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diff --git a/old/55757-0.txt b/old/55757-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index dc891a2..0000000 --- a/old/55757-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,17699 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Art of Paper-Making, by Alexander Watt - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: The Art of Paper-Making - A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto, Straw, and Other Fibrous Materials, Including the Manufacture of Pulp from Wood Fibre - - -Author: Alexander Watt - - - -Release Date: October 15, 2017 [eBook #55757] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ART OF PAPER-MAKING*** - - -E-text prepared by MWS, John Campbell, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 55757-h.htm or 55757-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/55757/55757-h/55757-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/55757/55757-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/artofpapermaking00watt - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). - - Text enclosed by double plus signs is underlined - (++underlined++). - - The 3-star asterism symbol is denoted by ***. - - The right-pointing finger symbol is denoted by ==>. - - A carat character is used to denote superscription. A - single character following the carat is superscripted - (examples: B^2, A^4). - - Basic fractions are displayed as ½ ⅓ ¼ etc; other fractions - are shown in the form a/b, for example 7/16 or 1/125. - - Some minor changes are noted at the end of the book. - - - - - -THE ART OF PAPER-MAKING - - - * * * * * * - -_WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR._ - - - Just ready. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, - 7s. 6d. cloth. - - THE ART OF SOAP-MAKING: A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture - of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, &c. Including many New - Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste - Leys. With numerous Illustrations. - -"Really an excellent example of a technical manual, entering as -it does, thoroughly and exhaustively, both into the theory and -practice of soap manufacture. The book is well and honestly done, -and deserves the considerable circulation with which it will -doubtless meet."--_Knowledge._ - - - Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 9s. cloth. - - THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE: Being a Practical Handbook, in - which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing - are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning Explained, and - many Recent Processes Introduced. With numerous Illustrations. - -"A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and its accessories.... -The book is an eminently valuable production."--_Chemical Review._ - - - Just Published. Third Edition, revised and much enlarged. 600 pp., - crown 8vo, 9s. cloth. - - ELECTRO-DEPOSITION: A Practical Treatise on the Electrolysis of - Gold, Silver, Copper, Nickel, and other Metals and Alloys. With - descriptions of Voltaic Batteries, Magneto and Dynamo-Electric - Machines, Thermopiles, and of the Materials and Processes - used in every Department of the Art, and several Chapters on - ELECTRO-METALLURGY. With numerous Illustrations. - -"Eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition. -It contains minute and practical descriptions of methods, processes -and materials, as actually pursued and used in the workshop. -Mr. Watt's book recommends itself to all interested in its -subjects."--_Engineer._ - - - Just Published. Ninth Edition, enlarged and revised, 12mo, 4s. cloth. - - ELECTRO-METALLURGY: Practically Treated. Ninth Edition, Enlarged - and Revised, with Additional Matter and Illustrations, including - the most recent Processes. - -"From this book both amateur and artisan may learn -everything necessary for the successful prosecution of -electro-plating."--_Iron._ - - - CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON, 7, Stationers' Hall Court, London, E.C. - - * * * * * * - - -THE ART OF PAPER-MAKING - -A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture -of Paper from Rags, Esparto, Straw, and -Other Fibrous Materials, Including -the Manufacture of Pulp from -Wood Fibre - -With a Description of the Machinery and Appliances used - -To Which Are Added -Details of Processes for Recovering Soda from -Waste Liquors - -by - -ALEXANDER WATT - -Author of "The Art of Soap-Making," "Leather Manufacture," -"Electro-Metallurgy," "Electro-Deposition," etc., etc. - - - - - - -[Illustration: Capio Lumen (Publisher's colophon)] - -London -Crosby Lockwood and Son -7, Stationers' Hall Court, Ludgate Hill -1890 -[All rights reserved] - -London: -Printed By J. S. Virtue and Co., Limited. -City Road. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -In the present volume, while describing the various operations -involved in the manufacture of paper, the Author has endeavoured to -render the work serviceable as a book of reference in respect to -the processes and improvements which have from time to time been -introduced, and many of which have been more or less practically -applied either at home or abroad. - -The recovery of soda from waste liquors has been fully dealt with, -and the details of several applied processes explained. - -Special attention has also been directed to some of the more -important methods of producing pulp from wood fibre, since it -is highly probable that from this inexhaustible source the -paper-maker will ultimately derive much of the cellulose used in -his manufacture. Indeed it may be deemed equally probable, when -the processes for disintegrating wood fibre, so largely applied -in America and on the Continent, become better understood in this -country, that their adoption here will become more extensive than -has hitherto been the case. - -To render the work more readily understood alike by the practical -operator and the student, care has been taken to avoid, as far as -possible, the introduction of unexplained technicalities; at the -same time it has been the writer's aim to furnish the reader with a -variety of information which, it is hoped, will prove both useful -and instructive. - -It is with much pleasure that the Author tenders his sincere thanks -to Mr. Sydney Spalding, of the Horton Kirby Mills, South Darenth, -for his kind courtesy in conducting him through the various -departments of the mill, and for explaining to him the operations -performed therein. To Mr. Frank Lloyd he also acknowledges his -indebtedness for the generous readiness with which he accompanied -him over the _Daily Chronicle_ Mill at Sittingbourne, and for -the pains he took to supply information as to certain details -at the Author's request. His best thanks are also due to those -manufacturers of paper-making machinery who supplied him with many -of the blocks which illustrate the pages of the book. - - BALHAM, SURREY, _January, 1890_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - _CELLULOSE._ - - PAGE - - Cellulose--Action of Acids on Cellulose--Physical Characteristics - of Cellulose--Micrographic Examination of Vegetable Fibres-- - Determination of Cellulose--Recognition of Vegetable Fibres by - the Microscope 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - _MATERIALS USED IN PAPER-MAKING._ - - Raw Materials--Rags--Disinfecting Machine--Straw--Esparto Grass-- - Wood--Bamboo--Paper Mulberry 9 - - - CHAPTER III. - _TREATMENT OF RAGS._ - - Preliminary Operations--Sorting--Cutting--Bertrams' Rag-cutting - Machine--Nuttall's Rag-cutter--Willowing--Bertrams' Willow - and Duster--Dusting--Bryan Donkin's Duster or Willow--Donkin's - Devil 19 - - - CHAPTER IV. - _TREATMENT OF RAGS_ (_continued_). - - Boiling Rags--Bertrams' Rag-boiler--Donkin's Rag-boiler--Washing - and Breaking--Bertrams' Rag-engine--Bentley and Jackson's - Rag-engine--Draining--Terrance's Drainer 29 - - - CHAPTER V. - _TREATMENT OF ESPARTO._ - - Preliminary Treatment--Picking--Willowing Esparto--Boiling - Esparto--Sinclair's Esparto Boiler--Roeckner's Boiler--Mallary's - Process--Carbonell's Process--Washing Boiled Esparto--Young's - Process--Bleaching the Esparto 40 - - - CHAPTER VI. - _TREATMENT OF WOOD._ - - I. CHEMICAL PROCESSES--Watt and Burgess's Process--Sinclair's - Process--Keegan's Process--American Wood-pulp System--Aussedat's - Process--Acid Treatment of Wood--Pictet and Brélaz's Process-- - Barre and Blondel's Process--Poncharac's Process--Young and - Pettigrew's Process--Fridet and Matussière's Process 53 - - - CHAPTER VII. - _TREATMENT OF WOOD_ (_continued_). - - Sulphite Processes--Francke's Process--Ekman's Process--Dr. - Mitscherlich's Process--Ritter and Kellner's Boiler-- - Partington's Process--Blitz's Process--M'Dougall's Boiler for - Acid Processes--Graham's Process--Objections to the Acid or - Sulphite Processes--Sulphite Fibre and Resin--Adamson's - Process--Sulphide. Processes--II. MECHANICAL PROCESSES-- - Voelter's Process for preparing Wood-pulp--Thune's Process 68 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - _TREATMENT OF VARIOUS FIBRES._ - - Treatment of Straw--Bentley and Jackson's Boiler--Boiling the - Straw--Bertrams' Edge-runner--M. A. C. Mellier's Process-- - Manilla, Jute, &c.