with the government of Sardis, and -appointed Pactyas a Lydian to bring away the gold, both that -belonging to Crœsus and to the other Lydians, and departed with -Cyrus for Ecbatana, for from the first he took no account of the -Ionians. But Babylon was an obstacle to him, as were also the -Bactrians, the Sacæ, and the Egyptians; against whom he resolved -to lead an army in person, and to send some other general against -the Ionians. But as soon as Cyrus had marched from Sardis, -Pactyas prevailed on the Lydians to revolt from Tabalus and -Cyrus; and going down to the sea-coast, with all the gold taken -from Sardis in his possession, he hired mercenaries and persuaded -the inhabitants of the coast to join him; and then having marched -against Sardis, he besieged Tabalus, who was shut up in the -citadel.</p> - -<p>When Cyrus heard this news on his march, he said to Crœsus;</p> - -<p>"Crœsus, what will be the end of these things? the Lydians, -it seems, will never cease to give trouble to me, and to themselves. -I am in doubt whether it will not be better to reduce -them to slavery; for I appear to have acted like one who, having -killed the father, has spared the children; so I am carrying away -you, who have been something more than a father to the Lydians, -and have intrusted their city to the Lydians themselves: and then -I wonder at their rebellion!" Crœsus, fearing lest he should -utterly destroy Sardis, answered: "Sir, you have but too much -reason for what you say; yet do not give full vent to your anger, -nor utterly destroy an ancient city, which is innocent as well of -the former as of the present offence: for of the former I myself -was guilty, and now bear the punishment on my own head; but in -the present instance Pactyas, to whom you intrusted Sardis, is the -culprit; let him therefore pay the penalty. But pardon the Lydians, -and enjoin them to observe the following regulations, to the -end that they may never more revolt, nor be troublesome to you: -send to them and order them to keep no weapons of war in their -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">{57}</a></span> -possession; and enjoin them to wear tunics under their cloaks, and -buskins on their feet; and require them to teach their sons to play -on the cithara, to strike the guitar, and to sell by retail; and then -you will soon see them becoming women instead of men, so that -they will never give you any apprehensions about their revolting." -Crœsus suggested this plan, thinking it would be more desirable -for the Lydians, than that they should be sold for slaves; and -being persuaded, that unless he could suggest some feasible proposal, -he should not prevail with him to alter his resolution: and -he dreaded also, that the Lydians, if they should escape the -present danger, might hereafter revolt from the Persians, and -bring utter ruin on themselves. Cyrus, pleased with the expedient, -laid aside his anger, and said that he would follow his advice: then -having sent for Mazares, a Mede, he commanded him to order the -Lydians to conform themselves to the regulations proposed by -Crœsus, and moreover to enslave all the rest who had joined the -Lydians in the attack on Sardis; but by all means to bring Pactyas -to him alive. Cyrus having given these orders on his way, proceeded -to the settlements of the Persians. But Pactyas heard that the army -which was coming against him was close at hand, and fled in great -consternation to Cyme. Mazares marched against Sardis with an -inconsiderable division of Cyrus's army, but found that Pactyas and -his party were no longer there. He, however, compelled the -Lydians to conform to the injunctions of Cyrus; who, by his order, -completely changed their mode of life: after this Mazares despatched -messengers to Cyme, requiring them to deliver up Pactyas. But -the Cymæans, in order to come to a decision, resolved to refer the -matter to the deity at Branchidæ, for an oracular shrine was there -erected in former times, which all the Ionians and Æolians were in -the practice of consulting. The Cymæans asked the oracle "what -course they should pursue respecting Pactyas, that would be most -pleasing to the gods:" the answer to their question was, that they -should deliver up Pactyas to the Persians. When this answer was -reported, they determined to give him up; but, Aristodicus the son -of Heraclides, a man of high repute among the citizens, distrusting -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">{58}</a></span> -the oracle, and suspecting the sincerity of the consulters, prevented -them from doing so; till at last other messengers, among whom -was Aristodicus, went to inquire a second time concerning Pactyas. -When they arrived at Branchidæ, Aristodicus consulted the oracle -in the name of all, inquiring in these words: "O king, Pactyas, a -Lydian, has come to us as a suppliant, to avoid a violent death at -the hands of the Persians. They now demand him, and require -the Cymæans to give him up. We, however, though we dread the -Persian power, have not yet dared to surrender the suppliant, till it -be plainly declared by thee what we ought to do." The oracle -gave the same answer as before. Upon this Aristodicus deliberately -acted as follows; walking round the temple, he took away all -the sparrows and all other kinds of birds that had built nests in the -temple; whereupon a voice issued from the sanctuary; addressing -Aristodicus, it spoke as follows: "O most impious of men, how -darest thou do this? Dost thou tear my suppliants from my -temple?" Aristodicus without hesitation answered, "O king, art -thou then so careful to succor thy suppliants, but biddest the -Cymæans to deliver up theirs?" The oracle again rejoined: -"Yes, I bid you do so; that having acted impiously, ye may the -sooner perish, and never more come and consult the oracle about -the delivering up of suppliants." When the Cymæans heard this -latter answer, not wishing to bring destruction on themselves by -surrendering Pactyas, or to subject themselves to a siege by protecting -him, they sent him away to Mitylene. But the Mitylenæans, -when Mazares sent a message to them requiring them to deliver up -Pactyas, were preparing to do so for some remuneration; what, I -am unable to say precisely, for the proposal was never completed. -For the Cymæans, being informed of what was being done by the -Mitylenæans, despatched a vessel to Lesbos, and transported -Pactyas to Chios, whence he was torn by violence from the temple -of Minerva Poliuchus by the Chians, and delivered up. The Chians -delivered him up in exchange for Atarneus, a place situate in -Mysia, opposite Lesbos. In this manner Pactyas fell into the hands -of the Persians; who kept him under guard in order that they -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">{59}</a></span> -might deliver him to Cyrus. For a long time after this, none of -the Chians would offer barley-meal from Atarneus to any of the -gods, or make any cakes of the fruit that came from them; but all -the productions of that country were excluded from the temples. -Mazares, after this, marched against those who had assisted in -besieging Tabalus; and in the first place reduced the Prienians to -slavery, and in the next overran the whole plain of the Mæander, -and gave it to his army to pillage; and he treated Magnesia in the -same manner: but shortly afterward fell sick and died.</p> - -<p>On his death Harpagus came down as his successor in the -command; he also was by birth a Mede, the same whom Astyages -king of the Medes entertained at the impious feast, and who -assisted Cyrus in ascending the throne. This man being appointed -general by Cyrus, on his arrival in Ionia, took several cities by -means of earth-works; for he forced the people to retire within their -fortifications, and then, having heaped up mounds against the -walls, he carried the cities by storm. Phocæa was the first place -in Ionia that he attacked.</p> - -<p>These Phocæans were the first of all the Greeks who undertook -long voyages, and they are the people who discovered the -Adriatic and Tyrrhenian seas, Iberia, and Tartessus.<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_7" id="Ref_7" href="#Foot_7">[7]</a></span> -They made their voyages in fifty-oared galleys, and not in merchant-ships. -When they arrived at Tartessus they were kindly received by the -king of the Tartessians, whose name was Arganthonius; he -reigned eighty years over Tartessus, and lived to the age of one -hundred and twenty. The Phocæans became such great favorites -with him, that he at first solicited them to abandon Ionia, and to -settle in any part of his territory they should choose; but afterward, -finding he could not prevail with them to accept his offer, -and hearing from them the increasing power of the Mede, he gave -them money for the purpose of building a wall around their city; -he must have given it unsparingly, for the wall is not a few stades -in circumference, and is entirely built of large and well-compacted -stones. When Harpagus had marched his army against the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">{60}</a></span> -Phocæans, he besieged them, but offered these terms: "that he -would be content if the Phocæans would throw down only one of -their battlements, and consecrate one house <i>to the king's use</i>." -The Phocæans, detesting slavery, said, "that they wished for one -day to deliberate, and would then give their answer"; but while -they were deliberating they required him to draw off his forces -from the wall. Harpagus said, that "though he well knew their -design, yet he would permit them to consult together." In the -interval, then, during which Harpagus withdrew his army from the -wall, the Phocæans launched their fifty-oared galleys, and having -put their wives, children, and goods on board, together with the -images from the temples and other offerings, except works of -bronze or stone, or pictures, they embarked themselves, and set -sail for Chios: and the Persians took possession of Phocæa, abandoned -by all its inhabitants. The Phocæans, when the Chians -refused to sell them the Œnyssæ Islands, for fear they should -become the seat of trade, and their own island be thereby excluded, -directed their course to Cyrnus; where, by the admonition of an -oracle, they had twenty years before built a city, named Alalia. -But Arganthonius was at that time dead. On their passage to -Cyrnus, having first sailed down to Phocæa, they put to death the -Persian garrison which had been left by Harpagus to guard the -city. Afterward, when this was accomplished, they pronounced -terrible imprecations on any who should desert the fleet; besides -this, they sunk a mass of red-hot iron, and swore "that they would -never return to Phocæa, till this burning mass should appear -again." Nevertheless, as they were on their way toward Cyrnus, -more than one half of the citizens were seized with regret and -yearning for their city and dwellings in the country, and violating -their oaths, sailed back to Phocæa; but such of them as kept to -their oath weighed anchor and sailed from the Œnyssæ Islands. -On their arrival at Cyrnus they lived for five years in common -with the former settlers: but as they ravaged the territories of all -their neighbors, the Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians combined together -to make war against them, each with sixty ships: and the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">{61}</a></span> -Phocæans, on their part, having manned their ships, consisting of -sixty in number, met them in the Sardinian Sea; and having engaged, -the Phocæans obtained a kind of Cadmean victory;<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_8" id="Ref_8" href="#Foot_8">[8]</a></span> -for forty of their own ships were destroyed, and the twenty that survived -were disabled, for their prows were blunted. They therefore -sailed back to Alalia, took on board their wives and children, with -what property their ships were able to carry, and leaving Cyrnus, -sailed to Rhegium. As to the men belonging to the ships destroyed, -most of them fell into the hands of the Carthaginians and -Tyrrhenians, who took them on shore and stoned them to death. -But afterward all animals belonging to the Argyllæans that passed -by the spot where the Phocæans who had been stoned lay, became -distorted, maimed, and crippled, as well sheep, as beasts of burden -and men. The Argyllæans, therefore, being anxious to expiate -the guilt, sent to Delphi; and the Pythian enjoined them to use -those rites which they still observe; for they commemorate their -death with great magnificence, and have established gymnastic -and equestrian contests. This was the fate of these Phocæans; -but the others, who fled to Rhegium, left that place, and got possession -of the town in the territory of Œnotria, which is now -called Hyela, which they colonized by the advice of a certain Posidonian, -who told them the Pythia had directed them to establish -sacred rites to Cyrnus as being a hero, but not to colonize the -island of that name.</p> - -<p>The Teians also acted nearly in the same manner as the Phocæans. -For when Harpagus by means of his earth-works had -made himself master of their walls, they all went on board their -ships, and sailed away to Thrace, and there settled in the city of -Abdera; which Timesius of Clazomenæ having formerly founded, -did not enjoy, but was driven out by the Thracians, and is now -honored as a hero by the Teians of Abdera.</p> - -<p>These were the only Ionians who abandoned their country -rather than submit to servitude. The rest, except the Milesians, -gave battle to Harpagus, and as well as those who abandoned -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">{62}</a></span> -their country, proved themselves brave men, each fighting for his -own; but defeated and subdued, they remained in their own countries, -and submitted to the commands imposed on them. The -Milesians, as I have before mentioned, having made a league with -Cyrus, remained quiet. So was Ionia a second time enslaved, and -the islanders, dreading the same fate, made their submission to -Cyrus. When the Ionians were brought into this wretched condition, -and nevertheless still held assemblies at Panionium, I am -informed that Bias of Priene gave them most salutary advice, -which, had they harkened to him, would have made them the -most flourishing of all the Greeks. He advised, "that the Ionians, -should sail in one common fleet to Sardinia, and there build one -city for all the Ionians; thus being freed from servitude, they -would flourish, inhabiting the most considerable of the islands, and -governing the rest; whereas if they remained in Ionia, he saw no -hope of recovering their liberty." But before Ionia was ruined, -the suggestion of Thales, the Milesian, who was of Phœnician -extraction, was also good, who advised that the Ionians should -constitute one general council in Teos, which stands in the centre -of Ionia; and that the rest of the inhabited cities should be governed -as independent states.</p> - -<p>Harpagus having subdued Ionia, marched against the Carians, -Cannians, Lycians, Ionians, and Æolians; of whom the Carians -were by far the most famous of all nations in those times. They -introduced three inventions which the Greeks have adopted. For -the Carians set the example of fastening crests upon helmets and -of putting devices on shields; they are also the first who attached -handles to shields; until their time all who used shields carried -them without handles, guiding them with leathern thongs, having -them slung round their necks and left shoulders.</p> - -<p>The Lycians were originally sprung from Crete, for in ancient -time Crete was entirely in the possession of barbarians. But a -dispute having arisen between Sarpedon and Minos, sons of Europa, -respecting the sovereign power, when Minos got the upper -hand in the struggle, he drove out Sarpedon with his partisans; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">{63}</a></span> -and they being expelled came to the land of Milyas in Asia, and -were afterwards joined by Lycus son of Pandion of Athens, who -was likewise driven out by his brother Ægeus, and came to be -called Lycians after him. Their customs are partly Cretan and -partly Carian; but they have one peculiar to themselves, in which -they differ from all other nations: they take their name from their -mothers and not from their fathers; so that if any one asks another -who he is, he will describe himself by his mother's side, and -reckon his ancestry in the female line. And if a free-born woman -marry a slave, the children are accounted of pure birth; but if a -man though a citizen, and of high rank, marry a foreigner, the -children are considered low born.</p> - -<p>All Cnidia, except a small space, is surrounded by water; for -the Ceramic gulf bounds it on the north, and on the south the sea -by Syme and Rhodes: now this small space, which is about five -stades in breadth, the Cnidians, wishing to make their territory -insular, designed to dig through, while Harpagus was subduing -Ionia. For the whole of their dominions were within the isthmus; -and where the Cnidian territory terminates toward the continent, -there is the isthmus that they designed to dig through. But, as -they were carrying on the work with great diligence, the workmen -appeared to be wounded to a greater extent and in a more -strange manner than usual, both in other parts of the body, and -particularly in the eyes, by the chipping of the rock; they therefore -sent deputies to Delphi to inquire what was the cause of the -obstruction; and, as the Cnidians say, the Pythia answered as -follows in trimeter verse: "Build not a tower on the isthmus, nor -dig it through, for Jove would have made it an island had he so -willed." So the Cnidians desisted from their work, and surrendered -without resistance to Harpagus, as soon as he approached -with his army. The Pedasians were situated inland above Halicarnassus. -When any mischief is about to befall them or their -neighbors, the priestess of Minerva has a long beard: this has -three times occurred. These were the only people about Caria -who opposed Harpagus for any time and gave him much -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">{64}</a></span> -trouble, by fortifying a mountain called Lyda. After some time, -however, they were subdued. The Lycians, when Harpagus -marched his army toward the Xanthian plain, went out to meet -him, and engaging with very inferior numbers, displayed great -feats of valor. But being defeated and shut up within their city, -they collected their wives, children, property, and servants within -the citadel, and then set fire to it and burnt it to the ground. -When they had done this, and engaged themselves by the strongest -oaths, all the Xanthians went out and died fighting. Of the -modern Lycians, who are said to be Xanthians, all, except eighty -families, are strangers; but these eighty families happened at the -time to be away from home and so survived. Thus Harpagus got -possession of Xanthus and Caunia almost in the same manner; -for the Caunians generally followed the example of the Lycians.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">{65}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<small>THE CONQUEST OF ASSYRIA AND THE WAR WITH THE MASSAGETÆ.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">While</span> Harpagus was reducing the lower parts of Asia, Cyrus -had conquered the upper parts, subduing every nation without exception. -The greatest parts of these I shall pass by without notice; -but I will make mention of those which gave him most trouble, -and are most worthy of being recorded.</p> - -<p>Assyria contains many large cities, the most renowned and the -strongest of which, where the seat of government was established -after the destruction of Nineveh, was Babylon, which is of the following -description. The city stands in a spacious plain, and is -quadrangular, and shows a front on every side of one hundred and -twenty stades [15 miles]; these stades make up the sum of four -hundred and eighty in the whole circumference. It was adorned -in a manner surpassing any city we are acquainted with. In the -first place, a moat deep, wide, and full of water, runs entirely round -it; next, there is a wall fifty royal cubits in breadth [about 84 -feet], and in height two hundred [270 feet], but the royal cubit is -larger than the common one by three fingers' breadth. And here -I think I ought to explain how the earth, taken out of the moat, -was consumed, and in what manner the wall was built. As they -dug the moat they made bricks of the earth that was taken out; -and when they had moulded a sufficient number they baked them -in kilns. Then making use of hot asphalt for cement, and laying -wattled reeds between the thirty bottom courses of bricks, they -first built up the sides of the moat, and afterward the wall itself in -the same manner; and on the top of the wall, at the edges, they -built dwellings of one story, fronting each other, having spaces between -these dwellings wide enough to turn a chariot with four -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">{66}</a></span> -horses. In the circumference of the wall there were a hundred -gates, all of bronze, as also were the posts and lintels. Eight days' -journey from Babylon [200 miles] stands another city, called Is, on -a small river of the same name, which discharges its stream into -the Euphrates; this river brings down with its water many lumps -of bitumen, from which the bitumen used in the wall of Babylon -was taken. The city consists of two divisions, for the Euphrates, -separates it in the middle: this river, which is broad, deep, and -rapid, flows from Armenia, and falls into the Red Sea. The wall -on either bank has an elbow carried down to the river; and thence -along the curvatures of each bank runs a wall of baked bricks. -The city itself, which is full of houses three and four stories high, -is cut up into straight streets running at right angles to each other. -At the end of each street a little gate is formed in the wall along -the river side, in number equal to the streets; and they are all -made of bronze, and lead down to the edge of the river. This -outer wall is the chief defence, but another wall runs round within, -not much inferior to the other in strength, though narrower. In -the middle of each division of the city fortified buildings were -erected; in one, the royal palace, with a spacious and strong enclosure, -bronze-gated; and in the other, the precinct of Jupiter Belus, -which in my time was still in existence, a square building of two -stades [¼ of a mile] on every side. In the midst of this precinct is -built a solid tower of one stade both in length and breadth, and on -this tower rose another, and another upon that, to the number of -eight. And there is an ascent to these outside, running spirally -round all the towers. About the middle of the ascent there is a -landing-place and seats on which those who go up may rest themselves; -and in the uppermost tower stands a spacious temple, -handsomely furnished, and in it a large couch, with a table of -gold by its side. No statue has been erected within it, but as the -Chaldæans, who are priests of this deity, assert, though I cannot -credit what they say, the god himself comes to the temple and reclines -on the bed, in the same manner as the Egyptians say happens -at Thebes in Egypt.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">{67}</a></span> -There is also another temple below, within the precinct at Babylon; -in it is a large golden statue of Jupiter seated, and near it a -great table of gold; the throne also and the step are of gold, which -together weigh eight hundred talents [twenty-two tons], as the -Chaldæans affirm. Outside the temple is a golden altar; and -another large altar, where full-grown sheep are sacrificed; for on -the golden altar only sucklings may be offered. On the great altar -the Chaldæans consume yearly a thousand talents [twenty-seven -tons] of frankincense when they celebrate the festival of this god. -There was also at that time within the precincts of this temple a -statue of solid gold, twelve cubits high [eighteen feet]; I, indeed, -did not see it, but only relate what is said by the Chaldæans. Darius, -son of Hystaspes, formed a design to take away this statue, -but dared not do so; but Xerxes, son of Darius, took it, and killed -the priest who forbade him to remove it.</p> - -<p>There were many others who reigned over Babylon, whom I -shall mention in my Assyrian history, who beautified the walls and -temples, and amongst them were two women. The first of these, -named Semiramis, lived five generations before the other; she -raised mounds along the plain, which are worthy of admiration; -for before, the river used to overflow the whole plain like a sea. -But the other, who was queen next after her, and whose name was -Nitocris, (and she was much more sagacious than the other queen,) -in the first place left monuments of herself, which I shall presently -describe; and in the next place, when she saw the power of the -Medes growing formidable and restless, and that, among other -cities, Nineveh was captured by them, she took every possible precaution -for her own defence. First of all, the River Euphrates, -which before ran in a straight line, and which flows through the -middle of the city, by having channels dug above, she made so -winding, that in its course it touched three times at one and the -same village in Assyria, called Arderica: and to this day, those -who go from our sea to Babylon, if they travel by the Euphrates, -come three times to this village on three successive days. She also -raised on either bank of the river a mound, astonishing for its magnitude -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">{68}</a></span> -and height. At a considerable distance above Babylon, -she had a reservoir for a lake dug, carrying it out some distance -from the river, and in the depth digging down to water, and in -width making its circumference of four hundred and twenty stades -[about fifty-two and a half miles]: she consumed the soil from this -excavation by heaping it up on the banks of the river, and when -it was completely dug, she had stones brought and built a casing to -it all round. She had both these works done, the river made winding, -and the whole excavation a lake, in order that the current, being -broken by frequent turnings, might be more slow, and the -navigation to Babylon tedious, and that after the voyage, a long -march round the lake might follow. All this was done in that part -of the country where the approach to Babylon is nearest, and where -is the shortest way for the Medes; in order that the Medes might -not, by holding intercourse with her people, become acquainted -with her affairs. She enclosed herself, therefore, with these defences -by digging, and immediately afterwards made the following -addition. As the city consisted of two divisions, which were separated -by the river, during the reign of former kings, when any one -had occasion to cross from one division to the other, he was obliged -to cross in a boat: and this, in my opinion, was very troublesome: -she therefore provided for this, for after she had dug the reservoir -for the lake, she left this other monument built by similar toil. She -had large blocks of stone cut, and when they were ready and the -place was completely dug out, she turned the whole stream of the -river into the place she had dug: while this was filling, and the -ancient channel had become dry, in the first place, she lined with -burnt bricks the banks of the river throughout the city, and the descents -that lead from the gates to the river, in the same manner as -the walls. In the next place, about the middle of the city, she built -a bridge with the stones she had prepared, and bound them together -with plates of lead and iron. Upon these stones she laid, -during the day, square planks of timber, on which the Babylonians -might pass over; but at night these planks were removed, to prevent -people from crossing by night and robbing one another. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">{69}</a></span> -When the hollow that was dug had become a lake filled by the -river, and the bridge was finished, she brought back the river to -its ancient channel from the lake.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/p069.jpg" width="400" height="383" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>WINGED HUMAN-HEADED LION.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The same queen also contrived the following deception. Over -the most frequented gate of the city she prepared a sepulchre for -herself, high up above the gate itself; and on the sepulchre she -had engraved, <span class="smcap">Should any one of my successors, kings of Babylon, -find himself in want of money, let him open this sepulchre, -and take as much as he chooses; but if he be not in -want, let him not open it; for that were not well.</span> This -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">{70}</a></span> -monument remained undisturbed, until the kingdom fell to Darius; -but it seemed hard to Darius that this gate should be of no use, -and that when money was lying there, and this money inviting -him to take it, he should not do so; but no use was made of this -gate for this reason, that a dead body was over the head of any -one who passed through it. He therefore opened the sepulchre, -and instead of money, found only the body, and these words written: -<span class="smcap">Hadst thou not been insatiably covetous, and greedy of -the most sordid gain, thou wouldest not have opened the -chambers of the dead.</span></p> - -<p>Cyrus made war against the son of this queen, who bore the -name of his father Labynetus, and had the empire of Assyria. -Now when the great king leads his army in person, he carries with -him from home well prepared provisions and cattle; and he takes -with him water from the river Choaspes, which flows past Susa, of -which alone, the king drinks. A great number of four-wheeled -carriages drawn by mules carry the water of this river, after it has -been boiled in silver vessels, and follow him from place to place -wherever he marches. Cyrus, in his march against Babylon, arrived -at the river Gyndes, whose fountains are in the Matianian -mountains, and which flows through the land of the Dardanians, -and falls into another river, the Tigris; the latter, flowing by the -city of Opis, discharges itself into the Red Sea. When Cyrus -was endeavoring to cross this river Gyndes, which can be passed -only in boats, one of the sacred white horses through wantonness -plunged into the stream, and attempted to swim over, but the -stream having carried him away and drowned him, Cyrus was -much enraged with the river for this affront, and threatened to -make his stream so weak, that henceforth women should easily -cross it without wetting their knees. After this menace, deferring -his expedition against Babylon, he divided his army into two parts; -and marked out by lines one hundred and eighty channels, on -each side of the river, diverging every way; then having distributed -his army, he commanded them to dig. His design was -indeed executed by the great numbers he employed; but they -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">{71}</a></span> -spent the whole summer in the work. When Cyrus had avenged -himself on the river Gyndes, by distributing it into three hundred -and sixty channels, and the second spring began to shine, he -then advanced against Babylon. But the Babylonians, having -taken the field, awaited his coming; and when he had advanced -near the city, the Babylonians gave battle, and, being defeated, -were shut up in the city. But as they had been long aware of the -restless spirit of Cyrus, and saw that he attacked all nations alike, -they had laid up provisions for many years; and therefore were -under no apprehensions about a siege. On the other hand, Cyrus -found himself in difficulty, since much time had elapsed, and his -affairs were not at all advanced. Whether therefore some one else -made the suggestion to him in his perplexity, or whether he himself -devised the plan, he had recourse to the following stratagem. -Having stationed the bulk of his army near the passage of the river -where it enters Babylon, and again having stationed another division -beyond the city, where the river makes its exit, he gave orders -to his forces to enter the city as soon as they should see the -stream fordable. Having thus stationed his forces, and given these -directions, he himself marched away with the ineffective part of his -army; and coming to the lake, Cyrus did the same with respect to -the river and the lake as the queen of the Babylonians had done. -For having diverted the river, by means of a canal, into the lake, -which was before a swamp, he made the ancient channel fordable -by the sinking of the river. When this took place, the Persians -who were appointed to that purpose close to the stream of the -river, which had now subsided to about the middle of a man's -thigh, entered Babylon by this passage. If, however, the Babylonians -had been aware of it beforehand, or had known what Cyrus -was about, they would not have suffered the Persians to enter the -city, but would have utterly destroyed them; for having shut all -the little gates that lead down to the river, and mounting the walls -that extend along the banks of the river, they would have caught -them as in a net; whereas the Persians came upon them by surprise. -It is related by the people who inhabited this city, that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">{72}</a></span> -on account of its great extent, when they who were at the extremities -were taken, those of the Babylonians who inhabited the centre -knew nothing of the capture (for it happened to be a festival) -but they were dancing at the time, and enjoying themselves, till -they received certain information of the truth. Thus was Babylon -taken for the first time.<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_9" id="Ref_9" href="#Foot_9">[9]</a></span></p> - -<p>How great was the power of the Babylonians, I can prove by -many other circumstances, and especially by the following. The -whole territory over which the great king reigns, is divided into -districts for the purpose of furnishing subsistence for him and his -army, in addition to the usual tribute; of the twelve months in the -year, the Babylonian territory provides him with subsistence for -four, and all the rest of Asia for the remaining eight; so that the -territory of Assyria amounts to a third part of the power of all -Asia, and the government of this region, which the Persians call a -satrapy, is remunerative; since it yielded a full artabe of silver -every day to Tritæchmes son of Artabazus, who held this district -from the king: the artabe is a Persian measure, containing three -Attic chœnices more than the Attic medimnus [or about twelve -and a half gallons]. And he had a private stud of horses, in addition -to those used in war, of eight hundred stallions, and sixteen -thousand mares. He kept, too, such a number of Indian dogs, that -four considerable towns in the plain were exempted from all other -taxes and appointed to find food for the dogs. Such were the advantages -accruing to the governor of Babylon. The land of Assyria -is but little watered by rain, only enough in fact to nourish -the root of the corn; the stalk grows up, and the grain comes to -maturity only by being irrigated from the river, not, as in Egypt, -by the river overflowing the fields, but by the hand and by engines. -The Babylonian territory, like Egypt, is intersected by canals; -and the largest of these is navigable, stretching in the direction of -the winter sunrise<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_10" id="Ref_10" href="#Foot_10">[10]</a></span>; -and it extends from the Euphrates to another -river, the Tigris, on which the city of Nineveh stood. This -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">{73}</a></span> -is, of all lands with which we are acquainted, by far the best for -the growth of corn: but it does not carry produce trees of any -kind, either the fig, or the vine, or the olive; yet it is so fruitful -in the produce of corn, that it yields continually two hundred-fold, -and when it produces its best, it yields even three hundred-fold. -The blades of wheat and barley grow there to fully four fingers -(three inches) in breadth; and though I well know to what a height -millet and sesama grow, I shall not mention it; for I am well assured, -that to those who have never been in the Babylonian -country, what has been said concerning its productions will appear -to many incredible. They use no other oil than such as is drawn -from sesama. They have palm-trees growing all over the plain; -most of these bear fruit from which they make bread, wine, and -honey. They also tie the fruit of that which the Greeks call the -male palm, about those trees that bear dates, in order that the fly -entering the date may ripen it, lest otherwise the fruit may fall before -maturity; for the male palms have flies in the fruit, just like -wild fig-trees.</p> - -<p>The most wonderful thing of all, next to the city itself, is what -I am now going to describe: their vessels that sail down the river -to Babylon are circular, and made of leather. For when they have -cut the ribs out of willows that grow in Armenia above Babylon, -they cover them with hides extended on the outside, by way of a -bottom; not making any distinction in the stern, nor contracting -the prow, but making them circular like a buckler; then having -lined this vessel throughout with reeds, they suffer it to be carried -down by the river freighted with merchandise, chiefly casks of -palm-wine. The vessel is steered by two spars, held by two men -standing upright, one of whom draws his spar in and the other -thrusts his out. Some of these vessels are made very large, and -others of a smaller size; but the largest of them carry a cargo of -five thousand talents [about one hundred and thirty-five tons]. -Every vessel has a live ass on board, and the larger ones more. -For after they arrive at Babylon, and have disposed of their freight, -they sell the ribs of the boat and all the reeds by public auction; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">{74}</a></span> -then having piled the skins on the asses, they return by land to -Armenia, for it is not possible by any means to sail up the river -because of the rapidity of the current: and for this reason they -make their vessels of skins and not of wood, and upon their return -to Armenia with their asses, they construct other vessels in the -same manner. For their dress, they wear a linen tunic that reaches -down to the feet; over this they put another garment of wool, and -over all a short white cloak; they have sandals peculiar to the -country, very much like the Bœotian clogs. They wear long hair, -binding their heads with turbans, and anoint the whole body with -perfumes. Every man has a seal, and a staff curiously wrought; -and on every staff is carved either an apple, a rose, a lily, an eagle, -or something of the kind; for it is not allowable to wear a stick -without a device.</p> - -<p>Many curious customs prevail amongst them. This, in my -opinion, is the wisest, which I hear the Venetians, of Illyria, also -practise. Once a year, in every village, whatever maidens are of -a marriageable age, they collect together and bring in a body to -one place; around them gathers a crowd of men. Then a crier -having made them stand up one by one, offers them for sale, beginning -with the most beautiful; and when she has been sold for -a large sum, he puts up another who is next in beauty. They are -sold on condition that they shall be married. Such men among -the Babylonians as are rich and desirous of marrying, bid against -one another, and purchase the handsomest. But such of the lower -classes as are desirous of marrying, do not require a beautiful form, -but are willing to take the plainer damsels with a sum of money. -So when the crier has finished selling the handsomest of the maidens, -he makes the ugliest stand up, or one that is a cripple, and -puts her up to auction, for the person who will marry her with the -smallest sum, until she is knocked down to the man who offers to -take the least. This money is that obtained from the sale of the -handsome maidens; so that the beautiful ones portion out the ugly -and the crippled. A father is not allowed to give his daughter in -marriage to whom he pleases, nor can a purchaser carry off a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">{75}</a></span> -maiden without security; but he is first obliged to give security -that he will certainly marry her, and then he may take her away. -If they do not agree, a law has been enacted that the money shall -be repaid. It is also lawful for any one who pleases to come from -another village and purchase. They have also this other custom, -second only to the former in wisdom. They bring their sick to the -market-place, for they have no physicians; then those who pass -by the sick person confer with him about the disease, to discover -whether they have themselves been afflicted with the same disease, -or have seen others so afflicted. They then advise him to have -recourse to the same treatment as that by which they escaped a -similar disease, or have known to cure others. And no one passes -by a sick person in silence, without inquiring into the nature of his -distemper. They embalm their dead in honey, and their funeral -lamentations are like those of the Egyptians.</p> - -<p>There are three tribes among them that eat nothing but fish; -these, when they have taken and dried them in the sun, they treat -in the following manner: they put them into a mortar, and having -pounded them with a pestle, sift them through a fine cloth; then, -whoever pleases, kneads them into a cake, or bakes them like bread.</p> - -<p>When Cyrus had conquered this nation, he was anxious to reduce -the Massagetæ to subjection. This nation is said to be both -powerful and valiant, dwelling toward the east and the rising sun -beyond the river Araxes, over against the Issedonians; there are -some who say that this nation is Scythian. The Araxes is reported -by some persons to be greater, by others less, than the Ister; they -say that there are many islands in it, some nearly equal in size to -Lesbos; and that in them are men, who during the summer feed -upon all manner of roots, which they dig out of the ground; and -that they store up for food ripe fruits which they find on the trees, -and feed upon these during the winter. They add, that they have -discovered other trees that produce fruit of a peculiar kind, which -the inhabitants, when they meet together in companies, and have -lighted a fire, throw on it, as they sit around in a circle; and that, -inhaling the fumes of the burning fruit that has been thrown on, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">{76}</a></span> -they become intoxicated by the odor, just as the Greeks do by -wine; and that the more fruit is thrown on, the more intoxicated -they become, until they rise up to dance and betake themselves to -singing. The river Araxes flows from the Matienian mountains, -whence also springs the river Gyndes, which Cyrus distributed -into the three hundred and sixty trenches; and it gushes out from -forty springs, all of which, except one, discharge themselves into -fens and swamps, in which it is said men live who feed on raw fish, -and clothe themselves in the skins of sea-calves; but the one stream -of the Araxes flows through an unobstructed channel into the Caspian -Sea. The Caspian is a sea by itself, having no communication -with any other sea; for the whole of that which the Greeks navigate, -and that beyond the Pillars, called the Atlantic, and the Red -Sea, are all one. But the Caspian is a separate sea of itself; being -in length a fifteen-days' voyage for a rowing boat; and in breadth, -where it is widest, an eight-days' voyage. On the western shore -of this sea stretches the Caucasus, which is in extent the largest, -and in height the loftiest, of all mountains; it contains within itself -many various nations of men, who for the most part live upon the -produce of wild fruit-trees. In this country, it is said, there are -trees which produce leaves of such a nature, that by rubbing them -and mixing them with water the people paint figures on their garments; -these figures do not wash out, but grow old with the wool, -as if they had been woven in from the first. East of the Caspian -is a plain in extent unbounded in the prospect. A great portion -of this extensive plain is inhabited by the Massagetæ, against whom -Cyrus resolved to make war; for the motives that urged and incited -him to this enterprise were many and powerful: first of all his -birth, which he thought was something more than human; and -secondly, the good fortune which had attended him in his wars; -for wherever Cyrus directed his arms, it was impossible for that -nation to escape.</p> - -<p>A woman whose husband was dead, was queen of the Massagetæ; -her name was Tomyris; and Cyrus sent ambassadors under -pretence of wooing her, and made her an offer of marriage. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">{77}</a></span> -But Tomyris, being aware that he was not wooing her, but the -kingdom of the Massagetæ, forbade their approach. Upon this Cyrus, -perceiving his artifice ineffectual, marched to the Araxes, and -openly prepared to make war on the Massagetæ, by throwing -bridges over the river, and building turrets on the boats which -carried over his army. While he was employed in this work -Tomyris sent a herald to him with this message: "King of the -Medes, desist from your great exertions; for you cannot know if -they will terminate to your advantage; and having desisted, reign -over your own dominions, and bear to see me governing what is -mine. But if you will not attend to my advice, and prefer every -thing before peace; in a word, if you are very anxious to make -trial of the Massagetæ, toil no longer in throwing a bridge over -the river; but do you cross over to our side, while we retire three -days' march from the river; or if you had rather receive us on -your side, do you the like." When Cyrus heard this proposal, he -called a council of the principal Persians, laid the matter before -them, and demanded their opinion as to what he should do: they -unanimously advised him to let Tomyris pass with her army into -his territory. But Crœsus the Lydian, who was present and disapproved -this advice, delivered a contrary opinion to that which -was put forward, and said: "O king, I assured you long ago, that -since Jupiter delivered me into your hands, I would to the utmost -of my power avert whatever misfortune I should see impending -over your house; and my own calamities,<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_11" id="Ref_11" href="#Foot_11">[11]</a></span> -sad as they are, have -been lessons to me. If you think yourself immortal, and that you -command an army that is so too, it is needless for me to make -known to you my opinion. But if you know that you too are a -man, and that you command such as are men, learn this first of all, -that there is a wheel in human affairs, which, continually revolving, -does not suffer the same persons to be always successful. My -opinion touching the matter before us is wholly at variance with -that already given. For if we shall receive the enemy into this -country, there is danger that if you are defeated, you will lose, besides, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">{78}</a></span> -your whole empire; for it is plain that if the Massagetæ are -victorious, they will not flee home again, but will march upon your -territories: and if you are victorious, your victory is not so complete -as if, having crossed over into their territory, you should conquer -the Massagetæ and put them to flight; for then you can -march directly into the dominions of Tomyris. It is a disgrace too -that Cyrus the son of Cambyses should give way and retreat before -a woman. My opinion, therefore, is, that you should pass -over and advance as far as they retire; and then, by the following -stratagem, endeavor to get the better of them. I hear the -Massagetæ are unacquainted with the Persian luxuries, and are -unused to the comforts of life. Suppose then that you cut up and -dress an abundance of cattle, and lay out a feast in our camp for -these men; and besides, bowls of unmixed wine without stint; then -leave the weakest part of your army behind, while the rest return -again toward the river; for the Massagetæ, if I mistake not, when -they see so much excellent fare, will turn to immediately, and after -that there remains for us the display of mighty achievements."</p> - -<p>Cyrus approved the suggestions of Crœsus and bade Tomyris -retire, as he would cross over to her. She accordingly retired, -as she had promised. Cyrus placed Crœsus in the hands of his -son Cambyses, to whom he also intrusted the kingdom, and -having strictly charged him to honor Crœsus, and treat him well in -case his inroad on the Massagetæ should fail, sent them back -to Persia and crossed the river with his army. When he had -passed the Araxes, and night came on, he saw a vision, as he -was sleeping in the country of the Massagetæ. He fancied that -he saw the eldest son of Hystaspes with wings on his shoulders; -and that with one of these he overshadowed Asia, and with the -other Europe. Now Darius, who was then about twenty years of -age, was the eldest son of Hystaspes, son of Arsames, one of the -Achæmenides; and he had been left in Persia, for he had not yet -attained the age of military service. When Cyrus awoke he considered -his dream with attention; and as it seemed to him of great -moment, he summoned Hystaspes, and taking him aside, said: -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">{79}</a></span> -"Hystaspes, your son has been detected plotting against me and -my empire; and I will show you how I know it for a certainty. -The gods watch over me and forewarn me of every thing that is -about to befall me. Now, last night, as I was sleeping, I saw the -eldest of your sons with wings on his shoulders, and with one -of these he overshadowed Asia, and Europe with the other; from -this vision, it cannot be otherwise than that your son is forming -designs against me; do you therefore go back to Persia with all -speed, and take care, that when I have conquered these people -and return home, you bring your son before me to be examined." -Cyrus spoke thus under a persuasion that Darius was plotting -against him; but the deity forewarned him that he himself would die -in that very expedition, and that his kingdom would devolve on -Darius. Hystaspes, however, answered in these words: "God -forbid, O king, that a Persian should be born who would plot -against you! But if any such there be, may sudden destruction -overtake him, for you have made the Persians free instead of being -slaves, and instead of being ruled over by others to rule over all; -but if any vision informs you that my son is forming any plot -against you, I freely surrender him to you to deal with as you -please." And Hystaspes repassed the Araxes and went to Persia, -for the purpose of keeping his son Darius in custody for Cyrus.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 350px;"> - <img src="images/p080.jpg" width="350" height="191" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>SEPULCHRAL VASES.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Cyrus having advanced one day's march from the Araxes, proceeded -to act according to the suggestion of Crœsus. After this, -when Cyrus and the effective part of the Persian army had marched -back to the Araxes, leaving the ineffective part behind, a third -division of the army of the Massagetæ attacked those of Cyrus' -forces that had been left behind, and, after some resistance, put -them to death. Then, seeing the feast laid out, as soon as they had -overcome their enemies they lay down and feasted; and being -filled with food and wine, fell asleep. Then the Persians attacked -them, and put many of them to death, and took a still greater -number prisoners, among them the son of Queen Tomyris, who -commanded the Massagetæ, and whose name was Spargapises. -When she heard what had befallen her army and her son, she sent -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">{80}</a></span> -a herald to Cyrus with the following message: "Cyrus, insatiate -with blood, be not elated with what has now happened, that by the -fruit of the vine, with which ye yourselves, when filled with it, so -rave, that when it descends into your bodies, evil words float on -your lips; be not elated, that by such a poison you have deceived -and conquered my son, instead of by prowess in battle. But take -the good advice that I offer you. Restore my son; depart out of -this country unpunished for having insolently disgraced a third -division of the army of the Massagetæ. But if you will not do this, -I swear by the sun, the Lord of the Massagetæ, that, insatiable as -you are, I will glut you with blood." Cyrus, however, paid no attention -to this message; but Spargapises, the son of Queen -Tomyris, as soon as he recovered from the effects of the wine, and -perceived in what a plight he was, begged of Cyrus that he might -be freed from his fetters; and as soon as he was set free, and -found his hands at liberty, he put himself to death. But Tomyris, -finding Cyrus did not listen to her, assembled all her forces, and -engaged with him. I think that this battle was the most obstinate -that was ever fought between barbarians. First of all, they stood -at a distance and used their bows; afterward, when they had emptied -their quivers, they engaged in close fight with their swords and -spears, and thus they continued fighting for a long time, and -neither was willing to give way; but at length the Massagetæ got -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">{81}</a></span> -the better, and the greater part of the Persian army was cut in -pieces on the spot, and Cyrus himself was killed, after he had -reigned twenty-nine years. Tomyris filled a skin with human -blood, sought for the body of Cyrus among the slain of the Persians, -and thrust the head into the skin, and insulting the dead body, -said: "Thou hast indeed ruined me though alive and victorious in -battle, since thou hast taken my son by stratagem; but I will now -glut thee with blood, as I threatened." Of the many accounts given -of the end of Cyrus, this appears to me most worthy of credit.</p> - -<p>The Massagetæ resemble the Scythians in their dress and mode -of living; they have both horse and foot bow-men, and javelin-men, -who are accustomed to carry battle-axes: they use gold and -bronze for every thing; for in whatever concerns spears, and -arrow-points, and battle-axes, they use bronze; but the head, and -belts, and shoulder-pieces, are ornamented with gold. In like manner -with regard to the chest of horses, they put on breastplates of -bronze; but the bridle-bit and cheek-pieces are ornamented with -gold. They make no use of silver or iron, for neither of those -metals are found in their country, but they have bronze and gold -in abundance. Their manners are as follows: when a man has -attained a great age, all his kinsmen meet, and sacrifice him, together -with cattle of several kinds; and when they have boiled the -flesh, they feast on it. This death they account the most happy; -but they do not eat the bodies of those who die of disease; but -bury them in the earth, and think it a great misfortune that they -did not reach the age to be sacrificed. They sow nothing, but live -on cattle, and fish which the river Araxes yields in abundance, and -they are drinkers of milk. They worship the sun only of all the -gods, and sacrifice horses to him; and they assign as the reason -of this custom that they think it right to offer the swiftest of all -animals to the swiftest of all the gods.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_1" id="Foot_1" href="#Ref_1">[1]</a> -Under the name "barbarians" the Greeks included all who were not sprung from themselves—all -who did not speak the Greek language.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_2" id="Foot_2" href="#Ref_2">[2]</a> -Syria was at that time the name of Cappadocia, as Herodotus himself elsewhere states.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_3" id="Foot_3" href="#Ref_3">[3]</a> -It is generally agreed that the name of Lycurgus's nephew was not Leobotas, but -Charilaus. See the life of Lycurgus in the "Boys' and Girls' Plutarch."</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_4" id="Foot_4" href="#Ref_4">[4]</a> -There is a Scriptural account of Ecbatana, in the Apocrypha. Judith i 1-4.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_5" id="Foot_5" href="#Ref_5">[5]</a> -Major Robinson states that the seven colors described by Herodotus, are those employed by -the Orientals, to denote the seven planetary bodies.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_6" id="Foot_6" href="#Ref_6">[6]</a> -Several passages of our author seem to prove that Herodotus wrote other histories than -those which have come down to us. Elsewhere in this book he speaks of his Assyrian history; -and the second of the Libyan.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_7" id="Foot_7" href="#Ref_7">[7]</a> -Tartessus was situated between the two branches of the Bœtis, now the Guadalquiver.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_8" id="Foot_8" href="#Ref_8">[8]</a> -A proverbial expression signifying "that the victors suffered more than the vanquished."</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_9" id="Foot_9" href="#Ref_9">[9]</a> -It was again taken by Darius; see end of Book III.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_10" id="Foot_10" href="#Ref_10">[10]</a> -That is, southeast.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_11" id="Foot_11" href="#Ref_11">[11]</a> -These words "pathemata mathemata" seem to have been a proverb in the Greek.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">{83}</a></div> - -<h2><i>BOOK II. EUTERPE.</i></h2> - -<div class="section"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a></div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 386px;"> - <img src="images/p082.jpg" width="386" height="600" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>ÆGYPTUS</p> - </div> -</div> - -<h3>CHAPTER I.<br /> -<small>PHYSICAL HISTORY OF EGYPT.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">After</span> the death of Cyrus, Cambyses succeeded to the kingdom. -He was son of Cyrus, and Cassandane the daughter of Pharnaspes; -she having died some time before, Cyrus deeply mourned for her -himself, and commanded all his subjects to mourn. Cambyses -then considered the Ionians and Æolians as his hereditary slaves, -and when he made an expedition against Egypt, he took with him -some of the Greeks over whom he bore rule.</p> - -<p>The Egyptians, before the reign of Psammitichus, considered -themselves to be the most ancient of mankind. But after Psammitichus -came to the throne, he endeavored to ascertain who really were -the most ancient, and from that time they have considered the -Phrygians to have been an older race than themselves. When -Psammitichus was unable, by inquiry, to discover any solution of -the question, who were the most ancient of men, he devised this -expedient. He gave two new-born children of poor parents to a -shepherd, to be brought up among his flocks, with strict orders that -no one should utter a word in their presence, that they should lie -in a solitary room by themselves, and that the shepherd should -bring goats' milk to them at certain times, and listen to discover -what word the children would first articulate, after they had given -over their insignificant mewlings. When the shepherd had pursued -this plan for the space of two years, one day as he opened the door -and went in, both the children fell upon him, and holding out their -hands, cried "Becos." At first the shepherd said nothing; but as -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">{84}</a></span> -this same word was repeated to him whenever he went and tended -the children, he at length acquainted his master, and by his command -brought the children into his presence. When Psammitichus -heard it he inquired what people call any thing by the name of -"Becos"; and discovered that the Phrygians call bread by that -name. So the Egyptians, convinced by the experiment, allowed -that the Phrygians were more ancient than themselves. This relation -I had from the priests of Vulcan at Memphis. But the -Greeks tell many other foolish things, among them, that Psammitichus, -having had the tongues of some women cut out, had the -children brought up by them.</p> - -<p>The Egyptians were the first to discover the year, which they -divided into twelve parts, making this discovery from the stars; -and so, I think, they act more wisely than the Greeks, who insert -an intercalary month every third year, on account of the seasons; -while the Egyptians, reckoning twelve months of thirty days each, -add five days each year above that number, so that the circle of -the seasons comes round to the same point. They say also, -that the Egyptians were the first who introduced the names of the -twelve gods, and that the Greeks borrowed those names from -them; that they were the first to assign altars, images, and temples -to the gods, and to carve the figures of animals on stone. They -add that Menes was the first mortal who reigned over Egypt, and -that in his time all Egypt, except the district of Thebes, was a -morass, and that no part of the land that now exists below Lake -Myris was then above water; to this place from the sea is a seven-days' -passage up the river. It is evident to a man of common understanding, -who sees it, that the part of Egypt which the Greeks -frequent with their shipping, is land reclaimed by the Egyptians, -and a gift from the river; for when you are at the distance of a day's -sail from land, if you cast the lead you will bring up mud, yet find -yourself in eleven fathoms of water; showing the immense alluvial -deposit.</p> - -<div class="section"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a></div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/p085.jpg" width="600" height="376" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>THE TWO GREAT PYRAMIDS AT THE TIME OF THE INUNDATION.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The length of Egypt along the sea-coast is sixty schœni (450 -miles) from the Plinthinetic Bay to Lake Serbonis, near which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">{86}</a></span> -Mount Casius stretches. Men who are short of land measure their -territory by fathoms; those who have some possessions, by stades; -those who have much, by parasangs; and such as have a very -great extent, by schœni. A parasang is equal to thirty stades, -and each schœnus, which is an Egyptian measure, is equal to sixty -stades. So the whole coast of Egypt is three thousand six hundred -stades in length. As far as Heliopolis, inland, Egypt is wide, flat, -without water, and a swamp. The distance to Heliopolis, as one -goes up from the sea, is about equal in length to the road from -Athens—that is to say, from the altar of the twelve gods,—to Pisa -and the temple of Olympian Jupiter, or about fifteen hundred stades. -From Heliopolis upward Egypt is narrow, for on one side the -table-land of Arabia extends from north to south and southwest, -stretching up continuously to that which is called the Red Sea. In -this plateau are the stone quarries which were cut for the pyramids -at Memphis. Where its length is the greatest, I have heard that -it is a two-months' journey from east to west; and that eastward its -confines produce frankincense. On that side of Egypt which -borders upon Libya extends another rocky table-land covered with -sand, on which the pyramids stand, stretching in the same direction -as that part of the Arabian mountain that runs southward.</p> - -<p>The greater part of all this country, as the priests informed me, -has been reclaimed by the Egyptians from the sea and the marshes. -For the space beyond the city of Memphis seems to me to have been -formerly a bay of the sea; as is the case also with the parts about -Ilium, Teuthrania, Ephesus, and the plain of the Mæander, if I -may be permitted to compare small things with great. There are -other rivers not equal in size to the Nile, which have wrought -great works; amongst them one of the most remarkable is the -Achelous which, flowing through Acarnania, and falling into the -sea, has already converted one half of the Echinades islands into -a continent. There is in the Arabian territory, not far from Egypt, -branching from the Red Sea, a bay of the sea of such a length -that the voyage, from the innermost part of this bay to the broad -sea, occupies forty days for a vessel with oars; but the width, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">{87}</a></span> -where the bay is widest, only half a day's passage, and in it an -ebb and flow takes place daily; and I am of opinion that Egypt -was formerly a similar bay; this stretching from the Northern Sea -toward Ethiopia; and the Arabian Bay, which I am describing, -from the south toward Syria; and that they almost perforated -their recesses so as to meet each other, overlapping to some small -extent. Now, if the Nile were to turn its stream into this Arabian -gulf, what could hinder it from being filled with soil by the river -within twenty thousand years?—for my part, I think it would be filled -within ten thousand. How, then, in the time that has elapsed before -I was born, might not even a much greater bay than this have -been filled up by such a great and powerful river? I therefore -give credit to those who relate these things concerning Egypt, -when I see that Egypt projects beyond the adjoining land; that -shells are found on the mountains; that a saline humor forms on -the surface so as even to corrode the pyramids; and that this -mountain which is above Memphis is the only one in Egypt that -abounds in sand: add to which, that Egypt, in its soil, is neither -like Arabia or its confines, nor Libya, nor Syria, but is black and -crumbling, as if it were mud and alluvial deposit, brought down by -the river from Ethiopia; whereas we know that the earth of Libya -is reddish, and somewhat more sandy; and that of Arabia and -Syria is clayey and flinty.</p> - -<p>The priests relate that in the reign of Mœris, when the river -rose at least eight cubits, it irrigated all Egypt below Memphis; -and yet Mœris had not been nine hundred years dead when I received -this information. But now, unless the river rises sixteen -cubits, or fifteen at least, it does not overflow the country. It appears -to me, therefore, that if the soil continues to grow in height, -in the same proportion, those Egyptians below Lake Mœris, who -inhabit other districts than that which is called Delta, must, by reason -of the Nile not overflowing their land, for ever suffer the same -calamity which they used to say the Greeks would suffer from. -For hearing that all the lands of Greece were watered by rain, and -not by rivers, as their own was, they said "that the Greeks at -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">{88}</a></span> -some time or other would suffer miserably from famine." But -let me state how the matter stands with the Egyptians themselves: -if, as I said before, the land below Memphis should continue to increase -in height in the same proportion as it has done in time past, -what else will happen but that the Egyptians who inhabit this part -will starve, if their land shall neither be watered by rain, nor the -river be able to inundate the fields? Now, indeed, they gather in -the fruits of the earth with less labor than any other people, for -they have not the toil of breaking up the furrows with the plough, -nor of hoeing, nor of any other work which all other men must -labor at to obtain a crop of corn; but when the river has come of -its own accord and irrigated their fields, and again subsided, then -each man sows his own land and turns swine into it; and when -the seed has been trodden in by the swine, he waits for harvest-time; -then he treads out the corn with his swine, and gathers it in.</p> - -<p>All Egypt, beginning from the cataracts and the city of Elephantine, -is divided into two parts, and partakes of both names; -one belongs to Libya, and the other to Asia. The Nile, beginning -from the cataracts, flows to the sea, dividing Egypt in the middle. -Now, as far as the city of Cercasorus, the Nile flows in one stream; -but from that point it is divided into three channels. That which -runs eastward is called the Pelusiac mouth; another of the channels -bends westward, and is called the Canopic mouth; but the direct -channel of the Nile is the following: descending from above, it -comes to the point of the Delta, where it divides the Delta in the -middle, and discharges itself into the sea, supplying by this channel, -not by any means the least quantity of water, nor the least renowned; -this is called the Sebennytic mouth. There are also two other -mouths, that diverge from the Sebennytic and flow into the -sea,—the Saitic, and the Mendesian. The Bolbitine and Bucolic -mouths are not natural, but artificial. The Nile, when full, inundates -not only Delta, but also part of the country said to belong to -Libya and Arabia, to the extent of about two days' journey on -each side.</p> - -<p>At the summer solstice it fills and overflows for a hundred days; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">{89}</a></span> -then falls short in its stream, and retires; so that it continues low -all the winter, until the return of the summer solstice. In parts of -Ethiopia, out of which the Nile flows, the inhabitants become black -from the excessive heat; kites and swallows continue there all the -year; and the cranes, to avoid the cold of Scythia, migrate to these -parts as winter-quarters.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 350px;"> - <img src="images/p089.jpg" width="350" height="146" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>NILE BOAT.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>With respect to the sources of the Nile, no man of all the -Egyptians, Libyans, or Greeks with whom I have conversed, ever -pretended to know any thing; except the registrar of Minerva's -treasury at Sais in Egypt. But even he seemed to be trifling with -me, when he said he knew perfectly well. His account was: -"That there are two mountains rising into a sharp peak, situated -between the cities of Syene and Elephantine; the names of these -mountains are Crophi and Mophi. The sources of the Nile, which -are bottomless, flow from between these mountains, and half of -the water flows north over Egypt, and the other half to the southward -over Ethiopia. That the fountains of the Nile are bottomless, -he said, Psammitichus, king of Egypt, proved by experiment; -for he twisted a line many thousand fathoms in length and let it -down, but could not find a bottom." In my opinion, this simply -proves that there are strong whirlpools and an eddy here; so that -the water beating against the rocks, a sounding-line, when let -down, cannot reach the bottom. As you ascend the river above -the city of Elephantine, the country is so steep that it is necessary -to attach a rope on both sides of a boat as you do with an ox in a -plough, and so proceed; but if the rope should happen to break, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">{90}</a></span> -the boat is carried away by the force of the stream. This kind of -country lasts for a four-days' passage (or eighty miles), and the -Nile here winds as much as the Mæander. After that you come to -a level plain, where the Nile flows round an island named Tachompso. -Ethiopians inhabit the country immediately above Elephantine, -and one half of the island; the other half is inhabited by -Egyptians. Near to this island lies a vast lake, on the borders of -which Ethiopian nomads dwell; after sailing through this lake, -you come to the channel of the Nile, which flows into it: then you -have to land and travel forty days by the side of the river, for -sharp rocks rise in the Nile, and there are many sunken ones, -through which it is not possible to navigate a boat; you then must -go on board another boat, and sail for twelve days; and will at -last arrive at a large city called Meroe: this city is said to be the -capital of all Ethiopia. The inhabitants worship no other gods -than Jupiter and Bacchus; but these they honor with great magnificence; -they have also an oracle of Jupiter; and they make war, -whenever that god bids them by an oracular warning, and against -whatever country he bids them. Sailing from this city, you will -arrive at the country of the Automoli, in a space of time equal to -that which you took in coming from Elephantine to the capital of -the Ethiopians. These Automoli are called by the name of Asmak, -which in the language of Greece signifies, "those that stand at the -left hand of the king." These, to the number of two hundred and -forty thousand of the Egyptian war-tribe, once revolted to the -Ethiopians, whose king made them the following recompense. -There were certain Ethiopians disaffected toward him; he bade -them expel these, and take possession of their land; by the settlement -of these men among them, the Ethiopians became more civilized, -and learned the manners of the Egyptians.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">{91}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER II.<br /> -<small>RELIGION, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, DRESS, AND ANIMALS OF THE EGYPTIANS.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Egypt</span> possesses more wonders than any other country, and exhibits -works greater than can be described, in comparison with all -other regions; therefore more must be said about it. The Egyptians -besides having a peculiar climate and a river differing in -its nature from all other rivers, have adopted customs and usages -in almost every respect different from the rest of mankind. -Amongst them the women attend markets and traffic, but the men -stay at home and weave. Other nations, in weaving, throw -the wool upward; the Egyptians, downward. The men carry -burdens on their heads; the women, on their shoulders. No -woman can serve the office for any god or goddess; but men are -employed for both offices. Sons are not compelled to support -their parents unless they choose, but daughters are compelled -to do so, whether they choose or not. In other countries the -priests of the gods wear long hair; in Egypt they have it shaved. -With other men it is customary in mourning for the nearest relations -to have their heads shorn; the Egyptians, on occasions -of death, let the hair grow both on the head and face, though till -then shaven. Other men feed on wheat and barley, but it is -a very great disgrace for an Egyptian to make food of them; but -they make bread from spelt, which some call zea. They knead the -dough with their feet; but mix clay with their hands. Every -man wears two garments; the women, but one. Other men -fasten the rings and sheets of their sails outside; but the Egyptians, -inside. The Greeks write and cipher, moving the hand from -left to right; but the Egyptians, from right to left: and doing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">{92}</a></span> -so, they say they do it right-ways, and the Greeks left-ways. -They have two sorts of letters, one of which is called sacred, the -other common.</p> - -<p>They are of all men the most excessively attentive to the worship -of the gods, and observe the following ceremonies: They -drink from cups of bronze, which they scour every day. They -wear linen garments, constantly fresh-washed, thinking it better to -be clean than handsome. The priests shave their whole body -every third day, that no impurity may be found upon them when -engaged in the service of the gods. The priests wear linen only, -and shoes of byblus, and are not permitted to wear any other -garments, or other shoes. They wash themselves in cold water -twice every day and twice every night, and use a great number of -ceremonies. On the other hand, they enjoy no slight advantages, -for they do not consume or expend any of their private property; -but sacred food is cooked for them, and a great quantity of beef -and geese is allowed each of them every day, with wine from the -grape; but they must not taste of fish. Beans the Egyptians do -not sow at all in their country, nor do they eat those that happen -to grow there. The priests abhor the sight of that pulse, accounting -it impure. The service of each god is performed, not by one, -but by many priests, of whom one is chief; and, when one of -them dies, his son is put in his place. The male kine they deem -sacred to Epaphus, and to that end prove them in the following -manner: If the examiner finds one black hair upon him, he -adjudges him to be unclean; one of the priests appointed for this -purpose makes this examination, both when the animal is standing -up and lying down; and he draws out the tongue, to see if it is -pure as to the prescribed marks, which I shall mention in another -part of my history. He also looks at the hairs of his tail, to see -whether they grow naturally. If the beast is found pure in all -these respects, he marks it by rolling a piece of byblus round the -horns, and then having put on it some sealing earth, he impresses -it with his signet; and so they drive him away. Any one who -sacrifices one that is unmarked is punished with death. The -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">{93}</a></span> -established mode of sacrifice is this: they lead the victim, properly -marked, to the altar where they intend to sacrifice, and kindle a -fire; then having poured wine upon the altar, near the victim, -they invoke the god, and kill it; then cut off the head, and flay -the body of the animal. Having pronounced many imprecations -on the head, they who have a market and Greek merchants -dwelling amongst them, carry it there and sell it; but those who -have no Greeks amongst them throw it into the river; and they -pronounce the following imprecations on the head: "If any evil -is about to befall either those that now sacrifice, or Egypt in -general, may it be averted on this head." But a different mode -of disembowelling and burning the victims prevails in different -sacrifices. The practice with regard to the goddess whom they -consider the greatest, and in whose honor they celebrate the most -magnificent festival, is this: When they have flayed the bullocks, -having first offered up prayers, they take out all the intestines, and -leave the vitals with the fat in the carcass: they then cut off the -legs and the extremity of the hip, with the shoulders and neck, -and fill the body of the bullock with fine bread, honey, raisins, -figs, frankincense, myrrh, and other perfumes, and burn it, pouring -on it a great quantity of oil. They sacrifice after they have -fasted; and while the sacred things are being burnt, they all beat -themselves; after which they spread a banquet of what remains of -the victims.</p> - -<p>All the Egyptians sacrifice the pure male kine and calves, but -they are not allowed to sacrifice the females, for they are sacred -to Isis; the image of Isis is made in the form of a woman with the -horns of a cow, as the Greeks represent Io; and all Egyptians -alike pay a far greater reverence to cows than to any other cattle. -No Egyptian man or woman will kiss a Greek on the mouth; -or use the knife, spit, or cauldron of a Greek, or taste of -the flesh of a pure ox that has been divided by a Greek -knife. They bury the kine that die in the following manner: -The females they throw into the river, and the males they -inter in the suburbs, with one horn, or both, appearing above the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">{94}</a></span> -ground, for a mark. When it is putrified, and the appointed time -arrives, a raft comes to each city from the island called Prosopitis, -in the Delta, which is nine schœni in circumference. Now in this -island Prosopitis there are several cities; but that from which the -rafts come to take away the bones of the oxen, is called Atarbechis; -in it a temple of Venus has been erected. From this city -then many persons go about to other towns; and having dug up -the bones, carry them away, and bury them in one place; and -they bury all other cattle that die in the same way that they do -the oxen; for they do not kill any of them. All those who have -a temple erected to Theban Jupiter, or belong to the Theban district, -abstain from sheep, and sacrifice goats only. For the Egyptians -do not all worship the same gods in the same manner, except -Isis and Osiris, who, they say, is Bacchus. On the other hand, -those who frequent the temple of Mendes, and belong to the Mendesian -district, abstain from goats, and sacrifice sheep. The -Thebans say that this custom was established among them in the -following way: that Hercules was very desirous of seeing Jupiter, -but Jupiter was unwilling to be seen by him; at last, however, as -Hercules persisted, Jupiter flayed a ram, cut off the head, and held -it before himself, and then having put on the fleece, showed himself -to Hercules. From this circumstance the Egyptians make -the image of Jupiter with a ram's face; and the Ammonians, who -are a colony of Egyptians and Ethiopians, and who speak a language -between both, have adopted the same practice; and, as I -conjecture, the Ammonians thus derived their name, for the Egyptians -call Jupiter, Ammon. The Thebans then do not sacrifice -rams, being for this reason accounted sacred by them; on one day -in the year, however, at the festival of Jupiter, they kill and flay -one ram, put it on this image of Jupiter, and bring an image of -Hercules to it; then all who are in the temple beat themselves in -mourning for the ram, and bury him in a sacred vault.</p> - -<p>Of this Hercules I have heard that he is one of the twelve -gods; but of the other Hercules, who is known to the Greeks, I -could never hear in any part of Egypt. That the Egyptians did -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">{95}</a></span> -not derive the name of Hercules from the Greeks, but rather the -Greeks from the Egyptians, I have many proofs to show. The -parents of this Hercules, Amphitryon and Alcmene, were both of -Egyptian descent, and the Egyptians say they do not know the -names of Neptune and the Dioscuri, yet if they had derived the -name of any deity from the Greeks, they would certainly have -mentioned these above all others, since even at that time they -made voyages, and some of the Greeks were sailors. But Hercules -is one of the ancient gods of the Egyptians; and they say -themselves it was seventeen thousand years before the reign of -Amasis, when the number of their gods was increased from eight -to twelve, of whom Hercules was accounted one. Being desirous -of obtaining certain information from whatever source I could, I -sailed to Tyre in Phœnicia, having heard that there was there a -temple dedicated to Hercules; and I saw it richly adorned with a -great variety of offerings, and in it were two pillars, one of fine -gold, the other of emerald stone, both shining exceedingly at night. -Conversing with the priests of this god, I inquired how long this -temple had been built, and I found that they did not agree with -the Greeks. For they said that the temple was built at the time -when Tyre was founded, and that two thousand three hundred -years had elapsed since the foundation of Tyre. In this city I also -saw another temple dedicated to Hercules by the name of Thasian; -I went therefore to Thasos, and found there a temple of Hercules -built by the Phœnicians, who founded Thasos, when they sailed in -search of Europa, and this occurred five generations before Hercules -the son of Amphitryon appeared in Greece. The researches -then that I have made evidently prove that Hercules is a god of -great antiquity, and therefore those Greeks appear to me to have -acted most correctly, who have built two kinds of temples sacred -to Hercules, and who sacrifice to one as an immortal, under the -name of Olympian, and paid honor to the other as a hero. The -Mendesians pay reverence to all goats; at the death of a he-goat -public mourning is observed throughout the whole Mendesian district.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">{96}</a></span> -The Egyptians consider the pig to be an impure beast, and -therefore if a man in passing by a pig should touch him only with -his garments, he forthwith goes to the river and plunges in; and -in the next place, swineherds, although native Egyptians, are the -only men who are not allowed to enter any of their temples; -neither will any man give his daughter in marriage to one of them, -nor take a wife from among them; but the swineherds intermarry -among themselves. The Egyptians do not think it right to sacrifice -swine to any deities but the moon and Bacchus. In this sacrifice -of pigs to the moon, when the sacrificer has slain the victim, -he puts together the tip of the tail, with the spleen and the caul, -covers them with the fat found about the belly of the animal, and -consumes them with fire: the rest of the flesh they eat during the -full moon in which they offer the sacrifices; but on no other day -would any one even taste it. The poor amongst them, through -want of means, form pigs of dough, and having baked them, offer -them in sacrifice.</p> - -<p>Whence each of the gods sprung, whether they existed always, -and of what form they were, was, so to speak, unknown till yesterday. -For I am of opinion that Hesiod and Homer lived four hundred -years before my time, and not more, and these were they who -framed a theogony for the Greeks, and gave names to the gods, and -assigned to them honors and arts, and declared their several forms.</p> - -<p>The Egyptians were also the first who introduced public festivals, -processions, and solemn supplications; and the Greeks learned -these from them. The Egyptians hold public festivals several times -in a year; that which is best and most rigidly observed is in -the city of Bubastis, in honor of Diana; the second, in the city of -Busiris, is in honor of Isis; the largest temple of Isis is in this city, -in the middle of the Egyptian Delta. Isis is in the Grecian language -called Demeter. The third festival is held at Sais, in honor of -Minerva; the fourth, at Heliopolis, in honor of the sun; the fifth, -at the city of Buto, in honor of Latona; the sixth, at the city of -Papremis, in honor of Mars. When they are assembled at the -sacrifice, in the city of Sais, they all on a certain night kindle a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">{97}</a></span> -great number of lamps in the open air, around their houses; the -lamps are flat vessels filled with salt and oil, the wick floats on the -surface and burns all night; hence the festival is named "the -lighting of lamps." The Egyptians who do not come to this public -assembly observe the rite of sacrifice, and all kindle lamps, not -only in Sais, but throughout all Egypt.</p> - -<p>Egypt, though bordering on Libya, does not abound in wild -beasts; but all that they have are accounted sacred. Superintendents, -consisting both of men and women, are appointed to feed -every kind separately; and the son succeeds the father in -this office. All the inhabitants of the cities perform their vows to -the superintendents. Having made a vow to the god to whom -the animal belongs, they shave either the whole heads of -their children, or a half, or a third part of the head, and then weigh -the hair in a scale against silver, and whatever the weight may be, -they give to the superintendent of the animals; she in return -cuts up some fish, and gives it as food to the animals; such is the -usual mode of feeding them. Should any one kill one of -these beasts, if wilfully, death is the punishment; if by accident, he -pays such fine as the priests choose to impose. But whoever kills -an ibis or a hawk, whether wilfully or by accident, must necessarily -be put to death. When a conflagration takes place, a supernatural -impulse seizes on the cats. The Egyptians, standing -at a distance, take care of the cats, and neglect to put out the fire; -but the cats often make their escape, leap over the men, and throw -themselves into the fire; when this happens great lamentations -are made among the Egyptians. In whatever house a cat -dies of a natural death, all the family shave their eyebrows; but if -a dog die, they shave the whole body and the head. All cats -that die are carried to certain sacred houses, where they are first -embalmed, and then buried in the city of Bubastis. All persons -bury their dogs in sacred vaults within their own city; and -ichneumons are buried in the same manner as the dogs; but -field-mice and hawks they carry to the city of Buto; the ibis -to Hermopolis; the bears, which are few in number, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">{98}</a></span> -the wolves, which are not much larger than foxes, they bury -wherever they are found lying.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 175px;"> - <img src="images/p098.jpg" width="175" height="115" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>THE TROCHILUS.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>This is the nature of the crocodile:—During the four coldest -months it eats nothing, and though it has four feet, it is amphibious. -It lays its eggs on land, and there hatches them. It spends -the greater part of the day on the dry ground, but the whole -night in the river; for the water is then warmer than the air and -dew. Of all living things with which we are acquainted, this, from -the least beginning, grows to be the largest. For it lays eggs little -larger than those of a goose, and the young is at first in proportion -to the egg; but when grown up it reaches to the length of seventeen -cubits (25½ feet), and even more. It has the eyes of a -pig, large teeth, and projecting tusks: it is the only animal that -has no tongue: it does not move the lower jaw, but is the only -animal that brings down its upper jaw to the under one. It has -strong claws, and a skin covered with scales, that cannot be broken -on the back. It is blind in the water, but very quick-sighted on -land; and because it lives for the most part in the water, -its mouth is filled with leeches. All other birds and beasts -avoid him, but he is at peace with the trochilus, because he -receives benefit from that bird. For when the crocodile gets out -of the water on land, and then opens its jaws, which it does most -commonly toward the west, the trochilus enters its mouth and -swallows the leeches: the crocodile is so well pleased with this -service that it never hurts the trochilus. With some of the Egyptians -crocodiles are sacred; with others not, but they treat them as -enemies. Those who dwell about Thebes, and Lake Mœris consider -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">{99}</a></span> -them to be very sacred; and they each of them train up a -crocodile, which is taught to be quite tame; and put crystal and -gold ear-rings into their ears, and bracelets on their fore paws; -they give them appointed and sacred food, and treat them as well -as possible while alive, and when dead they embalm them, and -bury them in sacred vaults. But the people who dwell about the -city of Elephantine eat them, not considering them sacred. They -are not called crocodiles by the Egyptians, but "champsæ"; the -Ionians gave them the name of crocodiles, because they thought -they resembled lizards, which are also so called, and which are -found in the hedges of their country. The modes of taking the -crocodile are many and various, but I shall only describe that -which seems to me most worthy of relation. When the fisherman -has baited a hook with the chine of a pig, he lets it down into the -middle of the river, and holding a young live pig on the brink of -the river, beats it; the crocodile, hearing the noise, goes in its -direction, and meeting with the chine, swallows it, and the men -draw it to land; when it is drawn out on shore, the sportsman first -of all plasters its eyes with mud, after which he manages it very -easily; but until he has done this, he has a great deal of trouble. -The hippopotamus is esteemed sacred in the district of Papremis, but -not so by the rest of the Egyptians. It is a quadruped, cloven-footed, -with the hoofs of an ox, snub-nosed, has the mane of a -horse, projecting tusks, and the tail and neigh of a horse. In size -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">{100}</a></span> -he is equal to a very large ox: his hide is so thick that spear-handles -are made of it when dry. Otters are also met with in the -river, which are deemed sacred; and amongst fish, they consider -that which is called the lepidotus, and the eel, sacred; these they -say are sacred to the Nile; and among birds, the vulpanser.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/p099.jpg" width="300" height="170" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>SPEARING THE CROCODILE.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>There is also another sacred bird, called the phœnix, which I -have never seen except in a picture; for it makes its appearance -amongst them only once in five hundred years, as the Heliopolitans -affirm: they say that it comes on the death of its sire. If he is -like the picture, he is of the following size and description: the -plumage of his wings is partly golden-colored, and partly red; in -outline and size he is like an eagle. They tell this incredible story -about him:—They say that he comes from Arabia, and brings the -body of his father, enclosed in myrrh, to the temple of the sun, and -there buries him in the temple. He brings him in this manner: -first he moulds an egg of myrrh as large as he thinks himself able -to carry; then he tries to carry it, and when he has made the experiment, -he hollows out the egg, puts his parent into it, and stops -up with some more myrrh the hole through which he introduced the -body, so when his father is put inside, the weight is the same as -before; then he carries him to the temple of the sun in Egypt.</p> - -<p>In the neighborhood of Thebes there are sacred serpents not at -all hurtful to men: they are diminutive in size, and carry two -horns that grow on the top of the head. When these serpents die -they bury them in the temple of Jupiter, for they say they are -sacred to that God. There is a place in Arabia, situated very near -the city of Buto, to which I went, on hearing of some winged serpents; -there I saw bones and spines of serpents in such quantities -as it would be impossible to describe: there were heaps upon -heaps, some large, some smaller, scattered in a narrow pass between -two mountains, which leads into a spacious plain, contiguous -to the plain of Egypt: it is reported that at the beginning of spring, -winged serpents fly from Arabia toward Egypt; but that ibises, a -sort of bird, meet them at the pass, and do not allow the serpents -to go by, but kill them: for this service the Arabians say that the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">{101}</a></span> -ibis is highly reverenced by the Egyptians; and the Egyptians -acknowledge it. The ibis is all over a deep black; it has the legs -of a crane, its beak is much curved, and it is about the size of the -crex. Such is the form of the black ones, that fight with the serpents. -But those that are best known, for there are two species, -are bare on the head and the whole neck, have white plumage, -except on the head, the throat, and the tips of the wings and extremity -of the tail; in all these parts they are of a deep black; in -their legs and beak they are like the other kind. The form of the -serpent is like that of the water-snake; but he has wings without -feathers, and as like as possible to the wings of a bat. This must -suffice for the description of sacred animals.</p> - -<p>Of the Egyptians, those who inhabit that part of Egypt which -is sown with corn, cultivate the memory of past events more than -any other people, and are the best-informed men I ever met. -Their manner of life is this: They purge themselves every month -for three days successively, seeking to preserve health by emetics -and clysters, for they suppose that all diseases to which men are -subject proceed from the food they use. And indeed in other -respects the Egyptians, next to the Libyans, are the most healthy -people in the world, as I think, on account of the seasons, because -they are not liable to change; for men are most subject to disease -at periods of change, and above all others at the change of the -seasons. They feed on bread made into loaves of spelt, which -they call cyllestis; and they use wine made of barley, for they -have no vines in that country. Some fish they dry in the sun and -eat raw, others salted with brine; and of birds they eat quail, -ducks, and smaller birds raw, salting them first. All other things, -whether birds or fishes, that they have, except such as are accounted -sacred, they eat either roasted or boiled. At their convivial banquets, -among the wealthy classes, when they have finished supper, -a man carries round in a coffin the image of a dead body carved -in wood, made as perfect a counterfeit as possible in color and -workmanship, and in size generally about one or two cubits in -length; and showing this to each of the company, he says: "Look -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">{102}</a></span> -upon this, then drink and enjoy yourself; for when dead you will -be like this."</p> - -<p>They observe their ancient customs and acquire no new ones. -Among other memorable customs they have just one song called -"Linus," which is sung in Phœnicia, Cyprus, and elsewhere; in -different nations it bears a different name, but it agrees almost -exactly with the same which the Greeks sing, under the name of -Linus. So that among the many wonderful things in Egypt, the -greatest wonder of all is where they got this Linus; for they -seem to have sung it from time immemorial. The "Linus" in the -Egyptian language is called Maneros; and the Egyptians say that -he was the only son of the first king of Egypt, and that happening -to die prematurely, he was honored by the Egyptians in this mourning -dirge, the first and only song they have. In the following particular -the Egyptians resemble the Lacedæmonians only among all -the Greeks: the young men, when they meet their elders, give -way and turn aside; and rise from their seats when they approach. -But, unlike any nation of the Greeks, instead of addressing -one another in the streets, they salute by letting the hand fall down -as far as the knee. They wear linen tunics fringed round the legs, -which they call calasiris, and over these they throw white woollen -mantles; woollen clothes, however, are not carried into the temples, -nor are they buried with them, as this is accounted profane—agreeing -in this respect with the worshippers of Orpheus and Bacchus, -who are Egyptians and Pythagoreans: for they consider it -profane for one who is initiated in these mysteries to be buried in -woollen garments for some religious reason or other. The Egyptians -have discovered more prodigies than all the rest of the world. -They have amongst them oracles of Hercules, Apollo, Minerva, -Diana, Mars, and Jupiter; but that which they honor above all -others is the oracle of Latona in the city of Buto. The art of medicine -is divided amongst them into specialties, each physician -applying himself to one disease only. All places abound in physicians, -some for the eyes, others for the head, others for the teeth, -others for cutaneous diseases, and others still for internal disorders.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">{103}</a></span> -Their manner of mourning and burying is as follows: When a -man of any consideration dies, all the women of that family besmear -their heads and faces with mud, leave the body in the house, -and wander about the city, beating themselves, having their clothes -girt up, their neck and breast exposed, and all their relations -accompany them. The men, too, beat themselves in the same way. -When they have done this, they carry out the body to be embalmed. -There are persons who are specially appointed for this purpose; -when the dead body is brought to them, they show to the bearers -wooden models of corpses, skilfully painted to illustrate the various -methods of embalming. They first show the most expensive manner -of embalming; then the second, which is inferior and less expensive; -and lastly, the third and cheapest. The relations stipulate -which style they prefer, agree on the price, and depart. To -embalm a body in the most expensive manner, they first draw out -the brains through the nostrils with an iron hook, perfecting the -operation by the infusion of drugs. Then with a sharp Ethiopian -stone they make an incision in the side, and take out all the -bowels; and having cleansed the abdomen and rinsed it with palm-wine, -they next sprinkle it with pounded perfumes. Then they -fill the belly with pure myrrh pounded, and cassia, and other perfumes, -frankincense excepted, and sew it up again; this done, they -steep it in natrum, leaving it under for seventy days; a longer -time than which it is not lawful to steep it. At the expiration of the -seventy days they wash the corpse, and wrap the whole body in -bandages of flaxen cloth, smearing it with gum, which the Egyptians -commonly use instead of glue. After this the relations take -the body back again, make a wooden case in the shape of a man, -enclose the body in it, and store it in a sepulchral chamber, setting -it upright against the wall. For those who, to avoid great expense, -desire the middle way, they prepare in the following manner. -Charging syringes with oil made from cedar, they fill the abdomen -of the corpse without making any incision or taking out the bowels, -but inject it at the fundament; and having prevented the injection -from escaping, they steep the body in natrum for the prescribed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">{104}</a></span> -number of days, on the last of which they let out from the abdomen -the oil of cedar which has such power that it brings away the intestines -and vitals in a state of dissolution; the natrum dissolves -the flesh, and nothing of the body remains but the skin and the -bones. The operation is then complete. The third method of -embalming, which is used only for the poorer sort, consists in -thoroughly rinsing the abdomen in syrmæa, and steeping it with -natrum for the seventy days. Should any person, whether Egyptian -or stranger, be found to have been seized by a crocodile, or -drowned in the river, to whatever city the body may be carried, -the inhabitants are by law compelled to have the body embalmed, -and adorned in the handsomest manner, and buried in the sacred -vaults. Nor is it lawful for any one else, whether relations or -friends, to touch him; but the priests of the Nile bury the corpse -with their own hands, as being something more than human.</p> - -<p>They avoid using Grecian customs; and, in a word, the customs -of all other people whatsoever.</p> - -<p>The Egyptians who dwell in the morasses, have the same -customs as the rest of the Egyptians, and each man has -but one wife, like the Greeks. But to obtain food more -easily, they have the following inventions: when the river is -full, and has made the plains like a sea, great numbers of lilies, -which the Egyptians call lotus, spring up in the water: these they -gather and dry in the sun; then having pounded the middle of -the lotus, which resembles a poppy, they make bread of it and -bake it. The root also of this lotus is fit for food, and is tolerably -sweet; it is round, and of the size of an apple. There are also -other lilies, like roses, that grow in the river, the fruit of which is -contained in a separate pod, that springs up from the root in form -very much like a wasp's nest; in this there are many berries fit to -be eaten, of the size of an olive stone, and they are eaten both fresh -and dried. The byblus, an annual plant, is found in the fens. They -cut off the top and put it to some other uses, but the lower part -that is left, to the length of a cubit, they eat and sell. Those who -are anxious to eat the byblus dressed in the most delicate manner, -stew it in a hot pan and then eat it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">{105}</a></span> -The Egyptians who live about the fens use an oil drawn from -the fruit of the sillicypria, which they call cici: they plant and cultivate -these sillicypria, which in Greece grow spontaneous and -wild, on the banks of the rivers and lakes: under cultivation these -bear an abundance of fruit, though of an offensive smell. Some -bruise it and press out the oil; others boil and stew it, and collect -the liquid that flows from it; this is fat, and no less suited for lamps -than olive oil; but it emits a disgusting smell. They contrive in -various ways to protect themselves from the mosquitoes, which -are very abundant. Towers are of great service to those who inhabit -the upper parts of the marshes; for the mosquitoes are prevented -by the winds from flying high: but those who live round -the marshes have contrived another expedient. Every man has a -net, with which in the daytime he takes fish, and at night, in whatever -bed he sleeps, he throws the net around it, and crawls in underneath; -if he should wrap himself up in his clothes or in linen, -the mosquitoes would bite through them, but they never attempt -to bite through the net.</p> - -<p>Their ships in which they convey merchandise are made of the -acacia, which in shape is much like the Cyrenæan lotus, and exudes -a gum. From this acacia they cut planks about two cubits in -length and join them together like bricks, building their ships in -the following manner: They fasten the planks of two cubits -length round stout and long ties: when they have thus built the -hulls, they lay benches across them. They make no use of ribs, -but caulk the seams inside with byblus. They make only one -rudder, and that is driven through the keel. They use a mast of -acacia, and sails of byblus. These vessels are unable to sail up -the stream unless a fair wind prevails, but are towed from the -shore. They are thus carried down the stream: there is a hurdle -made of tamarisk, wattled with a band of reeds, and a stone with a -hole in the middle, of about two talents in weight; of these two, -the hurdle is fastened to a cable, and let down at the prow of the -vessel to be carried on by the stream; and the stone by another -cable at the stern; and by this means the hurdle, by the stream -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">{106}</a></span> -bearing hard upon it, moves quickly and draws along "the baris" -(for this is the name given to these vessels), but the stone being -dragged at the stern, and sunk to the bottom, keeps the vessel in its -course. They have very many of these vessels, and some of them -carry many thousand talents. When the Nile inundates the -country, the cities alone are seen above its surface, like the islands -dotting the Ægean Sea. When this happens, they navigate no -longer by the channel of the river, but straight across the country.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">{107}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER III.<br /> -<small>GOD-KINGS PRIOR TO MENES.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> former time, the priests of Jupiter did to Hecatæus the historian, -when he was tracing his own genealogy, and connecting his -family with a god in the sixteenth degree, the same as they did to -me, though I did not endeavor to trace my genealogy. Conducting -me into the interior of a spacious edifice, and showing me -four hundred and forty-five wooden colossuses, they counted -them over; for every high-priest places an image of himself there -during his lifetime; the priests pointed out that the succession from -father to son was unbroken. But when Hecatæus traced his own -genealogy, and connected himself with a god in the sixteenth degree, -they controverted his genealogy by computation, not admitting -that a man could be born from a god; and said that each -of the colossuses was a Piromis, sprung from a Piromis; until -they pointed out the three hundred and forty-five colossuses, -each a Piromis, sprung from a Piromis, and they did not connect -them with any god or hero. Piromis means, in the -Grecian language, "a noble and good man." They said that these -were very far from being gods; but before the time of these men, -gods had been the rulers of Egypt, and had dwelt amongst men; -and that one of them always had the supreme power, and that -Orus, the son of Osiris, was the last who reigned over it. Now, -Osiris in the Greek language means Bacchus, and Orus is the -equivalent of Apollo.</p> - -<p>All the revenue from the city of Anthylla, which is of much importance, -is assigned to purchase shoes for the wife of the reigning -king of Egypt.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">{108}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<small>FIRST LINE OF 330 KINGS, ONLY THREE MENTIONED.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> priests informed me, that Menes, who first ruled over -Egypt, in the first place protected Memphis by a mound; for the -whole river formerly ran close to the sandy mountain on the side -of Libya; but Menes, beginning about a hundred stades above -Memphis, filled in the elbow toward the south, dried up the old -channel, and conducted the river into a canal, so as to make it flow -between the mountains. This bend of the Nile is still carefully -upheld by the Persians, and made secure every year; for if the -river should break through and overflow in this part, there would -be danger lest all Memphis should be flooded. When the part cut -off had been made firm land by this Menes, who was first king, he -built on it the city that is now called Memphis; and outside of it -he excavated a lake from the river toward the north and the west; -for the Nile itself bounds it toward the east. In the next place, -they relate that he built in it the temple of Vulcan, which is vast -and well worthy of mention. After this the priests enumerated -from a book the names of three hundred and thirty other kings. In -so many generations of men, there were eighteen Ethiopians and -one native queen, the rest were Egyptians. The name of this -woman who reigned, was the same as that of the Babylonian queen, -Nitocris: they said that she avenged her brother, whom the -Egyptians had slain, while reigning over them. After they had -slain him, they delivered the kingdom to her; and she, to avenge -him, destroyed many of the Egyptians by this stratagem: she -caused an extensive apartment to be made underground, and pretended -that she was going to consecrate it, then inviting those of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">{109}</a></span> -the Egyptians whom she knew to have been principally concerned -in the murder, she gave them a great banquet, and in the midst of -the feast let in the river upon them, through a large concealed -channel. Of the other kings they did not say that they were in any -respect renowned, except the last, Mœris; he accomplished some -memorable works, as the portal of Vulcan's temple, facing the -north wind; and dug a lake, and built pyramids in it, the size of -which I shall mention when I come to speak of the lake itself.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 250px;"> - <img src="images/p109.jpg" width="250" height="390" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>HEAD OF RAMESES II.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">{110}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER V.<br /> -<small>FROM SESOSTRIS TO SETHON.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">I shall</span> next mention king Sesostris. The priests said -that he was the first who, setting out in ships of war from the -Arabian Gulf, subdued those nations that dwell by the Red Sea.</p> - -<p>There are also in Ionia two images of this king, carved on -rocks, one on the way from Ephesia to Phocæa, the other from -Sardis to Smyrna. In both places a man is carved, four cubits -and a half high, holding a spear in his right hand, and a bow in -his left, and the rest of his equipment in unison, for it is partly -Egyptian and partly Ethiopian; from one shoulder to the other -across the breast extend sacred Egyptian characters engraved, -which have the following meaning: "<span class="smcap">I acquired this region by -my own shoulders.</span>"</p> - -<p>The priests tell a yarn of this Egyptian Sesostris, that returning -and bringing with him many men from the nations whose territories -he had subdued, when he arrived at the Pelusian Daphnæ, -his brother, to whom he had committed the government of Egypt, -invited him to an entertainment, and his sons with him, and caused -wood to be piled up round the house and set on fire: but that -Sesostris, being informed of this, immediately consulted with his -wife, for he had taken his wife with him; she advised him to extend -two of his six sons across the fire, and form a bridge over the -burning mass, and that the rest should step on them and make -their escape. Sesostris did so, and two of his sons were in this -manner burned to death, but the rest, together with their father, -were saved. Sesostris having returned to Egypt, and taken revenge -on his brother, employed the multitude of prisoners whom -he brought from the countries he had subdued in many remarkable -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">{111}</a></span> -works: these were the men who drew the huge stones which, -in the time of this king, were conveyed to the temple of Vulcan; -they, too, were compelled to dig all the canals now seen in Egypt; -and thus by their involuntary labor made Egypt, which before was -throughout practicable for horses and carriages, unfit for these purposes. -But the king intersected the country with this network of -canals for the reason that such of the Egyptians as occupied the -inland cities, being in want of water when the river receded, were -forced to use a brackish beverage unfit to drink, which they drew -from wells. They said also that this king divided the country -amongst all the Egyptians, giving an equal square allotment to -each; and thence drew his revenues by requiring them to pay a -fixed tax every year; if the river happened to take away a part of -any one's allotment, he was to come to him and make known what -had happened; whereupon the king sent persons to inspect and -measure how much the land was diminished, that in future he -might pay a proportionate part of the appointed tax. Land-measuring -appears to me to have had its beginning from this act, -and to have passed over into Greece; for the pole <span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_12" id="Ref_12" href="#Foot_12">[12]</a></span> -and the sundial, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">{112}</a></span> -and the division of the day into twelve parts, the Greeks -learned from the Babylonians. This king was the only Egyptian -that ever ruled over Ethiopia; he left as memorials in front of -Vulcan's temple statues of stone: two of thirty cubits, of himself -and his wife; and four, each of twenty cubits, of his sons. A long -time after, the priest of Vulcan would not suffer Darius the Persian -to place his statue before them, saying, "that deeds had not been -achieved by him equal to those of Sesostris the Egyptian: for -Sesostris had subdued other nations, not fewer than Darius had -done, and the Scythians besides; but that Darius was not able to -conquer the Scythians; wherefore it was not right for one who -had not surpassed him in achievements to place his statue before -his offerings." They relate, however, that Darius pardoned these -observations.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 150px;"> - <img src="images/p111.jpg" width="150" height="223" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>BUST OF THOTHMES I.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>After the death of Sesostris, his son Pheron succeeded to the -kingdom; he undertook no military expedition, and happened to -become blind through the following occurrence: the river having -risen to a very great height for that time, eighteen cubits, it overflowed -the fields, a storm of wind arose, and the river was tossed -about in waves; whereupon they say that the king with great arrogance -laid hold of a javelin, and threw it into the midst of the eddies -of the river; and that immediately afterward he was seized -with a pain in his eyes, and became blind. He continued blind for -ten years; but in the eleventh, having escaped from this calamity, -he dedicated offerings throughout all the celebrated temples, the -most worthy of mention being two stone obelisks to the temple of -the sun, each consisting of a single block of granite, and each a -hundred cubits in length and eight cubits in breadth.</p> - -<p>A native of Memphis succeeded him in the kingdom, whose -name in the Grecian language is Proteus; there is to this day an -enclosure sacred to him at Memphis, which is very beautiful and -richly adorned, situated to the south side of the temple of Vulcan. -The priests told me that when Paris had carried Helen off from -Sparta, violent winds drove him out of his course in the Ægean -into the Egyptian Sea, and from there (for the gale did not abate) -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">{113}</a></span> -he came to Egypt, and in Egypt to that which is now called the -Canopic mouth of the Nile.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 150px;"> - <img src="images/p113.jpg" width="150" height="134" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>PARIS CARRYING AWAY HELEN.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>And Homer appears to me to have heard this relation; but as -it was not so well suited to epic poetry as the other which he has -made use of, he rejected it. He has told in the Iliad the wanderings -of Paris; how, while he was carrying off Helen, he was driven -out of his course, and wandered to other places, and how he arrived -at Sidon of Phœnicia; and in the exploits of Diomede, his verses -are as follows: "Where were the variegated robes, works of Sidonian -women, which god-like Paris himself brought from Sidon, -sailing over the wide sea, along the course by which he conveyed -high-born Helen."<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_13" id="Ref_13" href="#Foot_13">[13]</a></span> -He mentions it also in the Odyssey, in the -following lines: "Such well-chosen drugs had the daughter of Jove, -of excellent quality, which Polydamna gave her, the Egyptian wife -of Thonis, where the fruitful earth produces many drugs, many excellent -when mixed, and many noxious."<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_14" id="Ref_14" href="#Foot_14">[14]</a></span> -Menelaus also says the following to Telemachus: "The gods detained me in Egypt, though -anxious to return hither, because I did not offer perfect hecatombs -to them."<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_15" id="Ref_15" href="#Foot_15">[15]</a></span> -He shows in these verses, that he was acquainted with -the wandering of Paris in Egypt; for Syria borders on Egypt, and -the Phœnicians, to whom Sidon belongs, inhabit Syria. From -these verses, and this first passage especially, it is clear that Homer -was not the author of the Cyprian verses, but some other person. -For in the Cyprian verses it is said, that Paris reached Ilium from -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">{114}</a></span> -Sparta on the third day, when he carried off Helen, having met -with a favorable wind and a smooth sea; whereas Homer in the -Iliad says that he wandered far while taking her with him.</p> - -<p>Rhampsinitus succeeded Proteus in the kingdom: He left as -a monument the portico of the temple of Vulcan, fronting to the -west; and erected two statues before the portico, twenty-five -cubits high. Of these, the one standing to the north the Egyptians -call Summer; and that to the south, Winter: and the one -that they call Summer, they worship and do honor to; but the one -called Winter, they treat in a quite contrary way.</p> - -<p>This king, they said, possessed a great quantity of money, such -as no one of the succeeding kings was able to attain. Wishing to -treasure up his wealth in safety, he built a chamber of stone, one of -the walls of which adjoined the outside of the palace. But the builder, -forming a plan against it, devised the following contrivance; he -fitted one of the stones so that it might be easily taken out by two -men, or even one. When the chamber was finished, the king laid -up his treasures in it; in the course of time the builder, finding his -end approaching, called his two sons to him, and described to them -how he had provided when he was building the king's treasury -that they might have abundant sustenance; and having clearly -explained to them every thing relating to the removal of the stone, -he gave them its dimensions, and told them, if they would observe -his instructions, they would be stewards of the king's riches. He -died, and the sons were not long in applying themselves to the -work; coming by night to the palace, they found the stone in the -building, easily removed it, and carried off a great quantity of -treasure. When the king happened to open the chamber, he was -astonished at seeing the vessels deficient in treasure; but was not -able to accuse any one, as the seals were unbroken, and the -chamber well secured. When on opening it two or three times, -the treasures were always evidently diminished (for the thieves -did not cease plundering), he adopted the following plan: he -ordered traps to be made, and placed them round the vessels in -which the treasures were. But when the thieves came as before, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">{115}</a></span> -and one of them had entered, as soon as he went near a vessel, he -was straightway caught in the trap; perceiving, therefore, in what a -predicament he was, he immediately called to his brother, and told -him what had happened, and bade him enter as quick as possible, -and cut off his head, lest, if he was seen and recognized, he should -ruin him also: the other thought that he spoke well, and did as he -was advised; then, having fitted in the stone, he returned home, -taking with him his brother's head. When day came, the king -entered the chamber, and was astonished at seeing the body of the -thief in the trap without the head, but the chamber secure, and -without any means of entrance or exit. In this perplexity he contrived -another plan: he hung up the body of the thief on a public -wall, and having placed sentinels there, ordered them to seize and -bring before him whomsoever they should see weeping or expressing -commiseration at the spectacle. The mother was greatly -grieved at the body being suspended, and coming to words with her -surviving son, commanded him, by any means he could, to contrive -how he might take down and bring away the corpse of his -brother; and if he should neglect to do so, she threatened to go -to the king, and inform him that he had the treasures. Having -got some asses, and filled some skins with wine, he put them on -the asses, and then drove them along; but when he came near -the sentinels that guarded the suspended corpse, he drew out two -or three of the necks of the skins that hung down, and loosened -them; and, as the wine ran out, he beat his head, and cried out -aloud, as if he knew not to which of the asses he should turn first. -The sentinels, when they saw wine flowing in abundance, ran into -the road, with vessels in their hands, caught the wine that was -being spilt, thinking it all their own gain; but the man, feigning -anger, railed bitterly against them all; however, as the sentinels -soothed him, he at length pretended to be pacified; and at last -drove his asses out of the road, and set them to rights again. -When more conversation passed, and one of the sentinels joked -with him and set him laughing, he gave them another of the skins; -and they, just as they were, lay down and set to to drink, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">{116}</a></span> -invited him to stay and drink with them. He was persuaded, and -remained with them; and as they treated him kindly during the -drinking, he gave them another of the skins; and the sentinels, -having taken very copious draughts, became royally drunk, and, -overpowered by the wine, fell asleep on the spot. Then he took -down the body of his brother, and having by way of insult shaved -the right cheeks of all the sentinels, laid the corpse on the asses, -and drove home, having performed his mother's injunctions. -The king, upon being informed that the body of the thief had been -stolen, was exceedingly indignant, but being unable by any means -to find out the contriver of this artifice, he grew so astonished at -the shrewdness and daring of the man, that at last, sending -throughout all the cities, he caused a proclamation to be made, -offering a free pardon, and promising great reward to the man, if -he would discover himself. The thief, relying on this promise, -went to the king's palace; and Rhampsinitus greatly admired him, -and gave him his daughter in marriage, accounting him the most -knowing of all men; for while the Egyptians were superior to all -others, he was superior to the Egyptians.</p> - -<p>After this, they said that this king descended alive into the -place which the Greeks call Hades, and there played at dice with -Ceres, and sometimes won, and other times lost; and that he -came up again and brought with him as a present from her a -napkin of gold. Any person to whom such things appear credible -may adopt the accounts given by the Egyptians; it is my object, -however, throughout the whole history, to write what I hear from -each people. The Egyptians say that Ceres and Bacchus hold the -chief sway in the infernal regions; and the Egyptians were also the -first who asserted the doctrine that the soul of man is immortal, -and that when the body perishes the soul enters into some other -animal, constantly springing into existence; and when it has -passed through the different kinds of terrestrial, marine, and aërial -beings, it again enters into the body of a man that is born; and -that this revolution is made in three thousand years.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 350px;"> - <img src="images/p117.jpg" width="350" height="354" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>BES AND HI.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Now, they told me that down to the reign of Rhampsinitus -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">{117}</a></span> -there was a perfect distribution of justice, and that all Egypt was -in a high state of prosperity; but that after him Cheops, coming to -reign over them, plunged into every kind of wickedness. For, -having shut up all the temples, he first of all forbade them to offer -sacrifice, and afterward ordered all the Egyptians to work for him; -some, accordingly, were appointed to draw stones from the quarries -in the Arabian mountain down to the Nile, others he ordered -to receive the stones when transported in vessels across the river, -and to drag them to the mountain called the Libyan. And they -worked to the number of a hundred thousand men at a time, each -party during three months. The time during which the people -were thus harassed by toil lasted ten years on the road which they -constructed, along which they drew the stones, a work, in my -opinion, not much less than the pyramid: for its length is five -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">{118}</a></span> -stades, and its width ten orgyæ, and its height, where it is the -highest, eight orgyæ; and it is of polished stone, with figures -carved on it: ten years, then, were expended on this road, and in -forming the subterraneous apartments on the hill, on which the -pyramids stand, which he had made as a burial vault for himself, -in an island, formed by draining a canal from the Nile. Twenty -years were spent in erecting the pyramid itself: of this, which is -square, each face is eight plethra, and the height is the same; it is -composed of polished stones, and joined with the greatest exactness; -none of the stones are less than thirty feet in length. This -pyramid was built in the form of steps, which some call crosssæ, -others bomides. When they had first built it in this manner, they -raised the stones for covering the surface by machines made of -short pieces of wood: having lifted them from the ground to the -first range of steps, when the stone arrived there it was put on -another machine that stood ready on the first range; from this it -was drawn to the second range on another machine; for the -machines were equal in number to the ranges of steps; or they -removed the machine, which was only one, and portable, to each -range in succession, whenever they wished to raise the stone -higher; for I should relate it in both ways, as it was related to me. -The highest parts of it were first finished, and last of all the parts on -the ground. On the pyramid is shown an inscription, in Egyptian -characters, how much was expended in radishes, onions, and garlic -for the workmen; which the interpreter, as I well remember, reading -the inscription, told me amounted to one thousand six hundred -talents of silver. If this be really the case, how much more was -probably expended in iron tools, in bread, and in clothes for the -laborers, since they occupied in building the works the time which -I mentioned, and no short time besides, as I think, in cutting and -drawing the stones, and in forming the subterraneous excavation. -It is related that Cheops in his cruelty subjected his daughter to -every sort of disgrace, but she contrived to leave a monument of -herself, and asked every one that she met to give her a stone -toward the edifice she designed: of these stones they said the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">{120}</a></span> -pyramid was built that stands in the middle of the three, before the -great pyramid, each side of which is a plethron and a half in length. -The Egyptians say that this Cheops reigned fifty years; and when -he died, his brother Chephren succeeded to the kingdom; and he -followed the same practices as the other, both in other respects, -and in building a pyramid. This does not come up to the dimensions -of his brother's, for I myself measured them; nor has it subterraneous -chambers; nor does a channel from the Nile flow to it, -as to the other; but this flows through an artificial aqueduct round -an island within, in which they say the body of Cheops is laid. -Having laid the first course of variegated Ethiopian stones, less in -height than the other by forty feet, he built it near the large pyramid. -They both stand on the same hill, which is about a hundred -feet high. Chephren, they said, reigned fifty-six years. Thus one -hundred and six years are reckoned, during which the Egyptians -suffered all kinds of calamities, and for this length of time the temples -were never opened. From the hatred they bear them the -Egyptians are not very willing to mention their names; but call -the pyramids after Philition, a shepherd, who at that time kept his -cattle in those parts.</p> - -<div class="section"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a></div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/p119.jpg" width="600" height="402" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>THE GREAT PYRAMID, WITHOUT THE SURFACE STONE.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>They said that after him, Mycerinus, son of Cheops, reigned -over Egypt; that the conduct of his father was displeasing to him; -and that he opened the temples, and permitted the people, who -were worn down to the last extremity, to return to their employments, -and to sacrifices; and that he made the most just decisions -of all their kings. On this account, of all the kings that ever reigned -in Egypt, they praise him most, for he both judged well in other -respects, and moreover, when any man complained of his decision, -he used to make him some present out of his own treasury and -pacify his anger. To this beneficent Mycerinus, the beginning of -misfortunes was the death of his daughter, who was his only child; -whereupon he, extremely afflicted, and wishing to bury her in a -more costly manner than usual, caused a hollow wooden image of -a cow to be made and covered with gold, into which he put the -body of his deceased daughter. This cow was not interred in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">{121}</a></span> -ground, but even in my time was exposed to view in the city of -Sais, placed in the royal palace, in a richly furnished chamber. -They burn near it all kinds of aromatics every day, and a lamp is -kept burning by it throughout each night.</p> - -<p>The cow is covered with a purple cloth, except the head and -the neck, which are overlaid with very thick gold; and the orb of -the sun imitated in gold is placed between the horns. The cow is -kneeling; in size equal to a large, living cow.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 350px;"> - <img src="images/p121.jpg" width="350" height="260" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>SECTION OF THE GREAT PYRAMID.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>After the loss of his daughter, a second calamity befell this king: -an oracle reached him from the city of Buto, importing, "that he -had no more than six years to live, and should die in the seventh." -Thinking this very hard, he sent a reproachful message to the god, -complaining, "that his father and uncle, who had shut up the -temples, and paid no regard to the gods, and moreover had -oppressed men, had lived long; whereas he who was religious -must die so soon." But a second message came to him from the -oracle, stating, "that for this very reason his life was shortened, -because he had not done what he ought to have done; for it was -needful that Egypt should be afflicted during one hundred and fifty -years; and the two who were kings before him understood this, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">{122}</a></span> -but he did not." When Mycerinus heard this, and saw that this -sentence was now pronounced against him, he ordered a great -number of lamps to be made, which were lighted whenever night -came on, and he drank and enjoyed himself, never ceasing night -or day, roving about the marshes and groves, wherever he could -hear of places most suited for pleasure. He had recourse to this -artifice for the purpose of convicting the oracle of falsehood, that -by turning the nights into days, he might have twelve years instead -of six.</p> - -<p>This king also left a pyramid, but much smaller than that of his -father, being on each side twenty feet short of three plethra; it is -quadrangular, and built half way up of Ethiopian stone.</p> - -<p>After Mycerinus, the priests said, that Asychis became king of -Egypt, and that he built the eastern portico to the temple of Vulcan, -which is by far the largest and most beautiful in its wealth of -sculptured figures and infinite variety of architecture. This king, -being desirous of surpassing his predecessors, left a pyramid, as a -memorial, made of bricks; on which is an inscription carved on -stone, in the following words: "Do not despise me in comparison -with the pyramids of stone, for I excel them as much as Jupiter, the -other gods. For by plunging a pole into a lake, and collecting -the mire that stuck to the pole, men made bricks, and in this manner -built me."</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/p123.jpg" width="400" height="157" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>SECTION OF GALLERY IN PYRAMID.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>After him there reigned a blind man of the city of Anysis, whose -name was Anysis. During his reign, the Ethiopians and their king, -Sabacon, invaded Egypt with a large force; whereupon this blind -king fled to the fens; and the Ethiopian reigned over Egypt for fifty -years, during which time he performed the following actions: When -any Egyptians committed any crime, he would not have any of them -put to death, but passed sentence upon each according to the magnitude -of his offence, enjoining them to heap up mounds of earth, -each offender against his own city, and by this means the cities -were made much higher; for first of all they had been raised -considerably by those who dug the canals in the time of king -Sesostris. Although other cities in Egypt were carried to a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">{123}</a></span> -great height, in my opinion the greatest mounds were thrown -up about the city of Bubastis, in which is a beautiful temple of -Bubastis corresponding to the Grecian Diana. Her sacred precinct -is thus situated: all except the entrance is an island; for two -canals from the Nile extend to it, not mingling with each other, -but each reaches as far as the entrance to the precinct, one flowing -round it on one side, the other on the other. Each is a hundred -feet broad, and shaded with trees. The portico is ten orgyæ in -height, and is adorned with figures six cubits high, that are deserving -of notice. This precinct, being in the middle of the city, is -visible on every side to a person going round it; for while the -city has been mounded up to a considerable height, the temple has -not been moved, so that it is conspicuous as it was originally -built. A wall sculptured with figures runs round it; and within is -a grove of lofty trees, planted round a large temple in which the -image is placed. The width and length of the precinct is each -way a stade. Along the entrance is a road paved with stone, -four plethra in width and about three stades in length, leading -through the square eastward toward the temple of Mercury; -on each side of the road grow trees of enormous height. They -told me that the final departure of the Ethiopian occurred in -the following manner: it appeared to him in a vision that a man, -standing by him, advised him to assemble all the priests in Egypt, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">{124}</a></span> -and to cut them in two down the middle; but he, fearing that the -gods held out this as a pretext to him, in order that he, having -been guilty of impiety in reference to sacred things, might draw -down some evil on himself from gods or from men, would not do -so; but as the time had expired during which it was foretold that -he should reign over Egypt, he departed hastily from the country. -When Sabacon of his own accord had departed from Egypt, the -blind king resumed the government, having returned from the -fens, where he had lived fifty years, on an island formed of ashes -and earth. For when any of the Egyptians came to him bringing -provisions, as they were severally ordered to do unknown to the -Ethiopian, he bade them bring some ashes also as a present. -The kings who preceded Amyrtæus were unable, for more than -seven hundred years, to find out where this island was. It was -called Elbo, and was about ten stades square.</p> - -<p>After him reigned a priest of Vulcan, whose name was Sethon: -he held in no account the military caste of the Egyptians, as not -having need of their services; and accordingly, among other indignities, -he took away their lands; to each of whom, under former -kings, twelve chosen acres had been assigned. After this, when -Sennacherib, king of the Arabians and Assyrians, marched a large -army against Egypt, the Egyptian warriors refused to assist him; -and the priest, being reduced to a strait, entered the temple, and -bewailed before the image the calamities he was in danger of suffering. -While he was lamenting, sleep fell upon him, and it -appeared to him in a vision, that the god stood by and encouraged -him, assuring him that he should suffer nothing disagreeable in -meeting the Arabian army, for he would himself send assistants to -him. Confiding in this vision, he took with him such of the Egyptians -as were willing to follow him, and encamped in Pelusium, at -the entrance into Egypt; but none of the military caste followed -him, only tradesmen, mechanics, and sutlers. When they arrived -there, a number of field mice, pouring in upon their enemies, devoured -their quivers and their bows, and the handles of their -shields; so that on the next day, when they fled bereft of their -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">{125}</a></span> -arms, many of them fell. And to this day, a stone statue of this -king stands in the temple of Vulcan, with a mouse in his hand, -and an inscription to the following effect: "Whoever looks on -me, let him revere the gods."</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 361px;"> - <img src="images/p125.jpg" width="361" height="600" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>HALL OF COLUMNS IN THE GREAT TEMPLE OF KARNAK.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">{126}</a></span> -The Egyptians and the priests show that from the first king to -this priest of Vulcan who last reigned, were three hundred and -forty-one generations of men; and the same number of chief priests -and kings. Now, three hundred generations are equal to ten -thousand years, for three generations of men are one hundred -years; and the forty-one remaining generations that were over -the three hundred, make one thousand three hundred and forty -years. Thus, they say, in eleven thousand three hundred and forty -years, no god has assumed the form of a man. They relate -that during this time the sun has four times risen out of his -usual quarter, and that he has twice risen where he now sets, and -twice set where he now rises; yet, that no change in the things in -Egypt was occasioned by this, either in respect to the productions -of the earth or the river, or to diseases or deaths.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">{127}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<small>THIRD LINE; FROM THE TWELVE KINGS TO AMASIS.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">What</span> things both other men and the Egyptians agree in saying -occurred in this country, I shall now proceed to relate, and -shall add to them some things of my own observation. The -Egyptians having become free, after the reign of the priest of Vulcan, -since they were at no time able to live without a king, divided -all Egypt into twelve parts and established twelve others. -These contracted intermarriages, and agreed that they would -not attempt the subversion of one another, and would maintain -the strictest friendship. They made these regulations and -strictly upheld them, for the reason that it had been foretold them -by an oracle when they first assumed the government, "that whoever -among them should offer a libation in the temple of Vulcan -from a bronze bowl, should be king of all Egypt"; for they used -to assemble in all the temples. Now, being determined to leave -in common a memorial of themselves, they built a labyrinth, a little -above the lake of Mœris, situated near that called the city of Crocodiles; -this I have myself seen, and found it greater than can be -described. For if any one should reckon up all the buildings -and public works of the Greeks, they would be found to have cost -less labor and expense than this labyrinth alone, though the temple -in Ephesus is deserving of mention, and also that in Samos. The -pyramids likewise were beyond description, and each of them comparable -to many of the great Greek structures. Yet the labyrinth -surpasses even the pyramids. For it has twelve courts enclosed -with walls, with doors opposite each other, six facing the north, -and six the south, contiguous to one another; and the same -exterior wall encloses them. It contains two kinds of rooms, some -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">{128}</a></span> -under ground and some above, to the number of three thousand, -fifteen hundred of each. The rooms above ground I myself went -through and saw, and relate from personal inspection. But the -underground rooms I know only from report; for the Egyptians -who have charge of the building would, on no account, show me -them, saying that they held the sepulchres of the kings who -originally built this labyrinth, and of the sacred crocodiles. I can -therefore only relate what I have learnt by hearsay concerning the -lower rooms; but the upper ones, which surpass all human works, -I myself saw. The passages through the corridors, and the -windings through the courts, from their great variety, presented a -thousand occasions of wonder, as I passed from a court to the -rooms, and from the rooms to halls, and to other corridors from -the halls, and to other courts from the rooms. The roofs of all -these are of stone, as also are the walls; but the walls are full of -sculptured figures. Each court is surrounded with a colonnade of -white stone, closely fitted. And adjoining the extremity of the -labyrinth is a pyramid, forty orgyæ in height, on which large -figures are carved, and a way to it has been made under ground.</p> - -<p>Yet more wonderful than this labyrinth is the lake named from -Mœris, near which this labyrinth is built; its circumference measures -three thousand six hundred stades, or a distance equal to the -sea-coast of Egypt. The lake stretches lengthways, north and south, -being in depth in the deepest part fifty orgyæ. That it is made by -hand and dry, this circumstance proves, for about the middle of the -lake stand two pyramids, each rising fifty orgyæ above the surface -of the water, and the part built under water extends to an equal -depth; on each of these is placed a stone statue, seated on a throne. -Thus these pyramids are one hundred orgyæ in height. The water -in this lake does not spring from the soil, for these parts are excessively -dry, but it is conveyed through a channel from the Nile, and -for six months it flows into the lake, and six months out again into -the Nile. And during the six months that it flows out it yields a -talent of silver every day to the king's treasury from the fish; but -when the water is flowing into it, twenty minæ. The people of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">{129}</a></span> -country told me that this lake discharges itself under ground into -the Syrtis of Libya, running westward toward the interior by the -mountain above Memphis. But when I did not see anywhere a -heap of soil from this excavation, for this was an object of curiosity -to me, I inquired of the people who lived nearest the lake, where -the soil that had been dug out was to be found; they told me where -it had been carried, and easily persuaded me, because I had heard -that a similar thing had been done at Nineveh, in Assyria. For -certain thieves formed a design to carry away the treasures of Sardanapalus, -King of Nineveh, which were very large, and preserved -in subterraneous treasuries; the thieves, therefore, beginning from -their own dwellings, dug under ground by estimated measurement -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">{130}</a></span> -to the royal palace, and the soil that was taken out of the excavations, -when night came on, they threw into the river Tigris, that -flows by Nineveh; and so they proceeded until they had effected -their purpose. The same method I heard was adopted in digging -the lake in Egypt, except that it was not done by night, but during -the day; for the Egyptians who dug out the soil carried it to the -Nile, and the river receiving it, soon dispersed it.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 350px;"> - <img src="images/p129a.jpg" width="350" height="281" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>EGYPTIAN BELL CAPITALS.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 350px;"> - <img src="images/p129b.jpg" width="350" height="144" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>HARPOON AND FISH HOOKS.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>While the twelve kings continued to observe justice, in course -of time, as they were sacrificing in the temple of Vulcan, and were -about to offer a libation on the last day of the festival, the high priest, -mistaking the number, brought out eleven of the twelve -golden bowls with which he used to make the libation. Whereupon -he who stood last of them, Psammitichus, since he had not -a bowl, having taken off his helmet, which was of bronze, held it out -and made the libation. All the other kings were in the habit of -wearing helmets, and at that time had them on. Psammitichus -therefore, without any sinister intention, held out his helmet; but -they having taken into consideration what was done by Psammitichus, -and the oracle that had foretold to them, "that whoever -among them should offer a libation from a bronze bowl, should be -sole king of Egypt"; calling to mind the oracle, did not think it -right to put him to death, since upon examination they found that -he had done it by no premeditated design. But they determined -to banish him to the marshes, having divested him of the greatest -part of his power; and they forbade him to leave the marshes, or -have any intercourse with the rest of Egypt. With the design of -avenging himself on his persecutors, he sent to the city of Buto to -consult the oracle of Latona, the truest oracle that the Egyptians -have, and the answer was returned "that vengeance would come -from the sea, when men of bronze should appear." He was very incredulous -that men of bronze would come to assist him; but not long -after a stress of weather compelled some Ionians and Carians, who -had sailed out for the purpose of piracy, to bear away to Egypt; -and when they had disembarked and were clad in bronze armor, an -Egyptian, who had never before seen men clad in such manner, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">{131}</a></span> -went to the marshes to Psammitichus, and told him that men of -bronze had arrived from the sea, and were ravaging the plains. He -felt at once that the oracle was accomplished, and treated these -Ionians and Carians in a friendly manner, and by promising them -great things, persuaded them to join with him; and, with their help -and that of such Egyptians as were well disposed toward him, he -overcame the other kings.</p> - -<div class="image-float-right" style="max-width: 200px;"> - <img src="images/p131.jpg" width="200" height="127" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>EGYPTIAN HELMETS.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Psammitichus, now master of all Egypt, constructed the portico -to Vulcan's temple at Memphis that faces the south wind; he -built a court for Apis, in which he is fed whenever he appears, -opposite the portico, surrounded by a colonnade, and full of sculptured -figures; and instead of pillars, statues twelve cubits high -are placed under the piazza. Apis, in the language of the Greeks, -means Epaphus. To the Ionians, and those who with them had -assisted him, Psammitichus gave -lands opposite each other, with -the Nile flowing between. These -bear the name of "Camps." He -royally fulfilled all his promises; -and he moreover put Egyptian -children under their care to be -instructed in the Greek language; -from whom the present interpreters in Egypt are descended. -The Ionians and the Carians continued for a long -time to inhabit these lands, situated near the sea, a little below -the city of Bubastis. They were the first people of a different -language who settled in Egypt. The docks for their ships, and -the ruins of their buildings, were to be seen in my time in the -places from which they had removed.</p> - -<p>Psammitichus reigned in Egypt fifty-four years; during twenty-nine -of which he sat down before and besieged Azotus, a large -city of Syria, until he took it. This Azotus, of all the cities we -know of, held out against a siege the longest period. Neco was -son of Psammitichus, and became king of Egypt: he first set about -the canal that leads to the Red Sea, which Darius the Persian -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">{132}</a></span> -afterward completed. Its length is a voyage of four days, and in -width it was dug so that two triremes might sail rowed abreast. -The water is drawn into it from the Nile, and enters it a little -above the city Bubastis. The canal passes near the Arabian city -Patumos, and reaches to the Red Sea. In the digging of it one -hundred and twenty thousand Egyptians perished in the reign of -Neco.</p> - -<p>Psammis his son reigned only six years over Egypt. He -made an expedition into Ethiopia, and shortly afterward died, -Apries his son succeeding to the kingdom. He, next to his -grandfather Psammitichus, enjoyed greater prosperity than any of -the former kings, during a reign of five and twenty years, in which -period he marched an army against Sidon, and engaged the -Tyrians by sea. But it was destined for him to meet with adversity. -For, having sent an army against the Cyrenæans, he met -with a signal defeat. And the Egyptians, complaining of this, -revolted from him, suspecting that Apries had designedly sent -them to certain ruin, in order that they might be destroyed, and -he might govern the rest of the Egyptians with greater security. -Both those that returned and the friends of those who perished, -being very indignant at this, openly revolted against him. Apries, -having heard of this, sent Amasis to appease them by persuasion. -But when he had come to them, and was urging them to desist -from their enterprise, one of the Egyptians, standing behind him, -placed a helmet on his head, and said: "I put this on you to -make you king." And this action was not at all disagreeable to -Amasis, as he presently showed. When Apries heard of this, he -armed his auxiliaries and marched against the Egyptians with -Carian and Ionian auxiliaries to the number of thirty thousand. -They met near the city Momemphis, and prepared to engage with -each other. Apries had a palace in the city of Sais that was spacious -and magnificent.</p> - -<p>There are seven classes of people among the Egyptians—priests, -warriors, herdsmen, swineherds, tradesmen, interpreters, -and pilots. Their warriors are called Calasiries or Hermotybies. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">{133}</a></span> -The Hermotybies number, when they are most numerous, a hundred -and sixty thousand. None of these learn any business or -mechanical art, but apply themselves wholly to military affairs. -The Calasiries number two hundred and fifty thousand men: nor -are these allowed to practise any art, but they devote themselves -to military pursuits alone, the son succeeding to his father.</p> - -<p>When Apries, leading his auxiliaries, and Amasis, all the -Egyptians, met together at Momemphis, the foreigners fought -well, but being far inferior in numbers, were, on that account, -defeated. Apries is said to have been of opinion that not even a -god could deprive him of his kingdom, so securely did he think -himself established; but he was beaten, taken prisoner, and carried -back to Sais, to that which was formerly his own palace, but which -now belonged to Amasis: here he was maintained for some time -in the royal palace, and Amasis treated him well. But at length -the Egyptians complaining that he did not act rightly in preserving -a man who was the greatest enemy both to them and to him, he -delivered Apries to the Egyptians. They strangled him, and buried -him in his ancestral sepulchre, in the sacred precinct of Minerva, -very near the temple, on the left hand as you enter.</p> - -<p>Apries being thus dethroned, Amasis, who was of the Saitic -district, reigned in his stead; the name of the city from which he -came was Siuph. At first the Egyptians held him in no great estimation, -as having been formerly a private person, and of no illustrious -family; but afterward he conciliated them by an act of -address, without any arrogance. He had an infinite number of -treasures among them a golden foot-pan, in which Amasis himself -and all his guests were accustomed to wash their feet. This he -broke in pieces, had the statue of a god made from it, and placed -it in the most suitable part of the city. The Egyptians flocked to -the image and paid it the greatest reverence. Thus, Amasis called -the Egyptians together and said: "This statue was made out of -the foot-pan in which the Egyptians formerly spat and washed -their feet, and which they then so greatly reverenced; now, the -same has happened to me as to the foot-pan; for though I was before -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">{134}</a></span> -but a private person, I now am your king; you must therefore -honor and respect me." By this means he won over the -Egyptians, so that they thought fit to obey him. He adopted the -following method of managing his affairs: early in the morning, -until the time of full-market, he assiduously despatched the business -brought before him; after that he drank and jested with his companions, -and talked loosely and sportively. But his friends, offended -at this, admonished him, saying: "You do not, O king, control -yourself properly, in making yourself too common. For it -becomes you, who sit on a venerable throne, to pass the day in -transacting public business; thus the Egyptians would know that -they are governed by a great man, and you would be better -spoken of. But now you act in a manner not at all becoming a -king." But he answered them: "They who have bows, when -they want to use them, bend them; but when they have done -using them, they unbend them; for if the bow were to be kept -always bent, it would break. Such is the condition of man; if he -should incessantly attend to serious business, and not give himself -up sometimes to sport, he would shortly become mad or stupefied. -I, being well aware of this, give up a portion of my time to each."</p> - -<p>He built an admirable portico to the temple of Minerva at Sais, -far surpassing all others both in height and size, as well as in the -dimensions and quality of the stones; he likewise dedicated large -statues, and huge andro-sphinxes, and brought other stones of a -prodigious size for repairs: some from the quarries near Memphis; -but those of greatest magnitude, from the city of Elephantine, distant -from Sais a passage of twenty days. But that which I rather -the most admire, is this: he brought a building of one stone from -the city of Elephantine, and two thousand men, who were appointed -to convey it, were occupied three whole years in its transport, -and these men were all pilots. The length of this chamber, -outside, is twenty-one cubits, the breadth fourteen, and the height -eight. But inside, the length is eighteen cubits and twenty digits, -the width twelve cubits, and the height five cubits. This chamber -is placed near the entrance of the sacred precinct; for they -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">{135}</a></span> -say that he did not draw it within the precinct for the following -reason: the architect, as the chamber was being drawn along, -heaved a deep sigh, being wearied with the work, over which so -long a time had been spent; whereupon Amasis, making a religious -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">{136}</a></span> -scruple of this, would not suffer it to be drawn any farther. -Some persons however say, that one of the men employed -at the levers was crushed to death by it, and that on that account -it was not drawn into the precinct. Amasis dedicated in all the -most famous temples, works admirable for their magnitude; and -amongst them, at Memphis, the reclining colossus before the -temple of Vulcan, of which the length is seventy-five feet; and -on the same base stand two statues of Ethiopian stone, each twenty -feet in height, one on each side of the temple. There is also at -Sais another similar statue, lying in the same manner as that at -Memphis. It was Amasis also who built the temple to Isis at -Memphis, which is spacious and well worthy of notice.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 454px;"> - <img src="images/p135.jpg" width="454" height="600" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>THE GREAT SPHINX.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Under the reign of Amasis, Egypt is said to have enjoyed the -greatest prosperity, both in respect to the benefits derived from -the river to the land, and from the land to the people; and it is -said to have contained at that time twenty thousand inhabited -cities. Amasis it was who established the law among the Egyptians, -that every Egyptian should annually declare to the governor -of his district, by what means he maintained himself; and if he -failed to do this, or did not show that he lived by honest means, -he should be punished with death. Solon the Athenian brought -this law from Egypt and established it at Athens. Amasis, being -partial to the Greeks, bestowed other favors on various of the -Greeks, and gave the city of Naucratis for such as arrived in -Egypt to dwell in; and to such as did not wish to settle there, but -only to trade by sea, he granted places where they might erect -altars and temples to the gods. Now, the most spacious of these -sacred buildings, which is also the most renowned and frequented, -called the Hellenium, was erected at the common charge of the -following cities: of the Ionians,—Chios, Teos, Phocæa, and Clazomenæ; -of the Dorians,—Rhodes, Cnidus, Halicarnassus, Phaselis; -and of the Æolians,—Mitylene alone. So that this temple belongs -to them, and these cities appoint officers to preside over the mart: -and whatever other cities claim a share in it, claim what does not -belong to them. Besides this, the people of Ægina built a temple -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">{137}</a></span> -to Jupiter for themselves; and the Samians another to Juno, and -the Milesians one to Apollo. Naucratis was anciently the only -place of resort for merchants, and there was no other in Egypt: -and if a man arrived at any other mouth of the Nile, he was -obliged to swear "that he had come there against his will"; and -having taken such an oath, he must sail in the same ship to the -Canopic mouth; but if he should be prevented by contrary winds -from doing so, he was forced to unload his goods and carry them -in barges round the Delta until he reached Naucratis. So great -were the privileges of Naucratis. When the Amphyctions contracted -to build the temple that now stands at Delphi for three -hundred talents—for the temple that was formerly there had been -burned by accident, and it fell upon the Delphians to supply a -fourth part of the sum—the Delphians went about from city to -city to solicit contributions, and brought home no small amount -from Egypt. For Amasis gave them a thousand talents of alum, -and the Greeks who were settled in Egypt twenty minæ.</p> - -<p>Amasis also dedicated offerings in Greece. In the first place, -a gilded statue of Minerva at Cyrene, and his own portrait painted; -secondly, to Minerva in Lindus two stone statues and a linen -corselet well worthy of notice; thirdly, to Juno at Samos two -images of himself carved in wood, which stood in the large temple -even in my time, behind the doors. He was the first who conquered -Cyprus, and subjected it to the payment of tribute.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_12" id="Foot_12" href="#Ref_12">[12]</a> -By the Greek word <span title="Polos">Πόλος</span> Herodotus means "a concave dial," shaped like the vault of -heaven.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_13" id="Foot_13" href="#Ref_13">[13]</a> -Iliad, vi., 289.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_14" id="Foot_14" href="#Ref_14">[14]</a> -Odyssey, iv., 227.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_15" id="Foot_15" href="#Ref_15">[15]</a> -Odyssey, iv., 351.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">{138}</a></div> - -<h2><i>BOOK III. THALIA.</i></h2> - -<h3>CHAPTER I.<br /> -<small>EXPEDITIONS OF CAMBYSES.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cambyses,</span> son of Cyrus, made war against Amasis, leading -with him his own subjects, together with Greeks, Ionians and -Æolians. The cause of the war was this: Cambyses sent a herald -into Egypt to demand the daughter of Amasis. The suggestion -was made by an Egyptian physician, who out of spite served -Amasis in this manner, because Amasis had selected him out of -all the physicians in Egypt, torn him from his wife and children, -and sent him as a present to the Persians, when Cyrus had sent -to Amasis, and required of him the best oculist in Egypt. The -Egyptian therefore, having this spite against him, urged on Cambyses -by his suggestions, bidding him demand the daughter of -Amasis, in order that if he should comply he might be grieved, or -if he refused he might incur the hatred of Cambyses. But Amasis, -dreading the power of the Persians, resorted to a piece of deceit. -There was a daughter of Apries, the former king, very tall and -beautiful, the only survivor of the family, named Nitetis. This -damsel, Amasis adorned with cloth of gold, and sent to Persia as -his own daughter. After a time, when Cambyses saluted her, -addressing her by her father's name, the damsel said to him: "O -king, you do not perceive that you have been imposed upon by -Amasis, who dressed me in rich attire, and sent me to you, presenting -me as his own daughter; whereas, I am really the daughter -of Apries, whom he put to death, after he had incited the Egyptians -to revolt." These words enraged Cambyses, and led him to -invade Egypt.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">{139}</a></div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/p139.jpg" width="300" height="160" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>EGYPTIAN POTTERY.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>A circumstance that few of those who have made voyages to -Egypt have noticed, I shall now proceed to mention. From every -part of Greece, and also from Phœnicia, earthen vessels filled with -wine are imported into Egypt twice every year, and yet not a -single one of these wine jars is afterward to be seen. In what -way, then, you may ask, are they disposed of? Every magistrate -is obliged to collect all the vessels from his own city, and send -them to Memphis; the people of that city fill them with water, -and convey them to the arid parts of Syria; so that the earthen -vessels continually imported and landed in Egypt, are added to -those already in Syria. The Persians, as soon as they became -masters of Egypt, facilitated the passage into that country, by supplying -it with water in this manner. But as, at that time, water -was not provided, Cambyses, by the advice of a Halicarnassian -stranger, sent ambassadors to the Arabian, and requested a safe -passage, which he obtained, giving to, and receiving from him, -pledges of faith.</p> - -<p>The Arabians observe pledges as religiously as any people: -when any wish to pledge their faith, a third person, standing between -the two parties, makes an incision with a sharp stone in the -palm of the hand, near the longest fingers, of both the contractors; -then taking some of the nap from the garment of each, he smears -seven stones, placed between them, with the blood; and as he -does this, he invokes Bacchus and Urania. When this ceremony -is completed, the person who pledges his faith, binds his friends as -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">{140}</a></span> -sureties to the stranger, or the citizen, if the contract be made with -a citizen, and the friends also hold themselves obliged to observe -the engagement. They acknowledge no other gods than Bacchus -and Urania, and they say that their hair is cut in the same way as -Bacchus' is cut, in a circular form, banged round the temples. -They call Bacchus, Orotal; and Urania, Alilat. When the -Arabian had exchanged pledges with the ambassadors who came -from Cambyses, he filled camels' skins with water, loaded them on -all his living camels, and drove them to the arid region, and there -awaited the army of Cambyses. This is the most credible of the -accounts that are given; yet it is right that one less credible should -be mentioned, since it is likewise affirmed. There is a large river -in Arabia called Corys, which discharges itself into the Red Sea. -From this river it is said that the king of the Arabians, having -sewn together a pipe of ox-hides and other skins, reaching in -length to the desert, conveyed the water through it; and that in -the arid region he dug large reservoirs, to receive and preserve the -water. It is a twelve days' journey from the river to the desert, -yet he conveyed water through three pipes into three different -places.</p> - -<p>Amasis died after a reign of forty-four years, during which no -great calamity had befallen him. He was embalmed and buried -in the sepulchre within the sacred precinct, which he himself had -built. During the reign of Psammenitus, son of Amasis, a most -remarkable prodigy befell the Egyptians; rain fell at Egyptian -Thebes, which had never happened before, nor since, to my time, -as the Thebans themselves affirm. For no rain ever falls in the -upper regions of Egypt; but at that time rain fell in drops at -Thebes. The Persians, having marched through the arid region, -halted near the Egyptians, as if with a design of engaging; there -the auxiliaries of the Egyptians, consisting of Greeks and Carians, -condemning Phanes because he had led a foreign army against -Egypt, adopted the following expedient against him: Phanes had -left his sons in Egypt; these they brought to the camp, within -sight of their father, placed a bowl midway between the two armies, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">{141}</a></span> -then dragging the children one by one, they slew them over the -bowl, into which they also poured wine and water; then all the -auxiliaries drank of the blood, and immediately joined battle. -After a hard fight, when great numbers had fallen on both sides, -the Egyptians were put to flight. Here I saw a very surprising -fact, of which the people of the country informed me. As the -bones of those who were killed in that battle lie scattered about -separately, the bones of the Persians in one place, and those of the -Egyptians in another, the skulls of the Persians were so weak that -if you should hit one with a single pebble, you would break a hole -in it; whereas those of the Egyptians are so hard, that you could -scarcely fracture them by striking them with a stone. The cause -of this, they told me (and I readily assented), is that the Egyptians -begin from childhood to shave their heads, and the bone is thickened -by exposure to the sun; from the same cause also they are -less subject to baldness, and one sees fewer persons bald in Egypt -than in any other country. But the Persians have weak skulls, because -they shade them from the first, wearing tiaras for hats.</p> - -<p>The Egyptians fled in complete disorder from the battle. -When they had shut themselves up in Memphis, Cambyses sent a -Mitylenæan bark up the river, with a Persian herald on board, to -invite the Egyptians to terms. But when they saw the bark entering -Memphis they rushed in a mass from the wall, destroyed the -ship, and having torn the crew to pieces, limb by limb, they carried -them into the citadel. After this the Egyptians were besieged, -and at length surrounded. The neighboring Libyans, fearing what -had befallen Egypt, gave themselves up without resistance, submitted -to pay a tribute, and sent presents, which Cambyses received -very graciously.</p> - -<p>On the tenth day after Cambyses had taken the citadel of -Memphis, he seated Psammenitus, the King of the Egyptians, who -had reigned only six months, at the entrance of the city. And by -way of insult, he dressed his daughter in the habit of a slave, and -sent her with a pitcher to fetch water, with other maidens selected -from the principal families, dressed in the same manner. As the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">{142}</a></span> -girls, with loud lamentation and weeping, came into the presence -of their fathers, all the other fathers answered them with wailing -and weeping, when they beheld their children thus humiliated. But -Psammenitus only bent his eyes to the ground. When these -water-carriers had passed by, he next sent his son, with two -thousand Egyptians of the same age, with halters about their -necks, and a bridle in their mouths; and they were led out to suffer -retribution for those Mitylenæans who had perished at Memphis -with the ship. For the royal judges had given sentence, that -for each man ten of the principal Egyptians should be put to death. -Yet, when he saw them passing by, and knew that his son was -being led out to death, though all the rest of the Egyptians who -sat round him wept and made loud lamentations, he did the same -as he had done in his daughter's case. But just then it happened -that one of his boon-companions, a man somewhat advanced in -years, who had lost his all, and possessed nothing but such things -as a beggar has, asking alms of the soldiery, passed by Psammenitus, -and the Egyptians seated in the suburbs. Then, indeed, he -wept bitterly, and calling his companion by name, smote his head. -Cambyses, surprised at this behavior, sent a messenger to say: -"Psammenitus, your master Cambyses inquires why, when you -saw your daughter humiliated and your son led to execution, you -did not bewail or lament; and have been so highly concerned for -a beggar, who is no way related to you, as he is informed." -Psammenitus answered: "Son of Cyrus, the calamities of my -family are too great to be expressed by lamentation; but the -griefs of my friend were worthy of tears, who, having fallen from -abundance and prosperity, has come to beggary on the threshold -of old age." When this answer was brought back by the messenger, -it appeared to Cambyses to be well said; and, as the Egyptians -relate, Crœsus wept, for he had attended Cambyses into -Egypt, and the Persians that were present wept also; Cambyses -himself, touched with pity, gave immediate orders to preserve his -son out of those who were to perish, but those who were sent -found the son no longer alive, having been the first that suffered; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">{143}</a></span> -but Psammenitus himself they conducted to Cambyses, with whom -he afterward lived, without experiencing any violence. And had -it not been suspected that he was planning innovations, he would -probably have recovered Egypt, so as to have the government intrusted -to him. For the Persians are accustomed to honor the -sons of kings, and even if they have revolted from them, sometimes -bestow the government upon their children. Psammenitus, devising -mischief, received his reward, for he was discovered inciting -the Egyptians to revolt; and when he was detected by Cambyses -he was compelled to drink the blood of a bull, and died immediately.</p> - -<p>Cambyses proceeded from Memphis to the city of Sais, and -entering the palace of Amasis, commanded the dead body of -Amasis to be brought out of the sepulchre; he gave orders then -to scourge it, to pull off the hair, to prick it, and to abuse it in -every possible manner. But when they were wearied with this -employment, for the dead body, since it was embalmed, resisted, -and did not at all fall in pieces, Cambyses gave orders to burn it, -commanding what is impious. For to burn the dead is on no -account allowed by either nation: not by the Persians, for they -consider fire to be a god, and say it is not right to offer to a god -the dead body of a man; nor by the Egyptians, as fire is held by -them to be a living beast, which devours every thing it can lay -hold of, and when it is glutted with food it expires with what it -has consumed; therefore, as it is their law on no account to give a -dead body to wild beasts, for that reason they embalm them, that -they may not lie and be eaten by worms.</p> - -<p>Cambyses determined to send to Elephantine for some of the -Ichthyophagi, who understood the Ethiopian language, that he -might despatch them as spies to Ethiopia. When the Ichthyophagi -came, he despatched them to the Ethiopians, having instructed -them what to say, carrying presents, consisting of a purple -cloak, a golden necklace, bracelets, an alabaster box of ointment, -and a cask of palm wine. These Ethiopians, to whom Cambyses -sent, are said to be the tallest and handsomest of all men; and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">{144}</a></span> -have customs different from those of other nations, especially with -regard to the regal power; for they confer the sovereignty upon -the man whom they consider to be of the largest stature, and to -possess strength proportionate to his size.</p> - -<p>When the Ichthyophagi arrived among this people, they gave -the presents to the king, and addressed him as follows: "Cambyses, -King of the Persians, desirous of becoming your friend and -ally, has sent us to confer with you, and he presents you with -these gifts, which are such as he himself most delights in." But -the Ethiopian, knowing that they came as spies, spoke thus to -them: "Neither has the king of the Persians sent you with -presents to me, because he valued my alliance; nor do you speak -the truth; for ye are come as spies of my kingdom. Nor is he a -just man; for if he were just, he would not desire any other territory -than his own; nor would he reduce people into servitude -who have done him no injury. However, give him this bow, and -say these words to him: 'The king of the Ethiopians advises the -king of the Persians, when the Persians can thus easily draw a -bow of this size, then to make war on the Macrobian Ethiopians -with more numerous forces; but until that time let him thank the -gods, who have not inspired the sons of the Ethiopians with a -desire of adding another land to their own.'" Having spoken thus -and unstrung the bow, he delivered it to the comers. Then taking -up the purple cloak, he asked what it was, and how made; and -when the Ichthyophagi told him the truth respecting the purple, -and the manner of dyeing, he said that the men are deceptive, and -their garments are deceptive also. Next he inquired about the -necklace and bracelets, and when the Ichthyophagi explained to -him their use as ornaments, the king, laughing, and supposing -them to be fetters, said that they have stronger fetters than these. -Thirdly, he inquired about the ointment; and when they told him -about its composition and use, he made the same remark as he had -on the cloak. But when he came to the wine, and inquired how it -was made, being very much delighted with the draught, he further -asked what food the king made use of, and what was the longest -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">{145}</a></span> -age to which a Persian lived. They answered, that he fed on -bread, describing the nature of wheat; and that the longest period -of the life of a Persian was eighty years. Upon this the Ethiopian -said, that he was not at all surprised if men who fed on earth lived -so few years; and he was sure they would not be able to live even -so many years, if they did not refresh themselves with this beverage, -showing the wine to the Ichthyophagi: for in this he -admitted they were surpassed by the Persians. The Ichthyophagi -inquiring in turn of the king concerning the life and diet of the -Ethiopians, he said, that most of them attained to a hundred and -twenty years, and some even exceeded that term, and that their -food was boiled flesh, and their drink milk. When the spies -expressed their astonishment at the number of years, he led them -to a fountain, by washing in which they became more sleek, as if -it had been of oil, and an odor proceeded from it as of violets. -The water of this fountain, the spies said, is so weak, that nothing -is able to float upon it, neither wood, nor such things as are lighter -than wood; but every thing sinks to the bottom. If this water is -truly such as it is said to be, it may be they are long-lived by reason -of the abundant use of it. Leaving this fountain, he conducted -them to the common prison, where all were fettered with -golden chains; for among these Ethiopians bronze is the most rare -and precious of all metals. After this, they visited last of all their -sepulchres, which are said to be prepared from crystal in the following -manner. When they have dried the body, either as the -Egyptians do, or in some other way, they plaster it all over with -gypsum, and paint it, making it as much as possible to resemble -real life; they then put round it a hollow column made of crystal, -which they dig up in abundance, and is easily wrought. The body -being in the middle of the column is plainly seen, and it does not -emit an unpleasant smell, nor is it in any way offensive; and it is all -visible<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_16" id="Ref_16" href="#Foot_16">[16]</a></span> -as the body itself. The nearest relations keep the column -in their houses for a year, offering to it the first-fruits of all, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">{146}</a></span> -performing sacrifices; after that time they carry it out and place it -somewhere near the city.</p> - -<p>When the spies returned home and reported all that had -passed, Cambyses, in a great rage, immediately marched against -the Ethiopians, without making any provision for the subsistence -of his army, or once considering that he was going to carry his -arms to the remotest parts of the world; but, as a madman, and -not in possession of his senses, as soon as he heard the report of -the Icthyophagi, he set out on his march, ordering the Greeks who -were present to stay behind, and taking with him all his land forces. -When the army reached Thebes, he detached about fifty thousand -men, and ordered them to reduce the Ammonians to slavery, and -to burn the oracular temple of Jupiter, while he with the rest of his -army marched against the Ethiopians. But before the army had -passed over a fifth part of the way, all the provisions that they had -were exhausted, and the beasts of burden themselves were eaten. -Now if Cambyses had at this juncture altered his purpose, and -had led back his army, he would have proved himself to be a wise -man. But he obstinately continued advancing. The soldiers -supported life by eating herbs as long as they could gather any -from the ground; but when they reached the sands, some of them -had recourse to a dreadful expedient, for taking one man in ten by -lot, they devoured him: when Cambyses heard this, shocked at -their eating one another, he abandoned his expedition against the -Ethiopians, marched back and reached Thebes, after losing a great -part of his army. From Thebes he went down to Memphis, and -suffered the Greeks to sail away. Thus ended the expedition -against the Ethiopians. Those who had been sent against the -Ammonians, after having set out from Thebes, under the conduct -of guides, are known to have reached the city Oasis, which is inhabited -by Samians, distant seven days' march from Thebes, -across the sands. This country in the Greek language is called the -Island of the Blessed. But afterward none, except the Ammonians -and those who have heard their report, are able to give any -account of them; for they neither reached the Ammonians, nor returned -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">{148}</a></span> -back. But the Ammonians make the following report: -When they had advanced from this Oasis toward them across the -sands, and were about half-way between them and Oasis, as they -were taking dinner, a vehement south wind blew, carrying with it -heaps of sand, and completely destroyed the whole army.</p> - -<div class="section"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a></div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/p147.jpg" width="600" height="383" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>SAND STORM IN THE DESERT.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>When Cambyses arrived at Memphis, Apis, whom the Greeks -call Epaphus, appeared to the Egyptians; and when this manifestation -took place, the Egyptians immediately put on their richest -apparel, and kept festive holiday. Cambyses, seeing them thus -occupied, and concluding that they made these rejoicings on account -of his ill success, summoned the magistrates of Memphis; and -when they came into his presence, he asked "why the Egyptians -had done nothing of the kind when he was at Memphis before, but -did so now, when he had returned with the loss of a great part of -his army." They answered, that their god appeared to them, who -was accustomed to manifest himself at intervals, and that when -he did appear, then all the Egyptians were accustomed to rejoice -and keep a feast. Cambyses, having heard this, said they were -liars, and put them to death. Then he summoned the priests into -his presence, and when the priests gave the same account, he said, -that he would find out whether a god so tractable had come among -the Egyptians; and commanded the priests to bring Apis to him. -This Apis, or Epaphus, the Egyptians say, is the calf of a cow upon -which the lightning has descended from heaven. It is black, and -has a square spot of white on the forehead; on the back the figure -of an eagle; and in the tail double hairs; and on the tongue a -beetle. When the priests brought Apis, Cambyses, like one almost -out of his senses, drew his dagger, meaning to strike the belly of -Apis, but hit the thigh; then falling into a fit of laughter, he said to -the priests: "Ye blockheads, are there such gods as these, consisting -of blood and flesh, and sensible of steel? This, truly, is a god -worthy of the Egyptians. But you shall not mock me with impunity." -Then he gave orders to scourge the priests, and kill all -the Egyptians who should be found feasting. Apis, wounded in -the thigh, lay and languished in the temple; and at length, when -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">{149}</a></span> -he had died of the wound, the priests buried him without the knowledge -of Cambyses.</p> - -<p>But Cambyses, as the Egyptians say, immediately became mad -in consequence of this atrocity, though he really was not of sound -mind before. His first crime he committed against his brother -Smerdis, who was born of the same father and mother; him he -sent back from Egypt to Persia through envy, because he alone of -all the Persians had drawn the bow, which the Ichthyophagi brought -from the Ethiopian, within two fingers' breadth; of the other Persians -no one was able to do this. After the departure of Smerdis -for Persia, Cambyses saw the following vision in his sleep: he imagined -that a messenger arrived from Persia and informed him that -Smerdis was seated on the royal throne, and touched the heavens -with his head. Upon this, fearing for himself, lest his brother -should kill him, and reign, he sent Prexaspes, the most faithful to -him of the Persians, to Persia, with orders to kill Smerdis. Having -gone up to Susa, he killed Smerdis; some say, when he had taken -him out to hunt; but others, that he led him to the Red Sea and -drowned him. This they say was the first of the crimes of Cambyses; -the second was that of marrying his own sister, who had -accompanied him into Egypt.</p> - -<p>The Greeks say, that one day Cambyses made the whelp of a -lion fight with a young dog; and this wife was also looking on; -the dog being over-matched, another puppy of the same litter -broke his chain, and came to his assistance, and thus the two dogs -united got the better of the whelp. Cambyses was delighted at -the sight, but she, sitting by him, shed tears. Cambyses, observing -this, asked her why she wept. She answered, that she wept -seeing the puppy come to the assistance of his brother, remembering -Smerdis, and knowing that there was no one to avenge him. -The Greeks say, that for this speech she was put to death by -Cambyses. But the Egyptians say, that as they were sitting at -table, his wife took a lettuce, stripped off its leaves, and then asked -her husband "whether the lettuce stripped of its leaves, or thick -with foliage, was the handsomer." He said: "When thick with -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">{150}</a></span> -foliage." Whereupon she remarked: "Then you have imitated -this lettuce, in dismembering the house of Cyrus." Whereupon -he, in rage, kicked her and inflicted such injuries that she died.</p> - -<p>Thus madly did Cambyses behave toward his own family; -whether on account of Apis, or from some other cause, from which, -in many ways, misfortunes are wont to befall mankind. For Cambyses -is said, even from infancy, to have been afflicted with a -certain severe malady, which some called the sacred disease.<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_17" id="Ref_17" href="#Foot_17">[17]</a></span> -In that case, it was not at all surprising that, when his body was so -diseased, his mind should not be sound. And toward the other -Persians he behaved madly in the following instances: for it is -reported that he said to Prexaspes, whom he highly honored, and -whose office it was to bring messages to him, whose son was cupbearer -to Cambyses, no trifling honor by any means, he is reported -to have said: "Prexaspes, what sort of a man do the Persians -think me? and what remarks do they make about me?" He -answered: "Sir, you are highly extolled in every other respect, but -they say you are too much addicted to wine." The king enraged -cried out: "Do the Persians indeed say that, by being addicted -to wine, I am beside myself, and am not in my senses? then their -former words were not true." For, on a former occasion, when -the Persians and Crœsus were sitting with him, Cambyses asked, -what sort of a man he appeared to be in comparison with his -father Cyrus; they answered, that he was superior to his father, -because he held all that Cyrus possessed, and had acquired besides -Egypt and the empire of the sea. Crœsus, who was not pleased -with this decision, spoke thus to Cambyses: "To me, O son of -Cyrus, you do not appear comparable to your father, for you have -not yet such a son as he left behind him." Cambyses was -delighted at hearing this, and commended the judgment of Crœsus. -So, remembering this, he said in anger to Prexaspes: "Observe -now yourself, whether the Persians have spoken the truth, or -whether they who say such things are not out of their senses: for -if I shoot that son of yours who stands under the portico, and hit -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">{151}</a></span> -him in the heart, the Persians will appear to have said nothing to -the purpose; but if I miss, then say that the Persians have spoken -the truth, and that I am not of sound mind." Having said this, -and bent his bow, he hit the boy; and when the boy had fallen, -he ordered them to open him and examine the wound; and when -the arrow was found in the heart, he said to the boy's father, -laughing: "Prexaspes, it has been clearly shown to you that I am -not mad, but that the Persians are out of their senses. Now tell -me, did you ever see a man take so true an aim?" But Prexaspes, -perceiving him to be out of his mind, and being in fear for his own -life, said: "Sir, I believe that a god himself could not have shot -so well." At another time, having, without any just cause, seized -twelve Persians of the first rank, he had them buried alive up to -the head.</p> - -<p>While he was acting in this manner, Crœsus the Lydian -thought fit to admonish him in the following terms: "O king, do -not yield entirely to your youthful impulses and anger, but possess -and restrain yourself. It is a good thing to be provident, and wise -to have forethought. You put men to death who are your own -subjects, having seized them without any just cause; and you slay -their children. If you persist in such a course, beware lest the -Persians revolt from you. Your father Cyrus strictly charged me -to admonish you, and suggest whatever I might discover for your -good." He thus manifested his good-will, in giving this advice; -but Cambyses answered: "Do you presume to give me advice, -you, who so wisely managed your own country; and so well advised -my father, when you persuaded him to pass the river Araxes, -and advance against the Massagetæ, when they were willing to -cross over into our territory? You have first ruined yourself by -badly governing your own country, and then ruined Cyrus, who -was persuaded by your advice. But you shall have no reason to -rejoice; for I have long wanted to find a pretext against you." -So saying, he took up his bow for the purpose of shooting him; -but Crœsus jumped up and ran out. Cambyses, unable to shoot -him, commanded his attendants to seize him, and put him to death. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">{152}</a></span> -But the attendants, knowing his temper, concealed Crœsus for the -following reason, that if Cambyses should repent, and inquire for -Crœsus, they, by producing him, might receive rewards for preserving -him alive; or if he should not repent, or sorrow for him, -then they would put him to death. Not long afterward Cambyses -did regret the loss of Crœsus, whereupon the attendants acquainted -him that he was still living; on which Cambyses said: "I am rejoiced -that Crœsus is still alive; they, however, who disobeyed my -orders and saved him, shall not escape with impunity, but I will -have them put to death." And he made good his word.</p> - -<p>He committed many such mad actions, both against the Persians -and his allies, while he stayed at Memphis opening ancient sepulchres, -and examining the dead bodies; he also entered the temple -of Vulcan, and derided the image, for the image of Vulcan is -very much like the Phœnician Pataici, which the Phœnicians place -at the prows of their triremes, and is a representation of a pigmy. -He likewise entered the temple of the Cabeiri, (into which it is -unlawful for any one except the priest to enter) and these images -he burnt, after he had ridiculed them in various ways: these also -are like that of Vulcan; and they say that they are the sons of this -latter. It is in every way clear to me that Cambyses was outrageously -mad; otherwise he would not have attempted to deride -sacred things and established customs. For if any one should propose -to all men, to select the best institutions of all that exist, each, -after considering them all, would choose his own; so certain is it -that each thinks his own institutions by far the best. It is not -therefore probable, that any but a madman would make such things -the subject of ridicule. That all men are of this mind respecting -their own institutions may be inferred from many proofs, but is -well illustrated by the following incident: Darius once summoned -some Greeks under his sway, and asked them "for what sum they -would feed upon the dead bodies of their parents." They answered, -that they would not do it for any sum. Then Darius called to -him some of the Indians called Callatians, who are accustomed to -eat their parents, and asked them, in the presence of the Greeks, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">{153}</a></span> -"for what sum they would consent to burn their fathers when they -die." But they made loud exclamations and begged he would -speak words of good omen. Such then is the effect of custom: -and Pindar appears to me to have said rightly "that custom is -the king of all men."</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 350px;"> - <img src="images/p153.jpg" width="350" height="470" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>ATTACK ON FORT.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Whilst Cambyses was invading Egypt, the Lacedæmonians -made an expedition against Polycrates, who had made an insurrection -and seized on Samos. At first, having divided the state into -three parts, he had shared it with his brothers Pantagnotus and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">{154}</a></span> -Syloson; but afterward, having put one of them to death, and expelled -Syloson, the younger, he held the whole of Samos, and -made a treaty of friendship with Amasis, King of Egypt, sending -presents, and receiving others from him in return. In a very short -time the power of Polycrates increased, and was noised abroad -throughout Ionia and the rest of Greece; for wherever he turned -his arms, everything turned out prosperously. He had a hundred -fifty-oared galleys, and a thousand archers. And he plundered all -without distinction; for he said that he gratified a friend more by -restoring what he had seized, than by taking nothing at all. He -accordingly took many of the islands, and many cities on the continent; -he moreover overcame in a sea-fight, and took prisoners, -the Lesbians, who came to assist the Milesians with all their forces; -these, being put in chains, dug the whole trench that surrounds the -walls of Samos.</p> - -<p>The Lacedæmonians, arriving with a great armament, besieged -Samos, attacked the fortifications, and passed beyond the tower -that faced the sea near the suburbs; but afterward, when Polycrates -himself advanced with a large force, they were driven back, -and after forty days had been spent in besieging Samos, finding -their affairs were not at all advanced, they returned to Peloponnesus; -though a groundless report got abroad, that Polycrates coined a -large quantity of the money of the country in lead, had it gilt, and -gave it to them; whereupon they took their departure. This -was the first expedition that the Lacedæmonian Dorians undertook -against Asia.</p> - -<p>Those of the Samians who had fomented the war against Polycrates -set sail for Siphnus when the Lacedæmonians were about to -abandon them, for they were in want of money. The Siphnians -were at that time the richest of all the islanders, having such gold -and silver mines, that from the tenth of the money accruing from -them, a treasure was laid up at Delphi equal to the richest; and -they used every year to divide the product of the mines. When -they established this treasure, they asked the oracle, whether their -present prosperity would continue with them for a long time; but -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">{155}</a></span> -the Pythian answered as follows: "When the Prytaneum in Siphnus -shall be white, and the market white-fronted, then shall there -be need of a prudent man to guard against a wooden ambush and -a crimson herald." The market and Prytaneum of the Siphnians -were then adorned with Parian marble. As soon as the Samians -reached Siphnus, they sent ambassadors to the city in a ship which, -like all ships at that time, was painted red. And this was what -the Pythian meant by a wooden ambush and a crimson herald. -These ambassadors requested the Siphnians to lend them ten -talents; the Siphnians refused the loan, and the Samians proceeded -to ravage their territory. The Siphnians were beaten, and compelled -to give a hundred talents.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/p155.jpg" width="300" height="343" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>THE OBELISK.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>I have dwelt longer on the affairs of the Samians, because they -have the three greatest works that have been accomplished by all -the Greeks. The first is a mountain, one hundred and fifty -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">{156}</a></span> -orgyæ in height, in which is dug a tunnel, beginning from the -base, with an opening at each side. The length of the excavation -is seven stades, and the height and breadth eight feet each; -through the whole length of it is dug another excavation twenty -cubits deep, and three feet broad, through which the water conveyed -by pipes reaches the city, drawn from a copious fountain. -The architect of this excavation was a Megarian, Eupalinus, son -of Naustrophus. The second work is a mound in the sea round -the harbor, in depth about one hundred orgyæ; and in length -more than two stades. The third is a temple, the largest of all -we have ever seen; of this, the architect was Rhœcus, son of -Phileus, a native.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">{157}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER II.<br /> -<small>USURPATION OF SMERDIS THE MAGUS AND ACCESSION OF DARIUS.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">While</span> Cambyses, son of Cyrus, tarried in Egypt, and was acting -madly, two magi, who were brothers, revolted. One of these, Cambyses -had left steward of his palace, the other was a person -very much like Smerdis, son of Cyrus, whom Cambyses, his own -brother, had put to death. The magus Patizithes, having persuaded -this man that he would manage every thing for him, set -him on the throne; and sent heralds in various directions, particularly -to Egypt, to proclaim to the army, that they must in future -obey Smerdis, son of Cyrus, and not Cambyses. The herald who -was appointed to Egypt, finding Cambyses and his army at Ecbatana -in Syria, stood in the midst and proclaimed what had been -ordered by the magus. Cambyses, believing that he spoke the -truth, and that he had himself been betrayed by Prexaspes, and -that he, when sent to kill Smerdis, had not done so, looked -toward Prexaspes, and said: "Prexaspes, hast thou thus performed -the business I enjoined upon thee?" But he answered: "Sire, it is -not true that your brother Smerdis has revolted against you, nor that -you can have any quarrel, great or small, with him. For I myself -put your order into execution, and buried him with my own hands. -I think I understand the whole matter, O king: the magi are -the persons who have revolted against you,—Patizithes, whom you -left steward of the palace, and his brother Smerdis." When Cambyses -heard the name of Smerdis, the truth of this account and of -the dream struck him: for he fancied in his sleep that some one -announced to him that Smerdis, seated on the royal throne, -touched the heavens with his head. Perceiving, therefore, that he -had destroyed his brother without a cause, he wept bitterly for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">{158}</a></span> -him, deplored the whole calamity, and leapt upon his horse, resolving -with all speed to march to Susa against the magus. But as he -was leaping on his horse, the chape of his sword's scabbard fell off, -and the blade, being laid bare, struck the thigh; wounding him in -that part where he himself had formerly smitten the Egyptian god -Apis. Mortally wounded, he asked what was the name of the -city. They said it was Ecbatana. And it had been before prophesied -to him from the city of Buto, that he should end his life in -Ecbatana. He had imagined that he should die an old man in -Ecbatana of Media, where all his treasures were; but the oracle in -truth meant in Ecbatana of Syria. When he had thus been -informed of the name of the city, though smitten by misfortune, he -returned to his right mind; and comprehending the oracle, said: -"Here it is fated that Cambyses, son of Cyrus, should die."</p> - -<p>Twenty days later he summoned the principal men of the Persians -who were with him, told them his vision and his great mistake, -shed bitter tears, and charged them never to permit the -government to return into the hands of the Medes. When the -Persians saw their king weep, all rent the garments they had -on, and gave themselves up to lamentation. Soon the bone -became infected, the thigh mortified, and Cambyses, son of Cyrus, -died, after he had reigned in all seven years and five months, -having never had any children. Great incredulity stole over the -Persians who were present, as to the story that the magi had -possession of the government, and agreed that it must be Smerdis, -son of Cyrus, who had risen up and seized the kingdom. Prexaspes, -moreover, vehemently denied that he had killed Smerdis; for it -was not safe for him, now that Cambyses was dead, to own that -he had killed the son of Cyrus with his own hand.</p> - -<p>The magus, after the death of Cambyses, relying on his having -the same name as Smerdis the son of Cyrus, reigned securely during -the seven months that remained to complete the eighth year -of Cambyses; in which time he treated all his subjects with such -beneficence, that at his death, all the people of Asia, except the -Persians, regretted his loss. For the magus, on assuming the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">{159}</a></span> -sovereignty, despatched messengers to every nation he ruled over, -and proclaimed a general exemption from military service and -tribute for the space of three years. But in the eighth month he -was discovered in the following manner. Otanes, son of Pharnaspes, -was by birth and fortune equal to the first of the Persians. -This Otanes first suspected the magus not to be Smerdis the son -of Cyrus, from the fact, that he never went out of the citadel, and -that he never summoned any of the principal men of Persia to his -presence. Having conceived suspicion of him, he contrived the -following artifice. Cambyses had married his daughter, whose -name was Phædyma; the magus of course had her as his wife, as -well as all the rest of the wives of Cambyses. Otanes therefore, -sending to his daughter, inquired whether her husband was Smerdis, -son of Cyrus, or some other person; she sent back word to -him, saying that she did not know. Otanes sent a second time, -saying: "If you do not yourself know Smerdis, son of Cyrus, then -inquire of Atossa, for she must of necessity know her own brother." -To this his daughter replied: "I can neither have any conversation -with Atossa, nor see any of the women who used to live with me; -for as soon as this man, whoever he is, succeeded to the throne, he -dispersed us all, assigning us separate apartments." When Otanes -heard this, the matter appeared much more plain; and he sent a -third message to her in these words: "Daughter, it becomes you, -being of noble birth, to undertake any peril that your father may -require you to incur. For if this Smerdis is not the son of Cyrus, -but the person whom I suspect, it is not fit that he should escape -with impunity, but suffer the punishment due to his offences. Now -follow my directions: watch your opportunity, and whenever you -discover him to be sound asleep, touch his ears; and if you find -he has ears, be assured that he is Smerdis, son of Cyrus; but if he -has none, then he is Smerdis the magus." To this message Phædyma -answered, saying "that she should incur very great danger -by doing so; for he kept the sides of his head concealed, and if he -had no ears, and she should be discovered touching him, she well -knew that he would put her to death; nevertheless she would -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">{160}</a></span> -make the attempt." Cyrus, during his reign, had cut off the ears -of this Smerdis the magus, for some grave offence. Phædyma, -therefore, determining to execute all that she had promised her -father, catching the magus sound asleep on his couch one day felt -for his ears, and perceiving without any difficulty that the man had -no ears, as soon as it was day, she sent and made known to her -father what the case was.</p> - -<p>Thereupon Otanes, having taken with him Aspathines and -Gobryas, who were the noblest of the Persians, and persons on -whom he could best rely, related to them the whole affair; and -they agreed that each should associate with himself a Persian in -whom he could place most reliance. Otanes accordingly introduced -Intaphernes; Gobryas, Megabyzus; and Aspathines, Hydarnes. -Just at this time Darius, son of Hystaspes, arrived at Susa -from Persia, where his father was governor, and the six Persians -determined to admit Darius to the confederacy. These seven -met, exchanged pledges with each other, and conferred together. -When it came to the turn of Darius to declare his opinion, he addressed -them as follows: "I thought that I was the only person -who knew that it was the magus who reigns, and that Smerdis, son -of Cyrus, is dead; and for this very reason I hastened hither in -order to contrive the death of the magus. But since it proves that -you also are acquainted with the fact, it appears to me that we -should act immediately." Otanes said to this: "Son of Hystaspes, -you are born of a noble father, and show yourself not at all inferior -to him; do not, however, so inconsiderately hasten this enterprise, -but set about it with more caution; for we must increase our numbers, -and then attempt it." Darius replied to this: "Be assured, -ye men who are here present, if you adopt the plan proposed by -Otanes, you will all miserably perish; for some one will discover it -to the magus, consulting his own private advantage; indeed, you -ought to have carried out your project immediately, without communicating -it to any one else; but since you have thought fit to -refer it to others, and have disclosed it to me, let us carry it out -this very day, or be assured, that if this day passes over, no one -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">{161}</a></span> -shall be beforehand with me and become my accuser, but I myself -will denounce you to the magus." Otanes, seeing Darius so -eager, replied: "Since you compel us to precipitate our enterprise, -and will not permit us to defer it, tell us in what way we are -to enter the palace and attack him; for you yourself know that -guards are stationed at intervals; and how shall we pass them?" -"There are many things," said Darius, "that can not be made clear -by words, but may by action; and there are other things that seem -practicable in description, but no signal effect proceeds from them. -Be assured that the guards stationed there will not be at all difficult -to pass by: for in the first place, seeing our rank, there is no -one who will not allow us to pass, partly from respect, and partly -from fear; and in the next place, I have a most specious pretext -by which we shall gain admission, for I will say that I have just -arrived from Persia, and wish to report a message to the king from -my father. For when a lie must be told, let it be told. Whoever -of the doorkeepers shall willingly let us pass, shall be rewarded in -due time; but whoever offers to oppose us must instantly be -treated as an enemy." After this Gobryas said: "Friends, shall -we ever have a better opportunity to recover the sovereign power, -or if we shall be unable to do so, to die? seeing we who are Persians, -are governed by an earless Medic magus. Those among -you who were present with Cambyses when he lay sick, well -remember the imprecations he uttered at the point of death against -the Persians, if they should not attempt to repossess themselves of -the sovereign power: we did not then believe this story, but -thought that Cambyses spoke from ill-will. I give my voice that -we yield to Darius, and that on breaking up this conference we go -direct to the magus." And all assented to his proposal.</p> - -<p>Meantime the magi, on consultation, determined to make Prexaspes -their friend: both because he had suffered grievous wrong -from Cambyses, who shot his son dead with an arrow; and because -he alone of all the Persians knew of the death of Smerdis, son of -Cyrus, as he had despatched him with his own hand; and moreover, -Prexaspes was in high repute with the Persians. Therefore, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">{162}</a></span> -having sent for Prexaspes, they endeavored to win his friendship, -binding him by pledges and oaths, that he would never divulge -to any man the cheat they had put upon the Persians, assuring him -that in return they would give him every thing his heart could -desire. When Prexaspes had promised that he would do as the -magi wished, they made a second proposal, saying, that they would -assemble all the Persians under the walls of the palace, and desired -that he would ascend a tower, and assure them that they were -governed by Smerdis, son of Cyrus. Prexaspes assented, and the -magi, having convoked the Persians, placed him on the top of a -turret, and commanded him to harangue the people. But he purposely -forgot what they desired him to say, and, beginning from -Achæmenes, described the genealogy of Cyrus' family; told them -what great benefits Cyrus had done the Persians; and finally declared -the whole truth, saying that he had before concealed it, as -it was not safe for him to tell what had happened; but that in the -present emergency necessity constrained him to make it known. -He accordingly told them that he, being compelled by Cambyses, -had put Smerdis, son of Cyrus, to death, and that it was the magi -who then reigned. After he had uttered many imprecations against -the Persians, if they should not recover back the sovereign power, -and punish the magi, he threw himself headlong from the tower. -Thus died Prexaspes, a man highly esteemed during the course -of his whole life.</p> - -<div class="section"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a></div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 429px;"> - <img src="images/p163.jpg" width="429" height="600" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>MAMELUKE TOMB, CAIRO.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The seven Persians, resolving to attack the magi without delay, -had offered prayers to the gods, and were in the midst of their way -when they were informed of all that Prexaspes had done, whereupon -they again conferred together; and some, with Otanes, strongly -advised to defer the enterprise while affairs were in such a ferment; -but others, with Darius, urged to proceed at once. While hotly -disputing there appeared seven pairs of hawks pursuing two pairs -of vultures, and plucking and tearing them. The seven, on seeing -this, all approved the opinion of Darius, and forthwith proceeded to -the palace, emboldened by the omen. When they approached the -gates, it happened as Darius had supposed; for the guards, out of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">{164}</a></span> -respect for men of highest rank among the Persians, and not suspecting -any such design on their part, let them pass by, moved as -they were by divine impulse; nor did any one question them. But -when they reached the hall, they fell in with the eunuchs appointed -to carry in messages, who inquired of them for what purpose they -had come; and at the same time that they questioned them they -threatened the doorkeepers for permitting them to pass, and endeavored -to prevent the seven from proceeding any farther. They -instantly drew their daggers, stabbed all that opposed their passage -on the spot, and then rushed to the men's apartment. The magi -happened to be both within at the time, and were consulting about -the conduct of Prexaspes. But seeing the eunuchs in confusion, -and hearing their outcry, they hurried out, and put themselves -on the defensive. One snatched up a bow, and the other a javelin, -and the parties engaged with each other. The one who had taken -up the bow, seeing his enemies were near and pressing upon them, -found it of no use; but the other made resistance with his spear, -and first wounded Aspathines in the thigh, and next Intaphernes in -the eye; and Intaphernes lost his eye from the wound, but did not -die. The other magus, when he found his bow of no service, fled -to a chamber adjoining the men's apartment, purposing to shut to -the door, and two of the seven, Darius and Gobryas, rushed in with -him; and as Gobryas was grappling with the magus, Darius standing -by was in perplexity, fearing that he should strike Gobryas in -the dark; but Gobryas, seeing that he stood by inactive, asked him -why he did not use his hand. He answered: "Fearing for you, lest -I should strike you." "Never mind," said Gobryas, "drive your -sword through both of us." Darius obeyed, thrust with his dagger, -and by good fortune hit the magus.</p> - -<p>Having slain the magi, and cut off their heads, they left the -wounded of their own party there, as well on account of their exhaustion -as to guard the acropolis; but the other five of them, -carrying the heads of the magi, ran out with shouting and clamor, -and called upon the rest of the Persians, relating what they had -done, and showing them the heads; and at the same time they -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">{165}</a></span> -slew every one of the magi that came in their way. The Persians, -informed of what had been done by the seven, and of the fraud of -the magi, determined themselves also to do the like; and having -drawn their daggers, they slew every magus they could find; and -if the night coming on had not prevented, they would not have left -a single magus alive. This day the Persians observe in common -more than any other, and in it they celebrate a great festival, which -they call "The Slaughter of the Magi." On that day no magus is -allowed to be seen in public.</p> - -<p>When the tumult had subsided, and five days had elapsed, those -who had risen up against the magi deliberated on the state of affairs. -Otanes advised that they should commit the government to the -Persians at large, "for," said he, "how can a monarchy be a well-constituted -government, where one man is allowed to do whatever -he pleases without control?" Megabyzus advised them to intrust -the government to an oligarchy, and said: "Let us choose an association -of the best men, and commit the sovereign power to them, -for among them we ourselves shall be included, and it is reasonable -to expect that the best counsels will proceed from the best men." -Darius expressed his opinion the third, saying: "What Megabyzus -has said concerning the people was spoken rightly, but if -three forms are proposed, and each the best in its kind, democracy, -oligarchy, and monarchy, I contend that the last is far superior. -For nothing can be found better than one man, who is the best; -since acting upon equally wise plans, he would govern the people -without blame, and would keep his designs most secret from the -ill-affected. But in an oligarchy, whilst many are exerting their energies -for the public good, strong private enmities commonly spring -up; for each wishing to be chief, and to carry his own opinions, -they come to deep animosities one against another, whence seditions -arise; and from seditions, murder; and from murder recourse -is always had to a monarchy; and thus it is proved that this form -of government is the best. Also when the people rule, it is impossible -that evil should not spring up, and powerful combinations, for -they who injure the commonwealth act in concert; and this lasts -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">{166}</a></span> -until some one of the people stands forward and puts them down; -and on this account, being admired by the people, he becomes a -monarch; this again shows that a monarchy is best. Moreover, -we should not subvert the institutions of our ancestors, when we -see how good they are."</p> - -<p>Four of the seven adhered to this opinion. Then said Otanes: -"Associates, since it is evident that some one of us must be made -king, I will not enter into competition with you; for I wish neither -to govern nor be governed. But on this condition I give up all -claim to the government, that neither I nor any of my posterity may -be subject to any one of you." The six agreed to these terms, and he -withdrew from the assembly; and this family alone, of all the Persians, -retains its liberty to this day, and yields obedience only so -far as it pleases, but without transgressing the laws of the Persians. -The rest of the seven consulted how they might appoint a king on -the most equitable terms; and they determined that Otanes and -his posterity forever should be given a Median vest yearly, by way -of distinction, together with all such presents as are accounted most -honorable among the Persians, for he first advised the enterprise, -and associated them together. And they made the resolution that -every one of the seven should have liberty to enter into the palace -without being introduced, and that the king should not be allowed -to marry a wife out of any other family than of the conspirators. -With regard to the kingdom, they determined that he whose horse -should first neigh in the suburbs at sunrise, while they were -mounted, should have the kingdom.</p> - -<p>Darius had a groom, a shrewd man, whose name was Œbares, -to whom, when the assembly had broken up, Darius said: -"Œbares, we have determined that he whose horse shall neigh -first at sunrise, when we ourselves are mounted, is to have the -kingdom. Now, if you have any ingenuity, contrive that I may -obtain this honor, and not another." Œbares answered: "If, sir, -it depends on this, whether you shall be king or not, keep up your -spirits; for no one else shall be king before you; I know a trick -that will make him neigh." At dawn of day, the six, as they had -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">{167}</a></span> -agreed, met together on horseback; and as they were riding round -the suburbs, Darius' horse, at the signal from Œbares, ran forward -and neighed, and at that instant lightning and thunder came from a -clear sky. These things consummated the auspices, as if done by -appointment, and the others, dismounting from their horses, did -obeisance to Darius as king.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/p167.jpg" width="400" height="293" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>EGYPTIAN WAR CHARIOT, WARRIOR AND HORSES.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Accordingly Darius, son of Hystaspes, was declared king, and -all the people of Asia, except the Arabians, were subject to him. -The Arabians never submitted to the Persian yoke, but were on -friendly terms, and gave Cambyses a free passage into Egypt; for -without the consent of the Arabians the Persians could not have -penetrated into Egypt. Darius contracted his first marriages with -Persians; he married two daughters of Cyrus, Atossa and Artystona; -Atossa, you remember, had been before married to her -brother Cambyses, and afterward to the magus. He married another -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">{168}</a></span> -also, daughter of Smerdis, son of Cyrus, whose name was -Parmys; and he had besides, the daughter of Otanes who detected -the magus. His power was fully established on all sides. He -erected a stone statue, representing a man on horseback; and he -had engraved on it the following inscription: "Darius, son of Hystaspes, -by the sagacity of his horse, (here mentioning the name,) -and by the address of Œbares, his groom, obtained the empire -of the Persians." In Persia, he constituted twenty governments, -which they call satrapies; set governors over them, and appointed -tributes to be paid to him from each. In consequence of this imposition -of tribute, and other things of a similar kind, the Persians -say Darius was a trader, Cambyses a master, and Cyrus a father. -The first, because he made profit of every thing; the second, because -he was severe and arrogant; the last, because he was mild, and -always aimed at the good of his people. If the total of all his revenues -is computed together, fourteen thousand five hundred and sixty -Euboic talents were collected by Darius as an annual tribute,<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_18" id="Ref_18" href="#Foot_18">[18]</a></span> -passing over many small sums which I do not mention. This tribute -accrued to Darius from Asia and a small part of Libya; but in the -course of time another revenue accrued from the islands, and the -inhabitants of Europe as far as Thessaly. This treasure the king -melts and pours into earthen jars, and knocking away the earthen -mould when he wants money he cuts off as much as he has occasion -to use.</p> - -<p>The Cilicians were required to send each year to Darius three -hundred and sixty white horses, one for every day. The Persian -territory alone was not subject to tribute; but the Persians brought -gifts. The Ethiopians bordering on Egypt, whom Cambyses subdued -when he marched against the Macrobian Ethiopians, and -who dwell about the sacred city of Nysa, celebrate festivals of -Bacchus, use the same grain as the Calantian Indians, and live -in subterraneous dwellings. These brought every third year two -chœnices of unmolten gold, two hundred blocks of ebony, five -Ethiopian boys, and twenty large elephants' tusks.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">{169}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER III.<br /> -<small>INDIANS, ARABIANS, AND ETHIOPIANS.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">That</span> part of India toward the rising sun is all sand; for of the -people with whom we are acquainted, and of whom any thing certain -is told, the Indians live the farthest toward the east of all the -inhabitants of Asia; and the Indians' country toward the east is a -desert, by reason of the sands. There are many nations of Indians, -and they do not all speak the same language; some of them are -nomads, and they inhabit the marshes of the river, and feed on -raw fish, which they take going out in boats made of bamboo, one -joint of which makes a boat. These Indians wear a garment made -of rushes cut from the river, beaten flat, platted like a mat, and -worn as a corselet. Other Indians, living to the east of these, are -nomads, and eat raw flesh; they are called Padæans. When any -one of this community is sick, if it be a man, the men who are his -nearest connections put him to death, alleging that if he wasted by -disease his flesh would be spoiled; and no matter if he denies that he -is sick, they are not likely to agree with him, but kill and feast upon -him. And if a woman be sick, the women who are most intimate -with her do the same as the men. And whoever reaches to old -age, they sacrifice and feast upon; but few among them succeed -in growing old, for before that, every one that falls into any distemper -is put to death. Other Indians have different customs: they -neither kill any thing that has life, nor sow any thing, nor are they -wont to have houses, but they live upon herbs, and have a grain of -the size of millet, in a pod, which springs spontaneously from the -earth; this they gather, and boil and eat it with the pod. When -any one of them falls ill, he goes and lies down in the desert, and -no one takes any thought about him, whether dead or sick. All -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">{170}</a></span> -these Indians whom I have mentioned have a complexion closely -resembling the Ethiopians. They are situated very far from the -Persians, toward the south, and were never subject to Darius.</p> - -<p>Those who border on the city of Caspatyrus and the country -of Pactyica are the most warlike of the Indians, and these are they -who are sent to procure the gold. In this desert, and in the sand, -there are ants in size somewhat less indeed than dogs, but larger -than foxes. Some of them which were taken there, are in the -possession of the king of the Persians. These ants, forming their -habitations under ground, heap up the sand, as the ants in Greece -do, and in the same manner; and they are very much like them in -shape. The sand thus heaped up is mixed with gold. The -Indians go to the desert to get this sand, each man having three -camels, on either side a male harnessed to draw by the side, -and a female in the middle; this last the man mounts himself, having -taken care to yoke one that has been separated from her young -as recently born as possible; for camels are not inferior to horses -in swiftness, and are much better able to carry burdens. What -kind of figure the camel has I shall not describe to the Greeks, as -they are acquainted with it; but what is not known respecting it I -will mention. A camel has four thighs and four knees in his -hinder legs. The Indians then, adopting such a plan of harnessing, -set out for the gold, having before calculated the time, so as to be -engaged in their plunder during the hottest part of the day, for -during the heat the ants hide themselves under ground. Amongst -these people the sun is hottest in the morning, and not, as with us, -at mid-day; during this time it scorches much more than at mid-day -in Greece; so that, it is said, they then refresh themselves in -water. But as the day declines, the sun becomes to them as it is -in the morning to others; and after this, as it proceeds it becomes -still colder, until sunset, then it is very cold. When the Indians -arrive at the spot with their sacks, they fill them with the sand, -and return as fast as possible. For the ants, as the Persians say, -immediately discovering them by the smell, pursue them, and they -are equalled in swiftness by no other animal, so that if the Indians -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">{171}</a></span> -did not get the start of the ants while they were assembling, not a -man of them could be saved. Now the male camels (for they are -inferior in speed to the females) would otherwise slacken their -pace, dragging on, not both equally; but the females, mindful of -the young they have left, do not slacken their pace. Thus the -Indians obtain the greatest part of their gold.</p> - -<div class="image-float-right" style="max-width: 100px;"> - <img src="images/p171.jpg" width="100" height="145" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>MILITARY DRUM.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The extreme parts of the inhabited world somehow possess the -most excellent products; while Greece enjoys by far the best-tempered -climate. In India, the farthest part of the inhabited world -toward the east, all animals, both quadrupeds and birds, are much -larger than they are in other countries, with the exception of -horses; in this respect they are surpassed by the Medic breed -called the Nysæan horses. Then there is an abundance of gold -there, partly dug, partly brought down by the rivers, -and partly seized in the manner I have described. -And certain wild trees there bear wool instead of fruit, -which in beauty and quality excels that of sheep; -and the Indians make their clothing from these trees. -Again, Arabia is the farthest of inhabited countries -toward the south; and this is the only region in which -grow frankincense, myrrh, cassia, cinnamon, and -ledanum. All these, except myrrh, the Arabians gather with -difficulty. The frankincense they gather by burning styrax, which -the Phœnicians import into Greece. Winged serpents, small -in size, and various in form, guard the trees that bear frankincense, -a great number round each tree. These are the same -serpents that invade Egypt. They are driven from the trees -by nothing else but the smoke of the styrax. Vipers are found -in all parts of the world; but flying serpents in Arabia, and nowhere -else; there they appear to be very numerous.</p> - -<p>The Arabians obtain the cassia, which grows in marshes or -shallow lakes, by covering their whole body and face, except the -eyes, with hides and skins, and thus avoiding the attacks of the -winged animals, like bats, which infest the marshes, and screech -fearfully, and are exceedingly fierce. The cinnamon they collect -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">{172}</a></span> -in a still more wonderful manner. Where it grows and what land -produces it they are unable to tell; except that some say it grows -in those countries in which Bacchus was nursed. Large birds -bring those rolls of bark, which we, from the Phœnicians, call cinnamon, -for their nests, which are built with clay, against precipitous -mountains, where there is no access for man. The Arabians, to -surmount this difficulty, cut up into large pieces the limbs of dead -oxen, and asses, and other beasts of burden, carry them to these -spots, lay them near the nests, and retire to a distance. The birds -fly down and carry up the limbs of the beasts to their nests, which -not being strong enough to support the weight, break and fall to -the ground. Then the men, coming up, gather the cinnamon, -much of which they export to other countries. Still more wonderful -is the fragrant ledanum. For it is found sticking like gum to -the beards of he-goats, which collect it from the wood. It is useful -for many ointments, and the Arabians burn it very generally as a -perfume. They are famous for their perfumes; and there breathes -from Arabia, as it were, a divine odor. They have two kinds of -sheep worthy of admiration, which are seen nowhere else. One -kind has large tails, not less than three cubits in length, which, if -suffered to trail, would ulcerate, by the tails rubbing on the ground. -But every shepherd knows enough of the carpenter's art to prevent -this, for they make little carts and fasten them under the tails, -binding the tail of each separate sheep to a separate cart. The -other kind of sheep have broad tails, even to a cubit in breadth. -Where the meridian declines<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_19" id="Ref_19" href="#Foot_19">[19]</a></span> -toward the setting sun, the Ethiopian -territory extends, being the extreme part of the habitable world. -It produces much gold, huge elephants, wild trees of all kinds, -ebony, and men of large stature, very handsome, and long-lived.</p> - -<p>Such are the extremities of Asia and Libya. Concerning the -western extremities of Europe I am unable to speak with certainty, -for I do not admit that there is a river, called by barbarians Eridanus, -which discharges itself into the sea toward the north, from -which amber is said to come; nor am I acquainted with the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">{173}</a></span> -Cassiterides Islands, whence our tin comes. For in the first -place, the name Eridanus shows that it is Grecian and not barbarian, -and coined by some poet; in the next place, though I have -diligently inquired, I have never been able to hear from any man -who has himself seen it, that there is a sea on that side of Europe. -However, both tin and amber come to us from the remotest parts. -Toward the north of Europe there is evidently a very great quantity -of gold, but how procured I am unable to say with certainty; -though it is said that the Arimaspians, a one-eyed people, steal it -from the griffins. Nor do I believe this, that any men are born -with one eye, and yet in other respects resemble the rest of mankind. -However, the extremities of the world seem to surround -and enclose the rest of the earth, and to possess those productions -which we account most excellent and rare.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">{174}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<small>REIGN OF DARIUS TO THE TAKING OF BABYLON.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Of</span> the seven men that conspired against the magus, it happened -that one of them, Intaphernes, by an act of insolence, lost -his life shortly after the revolution. He wished to enter the palace -in order to confer with Darius; but the door-keeper and the messenger -would not let him pass, saying, that the king was engaged, -but Intaphernes, suspecting they told a falsehood, drew his scimetar, -cut off their ears and noses, and having strung them to straps -taken from his bridle, hung them round their necks, and dismissed -them. They presented themselves to the king, and told him the -cause for which they had been so treated. Darius, fearing lest the -six had done this in concert, sent for them, one by one, and -endeavored to discover whether they approved of what had been -done. When he found that Intaphernes had not done this with -their knowledge, he seized Intaphernes himself, and his children, -and all his family, having many reasons to suspect that he, with his -relations, would raise a rebellion against him. And he bound them -as for death: but the wife of Intaphernes, going to the gates of -the palace, wept and lamented aloud; and prevailed on Darius to -have compassion on her. He therefore sent a messenger to say -as follows: "Madam, king Darius allows you to release one of -your relations who are now in prison, whichever of them all you -please." She deliberated, and answered: "Since the king grants -me the life of one, I choose my brother from them all." Darius, -wondering at her choice, asked: "Madam, the king inquires the -reason why, leaving your husband and children, you have chosen -that your brother should survive; who is not so near related to -you as your children, and less dear to you than your husband?" -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">{175}</a></span> -"O king," she answered, "I may have another husband if God -will, and other children if I lose these; but as my father and -mother are no longer alive, I cannot by any means have another -brother; for this reason I spoke as I did." This pleased Darius -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">{176}</a></span> -so well that he granted to her the one whom she asked, and also -her eldest son; all the rest he put to death.</p> - -<table class="toalph" summary="ToAlph"> - -<tr> - <th>Signs in common use.</th> - <th>Signs employed more<br />rarely.</th> - <th>Equivalent in English.</th> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-01.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph">—</td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">A</span> (as in father).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-02.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph">—</td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">I</span> (sounded as ee in see).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-03.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph">—</td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">U</span> (sounded as oo in food).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-04.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-04b.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">B</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-05.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-05b.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">P</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-06.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph">—</td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">F</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-07.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-07b.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">G</span> (deep guttural).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-08.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-08b.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">K</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-09.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-09b.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">KH</span> (sounded like the<br /> - Hebrew <span class="large">ח</span>).</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-10.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph">—</td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">D</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-11.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-11b.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">T</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-12.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-12b.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">M</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-13.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-13b.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">N</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-14.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph">—</td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">L</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-15.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-15b.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">S</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-16.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph">—</td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">SH</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-17.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-17b.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">H</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-18.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="glyph"><img src="images/hiero-18b.jpg" height="25" alt=""/></td> - <td class="sound"><span class="large">J</span></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="center">ALPHABET</p> - -<p class="gap-above">It happened not long after this that Darius, in leaping from his -horse while hunting, twisted his foot with such violence that the -ankle-bone was dislocated. At first thinking he had about him -Egyptians who had the first reputation for skill in the healing art, -he made use of their assistance. But they, by twisting the foot, and -using force, made the evil worse; and from the pain which he felt, -Darius lay seven days and seven nights without sleep. On the -eighth day, as he still continued in a bad state, some one who had -before heard at Sardis of the skill of Democedes the Crotonian, -made it known to Darius; and he ordered them to bring him to him -as quickly as possible. They found him among the slaves altogether -neglected; and brought him forward, dragging fetters behind him, -and clothed in rags. As he stood before him, Darius asked him -whether he understood the art. He denied that he did, fearing -lest, if he discovered himself, he should be altogether precluded from -returning to Greece. But he appeared to Darius to dissemble, -although he was skilled in the art; he therefore commanded those -who had brought him thither to bring out whips and goads. -Whereupon he owned up, saying that he did not know it perfectly, -but having been intimate with a physician, he had some poor -knowledge of the art. Upon which Darius put himself under his -care, and by using Grecian medicines, and applying lenitives after -violent remedies, he caused him to sleep, and in a little time -restored him to his health, though Darius had begun to despair of -ever recovering the use of his foot. After this cure, Darius -presented him with two pairs of golden fetters; but Democedes -asked him, if he purposely gave him a double evil because he had -restored him to health. Darius, pleased with the speech, introduced -him to his wives, with the remark that this was the man -who had saved the king's life; whereupon each of them dipped -a goblet into a chest of gold, and presented it brimful to Democedes—so -munificent a gift, that a servant named Sciton, following -behind, picked up enough staters that fell from the goblets to make -him a rich man.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">{177}</a></span> -This Democedes had been so harshly treated at Crotona by his -father, who was of a severe temper, that he left him and went to -Ægina; having settled there, in the first year, though he was unprovided -with means, and had none of the instruments necessary -for the exercise of his art, he surpassed the most skilful of their -physicians. In the second year, the Æginetæ engaged him for a -talent out of the public treasury; and in the third year the -Athenians, for a hundred minæ; and in the fourth year Polycrates, -for two talents; thus he came to Samos. From this man the -Crotonian physicians obtained a great reputation; for at this -period the physicians of Crotona were said to be the first throughout -Greece, and the Cyrenæans the second. At the same time the -Argives were accounted the most skilful of the Greeks in the art of -music. Democedes, having completely cured Darius at Susa, had -a very large house, and a seat at the king's table; and he had -every thing he could wish for, except the liberty of returning to -Greece. He obtained from the king a pardon for the Egyptian -physicians who first attended the king, and were about to be empaled, -because they had been outdone by a Greek physician; and -in the next place he procured the liberty of a prophet of Elis, who -had attended Polycrates, and lay neglected among the slaves. In -short, Democedes had great influence with the king.</p> - -<p>Not long after Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, and wife to Darius, -had a tumor on her breast; after some time it burst, and spread -considerably. As long as it was small, she concealed it, and from -delicacy informed no one of it; when it became dangerous, she -sent for Democedes and showed it to him. He said that he could -cure her, but exacted a solemn promise, that she in return would -perform for him whatever he should require of her, but added that -he would ask nothing which might bring disgrace on her. When -therefore he had healed her, and restored her to health, Atossa, instructed -by Democedes, addressed Darius, in the following words: -"O king, you, who possess so great power, sit idle, and do not add -any nation or power to the Persians. It is right that a man who is -both young and master of such vast treasures should render himself -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">{178}</a></span> -considerable by his actions, that the Persians may know that -they are governed by a man. Two motives should influence you, -to such a course: first, that the Persians may know that it is a -worthy man who rules over them; and secondly, that they may be -worn in war, and not tempted by too much ease to plot against -you. You must perform some illustrious action while you are in -the flower of your age; for the mind grows with the growth of the -body, and as it grows old, grows old with it, and dull for every -action." She spoke thus according to her instructions, and he answered: -"Lady, you have mentioned the very things that I myself -propose to do; for I have determined to make a bridge and -march from this continent to the other, against the Scythians; and -this shall shortly be put in execution." Atossa replied: "Give up -the thought of marching first against the Scythians, for they will -be in your power whenever you choose; but take my advice, and -lead an army into Greece; for from the account I have heard, I am -anxious to have Lacedæmonian, Argive, Athenian, and Corinthian -attendants: and you have the fittest man in the world to show and -inform you of every thing concerning Greece; I mean the person -who cured your foot." Said Darius: "Well, since you think I -ought to make my first attempt against Greece, I think it better -first to send some Persians thither as spies with the man you mention; -they, when they are informed of and have seen every particular, -will make a report to me; and then, being thoroughly informed, -I will turn my arms against them." No sooner said than -done; for as soon as day dawned, he summoned fifteen eminent -Persians, and commanded them to accompany Democedes along -the maritime parts of Greece; and to take care that Democedes -did not escape from them, but they must by all means bring him -back again. He next summoned Democedes himself, and requested -that when he should have conducted the Persians through all -Greece, and shown it to them, to return; he also commanded him -to take with him all his movables as presents to his father and -brothers, promising to give him many times as much instead. -Moreover, he said, that for the purpose of transporting the presents -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">{179}</a></span> -he would give a merchant-ship, filled with all kinds of precious -things, which should accompany him on his voyage. Now Darius, -in my opinion, promised him these things without any deceitful -intention; but Democedes, fearing lest Darius was making trial of -him, received all that was given, without eagerness, but said that -he would leave his own goods where they were, that he might have -them on his return; the merchant-ship he said he would accept.</p> - -<p>In Sidon, a city of Phœnicia, they manned two triremes, and -with them also a large trading vessel, laden with all kinds of -precious things; and set sail for Greece. Keeping to the shore, -they surveyed the coasts, and made notes in writing; at length, -having inspected the greatest part of it, and whatever was most remarkable, -they proceeded to Tarentum in Italy. There, out of -kindness toward Democedes, Aristophilides, king of the Tarentines, -took off the rudders of the Median ships, and shut up the Persians -as spies. While they were in this condition Democedes went to -Crotona and when he had reached his own home, Aristophilides -set the Persians at liberty, and restored what he had taken from -their ships. The Persians pursuing Democedes, arrived at Crotona, -found him in the public market, and laid hands on him. Some of -the Crotonians, dreading the Persian power, were ready to deliver -him up; but others seized the Persians in turn, and beat them with -staves, though they expostulated in these terms: "Men of Crotona, -have a care what you do, you are rescuing a man who is a runaway -from the king; how will king Darius endure to be thus insulted? -How can what you do end well, if you force this man -from us? What city shall we sooner attack than this? What -sooner shall we endeavor to reduce to slavery?" But they could -not persuade the Crotonians; so launching a small boat they sailed -back to Asia; nor, as they were deprived of their guide, did they -attempt to explore Greece any further. At their departure Democedes -enjoined them to tell Darius that he had Milo's daughter -affianced to him as his wife, for the name of Milo, the wrestler, -stood high with the king; and on this account it appears to me -that Democedes spared no expense to hasten this marriage, that he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">{180}</a></span> -might appear to Darius to be a man of consequence in his own -country.</p> - -<p>After these things, king Darius took Samos, first of all the -cities, either Grecian or barbarian, and for the following reason. -When Cambyses, son of Cyrus, invaded Egypt, many Greeks resorted -thither; some, as one may conjecture, on account of trade; -others, to serve as soldiers; others, to view the country. Of these, -the last was Syloson, son of Æaces, brother to Polycrates, and an -exile from Samos. The following piece of good luck befel this -Syloson: having put on a scarlet cloak, he walked in the streets -of Memphis; and Darius, who was one of Cambyses' guard, and as -yet a man of no great account, took a fancy to the cloak, and coming -up, wished to purchase it. But Syloson, perceiving that Darius -was very anxious to have the cloak, impelled by a divine impulse, -said: "I will not sell it for any sum, but I will give it you for -nothing, if so it must needs be." Darius accepted his offer with -thanks and took the cloak. Syloson thought afterward that he had -lost it through his good nature, but when, in course of time, Cambyses -died, and the seven rose up against the magus, and of the -seven, Darius possessed the throne, Syloson heard that the kingdom -had devolved on the man to whom he had given his cloak in Egypt -on his requesting it; so he went up to Susa and seated himself at -the threshold of the king's palace, and said he had been a benefactor -to Darius. The porter reported it to the king; who said: -"What Greek is my benefactor, to whom I owe a debt of gratitude, -having so lately come to the throne? Scarcely one of them has as -yet come here; nor can I mention any thing that I owe to a Greek. -However, bring him in, that I may know the meaning of what he -says." The porter introduced Syloson, who related the story of -the cloak, and said that he was the person who gave it. "Most -generous of men!" exclaimed the king, "art thou then the man who, -when as yet I had no power, made me a present, small as it was? -yet the obligation is the same as if I were now to receive a thing -of great value. In return I will give thee abundance of gold -and silver, so that thou shalt never repent having conferred a favor -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">{181}</a></span> -on Darius son of Hystaspes." To this Syloson replied: "O king, -give me neither gold nor silver; but recover and give me back my -country, Samos, which now, since my brother Polycrates died by -the hands of Orœtes, a slave of ours has possessed. Give me -this without bloodshed and bondage." Then Darius sent an army -under the conduct of Otanes, one of the seven, with orders to accomplish -whatever Syloson should desire.</p> - -<p>Mæandrius held the government of Samos, having had the -administration intrusted to him by Polycrates: though he wished -to prove himself the most just of men, he was unable to effect his -purpose. For when the death of Polycrates was made known to -him, he erected an altar to Jupiter Liberator, and marked round it -the sacred enclosure, which is now in the suburbs. Afterward, he -summoned an assembly of all the citizens, and said: "To me, as -you know, the sceptre and all the power of Polycrates has been intrusted, -and I am now able to retain the government. But what I -condemn in another, I will myself, to the utmost of my ability, -abstain from doing. For neither did Polycrates please me in exercising -despotic power over men equal to himself, nor would any -other who should do the like. Now Polycrates has accomplished -his fate; and I, surrendering the government into your hands, proclaim -equality to all. I require, however, that the following remuneration -should be granted to myself; that six talents should be -given me out of the treasures of Polycrates; and in addition, I -claim for myself and my descendants for ever, the priesthood of -the temple of Jupiter Liberator, to whom I have erected an altar, -and under whose auspices I restore to you your liberties." But -one of them rising up said, "You forsooth are not worthy to rule -over us, being as you are a base and pestilent fellow; rather think -how you will render an account of the wealth that you have had -the management of." Thus spoke a man of eminence among the -citizens, whose name was Telesarchus. But Mæandrius, perceiving -that if he should lay down the power, some other would set -himself up as a tyrant in his place, no longer thought of laying it -down. To which end, when he had withdrawn to the citadel, sending -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">{182}</a></span> -for each one severally, as if about to give an account of the -treasures, he seized them and put them in chains. They were kept -in confinement; but after this, disease attacked Mæandrius; and -his brother, whose name was Lycaretus, supposing that he would -die, in order that he might the more easily possess himself of the -government of Samos, put all the prisoners to death; for, as it -seems, they were not willing to be free.</p> - -<p>When the Persians arrived at Samos, bringing Syloson with -them, no one raised a hand against them, and the partisans of -Mæandrius, and Mæandrius himself, said they were ready to quit -the island under a treaty; and when Otanes had assented to this, -and had ratified the agreement, the principal men of the Persians, -having had seats placed for them, sat down opposite the citadel. -The tyrant Mæandrius had a brother somewhat out of his senses, -whose name was Charilaus; he, for some fault he had committed, -was confined in a dungeon; and having at that time overheard what -was doing, and having peeped through his dungeon, when he saw -the Persians sitting quietly down, he shouted and said that he -wished to speak with Mæandrius. Mæandrius commanded him to -be released, and brought into his presence; and as soon as he was -brought there, upbraiding and reviling his brother, he urged him to -attack the Persians, saying: "Me, O vilest of men, who am your -own brother, and have done nothing worthy of bonds, you have -bound and adjudged to a dungeon; but when you see the Persians -driving you out and making you houseless, you dare not avenge -yourself, though they are so easy to be subdued. But if you are in -dread of them, lend me your auxiliaries, and I will punish them for -coming here, and I am ready also to send you out of the island." -Mæandrius accepted his offer, as I think, not that he had reached -such a pitch of folly as to imagine that his own power could overcome -that of the king, but rather out of envy to Syloson, if without -a struggle he should possess himself of the city uninjured. Having -therefore provoked the Persians, he wished to make the Samian -power as weak as possible, and then give it up; being well assured -that the Persians, if they suffered any ill-treatment, would be exasperated -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">{183}</a></span> -against the Samians; and knowing also that he himself had -a safe retreat from the island, whenever he chose, for he had had a -secret passage dug leading from the citadel to the sea. Accordingly -Mæandrius himself sailed away from Samos; but Charilaus armed -all the auxiliaries, threw open the gates, sallied out upon the Persians, -who did not expect any thing of the kind, and slew those of the -Persians who were seated in chairs, and who were the principal men -among them. But the rest of the Persian army came to their assistance, -and the auxiliaries, being hard pressed, were shut up again -within the citadel. But Otanes, the general, when he saw that the -Persians had suffered great loss, purposely neglected to obey the -orders which Darius had given him at his departure, that he should -neither kill nor take prisoner any of the Samians, but deliver the -island to Syloson without damage; on the contrary, he commanded -his army to put to death every one they met with, both man and -child alike. Whereupon, one part of the army besieged the citadel, -and the rest killed every one that came in their way, all they -met, as well within the temples as without. Mæandrius in the meantime -sailed to Lacedæmon, and carried with him all his treasures. -One day when he had set out his silver and golden cups, his servants -began to clean them; and he, at the same time, holding a -conversation with Cleomenes, son of Anaxandrides, then king of -Sparta, led him on to his house. When the king saw the cups, he -was struck with wonder and astonishment; upon which Mæandrius -bade him take whatever he pleased, and when Mæandrius had repeated -this offer two or three times, Cleomenes showed himself a -man of the highest integrity, for he refused to accept what was offered; -and being informed that by giving to other citizens he would -gain their support, he went to the Ephori, and said that it would be -better for Sparta that this Samian stranger should quit the Peloponnesus, -lest he should persuade him or some other of the Spartans -to become base. They immediately banished Mæandrius by public -proclamation. The Persians, having drawn Samos as with a net, -delivered it to Syloson, utterly destitute of inhabitants. Afterward, -however, Otanes, the general, repeopled it, in consequence of a -vision in a dream.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">{184}</a></span> -Whilst the naval armament was on its way to Samos, the Babylonians -revolted, having very well prepared themselves. For during -all the time the magus reigned, and the seven were rising up -against him, they had made preparations for a siege, and somehow -in the confusion this had escaped observation. But when they openly -revolted they resorted to this extraordinary means of husbanding -their resources: gathering together all the women, except their -mothers, and one woman apiece, besides, whom each one chose from -his own family, they strangled them; the one woman each man selected -to cook his food, and they strangled the rest, that they might -not consume their provisions. When Darius was informed of this, -he collected all his forces, and marched against Babylon. But upon -laying siege to them he found that they were not at all solicitous -about the event, for the Babylonians mounted the ramparts, and -danced, and derided Darius and his army, and cried: "Why sit ye -there, Persians? will ye not be off? It will be a long day before -you will take us."</p> - -<p>When the nineteenth month of the siege had passed, Zopyrus, -son of that Megabyzus, who was one of the seven who dethroned -the magus, went to Darius and asked him whether he deemed the -taking of Babylon of very great importance. Learning that he -valued it at a high price, he went away and inflicted on himself -an irremediable mutilation, for he cut off his nose and ears, chopped -his hair in a disgraceful manner, scourged himself, and then presented -himself before Darius. The latter was very much grieved -when he beheld a man of high rank so mutilated, and starting from -his throne, he shouted aloud and asked who had mutilated him, -and for what cause. He answered: "O King, there is no man -except yourself who could have power to treat me thus; no -stranger has done it, but I myself, deeming it a great indignity -that the Assyrians should deride the Persians." "Foolish man," -said Darius, "because you are mutilated, will the enemy sooner -submit? Have you lost your senses, that you have thus ruined -yourself?" "If I had communicated to you what I was about to -do," he answered, "you would not have permitted me, but now, if -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">{185}</a></span> -you are not wanting to your own interests, we shall take Babylon. -For I, as I am, will desert to the city, and will tell them that I have -been thus treated by you; and I think that when I have persuaded -them that such is the case, I shall obtain the command of their -army. Do you then, on the tenth day after I shall have entered -the city, station a thousand men of that part of your army whose -loss you would least regret over against the gates called after -Semiramis; again, on the seventh day after the tenth, station two -thousand more against the gate called from Nineveh; and from -the seventh day let an interval of twenty days elapse, and then -place four thousand more against the gate called from the Chaldæans; -but let them carry no defensive arms except swords. -After the twentieth day, command the rest of the army to invest -the wall on all sides, but station the Persians for me at those called -the Belidian and Cissian gates; for, as I think, when I have performed -great exploits, the Babylonians will intrust every thing to -me, and, moreover, the keys of the gates, and then it will be mine -and the Persians' care to do what remains to be done."</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 350px;"> - <img src="images/p185.jpg" width="350" height="244" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>INFANTRY DRILLED BY SERGEANT.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Having given these injunctions, he went to the gates, turning -round as if he were really a deserter. Those who were stationed -in that quarter, seeing him from the turrets, ran down and opened -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">{186}</a></span> -one door of the gate a little, and asked him who he was, and for -what purpose he came. He told them that he was Zopyrus, and -had deserted to them: the door-keepers then conducted him to -the assembly of the Babylonians, and standing before them he deplored -his condition, saying that he had suffered from Darius these -injuries, and that he was so treated because he had advised to raise -the siege, since there appeared no means of taking the city. -"Now, therefore," he said, "I come to you, O Babylonians, as -your greatest blessing; and to Darius, his army, and the Persians, -the greatest mischief; for he shall not escape with impunity, -having thus mutilated me; and I am acquainted with all his -designs." And the Babylonians, seeing a man of distinction -among the Persians deprived of his ears and nose, and covered -with stripes and blood, thoroughly believing that he spoke the -truth, and that he had come as an ally to them, were ready to intrust -him with whatever he should ask; and he, having obtained -the command of the forces, acted as he had preconcerted with -Darius; for on the tenth he led out the army of the Babylonians, -and surrounded the thousand whom he had instructed Darius to -station there, and cut them all in pieces. Then the Babylonians, -perceiving that he performed deeds such as he promised, were -ready to obey him in every thing. He then suffered the appointed -number of days to elapse, and again selected a body of Babylonians, -led them out, and slaughtered the two thousand of Darius' -soldiers. The Babylonians witnessing this action also, all had the -praises of Zopyrus on their tongues. Then he again, after the -appointed number of days had elapsed, led out his troops according -to the settled plan, surrounded the four thousand, and cut them in -pieces. And when he had accomplished this, Zopyrus was every -thing to the Babylonians, and was appointed commander-in-chief -and guardian of the walls. But when Darius, according to agreement, -invested the wall all round, then Zopyrus discovered his -whole treachery; for while the Babylonians, mounting the wall, -repelled the army of Darius that was attacking them, Zopyrus -opened the Cissian and Belidian gates and led the Persians within -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">{187}</a></span> -the wall. Those of the Babylonians who saw what was done, fled -into the temple of Jupiter Belus; and those who did not see it, remained -each at his post, until they also discovered that they had -been betrayed.</p> - -<div class="image-float-right" style="max-width: 200px;"> - <img src="images/p187.jpg" width="200" height="200" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>LIGHT ARMED TROOPS MARCHING.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Thus Babylon was taken a second time. But when Darius had -made himself master of the Babylonians, first of all, he demolished -the walls and bore away all the -gates, for when Cyrus had taken -Babylon before, he did neither -of these things; and secondly, -Darius impaled about three thousand -of the principal citizens, and -allowed the rest of the Babylonians -to inhabit the city. And that -the Babylonians might have -wives to take the place of those -they had strangled, Darius ordered -the neighboring provinces to -send women to Babylon, taxing -each at a certain number, so that -a total of fifty thousand women came together; and from these the -Babylonians of our time are descended. No Persian, in the opinion -of Darius, either of those who came after, or who lived before, surpassed -Zopyrus in great achievements, Cyrus only excepted; for with -him no Persian ever ventured to compare himself. It is also reported -that Darius frequently expressed this opinion, that he would rather -Zopyrus had not suffered such ignominious treatment than acquire -twenty Babylons in addition to that he had. And he honored him -exceedingly; for he every year presented him with those gifts -which are most prized by the Persians, and he assigned him Babylon -to hold free from taxes during his life.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_16" id="Foot_16" href="#Ref_16">[16]</a> -The Egyptian mummies could only be seen in front, the back being covered by a box or -coffin; the Ethiopian bodies could be seen all round, as the column of glass was transparent.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_17" id="Foot_17" href="#Ref_17">[17]</a> -Epilepsy.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_18" id="Foot_18" href="#Ref_18">[18]</a> -Nearly $18,000,000 in all.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_19" id="Foot_19" href="#Ref_19">[19]</a> -That is, "southwest."</p> - -</div> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">{188}</a></div> - -<h2><i>BOOK IV. MELPOMENE.</i></h2> - -<h3>CHAPTER I.<br /> -<small>DESCRIPTION OF SCYTHIA AND THE NEIGHBORING NATIONS.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">After</span> the capture of Babylon, Darius made an expedition -against the Scythians, for as Asia was flourishing in men, and -large revenues came in, Darius was desirous of revenging himself -upon the Scythians, because they had formerly invaded the Median -territory, and defeated in battle those that opposed them. For the -Scythians ruled over Upper Asia for twenty-eight years. But -when those Scythians returned to their own country, after such an -interval, a task no less than the invasion of Media awaited them; -for they found an army of no inconsiderable force ready to oppose -them; the wives of the Scythians, seeing their husbands were a -long time absent, had married their slaves. The Scythians deprive -all their slaves of sight for the sake of the milk which they drink, -doing as follows: when they have taken bone tubes very like -flutes, they thrust them into the veins of the mares, and blow with -their mouth; while some blow, others milk. They say they do -this because the veins of the mare, being inflated, become filled, -and the udder is depressed. When they have finished milking, -they pour the milk into hollow wooden vessels, and having placed -the blind men round about the vessels, they agitate the milk: then -they skim off that which swims on the surface, considering it the -most valuable, but that which subsides is of less value than the -other. On this account the Scythians put out the eyes of every -prisoner they take; for they are not agriculturists, but feeders of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">{189}</a></span> -cattle. From these slaves then and the women a race of youths -had grown up, who, when they knew their own extraction, opposed -those who were returning from Media. And first they cut off the -country by digging a wide ditch, stretching from Mount Taurus to -the lake Mæotis, which is of great extent, and afterward encamping -opposite, they came to an engagement with the Scythians, who were -endeavoring to enter. When several battles had been fought, and -the Scythians were unable to obtain any advantage, one of them -said: "Men of Scythia, what are we doing? by fighting with our -slaves not only are we ourselves by being slain becoming fewer in -number, but by killing them we shall hereafter have fewer to rule -over. So it seems to me that we should lay aside our spears and -bows, and that every one, taking a horsewhip, should go directly -to them; for so long as they saw us with arms, they considered -themselves equal to us, and born of equal birth; but when they -shall see us with our whips instead of arms, they will soon learn -that they are our slaves, and will no longer resist." The Scythians -adopted the advice on the spot; and the slaves, struck with astonishment, -forgot to fight, and fled.</p> - -<p>As the Scythians say, theirs is the most recent of all nations. -The first man that appeared in this country, which was a wilderness, -was named Targitaus; they say that the parents of this Targitaus, -in my opinion relating what is incredible, were Jupiter and -a daughter of the river Borysthenes; and that Targitaus had three -sons, who went by the names of Lipoxais, Apovais, and Colaxais; -that during their reign a plough, a yoke, an axe, and a bowl of -golden workmanship, dropping down from heaven, fell on the -Scythian territory; that the eldest, seeing them first, approached, -intending to take them up, but as he came near, the gold began to -burn; when he had retired the second went up, and it did the -same again; but when the youngest approached, the burning -gold became extinguished, and he carried the things home -with him; and the elder brothers, in consequence of this, giving -way, surrendered the whole authority to Alaxais the youngest. -The Scythians reckon the whole number of years from their beginning, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">{190}</a></span> -from King Targitaus to the time that Darius crossed over -against them, to be just a thousand years. This sacred gold the -kings watch with the greatest care, and annually approach it with -magnificent sacrifices to render it propitious. If he who has the -sacred gold happens to fall asleep in the open air on the festival, -the Scythians say he cannot survive the year, and on this account -they give him as much land as he can ride round on horseback in -one day. The country being very extensive, Colaxais established -three of the kingdoms for his sons, and made that one the largest -in which the gold is kept. The parts beyond the north of the -inhabited districts the Scythians say can neither be seen nor passed -through, by reason of the feathers shed there; for the earth and -air are so full of feathers that the view is intercepted. With -respect to these feathers I entertain the following opinion: in the -upper parts of this country it continually snows, less in summer -than in winter, as is reasonable; now, whoever has seen snow -falling thick near him, will know what I mean; for snow is like -feathers; and on account of the winter being so severe, the northern -parts of this continent are uninhabited.</p> - -<p>Such is the account the Scythians give of themselves, and of -the country above them; but the Greeks who inhabit Pontus give -the following account: they say that Hercules, as he was driving -away the herds of Geryon, arrived in this country, which was then -a desert, and that Geryon, fixing his abode outside the Pontus, -inhabited the island which the Greeks call Erythia, situated near -Gades, beyond the columns of Hercules in the ocean. The ocean, -they say, beginning from the sunrise, flows round the whole earth, -that Hercules thence came to the country now called Scythia, and -as a storm and frost overtook him, he drew his lion's skin over -him, and went to sleep; and in the meanwhile, his mares, which -were feeding apart from his chariot, vanished by some divine -chance. They add that when Hercules awoke, he sought for -them; and that having gone over the whole country, he at length -came to the land called Hylæa; there he found a monster, having -two natures, half virgin, half viper, of which the upper parts resembled -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">{191}</a></span> -a woman, and the lower parts a serpent: in astonishment he -asked her if she had anywhere seen his strayed mares. She said -that she herself had them, and would not restore them to him -unless he would make her his wife. Hercules agreed. She, however, -delayed giving back the mares, out of a desire to detain Hercules -as long as she could; but as he was desirous of recovering -them and departing, she at last restored the mares, saying: -"These mares that strayed hither I preserved for you, but -now that you will go away and leave me, tell me what I -must do with our three sons when they are grown up; shall -I establish them here, for I possess the rule over this country, -or shall I send them to you?" He replied: "When you -see the children arrived at the age of men, you cannot err if you -do this: whichever of them you see able thus to bend this bow, -and thus girding himself with this girdle, make him an inhabitant -of this country; and whichever fails in these tasks which I -enjoin, send out of the country. If you do this you will please -yourself and do wisely." Then having drawn out one of his bows, -for Hercules carried two at that time, and having shown her the -belt, he gave her both the bow and the belt, which had a golden -cup at the extremity of the clasp, and departed. When the sons -had attained to the age of men she gave them names; to the first, -Agathyrsis, to the second, Gelonus, and to the youngest, Scythes; -and, in the next place, she did what had been enjoined; and two -of her sons, Agathyrsis and Gelonus, being unable to come up to -the proposed task, left the country, being expelled by their mother; -but the youngest of them, Scythes, having accomplished it, remained -there. From this Scythes, son of Hercules, are descended -those who have been successively kings of the Scythians; and -from the cup, the Scythians even to this day wear cups hung from -their belts.</p> - -<p>Aristeas, of Proconnesus, says in his epic verses, that, inspired -by Apollo, he came to the Issedones; that beyond the Issedones -dwell the Arimaspians, a people that have only one eye; beyond -them the gold-guarding griffins; and beyond these the Hyperboreans, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">{192}</a></span> -who reach to the sea: that all these, except the Hyperboreans, -beginning from the Arimaspians, continually encroached -upon their neighbors; that the Issedones were expelled from their -country by the Arimaspians, the Scythians by the Issedones, and -that the Cimmerians, who inhabited on the South Sea, being pressed -by the Scythians, abandoned their country.</p> - -<p>No one knows with certainty what is beyond the country about -which this account speaks. But as far as we have been able to arrive -at the truth with accuracy from hearsay, the whole shall be related. -From the port of the Borysthenitæ, for this is the most central part -of the sea-coast of all Scythia, the first people are the Callipidæ, -being Greek-Scythians; beyond these is another nation called Alazones. -These and the Callipidæ, in other respects, follow the usages, -of the Scythians, but they both sow and feed on wheat, onions, garlic, -lentils, and millet; but beyond the Alazones dwell husbandmen, -who do not sow wheat for food but for sale. Beyond these the -Neuri dwell; and to the north of the Neuri the country is utterly -uninhabited, as far as I know. These nations are by the side of -the river Hypanis, to the west of the Borysthenes. But if one -crosses the Borysthenes, the first country from the sea is Hylæa; -and from this higher up live Scythian agriculturists, where the -Greeks settled on the river Hypanis. These Scythian husbandmen -occupy the country eastward, for three days' journey, extending -to the river whose name is Panticapes; and northward a passage -of eleven days up the Borysthenes. Beyond this region -the country is a desert for a great distance; and beyond the -desert Androphagi dwell, who are a distinct people, not in any respect -Scythian. Beyond this is really desert, and no nation of -men is found there, as far as we know. The country eastward of -these Scythian agriculturists, when one crosses the river Panticapes, -nomads occupy, who neither sow at all nor plough; and all this -country is destitute of trees except Hylæa. The nomads occupy -a tract eastward for fourteen days' journey, stretching to the river -Gerrhus. Beyond the Gerrhus are the parts called the Royal, and -the most valiant and numerous of the Scythians, who deem all -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">{193}</a></span> -other Scythians to be their slaves. These extend southward to -Taurica, and eastward to the trench, which those sprung from the -blind men dug, and to the port on the lake Mæotis, which is called -Cremni, and some of them reach to the river Tanais. The parts -above to the north of the Royal Scythians, the Melanchlæni inhabit, -a distinct race, and not Scythian. But above the Melanchlæni -are lakes, and an uninhabited desert, as far as we know.</p> - -<p>After one crosses the river Tanais, it is no longer Scythian, but -the first region belongs to the Sauromatæ, who, beginning from -the recess of the lake Mæotis, occupy the country northward, for -a fifteen days' journey, all destitute both of wild and cultivated -trees. Above these dwell the Budini, occupying the second region, -and possessing a country thickly covered with all sorts of -trees. Above the Budini, toward the north, there is first a desert -of seven days' journey, and next to the desert, if one turns somewhat -toward the east, dwell the Thyssagetæ, a numerous and distinct -race, and they live by hunting. Contiguous to these, in the -same regions, dwell those who are called Iyrcæ, who also live by -hunting in the following manner: the huntsman, having climbed a -tree, lies in ambush (and the whole country is thickly wooded), -and each man has a horse ready taught to lie on his belly, that he -may not be much above the ground, and a dog besides. When -he sees any game from the tree, having let fly an arrow, he mounts -his horse, and goes in pursuit, and the dog keeps close to him. -Above these, as one bends toward the east, dwell other Scythians, -who revolted from the Royal Scythians, and so came to this -country. As far as the territory of these Scythians, the whole -country that has been described is level and deep-soiled; but after -this it is stony and rugged. When one has passed through -a considerable extent of the rugged country, a people are found -living at the foot of lofty mountains, who are said to be all bald -from their birth, both men and women, and are flat-nosed, and have -large chins; they speak a peculiar language, wear the Scythian -costume, and live on the fruit of a tree; the name of the tree on -which they live is called ponticon, and is about the size of a figtree; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">{194}</a></span> -it bears fruit like a bean, and has a stone. When this is -ripe they strain it through a cloth, and a thick and black liquor -flows from it, to which they give the name of aschy; this they suck, -and drink mingled with milk; from the thick sediment of the pulp -they make cakes to eat, for they have not many cattle in these -parts, as the pastures there are not good. Every man lives under -a tree, which, in the winter, he covers with a thick white woollen -covering. No man does any injury to this people, for they are -accounted sacred; nor do they possess any warlike weapon. -They determine by arbitration the differences that arise among -their neighbors; and whoever takes refuge among them is injured -by no one. They are called Argippæi.</p> - -<p>As far, then, as these bald people, our knowledge respecting -the country and the nations before them is very good, for some -Scythians frequently go there from whom it is not difficult to obtain -information, as well as some Greeks belonging to the ports in -Pontus. The Scythians who go to them transact business by -means of seven interpreters and seven languages, but beyond the -bald men no one can speak with certainty, for lofty and impassable -mountains form their boundary, which no one has ever crossed; -but these bald men say, what to me is incredible, that men with -goats' feet inhabit these mountains; and when one has passed beyond -them, other men are found, who sleep six months at a time, -but this I do not at all admit. However, the country eastward of -the bald men is well known, being inhabited by Issedones, who -are said to observe this extraordinary custom. When a man's -father dies all his relations bring cattle, which they sacrifice, and, -having cut up the flesh, they cut up also the dead parent of their -host, and mingling all the flesh together, they spread out a banquet; -then making bare and cleansing his head they gild it; and -afterward treat it as a sacred image, performing grand annual sacrifices -to it. A son does this to his father, as the Greeks celebrate -the anniversary of their father's death. These people are likewise -accounted just; and the women have equal authority with the -men.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">{195}</a></span> -Above them, the Issedones affirm, are the men with only one -eye, and the gold-guarding griffins. The Scythians repeat this -account, having received it from them; and we have adopted it -from the Scythians, and call them in the Scythian language, Arimaspi; -for <i>Arima</i>, in the Scythian language, signifies one, and -<i>Spou</i>, the eye. All this country which I have been speaking of is -subject to such a severe winter, that for eight months the frost is -intolerable, so that if you pour water on the ground you will not -make mud, but if you light a fire you will. Even the sea freezes, -and the whole Cimmerian Bosphorus; and the Scythians who live -within the trench lead their armies and drive their chariots over -the ice to the Sindians, on the other side. Thus winter continues -eight months, and even during the other four it is cold there. -And this winter is different in character from the winters in all -other countries; for in this no rain worth mentioning falls in the -usual season, but during the summer it never leaves off raining. -At the time when there is thunder elsewhere there is none there, -but in summer it is violent: if there should be thunder in winter, -it is counted a prodigy to be wondered at. So, should there be -an earthquake, whether in summer or winter, in Scythia it is accounted -a prodigy. Their horses endure this cold, but asses and -mules cannot endure it at all; whereas in other places in the world -horses that stand exposed to frost become frost-bitten and waste -away, but asses and mules endure it. On this account also the -race of beeves appears to me to be defective there, and not to have -horns; and the following verse of Homer, in his Odyssey, confirms -my opinion: "And Libya, where the lambs soon put forth their -horns," rightly observing, that in warm climates horns shoot out -quickly; but in very severe cold, the cattle do not produce them -at all, or with difficulty. Concerning the Hyperboreans, I do not -relate the story of Abaris, who was said to have carried an arrow -round the whole earth without eating any thing. But I smile -when I see many persons describing the circumference of the earth, -who have no sound reason to guide them; they describe the ocean -as flowing around the earth, which is made circular as if by a lathe, -and make Asia equal to Europe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">{196}</a></span> -In length Europe extends along both Libya and Asia, but in -respect to width, it is evidently much larger. Libya shows itself -to be surrounded by water, except so much of it as borders upon -Asia. Neco, King of Egypt, was the first whom we know of that -proved this; when he had ceased digging the canal leading from -the Nile to the Arabian Gulf, he sent certain Phœnicians in ships, -with orders to sail back through the pillars of Hercules into the -Mediterranean Sea, and so return to Egypt. The Phœnicians accordingly, -setting out from the Red Sea, navigated the southern -sea; when autumn came they went ashore and sowed the land, by -whatever part of Libya they happened to be sailing, and waited -for harvest; then having reaped the corn, they put to sea again. -When two years had thus passed, in the third they doubled the -pillars of Hercules, arrived in Egypt, and related what to me does -not seem credible, but may to others, that as they sailed round -Libya, they had the sun on their right hand.<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_20" id="Ref_20" href="#Foot_20">[20]</a></span> -Ever since that the Carthaginians say that Libya is surrounded by water.</p> - -<p>A great part of Asia was explored under the direction of -Darius. Being desirous to know where the Indus, which is the -second river that produces crocodiles, discharges itself into the sea, -he sent in ships Scylax of Caryanda and others on whom he could -rely to make a true report. They accordingly set out from the -city of Caspatyrus, sailed down the river toward the sunrise to the -sea; then sailing on the sea westward, they arrived in the thirtieth -month at that place where the king of Egypt despatched the -Phœnicians, whom I before mentioned, to sail round Libya. After -this Darius subdued the Indians, and frequented this sea. Thus -the other parts of Asia, except toward the rising sun, are found to -exhibit things similar to Libya.</p> - -<p>Whether Europe is surrounded by water either toward the east -or toward the north, has not been fully discovered by any man; -but in length it is known to extend beyond both the other continents. -Nor can I conjecture for what reason three different names -have been given to the earth, which is but one, and why those -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">{197}</a></span> -should be derived from the names of women, Libya is said by -most of the Greeks to take its name from a native woman of the -name of Libya; and Asia, from the wife of Prometheus. But the -Lydians claim this name, saying that Asia was so called after -Asius, son of Cotys, son of Manes, and not after Asia the wife of -Prometheus; from whom also a tribe in Sardis is called the Asian -tribe; nor is it clear whence Europe received its name, nor who -gave it, unless we say that the region received the name from the -Tyrian Europa: yet she evidently belonged to Asia, and never -came into the country which is now called Europe by the Greeks.</p> - -<p>The Euxine Sea exhibits the most ignorant nations: for we are -unable to mention any one nation of those on this side the Pontus -that has any pretensions to intelligence; nor have we ever heard -of any learned man among them, except the Scythian nation and -Anacharsis. By the Scythian nation one of the most important of -human devices has been contrived more wisely than by any others -whom we know; their other customs, however, I do not admire. -This device has been contrived so that no one who attacks them -can escape; and that, if they do not choose to be found, no one is -able to overtake them. For they have neither cities nor fortifications, -but carry their houses with them; they are all equestrian -archers, living not from the cultivation of the earth, but from -cattle, and their dwellings are wagons,—how must not such a -people be invincible, and difficult to engage with? The country -and the rivers aid them: for the country, being level, abounds in -herbage and is well watered; and rivers flow through it almost as -numerous as the canals in Egypt. The Ister, which is the greatest -of all the rivers we know, flows always with an equal stream -both in summer and winter, and has five mouths.</p> - -<p>In each district of the Scythians, in the place where the magistrates -assemble, is erected a structure sacred to Mars, of the following -kind. Bundles of faggots are heaped up to the length and -breadth of three stades, but less in height; on the top of this a -square platform is formed; and three of the sides are perpendicular, -but on the fourth it is accessible. Every year they heap on it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">{198}</a></span> -one hundred and fifty wagon-loads of faggots, for it is continually -sinking by reason of the weather. On this heap an old iron -scimetar is placed by each tribe, and this is the image of Mars; -they bring yearly sacrifices of cattle and horses; and to these -<i>scimetars</i> they offer more sacrifices than to the rest of the gods. -Whatever enemies they take alive, of these they sacrifice one in a -hundred, not in the same manner as they do the cattle, but in a -different manner; for after they have poured a libation of wine on -their heads, they cut the throats of the men over a bowl; then -having carried <i>the bowl</i> on the heap of faggots, they pour the blood -over the scimetar. Below at the sacred precinct, they do as follows: -having cut off all the right shoulders of the men that have -been killed, with the arms, they throw them into the air; and then, -having finished the rest of the sacrificial rites, they depart; but -the arm lies wherever it has fallen, and the body apart. Swine -they never use, nor suffer them to be used in their country at all.</p> - -<p>When a Scythian overthrows his first enemy, he drinks his -blood; and presents the king with the heads of the enemies he -has killed in battle; for if he brings a head, he shares the booty -that they take; but not, if he does not bring one. He skins it in -the following manner. Having made a circular incision round the -ears and taking hold of the skin, he shakes it from the skull; then -having scraped off the flesh with the rib of an ox, he softens the -skin with his hands, makes it supple, and uses it as a napkin; each -man hangs it on the bridle of the horse which he rides, and prides -himself on it; for whoever has the greatest number of these skin -napkins is accounted the most valiant man. Many of them make -cloaks of these skins, to throw over themselves, sewing them -together like shepherd's coats; and many, having flayed the right -hands of their enemies that are dead, together with the nails, make -coverings for their quivers; the skin of a man, which is both thick -and shining, surpasses almost all other skins in the brightness of -its white. Many, having flayed men whole, and stretched the skin -on wood, carry it about on horseback. The heads themselves, not -indeed of all, but of their greatest enemies, they treat as follows: -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">{199}</a></span> -each, having sawn off all below the eye-brows, cleanses it, and if -the man is poor, he covers only the outside with leather, and so -uses it; but if he is rich, he covers it with leather, and gilds the -inside, and so uses it for a drinking-cup. They do this also to -their relatives, if they are at variance, and one prevails over -another in the presence of the king. When strangers of consideration -come to him, he produces these heads, and relates how, -though they were his relatives, they made war against him, and he -overcame them, considering this a proof of bravery. Once in -every year, the governor of a district, each in his own district, -mingles a bowl of wine, from which those Scythians drink by -whom enemies have been captured; but they who have not -achieved this, do not taste of this wine, but sit at a distance in dishonor; -this is accounted the greatest disgrace: such of them as -have killed very many men, having two cups at once, drink them -together.</p> - -<p>Soothsayers among the Scythians are numerous, who divine by -the help of a number of willow rods, in the following manner. -They lay large bundles of twigs on the ground and untie them; -and having placed each rod apart, they utter their predictions; -and whilst they are pronouncing them, they gather up the rods -again, and put them together again one by one. This is their -national mode of divination. But the Enarees, or Androgyni, say -that Venus gave them the power of divining by means of the bark -of a linden tree: when a man has split the linden-tree in three -pieces, twisting it round his own fingers, and then untwisting it, -he utters a response.</p> - -<p>When the king of the Scythians is sick, he sends for three of -the most famous of the prophets, who prophesy in the manner -above mentioned. When any of these prophets are proved to -have sworn falsely, they put them to death in the following -manner: they fill a wagon with faggots, and yoke oxen to it, then -tie the feet of the prophets, bind their hands behind them, gag -them, and enclose them in the midst of the faggots; then having -set fire to them, they terrify the oxen, and let them go. Many -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">{200}</a></span> -oxen are burnt with the prophets, and many escape very much -scorched, when the pole has been burnt asunder. Of the children -of those whom he puts to death, the king kills all the males, but -does not hurt the females.</p> - -<p>The sepulchres of the kings are in the country of the Gerrhi. -There, when their king dies, they dig a large square hole in the -ground, to receive the corpse. Then, having the body covered -with wax, the belly opened and cleaned, filled with bruised cypress, -incense, parsley and anise-seed, and sewn up again, they carry it -in a chariot to another nation; those who receive the corpse, -brought to them, do the same as the Royal Scythians; they cut -off part of their ear, shave off their hair, wound themselves on the -arms, lacerate their forehead and nose, and drive arrows through -their left hand. Thence they carry the corpse of the king to -another nation whom they govern; and those to whom they first -came accompany them. When they have carried the corpse -round all the provinces, they arrive at the sepulchres among the -Gerrhi, who are the most remote of the nations they rule over. -Then, when they have placed the corpse in the grave on a bed of -leaves, having fixed spears on each side of the dead body, they lay -pieces of wood over it, and cover it over with mats. In the remaining -space of the grave they bury one of the king's wives, -having strangled her, and his cup-bearer, a cook, a groom, a page, -a courier, and horses, and firstlings of everything else, and golden -goblets; they make no use of silver or bronze. Then they all -heap up a large mound, vieing with each other to make it as large -as possible. At the expiration of a year, they take the most fitting -of his remaining servants, all native Scythians; for whomsoever -the king may order serve him, and they have no servants bought -with money. Now when they have strangled fifty of these -servants, and fifty of the finest horses, they take out their bowels, -cleanse them, fill them with chaff, and sew them up again. Then -placing the half of a wheel, with its concave side uppermost, -on two pieces of wood, and the other half on two other pieces -of wood, and preparing many of these in the same manner, they -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">{201}</a></span> -thrust thick pieces of wood through the horses lengthwise, up to -the neck, mount them on the half-wheels; the foremost part of -the half-wheels supporting the shoulders of the horses, and the -hinder part the belly near the thighs, while the legs on both sides -are suspended in the air; then, having put bridles and bits on the -horses, they stretch them in front, and fasten them to a stake; -they then mount upon each horse one of the fifty young men that -have been strangled. They drive a straight piece of wood along -the spine as far as the neck, and a part of this wood which projects -from the bottom they fix into a hole bored in the other piece -of wood that passes through the horse. The horsemen are then -placed round the monument, and they depart.</p> - -<p>When the other Scythians die, their nearest relations carry -them about among their friends, laid in chariots; each one receives -and entertains the attendants, and sets the same things before the -dead body, as before the rest. In this manner private persons are -carried about for forty days, and then buried. After the burial the -Scythians purify themselves by wiping and thoroughly washing -their heads and bodies. They set up three pieces of wood leaning -against each other, extend around them woollen cloths; and having -joined them together as closely as possible, they throw red-hot -stones into a vessel placed in the middle of the pieces of wood and -the cloths. They have a sort of hemp growing in this country, -much like flax, except in thickness and height; in this respect the -hemp is far superior: it grows both spontaneously and from cultivation; -and from it the Thracians make garments like linen, nor -would any one who is not well skilled in such matters distinguish -whether they are made of flax or hemp, but a person who has never -seen this hemp would think the garment was made of flax. The -Scythians take seed of this hemp, creep under the cloths, and put -the seed on the red-hot stones; this smokes, and produces -such a steam, as no Grecian vapor-bath could surpass. Transported -with vapor, they shout aloud; and this serves them instead -of washing, for they never bathe the body in water. Their women -pound on a rough stone pieces of cypress, cedar, and incense-tree, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">{202}</a></span> -pouring on water; and then this pounded matter, when it is thick, -they smear over the whole body and face. This at the same time -gives them an agreeable odor, and when they take off the cataplasm -on the following day, they become clean and shining.</p> - -<p>I have never been able to learn with accuracy the amount -of the population of the Scythians. There is a spot between -the river Borysthenes and the Hypanis, called Exampæus, containing -a fountain of bitter water, which renders the Hypanis unfit to -be drunk. In this spot lies a bronze cauldron, in size six times as -large as the bowl at the mouth of the Pontus, which Pausanias, son -of Cleombrotus, dedicated. For the benefit of any one who has -never seen this, I will describe it: The cauldron easily contains six -hundred amphoræ; and is six fingers in thickness. The inhabitants -say that it was made from the points of arrows; for their king, -Ariantas, wishing to know the population of the Scythians, commanded -the Scythians to bring him each one point of an arrow, -and threatened death on whosoever should fail to bring it. -Accordingly, a vast number of arrow points were brought, and resolving -to leave a monument made from them, he made this bronze -bowl, and dedicated it at Exampæus. Their country has nothing -wonderful, except the rivers, which are very large and very many -in number, and the extensive plains. They show the print -of the foot of Hercules upon a rock near the river Tyras; it -resembles the footstep of man, and is two cubits in length.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">{203}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER II.<br /> -<small>INVASION OF SCYTHIA BY DARIUS.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Whilst</span> Darius was making preparations against the Scythians, -and sending messages to command some to contribute land forces, -and others a fleet, and others to bridge over the Thracian Bosphorus, -Artabanus, the son of Hystaspes, and brother of Darius, -entreated him on no account to make an expedition against the -Scythians, representing the poverty of Scythia; but he could not -persuade him. At that time Œobazus, a Persian, who had three -sons all serving in the army, besought Darius that one might be -left at home for him. The king answered him, as a friend, and -one who had made a moderate request, that he would leave him -all his sons; he therefore was exceedingly delighted, hoping that -his sons would be discharged from the army. But at Darius' command -the proper officers put all the sons of Œobazus to death, and -left them on the spot.</p> - -<p>When Darius, marching from Susa, reached Chalcedon on the -Bosphorus, a bridge was already laid across. There, sitting in the -temple, he took a view of the Euxine Sea, which is worthy of admiration, -for of all seas it is by nature the most wonderful.</p> - -<p>Darius, pleased with the bridge, presented its architect, Mandrocles -the Samian, with ten of every thing, and he painted a -picture of the whole junction of the Bosphorus, with King Darius -seated on a throne, and his army crossing over, and dedicated it -as first fruits in the temple of Juno.</p> - -<p>When Darius reached the river Tearus he was so delighted -with it that he erected a pillar with this inscription: <span class="smcap">The springs -of the Tearus yield the best and finest water of all rivers; -and a man, the best and finest of all men, came to them, leading -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">{204}</a></span> -an army against the scythians, darius, son of hystaspes, -king of the persians, and of the whole continent.</span></p> - -<p>Before he reached the Ister, he subdued the Getæ, who think -themselves immortal, supposing that they themselves do not die, -but that the deceased go to the deity Zalmoxis. Every fifth year -they dispatch one of themselves, taken by lot, to Zalmoxis, with -orders to let him know on each occasion what they want. Their -mode of sending him is this. Some who are appointed hold three -javelins; whilst others take up the man who is to be sent to Zalmoxis -by the hands and feet, swing him round, and throw him into -the air, upon the points. If he is transfixed and dies, they think -the god is propitious to them; if he does not die, they blame the -messenger himself, saying that he is a bad man, and dispatch another.</p> - -<p>When Darius and his land forces reached the Ister and all had -crossed, Coes, general of the Mitylenians, advised the king to let -the bridge remain over it, leaving the men who constructed it as -its guard. "Not," said he, "that I am at all afraid that we shall be -conquered in battle by the Scythians, but rather that, being unable -to find them, we may suffer somewhat in our wanderings." -"Lesbian friend," replied Darius, "when I am safe back in my -own palace, fail not to present yourself to me, that I may requite -you for good advice with good deeds." Tying sixty knots in a -thong, he summoned the Ionian commanders to his presence, and -said: "Men of Ionia, I have changed my resolution concerning -the bridge; so take this thong, and as soon as you see me -march against the Scythians, untie one of these knots every day; -and if I return not until the days numbered by the knots have -passed, sail away to your own country. Till that time, since I -have changed my determination, guard the bridge, and apply the -utmost care to preserve and secure it."</p> - -<p>The Scythians determined to fight no battle in the open field, -because their allies did not come to their assistance; but to retreat -and draw off covertly, and fill up the wells and the springs as -they passed by, and destroy the herbage on the ground. They -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">{205}</a></span> -sent forward the best of their cavalry as an advanced guard; but -the wagons, in which all their children and wives lived, they left -behind.</p> - -<p>Advancing with his army as quick as possible, he fell in -with the Scythian divisions and pursued them, but they kept a -day's march before him. The Scythians, for Darius did not relax -his pursuit, fled, as had been determined, toward those nations -that had refused to assist them. When this had continued for a -considerable time, Darius sent a horseman to Indathyrsus, king of -the Scythians, with the following message: "Most miserable of -men, why dost thou continually fly, when it is in thy power to do -one of these two other things? For if thou thinkest thou art able -to resist my power, stand, and having ceased thy wanderings, -fight; but if thou art conscious of thy inferiority, in that case also -cease thy hurried march, and bringing earth and water as presents -to thy master, come to a conference." To this Indathyrsus, the -king of the Scythians, answered: "This is the case with me, O -Persian; I never yet fled from any man out of fear, nor do I now -so flee from thee; nor have I done any thing different now from -what I am wont to do, even in time of peace; but why I do not -forthwith fight thee, I will explain. We have no cities nor cultivated -lands, for which we are under any apprehension lest they -should be taken or ravaged. Yet, if it is by all means necessary -to come to battle at once, we have the sepulchres of our ancestors, -come, find these, and attempt to disturb them, then you will know -whether we will fight for our sepulchres or not; but before that, -unless we choose, we will not engage with thee. The only masters -I acknowledge are Jupiter my progenitor, and Vesta, queen of -the Scythians; but to thee, instead of presents of earth and water, -I will send such presents as are proper to come to thee. And in -answer to thy boast, that thou art my master, I bid thee weep." -(This is a Scythian saying.) The herald therefore departed carrying -this answer to Darius.</p> - -<p>When the kings of the Scythians heard the name of servitude, -they were filled with indignation; whereupon they sent the division -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">{206}</a></span> -united with the Sauromatæ, which Scopasis commanded, with -orders to confer with the Ionians, who guarded the bridge over -the Ister. Those who were left resolved no longer to lead the Persians -about, but to attack them whenever they were taking their -meals; accordingly, observing the soldiers of Darius taking their -meals, they put their design in execution. The Scythian cavalry -always routed the Persian cavalry, but the Persian horsemen in -their flight fell back on the infantry, and the infantry supported -them. The Scythians, having beaten back the cavalry, wheeled -around through fear of the infantry. A very remarkable circumstance, -that was advantageous to the Persians and adverse to the -Scythians, when they attacked the camp of Darius, was the braying -of the asses and the appearance of the mules, for Scythia produces -neither ass nor mule; there is not in the whole Scythian -territory a single ass or mule, by reason of cold. The asses, then, -growing playful, put the Scythian horses into confusion; and frequently, -as they were advancing upon the Persians, when the -horses heard, midway, the braying of the asses, they wheeled -round in confusion, and were greatly amazed, pricking up their -ears, as having never before heard such a sound, nor seen such a -shape; and this circumstance in some slight degree affected the -fortune of the war.</p> - -<p>When the Scythians saw the Persians in great commotion, -to detain them longer in Scythia they left some of their own cattle -in the care of the herdsmen and withdrew to another spot; and -the Persians coming up, took the cattle and exulted in what they -had done. When this had happened several times, Darius at last -was in a great strait, and the kings of the Scythians, having ascertained -this, sent a herald, bearing as gifts to Darius, a bird, a -mouse, a frog, and five arrows. The Persians asked the bearer -of the gifts the meaning of this present; but he answered that he -had no other orders than to deliver them and return immediately; -and he advised the Persians, if they were wise, to discover what -the gifts meant. Darius' opinion was that the Scythians meant -to give themselves up to him, as well as earth and water; forming -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">{207}</a></span> -his conjecture thus: since a mouse is bred in the earth, and subsists -on the same food as a man; a frog lives in the water; a bird -is very like a horse; and the arrows they deliver up as their whole -strength. But Gobryas, one of the seven who had deposed the -magus, did not coincide with this; he conjectured that the presents -intimated: "Unless, O Persians, ye become birds and fly into the -air, or become mice and hide yourselves beneath the earth, or -become frogs and leap into the lakes, ye shall never return home -again, but be stricken by these arrows." And thus the other -Persians interpreted the gifts.</p> - -<p>The rest of the Scythians, after they had sent the presents to -Darius, drew themselves up opposite the Persians with their foot -and horse, as if they intended to come to an engagement; and as -the Scythians were standing in their ranks, a hare started in the -midst of them; and each went in pursuit of it. The Scythians being -in great confusion, and shouting loudly, Darius asked the meaning -of the uproar in the enemy's ranks; but when he heard that they -were pursuing a hare, he said to those he was accustomed to address -on such occasions: "These men treat us with great contempt; -and I am convinced that Gobryas spoke rightly concerning -the Scythian presents. I feel that we have need of the best advice, -how our return home may be effected in safety." To this -Gobryas answered: "O king, I was in some measure acquainted -by report with these men; but I have learned much more since I -came hither, and seen how they make sport of us. My opinion -is, that as soon as night draws on we should light fires, as we are -accustomed to do, and having deceived and left behind those -soldiers who are least able to bear hardships, and having tethered -all the asses, should depart before the Scythians direct their march -to the Ister, for the purpose of destroying the bridge, or the -Ionians take any resolution which may occasion our ruin." -Darius acted on this opinion: the infirm amongst the soldiers, and -those whose loss would be of the least consequence, he left on the -spot in the camp. And he left the asses, that they might make a -noise; and the men were left on this pretext, that he with the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">{208}</a></span> -strength of his army was about to attack the Scythians, and they, -during that time, would defend the camp. So Darius laid these -injunctions on those he was preparing to abandon, caused the fires -to be lighted, and marched away with all speed toward the Ister. -The asses, deserted by the multitude, began to bray much louder -than usual; so that the Scythians, hearing them, supposed of -course that the Persians were still at their station. When day -appeared, the men that were abandoned, discovering that they had -been betrayed by Darius, extended their hands to the Scythians, -and told them what had occurred; when they heard this the divisions -of the Scythians joined forces as quickly as possible and pursued -the Persians straight toward the Ister. But as a great part -of the Persian army consisted of infantry, and they did not know -the way, there being no roads cut, and as the Scythian army consisted -of cavalry, and knew the shortest route, they missed each -other, and the Scythians arrived at the bridge much before the -Persians. Finding that the Persians were not yet arrived, they -spoke to the Ionians who were on board the ships in these terms: -"Men of Ionia, the number of days appointed for your stay is -already passed, and you do not as you ought in continuing here; -but if you remained before through fear, now break up the passage -and depart as quickly as possible, rejoicing that you are free, and -give thanks to the gods and the Scythians. As for the man who -before was your master, we will so deal with him that he shall -never hereafter make war on any people."</p> - -<p>Upon this the Ionians held a consultation. The opinion of -Miltiades the Athenian, who commanded and reigned over the -Chersonesites on the Hellespont, was, that they should comply with -the request of the Scythians, and restore liberty to Ionia. But -Histiæus the Milesian was of a contrary opinion, and said, "that -every one reigned over his own city through Darius; and if -Darius' power should be destroyed, neither would he himself continue -master of Miletus, nor any of the rest of other places; because -every one of the cities would choose to be governed rather by -a democracy than a tyranny." Histiæus had no sooner delivered this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">{209}</a></span> -opinion, than all went over to his side, who had before assented to -that of Miltiades. Approving of the opinion of Histiæus, they determined -to add to it the following acts and words. To break up the -bridge on the Scythian side, as far as a bow-shot might reach, that -they might seem to do something, when in effect they did nothing; -and that the Scythians might not attempt to use violence and purpose -to cross the Ister by the bridge; and to say, while they were -breaking up the bridge on the Scythian side, they would do -every thing that might be agreeable to the Scythians. And, -Histiæus delivered the answer in the name of all, saying as follows: -"Men of Scythia, you have brought us good advice, and urge it -seasonably; you, on your part, have pointed out the right way to -us, and we on ours readily submit to you; for, as you see, we are -breaking up the passage, and will use all diligence, desiring to be -free. But while we are breaking it up, it is fitting you should seek -for them, and having found them, avenge us and yourselves on them, -as they deserve." The Scythians, believing a second time that the -Ionians were sincere, turned back to seek the Persians; but entirely -missed the way they had taken. The Scythians themselves -were the cause of this, as they had destroyed the pastures for the -horses in this direction, and filled in the wells; for if they had not -done this, they might easily have found the Persians; but now they -erred in the very thing which they thought they had contrived for -the best. For the Scythians sought the enemy by traversing those -parts of the country where there was forage and water for the -horses, thinking that they too would make their retreat by that -way. But the Persians carefully observing their former track, returned -by it, and thus with difficulty found the passage. As they -arrived in the night, and perceived the bridge broken off, they fell -into the utmost consternation, lest the Ionians had abandoned -them. There was with Darius an Egyptian, who had an exceedingly -loud voice. This man Darius commanded to stand on the bank -of the Ister, and called Histiæus the Milesian. He did so, and -Histiæus, having heard the first shout, brought up all the ships to -carry the army across, and joined the bridge. Thus the Persians -escaped.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">{210}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER III.<br /> -<small>DESCRIPTION OF LIBYA.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Beginning</span> from Egypt the Adrymachidæ are the first of the -Libyans we meet with: they for the most part observe the usages -of Egypt, but they wear the same dress as the other Libyans. -The women wear a chain of bronze on each leg, and allow their -hair to grow long. Next to these are the Giligammæ, who occupy -the country westward, as far as the island Aphrodisias. Midway -on this coast the island of Platea is situated, which the Cyrenæans -colonized. The Asbystæ adjoin the Giligammæ westward; they -inhabit the country above Cyrene, but do not reach to the sea; -for the Cyrenæans occupy the sea-coast. They drive four-horsed -chariots, more than any of the Libyans, and endeavor to imitate -most of the customs of the Cyrenæans. The Nasamones, a very -numerous people, live to the westward. In summer they leave -their cattle on the coast, and go up to the region of Augila, in -order to gather the fruit of the palm-trees, which grow in great -numbers to a large size, and are all productive. They catch -locusts, dry them in the sun, reduce them to powder, and sprinkling -them in milk, drink them. In their oaths and divinations they -swear, laying their hands on the sepulchres of those who are -generally esteemed to have been the most just and excellent -persons among them; and they divine, going to the tombs of -their ancestors, and after having prayed, they lie down to sleep, -and whatever dream they have, they avail themselves of. In -pledging their faith, each party gives the other to drink out of his -hand, and drinks in turn from the other's hand; and if they have -no liquid, they take up some dust from the ground and lick it.</p> - -<p>Above these to the north, in a country abounding with wild -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">{211}</a></span> -beasts, live the Garamantes, who avoid all men and the society of -any others; they do not possess any warlike weapon, nor do they -know how to defend themselves. The Macæ adjoin them on the -sea-coast, westward; these shave their heads so as to leave a tuft, -and allowing the middle hair to grow, keep both sides shaved close -to the skin; in war they wear the skins of ostriches for defensive -armor. The river Cinyps, flowing through their country from a -hill called the Graces, discharges itself into the sea. This hill of -the Graces is thickly covered with trees, though all the rest of -Libya is bare. From the sea to this hill is a distance of two hundred -stades. The Lotophagi occupy the coast that projects to the -sea in front; they subsist only on the fruit of the lotus, which is -equal in size to the mastic berry, and in sweetness resembles the -fruit of the palm-tree. The Lotophagi make wine also from this -fruit.</p> - -<p>The Machlyes, who also use the lotus, but in a less degree than -those before mentioned, adjoin the Lotophagi on the sea-coast. -They extend as far as a large river called Triton, which discharges -itself into the great lake Tritonis; and in it is an island named -Phla. They say that the Lacedæmonians were commanded by an -oracle to colonize this island. The following story is also told: -that Jason, when the building of the Argo was finished at the foot -of Mount Pelion, having put a hecatomb on board, and a bronze -tripod, sailed round the Peloponnesus, purposing to go to Delphi; -and as he was sailing off Malea, a north wind caught him and drove -him to Libya; and before he could descern the land, he found -himself in the shallows of the lake Tritonis; and as he was in -doubt how to extricate his ship, the story goes that a Triton appeared -to him, and bade Jason give him the tripod, promising that -he would show them the passage, and conduct them away in safety. -Jason consented, and the Triton showed them the passage out of -the shallows, and placed the tripod in his own temple; then pronouncing -an oracle from the tripod, he declared to Jason and his -companions all that should happen,—that "when one of the descendants -of those who sailed with him in the Argo should carry away -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">{212}</a></span> -the tripod, then it was fated that a hundred Grecian cities should -be built about the lake Tritonis." The neighboring nations of the -Libyans, when they heard this, concealed the tripods. The Auses -adjoin these Machlyes; they, as well as the Machlyes, dwell round -the lake Tritonis, and the Triton forms the boundary between -them. The Machlyes let the hair grow on the back of the head, -and the Auses on the front. At the annual festival of Minerva, -their virgins, dividing themselves into two companies, fight together -with stones and staves, affirming that they perform the -ancient rites to their native goddess, whom we call Minerva; and -those of the virgins who die from their wounds they call false -virgins. But before they leave off fighting, they, with one consent, -deck the maiden that excels in beauty, with a Corinthian helmet, -and a suit of Grecian armor, and placing her in a chariot conduct -her round the lake. In what way they formerly decorated the -maidens before the Greeks settled in their neighborhood, I am unable -to say; but I conjecture that they were decked in Egyptian -armor, for I am of opinion that the shield and helmet were -brought from Egypt into Greece.</p> - -<p>Above these nomadic tribes, inland, Libya abounds in wild -beasts; beyond the wild-beast tract is a ridge of sand, stretching -from the Egyptian Thebes to the columns of Hercules. At intervals -of a ten days' journey in this ridge, there are pieces of salt in -large lumps on hills; and at the top of each hill, from the midst -of the salt, cool, sweet water gushes up. The first people you -come to after a ten days' journey from Thebes, are the Ammonians, -who have a temple resembling that of Theban Jupiter. For -the image of Jupiter at Thebes has the head of a ram. They have -also another kind of spring water which in the morning is tepid, -becomes colder about the time of full forum, and at midday is -very cold; at that time they water their gardens. As the day declines -it generally loses its coldness, till the sun sets, then the -water becomes tepid again, and continuing to increase in heat till -midnight, it then boils and bubbles up; when midnight is passed, -it gets cooler until morning. This fountain is called after the sun. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">{213}</a></span> -Next to the Ammonians, along the ridge of sand, at the end of -another ten days' journey, there is a hill of salt, like that of the -Ammonians, and water, and men live round it; the name of this -region is Augila; and thither the Nasamonians go to gather dates. -From the Augilæ, at the end of another ten days' journey, is another -hill of salt and water, and many fruit-bearing palm-trees, as -also in other places; and men inhabit it who are called Garamantes, -a very powerful nation; they lay earth upon the salt, and then -sow their ground. From these to the Lotophagi the shortest -route is a journey of thirty days; amongst them cattle that feed -backwards are met with, having horns that are so bent forward, -that they are unable to feed forwards, because their horns would -stick in the ground. They differ from other kine in no other -respect, except that their hide is thicker and harder. These Garamantes -hunt the Ethiopian Troglodytes in four-horse chariots; -these Ethiopian Troglodytes are the swiftest of foot of all men of -whom we have heard any account given. The Troglodytes feed -upon serpents and lizards, and such kinds of reptiles; they speak a -language like no other, but screech like bats.</p> - -<p>At the distance of another ten days' journey from the Garamantes -is another hill of salt and water, around which a people live -who are called Atarantes; they are the only race we know of who -have not personal names. For the name Atarantes belongs -to them collectively, and to each one of them no name is -given. They curse the sun as he passes over their heads, and -moreover utter against him the foulest invectives, because he consumes -by his scorching heat, the men themselves and their country. -Afterward, at the end of still another ten days' journey, there is -one more hill of salt and water, and men live round it, near a -mountain called Atlas; it is narrow and circular on all sides, and -is said to be so lofty that its top can never be seen; it is never -free from clouds, either in summer or winter. The inhabitants say -that it is the Pillar of Heaven. From this mountain the men derive -their appellation, for they are called Atlantes. They are said -neither to eat the flesh of any animal, nor to see visions. As far, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">{214}</a></span> -then, as these Atlantes, I am able to mention the names of the -nations that inhabit this ridge, but not beyond them. This ridge, -however, extends as far as the pillars of Hercules, and even beyond; -and there is a mine of salt in it at intervals of ten days' -journey, and men dwelling there. The houses of them all are built -of blocks of salt, for in these parts of Libya no rain falls; walls -being of salt could not of course stand long if rain did fall. The -salt dug out there is white and purple in appearance. Above this -ridge, to the south and interior of Libya, the country is a desert, -without water, without animals, without rain, and without wood; -and there is no kind of moisture in it.</p> - -<p>Westward of lake Tritonis, the Libyans are no longer nomads, -nor do they follow the same customs, with respect to their children, -as the nomads are accustomed to do; for the nomadic Libyans, -whether all I am unable to say with certainty, but many of them, -when their children are four years old, burn the veins on the -crown of their heads, with uncleaned sheep's wool; and some of -them do so on the veins in the temples; to the end that humors -flowing down from the head may not injure them as long as they -live: and, for this reason, they say they are so very healthy, for -the Libyans are in truth the most healthy of all men with whom -we are acquainted. But I simply repeat what the Libyans themselves -say. From the Libyan women the Greeks derived the attire -and ægis of Minerva's statues; for, except that the dress of -the Libyan women is leather, and the fringes that hang from the -ægis are not serpents, but made of thongs, they are otherwise -equipped in the same way; and, moreover, the very name proves -that the garb of the Palladia comes from Libya; for the Libyan -women throw over their dress, goats' skins without the hair, -fringed and dyed with red. From these goats' skins the Greeks -have borrowed the name of Ægis. And the howlings in the -temples were, I think, first derived from there; for the Libyan -women practise the same custom, and do it well. The Greeks -also learnt from the Libyans to yoke four horses abreast. All the -nomads, except the Nasamonians, inter their dead in the same -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">{215}</a></span> -manner as the Greeks; these bury them in a sitting posture, -watching when one is about to expire, that they may set him up, -and he may not die supine. Their dwellings are compacted of the -asphodel shrub, interwoven with rushes, and are portable.</p> - -<p>To the west of the river Triton, Libyans who are husbandmen -next adjoin the Auses; they are accustomed to live in houses, and -are called Maxyes. They let the hair grow on the right side of -the head, and shave the left; and bedaub the body with vermilion: -they say that they are descended from men who came -from Troy. This region, and all the rest of Libya westward, is -much more infested by wild beasts and more thickly wooded than -the country of the nomads; for the eastern country of Libya, -which the nomads inhabit, is low and sandy, as far as the river -Triton; but the country westward of this, which is occupied by -agriculturists, is very mountainous, woody, and abounds with wild -beasts. For amongst them there are enormous serpents, and lions, -elephants, bears, asps, asses with horns, and monsters with dogs' -heads and without heads, who have eyes in their breasts, at least -as the Libyans say, together with wild men and wild women. -None of these things are found among the nomads, but others of -the following kind: pygargi, antelopes, buffaloes, and asses, not -such as have horns, but others that never drink; and oryes, from -the horns of which are made the elbows of the Phœnician citherns; -in size this beast is equal to an ox; and foxes, hyænas, porcupines, -wild rams, dictyes, thoes, panthers, boryes, and land crocodiles -about three cubits long, very much like lizards; ostriches, and -small serpents, each with one horn. These, then, are the wild -animals in that country, besides such as are met with elsewhere, -except the stag and the wild boar; but the stag and the wild boar -are never seen in Libya. They have three sorts of mice there; -some called dipodes, or two-footed; others, zegeries, this name is -Libyan, and means the same as the word signifying hillocks in -Greek; and hedgehogs. There are also weasels produced in the -silphium, like those at Tartessus.</p> - -<p>The Zaveces adjoin the Maxyan Libyans; their women drive -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">{216}</a></span> -their chariots in war. The Gyzantes adjoin them; amongst them -bees make a great quantity of honey, and it is said that confectioners -make much more. All these paint themselves with vermilion, -and eat monkeys, which abound in their mountains. Near them, -the Carthaginians say, lies an island called Cyraunis, two hundred -stades in length, inconsiderable in breadth, easy of access from the -continent, and abounding in olive trees and vines. In it is a lake, -from the mud of which the girls of the country draw up gold dust -by means of feathers daubed with pitch. Whether this is true I -know not, but I write what is related; it may be so, however, for -I have myself seen pitch drawn up out of a lake and from water in -Zacynthus; and there are several lakes there, the largest of them -is seventy feet every way, and two orgyæ in depth; into this they -let down a pole with a myrtle branch fastened to the end, and then -draw up pitch adhering to the myrtle; it has the smell of asphalt, -but is in other respects better than the pitch of Pieria. They pour -it into a cistern dug near the lake, and when they have collected a -sufficient quantity, draw it off from the cistern into jars. All that -falls into the lake passes under ground, and appears again upon the -surface of the sea, which is about four stades distant from the lake. -This account given of the island may probably be true. The -Carthaginians further say, that beyond the pillars of Hercules -there is an inhabited region of Libya; when they arrive among -these people and have unloaded their merchandise, they set it in -order on the shore, go on board their ships, and make a great -smoke; the inhabitants, seeing the smoke, come down to the sea, -deposit gold in exchange for the merchandise, and withdraw to -some distance from the merchandise; the Carthaginians then, -going ashore, examine the gold, and if the quantity seems sufficient -for the merchandise they take it up and sail away; but if it -is not sufficient, they go on board their ships again and wait; the -natives then approach and deposit more gold, until they have satisfied -them; neither party ever wrongs the other; for they do not -touch the gold before it is made adequate to the value of the merchandise, -nor do the natives touch the merchandise before the -other party has taken the gold.</p> - -<div class="image-float-right" style="max-width: 175px;"> - <img src="images/p217.jpg" width="175" height="375" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>OLIVE TREES.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">{217}</a></span> -No part of Libya appears to me so good in fertility as to be -compared with Asia or Europe, except only the district of Cinyps; -for the land bears the same name as the river, and is equal to the -best land for the production of corn; nor is it at all like the rest -of Libya; for the soil is black, and well watered with springs, and -it is neither affected at all by drought, nor is it injured by imbibing -too much rain, which falls in this part of -Libya. The proportion of the produce -of this land equals that of Babylon. The -land also which the Euesperides occupy -is good; for when it yields its best, it -produces a hundred-fold; but that in -Cinyps three hundred-fold. The district -of Cyrene, which is the highest of that -part of Libya which the nomads occupy, -has three seasons, a circumstance worthy -of admiration; for the first fruits near -the sea swell so as to be ready for the -harvest and vintage; when these are -gathered in, the fruits of the middle region, -away from the sea, swell so as to -be gathered in, these they call uplands; -and just as this middle harvest has been -gathered in, that in the highest part -becomes ripe and swells. So that when -the first crop has been drunk and eaten, -the last comes in. Thus harvest occupies -the Cyrenæans during eight months. -This maybe sufficient to say concerning -these things.</p> - -<p>The Persians once upon a time, sent against the city of Barce, -laid siege to it for nine months, digging passages under ground -that reached to the walls, and making vigorous assaults. Now -these excavations were discovered by a worker of bronze, carrying -a bronze shield round within the wall, and applying it to the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">{218}</a></span> -ground within the city: in other places to which he applied it, it -made no noise, but at the parts that were excavated, the metal of -the shield sounded. The Barcæans, therefore, countermining them -in that part, slew the Persians who were employed in the excavation. -When much time had been spent, and many had fallen on -both sides, and not the fewest on the side of the Persians, Amasis, -general of the land forces, had recourse to the following stratagem: -Finding that the Barcæans could not be taken by force, but might -be by artifice, he dug a wide pit by night, laid weak planks of -wood over it, and on the surface over the planks he spread a heap -of earth, making it level with the rest of the ground. At daybreak -he invited the Barcæans to a conference; they gladly assented, -thinking that at last they were pleased to come to terms: and they -made an agreement of the following nature, concluding the treaty -over the concealed pit: "That as long as this earth shall remain -as it is, the treaty should continue in force; and that the Barcæans -should pay a reasonable tribute to the king, and that the Persians -should form no new designs against the Barcæans." After the -treaty the Barcæans, confiding in the Persians, went freely out of -the city, and allowed any one of the Persians who chose to pass -within the wall, throwing open all the gates. But the Persians, -having broken down the concealed bridge, rushed within the wall: -having not fully kept their oath. The Persians reduced the Barcæans -to slavery and took their departure. But king Darius gave -them a village in the district of Bactria, to dwell in, and the name -of Barce was given to this village, which was still inhabited in my -time, in the Bactrian territory.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_20" id="Foot_20" href="#Ref_20">[20]</a> -Herodotus means that south of the equator the sun was in the north.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">{219}</a></div> - -<h2><i>BOOK V. TERPSICHORE.</i></h2> - -<h3>CHAPTER I.<br /> -<small>CONQUESTS OF THE GENERALS OF DARIUS.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Persians, left in Europe by Darius under the command of -Megabazus, subdued the Perinthians first of the Hellespontines, -who were unwilling to submit to Darius, and had been before -roughly handled by the Pæonians. For an oracle had admonished -the Pæonians to invade the Perinthians, and if the Perinthians, -when encamped against them, should challenge them, shouting -to them by name, then to attack, but if they should not shout out -to them, not to attack. A threefold single combat took place between -them according to a challenge; for they matched a man with -a man, a horse with a horse, and a dog with a dog. The Perinthians, -victorious in two of these combats, through excess of joy sang -the Pæon, whereupon the Pæonians conjectured that this was the -meaning of the oracle, and said among themselves: "Now surely -the oracle must be accomplished; now it is our part to act." -The Pæonians attacked the Perinthians as they were singing the -Pæon, gained a complete victory, and left but few of them alive.</p> - -<p>The nation of the Thracians is the greatest of all among men, -except the Indians; and if they were governed by one man, or -acted in concert, they would, in my opinion, be invincible, and by -far the most powerful of all nations. But as this is impracticable, -and it is impossible that they should ever be united, they are -weak.</p> - -<p>Beyond the Ister appears to be an interminable desert, and the -only men that I am able to hear of as dwelling there are those called -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">{220}</a></span> -Sigynnæ, who wear the Medic dress; their horses are shaggy all -over the body, to five fingers in depth of hair; they are small, -flat-nosed, and unable to carry men; but when yoked to chariots -are very fleet. They say that these people are a colony of Medes. -How they can have been a colony of Medes I cannot comprehend; -but any thing may happen in the course of time.</p> - -<p>There is a curious people who inhabit Lake Prasias itself, who -were not at all subdued by Megabazus;—they live upon the lake -in dwellings erected upon planks fitted on lofty piles, which are -driven in the middle of the lake, with a narrow entrance from the -main land by a single bridge. These piles that support the planks -all the citizens anciently placed there at the common charge; but -afterward they established a law to the following effect: Whenever -a man marries, for each wife he sinks three piles, bringing wood -from a mountain called Orbelus: but every man has several wives. -Each one has a hut on the planks, in which he dwells, with a trap-door -closely fitted in the planks, and leading down to the lake. -They tie the young children with a cord around the foot, for fear -they should fall into the lake beneath. To their horses and beasts -of burden they give fish for fodder; of which there is such an -abundance, that you have simply to open your trap-door, let down -an empty basket by a cord into the lake, when, after waiting a -short time, you draw it up full of fish.</p> - -<div class="image-float-right" style="max-width: 150px;"> - <img src="images/p221.jpg" width="150" height="175" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>HEAD-DRESS OF A RIDING HORSE.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Megabazus, after conquering the Pæonians, arrived at the -Hellespont, crossed over, and came to Sardis. In the meantime, -Histiæus the Milesian was building a wall around the place, which, -at his own request, he had received from Darius as a reward for -his services in preserving the bridge: this place was near the river -Strymon, and its name Myrcinus. Megabazus, upon learning -what was being done by Histiæus, as soon as he reached Sardis -said to Darius: "O king, what have you done, in allowing a -crafty and subtle Greek to possess a city in Thrace, where there is -an abundance of timber fit for building ships and plenty of wood -for oars, and silver mines? A great multitude of Greeks and barbarians -dwell around, who, when they have obtained him as a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">{221}</a></span> -leader, will do whatever he may command, both by day and by -night. Put a stop therefore to the proceedings of this man, that -you may not be harassed by a domestic war; send for him in a -gentle manner, and stop him: and when you have him in your -power, take care that he never returns to the Greeks." Megabazus -easily persuaded Darius, since he wisely foresaw what was to happen. -So Darius sent a messenger to Myrcinus, who spoke as -follows: "Histiæus, King Darius says thus: I find on consideration -that there is no man better affected to me and my affairs than -thyself; and this I have learnt, not by words, but actions; now, -since I have great designs to put in execution, come to me by all -means, that I may communicate them to thee." Histiæus, giving -credit to these words, and at the time considering -it a great honor to become a -counsellor of the king, went to Sardis: -when he arrived, Darius said, "Histiæus, -I have sent for you on this occasion. As -soon as I returned from Scythia, and you -were out of my sight, I have wished for -nothing so much as to see you and converse -with you again; being persuaded -that a friend who is both intelligent and well -affected, is the most valuable of all possessions; -both of which I am able to testify from my own knowledge -concur in you, as regards my affairs. You have done well in -coming, and I make you this offer: Think no more of Miletus, -nor of the new-founded city in Thrace; but follow me to Susa, -have the same that I have, and be the partner of my table and -counsels." And Darius appointed Artaphernes, his brother by the -same father, to be governor of Sardis, and departed for Susa, -taking Histiæus with him. He first nominated Otanes to be general -of the forces on the coast, whose father, Sisamnes, one of the -royal judges, King Cambyses had put to death and flayed, because -he had given an unjust judgment for a sum of money. He had -his skin torn off, and cut into thongs, and extended it on the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">{222}</a></span> -bench on which he used to sit, when he pronounced judgment; -then Cambyses appointed as judge in the room of Sisamnes, whom -he had slain and flayed, the son of Sisamnes, admonishing him to -remember on what seat he sat to administer justice. This very -Otanes, then, being now appointed successor to Megabazus in the -command of the army, subdued the Byzantians and Chalcedonians, -and took Antandros, which belongs to the territory of Troas, and -Lamponium; and obtaining ships from the Lesbians, he took -Lemnos and Imbrus, both of which were then inhabited by Pelasgians. -The Lemnians fought valiantly, and defended themselves -for some time, but were at length overcome; and over those who -survived, the Persians set up Lycaretus as governor, the brother -of Mæandrius, who had reigned in Samos. Otanes enslaved and -subdued them all for various alleged reasons: some he charged -with desertion to the Scythians; others he accused of having -harassed Darius' army in their return home from the Scythians.</p> - -<p>Afterward, for the intermission from misfortune was not of -long duration, evils arose a second time to the Ionians from Naxos -and Miletus. For, on the one hand, Naxos surpassed all the -islands in opulence; and on the other, Miletus, at the same time, -had attained the summit of its prosperity, and was accounted the -ornament of Ionia. Some of the opulent men, exiled from Naxos -by the people, went to Miletus: the governor of Miletus happened -to be Aristagoras, son of Molpagoras, son-in-law and cousin of -Histiæus, whom Darius detained at Susa. These Naxians arrived -at Miletus, entreated Aristagoras, if he could, by any means, to -give them some assistance so that they might return to their -own country. He, perceiving that if by his means they should -return to their city, he might get the dominion of Naxos, used the -friendship of Histiæus as a pretence, and addressed the following -discourse to them: "I am not able of myself to furnish you with -a force sufficient to reinstate you against the wishes of the Naxians, -who are in possession of the city, for I hear that the Naxians have -eight thousand heavy-armed men, and a considerable number of -ships of war. Yet I will contrive some way, and use my best endeavors; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">{223}</a></span> -my scheme is this: Artaphernes happens to be my -friend; he is son of Hystaspes and brother of king Darius, and -commands all the maritime parts of Asia, and has a large army -and navy. This man, I am persuaded, will do whatever we desire." -The Naxians urged Aristagoras to go about it in the best way he -could, and bade him promise presents, and their expenses to the -army, for they would repay it; having great expectation that -when they should appear at Naxos the Naxians would do whatever -they should order, as also would the other islanders; for of -these Cyclades islands not one was as yet subject to Darius.</p> - -<p>Accordingly Aristagoras journeyed to Sardis, and told Artaphernes, -that Naxos was an island of no great extent, to be sure, -but beautiful and fertile, and near Ionia, and in it was much wealth -and many slaves. "Do send an army against this country, to reinstate -those who have been banished; and if you do this, I have, -in the first place, a large sum of money ready, in addition to the -expenses of the expedition, for it is just that we who lead you on -should supply that; and in the next, you will acquire for the king -Naxos itself, and the islands dependent upon it, Paros, Andros, -and the rest that are called Cyclades. Setting out from there you -will easily attack Eubœa, a large and wealthy island, not less than -Cyprus, and very easy to be taken. A hundred ships are sufficient -to subdue them all." The reply was quickly given: "You -propose things advantageous to the king's house, and advise every -thing well, except the number of ships; instead of one hundred, -two hundred shall be ready at the commencement of the spring. -But it is necessary that the king himself should approve of the -design." Aristagoras, wild with delight, went back to Miletus. -And Artaphernes, finding that Darius himself approved of the plan, -made ready two hundred triremes, and a very numerous body of -Persians and other allies: and he appointed Megabates general, -a Persian of the family of the Archimenidæ, his own and Darius' -nephew, whose daughter, if the report be true, was afterward betrothed -to Pausanias, son of Cleombrotus the Lacedæmonian, who -aspired to become tyrant of Greece. Artaphernes, having appointed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">{224}</a></span> -Megabates general, sent forward the army to Aristagoras.</p> - -<p>Megabates, with Aristagoras, the Ionian forces, and the Naxians, -sailed professedly for the Hellespont; but when he arrived -at Chios, anchored at Caucasa, that he might cross over from there -to Naxos by a north wind. However, it was fated that the Naxians -were not to perish by this armament, as the following event -occurred: As Megabates was going round the watches on board -the ships, he found no one on guard on board a Myndian ship; -indignant at this, he ordered his body-guards to find the captain of -this ship, whose name was Scylax, and to bind him with his body -half-way through the lower row-lock of the vessel, so that his head -should be on the outside of the vessel, and his legs within. Some -one told Aristagoras that Megabates had bound and disgraced his -Myndian friend. He went therefore and interceded for him with -the Persian, but, when he found he could obtain nothing, went -himself and released him. Megabates, hearing of this, was very -indignant, and enraged at Aristagoras, and told him so; "but," -said Aristagoras, "what have you to do with these matters? Did -not Artaphernes send you to obey me, and to sail wheresoever I -should command?" Megabates, still more exasperated at this, as -soon as night arrived, dispatched men in a ship to Naxos, to inform -the Naxians of the impending danger. The Naxians, who -had not a suspicion that this armament was coming against them, -immediately carried every thing from the fields into the town, and, -with plenty of food and drink, prepared to undergo a siege, so the -Persians had to attack men well fortified, and after besieging them -four months, consumed all the supplies they had brought with -them, together with large sums furnished by Aristagoras, and -wanting still more to carry on the siege, they were forced to build -a fortress for the Naxian exiles, and retire to the continent unsuccessful.</p> - -<p>Aristagoras was thus unable to fulfil his promise to Artaphernes; -while at the same time the expenses of the expedition pressed -heavily on him on account of the ill success of the army; and having -incurred the ill will of Megabates to such an extent that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">{225}</a></span> -he feared that he should be deprived of the government of Miletus, -he meditated a revolt. It happened at the same time that a -messenger with his head tattooed came from Susa from Histiæus, -urging Aristagoras to revolt from the king. For Histiæus, being -desirous to communicate to Aristagoras his wish for him to revolt, -had no other means of signifying it with safety, because the roads -were guarded; therefore, having shaved the head of the most -trustworthy of his slaves, he marked it with a sharp iron, and -waited till the hair had grown again, then sent him to Miletus -without other instructions except that when he arrived at Miletus -he should desire Aristagoras to shave off his hair and look upon -his head: the punctures, as I have said before, signified a wish for -him to revolt. Histiæus did this because he looked upon his -detention at Susa as a great misfortune; while if a revolt should -take place he had great hopes that he should be sent down to the -coast; but if Miletus made no new attempt, he thought that -he should never go there again. It was resolved to revolt, -and messengers were sent to the force that had returned from -Naxos, and which was at Myus, to seize the captains on board the -ships. Aristagoras thus openly revolted, devising every thing he -could against Darius. And first, in pretence, having laid aside -the sovereignty, he established an equality in Miletus, in order -that the Milesians might more readily join with him in the revolt. -Afterward he effected the same throughout the rest of Ionia, -expelling some of the tyrants; and he delivered up those whom -he had taken from on board the ships that had sailed with him -against Naxos, to the cities, in order to gratify the people, giving -them up to the respective cities, from whence each came. The -Mityleneans, as soon as they received Coes, led him out, and -stoned him to death; but the Cymeans let their tyrant go; -and in like manner most of the others let theirs go. Accordingly -there was a suppression of tyrants throughout the cities. But -Aristagoras enjoined them all to appoint magistrates in each -of the cities, and went himself in a trireme as ambassador to -Sparta, for it was necessary for him to procure some powerful -alliance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">{226}</a></span> -Aristagoras arrived at Sparta, when Cleomenes held the -government; and he went to confer with him, as the Lacedæmonians -say, carrying a bronze tablet, on which was engraved the -circumference of the whole earth, the whole sea, and all rivers. -"Wonder not, Cleomenes," said Aristagoras, "at my eagerness in -coming here, for it is a great sorrow to us that the children of -Ionians should be slaves instead of free, and above all others it is -a disgrace to you, inasmuch as you are at the head of Greece. I -adjure you by the Grecian gods, rescue the Ionians, who are of -your own blood, from servitude. It is easy for you to effect this, -for the barbarians are not valiant; whereas you, in matters relating -to war, have attained to the utmost height of glory; their mode -of fighting is, with bows and short spears, and they engage in -battle wearing loose trousers, and turbans on their heads, so that -they are easy to be overcome. Besides, there are treasures belonging -to those who inhabit that continent, such as are not possessed -by all other nations together; gold, silver, bronze, variegated -garments, beasts of burden, and slaves; all these you may -have if you will. They live adjoining one another as I will show -you. Next to these Ionians are the Lydians, who inhabit a fertile -country, and abound in silver." As he said this he showed the map -of the earth, which he had brought with him, engraved on a tablet. -"Next to the Lydians," proceeded Aristagoras, "are these Phrygians -to the eastward, who are the richest in cattle and in corn of -all with whom I am acquainted. Next to the Phrygians are the -Cappadocians, whom we call Syrians; and bordering on them, -the Cilicians, extending to this sea in which the island of Cyprus -is situated; they pay an annual tribute of five hundred talents to -the king. Next to the Cilicians are these Armenians, who also -abound in cattle; and next to the Armenians are the Metienians, -who occupy this country; and next them this territory of Cissia, in -which Susa is situated, on this river Choaspes, and here the great -king resides, and here are his treasures of wealth. If you take -this city, you may boldly contend with Jupiter in wealth. As it is, -you carry on war for a country of small extent, and not very fertile, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">{227}</a></span> -and of narrow limits, with the Messenians, who are your -equals in valor, and with the Arcadians and Argives, who have -nothing akin to gold or silver, the desire of which induces men to -hazard their lives in battle. But when an opportunity is offered to -conquer all Asia with ease, will you prefer any thing else?" -"Milesian friend," said Cleomenes, "I defer to give you an answer -until the third day." They met at the appointed time and place, and -Cleomenes asked Aristagoras, how many days' journey it was from -the sea of the Ionians to the king. Aristagoras, though he was -cunning in other things, and had deceived him with much address, -made a slip in this; for he should not have told the real fact, if he -wished to draw the Spartans into Asia; whereas he told him -frankly that it was a three months' journey up there. Cutting -short the rest of the description which Aristagoras was proceeding -to give of the journey, Cleomenes said: "My friend, from Miletus, -depart from Sparta before sunset; for you speak no agreeable -language to the Lacedæmonians, in wishing to lead them a three -months' journey from the sea;" and Cleomenes went home. -Aristagoras, nothing daunted, taking an olive-branch in his hand, -went to the house of Cleomenes, entered in, as a suppliant, and -besought Cleomenes to listen to him. The latter's little child, a -daughter, whose name was Gorgo, stood by him; she happened -to be his only child, and was about eight or nine years of age. -Cleomenes bade him say what he wished, and not mind the presence -of the little girl. Thereupon Aristagoras promised him ten -talents, if he would do as he desired; and as Cleomenes refused, -Aristagoras went on increasing his offers, until he promised fifty -talents, when little Gorgo cried out, "Papa, this stranger will corrupt -you, if you don't quickly depart." Cleomenes, pleased with -the advice of the child, retired to another apartment; and Aristagoras -was forced to leave Sparta altogether, without ever getting -another opportunity to give further particulars of the route to the -city of the great king.</p> - -<p>With respect to this road, the case is as follows: There are -royal stations all along, and excellent inns, and the whole road is -through an inhabited and safe country. There are twenty stations -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">{228}</a></span> -extending through Lydia and Phrygia, and the distance is ninety-four -parasangs and a half. After Phrygia, the river Halys is met -with, at which there are gates, which it is absolutely necessary to -pass through, and thus to cross the river; there is also a considerable -fort on it. When you cross over into Cappadocia, and traverse -that country to the borders of Cilicia, there are eight and -twenty stations, and one hundred and four parasangs; and on the -borders of these people, you go through two gates, and pass by -two forts. When you have gone through these and made the -journey through Cilicia, there are three stations, and fifteen parasangs -and a half. The boundary of Cilicia and Armenia is a river -that is crossed in boats, called the Euphrates. In Armenia there -are fifteen stations for resting-places, and fifty-six parasangs and a -half; there is also a fort at the stations. Four rivers that are -crossed in boats flow through this country, which it is absolutely -necessary to ferry over. First, the Tigris; then the second and -third have the same name, though they are not the same river, -nor flow from the same source. For the first mentioned of these -flows from the Armenians, and the latter from the Matienians. -The fourth river is called the Gyndes, which Cyrus once distributed -into three hundred and sixty channels. As you enter from Armenia -into the country of Matiene, there are four stations; and -from thence as you proceed to the Cissian territory there are -eleven stations, and forty-two parasangs and a half, to the river -Choaspes, which also must be crossed in boats; on this Susa is -built. All these stations amount to one hundred and eleven,<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_21" id="Ref_21" href="#Foot_21">[21]</a></span> -as you go up from Sardis to Susa. Now if the royal road has been -correctly measured in parasangs, and if the parasang is equal to -thirty stades, as indeed it is, from Sardis to the royal palace, called -Memnonia, is a distance of thirteen thousand five hundred stades, -the parasangs being four hundred and fifty; and by those who -travel one hundred and fifty stades every day, just ninety days are -spent on the journey. So Aristagoras spoke correctly when he -stated the distance to Susa.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">{229}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER II.<br /> -<small>THE IONIAN REVOLT.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Aristagoras</span> the Milesian, having been expelled from Sparta -by Cleomenes the Lacedæmonian, repaired to Athens; for this -city was much more powerful than the rest. Presenting himself -before the people, he said the same that he had done at Sparta, -respecting the wealth of Asia and the Persian mode of warfare, -how they used neither shield nor spear, and could be easily conquered. -He said also that the Milesians were a colony of the -Athenians, and it was but reasonable that they, having such great -power, should rescue them. And as there was nothing he did not -promise, being very much in earnest, at length he persuaded them. -It appears to be more easy to impose upon a multitude than one -man; this schemer, you see, was not able to impose upon Cleomenes -the Lacedæmonian singly, but did upon thirty thousand -Athenians. Twenty ships were sent to succor the Ionians, and -Melanthius commander over them, a citizen who was universally -esteemed. These ships proved the source of calamities both to -Greeks and barbarians. Aristagoras sailed first, arrived at Miletus, -and had recourse to a project from which no advantage could result -to the Ionians; nor did he employ it for that purpose, but -that he might vex king Darius. He sent a man into Phrygia, to -the Pæonians, who had been carried away captive by Megabazus, -from the river Strymon, and occupied a tract in Phrygia, and a -village by themselves. Arrived among the Pæonians, the messenger -spoke as follows: "Men of Pæonia, Aristagoras, tyrant of -Miletus, has sent me to suggest to you a mode of deliverance, if -you will take his advice. For all Ionia has revolted from the king, -and offers you an opportunity of returning safe to your own country; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">{230}</a></span> -as far as to the coast take care of yourselves, and we will provide -for the rest." When the Pæonians heard these words, they -considered it a very joyful event, and taking with them their children -and wives, fled to the coast; though some of them, through -fear, remained where they were. When the Pæonians reached -the coast, they crossed over to Chios, when a large body of Persian -cavalry came on their heels, and sent orders to Chios to the Pæonians, -commanding them to return. The Pæonians did not listen -to the proposal; but the Chians conveyed them to Lesbos, and -the Lesbians forwarded them to Doriscus; thence proceeding on -foot they reached Pæonia.</p> - -<p>The Athenians arrived with twenty ships, bringing with them -five triremes of the Eretrians, who engaged in this expedition out -of good-will to the Milesians, in order to repay a former obligation; -for the Milesians had formerly joined the Eretrians in the -war against the Chalcidians. When these had arrived, and the -rest of the allies had come up, Aristagoras resolved to make an -expedition to Sardis. He himself did not march with the army, -but remained at Miletus, and appointed as generals of the Milesians, -his own brother Charopinus, and of the other citizens Hermophantus. -The Ionians arrived at Ephesus with this force, left -their ships at Coressus, in the Ephesian territory, and advanced -with a numerous army, taking Ephesians for their guides; and -marching by the side of the river Cayster, they crossed Mount -Tmolus, and reached and took Sardis without opposition; all except -the citadel, for Artaphernes with a strong garrison defended -the citadel. The following accident prevented them, after they -had taken the city, from plundering it. Most of the houses in -Sardis were built with reeds; and such of them as were built with -brick, had roof of reeds. A soldier happened to set fire to one of -these, and immediately the flame spread from house to house, and -consumed the whole city. While the city was burning, the -Lydians, and as many of the Persians as were in the city, being -enclosed on every side, and having no means of escaping from the -city, rushed together to the market-place, and to the river Pactolus, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">{231}</a></span> -which, bringing down grains of gold from Mount Tmolus, flows -through the middle of the market-place, and then discharges itself -into the river Hermus, and that into the sea. The Lydians and -Persians, being assembled on this Pactolus and at the market-place, -were constrained to defend themselves: and the Ionians, -seeing some of the enemy standing on their defence, and others coming -up in great numbers, retired through fear to the mountain called -Tmolus, and thence under favor of the night retreated to their -ships. Thus Sardis was burnt, and in it the temple of the native -goddess Cybebe; the Persians, making a pretext of this, afterwards -burnt in retaliation the temples of Greece. As soon as the -Persians who had settlements on this side the river Halys were informed -of these things, they drew together and marched to assist -the Lydians; the Ionians were no longer at Sardis; but following -on their track they overtook them at Ephesus, where the Ionians -drew out in battle-array against them, and coming to an engagement, -were sorely beaten; and the Persians slew many of them, -among other persons of distinction, Eualcis, general of the Eretrians, -who had gained the prize in the contests for the crown, and -had been much celebrated by Simonides the Cean. Those who -escaped from the battle were dispersed throughout the cities.</p> - -<p>Such was the result of the encounter. Afterward, the Athenians, -totally abandoning the Ionians, though Aristagoras urgently -solicited them by ambassadors, refused to send them any assistance. -The Ionians, deprived of the alliance of the Athenians, (for -they had conducted themselves in such a manner toward Darius -from the first,) nevertheless prepared for war with the king. And -sailing to the Hellespont, they reduced Byzantium and all the -other cities in that quarter to their obedience. They then sailed out -of the Hellespont, and gained over to their alliance the greater part -of Caria; for the city of Caunus, which before would not join their -alliance, when they had burnt Sardis, came over to their side.</p> - -<p>When it was told king Darius, that Sardis had been taken and -burnt by the Athenians and Ionians, and that Aristagoras the -Milesian was the chief of the confederacy and the contriver of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">{232}</a></span> -that enterprise, it is related that he took no account of the Ionians, -well knowing that they would not escape unpunished for their rebellion, -but inquired where the Athenians were; then having been -informed, he called for a bow, put an arrow into it, let it fly toward -heaven, and as he shot it into the air, exclaimed: "O Jupiter, grant -that I may revenge myself on the Athenians!" Then he commanded -one of his attendants, every time dinner was set before -him, to say thrice: "Sire, remember the Athenians." Summoning -to his presence Histiæus the Milesian, whom he had already detained -a long time, Darius said: "I am informed, Histiæus, that -your lieutenant, to whom you intrusted Miletus, has attempted innovations -against me; for he has brought men from the other continent, -and with them Ionians, who shall give me satisfaction for -what they have done; and has deprived me of Sardis. Now, can it -appear to you that this is right? Could such a thing have been done -without your advice? Beware lest hereafter you expose yourself -to blame." To this Histiæus answered: "O king, what have you -said? That I should advise a thing from which any grief, great -or little, should ensue to you! With what object should I do so? -What am I in want of? I, who have all things the same as you, -and am deemed worthy to share all your counsels? But if my -lieutenant has done any such thing as you mention, be assured he -has done it of his own contrivance. But I do not believe the account, -that the Milesians and my lieutenant have attempted any -innovations against your authority. Yet if you have heard the -truth, consider, O king, what mischief you have done in withdrawing -me from the coast. For the Ionians seem, when I was out of -their sight, to have done what they long ago desired to do; and -had I been in Ionia not one city would have stirred. Suffer me -therefore to go with all speed to Ionia, that I may restore all things -there to their former condition, and deliver into your hands this -lieutenant of Miletus, who has plotted the whole. When I have -done this according to your mind, I swear by the royal gods, not -to put off the garments which I shall wear when I go down to -Ionia, before I have made the great island Sardinia tributary to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">{233}</a></span> -you." His speaking thus deceived the king; Darius was persuaded, -and let him go, charging him to return to Susa, as soon as he -should have accomplished what he had promised.</p> - -<p>While the news concerning Sardis was going up to the king, -tidings were brought to Onesilus the Salaminian, as he was besieging -the Amathusians, that Artybius, a Persian, leading a large -Persian force on shipboard, was to be expected in Cyprus. Onesilus -accordingly sent heralds to the different parts of Ionia, inviting -them to assist him; and the Ionians, without any protracted -deliberation, arrived at Cyprus with a large armament. The Persians -crossed over in ships from Cilicia, and marched by land -against Salamis.</p> - -<p>Then the kings of the Cyprians drew up their forces in line, -and stationed the best of the Salaminians and Solians against the -Persians. Onesilus voluntarily took up his position directly -against Artybius, the general of the Persians. Artybius used to -ride on a horse, that had been taught to rear up against an armed -enemy. Onesilus had a shield-bearer, a Carian, well skilled in -matters of war, and otherwise full of courage, to whom he said: -"I am informed that the horse of Artybius rears up, and with his -feet and mouth attacks whomsoever he is made to engage with; -tell me which you will watch and strike, whether the horse or Artybius -himself." His attendant answered: "I am ready to do both, -or either of them, but a king and a general ought, I think, to engage -with a king and a general. If you vanquish one who is a general, -your glory is great; while if he should vanquish you, which may -the gods avert, to fall by a noble hand is but half the calamity. We -servants should engage with other servants, and also against a -horse, whose tricks you need not fear at all; for I promise you he -shall never again rear up against any man." Forthwith the forces -joined battle by land and sea. Now, the Ionians fought valiantly -on that day, when the armies met in close combat; and when -Artybius, seated on his horse, bore down upon Onesilus. Onesilus, -as he had concerted with his shield-bearer, struck Artybius himself; -and as the horse was throwing his feet against the shield of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">{234}</a></span> -Onesilus, the Carian with a scythe cut off the horse's feet. So -that Artybius, the general of the Persians, fell together with his -horse on the spot. While the rest were fighting, Stesenor, of -Curium, deserted with no inconsiderable body of men, and the -chariots of war belonging to the Salaminians did the same as the -Curians. Consequently the Persians became superior to the -Cyprians. The army was put to flight, many fell, and amongst -them Onesilus, and the king of the Solians, Aristocyprus, son of -the Philocyprus whom Solon the Athenian, when he visited -Cyprus, celebrated in his verses above all tyrants. The Amathusians -cut off the head of Onesilus, because he had besieged them, -took it to Amathus, and suspended it over the gates; and when -the head had become hollow, a swarm of bees entered it, and -filled it with honey-comb. An answer was given to the Amathusians, -who consulted the oracle respecting it, "that they should -take down the head and bury it, and sacrifice annually to Onesilus, -as to a hero, and that it would turn out better for them."</p> - -<p>Afterward, the Persians crossed the Mæander and engaged -the Carians on the banks of the river Marsyas. They fought an -obstinate battle, and at last overpowered them. Of the Persians -there fell about two thousand, and of the Carians ten thousand. -The Carians, however, afterward recovered from this wound, and -renewed the contest. For hearing that the Persians designed to -invade their cities, they placed an ambuscade on the way to -Pedasus, into which the Persians, falling by night, were cut in -pieces, with their generals Daurises, Amorges, and Sisamaces.</p> - -<p>Hymees, who was one of those who pursued the Ionians that -had attacked Sardis, bending his march toward the Propontis, took -Cius of Mysia. When he heard that Daurises had quitted the -Hellespont, and was marching against Caria, he abandoned the -Propontis, and led his army on the Hellespont. He subdued all -the Æolians who inhabited the territory of Ilium, and subdued the -Gergithæ, the remaining descendants of the ancient Teucrians. -Just then, however, he died of disease in the Troad. But Artaphernes, -governor of Sardis, and Otanes, who were appointed to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">{235}</a></span> -invade Ionia and the neighboring territory of Æolia, took Clazomenæ -and Cyme.</p> - -<p>Aristagoras the Milesian, for he was not, as it proved, a man -of strong courage, after he had thus thrown Ionia into confusion, and -raised great disturbances, thought of flight, when he saw these results. -Besides, it appeared to him impossible to overcome King -Darius; so calling his partisans together, he suggested "that it -would be better for them to have some sure place of refuge, in -case they should be expelled from Miletus." He asked, therefore, -whether he should lead them to Sardinia, to found a colony, or to -Myrcinus of the Edonians, which Histiæus had begun to fortify, -having received it as a gift from Darius. However, the opinion of -Hecatæus the historian, son of Hegesander, was, that they should -set out for neither of these places, but should build a fortress in the -island of Leros, and remain quiet, if they were compelled to quit -Miletus. But Aristagoras himself was decidedly in favor of proceeding -to Myrcinus; he therefore intrusted Miletus to Pythagoras, -a citizen of distinction, and, taking with him all who were willing, -sailed to Thrace, and took possession of the region to which he -was bound. But both Aristagoras himself and all his army perished -while he was laying siege to a city in Thrace.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_21" id="Foot_21" href="#Ref_21">[21]</a> -The detail of stations above-mentioned gives only eighty-one instead of one hundred and -eleven. The discrepancy can only be accounted for by a supposed defect in the manuscripts.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">{236}</a></div> - -<h2><i>BOOK VI. ERATO.</i></h2> - -<h3>CHAPTER I.<br /> -<small>THE SUPPRESSION OF THE IONIAN REVOLT.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">Aristagoras</span> thus induced the Ionians to revolt, and died; and -Histiæus, tyrant of Miletus, repaired to Sardis. When he arrived -from Susa, Artaphernes, Governor of Sardis, asked him for what -reason he supposed the Ionians had revolted. Histiæus said he -did not know, and seemed surprised at what had happened, as if -he knew nothing of the present state of affairs. But Artaphernes -saw that he was dissembling, and being aware of the exact truth -as to the revolt, said: "Histiæus, the state of the case is this: you -made the shoe and Aristagoras has put it on." Histiæus in alarm -fled to the coast as soon as night came on, and although he had -promised to reduce the great island of Sardinia for Darius, he insinuated -himself into the command of the Ionians in the war -against him. At Chios he was taken and put in chains, being suspected -by the Chians of planning some new design against them -in favor of Darius. However, the Chians, being assured that he -was an enemy to the king, released him, and conveyed him to -Miletus, at his own request; but the Milesians, delighted at being -rid of Aristagoras, were by no means desirous to receive another -tyrant into their country, as they had tasted of freedom. Thereupon -Histiæus, going down to Miletus by night, endeavored to -enter it by force, but was wounded in the thigh by one of the -Milesians. When he was repulsed from his own country, he went -back to Chios, and from there, since he could not persuade the -Chians to help him, he crossed over to Mitylene, and prevailed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">{237}</a></span> -with the Lesbians to furnish him with ships; they manned eight -triremes, and sailed with Histiæus to Byzantium. There taking -up their station, they took all the ships that sailed out of the -Pontus, except such of them as said they were ready to submit to -Histiæus.</p> - -<p>But a large naval and land-force was expected against Miletus -itself. For the Persian generals had united their forces and -formed one camp to march to Miletus, deeming the other cities of -less consequence. The Ionians, hearing of this, sent their respective -deputies to the Panionium, and determined not to assemble -any land-forces to oppose the Persians; but bade the -Milesians themselves defend their walls, while they should man -their navy, without leaving a single ship behind, and assemble as -soon as possible at Lade, to fight in defence of Miletus. Lade is -a small island lying off the city of the Milesians. Soon the Ionians -came up with their ships manned, and formed their line, a fleet -three hundred and fifty-three triremes strong. On the side of the -barbarians the number of ships amounted to six hundred, and when -they arrived on the Milesian coast, and all their land-forces had -come up, the Persian generals began to fear they should not be -strong enough to overcome them, and so should be also unable to -take Miletus, since they were not masters at sea, and then might -be in danger of receiving punishment at the hands of Darius. -Taking these things into consideration, they summoned the tyrants -of the Ionians, who had been deprived of their governments by -Aristagoras, and had fled to the Medes, and who happened at that -time to be serving in the army against Miletus. "Men of Ionia," -they said, "let each of you now show his zeal for the king's house. -For let each of you endeavor to detach his own countrymen from -the rest of the confederacy, and proclaim this, that they shall suffer -no hurt on account of their rebellion, nor shall their buildings, -whether sacred or profane, be burnt, nor shall they be treated with -more severity than they were before. But if they do not do this, -and will at all events come to the hazard of a battle, threaten that, -when conquered in battle, they shall all be enslaved." And the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">{238}</a></span> -tyrants of the Ionians sent each by night to his own countrymen, -to make known the warning. But the Ionians to whom these -messages came, continued firm to their purpose and would not -listen to treachery; for each thought that the Persians had sent -this message.</p> - -<p>When the Ionians had assembled at Lade, a council was held, -and the Phocæan general Dionysius spoke as follows: "Our affairs -are in a critical<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_22" id="Ref_22" href="#Foot_22">[22]</a></span> -state, O Ionians; we are to be freemen or -slaves, and that too run-away slaves. But if you are willing to -undergo hardships, for the present you will have to toil, but will be -enabled, by overcoming your enemies, to be free; on the other -hand, if you abandon yourselves to ease and disorder, I have no -hope that you will escape punishment at the hands of the king for -your revolt. But be persuaded by me, and entrust yourselves to -my guidance, and I promise you, that if the gods are impartial, -either our enemies will not fight us at all, or if they do fight with -us, they will be completely beaten." The Ionians intrusted themselves -to the guidance of Dionysius without hesitation who daily -led out the ships into a line, exercised the rowers, by practising the -manœuvre of cutting through one another's line, put the marines -under arms, and kept the ships at anchor for the rest of the day. -For seven days they continued to obey, but on the eighth the -Ionians, unaccustomed to such toil, and worn down by hardships -and the heat of the sun, grumbled to each other in such terms as -these: "What deity have we offended to fill up this measure of -affliction? we who were so beside ourselves, as to have intrusted -ourselves to the guidance of a presumptuous Phocæan, who, all -told, contributed only three ships, but having got us under his control, -afflicts us with intolerable hardships. Many of us have already -fallen into distempers, and many more must expect to meet -with the same fate. Instead of these evils, it would be better for us -to suffer anything else, and to endure the impending servitude, be it -what it may, than be oppressed by the present, Come, let us no -longer obey him." And from that moment no one would obey; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">{239}</a></span> -but, pitching their tents on the island, they continued under the -shade, and would not go on board the ships, or perform their exercise. -When the generals of the Samians observed what was -passing among the Ionians, and saw great disorder among them, -they accepted the proposal of Æaces, son of Syloson, which he had -before sent them at the desire of the Persians, exhorting them to -abandon the confederacy of the Ionians. Besides, it was clearly -impossible for them to overcome the power of the king, because -they were convinced, that if they should overcome Darius with his -present fleet, another five times as large would come against them. -So laying hold of this pretext, as soon as they saw the Ionians refusing -to behave well, they deemed it for their advantage to preserve -their own buildings, sacred and profane.</p> - -<p>When therefore the Phœnicians sailed against them, the -Ionians drew out their ships in line to oppose them; but when -they came near and opposed each other, I am unable to affirm with -certainty who of the Ionians proved themselves cowards, or brave -men, in this sea-fight; for they mutually accuse each other. The -Samians however are said at that moment to have hoisted sail, in -pursuance of their agreement with Æaces, and steered out of the -line to Samos, with the exception of eleven ships; the captains of -which stayed and fought, refusing to obey their commanders; and -for this action the commonwealth of the Samians conferred upon -them the honor of having their names and ancestry engraved on a -column, as those who had proved themselves valiant men; and -this column now stands in the forum. The Lesbians also, seeing -those stationed next them flee, did the same as the Samians; and -most of the Ionians followed their example. Of those that persisted -in the battle, the Chians were most roughly handled, as they -displayed signal proofs of valor, and would not act as cowards. -They had contributed one hundred ships, and on board each of -them forty chosen citizens served as marines; and though they -saw most of the confederates abandoning the common cause, they -disdained to follow the example of their treachery; but choosing -rather to remain with the few allies, they continued the fight, cutting -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">{240}</a></span> -through the enemies' line, until, after they had taken many of -the enemies' ships, they lost most of their own. The Chians then -fled to their own country with the remainder of their fleet. Those -Chians whose ships were disabled in the fight, took refuge in Mycale, -ran their ships aground, and left them there, and marched -over-land across the continent. On their return they entered the -territory of Ephesus, and arrived near the city by night, at a time -when the women were celebrating the Thesmophoria; thereupon, -the Ephesians, not having before heard how it had fared with the -Chians, and seeing an army enter their territory, thinking they -were certainly robbers, and had come to seize their women, rushed -out in a body, and slew the Chians. When Dionysius the Phocæan -perceived that the affairs of the Ionians were utterly ruined, he took -three of the enemies' ships and sailed away, not indeed to Phocæa, -well knowing that it would be enslaved with the rest of Ionia, but -directly to Phœnicia; and there having disabled some merchantmen, -and obtained great wealth, he sailed to Sicily, where he established -himself as a pirate, attacking none of the Greeks, but -only Carthaginians and Tyrrhenians.</p> - -<p>When the Persians had conquered the Ionians in the sea-fight -they besieged Miletus by land and sea, undermined the walls, and -bringing up all kinds of military engines against it, took it completely, -in the sixth year after the revolt of Aristagoras. They reduced -the city to slavery, so that the event coincided with the -oracle delivered concerning Miletus. For when the Argives consulted -the oracle at Delphi respecting the preservation of their -city, a double answer was given; part concerning themselves, and -the addition concerning the Milesians. The part relating to the -Argives I will mention when I come to that part of the history; -the words the Pythian uttered relative to the Milesians, who were -not present, were these: "Then Miletus, contriver of wicked -deeds, thou shalt become a feast and a rich gift to many: thy -wives shall wash the feet of many long-haired masters, and our -temple at Didymi shall be tended by others." These things befell -the Milesians at that time; for most of the men were killed by the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">{241}</a></span> -Persians, who wear long hair, their women and children were -treated as slaves, and the sacred enclosure at Didymi, both the -temple and the shrine, were pillaged and burnt. Of the riches in -this temple I have frequently made mention in other parts of my -history. Such of the Milesians as were taken alive were afterward -conveyed to Susa; and King Darius did them no harm, but settled -them on the Red Sea, in the city of Ampe, near by which the Tigris -falls into the sea. Of the Milesian territory, the Persians -themselves retained the parts round the city and the plain; the -mountainous parts they gave to the Carians of Pedasus to occupy. -When the Milesians suffered this at the hands of the Persians, the -Sybarites, who inhabited Laos and Scydrus, did not show equal -sympathy. But when Sybaris was taken by the Crotonians, all -the Milesians of every age had shaved their heads and displayed -marks of deep mourning: for these two cities had been more -strictly united in friendship than any others we are acquainted with. -The Athenians behaved in a very different manner; for the -Athenians made it evident that they were excessively grieved at the -capture of Miletus, both in many other ways, and more particularly -when Phrynichus had composed a drama of the capture of Miletus, -and represented it, the whole theatre burst into tears, and fined -him a thousand drachmas<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_23" id="Ref_23" href="#Foot_23">[23]</a></span> -for renewing the memory of their domestic -misfortunes; and they gave order that henceforth no one -should act this drama.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/p241.jpg" width="300" height="150" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>AMPHITHEATRE AT POLA.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">{242}</a></span> -While Histiæus the Milesian was near Byzantium, intercepting -the trading ships of the Ionians that sailed out of the Pontus, news -was brought him of what had taken place at Miletus; he therefore -intrusted his affairs on the Hellespont to Bisaltes, son of Apollophanes, -of Abydos, and with the Lesbians sailed to Chios, and -engaged with a garrison of Chians, that would not admit him, at a -place called Cœli in the Chian territory, and killed great numbers -of them. The deity is wont to give some previous warning when -any great calamities are about to befall city or nation, and before -these misfortunes great warnings happened to the Chians. For in -the first place, when they sent to Delphi a band of one hundred -youths, two only of them returned home, for a pestilence seized -and carried off the remaining ninety-eight. In the next place, a -little before the sea-fight, a house in the city fell in upon some -boys, as they were learning to read, so that of one hundred and -twenty boys one only escaped. After this, the sea-fight following, -threw the city prostrate; and after the sea-fight Histiæus with the -Lesbians came upon them; and as the Chians had been much -shattered, he easily reduced them to subjection. From there Histiæus -proceeded to attack Thasus with a large body of Ionians and -Æolians; and while he was besieging Thasus, Harpagus, the -Persian, general of a considerable army, who, happening to be in -those parts, engaged with him after his landing, took Histiæus -himself prisoner, and destroyed the greater part of his army.</p> - -<p>Now if, when Histiæus was taken prisoner, he had been conducted -to king Darius, in my opinion, he would have suffered no -punishment, and the king would have forgiven him his fault. But -for this very reason, lest by escaping he should again regain his -influence with the king, Artaphernes, Governor of Sardis, and -Harpagus, who received him as soon as he was conducted to -Sardis, impaled his body on the spot, and embalmed the head and -sent it to Darius at Susa. Darius blamed those that had done it, -because they had not brought him alive into his presence, and -gave orders that they should wash and adorn the head of Histiæus, -and inter it honorably, as the remains of a man who had been a -great benefactor to himself and the Persians.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">{243}</a></span> -The naval force of the Persians wintered near Miletus. In the -second year it set sail for the islands lying near the continent, -Chios, Lesbos, and Tenedos, which it easily subdued. When they -took any one of these islands, the barbarians netted the inhabitants -in this manner: Taking one another by the hand, they -would extend from the northern to the southern sea, and so march -over the island, hunting out the inhabitants. They also took the -Ionian cities on the continent with the same ease; but did not net -the inhabitants, for that was impossible. Thus the Ionians were -for the third time reduced to slavery; first by the Lydians, then -twice successively by the Persians. The naval force, departing -from Ionia, reduced all the places on the left of the Hellespont as -one sails in; and all the cities of the Chersonese, except Cardia, -they subdued.</p> - -<p>Till that time Miltiades, son of Cimon, was tyrant of these -cities, Miltiades, son of Cypselus, having formally acquired this -government in the following manner: The Thracian Dolonci possessed -this Chersonese; these Dolonci, being pressed in war by -the Apsynthians, sent their kings to Delphi to consult the oracle -concerning the war; the Pythian answered them, "that they -should take that man with them to their country to found a colony, -who after their departure from the temple should first offer them -hospitality." Accordingly the Dolonci, going by the sacred way, -went through the territories of the Phocians and Bœotians, and -when no one invited them, turned out of the road toward Athens. -At that time Pisistratus had the supreme power at Athens; but -Miltiades, son of Cypselus, had considerable influence; he was of -a family that maintained horses for the chariot-races, and was -originally descended from Æacus and Ægina, but in later times -was an Athenian, Philæus, son of Ajax, having been the first -Athenian of that family. This Miltiades, being seated in his own -portico, and seeing the Dolonci passing by, wearing a dress not -belonging to the country, and carrying javelins, called out to them: -and upon their coming to him, he offered them shelter and hospitality. -They, grateful for their entertainment, made known to him -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">{244}</a></span> -the whole oracle, and entreated him to obey the deity. Their -words persuaded Miltiades as soon as he heard them, for he was -troubled with the government of Pisistratus, and desired to get -out of his way. He therefore immediately set out to Delphi to -ask the oracle whether he should do that which the Dolonci requested -of him. The Pythian having bade him do so, Miltiades -took with him all such Athenians as were willing to join in the expedition, -and set sail with the Dolonci, and took possession of the -country; and they who introduced him appointed him tyrant. He, -first of all, built a wall on the isthmus of the Chersonese, from the -city of Cardia to Pactya, in order that the Apsynthians might not -be able to injure them by making incursions into their country. -The width of this isthmus is thirty-six stades; and from this -isthmus the whole Chersonese inward is four hundred and twenty -stades in length. Miltiades next made war upon the Lampsacenians, -who laid an ambush and took him prisoner. But Miltiades -was well known to Crœsus, who, on hearing of this event, sent and -commanded the Lampsacenians to release Miltiades; if not, he -threatened that he would destroy them like a pine-tree. The -Lampsacenians, uncertain as to what was the meaning of this saying, -discovered, with some difficulty, from one of the elders, that -the pine alone of all trees, when cut down, does not send forth any -more shoots, but perishes entirely: whereupon the Lampsacenians, -dreading the power of Crœsus, set Miltiades at liberty. He -accordingly escaped by means of Crœsus, and afterward died childless, -having bequeathed the government and his property to Stesagoras, -his brother by the same mother. When he was dead the -Chersonesians sacrificed to him, as is usual to a founder, and instituted -equestrian and gymnastic exercises, in which no Lampsacenian -is permitted to contend. The war with the Lampsacenians -still continuing, it also befell Stesagoras to die childless; being -struck on the head with an axe in the prytaneum, by a man who -in pretence was a deserter, but was in fact an enemy, and a very -vehement one.</p> - -<p>Upon the death of Stesagoras, the Pisistratidæ sent Miltiades, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">{245}</a></span> -son of Cimon, and brother of Stesagoras who had died, with one -ship to the Chersonese, to assume the government; they had also -treated him with kindness at Athens, as if they had not been -parties to the death of his father Cimon. Miltiades having arrived -in the Chersonese, kept himself at home under color of honoring -the memory of his brother Stesagoras, and the principal -persons of all the cities assembled together from every -quarter, and came in a body with the intention of condoling with -him, whereupon they were all thrown into chains by him. Thus -Miltiades got possession of the Chersonese, maintaining five hundred -auxiliaries, and married Hegesipyle, daughter of Olorus, King -of the Thracians. This Miltiades, son of Cimon, had lately arrived -in the Chersonese, but having heard that the Phœnicians were at -Tenedos, he loaded five triremes with the property he had at hand, -and sailed away for Athens. But when he had set out from the -city of Cardia, he sailed through the gulf of Melas, and as he was -passing by the Chersonese, the Phœnicians fell in with his ships. -Miltiades himself escaped with four of the ships to Imbrus, but the -fifth the Phœnicians pursued and took; of this ship, Metiochus, the -eldest of the sons of Miltiades, happened to be commander, whom -the Phœnicians took together with the ship. When they heard -that he was son of Miltiades, they took him up to the king, -thinking that they should obtain great favor for themselves, because -Miltiades had given an opinion to the Ionians advising them -to comply with the Scythians, when the Scythians requested them -to loose the bridge and return to their own country. But Darius -did the young man no injury, but many favors; for he gave him a -house and an estate, and a Persian wife, by whom he had children, -who were reckoned among the Persians. Meantime Miltiades -arrived safely at Athens.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">{246}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER II.<br /> -<small>EXPEDITION OF MARDONIUS.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the beginning of the spring, the other generals were dismissed -by the king, but Mardonius, son of Gobryas, went down to -the coast, taking with him a very large land-army, and a numerous -naval force: he was young in years, and had lately married king -Darius' daughter, Artazostra. When he arrived in Cilicia, and -had gone in person on board ship, he proceeded with the rest of the -fleet, while the other generals led the land-army to the Hellespont. -When Mardonius reached Ionia, he did a thing, which, when I -mention it, will be a matter of very great astonishment to those -Greeks, who cannot believe that Otanes, one of the seven Persians, -gave an opinion that it was right for the Persians to be governed -by a democracy; for Mardonius deposed the tyrants of the Ionians, -and established democracies in the cities.</p> - -<p>After this, Darius made trial of what were the intentions of the -Greeks, whether to make war with him or to deliver themselves -up. He therefore despatched heralds, appointing different persons -to go to different parts throughout Greece, with orders to ask -earth and water for the king, the Persian method of demanding -submission. These he sent to Greece, and despatched other heralds -to the tributary cities on the coast, with orders to build ships -of war and transports for horses. To the heralds who came to -Greece many of the inhabitants of the continent gave what the -Persian demanded, as did all the islanders also, and moreover the -Æginetæ, whereupon the Athenians forthwith threatened them, -thinking that the Æginetæ had given earth and water out of ill-will -toward themselves, in order that they might make war on -them in conjunction with the Persian. And the Athenians laying -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">{247}</a></span> -hold of the pretext, sent to Sparta to accuse the Æginetæ of what -they had done as betraying Greece.</p> - -<p>The Spartans say, that once upon a time there lived in Lacedæmon -one Glaucus, son of Epicydes. This man attained to the -first rank in all respects, and bore the highest character for justice -of all who at that time dwelt at Lacedæmon. In the course of -time a certain Milesian came to Sparta and wished to have a conference -with him, and said: "I am a Milesian, and have come, -Glaucus, with the desire of profiting by your justice, of which, -throughout all the rest of Greece, and particularly in Ionia, there -is great talk. Ionia is so continually exposed to great dangers, -while with us one can never see the same persons retaining -property. Having, therefore, reflected and deliberated on these -things, I determined to change half of my whole substance into -silver and deposit it with you, being well assured that with you, it -would be safe. Do you, then, take this money, and preserve these -tokens; and whosoever possessing these shall demand it back -again, restore it to him." So spoke the stranger who came from -Miletus, and Glaucus received the deposit, on the condition mentioned. -After a long time had elapsed, the sons of this man who -had deposited the money came to Sparta, and addressed themselves -to Glaucus, showed the tokens, and demanded back the -money. Glaucus repulsed them, answering as follows: "I don't -remember the matter, nor any of the circumstances you mention; -but if I can recall it to my mind, I am willing to do every thing that -is just; if I really received it, I wish to restore it correctly; but if -I have not received it at all, I shall have recourse to the laws of -the Greeks against you. I therefore defer settling this matter with -you for four months from the present time." The Milesians in disappointment -departed, taking greatly to heart the loss of their -money. But Glaucus went to Delphi to consult the oracle; and, -when he asked the oracle whether he should make a booty of the -money by an oath, the Pythian assailed him in the following words: -"Glaucus, son of Epicydes, thus to prevail by an oath, and to make -a booty of the money, will be a present gain. But there is a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">{248}</a></span> -nameless son of Perjury, who has neither hands nor feet; he -pursues swiftly, until he has seized and destroyed the whole -race, and all the house of him who has falsely sworn. But the -race of a man who keeps his oath is afterward more blessed." -Glaucus, hearing this, entreated the god to pardon the words he -had spoken. But the Pythian said, that to tempt the god, and to -commit the crime, were the same thing. So Glaucus sent for the -Milesian strangers, and restored them the money. There is at -present not a single descendant of Glaucus, nor any house which -is supposed to have belonged to Glaucus; but he is utterly extirpated -from Sparta. Thus it is right to have no other thought -concerning a deposit, than to restore it when it is demanded.</p> - -<div class="section"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249"></a></div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/p249.jpg" width="600" height="444" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>RUINS OF AN ANCIENT TEMPLE IN CORINTH.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The Æginetæ, offended at what they considered a great affront, -prepared to revenge themselves on the Athenians: and as the -Athenians happened to have a five-benched galley at Sunium, -they formed an ambuscade and took the ship "Theoris"<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_24" id="Ref_24" href="#Foot_24">[24]</a></span> -filled with the principal Athenians, and put the men in chains. The -Athenians, thus treated by the Æginetæ, no longer delayed to devise -all sorts of plans against them. Now there was in Ægina an -eminent man named Nicodromus, son of Cnœthus; incensed -against the Æginetæ on account of his former banishment from -the island, and now hearing that the Athenians were preparing to -do a mischief to the Æginetæ, he entered into an agreement with -the Athenians for the betrayal of Ægina, mentioning on what day -he would make the attempt, and on what it would be necessary -for them to come to his assistance. Nicodromus, according to his -agreement, on the appointed day seized that which is called the -old town. The Athenians, however, did not arrive at the proper -time, for they happened not to have a sufficient number of ships -to engage with the Æginetæ; and while they were entreating the -Corinthians to furnish them with ships, their plan was ruined. The -Corinthians, for they were then on very friendly terms with them, at -their request supplied the Athenians with twenty ships, hiring -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">{250}</a></span> -them out at a nominal price of five drachmæ each; because by their -laws they were forbidden to give them for nothing. The Athenians, -taking these and their own, manned seventy ships in all, -sailed to Ægina, and arrived one day after that agreed upon. -When the Athenians did not arrive at the proper time, Nicodromus -embarked on shipboard and made his escape from Ægina; -and others of the Æginetæ accompanied him, to whom the Athenians -gave Sunium for a habitation; and they, sallying from thence, -plundered the Æginetæ in the island. This, however, happened -subsequently. In the meantime the most wealthy of the Æginetæ -overpowered the common people, who, together with Nicodromus, -had revolted against them, and led them out to execution. On -this occasion they incurred a guilt, which they were unable to expiate -by any contrivance, as they were ejected out of the island -before the goddess became propitious to them. For having taken -seven hundred of the common people prisoners, they led them -out to execution; and one of them, who escaped from his bonds, -fled to the porch of Ceres the lawgiver, and seizing the door-handle, -held it fast; when they were unable by dragging to tear -him away, they cut off his hands, and so took him away; and the -hands were left sticking on the door-handles. So did the Æginetæ -treat their own people. But when the Athenians arrived with -their seventy ships, they came to an engagement, and being conquered -in the sea-fight, they called upon the same persons as before -for assistance, that is, on the Argives. They, however, would -not any longer succor them, but complained that the ships of the -Æginetæ, having been forcibly seized by Cleomenes, had touched -on the territory of Argos, and the crews had disembarked with the -Lacedæmonians. Some men had also disembarked from Sicyonian -ships in the same invasion; and a penalty was imposed upon them -by the Argives, to pay a thousand talents, five hundred each. -The Sicyonians, acknowledging that they had acted unjustly, made -an agreement to pay one hundred talents, and be free from the -rest; but the Æginetæ would not own themselves in the wrong, -and were very obstinate. On this account, therefore, none of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">{251}</a></span> -Argives were sent by the commonwealth to assist them; but, on -their request, volunteers went to the number of a thousand; a -general, whose name was Eurybates, and who had practised for -the pentathlon, led them. The greater number of these never returned -home, but were slain by the Athenians in Ægina. The -general, Eurybates, engaging in single combat, killed three several -antagonists in that manner, but was slain by the fourth, Sophanes -of Decelea. But the Æginetæ attacked the fleet of the Athenians -when they were in disorder, and obtained a victory, and took -four of their ships with the men on board.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">{252}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER III.<br /> -<small>EXPEDITION OF DATIS AND ARTAPHERNES; THE BATTLE OF MARATHON.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">War</span> was accordingly kindled between the Athenians and -Æginetæ. But the Persian pursued his own design, for the servant -continually reminded him to remember the Athenians, and -the Pisistratidæ constantly importuned him and accused the Athenians; -and at the same time Darius was desirous of subduing those -people of Greece who had refused to give him earth and water. He -therefore dismissed Mardonius from his command, because he had -succeeded ill in his expedition; and appointed other generals, -whom he sent against Eretria and Athens, namely, Datis, who was -a Mede by birth, and Artaphernes, son of Artaphernes, his own -nephew; and he despatched them with strict orders to enslave -Athens and Eretria, and bring the bondsmen into his presence. -When these generals who were appointed left the king, and -reached the Aleian plain of Cilicia, bringing with them a numerous -and well-equipped army, they encamped there until the whole -naval force required from each people came up: the horse-transports -were also present, which Darius in the preceding year had -commanded his tributaries to prepare. They put the horses on -board of these, and embarked the land-forces in the ships, and -sailed for Ionia with six hundred triremes. From there they did -not steer their ships along the continent direct to the Hellespont -and Thrace; but parting from Samos they bent their course -across the Icarian sea, and through the islands, dreading the circumnavigation -of Athos, because in the preceding year, in attempting -a passage that way, they had sustained great loss.</p> - -<p>While they were doing this, the Delians also, abandoning -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">{253}</a></span> -Delos, fled to Tenos; but as the fleet was sailing down toward it, -Datis would not permit the ships to anchor near the island, but -further on, off Rhenea; and he, having ascertained where the -Delians were, sent a herald and addressed them as follows: -"Sacred men, why have you fled, forming an unfavorable opinion -of me? For both I myself have so much wisdom, and am so -ordered by the king, that in the region where the two deities<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_25" id="Ref_25" href="#Foot_25">[25]</a></span> -were born, no harm should be done either to the country itself or -its inhabitants. Return, therefore, to your houses, and resume -possession of the island." This message he sent to the Delians -by means of a herald; and afterward heaped up three hundred -talents of frankincense upon the altar, and burnt it. Then Datis -sailed with the army first against Eretria, taking with him both -Ionians and Æolians. But after he had put out to sea from there, -Delos was shaken by an earthquake, as the Delians say, the first -and last time that it was ever so affected. And the deity assuredly -by this portent intimated to men the evils that were about to befall -them. For during the three successive reigns of Darius, son of -Hystaspes, of Xerxes, son of Darius, and of Artaxerxes, son of -Xerxes, more disasters befell Greece than during the twenty generations -that preceded the time of Darius, partly brought upon it -by the Persians, and partly by the chief men amongst them contending -for power. So that it is not at all improbable that Delos -should be moved at that time, though until then unmoved; and in -an oracle respecting it, it had been thus written: "I will move -even Delos, although hitherto unmoved." And in the Greek -language these names mean: Darius, "one who restrains"; -Xerxes, "a warrior"; and Artaxerxes, "a mighty warrior."</p> - -<p>After the barbarians had parted from Delos, and touched at -the islands, they took with them men to serve in the army, and -carried away the sons of the islanders for hostages. Having subdued -Eretria, and rested a few days, they sailed to Attica, pressing -the inhabitants very close, and expecting to treat them in the same -way as they had the Eretrians. Now as Marathon was the spot -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">{254}</a></span> -in Attica best adapted for cavalry, and nearest to Eretria, they -gathered their forces there. When the Athenians heard of this, -they also sent their forces to Marathon: and ten generals led -them, of whom the tenth was Miltiades, whose father, Cimon, had -been banished from Athens by Pisistratus. During his exile, it was -his good fortune to obtain the Olympic prize in the four-horse chariot -race, the honor of which victory he transferred to Miltiades, his -brother by the same mother; afterward, in the next Olympiad, -being victorious with the same mares, he permitted Pisistratus to -be proclaimed victor, and returned home under terms. But after -he had gained a third Olympic prize with the same mares, it happened -that he died by the hands of the sons of Pisistratus, when -Pisistratus himself was no longer alive; they slew him near the -Prytaneum, having placed men to waylay him by night. Cimon -was buried in front of the city, beyond that which is called the -road to Cœla, and opposite him these same mares were buried, -which won the three Olympic prizes. Stesagoras, the elder son -of Cimon, was at that time being educated by his uncle in the -Chersonese, but the younger by Cimon himself at Athens, and he -had the name of Miltiades, from Miltiades, the founder of the -Chersonese. At that time, then, this Miltiades, coming from the -Chersonese, and having escaped a twofold death, became general -of the Athenians; for in the first place, the Phœnicians pursued -him as far as Imbros, exceedingly desirous of seizing him and carrying -him up to the king; and in the next, when he had escaped -them, and had returned to his own country, and thought himself -in safety, his enemies attacked him, and brought him before a court -of justice, to prosecute him for tyranny in the Chersonese. These -also he escaped, and was at length appointed general of the -Athenians by the choice of the people.</p> - -<p>And first, while the generals were yet in the city, they despatched -a herald to Sparta, one Phidippides, an Athenian, a courier -by profession, who arrived in Sparta on the following day after his -departure from the city of the Athenians, and on coming in presence -of the magistrates, said: "Lacedæmonians, the Athenians -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">{255}</a></span> -entreat you to assist them, and not to suffer the most ancient city -among the Greeks to fall into bondage to barbarians; for Eretria -is already reduced to slavery, and Greece has become weaker by -the loss of a renowned city." He delivered the message according -to his instructions, and they resolved to assist the Athenians; -but it was out of their power to do so immediately, as they were -unwilling to violate the law; for it was the ninth day of the current -month; and they said they could not march out until the moon's -circle should be full.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the traitor Hippias, son of Pisistratus, had guided -the barbarians to Marathon. He first of all landed the slaves from -Eretria on the island of the Styreans, called Ægilia; and next he -moored the ships as they came to Marathon, and drew up the barbarians -as they disembarked on land. But as he was busied in -doing this, it happened that he sneezed and coughed more violently -than he was accustomed; and as he was far advanced in years, -several of his teeth were loose, so that through the violence of his -cough he threw out one of these teeth. It fell on the sand, and -he used every endeavor to find it; but when the tooth could -nowhere be found, he drew a deep sigh, and said to the bystanders: -"This country is not ours, nor shall we be able to subdue -it; whatever share belongeth to me, my tooth possesses."</p> - -<p>When the Athenians were drawn up in a place sacred to Hercules, -the Platæans came to their assistance with all their forces. -For the Platæans had given themselves up to the Athenians, as -the Athenians had already undergone many toils on their account.</p> - -<p>The opinions of the Athenian generals were divided: one party -not consenting to engage, "because they were too few to engage -with the army of the Medes"; and the others, among whom was -Miltiades, urging them to give battle. There was an eleventh -voter who was appointed minister of war among the Athenians, -who had an equal vote with the generals, and at that time Callimachus -of Aphidnæ was minister of war. To him Miltiades came -and spoke as follows: "It now depends on you, Callimachus, -either to enslave Athens, or, by preserving its liberty, to leave a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">{256}</a></span> -memorial of yourself to every age, such as not even Harmodius -and Aristogeiton have left. For the Athenians were never in so -great danger from the time they were first a people. If they succumb -to the Medes, it has been determined what they are to suffer -when delivered up to Hippias; but if the city survives, it will become -the first of the Greek cities. How, then, this can be brought -to pass, and how the power of deciding the matter depends on you, -I will now proceed to explain. The opinions of us generals, who -are ten, are equally divided; the one party urging that we should -engage, the other that we should not. Now, if we do not engage, -I expect that some great dissension arising amongst us will shake -the minds of the Athenians so as to induce them to a compliance -with the Medes. But if we engage before any dastardly thought -arises in the minds of some of the Athenians, if the gods are -impartial, we shall be able to get the better in the engagement. -All these things now entirely depend on you. For if you will support -my opinion, your country will be free, and the city the first in -Greece; but if you join with those who would dissuade us from an -engagement, the contrary of the advantages I have enumerated -will fall to your lot." Miltiades, by these words, gained over Callimachus, -and it was determined to engage. Afterward the generals -whose opinions had been given to engage, as the command -for the day devolved upon each of them, gave it up to Miltiades; -but though he accepted it, he would not come to an engagement -before his own turn to command came.</p> - -<p>The war-minister, Callimachus, commanded the right wing, for -the law at that time was so settled among the Athenians; the Platæans -were drawn out last of all, occupying the left wing. Now, -ever since that battle, when the Athenians offer sacrifices and celebrate -the public festivals which take place every five years, the -Athenian herald prays, saying: "May blessings attend both the -Athenians and the Platæans." Their line was equal in extent to -the Medic line, but the middle of it was but few deep, and there -the line was weakest, while each wing was strong in numbers. -When they were drawn up, and the victims were favorable, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">{257}</a></span> -Athenians, at the order to charge, advanced against the barbarians -in double-quick time; and the space between them was not less -than eight stades. The Persians, seeing them charging at full -speed, prepared to receive them, laughing at their madness when -they saw that they were so few in number, and that they rushed on -at full speed without cavalry or archers. The Athenians, however, -when they engaged in close ranks with the barbarians, fought in a -manner worthy of record. For they, the first of all the Greeks -whom we know of, charged the enemy at full speed, and first endured -the sight of the Medic garb and the men that wore it; for -until that time the very name of the Medes was a terror to the -Greeks. The battle at Marathon lasted a long time: and in the -middle of the line, where the Persians themselves and the Sacæ -were arrayed, the barbarians were victorious, and having broken -the line, pursued to the interior; but in both wings the Athenians -and the Platæans were victorious. Here they allowed the defeated -portion of the barbarians to flee; and having united both wings, -they fought with those who had broken their centre until at last -the Athenians were victorious. They followed the Persians in -their flight, cutting them to pieces, till, reaching the shore, they -called for fire and attacked the ships.</p> - -<p>In this battle the brave war-minister, Callimachus, was killed, -and among the generals, Stesilaus, son of Thrasylas, perished; -Cynægeirus, son of Euphorion, laid hold of a ship's stern and had -his hand severed by an axe and fell; and besides, many other -distinguished Athenians were slain. In this manner the Athenians -made themselves masters of seven ships: but with the rest the -barbarians rowed rapidly back, and after taking off the Eretrian -slaves from the island in which they had left them, sailed round -Sunium, wishing to anticipate the Athenians in reaching the -city. But the Athenians marched with all speed to the assistance -of the city, and reached it before the barbarians arrived; and -as they had come from the precinct of Hercules at Marathon, they -took up their station in another precinct of Hercules at Cynosarges. -The barbarians, having laid to with their fleet off Phalerum -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">{258}</a></span> -for a time, soon sailed away for Asia. In this battle at -Marathon there died of the barbarians about six thousand four -hundred men; and of the Athenians, one hundred and ninety-two. -An Athenian, Epizelus, son of Cuphagoras, while fighting in the -medley, and behaving valiantly, was deprived of sight, though -wounded in no part of his body, nor struck from a distance; and -he continued to be blind from that time for the remainder of his -life. I have heard that he used to give the following account -of his loss. He thought that a large heavy-armed man stood before -him, whose beard shaded the whole of his shield; that this -spectre passed by him, and killed the man that stood by his side, -smiting him with this loss as it passed.</p> - -<p>King Darius, before the Eretrians were made captive, harbored -a deep resentment against them, as the Eretrians had been the -first to begin acts of injustice: but when he saw them brought into -his presence, and subject to his power, he did them no other harm, -but settled them in the Cissian territory at a station of his own, the -name of which is Ardericca; it is two hundred and ten stades distant -from Susa, and forty from the well which produces three different -substances; for asphalt, salt, and oil are drawn up from it, -in the following manner. It is pumped up by means of a swipe, -and, instead of a bucket, half of a wine-skin is attached to it; having -dipped down with this, a man draws it up and then pours the contents -into a receiver; and being poured from this into another, it -assumes three different forms: the asphalt and the salt immediately -become solid, but the oil they collect, and the Persians call it -rhadinace; it is black and emits a strong odor. Here king Darius -settled the Eretrians; who, even to my time, occupied this territory, -retaining their ancient language. Two thousand of the -Lacedæmonians came to Athens after the full moon, making such -haste to be in time, that they arrived in Attica on the third day -after leaving Sparta. Too late for the battle, they, nevertheless, -proceeded to Marathon, saw the slain, commended the Athenians -and their achievement, and returned home.</p> - -<p>After the defeat of the Persians at Marathon, Miltiades, asked -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">{259}</a></span> -of the Athenians seventy ships, and troops, and money, without -telling them what country he purposed to invade, but saying that -he would make them rich if they would follow him, for he would -take them to a country, from which they would easily bring an -abundance of gold, and the Athenians, elated by these hopes, -granted the ships. Miltiades, accordingly took the troops and -sailed against Paros, alleging as a pretext, that the Parians had -first begun hostilities by sending a trireme with the Persians to -Marathon. But his real reason was that he had a grudge against -the Parians on account of Lysagoras, son of Tisias, who was -a Parian by birth and who had calumniated him to Hydarnes -the Persian. Miltiades arrived with his forces and besieged the -Parians, who were driven within their walls; and sent a herald to -them to demand a hundred talents, saying, that if they did not -furnish him that sum, he would not draw off his army until he had -destroyed them. The Parians never entertained the thought of -giving Miltiades any money; but devised means by which they -might defend the city; and in several parts where the wall was -most exposed to attack, they raised it, during the night, to double -its former height. Up to this point of the story all the Greeks -agree; but after this the Parians themselves say that it happened -as follows. That when Miltiades was in a state of perplexity, a -captive woman, by birth a Parian, and named Timo, conferred with -him; she was an inferior priestess of the infernal goddesses. -When she came into the presence of Miltiades, she advised him, if -he deemed it of great consequence to take Paros, to act as she -should suggest. Following out her suggestions he came to the -mound before the city and leaped over the fence of Ceres Thesmophora, -as he was unable to open the door; and went to the -temple, for the purpose either to move some of the things that -may not be moved, or to do something or other, I know not what. -He was just at the door, when suddenly a thrill of horror came -over him, and he went back by the same way; and in leaping -over the fence his thigh was dislocated, or his knee was hurt. -Miltiades, in a bad plight, sailed back home, neither bringing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">{260}</a></span> -money to the Athenians, nor having reduced Paros, but having -besieged it for six and twenty days, and ravaged the island. -When the Parians were informed that Timo, the priestess of the -goddesses, had directed Miltiades, they desired to punish her, and -sent deputies to the oracle at Delphi, as soon as they were relieved -from the siege, to inquire whether they should put to death the -priestess of the goddesses, for having made known to the enemy -the means of capturing the country, and for having discovered to -Miltiades sacred things, which ought not to be revealed to the -male sex. But the Pythian did not allow them, but said, "that -Timo was not to blame for this, but that it was fated Miltiades -should come to a miserable end, and she had appeared to him as a -guide to misfortune." When Miltiades returned from Paros, the -Athenians were loud in their complaints against him, especially -Xanthippus, son of Ariphron, who brought a capital charge against -Miltiades before the people, and prosecuted him for deception. -Miltiades, though present in person, made no defence, through -inability, as his thigh had begun to mortify. But while he lay on -a couch his friends made a defence for him, dwelling much on the -battle that had been fought at Marathon, and on the capture of -Lemnos; since he had taken Lemnos, and inflicted vengeance on -the Pelasgians, and had given it up to the Athenians. The people -so far favored him as to acquit him of the capital offence, but fined -him fifty talents for the injury he had done. Miltiades soon after -ended his life by the mortification of his thigh, and his son Cimon -paid the fifty talents.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_22" id="Foot_22" href="#Ref_22">[22]</a> -The Greek words, literally translated, mean "on a razor's edge."</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_23" id="Foot_23" href="#Ref_23">[23]</a> -There is very good reason to believe that this fine was really imposed for the adoption of a -modern theme by Phrynichus, when hitherto only the gods and heroes had been permissible subjects.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_24" id="Foot_24" href="#Ref_24">[24]</a> -The "Theoris" was a vessel which was sent every year to Delos to offer sacrifice to -Apollo.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_25" id="Foot_25" href="#Ref_25">[25]</a> -Apollo and Diana.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">{261}</a></div> - -<h2><i>BOOK VII. POLYMNIA.</i></h2> - -<h3>CHAPTER I.<br /> -<small>DEATH OF DARIUS AND REIGN OF XERXES.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">When</span> the news of the battle fought at Marathon reached -Darius, who was before much exasperated with the Athenians on -account of the attack upon Sardis, he grew still more eager to -prosecute the war against Greece. He therefore immediately sent -messengers to the several cities, and bade them prepare an army -much greater than they had furnished before, and ships, horses, -corn, and transports. Asia was thrown into agitation during the -space of three years, the bravest men being enrolled and prepared -for the purpose of invading Greece. In the fourth year the Egyptians, -who had been subdued by Cambyses, revolted from the Persians; -whereupon Darius only became the more eager to march -against both. Just then a violent dissension arose between the -sons of Darius concerning the sovereignty; for by the customs of -the Persians he was obliged to nominate his successor before he -marched out on any expedition. Before Darius became king, he -had three sons born to him by his former wife, the daughter of -Gobryas; and after his accession to the throne, four others by -Atossa, daughter of Cyrus. Of the former, Artabazanes was the -eldest; of those born after, Xerxes: and these two, not being of -the same mother, were at variance. Artabazanes urged that he -was the eldest of all the sons, and that it was the established usage -among all men that the eldest son should succeed to the sovereignty: -on the other hand, Xerxes alleged that he was son of Atossa, -daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had acquired freedom -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">{262}</a></span> -for the Persians. At this very juncture, when Darius had not -yet declared his opinion, Demaratus, son of Ariston, happened to -come up to Susa, deprived of his kingly office at Sparta, and -having imposed on himself a voluntary exile from Lacedæmon. -This man went to Xerxes, as report has it, and advised him to say -in addition to what he had already said, that "he was born after -his father Darius had become king, and was possessed of the -empire of the Persians; whereas Artabazanes was born while he -was yet a private person; wherefore it was not reasonable or just -that any other should possess that dignity in preference to himself." -"Since in Sparta also," Demaratus continued to suggest, "this custom -prevailed, that if some children were born before their father -became king, and one was born subsequently, when he had -come to the throne, this last-born son should succeed to the kingdom." -Darius acknowledged this point, and declared Xerxes king. -But it appears to me that even without this suggestion Xerxes -would have been made king, for Atossa had unbounded influence. -So Darius appointed Xerxes to be king over the Persians, and -prepared to march. But just at this juncture, and in the year after -the revolt of Egypt, Darius himself, while making preparations, -died, having reigned thirty-six years in all; nor was he able to -avenge himself either on the Egyptians, who had revolted, or on -the Athenians; and when Darius was dead, the kingdom devolved -on his son Xerxes.</p> - -<p>Xerxes was at first by no means inclined to make war against -Greece, but he levied forces for the reduction of Egypt. Mardonius, -son of Gobryas, who was cousin to Xerxes, and son of Darius' -sister, and who had the greatest influence with him of all the -Persians, constantly held the following language: "Sire, it is not -right that the Athenians, who have already done so much mischief -to the Persians, should go unpunished? However, for the present, -finish the enterprise you have in hand; and when you have -quelled the insolence of Egypt, lead your army against Athens; -that you may acquire a good reputation among men, and any one -for the future may be cautious of marching against your territory." -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">{263}</a></span> -This language was used by him for the purpose of revenge, but he -frequently made the following addition to it, that "Europe was a -very beautiful country, and produced all kinds of cultivated trees,—and -was very fertile, and worthy to be possessed by the king alone -of all mortals." Mardonius was desirous of new enterprises, and -wished to be himself governor of Greece, and in time he persuaded -Xerxes to do as he advised. Xerxes, in the second year after the -death of Darius, reduced all Egypt to a worse state of servitude -than ever under Darius, and committed the government to -Achæmenes, his brother.</p> - -<p>He then convoked an assembly of the principal Persians, that -he might hear their opinions, and make known his intentions to -them all. "Men of Persia," said Xerxes, "I learn from older men -that we have never remained inactive since we wrested the sovereign -power from the Medes, and Cyrus overthrew Astyages; -but the deity has led the way, and we have followed his guidance -to our advantage. What deeds Cyrus and Cambyses and my -father Darius have achieved, and what nations they have added to -our empire, no one need mention to you who know them well. -But since I have succeeded to the throne, I have carefully considered -how I may not fall short of my predecessors in honor, nor acquire -less additional power to the Persians."</p> - -<p>"I have now called you together, that I may communicate to you -what I purpose to do. I intend to throw a bridge over the Hellespont, -and to march an army through Europe against Greece, that -I may punish the Athenians for the injuries they have done to the -Persians and to my father. You have already seen Darius preparing -to make war against those people; but he died, and had it -not in his power to avenge himself. But I, in his cause and that -of the other Persians, will not rest till I have taken and burnt -Athens; for they began by doing acts of injustice against my -father and me. First they came to Sardis, with Aristagoras the -Milesian, our servant, and burnt down the groves and the temples. -You all know well enough how they treated us on our making a -descent on their territory, when Datis and Artaphernes led our -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">{264}</a></span> -forces. For these reasons, therefore, I have resolved to make war -upon them. And I am sure that if we subdue them, and their -neighbors, who inhabit the country of Pelops the Phrygian, we -shall make the Persian territory co-extensive with the air of -heaven, for the sun will not look down upon any land that borders -on ours. When I shall have informed you of the time, it will be -the duty of each of you to come promptly. And whosoever shall -appear with the best-appointed troops, to him I will give such -presents as are accounted most honorable in our country."</p> - -<p>After this, when Xerxes had resolved to undertake the expedition, -a vision appeared to him in his sleep, which the magi interpreted -to signify that all mankind should serve him. Xerxes imagined -that he was crowned with the sprig of an olive tree, whose -branches covered the whole earth; and that afterward the crown -that was placed on his head disappeared. After the magi had -given this interpretation, all the Persians who were assembled departed -immediately to their own governments, and used all diligence -to execute what had been ordered, every man hoping to obtain -the proposed reward; Xerxes thus levied his army, searching out -every region of the continent. He was employed four whole -years in assembling his forces and providing things necessary for -the expedition. In the fifth he began his march with a vast multitude -of men. For this was by far the greatest of all the expeditions -with which we are acquainted. What nation did not Xerxes -lead out of Asia against Greece? what stream, except that of great -rivers, did not his army drink dry? Some supplied ships; -others were ordered to furnish men for the infantry, others cavalry, -some transports for horses, together with men to serve in the -army; others had to furnish long ships for the bridges, and others -provisions and vessels.</p> - -<p>And first of all, as those who had first attempted to double -Mount Athos had met with disaster, preparations were made for -nearly three years to cut Athos off by a canal. Triremes were -stationed at Eleus in the Chersonese, and from there men of every -nation from the army dug under the lash. They went in succession; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">{265}</a></span> -and the people who dwelt round Athos dug also. Bubares, -son of Megabazus, and Artachæus, son of Artæus, both Persians, -presided over the work. Athos is a vast and celebrated mountain, -stretching into the sea, and inhabited by men. Where the mountain -terminates toward the continent, it is in the form of a peninsula -connected with the continent by an isthmus of about twelve -stades; this is a plain with hills of no great height from the sea of -the Acanthians to the sea which is opposite Torone. On this -isthmus stands Sana, a Grecian city; and on Athos itself are the -cities of Dion, Olophyxus, Acrothoon, Thyssus, and Cleonæ. To -make the excavation the barbarians divided the ground among the -several nations, having drawn a straight line near the city of Sana. -When the trench was deep, some stood at the bottom and continued -to dig, and others handed the soil that was dug out to men -who stood above on ladders; they again in turn handed it to -others, until they reached those that were at the top; the last -carried it off and threw it away. In the case of all, except the -Phœnicians, the brink of the excavation fell in and gave double -labor, for as they made the upper and the lower opening of equal -dimensions, this must necessarily happen. But the Phœnicians, -who show their skill in other works, did so especially in this; for -they dug the portion that fell to their share, making the upper -opening of the trench twice as large as it was necessary for -the trench itself to be; and as the work proceeded they -contracted it gradually, so that when they came to the bottom -the work was equal in width to the rest; near adjoining is a -meadow, where they had a market and bazaar, and great abundance -of meal was brought to them from Asia. According to my -deliberate opinion, Xerxes ordered this excavation to be made -from motives of ostentation, wishing to display his power, and to -leave a memorial of himself. For though it was possible, without -any great labor, to have drawn the ships over the isthmus, he -commanded them to dig a channel for the sea of such a width that -two triremes might pass through rowed abreast. And the same -persons, to whom the excavation was committed, were ordered also -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">{266}</a></span> -to throw a bridge over the river Strymon. He also caused -cables of papyrus and of white flax to be prepared for the bridges, -and ordered the Phœnicians and Egyptians to lay up provisions -for the army, that neither the men nor the beasts of burden might -suffer from famine on their march toward Greece, conveying them -to various quarters in merchant-ships and transports from all parts -of Asia.</p> - -<p>While these men were employed in their appointed task, the -whole land-forces marched with Xerxes to Sardis, setting out from -Critalla in Cappadocia, where it had been ordered that all the -troops throughout the continent should assemble. They crossed -the river Halys, entered Phrygia, and arrived at Celænæ, where -rise the springs of the Mæander, and of another river not less than -the Mæander, which is called the Catarractes, which, springing up -in the very forum of the Celænians, discharges itself into the -Mæander; in this city the skin of Silenus Marsyas is suspended, -which, as the Phrygians report, was stripped off and suspended -by Apollo. In this city Pythius, son of Atys, a Lydian, being in -waiting, entertained the whole army of the king, and Xerxes himself, -with most sumptuous feasts; and he offered to contribute -money toward the expense of the war. Xerxes asked the Persians -near him who this Pythius was, and what riches he possessed, that -he made such an offer. They answered: "O king, this is the -person who presented your father Darius with the golden plane tree -and the vine; and he is now the richest man we know of in -the world, next to yourself." Xerxes in surprise next asked -Pythius what was the amount of his wealth. He said: "O king, -as soon as I heard you were coming down to the Grecian sea, -wishing to present you with money for the war, I made inquiry, -and found by computation that I had two thousand talents of silver, -and of gold four millions of Doric staters, lacking seven thousand. -These I freely give you; for myself I have sufficient subsistence -from my slaves and lands." Xerxes, delighted with his offer, -replied: "My Lydian friend, since I left the Persian country I -have met with no man to the present moment who was willing to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">{268}</a></span> -entertain my army, or who, having come into my presence, has -voluntarily offered to contribute money toward the war. But you -have entertained my army magnificently, and have offered me vast -sums; in return for this, I make you my friend. Keep what you -have acquired, and I will myself make up to you the seven thousand -staters which you lack of four millions. Be careful always to continue -such as you are, and you shall never repent hereafter."</p> - -<div class="section"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"></a></div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/p267.jpg" width="600" height="452" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>TRIPOLITZA.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>From Phrygia he entered Lydia, crossed the river Mæander, -and passed by the city of Callatebus, in which confectioners make -honey with tamarisk and wheat. Xerxes, by the way, met with a -plane-tree, which, on account of its beauty, he presented with -golden ornaments, and having committed it to the care of one of -the Immortals,<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_26" id="Ref_26" href="#Foot_26">[26]</a></span> -on the next day he arrived at Sardis, the capital of the Lydians.</p> - -<p>In the meanwhile those who were appointed had joined -the Hellespont from Asia to Europe. There is in the Chersonese -on the Hellespont, between the city of Sestos and Madytus, -a craggy shore extending into the sea, directly opposite Abydos. -From this shore to Abydos, they had constructed two bridges, the -Phœnicians one with white flax, and the Egyptians the other with -papyrus. The distance is seven stades. When the strait was -thus united, a violent storm arose and broke in pieces and -scattered the whole work. When Xerxes heard of this, exceedingly -indignant, he commanded that the Hellespont should be -stricken with three hundred lashes with a scourge, and that a pair -of fetters should be let down into the sea. I have moreover -heard that with them he likewise sent branding instruments to -brand the Hellespont. He certainly charged those who flogged -the waters to utter these barbarous and impious words: "Thou -bitter water! thy master inflicts this punishment upon thee, -because thou hast injured him, although thou hadst not suffered -any harm from him. And king Xerxes will cross over thee, -whether thou wilt or not; it is with justice that no man sacrifices -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">{269}</a></span> -to thee, because thou art both a deceitful and briny river!" He -accordingly commanded them to chastise the sea in this manner, -and to cut off the heads of those who had to superintend the joining -of the Hellespont. They on whom this thankless office -was imposed, carried it into execution; and other engineers constructed -bridges in the following manner. They connected -together penteconters and triremes, under the bridge toward the -Euxine sea, three hundred and sixty; and under the other, -three hundred and fourteen, obliquely to the Pontus, but in -the direction of the current of the Hellespont, that it might keep -up the tension of the cables. They then let down very long -anchors, some on the bridge toward the Pontus, on account of the -winds that blew from it within; others on the other bridge toward -the west and the Ægean, on account of the south and southeast -winds. They left an opening as a passage through between the -penteconters, in three places, that any one who wished might -be able to sail into the Pontus in light vessels, and from the -Pontus outward. Having done this, they stretched the cables from -the shore, twisting them with wooden capstans, not as before -using the two kinds separately, but assigning to each two of white -flax and four of papyrus. The thickness and quality was the -same, but those of flax were stronger in proportion, every cubit -weighing a full talent. When the passage was bridged over, they -sawed up trunks of trees, equal in length to the width of the -bridge, and laid them upon the extended cables in regular order, -fastening them securely together. They put brush-wood on -the top, and earth over the whole; and having pressed down the -earth, they drew a fence on each side, that the beasts of -burden and horses might not be frightened by looking down -upon the sea.</p> - -<p>At last the works at the bridges and Mount Athos were completed, -as well as the mounds at the mouths of the canal which had -been made on account of the tide in order that the mouths of the -trench might not be choked up. News was brought that all was -ready, and the army, fresh from their winter at Sardis, set out fully -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">{270}</a></span> -prepared at the beginning of the spring toward Abydos. But just -as they were on the point of starting, the sun quit his seat in the -heavens and disappeared, though there were no clouds, and the -air was perfectly serene, and night ensued in the place of day. -This occasioned Xerxes much uneasiness; but the magi said -"The deity foreshows to the Greeks the extinction of their cities; -the sun is the portender of the future to the Greeks, and the moon -to the Persians." Xerxes, at this, was much delighted, and set -out upon his march. As he was leading his army away, Pythius -the Lydian, terrified by the prodigy in the heavens, and emboldened -by the gifts of Xerxes, went to the king and spoke thus: -"Sire, would you indulge me by granting a boon I wish to obtain, -which is easy for you to grant, and of much importance to me." -Xerxes, expecting that he would wish for anything rather than -what he did ask, said that he would grant his request, and bade -him declare what he wanted. "Sire," said he, "I have five sons; -and it happens that they are all attending you in the expedition -against Greece. But pity me, O king, who am advanced in years, -and release one of my sons from the service, that he may take -care of me and my property. Take the other four with you, accomplish -your designs, and return home." Xerxes was highly incensed, -and answered: "Base man! hast thou dared, when I am -marching in person against Greece, and taking with me my -children, and brothers, and kinsmen, and friends to make mention -of thy son? thou who art my slave, and who wert bound in duty to -follow me with all thy family, even with thy wife. But I promise -to grant your request; I will leave your dearest son." When he -had given this answer, he immediately commanded to find out the -eldest of the sons of Pythius, and to cut his body into two halves, -and to stand one on the right of the road, and the other on the -left, while the army should pass between them.</p> - -<p>This done the army passed between. The baggage-bearers -and beasts of burden first led the way; after them came a host of -all nations. When more than one half of the army had passed, an -interval was left that they might not mix with the king's troops. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">{271}</a></span> -Before him a thousand horsemen led the van, chosen from among -all the Persians; and next to them a thousand spearmen, these -also chosen from among all, carrying their lances turned downwards -to the earth. After these, ten immense sacred horses, gorgeously -caparisoned, called Nisæan, from the plain in the Medic territory, -which produces them; then came the sacred chariot of Jupiter, -drawn by eight white horses, followed by a charioteer on foot, -holding the reins; for no mortal ever ascends this seat. Behind -this came Xerxes himself on a chariot drawn by Nisæan horses; -and a charioteer walked at his side, whose name was Patiramphes. -In this manner Xerxes marched out of Sardis, and whenever he -thought right, he used to pass from the chariot to a covered carriage. -Behind him marched a thousand spearmen, the bravest and -noblest of the Persians, carrying their spears in the usual manner; -and after them another body of a thousand horse, chosen from -among the Persians; then ten thousand chosen Persian infantry. -Of these, one thousand had golden pomegranates on their spears -instead of ferrules, and they enclosed the others all round; the nine -thousand within had silver pomegranates. Those also that carried -their spears turned to the earth had golden pomegranates, and -those that followed nearest to Xerxes had golden apples. Behind -the ten thousand foot were placed ten thousand Persian cavalry; -and after the cavalry was left an interval of two stades; then the -rest of the throng followed promiscuously.</p> - -<p>Once when the army halted during the night under Mount Ida, -thunder and lightning fell upon them, and destroyed a considerable -number of the troops on the spot. At the Scamander, the first river -on their march from Sardis, the stream failed and did not afford -sufficient drink for the army and beasts of burden. Here Xerxes -went up to the Pergamus or citadel of Priam, and sacrificed a -thousand oxen to the Ilian Minerva, and the magi poured out -libations in honor of the heroes of the Trojan War. At Abydos, -Xerxes wished to behold the whole army. And there had been -previously erected on a hill at this place, for his use, a lofty -throne of white marble; the people of Abydos had made it, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">{272}</a></span> -in obedience to an order of the king. Seated there, he beheld -both the land army and the fleet; he desired also to see a contest -take place between the ships, in which the Sidonian Phœnicians -were victorious. Exceedingly gratified he was, both with the -contest and the army. But while he was viewing the whole -Hellespont covered by the ships, and all the shores and the plains -of Abydos full of men, he suddenly burst into tears. Artabanus, -his paternal uncle, observed him, and exclaimed: "O king, a moment -ago you pronounced yourself happy, but now you weep." -"Alas," he answered: "Commiseration seized me, when I -considered how brief all human life is, since of these, numerous as -they are, not one will be alive in a hundred years!"</p> - -<p>That day they made preparations for the passage over; and on -the following they waited for the sun, as they wished to see -it rising, in the mean time burning all sorts of perfumes on the -bridges, and strewing the road with myrtle branches. When the -sun rose, Xerxes poured a libation into the sea out of a golden -cup, and offered up a prayer to the sun, that no such accident -might befall him as would prevent him from subduing Europe, until -he had reached its utmost limits. After the prayer, he threw -the cup into the Hellespont, and a golden bowl, and a Persian -sword, which they call acinace. But I cannot determine with -certainty, whether he dropped these things into the sea as an offering -to the sun, or whether he repented of having scourged -the Hellespont, and presented these gifts to the sea as a compensation. -These ceremonies finished, the infantry and all the -cavalry crossed over by that bridge which was toward the Pontus; -and the beasts of burden and the attendants by that toward the -Ægean. I have heard that Xerxes crossed over last of all. In -seven days and seven nights without a halt his army crossed. -On this occasion it is related, that when Xerxes had crossed over -the Hellespont, a certain Hellespontine said: "O Jupiter, why, -assuming the form of a Persian, and taking the name of Xerxes, -do you wish to subvert Greece, bringing all mankind with you? -since without them it was in your power to do this."</p> - -<div class="section"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273"></a></div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/p273.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>THE TOMB OF JONAH, KONYUNJIK, AND THE RUINS OPPOSITE MOSUL.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">{274}</a></span> -Doriscus is a shore and extensive plain of Thrace. Through it -flows a large river, the Hebrus. A royal fort had been built, -and a Persian garrison had been established in it by Darius, from -the time that he marched against the Scythians. At Doriscus -Xerxes numbered his army. The whole land forces were found to -be seventeen hundred thousand. They were computed in this -manner: having drawn together ten thousand men in one place, -and crowded them as close together as it was possible, they -traced a circle on the outside; removed the ten thousand, threw -up a stone fence on the circle, a yard high, and made others -enter within the enclosed space, until they had in this manner -computed all.</p> - -<p>The Persians were equipped as follows: On their heads -they wore loose coverings, called tiaras; on the body various-colored -sleeved breastplates, with iron scales like those of fish; and -on their legs, loose trousers; instead of shields they had bucklers -made of osiers; and under them their quivers were hung. They -had short spears, long bows, and arrows made of cane, besides -daggers suspended from the girdle on the right thigh. They had -for their general, Otanes, father of Amestris, wife of Xerxes. -They were formerly called Cephenes by the Grecians, but by -themselves and neighbors, Artæans. But when Perseus, son of -Danae and Jupiter, came to Cepheus, son of Belus, and married -his daughter Andromeda, he had a son to whom he gave the name -of Perses; and from him they derived their appellation. The -Medes marched equipped in the same manner as the Persians; -for the above is a Medic and not a Persian costume. The Medes -had for their general, Tigranes, of the family of the Achæmenidæ: -they were formerly called Arians by all nations; but when Medea -of Colchis came from Athens to these Arians, they also changed -their names. The Assyrians who served in the army had helmets -of bronze, twisted in a barbarous fashion, not easy to describe; and -shields and spears, with daggers similar to those of the Egyptians, -besides wooden clubs knotted with iron, and linen cuirasses. By -the Greeks they were called Syrians, but by the barbarians, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">{275}</a></span> -Assyrians. Among them were the Chaldeans; and Otaspes, son -of Artachæus commanded them. The Bactrians had turbans -on their heads, very much like those of the Medes, and bows made -of cane peculiar to their country, and short spears. The Sacæ, -who are Scythians, had on their heads caps, which came to a -point and stood erect: they also wore loose trousers, and carried -bows peculiar to their country, and daggers, and also battle-axes, -called sagares. The Indians, clad with garments made of cotton, -had bows of cane, and arrows of cane tipped with iron.</p> - -<p>The Arabians wore cloaks fastened by a girdle; and carried on -their right sides long bows which bent backward. The Ethiopians -were clothed in panthers' and lions' skins, and carried long bows, -not less than four cubits in length, made from branches of the -palm-tree; and on them they placed short arrows made of cane, -instead of iron, tipped with a stone, which was made sharp, and of -the sort on which they engrave seals. Besides, they had javelins, -and at the tip was an antelope's horn, made sharp, like a lance; -they had also knotted clubs. When they were going to battle, -they smeared one half of their body with chalk, and the other half -with red ochre. The Arabians and Ethiopians who dwell above -Egypt were commanded by Arsames, son of Darius and Artystone, -daughter of Cyrus, whom Darius loved more than all his wives, -and whose image he had made of beaten gold. The Ethiopians -from the sun-rise (for two kinds served in the expedition) were -marshalled with the Indians, and did not at all differ from the others -in appearance, except in their language and their hair. For the -eastern Ethiopians are straight-haired; but those of Libya have -hair more curly than that of any other people. These Ethiopians -from Asia were accoutred almost the same as the Indians; but -they wore on their heads skins of horses' heads, as masks, stripped -off with the ears and mane; and the mane served instead of a -crest, and the horses' ears were fixed erect; and as defensive -armor they used the skins of cranes instead of shields. The Libyans -marched, clad in leathern garments, and made use of javelins -hardened by fire. They had for their general, Massages, son of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">{276}</a></span> -Oarizus. The Paphlagonians joined the expedition, wearing on -their heads plated helmets, and carried small shields, and not large -spears, besides javelins and daggers: and on their feet they wore -boots, peculiar to their country, reaching up to the middle of the -leg. The Thracians wore fox-skins on their heads, and tunics -around their bodies, and over them they were clothed with various-colored -cloaks, and on their feet and legs they had buskins of fawn-skin, -and carried javelins, light bucklers, and small daggers. These -people having crossed over into Asia, were called Bithynians; but -formerly, as they themselves say, were called Strymonians, as they -dwelt on the river Strymon.</p> - -<p>These, with very many others, were the nations that marched -on the continent and composed the infantry. Over these and the -whole infantry was appointed as general, Mardonius, son of Gobryas. -But of the ten thousand chosen Persians, Hydarnes was -general. These Persians were called Immortal, for the following -reason: If any one of them made a deficiency in the number, compelled -either by death or disease, another was ready chosen to -supply his place; so that they were never either more or less than -ten thousand. The Persians displayed the greatest splendor of -all, and were also the bravest; their equipment was such as has -been described; but besides this, they were conspicuous from -having a great profusion of gold. They also brought with them -covered chariots and a numerous and well-equipped train of attendants. -Camels and other beasts of burden conveyed their provisions, -apart from that of the rest of the soldiers.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/p277.jpg" width="400" height="495" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>BRIDGE OVER THE GORTYNIUS.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>All these nations have cavalry; they did not, however, all furnish -horse, but only the following. First, the Persians, equipped -in the same manner as their infantry, except that on their heads -some of them wore bronze and wrought-steel ornaments. There -is a certain nomadic race, called Sagartians, of Persian extraction -and language, who wear a dress fashioned between the Persian -and the Pactyan fashion; they furnished eight thousand horse, but -they are not accustomed to carry arms either of bronze or iron, except -daggers: they use lassos made of twisted thongs. The -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">{277}</a></span> -mode of fighting of these men is as follows: When they engage -with the enemy they throw out the ropes, which have nooses at -the end, and whatever any one catches, whether horse or man, he -drags toward himself; and they that are entangled in the coils are -put to death. The Arabians had the same dress as their infantry, -but all rode camels not inferior to horses in speed. The number -of the horse amounted to eighty thousand, besides the camels and -chariots. All the rest of the cavalry were marshalled in troops; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">{278}</a></span> -but the Arabians were stationed in the rear, as horses cannot endure -camels. Armamithres and Tithæus, sons of Datis, were generals -of the cavalry. Their third colleague in command, Pharnuches, -had been left at Sardis sick. For as they were setting out from -Sardis he met with a sad accident. When he was mounted, a dog -ran under the legs of his horse, and the horse, frightened, reared -and threw Pharnuches, who vomited blood, and the disease turned -to a consumption. With respect to the horse, his servants immediately -led him to the place where he had thrown his master, and -cut off his legs at the knees.</p> - -<p>The number of the triremes amounted to twelve hundred and -seven.</p> - -<p>Persians, Medes, and Sacæ served as marines on board all the -ships. Of these the Phœnicians furnished the best sailing ships, -and of the Phœnicians the Sidonians. The admirals of the navy -were: Ariabignes, son of Darius; Prexaspes, son of Aspathines; -Megabazus son of Megabates; and Achæmenes, son of Darius. -Of the other captains I make no mention, as I deem it unnecessary, -except of Artemisia, whom I most admire, as having, though -a woman, joined this expedition against Greece. Her husband -was dead, but, holding the sovereignty while her son was under -age, she joined the expedition from a feeling of courage and -manly spirit, though there was no necessity for her doing so. Her -name was Artemisia, and she was the daughter of Lygdamis, by -birth of Halicarnassus on her father's side, and on her mother's a -Cretan. She commanded the Halicarnassians, the Coans, the -Nisyrians, and the Calyndians, having contributed five ships: and -of the whole fleet, next to the Sidonians, she furnished the most -renowned ships, and of all the allies, gave the best advice to the -king. The cities which I have mentioned as being under her -command, I pronounce to be all of Doric origin; the Halicarnassians -being Trœzenians, and the rest Epidaurians.</p> - -<p>When Xerxes had numbered his forces, and the army was -drawn up he desired to pass through and inspect them in person. -Accordingly he drove through in a chariot, by each separate -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">{279}</a></span> -nation, made inquiries, and his secretaries wrote down the -answers; until he had gone from one extremity to the other, both -of the horse and foot. When he had finished this, and the ships -had been launched into the sea, Xerxes, in a Sidonian ship, under -a gilded canopy, sailed by the prows of the ships, asking questions -of each, as he had done with the land-forces, and having the -answers written down.</p> - -<p>When Xerxes arrived at Therma, he ordered his army to halt. -And seeing from Therma the Thessalonian mountains, Olympus -and Ossa, which are of vast size, and having learnt that there was a -narrow pass between them, through which the river Peneus runs, and -hearing that at that spot there was a road leading to Thessaly, very -much wished to sail and see the mouth of the Peneus. When -Xerxes arrived, and beheld its mouth, he was struck with great -astonishment. For several rivers, five of them greatly noted, the -Peneus, the Apidanus, the Onochonus, the Enipeus, and the Pamisus, -meeting together in this plain from the mountains that enclose -Thessaly, discharge themselves into the sea through one channel, -and that a narrow one; but as soon as they have mingled together, -from that spot the names of the other rivers merge in that of the -Peneus.<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_27" id="Ref_27" href="#Foot_27">[27]</a></span> -The Thessalians say, that Neptune made the pass -through which the Peneus flows; and their story is probable. For -whoever thinks that Neptune shakes the earth, and that rents occasioned -by earthquakes are the works of this god, on seeing this, -would say that Neptune formed it. For it appears evident to me, -that the separation of these mountains is the effect of an earthquake.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">{280}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER II.<br /> -<small>BATTLE OF THERMOPYLÆ.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">When</span> the Greeks arrived at the Isthmus they consulted in -what way and in what places they should prosecute the war. The -opinion which prevailed was that they should defend the pass at -Thermopylæ; for it appeared to be narrower than that into Thessaly, -and at the same time nearer to their own territories. On -the western side of Thermopylæ is an inaccessible and precipitous -mountain, stretching to Mount Œta; and on the eastern side of -the way is the sea and a morass. In this passage there are hot -baths, which the inhabitants call Chytri, and above these is an altar -to Hercules. A wall had been built in this pass, and formerly -there were gates in it. The Phocians built it through fear, when -the Thessalians came from Thesprotia to settle in the Æolian territory -which they now possess, apprehending that the Thessalians -would attempt to subdue them; at the same time they diverted -the hot water into the entrance, that the place might be broken -into clefts; having recourse to every contrivance to prevent the -Thessalians from making inroads into their country. Now this -old wall had been built a long time, and the greater part of it had -already fallen through age; but they determined to rebuild it, and -in that place to repel the barbarian from Greece. Very near this -road there is a village called Alpeni, from which they expected to -obtain provisions.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/p281.jpg" width="400" height="293" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>CYCLOPEAN WALLS AT CEPHALLOMA.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The naval forces of Xerxes, setting out from the city of Therma, -advanced with ten of the fastest sailing ships straight to Scyathus, -where were three Greek ships keeping a look-out, a Trœzenian -an Æginetan, and an Athenian. These, seeing the ships of -the barbarians at a distance, betook themselves to flight. The -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">{281}</a></span> -Trœzenian ship, which Praxinus commanded, the barbarians pursued -and soon captured; and then, having led the handsomest of -the marines to the prow of the ship, they slew him, deeming it a -good omen that the first Greek they had taken was also very -handsome. The name of the man that was slain was Leon, and -perhaps he in some measure reaped the fruits of his name. The -Æginetan ship, which Asonides commanded, gave them some -trouble, Pytheas, son of Ischenous, being a marine on board, a -man who on this day displayed the most consummate valor; who, -when the ship was taken, continued fighting until he was almost -cut to pieces. But when they found that he was not dead, but -still breathed, the Persians who served on board the ships were -very anxious to save him alive, on account of his valor, healing -his wounds with myrrh, and binding them with bandages of flaxen -cloth. And when they returned to their own camp, they showed -him with admiration to the whole army, and treated him well; but -the others, whom they took in this ship, they treated as slaves. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">{282}</a></span> -Thus, two of the ships were taken; but the third, which Phormus, -an Athenian, commanded, in its flight ran ashore at the mouth of -the Peneus; and the barbarians got possession of the ship, but not -of the men: for as soon as the Athenians had run the ship -aground, they leaped out, and, proceeding through Thessaly, -reached Athens. The Greeks who were stationed at Artemisium -were informed of this event by signal-fires from Scyathus.</p> - -<p>As far as Thermopylæ, the army of Xerxes had suffered no loss, -and the numbers were at that time, as I find by calculation of those -in ships from Asia, a total of five hundred and seventeen thousand -six hundred and ten. Of infantry there were seventeen hundred -thousand, and of cavalry eighty thousand; to these I add the -Arabians who rode camels, and the Libyans who drove chariots, -reckoning the number of twenty thousand men. Accordingly, the -numbers on board the ships and on the land added together, make -up two millions three hundred and seventeen thousand six hundred -and ten, exclusive of the servants that followed, and the provision -ships, and the men that were on board them. But the force brought -from Europe must still be added to this whole number, of which I -suppose that there were three hundred thousand men. So that -these myriads added to those from Asia, make a total of two millions -six hundred and forty one thousand six hundred and ten fighting -men. I think that the servants who followed them, together with -those on board the provision ships and other vessels that sailed -with the fleet, were not fewer than the fighting men, probably more -numerous; but supposing them to be equal in number with the -fighting men, Xerxes, son of Darius, led five millions two hundred -and eighty-three thousand two hundred and twenty men to Thermopylæ. -This, then, was the number of the whole force of Xerxes. -But the number of women who made bread, wives of officers, and -servants, no one could mention with accuracy; nor of draught-cattle -and other beasts of burden; nor of Indian dogs that followed. -I am not astonished that the streams of some rivers failed; rather -is it a wonder to me how the provisions held out for so many myriads. -For I find by calculation, if each man had a chœnix of wheat -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">{284}</a></span> -daily, and no more, one hundred and ten thousand three hundred -and forty medimni must have been consumed every day; and I -have not reckoned the food for the women, beasts of burden, and -dogs. But, of so many myriads of men, not one of them, for beauty -and stature, was more entitled than Xerxes himself to possess this -power.</p> - -<div class="section"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283"></a></div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/p283.jpg" width="600" height="452" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>ISLAND AND CASTLE OF CORFU.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The Greeks who awaited the Persian at Thermopylæ were: of -Spartans three hundred heavy-armed men; of Tegeans and Mantineans -one thousand, half of each; from Orchomenus in Arcadia -one hundred and twenty; and from the rest of Arcadia one thousand; -from Corinth four hundred; from Phlius two hundred men, -and from Mycenæ eighty. These came from Peloponnesus. From -Bœotia, of Thespians seven hundred, and of Thebans four hundred. -In addition to these, the Opuntian Locrians, being invited, -came with all their forces, and a thousand Phocians. These nations -had separate generals for their several cities; but the one -most admired, and who commanded the whole army, was a Lacedæmonian, -Leonidas, son of Anaxandrides, and a descendant of -Hercules, who had unexpectedly succeeded to the throne of Sparta. -For as he had two elder brothers, Cleomenes and Dorieus, he was -far from any thought of the kingdom. However, Cleomenes and -Dorieus both died, and the kingdom thus devolved upon Leonidas. -He had chosen the three hundred men allowed by law, and -marched to Thermopylæ.</p> - -<p>When the Persian came near the pass, the Greeks, alarmed, -consulted about a retreat, and it seemed best to the other Peloponnesians -to retire to Peloponnesus, and guard the Isthmus; but -Leonidas, perceiving the Phocians and Locrians very indignant at -this proposition, determined to stay there, and to despatch messengers -to the cities, desiring them to come to their assistance, as -being too few to repel the army of the Medes. Meantime Xerxes -sent a scout on horseback, to see how many they were, and what -they were doing. For while he was still in Thessaly, he had heard -that a small army had been assembled at that spot, whose leader -was Leonidas, of the race of Hercules. When the horseman rode -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">{285}</a></span> -up to the camp, he reconnoitred, and saw not indeed the whole -camp, for it was not possible that they should be seen who were -posted within the wall, but he had a clear view of those on the -outside, whose arms were piled in front of the wall. At this some -of the Lacedæmonians were performing gymnastic exercises, and -others combing their hair. On beholding this he was astonished, -but having ascertained their number, he rode back at his leisure, -for no one pursued him, and he met with general contempt. On -his return he gave an account to Xerxes of all that he had seen, -who could not comprehend the truth, that the Greeks were preparing -to be slain and to slay to the utmost of their power.</p> - -<p>Xerxes let five days pass, constantly expecting that they would -betake themselves to flight. But on the fifth day, as they had not -retreated, but appeared to him to stay through arrogance and -rashness, in rage he sent the Medes and Cissians against them, -with orders to take them alive, and bring them into his presence. -When the Medes bore down impetuously upon the Greeks, many -of them fell; others followed to the charge, and were not repulsed, -though they suffered greatly. But they made it evident to every -one, and not least of all to the king himself, that they were indeed -many men, but few soldiers. The engagement lasted through the -day. The Medes, roughly handled, retired; and the Persians -whom the king called "Immortal," and whom Hydarnes commanded, -took their place and advanced to the attack, thinking -that they indeed should easily settle the business. But they succeeded -no better than the Medic troops, but just the same, as they -fought in a narrow space, and used shorter spears than the -Greeks, and were unable to avail themselves of their numbers. -The Lacedæmonians fought memorably, showing that they knew -how to fight with men who knew not, and whenever they turned -their backs, they retreated in close order; but the barbarians -seeing them retreat, followed with a shout and clamor; then they, -being overtaken, wheeled round so as to front the barbarians and -overthrew an inconceivable number of the Persians; and then -some few of the Spartans themselves fell. So that when the Persians -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">{286}</a></span> -were unable to gain any thing in their attempt on the pass, -by attacking in troops and in every possible manner, they retired. -It is said that during these onsets of the battle, the king, who witnessed -them, thrice sprang from his throne, being alarmed for his -army. On the following day the barbarians fought with no better -success; for considering that the Greeks were few in number, and -expecting that they were covered with wounds, and would not be -able to raise their heads against them any more, they renewed the -contest. But the Greeks were marshalled in companies and -according to their several nations, and each fought in turn, except -the Phocians, who were stationed at the mountain to guard the -pathway. Again the Persians failed and retired.</p> - -<p>While the king was in doubt what course to take, Ephialtes, -son of Eurydemus, a Malian, obtained an audience of him, expecting -that he should receive a great reward from the king, and -informed him of the path which leads over the mountain to Thermopylæ; -and by that means caused the destruction of those -Greeks who were stationed there. Afterwards, fearing the Lacedæmonians, -he fled to Thessaly, and a price was set on his head -by the Pylagori, when the Amphictyons were assembled at Pylæ. -But some time after, he went down to Anticyra, and was killed by -Athenades, a Trachinian. This Athenades killed him for another -reason, which I shall mention in a subsequent part of my history;<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_28" id="Ref_28" href="#Foot_28">[28]</a></span> -he was however rewarded none the less by the Lacedæmonians. -Xerxes, exceedingly delighted with what Ephialtes promised to -perform, immediately despatched Hydarnes with his troops from -the camp about the hour of lamp-lighting.</p> - -<p>All night long the Persians marched, and at dawn reached the -summit of the mountain. Here, as I have already mentioned, a -thousand heavy-armed Phocians kept guard, to defend their own -country, and to secure the pathway. The whole mountain was -covered with oaks; there was a perfect calm, and as a considerable -rustling took place from the leaves strewn under foot, the -Phocians sprang up and put on their arms, just as the barbarians -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">{287}</a></span> -made their appearance. Hit by many thick-falling arrows, the -Phocians fled to the summit of the mountain, prepared to perish. -But the Persians took no further notice of the Phocians, but -marched down the mountain with all speed.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/p287.jpg" width="400" height="390" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>BRIDGE AT CORFU.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>To the Greeks at Thermopylæ, the augur Megistias, having -inspected the sacrifices, first made known the death that would -befall them in the morning; certain deserters afterwards came and -brought intelligence of the circuit the Persians were taking while -it was yet night; and, thirdly, the scouts running down from the -heights, as soon as day dawned, brought the same intelligence. -It had been announced to the Spartans, by the oracle of Apollo, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">{288}</a></span> -when they went to consult concerning this war, "that either -Lacedæmon must be overthrown by the barbarians, or their king -perish." This answer the prophetess gave in hexameter verses to -this effect:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse quote">"Hear me, ye men of spacious Lacedæmon!</div> -<div class="verse">Either your glorious town must be destroyed,</div> -<div class="verse">By the fell hand of warriors sprung from Perseus,</div> -<div class="verse">Or else the confines of fair Lacedæmon</div> -<div class="verse">Must mourn a king of Heracleidan race,</div> -<div class="verse">For all the strength of lions or of bulls</div> -<div class="verse">Is nought to him who has the strength of Zeus;</div> -<div class="verse">And never shall that monarch be restrained</div> -<div class="verse">Until he takes your city or your king."</div> -</div> - -</div> -</div> - -<p>Xerxes poured out libations at sun-rise, waited a short time, -and began his attack about the time of full market, as he had -been instructed by Ephialtes. The Greeks with Leonidas, marching -out as if for certain death, now advanced much farther than -before into the wide part of the defile. For the fortification of the -wall had protected them, on the preceding day, in the narrow part. -But now engaging outside the narrows, great numbers of the -barbarians fell. The officers of the companies from behind, with -scourges, flogged every man, constantly urging them forward, so -that many of them falling into the sea, perished, and many more -were trampled alive under foot by one another; and no regard -was paid to any that perished. The Greeks, knowing that death -awaited them at the hands of those who were going round -the mountain, were desperate, and regardless of their own lives, -displayed the utmost possible valor against the barbarians. Already -were most of their javelins broken, and they had begun to -despatch the Persians with their swords. In this part of the struggle -fell Leonidas, fighting valiantly, and with him other eminent -Spartans, whose names, seeing they were deserving men, I have -ascertained; indeed I have ascertained the names of the whole -three hundred. On the side of the Persians, also, many other -eminent men fell on this occasion, amongst them two sons of -Darius, Abrocomes and Hyperanthes, fighting for the body of -Leonidas; and there was a violent struggle between the Persians -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">{290}</a></span> -and Lacedæmonians, until at last the Greeks rescued it by their -valor, and four times repulsed the enemy. Thus the contest continued -until the Greeks heard that those with Ephialtes were -approaching. Then they retreated to the narrow part of the way, -and, passing beyond the wall, came and took up their position on -the rising ground, all in a compact body, with the exception of the -Thebans: the rising ground is at the entrance where the stone -lion now stands to the memory of Leonidas. On this spot they -defended themselves, first with their swords, then with their hands -and teeth, until the barbarians overwhelmed them with missiles in -front, and from above, and on every side.</p> - -<div class="section"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289"></a></div> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/p289.jpg" width="600" height="453" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>PLAINS OF ARGOS.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Dieneces, a Spartan, is said to have been the bravest man. -They relate that before the engagement with the Medes, having -heard a Trachinian say, that when the barbarians let fly their -arrows, they would obscure the sun by the multitude of their -shafts, so great were their numbers, he replied, not at all alarmed: -"That's good; we shall have the pleasure, then, of fighting in -the shade." In honor of the slain, who were buried on the spot -where they fell, and of those who died before, these inscriptions -have been engraved upon stones above them; the first:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse quote">"From Peloponnesus came four thousand men;</div> -<div class="verse">And on this spot fought with three hundred myriads."</div> -</div> - -</div> -</div> - -<p>The second was in honor of the three hundred Spartans:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse quote">"Go, stranger! tell the Lacedæmonians, here</div> -<div class="verse">We lie, obedient to their stern commands!"</div> -</div> - -</div> -</div> - -<p>An engraved monument was also erected to Megistias the -augur, by his friend Simonides, and was as follows:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="verse quote">"The monument of famed Megistias,—</div> -<div class="verse">Slain by the Medes what time they passed the Sperchius;</div> -<div class="verse">A seer, who though he knew impending fate,</div> -<div class="verse">Would not desert the gallant chiefs of Sparta."</div> -</div> - -</div> -</div> - -<p>Two of these three hundred, Eurytus and Aristodemus, had -been dismissed from the camp by Leonidas, and were lying -at Alpeni desperately afflicted with a disease of the eyes. But -when Eurytus heard of the circuit made by the Persians, he called -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">{291}</a></span> -for his arms and ordered his helot to lead him to the combatants; -and, while the slave in terror ran away, his brave half-blind master -rushed into the midst of the throng and perished; but Aristodemus, -failing in courage, was left behind. Now if it had happened that -Aristodemus had returned sick to Sparta, or if both had gone home -together, in my opinion the Spartans would not have shown -any anger against them. But since one of them perished, and -the other, who had only the same excuse, refused to die, they must -needs get exceedingly angry with Aristodemus. On his return to -Lacedæmon he was met with insults and infamy. Not one of the -Spartans would either give him fire or converse with him: and he -was jeered and hooted at by the boys who called him "Aristodemus -the coward." However, in the battle of Platæa he removed all the -disgrace that attached to him, for he earned the title of the bravest -of the Spartans, and recklessly lost his life. Xerxes after the -massacre passed through among the dead; and having heard that -Leonidas was king and general of the Lacedæmonians, he commanded -them to cut off his head, and fix it upon a pole. It is clear -to me from many other proofs, and not least of all from this, -that king Xerxes was more highly incensed against Leonidas -during his life, than against any other man; for otherwise he -would never have violated the respect due to his dead body; -since the Persians, most of all men with whom I am acquainted, -are wont to honor men who are brave in war.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_26" id="Foot_26" href="#Ref_26">[26]</a> -One of the ten thousand chosen men called Immortals, of whom we shall hear more hereafter.</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_27" id="Foot_27" href="#Ref_27">[27]</a> -Literally, "the river Peneus gaining the victory as to the name, causes the others to be -nameless."</p> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_28" id="Foot_28" href="#Ref_28">[28]</a> -The promised account is no where given in any extant writings of the historian.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">{292}</a></div> - -<h2><i>BOOK VIII. URANIA.</i></h2> - -<h3>CHAPTER I.<br /> -<small>THE INVASION OF ATTICA AND THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Greek fleet from Artemisium put in at Salamis at the request -of the Athenians, who wished to remove their children and -wives out of Attica, and consult what measures were to be taken. -The Athenians caused proclamation to be made, "that every one -should save his children and family by the best means he could." -Thereupon the greatest part sent away their families to Trœzen, -some to Ægina, and others to Salamis. They used all diligence to -remove them to a place of safety, from a desire to obey the oracle, -but more particularly for the following reason. The Athenians say -that a large serpent used to live in the temple as a guard to the -Acropolis; they used to do it honor by placing before it its -monthly food, consisting of a honey-cake: this honey-cake in -former time had always been consumed, but now it remained untouched. -When the priestess made this known, the Athenians, -with more readiness, abandoned the city, since even the goddess -had forsaken the Acropolis. As soon as every thing had been deposited -in a place of safety, they sailed to the encampment. Many -more ships were assembled together than had fought at Artemisium, -and from a greater number of cities. The same admiral -commanded them as at Artemisium, Eurybiades, son of Euryclides, -a Spartan, though he was not of the royal family. The -Athenians, however, furnished by far the most and the best sailing -ships. The whole number of ships besides the penteconters, -amounted to three hundred and seventy-eight.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">{293}</a></span> -When the leaders from the various cities met together at Salamis, -they held a council, in which Eurybiades proposed that any -one who chose should deliver his opinion, where he thought it -would be most advantageous to come to an engagement by sea, -of all the places of which they were still in possession: for Attica -was already given up. Most of the opinions of those who spoke -coincided, that they should sail to the Isthmus, and fight before -Peloponnesus; alleging this reason, that if they should be conquered -by sea while they were at Salamis, they would be besieged -in the island, where no succor could reach them; but if at the -Isthmus, they might escape to their own cities.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/p293.jpg" width="400" height="229" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>ANCIENT GREEK WALLS RESTORED.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>While the commanders from Peloponnesus were debating these -matters, an Athenian arrived with intelligence, that the barbarian -had entered Attica, and was devastating the whole of it by fire. -The army with Xerxes were thus three months en route from the -passage over the Hellespont, till they arrived at Athens. They -took the city, deserted of inhabitants, but found a few of the Athenians -in the temple, with the treasurers of the temple and some -poor people; who, having fortified the Acropolis with planks -and stakes, tried to keep off the invaders: they had not -withdrawn to Salamis, partly through want of means, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">{294}</a></span> -moreover they thought they had found out the meaning -of the oracle which the Pythian delivered to them, that the -wooden wall "should be impregnable"; imagining, that this -was the refuge according to the oracle, and not the ships. The -Persians, posting themselves on the hill opposite the Acropolis, -which the Athenians call the Areopagus, wrapped tow round their -arrows, and setting fire to it, shot them at the fence. But those -Athenians who were besieged, still defended themselves, though -driven to the last extremity, and the fence had failed them; nor, -when the Pisistratidæ proposed them, would they listen to terms of -capitulation; but still defending themselves, they contrived other -means of defence, and when the barbarians approached the gates, -they hurled down large round stones; so that Xerxes was for a -long time kept in perplexity, not being able to capture them. At -length, in the midst of these difficulties, an entrance was discovered -by the barbarians; for it was necessary, according to the oracle, -that all Attica, on the continent, should be subdued by the Persians. -In front of the Acropolis, but behind the gates and where -no one kept guard, nor would ever have expected that any man -would ascend, there some of them ascended near the temple of -Cecrops' daughter Aglauros. When the Athenians saw that the -enemy were in the Acropolis, some threw themselves down from -the wall and perished, and others took refuge in the recess of the -temple. But the Persians who had ascended first turned to the -gates, opened them, and put the suppliants to death: and when all -were thrown prostrate, they pillaged the temple and set fire to the -whole Acropolis.</p> - -<p>The Greeks at Salamis, when intelligence was brought them -how matters stood in Athens, were thrown into such consternation, -that some of the generals would not wait until the subject before -them was decided on, but rushed to their ships and hoisted sail, as -about to hurry away; by such of them as remained it was determined -to come to an engagement before the Isthmus. Night came -on, and they, being dismissed from the council, went on board their -ships. Thereupon Mnesiphilus, an Athenian, inquired of Themistocles, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">{295}</a></span> -on his return to his ship, what had been determined on by -them. And being informed by him that it was resolved to conduct -the ships to the Isthmus, and to come to an engagement before the -Peloponnesus, he said, "If they remove the ships from Salamis, -you will no longer fight for any country; for they will each betake -themselves to their cities; and neither will Eurybiades nor any one -else be able to detain them, so that the fleet should not be dispersed; -and Greece will perish through want of counsel. But, if -there is any possible contrivance, go and endeavor to annul the decree, -if by any means you can induce Eurybiades to alter his -determination, so as to remain here." The suggestion pleased -Themistocles exceedingly; and without answer he went to the ship -of Eurybiades, and said that he wished to confer with him on public -business. He desired him to come on board his ship, and say -what he wished. Thereupon Themistocles, seating himself by him, -repeated all that he had heard from Mnesiphilus, making it his own, -and adding much more, until he prevailed on him, by entreaty, to -leave his ship, and assemble the commanders in council. The upshot -of the matter was that Themistocles persuaded the generals in -council to remain and fight at Salamis. Day came, and at sunrise -an earthquake took place on land and at sea. They determined to -pray to the gods, and to invoke the Æacidæ as allies. For having -prayed to all the gods, they forthwith, from Salamis, invoked -Ajax and Telamon; and sent a ship to Ægina for Æacus, and the -Æacidae. In the mean time, all the admirals and captains of -Xerxes' fleet advised engaging in a sea-fight, except Artemisia, -who spoke as follows: "Tell the king from me, Mardonius, that I -say this. It is right that I, sire, who proved myself by no means -a coward in the sea-fight off Eubœa, and performed achievements -not inferior to others, should declare my real opinion, and state -what I think best for your interest. Therefore I say this, abstain -from using your ships, nor risk a sea-fight; for these men are as -much superior to your men by sea, as men are to women. And -why must you run a risk by a naval engagement? Have you not -possession of Athens, for the sake of which you undertook this expedition, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">{296}</a></span> -and have you not the rest of Greece? They will not be -able to hold out long against you; but will soon disperse, and fly -to their cities."</p> - -<p>Xerxes was very much pleased with the opinion of Artemisia; -he had before thought her an admirable woman, but now he -praised her much more. However, he gave orders to follow the -advice of the majority in this matter, thinking that they had behaved -ill at Eubœa on purpose, because he was not present. He -now prepared in person to behold them engaging by sea.<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_29" id="Ref_29" href="#Foot_29">[29]</a></span></p> - -<p>Meanwhile, those at Salamis were growing alarmed, and wondered -at the imprudence of Eurybiades; till at last their discontent -broke out openly, and a council was called, and much was said -on the subject. Some said that they ought to sail for the -Peloponnesus, and hazard a battle for that, and not stay and fight -for a place already taken by the enemy; but the Athenians, -Æginetæ, and Megareans, declared that they should stay there -and defend themselves. Thereupon, Themistocles, when he saw -his opinion was overruled by the Peloponnesians, went secretly -out of the council, and despatched a man in a boat to the encampment -of the Medes instructing him what to say: his name was -Sicinnus, and he was a domestic, and preceptor to the children of -Themistocles. After these events, Themistocles got him made a -Thespian, when the Thespians augmented the number of their -citizens, and gave him a competent fortune. He, arriving in the -boat, spoke as follows to the generals of the barbarians: "The -general of the Athenians has sent me, unknown to the rest of the -Greeks, (for he is in the interest of the king, and wishes that your -affairs may prosper, rather than those of the Greeks,) to inform -you that the Greeks, in great consternation, are deliberating on -flight; and you have now an opportunity of achieving the most -glorious of all enterprises, if you do not suffer them to escape. -For they do not agree among themselves, nor will they oppose -you; but you will see those who are in your interest, and those -who are not, fighting with one another." Having delivered this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">{297}</a></span> -message to them, he immediately departed. As these tidings appeared -to them worthy of credit, they immediately landed a considerable -number of Persians on the little island of Psyttalea, lying -between Salamis and the continent; and, when it was midnight, -they got their western wing under way, drawing it in a circle -toward Salamis, and those who were stationed about Ceos and -Cynosura got under way and occupied the whole passage as far -as Munychia with their ships, so that the Greeks might have no -way to escape, but, being shut up in Salamis, might suffer punishment -for the conflicts at Artemisium; and they landed the Persians -at the little island of Psyttalea for this reason: that, when an -engagement should take place, as they expected the greater part -of the men and wrecks would be driven there, they might save -the one and destroy the other. These things they did in silence, -that the enemy might not know what was going on.</p> - -<p>I am unable to speak against the truth of oracles, when I think -of the remarkable oracle of Bacis: "When they shall bridge with -ships the sacred shore of "Diana with the golden sword," and sea-girt -Cynosura, having with mad hope destroyed beautiful Athens, -then divine Vengeance shall quench strong Presumption, son of -Insolence, when thinking to subvert all things. For bronze shall -engage with bronze, and Mars shall redden the sea with blood. -Then the far-thundering son of Saturn and benign victory shall -bring a day of freedom to Greece." After such a prediction and -its fulfilment, I neither dare myself say any thing in contradiction -to oracles, nor allow others to do so.</p> - -<p>All this night there was a great altercation between the generals -at Salamis. They did not yet know that the barbarians had -surrounded them with their ships. They supposed that they were -in the same place where they had seen them stationed during the -day. While the generals were disputing, Aristides, son of Lysimachus, -crossed over from the Ægina. He was an Athenian, but -had been banished by ostracism. From what I have heard of his -manner of life, I consider him to have been the best and most upright -man in Athens. He, standing at the entrance of the council, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">{298}</a></span> -called Themistocles out, who was not indeed his friend, but his -most bitter enemy; yet from the greatness of the impending -danger, he forgot that, and called him, for he had already heard -that those from Peloponnesus were anxious to get the ships under -way for the Isthmus. When Themistocles came out, Aristides -spoke as follows: "It is right that we should strive, both on other -occasions, and particularly on this, which of us shall do the greatest -service to our country. I assure you, that to say little or much to -the Peloponnesians about sailing from here is a waste of breath; -for I, an eye-witness, tell you, now, even if they would, neither -the Corinthians, nor Eurybiades himself, will be able to sail away; -for we are on all sides enclosed by the enemy. Go in, and acquaint -them with this." But Themistocles bade Aristides go in -himself and convey the tidings. This he did, but the generals -would not even then give credence to his report until there arrived -a trireme of Tenians that had deserted, which Panætius, son of -Socimenes, commanded, and which brought an account of the -whole truth. For that action the name of the Tenians was engraved -on the tripod at Delphi, among those who had defeated -the barbarian. With this ship that came over at Salamis, and -with the Lemnian before, off Artemisium, the Grecian fleet was -made up to the full number of three hundred and eighty ships; for -before it wanted two of that number.</p> - -<p>Day dawned, and when they had mustered the marines, -Themistocles, above all the others, harangued them most eloquently. -His speech was entirely taken up in contrasting better things with -worse, exhorting them to choose the best of all those things which -depended on the nature and condition of man. As soon as the -trireme from Ægina, which had gone to fetch the Æacidæ returned -the Greeks got all their ships under way. The barbarians -immediately fell upon them. Now all the other Greeks began to -back water and make for the shore; but Aminias of Pallene, an -Athenian, being carried onward, attacked a ship; and his ship becoming -entangled with the other, and the crew not being able to -clear, the rest thereupon came to the assistance of Aminias and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">{299}</a></span> -engaged. Thus the Athenians say the battle commenced; but -the Æginetæ affirm that the ship which went to Ægina to -fetch the Æacidæ, was the first to begin. It is also said, that a -phantom of a woman appeared to them, that she cheered them on, -so that the whole fleet of Greeks heard her, after she had first -reproached them in these words: "Dastards, how long will you -back water?" Opposite the Athenians the Phœnicians were -drawn up, for they occupied the wing toward Eleusis and westward; -opposite the Lacedæmonians, the Ionians occupied the wing toward -the east and the Piræus. Of these some few behaved ill on -purpose, in compliance with the injunctions of Themistocles. The -greater part of the ships were run down at Salamis; some being -destroyed by the Athenians, others by the Æginetæ. For the -Greeks fought in good order, in line, but the barbarians were -neither properly formed nor did any thing with judgment. However -they proved themselves to be far braver on this day than off -Eubœa, every one exerting himself vigorously, and dreading -Xerxes; for each thought that he himself was observed by the -king.</p> - -<p>I am unable to say with certainty how each of the barbarians -or Greeks fought; but with respect to Artemisia, the following incident -occurred, by which she obtained still greater credit with the -king. For when the king's forces were in great confusion, the -ship of Artemisia was chased by an Attic ship, and not being able -to escape, she resolved upon a stratagem. For being pursued by -the Athenian, she bore down upon a friendly ship, manned by -Calyndians, and with Damasithymus himself, king of the Calyndians, -on board; whether she had any quarrel with him while they -were at the Hellespont, I am unable to say, or whether she did it -on purpose, or whether the ship of the Calyndians happened by -chance to be in her way; however, she ran it down, and sunk it, -and by good fortune gained a double advantage to herself. For -when the captain of the Attic ship saw her bearing down on a -ship of the barbarians, he concluded Artemisia's ship to be either -a Greek or one that had deserted from the enemy and was assisting -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">{300}</a></span> -them, and so turned aside and attacked others. Thus she -escaped, and in consequence of it became still more in favor with -Xerxes. For it is said that Xerxes, looking on, observed her -ship making the attack, and that some near him said: "Sire, do -you see how well Artemisia fights; she has sunk one of the -enemy's ships?" Whereupon he asked if it was in truth the exploit -of Artemisia; they answered "that they knew the ensign of -her ship perfectly well." But they thought that it was an enemy -that was sunk; for no one of the crew of the Calyndian ship -lived to tell the tale and accuse her. And it is related that Xerxes -exclaimed: "My men have become women, and my women -men."</p> - -<p>In this battle perished the admiral, Ariabignes, son of Darius, -and brother of Xerxes, and many other illustrious men of the Persians -and Medes, and the other allies; but only a very few of the -Greeks: for as they knew how to swim, they whose ships were -destroyed, and who did not perish in actual conflict, swam safe to -Salamis; whereas, many of the barbarians, not knowing how to -swim, perished in the sea. When the foremost ships were put to -flight, then the greatest number were destroyed; for those who -were stationed behind, endeavoring to pass on with their ships to -the front, that they, too, might give the king some proof of their -courage, fell foul of their own flying ships. The following event -also occurred in this confusion. Some Phœnicians, whose ships -were destroyed, went to the king and accused the Ionians of -destroying their ships and betraying him. It, however, turned out -that the Ionian captains were not put to death, but that those Phœnicians -who accused them, received the following reward. For -while they were yet speaking, a Samothracian ship bore down on -an Athenian ship and sunk it. Just then an Æginetan ship, -coming up, sunk the ship of the Samothracians. But the Samothracians -being javelin-men, by hurling their javelins, drove the marines -from the ship that had sunk them, and boarded and got possession -of it. This action saved the Ionians: for when Xerxes saw them -perform so great an exploit, he turned round upon the Phœnicians, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">{301}</a></span> -and ordered their heads to be struck off, that they who had proved -themselves cowards, might no more accuse those who were braver.</p> - -<p>The barbarians turned to flight, and sailing away towards -Phalerus, the Æginetæ waylaid them in the strait, and performed -actions worthy of record. For the Athenians in the rout ran down -both those ships that resisted and those that fled; and the Æginetæ, -those that sailed away from the battle: so that when any -escaped the Athenians they fell into the hands of the Æginetæ.</p> - -<p>In this engagement the Æginetæ obtained the greatest -renown; and next, the Athenians. Aristides, of whom I made -mention a little before as a most upright man, in this confusion -that took place about Salamis, took with him a considerable number -of heavy-armed men, who were stationed along the shore of -the Salaminian territory and were Athenians by race, landed -them on the island of Psyttalea, and put to the sword all the Persians -who were on that little island.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">{302}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER II.<br /> -<small>XERXES' RETREAT.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">When</span> the sea-fight was ended, the Greeks hauled on shore at -Salamis all the wrecks that still happened to be there and held -themselves ready for another battle, expecting the king would still -make use of the ships that survived. But a west wind carrying -away many of the wrecks, drove them on the shore of Attica, -which is called Colias, so as to fulfil both all the other oracles -delivered by Bacis and Musæus concerning this battle, and also -that relating to the wrecks which were drifted on this shore, which -many years before had been delivered by Lysistratus, an Athenian -augur, but had not been understood by any of the Greeks: -"The Colian women shall broil their meat with oars."</p> - -<p>When Xerxes saw the defeat he had sustained he was afraid -that some of the Ionians might suggest to the Greeks, or might -themselves resolve to sail to the Hellespont, for the purpose of -breaking up the bridges, and shut him up in Europe. So he planned -immediate flight. But wishing that his intention should not be -known either to the Greeks or his own people, he pretended to -throw a mound across to Salamis. He fastened together Phœnician -merchantmen, that they might serve instead of a raft and a -wall, and made preparation for war, as if about to fight another -battle at sea. Every body who saw him thus occupied, was firmly -convinced that he had seriously determined to stay and continue -the war, except Mardonius, who was well acquainted with his -design. At the same time Xerxes despatched a messenger to the -Persians, to inform them of the misfortune that had befallen him. -There is nothing mortal that reaches its destination more rapidly -than these couriers of the Persians. They say that as many days -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">{303}</a></span> -as are occupied in the whole journey, so many horses and men are -posted at regular intervals; neither snow nor rain, nor heat, nor -night, prevents them from performing their appointed stage as -quickly as possible. The first courier delivers his orders to the -second, the second to the third, and so it passes throughout, being -delivered from one to the other, just like the torch-bearing among -the Greeks, which they perform in honor of Vulcan. The first -message that reached Susa, with the news that Xerxes was in possession -of Athens, caused so great joy among the Persians who -had been left behind, that they strewed all the roads with -myrtle, burnt perfumes, and gave themselves up to sacrifices and -festivity. But the arrival of the second messenger threw them into -such consternation, that they all rent their garments, and uttered -unbounded shouts and lamentations, laying the blame on Mardonius, -not so much grieved for the ships -as anxious for Xerxes himself. And this -the Persians continued to do until Xerxes -himself arrived home.</p> - -<div class="image-float-right" style="max-width: 175px;"> - <img src="images/p303.jpg" width="175" height="112" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>CELES RIDDEN BY A CUPID.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Mardonius, seeing Xerxes much afflicted -by the defeat at Salamis, and -suspecting he was meditating a retreat, thus addressed the -king: "Sire, do not think you have suffered any great loss -in consequence of what has happened; for the contest with us -does not depend on wood alone, but on men and horses. Be not -discouraged; for the Greeks have no means of escape from -rendering an account of what they have done now and formerly, -and from becoming your slaves. If you have resolved not to stay -here, return to Susa, and take with you the greatest part of -the army; but give me three hundred thousand picked men and I -will deliver Greece to you reduced to slavery." Xerxes, delighted -and relieved, granted Mardonius his request. As to Xerxes himself, -if all the men and women of the world had advised him -to stay, in my opinion, he would not have yielded, so great -was his terror. Leaving Mardonius in Thessaly, he marched -in all haste to the Hellespont; and arrived at the place of crossing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">{304}</a></span> -in forty-five days, bringing back no part of his army, so to speak. -Wherever, and among whatever nation, they happened to be -marching, they seized and consumed their corn; but if they found -no fruit, overcome by hunger, they ate up the herbage as it sprung -from the ground, and from sheer hunger stripped off the bark -of trees, and gathered leaves, both of wild and cultivated plants. -But a pestilence and dysentery falling on the army, destroyed them -on their march. Such of them as were sick, Xerxes left behind, -ordering the cities through which he happened to be passing, to -take care of and feed them: some in Thessaly, others at Siris of -Pæonia, and in Macedonia. It was here he had left the sacred -chariot of Jupiter, when he marched against Greece, but he did not -receive it back, as he returned; for the Pæonians had given it -to the Thracians, and when Xerxes demanded it back, said that the -mares had been stolen, as they were feeding, by the upper -Thracians, who dwell round the sources of the Strymon. There -the king of the Bisaltæ and of the Crestonian territory, a Thracian, -perpetrated a most unnatural deed; he declared that he would -not willingly be a slave to Xerxes, but he went up to the top -of Mount Rhodope, and enjoined his sons not to join the expedition -against Greece. They, however, disregarded his prohibition, -from a desire to see the war, and served in the army with -the Persian: but when they all returned safe, six in number, their -father had their eyes put out for this disobedience.</p> - -<p>The Persians, in great haste crossed over the Hellespont to -Abydos in their ships; for they found the rafts no longer stretched -across, but broken up by a storm. While detained there, they got -more food than on their march, and having filled themselves immoderately, -and drunk of different water, a great part of the army -that survived, died; the rest with Xerxes reached Sardis. Another -account is also given, that when Xerxes in his retreat from Athens -arrived at Eïon on the Strymon, from there he no longer continued -his journey by land, but committed the army to Hydarnes to conduct -to the Hellespont, and he himself went on board a Phœnician -ship to pass over to Asia. During his voyage a violent and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">{305}</a></span> -tempestuous wind from the Strymon overtook him; the storm increased -in violence, and the ship was overloaded, many of the -Persians having accompanied Xerxes. Then the king, becoming -alarmed, calling aloud, and asked the pilot if there was any hope -of safety for them; and he said: "There is none, sire, unless we -get rid of some of this crowd of passengers." Xerxes, hearing -this answer, said: "O Persians, now let some among you show -his regard for the king, for on you my safety seems to depend." -Many having done homage, leapt into the sea, and the ship, being -lighted, thus got safe to Asia. It is added, that Xerxes, immediately -after he landed, presented the pilot with a golden crown, because -he had saved the king's life; but ordered his head to be -struck off, because he had occasioned the loss of many Persians. -This story appears to me not at all deserving of credit, for if such -a speech had been made by the pilot to Xerxes, I should not find -one opinion in ten thousand to deny that the king would have sent -down into the hold of the ship those who were on deck, since they -were Persians, and Persians of high rank, and would have thrown -into the sea a number of Phœnicians, equal to that of the Persians.</p> - -<p>When the division of the booty, after the battle of Salamis was -completed, the Greeks sailed to the Isthmus, for the purpose of -conferring the palm of valor upon him among the Greeks who had -proved himself most deserving throughout the war. The generals -distributed the ballots at the altar of Neptune, selecting the first -and second out of all; thereupon every one gave his vote for -himself, each thinking himself the most valiant; but with respect -to the second place, the majority concurred in selecting Themistocles. -So each had but one vote, for first place, but Themistocles -had a great majority for the second honor. Though the Greeks, -out of envy, would not determine this matter, but returned to their -several countries without coming to a decision, yet Themistocles -was applauded and extolled throughout all Greece, as being by far -the wisest man of the Greeks. Because he was not honored by -those who fought at Salamis, although victorious, he immediately -afterward went to Lacedæmon, hoping to be honored there. The -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">{306}</a></span> -Lacedæmonians received him nobly, and paid him the greatest -honors. They gave the prize of valor to Eurybiades, a crown of -olive; and of wisdom and dexterity to Themistocles, also a crown -of olive. And they presented him with the most magnificent -chariot in Sparta; praising him highly, and on his departure, -three hundred chosen Spartans, called knights, escorted him as far -as the Tegean boundaries. He is the only man that we know of -whom the Spartans ever escorted on his journey.</p> - -<p>Mardonius' first movement was to send Alexander, son of -Amyntas, a Macedonian, as an ambassador to Athens; as well -because the Persians were related to him as because he had been -informed that Alexander was a friend and benefactor of the Athenians. -For in this way he thought he should best be able to gain -over the Athenians, having heard that they were a numerous and -valiant people; and besides, he knew that the Athenians had been -the principal cause of the late disaster of the Persians at sea. If -these were won over, he hoped that he should easily become -master at sea, which indeed would have been the case; and on -land he imagined that he was much superior: thus he calculated -that his power would get the upper hand of the Greeks. But the -Athenians gave the following answer to Alexander: "We ourselves -are aware that the power of the Medes is far greater than -ours; so that there is no need to insult us with that. But do not -you attempt to persuade us to come to terms with the barbarian, -for we will not. Go, and tell Mardonius that the Athenians say: -'So long as the sun shall continue in the same course as now, we -will never make terms with Xerxes; but we will go out to oppose -him, trusting in the gods, who fight for us, and in the heroes, whose -temples and images he has burned. Know, therefore, if you did -not know it before, that so long as one Athenian is left alive, the -fight shall be continued.'"</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_29" id="Foot_29" href="#Ref_29">[29]</a> -Seated on the mountain side upon a magnificent throne of ivory and gold, as others relate.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">{307}</a></div> - -<h2><i>BOOK IX. CALLIOPE.</i></h2> - -<h3>CHAPTER I.<br /> -<small>THE WAR CONTINUED; BATTLE OF PLATÆA AND SIEGE OF THEBES.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">When</span> Alexander returned and made known to Mardonius the -answer of the Athenians, he set out from Thessaly, and led his -army in haste against Athens; and wherever he arrived from time -to time, he joined the people to his own forces. So far were the -leaders of Thessaly from repenting of what had been before done, -that they urged on the Persian much more: and Thorax of Larissa, -who had assisted in escorting Xerxes in his flight, now openly -gave Mardonius a passage into Greece. When the army on its -march arrived among the Bœotians, the Thebans endeavored to -restrain Mardonius from advancing farther, assuring him that to -take up his station there would be equivalent to subduing the -whole of Greece without a battle. For if the Greeks should continue -firmly united, as they had done before, it would be difficult -even for all mankind to overcome them. "But," they continued, -"if you do what we advise, you will without difficulty frustrate all -their plans. Send money to the most powerful men in the cities; -split Greece into parties, and then, with the assistance of those -who side with you, you may easily subdue those who are not in -your interest." But he was infatuated with a vehement desire to -taking Athens a second time, and fondly hoped, by signal-fires -across the islands, to make known to the king while he was at -Sardis, that he was in possession of Athens. When he arrived in -Attica, he did not find the Athenians there; but was informed -that most of them were at Salamis on board their ships. So he -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">{308}</a></span> -took the deserted city ten months after its capture by the king.</p> - -<p>But Mardonius was by no means desirous to stay longer in -Attica. He lingered awhile there to see what the Athenians -would do, but neither ravaged nor injured the Attic territory, being -in expectation all along that they would come to terms. But when -he could not persuade them he withdrew, before the Spartans, -under Pausanias, could reach the Isthmus, having first set fire to -Athens, and if any part of the walls, or houses, or temples happened -to be standing, these he threw down and laid all in ruins. -He marched out for the reason that the Attic country was not -adapted for cavalry; and if he should be conquered in an engagement, -there was no way to escape except through a narrow pass, -so that a very small number of men could intercept them. He -determined therefore to retire to Thebes, and to fight near a -friendly city, and in a country adapted for cavalry.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/p309.jpg" width="398" height="471" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>BŒOTIA.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The Lacedæmonians arrived at the Isthmus and went into -camp. When the rest of the Peloponnesians, who favored the -better cause, saw the Spartans marching out, they thought it -would be a disgrace to absent themselves from the expedition of -the Lacedæmonians. Accordingly, when the victims proved favorable, -they all marched out from the Isthmus and advanced to -Eleusis. The Athenians crossed over from Salamis, and joined -them there. At Erythræ in Bœotia, they learnt that the barbarians -were encamped on the Asopus, at which they consulted together, -and formed opposite, at the foot of Mount Cithæron. When the -Greeks did not come down to the plain, Mardonius sent against -them all his cavalry, under command of Masistius, a man highly -esteemed among the Persians. He was mounted on a Nisæan -horse, that had a golden bit, and was otherwise gorgeously caparisoned. -When the cavalry rode up to the Greeks, they charged -them in squadrons, and called them women. By chance the Megarians -happened to be stationed in that part which was most exposed, -and there the cavalry chiefly made their attack. The -Megarians, being hard pressed, sent a herald to the Greek generals -with this message: "The Megarians say, We, O confederates, are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">{309}</a></span> -not able alone to sustain the Persian cavalry. So far we have -held out against them by our constancy and courage, though hard -pressed; but now, unless you will send some others to relieve us, -we must abandon our post." Pausanias immediately called for -volunteers to go to that position, and relieve the Megarians. -When all the others refused, three hundred chosen men of the -Athenians undertook to do it, whom Olympiodorus, son of Lampon, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">{310}</a></span> -commanded. After a short but spirited battle, as the cavalry -were charging, the horse of Masistius, being in advance of the -others, was wounded in the flank by an arrow, and in pain, reared -and threw Masistius. As he fell, the Athenians immediately -seized his horse and attacked him. At first they were unable to -kill Masistius, he was so thoroughly armed. Underneath he had -a golden cuirass covered with scales, and over the cuirass a purple -cloak. By striking against the cuirass they did nothing; until one -of them, perceiving what was the matter, pierced him in the eye. -So he fell and died. The whole Persian army, and Mardonius -most of all, mourned the loss of Masistius. They cut off their own -hair and that of their horses and beasts of burden, and gave themselves -up to unbounded lamentations. The sound reached over -all Bœotia, of mourning for the loss of a man who, next to Mardonius, -was most esteemed by the Persians and the king.</p> - -<p>The Greeks placed the body on a carriage, and carried it along -the line—an object worthy of admiration, on account of its stature -and beauty—and the men, leaving their ranks, came out to view -Masistius. After this, they determined to go down toward Platæa, -for the Platæan territory appeared to be much more convenient -for them to encamp in than the Erythræan, as it was better -supplied with water. Over the foot of Mount Cithæron near Hysiæ, -into the Platæan territory they marched, and formed in line, -nation by nation, near the fountain of Gargaphia, and the precinct -of the hero Androcrates, on slight elevations and the level plain. -The whole Grecian army assembled at Platæa, reckoning heavy-armed -and light-armed fighting men, amounted to one hundred -and ten thousand.</p> - -<p>When the barbarians, with Mardonius, had ceased to mourn for -Masistius, they also marched to the Asopus, which flows by -Platæa, and on their arrival were drawn up by Mardonius. Of -barbarians there were three hundred thousand, as has been already -shown; but of Greeks who were allies of Mardonius no one -knows the number, for they were not reckoned up; but, to make -a guess, I conjecture that they were assembled to the number of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">{311}</a></span> -fifty thousand. These were infantry; the cavalry were marshalled -apart.</p> - -<p>On the second day, both sides offered sacrifices. For the -Greeks, Tisamenus, son of Antiochus, was the person who sacrificed, -for he accompanied this army as diviner. The sacrifices -were favorable to the Greeks, if they stood on the defensive; but -if they crossed the Asopus, and began the battle, not so.</p> - -<div class="image-float-right" style="max-width: 150px;"> - <img src="images/p311.jpg" width="150" height="231" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>COAT OF MAIL.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>To Mardonius, who was very desirous to begin the battle, the -sacrifices were not propitious; but to him also, if he stood on the -defensive, they were favorable: for he -too adopted the Greek sacrifices, having -for his diviner Hegesistratus, an Elean, -and the most renowned of the Telliadæ. -This man, before these events, the Spartans -had taken and bound for death, because -they had suffered many atrocious -things from him. In this sad condition, as -being in peril for his life, and having to -suffer many tortures before death, he performed -a deed beyond belief. For as he -was confined in stocks bound with iron, -he got possession of a knife, which had -by some means been carried in, and -immediately cut off the broad part of -his foot—the most resolute deed I ever heard of. Then, as -he was guarded by sentinels, he dug a hole through the wall -and escaped to Tegea, travelling by night, and by day hiding himself -in the woods and tarrying there. Thus, though the Lacedæmonians -searched for him with their whole population, on the third -night he arrived at Tegea; but they were struck with great amazement -at his daring, when they saw half his foot lying on the -ground, and were not able to find him. In time, cured of his -wounds, he procured a wooden foot, and became an avowed -enemy to the Lacedæmonians. However, at last his hatred conceived -against the Lacedæmonians did not benefit him; for he was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">{312}</a></span> -taken by them when acting as diviner at Zacynthus, and put to -death. The death of Hegesistratus took place after the battle of -Platæa: but at that time, on the Asopus, he was hired by Mardonius -for no small sum to sacrifice, and was very zealous, both -from hatred to the Lacedæmonians and from a love of gain.</p> - -<p>Meantime, Timagenides, a Theban, advised Mardonius to guard -the passes of Mount Cithæron; saying, that the Greeks were continually -pouring in every day, and that he would intercept great -numbers. Eight days had already elapsed since they had been -posted opposite each other; but Mardonius thought the suggestion -good, and as soon as it was night, sent some cavalry to the -passes of Cithæron, that lead to Platæa, which the Bœotians call -The Three Heads; but the Athenians, The Heads of Oak. The -horsemen that were sent did not arrive in vain; for issuing on the -plain, they took five hundred beasts carrying provisions from -Peloponnesus to the army, with the men who attended the beasts -of burden. The Persians not only took the booty, but killed without -mercy, sparing neither beast nor man. Two more days passed, -neither being willing to begin the battle; but when the eleventh -day after the two armies had been encamped opposite each other -in Platæa was almost gone, and the night was far advanced, and -silence appeared to prevail throughout the camps, Alexander, son -of Amyntas, who was general and king of the Macedonians, rode -up on horseback to the sentries of the Athenians, and desired to -confer with their generals. Most of the sentries remained at their -posts, while some ran to the generals, and told them, "that a man -had come on horseback from the camp of the Medes, who uttered -not a word more, but, naming the generals, said he wished to confer -with them." They immediately repaired to the out-posts, and -Alexander addressed them as follows: "O Athenians, I leave -these words with you as a deposit, entreating you to keep them -secret, and not tell them to any other than Pausanias, lest you -should ruin me. I should not utter them, were I not extremely -concerned for the safety of all Greece; for I am myself a Greek by -origin, and would by no means wish to see Greece enslaved instead -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">{313}</a></span> -of free. I tell you, then, that the victims have not been favorable -to Mardonius and his army, or else you would have fought long -ago; but now, he has determined to dismiss the victims, and to -come to an engagement at dawn of day; fearing, as I conjecture, -that you may assemble in greater numbers. Therefore be ready. -But if Mardonius should defer the engagement, and not undertake -it, persevere remaining where you are, for in a few days provisions -will fail him. And if this war should terminate according to your -wishes, it is right that you should bear it in mind to effect my -freedom, who on behalf of the Greeks have undertaken so hazardous -a task, as to acquaint you with the intention of Mardonius, in -order that the barbarians may not fall upon -you unexpectedly. I am Alexander the -Macedonian." Thus having spoken, he rode -back to the camp and his own station.</p> - -<div class="image-float-right" style="max-width: 150px;"> - <img src="images/p313.jpg" width="150" height="199" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>THE FISHERMAN.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>The generals of the Athenians went to -the right wing, and told Pausanias what -they had heard from Alexander; but as the -army was deprived of water and harassed -by the cavalry of Mardonius, they remained -to deliberate on these and other matters. -They had no longer any provisions, and -their attendants, who had been despatched to the Peloponnesus -to get provisions, were shut out by the cavalry, and unable to -reach the camp.</p> - -<p>On consultation the generals of the allies resolved, if the Persians -should defer making the attack on that day, to remove to the -island of Oëroë, ten stades distant from the Asopus, on which -they were then encamped. This is an island in the midst of the -continent. For the river, dividing higher up, flows down to the -plain from Mount Cithæron, having its streams about three stades -separate from each other, and united together below. To this -place they determined to remove, that they might have an abundant -supply of water, and the cavalry might not harass them, as -when they were directly opposite. So, in the night, at the hour -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">{314}</a></span> -agreed upon, they fled from the cavalry toward the city of the -Platæans until they arrived at the temple of Juno, which stands -before the city of the Platæans, twenty stades distant from the -fountain of Gargaphia. They then encamped round the Heræum -and stood to their arms before the sacred precinct.</p> - -<p>When Mardonius was informed that the Greeks had withdrawn -under cover of night, and saw the place deserted, he summoned -Thorax, of Larissa, and said: "O son of Aleuas, what will you say -now, when you see this ground deserted? For you, their neighbor, -said that the Lacedæmonians never fled from battle, but were -the first of men in matters of war; but now we all see that they -have fled away during the past night, in terror of us, who are truly -the most valiant in the world." Then without more ado he led -the Persians at full speed, crossing the Asopus in the track of the -Greeks, as if they had betaken themselves to flight. He directed -his course only against the Lacedæmonians and Tegeans; for on -account of the hills he did not espy the Athenians, who had turned -into the plain. The rest of the commanders of the barbarians' -brigades, seeing the Persians advancing to pursue the Greeks, all -immediately took up their standards, and pursued, each as quick -as he could, without observing either rank or order; thus they -advanced with a shout and in a throng, as if they were about to -overwhelm the Greeks.</p> - -<p>The Persians made a fence with their osier-shields, and let fly -their arrows so incessantly that the Spartans being hard pressed, -and the victims continuing unfavorable, Pausanias looked toward -the temple of Juno of the Platæans, and invoked the goddess, -praying that they might not be disappointed of their hopes.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 250px;"> - <img src="images/p315.jpg" width="250" height="442" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>JUNO.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>While he was yet making this invocation, the Tegeans, starting -first, advanced against the barbarians; and immediately after the -prayer of Pausanias, the victims became favorable to the Lacedæmonians. -Then they advanced against the Persians, who withstood -them, laying aside their bows. First of all a battle took -place about the fence of bucklers; and when that was thrown -down, a long, obstinate fight ensued near the temple of Ceres, till -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">{315}</a></span> -at last they came to close conflict, when the barbarians laid hold of -the Spartan spears and broke them. Indeed, in courage and -strength, the Persians were not inferior, but were lightly armed, -ignorant of military discipline, and not equal to their adversaries -in skill. They rushed forward upon the Spartans, only to perish. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">{316}</a></span> -In that part where Mardonius happened to be, fighting upon a white -horse, at the head of a thousand chosen men, the best of the Persians, -there they pressed their adversaries most vigorously. For as -long as Mardonius survived, they held out, defended themselves, -and overthrew many of the Lacedæmonians; but when Mardonius -had died, and the troops stationed round him, which were the -strongest, had fallen, then the rest turned to flight, and gave way -to the Lacedæmonians. Their dress, too, was particularly disadvantageous -to them, being destitute of defensive armor. Here -satisfaction for the death of Leonidas, according to the oracle, was -paid to the Spartans by Mardonius; and Pausanias obtained the -most signal victory we have ever heard of. Mardonius died by -the hand of Aïmnestus, a man of distinction at Sparta, who, some -time after the Medic affairs, at the head of three hundred men, -engaged at Stenyclerus with all the Messenians, and he himself -perished and his three hundred. When the Persians at Platæa -were put to flight by the Lacedæmonians, they fled in disorder to -their own camp, and to the wooden fortification which they had -made in the Theban territory. It is a wonder to me that, when -they fought near the grove of Ceres, not one of the barbarians was -seen to enter into the sacred enclosure, or to die in it, but most -fell round the precinct in unconsecrated ground. I am of opinion, -if it is allowable to form an opinion concerning divine things, that -the goddess would not receive them because they had burnt her -royal temple at Eleusis.</p> - -<p>When the Persians and the rest of the throng arrived in their -flight at the wooden wall, they mounted the towers before the -Lacedæmonians came up, and defended the wall in the best way they -could; so that when the Lacedæmonians arrived, a vigorous battle -took place before the walls. So long as the Athenians were absent, -the barbarians defended themselves, and had much the advantage -over the Lacedæmonians, as they were not skilled in -attacking fortifications; but when the Athenians came, then a -vehement fight at the walls took place, and continued for a long -time. But at length the Athenians, by their valor and pluck, surmounted -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">{317}</a></span> -the wall, and made a breach; there at length the Greeks -poured in. The Tegeans entered first, and plundered the tent of -Mardonius, and among other things took away the manger for his -horse, all of bronze, and well worth seeing. This manger of Mardonius -the Tegeans placed in the temple of the Alean Minerva; -but all the other things they took they carried to the same place -as the rest of the Greeks. The barbarians no longer kept in close -order, nor did any one think of valor; but they were in a state of -consternation, as so many myriads of men were enclosed within so -small a space; and the Greeks had such an easy opportunity of -slaughtering them, that of an army of three hundred thousand -men, except forty thousand with whom Artabazus fled, not three -thousand survived. Of Lacedæmonians from Sparta, all that died -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">{318}</a></span> -in the engagement were ninety-one; of Tegeans, sixteen; and -of Athenians, fifty-two.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/p317.jpg" width="300" height="336" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>ELEGANT VASES AND AMPHORÆ.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p>Pausanias made proclamation that no one should touch the -booty, and commanded the helots to bring together all the treasures. -Dispersing themselves through the camp, they found tents -decked with gold and silver, and couches gilt and plated, and -golden bowls, and cups, and other drinking vessels; they also -found sacks on the waggons, in which were discovered gold and silver -cauldrons: and from the bodies that lay dead they stripped -bracelets, necklaces, and scimetars of gold; but no account at all -was taken of the variegated apparel. Of this the helots stole a -great deal and sold it to the Æginetæ, so that the great wealth of the -Æginetæ here had its beginning, for they purchased gold from the -helots as if it had been bronze. They collected the treasures together, -and took from them a tithe for the god at Delphi, from -which the golden tripod was dedicated, which stands on the three-headed -bronze serpent, close to the altar; they also took a -tithe for the god at Olympia, from which they dedicated -the bronze Jupiter, ten cubits high; and a tithe to the god -at the Isthmus, from which was made the bronze Neptune, -seven cubits high. They divided the rest, and each -took the share he was entitled to, of the gold, silver, and -other treasures, and beasts of burden. Now what choice treasures -were given those others who most distinguished themselves at -Platæa, is mentioned by no one. But for Pausanias, ten of -every thing was selected and given him—slaves, horses, talents, -camels, and all other treasures in like manner. It is said also that -when Xerxes fled from Greece, he left all his own equipage to -Mardonius; Pausanias, therefore, seeing Mardonius' equipage -furnished with gold, silver, and various-colored hangings, ordered -the bakers and cooks to prepare a supper in the same manner as -for Mardonius: and, astonished at the profusion set before him of -gold and silver couches handsomely carved, and gold and silver -tables, and magnificent preparations for the supper, he in derision -ordered his own attendants to prepare a Laconian supper by the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">{319}</a></span> -side of it, and when the repast was spread, the difference was so -ridiculous that he laughed, and sent for the generals of the Greeks -and said: "Men of Greece, I have called you together to show -you the folly of the leader of the Medes, who left such sumptuous -fare as this, to come to us, who have such poor fare, to take it -from us." A considerable time after these events, many of the -Platæans found chests of gold and silver, and other precious -things. And still later was discovered a skull without any seam, -consisting of one bone, and an upper jaw which had teeth growing -in a piece, all in one bone, both the front teeth and the grinders; -and there was likewise discovered the skeleton of a man five cubits -high.</p> - -<p>When the Greeks had buried their dead in Platæa, they immediately -determined, on consultation, to march against Thebes, -and to demand the surrender of those who had sided with the -Medes, amongst the first of them Timegenides and Attaginus, -who were the chief leaders; and, if they should not give them up, -they resolved not to depart from the city before they had taken it. -On the eleventh day after the engagement, they arrived and besieged -the Thebans, requiring them to give up the men; and, receiving -"No" for an answer, they ravaged the country, and -attacked the walls. As they did not cease damaging them, on the -twentieth day Timegenides spoke thus to the Thebans: "Men of -Thebes, since the Greeks have so resolved that they will not give -over besieging us until either they have taken Thebes, or you -have delivered us up to them, let not the Bœotian territory suffer -any more on our account. But if, being desirous of money, they -demand us as a pretence, let us give them money from the public -treasury; for we sided with the Mede by general consent, and not -of ourselves alone. If, however, they carry on the siege really because -they want us, we will present ourselves before them to plead -our cause." He appeared to speak well and to the purpose; and -the Thebans immediately sent a herald to Pausanias, expressing -their willingness to surrender the men. When they had agreed -on these terms, Attaginus escaped from the city, and his sons, who -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">{320}</a></span> -were brought before him, Pausanias acquitted from the charge, -saying that boys could have no part in the guilt of siding with the -Mede. As to the others whom the Thebans delivered up, they -thought that they should be admitted to plead their cause, and -moreover trusted to repel the charge by bribery; but he, as soon -as he had them in his power, suspecting this very thing, dismissed -the whole army of the allies, and, conducting the men to Corinth, -put them to death.</p> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">{321}</a></div> - -<h3>CHAPTER II.<br /> -<small>THE BATTLE OF MYCALE.</small></h3> - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the same day on which the defeat at Platæa occurred, -another happened to take place at Mycale in Ionia. For while -the Greeks were stationed at Delos, there came to them as ambassadors -from Samos, Lampon, Athenagoras, and Hegesistratus, -being sent by the Samians, unknown to the Persians. When they -came to the generals, Hegesistratus urged that "if only the Ionians -should see them, they would revolt from the Persians, and that the -barbarians would not withstand them; or, if they should withstand -them, the Greeks would not find any other such booty." Invoking, -too, their common gods, he besought them to deliver Grecian -men from servitude, and to repel the barbarian; and he said, -"that this would be easy for them to do, for their ships sailed -badly, and were not fit to fight with them; and, if they suspected -at all that they were leading them on deceitfully, they were themselves -ready to go on board their ships as hostages." The Samian -stranger was so earnest in his entreaties, that Leotychides asked: -"O Samian friend, what is your name?" "Hegesistratus," he -answered; upon which, interrupting the rest of his discourse, -Leotychides exclaimed: "I accept the "Hegesistratus,"<span -class="fnanchor"><a name="Ref_30" id="Ref_30" href="#Foot_30">[30]</a></span> -my Samian friend; only do you take care that before you sail away -both you yourself and those who are with you, pledge your faith -that the Samians will be zealous allies to us." The Samians immediately -pledged their faith and made oath of confederacy with -the Greeks. The others sailed home, but he ordered Hegesistratus -to sail with the fleet, regarding his name as an omen. The -Greeks tarried that day, and on the next sacrificed auspiciously, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">{322}</a></span> -Deiphonus, son of Evenius, of Apollonia in the Ionian gulf, acting -as diviner.</p> - -<p>The following incident befel his father, Evenius. There are in -this Apollonia sheep sacred to the sun, which by day feed near the -river that flows from Mount Lacmon through the Apollonian territory -into the sea, near the port of Oricus; but by night, chosen -men, the most eminent of the citizens for wealth and birth, keep -watch over them, each for a year: for the Apollonians set a high -value upon these sheep, in consequence of some oracle. They are -folded in a cavern at a distance from the city. There, once on a -time, Evenius, being chosen, kept watch, and one night when he -had fallen asleep during his watch, wolves entered the cave, and -destroyed about sixty of the sheep. When he discovered what -had happened, he mentioned it to no one, purposing to buy others, -and put them in their place. This occurrence, however, did not -escape the notice of the Apollonians; and as soon as they discovered -it, they brought him to trial, and gave sentence that, for -having fallen asleep during his watch, he should be deprived of -sight. But after they had blinded Evenius, from that time forward -neither did their sheep multiply, nor did the land yield its -usual fruit. An admonition was given them at Dodona and Delphi, -when they inquired of the prophets the cause of the present calamities -"that they had unjustly deprived Evenius, the keeper of the -sacred sheep, of his sight; for they themselves had sent the wolves, -and would not cease avenging him, until the people should give -such satisfaction for what they had done, as he himself should -choose, and think sufficient: then, the gods themselves would give -such a present to Evenius, that most men would pronounce him -happy, from possessing it." The Apollonians, keeping this answer -secret, deputed some of their citizens to negociate the matter with -Evenius. One day when he was seated on a bench, they went -and sat down by him, and conversed on different subjects, till at -length they began to commiserate his misfortune, and leading him -artfully on, they asked, "what reparation he would choose, if the -Apollonians were willing to give him satisfaction for what they had -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">{323}</a></span> -done." Not having heard of the oracle he made this choice, "if -any one would give him the lands of certain citizens," naming those -who he knew had the two best estates in Apollonia, "and besides -these a house," which he knew was the handsomest in the city, -he said, "he would thenceforth forego his anger, and this reparation -would content him." Immediately taking him up they said, -"the Apollonians make you this reparation for the loss of your -eyes, in obedience to an oracle they have received." He thereupon -was very indignant, on hearing the whole truth, for he had -been deceived; but the Apollonians bought the property from the -owners, and gave him what he had chosen, and immediately the -gift of divination was implanted in him, so that he became very -celebrated.</p> - -<p>Deiphonus, the son of this Evenius, was brought by the Corinthians -to officiate as diviner to the army.</p> - -<p>The Greeks at length determined to sail to the continent: having -therefore prepared boarding-ladders, and all other things that -were necessary for a sea-fight, they sailed to Mycale. No one -was seen near the camp, ready to meet them, but they beheld the -ships drawn up within the fortification, and a numerous land-force -disposed along the beach, thereupon Leotychides, advancing -first in a ship, and nearing the beach as closely as possible, -made proclamation by a herald to the Ionians, saying: "Men -of Ionia, as many of you as hear me, attend to what I say; for the -Persians will understand nothing of the advice I give you. When -we engage, it behooves every one first of all to remember -Liberty; and next the watch-word, Hebe; and let him who does -not hear this, learn it from those who do hear." The meaning -of this proceeding was the same as that of Themistocles at -Artemisium; for either these words, being concealed from the -barbarians, would induce the Ionians to revolt, or, if they should be -reported to the barbarians, would make them distrustful of the -Greeks. Then the Greeks put their ships to shore, landed on the -beach, and drew up in order of battle. But when the Persians -saw them preparing for action, and knew that they had admonished -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">{324}</a></span> -the Ionians, they suspected that the Samians favored the Greeks, -and took away their arms.</p> - -<p>Then the Greeks advanced toward the barbarians; and a -rumor flew through the whole army that a herald's staff was seen -lying on the beach and that the Greeks had fought and conquered -the army of Mardonius in Bœotia. Thus the interposition of -heaven is manifest by many plain signs; since on this same day on -which the defeat at Platæa took place, and when that at Mycale -was just about to happen, a rumor reached the Greeks in this -latter place; so that the army was inspired with much greater -courage, and was more eager to meet danger.</p> - -<p>The Athenians, and those who were drawn up next to them, -forming about half the army, had to advance along the shore over -level ground; but the Lacedæmonians and their associates, along -a ravine and some hills. So that whilst the Lacedæmonians were -making a circuit, those in the other wing were already engaged. -Now, so long as the bucklers of the Persians remained standing, -they defended themselves strenuously, and had not the worst -of the battle; but when the Athenians and their comrades mutually -encouraged one another, in order that the victory might belong to -them, and not to the Lacedæmonians, they flew with such vigor -into the battle, that the face of affairs was immediately changed. -They broke through the bucklers and fell in a body upon -the Persians. They sustained the attack and defended themselves -for a time but at last fled to the fortification. The Athenians, -Corinthians, Sicyonians, and Trœzenians, drawn up in order -together, following close upon them, rushed into the fortification at -the same time. When the fortification was taken, the barbarians -no longer thought of resisting, but all except the Persians betook -themselves to flight; they, in small detachments, fought with the -Greeks who were continually rushing within the fortification. And of -the Persian generals, two made their escape, and two died. Artayntes -and Ithramitres, commanders of the naval forces escaped; -but Mardontes, and Tigranes, generals of the land army, died -fighting. While the Persians were still fighting, the Lacedæmonians -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">{325}</a></span> -came up, and assisted in accomplishing the rest. Of -the Greeks themselves many fell on this occasion, especially the -Sicyonians, and their general Perilaus. The Samians, who were in -the camp of the Medes and had been deprived of their arms, -as soon as they saw the battle turning, did all they could, wishing -to help the Greeks; and the rest of the Ionians, as the Samians led -the way, fled from the Persians and attacked the barbarians. -The Milesians had been appointed to guard the passes for the -Persians so that in the event of failure they might have guides to -conduct them to the heights of Mycale. They, however, did -every thing contrary to what was ordered; guiding them in their -flight by other ways which led to the enemy, and at last themselves -assisted in slaying them. Thus Ionia revolted a second time from -the Persians. In this battle of the Greeks, the Athenians most distinguished -themselves. When they had killed most of the -barbarians, some fighting and others flying, they brought out -all the booty on the beach, including several chests of money, and -burnt the ships and the whole fortification. Then they took into -their alliance the Samians, Chians, Lesbians, and other islanders, -who were then serving with the Greeks, bound them by pledges -and oaths that they would remain firm and not revolt; then -sailed to the Hellespont, and home.</p> - -<div class="image-center" style="max-width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/p325.jpg" width="400" height="172" alt=""/> - <div class="caption"> - <p>BAS-RELIEF OF THE MUSES.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="nodent"><a name="Foot_30" id="Foot_30" href="#Ref_30">[30]</a> -Hegesistratus means "leader of an army."</p> - -</div> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">{326}</a></div> - -<h2>SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN HERODOTUS.</h2> - -<h3>GREEKS.</h3> - -<table class="tgrk" summary="greeks-1"> - -<tr> - <td style="width:40%"></td> - <td style="width:10%"></td> - <td style="width:40%"></td> - <td style="width:10%"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="4" class="center uline"><i>Peloponnesus.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="text"></td> - <td class="date"><small>B.C.</small></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="text">Rape of Io from Argos</td> - <td class="date">1687</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="text">Pelops conq. the Pelopon</td> - <td class="date">1362</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="text">Eurystheus conquered</td> - <td class="date">1311</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="text">Rape of Helen</td> - <td class="date">1290</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3" class="text">Aristodemus conq. the Pelo.</td> - <td class="date">1190</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="4"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="2" class="uline center"><i>Lacedæmon.</i></td> - <td colspan="2" class="uline center"><i>Corinth.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"><small>B.C.</small></td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"><small>B.C.</small></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Procles and Eurysthenes kings</td> - <td class="date">1178</td> - <td class="text">Oligarchy of Bacchiadæ</td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Theras col. Callista (Thera)</td> - <td class="date">1150</td> - <td class="text">Cypselus born</td> - <td class="date">700</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Lycurgus</td> - <td class="date">884</td> - <td class="text">Seizes the trannny</td> - <td class="date">663</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Battus migrates from Cal. and founds Cyrene</td> - <td class="date">632</td> - <td class="text">Periander</td> - <td class="date">633</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">First war with Tegea</td> - <td class="date">620</td> - <td class="text">Banishes Lycophron</td> - <td class="date">575</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Ariston and Anaxandrides, kings of Lacedæmon</td> - <td class="date">574</td> - <td class="text">Sends 300 Corcyræan boys to Alyattes</td> - <td class="date">565</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Ally with Crœsus</td> - <td class="date">554</td> - <td class="text">Dies</td> - <td class="date">563</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Tegea taken</td> - <td class="date">546</td> - <td class="text">Miltiades, son of Cypselus, founds Chersonesus</td> - <td class="date">560</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">War with Argives about Thyrea</td> - <td class="date">545</td> - <td class="text">Stesagoras succeeds</td> - <td class="date">531</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Send troops ag't. Polycrates</td> - <td class="date">525</td> - <td class="text">Miltiades, son of Cimon, succeeds</td> - <td class="date">515</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Demaratus</td> - <td class="date">520</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Cleomenes</td> - <td class="date">515</td> - <td class="text">Takes Lemnos</td> - <td class="date">510</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Dorieus migrates to Libya</td> - <td class="date">515</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Cleo. violates the Argive grove</td> - <td class="date">514</td> - <td class="text">Retires before the Scythians</td> - <td class="date">507</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Cleomenes expels Clisthenes from Athens</td> - <td class="date">508</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Invades Attica</td> - <td class="date">507</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Demaratus exiled</td> - <td class="date">492</td> - <td class="text">Escapes from the Persians to Imbros</td> - <td class="date">497</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Leotychides king</td> - <td class="date">492</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Cleomenes kills himself</td> - <td class="date">490</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Leonidas slain at Thermopylæ</td> - <td class="date">480</td> - <td class="text">At the battle of Salamis</td> - <td class="date">480</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Pausanias wins at Platæa</td> - <td class="date">479</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Leotychides at Mycale</td> - <td class="date">479</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<table class="tgrk" summary="greeks-2"> - -<tr> - <td style="width:40%"></td> - <td style="width:10%"></td> - <td style="width:40%"></td> - <td style="width:10%"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="2" class="uline center"><i>Attica, Bœotia, Phocis, Ætolia, etc.</i></td> - <td colspan="2" class="uline center"><i>Greeks in Asia and the Islands.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"><small>B.C.</small></td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"><small>B.C.</small></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Deucalion</td> - <td class="date">1570</td> - <td class="text">Ion goes to Asia</td> - <td class="date">1391</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Cecrops</td> - <td class="date">1550</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Erectheus</td> - <td class="date">1510</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Ion, son of Xuthus</td> - <td class="date">1427</td> - <td class="text">Æolian migrations under Orestes, Penthilus, and Echelatus</td> - <td class="date">1210-1174</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Rape of Medea by the Argonauts</td> - <td class="date">1349</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Theseus defeated Eurystheus</td> - <td class="date">1311</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Decaleans give up Helen to the Tyndaridæ</td> - <td class="date">1296</td> - <td class="text">Ionian migrations (driven from the Pelop. by the Achæans)</td> - <td class="date">1130</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Pelasgians expelled from Attica, conquer Lemnos</td> - <td class="date">1162</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Codrus</td> - <td class="date">1153</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Rape of Ath. women from Brauron</td> - <td class="date">1152</td> - <td class="text">Dorian migration, Samians reach Tartessus</td> - <td class="date">640</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Alcmæon, the last Archon</td> - <td class="date">683</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Conspiracy of Ceylon</td> - <td class="date">612</td> - <td class="text">Thrasybulus</td> - <td class="date">625</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Legislation of Solon</td> - <td class="date">594</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Megacles mar. Clisthenes' daughter</td> - <td class="date">570</td> - <td class="text">Conquered by Crœsus</td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Pisistratus, tyrant</td> - <td class="date">561</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Expelled</td> - <td class="date">559</td> - <td class="text">Conquered by Harpagus</td> - <td class="date">542</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Re-established</td> - <td class="date">555</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Re-expelled</td> - <td class="date">553</td> - <td class="text">Phocæans defeat Carthaginians, etc.</td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Regains it</td> - <td class="date">542</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Dies</td> - <td class="date">528</td> - <td class="text">Found Hyela</td> - <td class="date">535</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Hipparchus succeeds</td> - <td class="date">528</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Assassina. of Cimon</td> - <td class="date">527</td> - <td class="text">Polycrates tyrant at Samos</td> - <td class="date">532-523</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Hipparchus assassinated</td> - <td class="date">514</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="date"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Hippias succeeds</td> - <td class="date">514</td> - <td class="text">Samians found Cydonia</td> - <td class="date">524</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Expelled</td> - <td class="date">510</td> - <td class="text">Syloson obtains Samos</td> - <td class="date">512</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Factions of Clisthenes and Isagoras</td> - <td class="date">509</td> - <td class="text">Ionians commence disturbances</td> - <td class="date">504</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Clisthenes expelled</td> - <td class="date">508</td> - <td class="text">Burn Sardis</td> - <td class="date">503</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Inv. of Cleomenes</td> - <td class="date">507</td> - <td class="text">Joined by the Cyprians</td> - <td class="date">502</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Athenians defeat the Bœotians, invade Eubœa, and conquer the Chalcidians</td> - <td class="date">506</td> - <td class="text">Miletus taken</td> - <td class="date">498</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Miltiades gains the battle of Marathon</td> - <td class="date">490</td> - <td class="text">Aristagoras slain</td> - <td class="date">498</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Dies</td> - <td class="date">489</td> - <td class="text">Samians take Zancle</td> - <td class="date">497</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Xerxes takes Athens</td> - <td class="date">480</td> - <td class="text">Chios, Tenedos, etc., taken by the Persians</td> - <td class="date">497</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Battle of Salamis</td> - <td class="date">480</td> - <td class="text">Phocians defeat Thessalians</td> - <td class="date">482</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Mardonius retakes Athens</td> - <td class="date">479</td> - <td class="text">Ionians join the allies at Mycale</td> - <td class="date">479</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">{327}</a></div> - -<h3>BARBARIANS</h3> - -<table class="tbar" summary="barbarians-1"> - -<tr> - <td style="width:33%"></td> - <td style="width:33%"></td> - <td style="width:34%"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="uline"><i>Phœnicians.</i></td> - <td class="uline"><i>Egyptians.</i></td> - <td class="uline"><i>Scythians and Cimmerians.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td>Migrated from the Erythræan to Phoenicia, about 2267.</td> - <td>God-kings, 17570 to 15570.</td> - <td>Cimerians invade Asia, but expelled by the Scythians about 624.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td>Colonized Thasos, 1550.</td> - <td>Menes to Mœris, 2235 to 1416.</td> - <td>Scythians rule Upper Asia, 624 to 596.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td>Founded Carthage, 819.</td> - <td>Sesostris to Sethon, 1416 to 671.</td> - <td>Invaded by Darius, 508.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td>Circumnavigate Libya, 609.</td> - <td>Twelve kings to Amasis, 671 to 525.</td> - <td>Invade the Chersonesus; Miltiades retires, 507.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<table class="tbar" summary="barbarians-2"> - -<tr> - <td style="width:33%"></td> - <td style="width:33%"></td> - <td style="width:34%"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="2" class="uline"><i>Assyrians and Babylonians.</i></td> - <td class="uline"><i>Lydians.</i></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="2" class="date bord"><small>B.C.</small></td> - <td></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Empire</td> - <td class="date bord">1221—711</td> - <td>Atyadæ to 1221.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Semiramis</td> - <td class="date bord">747—733</td> - <td>Heraclidæ, 1221—716.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Medic Revolt</td> - <td class="date bord">711</td> - <td>Gyges, 716.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="uline"><i>Babylonia</i></td> - <td class="uline bord"><i>Media, etc.</i></td> - <td>Ardys, 678.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td>Nitocris, 604 to 561.</td> - <td class="bord">Deioces, 700.</td> - <td>Cimmerians take Sardis, 634.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td>Turns the Euphrates and improves Babylon.</td> - <td class="bord">Div. the Medes.</td> - <td>Sadyattes, 629.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td>Labynetus (Belshazzar), son of Nitocris, succeeds.</td> - <td class="bord">Phraortes, 647.</td> - <td>Milesian war, 622—610.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td>Arbitrates between Cyaxares and Alyattes.</td> - <td class="bord">Invades Assyria</td> - <td>Alyattes, 617.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bord">Perished before Nineveh.</td> - <td>Drove out Cimmerians, 613.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bord">Cyaxares, 625.</td> - <td>War with Cyaxares, 602.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bord">Conq. Assyria.</td> - <td>Crœsus, 560.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bord">Besieges Nineveh, 603.</td> - <td>Conquers Greeks.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bord">Scythian invasion, 624-596.</td> - <td>Visited by Solon.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bord">Astyages, 585.</td> - <td></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bord"><span class="smcap">Cyrus</span> born, 571.</td> - <td></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="bord">King in sport, 561.</td> - <td></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td></td> - <td> </td> - <td></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="uline"><i>Persian Empire</i></td> - <td></td> -</tr> - -<tr><td colspan="3" class="persia"><span class="smcap">Cyrus</span>, king 550.</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="3" class="persia">Attacked by Crœsus. Conquers Lydia, -and takes Sardis. Mazares punishes Lydian rebels. Harpagus takes Phocæa, -conquers Ionia and Æolis.</td></tr> - - - - - -<tr><td colspan="3" class="persia">Babylon taken by Cyrus, 536.</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="3" class="persia">Massagetan expedition. Cyrus slain, 530.</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="3" class="persia"><span class="smcap">Cambyses</span>, 530-523. Conquers Egypt, 525. Unsuccessful expedition against -the Ethiopians and Ammonians. Wounds Apis. Goes mad. Slays his brother -Smerdis. Marries and kills his sister. Magian revolt. Dies, 523.</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="3" class="persia"><span class="smcap">Smerdis Magus</span>, 523. Conspiracy of the Seven. Death of the Magi.</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="3" class="persia"><span class="smcap">Darius</span>, 522-485. Sends Democydes to spy Greece. Babylonian revolt. -Babylon taken by Zopyrus, 516. Restores Syloson to Samos, 512. Barca -conquered, 512. Invades Scythia, 508. Megabazus subdues Thrace. Otanes -subdues Lemnos and Imbros. Disturbances in Ionia. Burning of Sardis, -503. Cyprians join the revolt, 502; conquered, 501. Miletus taken, 498. -Pacification of Ionia, 497. Mardonius marches against Greece, 495. -Wrecked at Athos. Darius sends to Greece for earth and water, 493. -Expedition of Datis and Artaphernes, 492; enslave Naxos and Eretria, -490. Marathon, 490. Preparations for another invasion, 489. Egyptian -revolt, 486.</td></tr> - -<tr><td colspan="3" class="persia"><span class="smcap">Xerxes</span>, 485-479. Subdues Egypt, 484. Prepares for a Greek expedition. -Leaves Susa, April, 481. Winters at Sardis. Battle of Thermopylæ, 480. -Takes Athens, 480. Battle of Salamis, Sept., 480. Retires to Asia. -Mardonius defeated at Platæa, and the Persian fleet at Mycale, the same -day, Sept. 22, 479.</td></tr> - -</table> - -<div class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">{328}</a></div> - -<h2>HERODOTEAN WEIGHTS AND MONEY, DRY AND LIQUID -MEASURES, AND MEASUREMENTS OF LENGTH.</h2> - -<h3><i>Eubœic or Attic Silver Weights and Money.</i></h3> - -<table class="twm" summary="Eubœic"> - -<tr> - <th colspan="3"></th> - <th class="amount" colspan="3">WEIGHT (Avoirdupois).</th> - <th class="value">VALUE</th> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="amount">lbs.</td> - <td class="amount">oz.</td> - <td class="amount">grs.</td> - <td class="value"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">1</td> - <td class="text">Obol</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">11.08</td> - <td class="value">$.033</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">6</td> - <td class="text">Obols</td> - <td class="text">1 Drachma</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">66.5 </td> - <td class="value">.198</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">100</td> - <td class="text">Drachmæ</td> - <td class="text">1 Mina</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">15 </td> - <td class="amount">33.75</td> - <td class="value">19.784</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">60</td> - <td class="text">Minæ</td> - <td class="text">1 Talent</td> - <td class="amount">56</td> - <td class="amount">15¼</td> - <td class="amount">100.32</td> - <td class="value">1187.00 </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<h3><i>Æginetan Silver Weights and Money.</i></h3> - -<table class="twm" summary="Æginetan"> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="amount">lbs.</td> - <td class="amount">oz.</td> - <td class="amount">grs.</td> - <td class="value"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">1</td> - <td class="text">Obol</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">16 </td> - <td class="value">$.04½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">6</td> - <td class="text">Obols</td> - <td class="text">1 Drachma</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">96 </td> - <td class="value">27.00 </td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">100</td> - <td class="text">Drachmæ</td> - <td class="text">1 Mina</td> - <td class="amount">1</td> - <td class="amount">5¾</td> - <td class="amount">78.96</td> - <td class="value">— </td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">60</td> - <td class="text">Minæ</td> - <td class="text">1 Talent</td> - <td class="amount">82</td> - <td class="amount">3¾</td> - <td class="amount">30.46</td> - <td class="value">1620.00 </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="gap-above outdent">The gold Stater of Crœsus and the gold Daric are each supposed to be worth about 20 Attic silver -drachmæ, or about $4.00 in our money.</p> - -<p class="outdent">Herodotus makes the Babylonian Talent equal to 70 Eubœic Minæ, but Hussey calculates its -weight at 71<i>lbs.</i> 1½<i>oz.</i> 69.45<i>grs.</i> If, however, these are reckoned by comparison with our -gold money, they are worth much more.</p> - -<h3><i>Attic Dry Measures.</i></h3> - -<table class="twm" summary="Attic-dry"> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="amount">Gallons.</td> - <td class="amount">Quarts.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">1</td> - <td class="text">Chœnix</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">1</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">48</td> - <td class="text">Chœnices</td> - <td class="text">1 Medimnus</td> - <td class="amount">12</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">1</td> - <td class="text">Medimnus and<br />3 Chœnices</td> - <td class="text">1 Persian Artaba</td> - <td class="amount">12</td> - <td class="amount">3</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<h3><i>Liquid Measures.</i></h3> - -<table class="twm" summary="Liquid"> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="amount">Gallons.</td> - <td class="amount">Pints.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">1</td> - <td class="text">Chœnix</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">1½</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">48</td> - <td class="text">Chœnices</td> - <td class="text">1 Amphora</td> - <td class="amount">9</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="gap-above outdent">Hesychius considers the Aryster to be the same as the Cotyla, which Hussey calculates to hold -half a pint.</p> - -<h3><i>Measures of Length.</i></h3> - -<table class="twm" summary="Length"> - -<tr> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="amount">Miles.</td> - <td class="amount">Yards.</td> - <td class="amount">Feet.</td> - <td class="amount">Inches.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">1</td> - <td class="text">Digit (finger's breadth)</td> - <td class="text"></td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">.7584</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">4</td> - <td class="text">Digits</td> - <td class="text">1 Palm (hand-breadth)</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">3.0336</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">3</td> - <td class="text">Palms</td> - <td class="text">1 Span</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">9.1008</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">4</td> - <td class="text">Palms</td> - <td class="text">1 Foot</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">1</td> - <td class="amount">0.135 </td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">2</td> - <td class="text">Spans or 6 Palms</td> - <td class="text">1 Cubit</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">1</td> - <td class="amount">6.2016</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">1</td> - <td class="text">Cubit and 6 Digits</td> - <td class="text">1 Royal Cubit</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">1</td> - <td class="amount">8.4768</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">4</td> - <td class="text">Cubits</td> - <td class="text">1 Fathom (Orgya)</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">6</td> - <td class="amount">0.81 </td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">100</td> - <td class="text">Feet or 16⅔ Orgyæ</td> - <td class="text">1 Plethrum</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">33</td> - <td class="amount">2</td> - <td class="amount">1.5 </td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">6</td> - <td class="text">Plethra</td> - <td class="text">1 Stadium</td> - <td class="amount">—</td> - <td class="amount">202</td> - <td class="amount">0</td> - <td class="amount">9 </td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">30</td> - <td class="text">Stadia</td> - <td class="text">1 Persian Parasang</td> - <td class="amount">3</td> - <td class="amount">787</td> - <td class="amount">1</td> - <td class="amount">6 </td> -</tr> - -<tr> - <td class="amount">2</td> - <td class="text">Parasangs</td> - <td class="text">1 Schœnus</td> - <td class="amount">6½</td> - <td class="amount">494</td> - <td class="amount">3</td> - <td class="amount">0 </td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p class="gap-above outdent">The Egyptian Cubit contained nearly 17¾ inches.</p> - -<p class="outdent">The Arura contained 21,904 square English feet, or a fraction over half an acre.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapt-begin"> -<p class="gap-above center small">UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME.</p> -</div> - -<h2 class="no-break">PLUTARCH FOR BOYS AND GIRLS.</h2> - -<table class="tpl" summary="plutarch"> - -<tr> - <td class="text">Selected and edited by Prof. John S. White. Quarto, with many - illustrations.</td> - <td class="price">$3 00</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<div class="small"> - -<p>This edition contains all the "Lives" and "Parallels" in Plutarch's own words, with such -omissions only as were necessary to adapt them for young readers. There is also an Introduction -and Life of Plutarch by the editor. As a standard work, adapted to both boys and girls, -its wealth of anecdote and faithful portrayal of character render it peculiarly valuable.</p> - -<p>"Precious ore and no dross."—<i>Home Journal.</i></p> - -<p>"It is a pleasure to see in so beautiful and elegant a form, one of the great books of the -world. The best Plutarch for young readers."—<i>Literary World.</i></p> - -<p>"Shows admirable scholarship and judgment."—<i>The Critic.</i></p> - - <p class="center">G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS,<br /> - NEW YORK <span class="x-small">AND</span> LONDON.</p> - -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Boys' and Girls' Herodotus, by John S. 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