--Waste Paper--Boiling Waste Paper--Ryan's - Process for Treating Waste Paper 80 - - - CHAPTER IX. - _BLEACHING._ - - Bleaching Operations--Sour Bleaching--Bleaching with Chloride - of Lime--Donkin's Bleach Mixer--Bleaching with Chlorine Gas - (Glaser's Process)--Electrolytic Bleaching (C. Watt's Process)-- - Hermite's Process--Andreoli's Process--Thompson's Process-- - Lunge's Process--Zinc Bleach Liquor--Alum Bleach Liquor--New - Method of Bleaching 89 - - - CHAPTER X. - _BEATING OR REFINING._ - - Beating--Mr. Dunbar's Observations on Beating--Mr. Arnot on - Beating Engines--Mr. Wyatt on American Refining Engines--The - Beating Engine--Forbes' Beating Engine--Umpherston's Beating - Engine--Operation of Beating--Test for Chlorine--Blending 101 - - - CHAPTER XI. - _LOADING.--SIZING.--COLOURING._ - - Loading--Sizing--French Method of preparing Engine Size--Zinc - Soaps in Sizing--Colouring--Animal or Tub Sizing--Preparation - of Animal Size--American Method of Sizing--Machine Sizing-- - Double-sized Paper--Mr. Wyatt's Remarks on Sizing 114 - - - CHAPTER XII. - _MAKING PAPER BY HAND._ - - The Vat and Mould--Making the Paper--Sizing and Finishing 129 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - _MAKING PAPER BY MACHINERY._ - - The Fourdrinier Machine--Bertrams' Large Paper Machine--Stuff - Chests--Strainers--Revolving Strainer and Knotter-- - Self-cleansing Strainer--Roeckner's Pulp Strainers--The - Machine Wire and its Accessories--Conical Pulp-Saver--The - Dandy-Roll--Water-Marking--De la Rue's Improvements in - Water-Marks--Suction Boxes--Couch Rolls--Press Rolls-- - Drying Cylinders--Smoothing Rolls--Single Cylinder Machines 133 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - _CALENDERING, CUTTING, AND FINISHING._ - - Web-Glazing--Glazing Calender Damping Rolls--Finishing--Plate - Glazing--Donkin's Glazing Press--Mr. Wyatt on American - Super-Calendering--Mr. Arnot on Finishing--Cutting--Revolving - Knife Cutter--Bertrams' Single-sheet Cutter--Packing the - finished Paper--Sizes of Paper 154 - - - CHAPTER XV. - _COLOURED PAPERS._ - - Coloured Papers--Colouring Matters used in Paper-making--American - Combinations for Colouring--Mixing Colouring Materials - with Pulp--Colouring Paper for Artificial Flowers--Stains - for Glazed Papers--Stains for Morocco Papers--Stains for - Satin Papers 165 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - _MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS._ - - Waterproof Paper--Scoffern and Tidcombe's Process--Dr. Wright's - Process for preparing Cupro-Ammonium--Jouglet's Process-- - Waterproof Composition for Paper--Toughening Paper--Morfit's - Process--Transparent Paper--Tracing Paper--Varnished Paper-- - Oiled Paper--Lithographic Paper--Cork Paper--New Japanese - Paper--Blotting Paper--Parchment Paper--Mill and Cardboard-- - Making Paper or Cardboard with two Faces by ordinary - Machine--Test Papers 174 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - _MACHINERY USED IN PAPER-MAKING._ - - Bentley and Jackson's Drum-Washer--Drying Cylinders--Self-acting - Dry Felt Regulator--Paper Cutting Machine--Single-web - Winding Machine--Cooling and Damping Rolls--Reversing or - Plate-glazing Calender--Plate-planing Machine--Roll-bar - Planing Machine--Washing Cylinder for Rag Engine--Bleach Pump-- - Three-roll Smoothing Presses--Back-water Pump--Web-glazing - Calender--Reeling Machine--Web-ripping Machine--Roeckner's - Clarifier--Marshall's Perfecting Engine 184 - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - _RECOVERY OF SODA FROM SPENT LIQUORS._ - - Recovery of Soda--Evaporating Apparatus--Roeckner's Evaporator-- - Porion's Evaporator--Yaryan's Evaporator--American System - of Soda Recovery 204 - - - CHAPTER XIX. - _DETERMINING THE REAL VALUE OR PERCENTAGE - OF COMMERCIAL SODAS, CHLORIDE OF LIME, ETC._ - - Examination of Commercial Sodas--Mohr's Alkalimeter--Preparation - of the Test Acid--Sampling Alkalies--The Assay--Estimation of - Chlorine in Bleaching Powder--Fresenius' Method--Gay-Lussac's - Method--The Test Liquor--Testing the Sample--Estimation of - Alumina in Alum Cake, &c. 221 - - - CHAPTER XX. - _USEFUL NOTES AND TABLES._ - - Preparation of Lakes--Brazil-wood Lake--Cochineal Lake--Lac - Lake--Madder Lake--Orange Lake--Yellow Lake--Artificial - Ultramarine--Twaddell's Hydrometer--Imitation Manilla from - Wood-pulp--Testing Ultramarines--Strength of Paper 235 - - TABLES.--Dalton's Table showing the Proportion of Dry Soda in - Leys of different Densities--Table of Strength of Caustic Soda - Solutions at 59° F. = 150° C. (Tünnerman)--Table showing - the Specific Gravity corresponding with the Degrees of Baumé's - Hydrometer--Table of Boiling Points of Alkaline Leys--Table - showing the Quantity of Caustic Soda in Leys of different - Densities--Table showing the Quantity of Bleaching Liquid - at 6° Twaddell (specific gravity 1·030) required to be added to - Weaker Liquor to raise it to the given Strengths--Comparative - French and English Thermometer Scales--Weights and - Measures of the Metrical System--Table of French Weights - and Measures 241 - - LIST OF WORKS RELATING TO PAPER MANUFACTURE 246 - - - - -THE ART OF PAPER-MAKING. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -_CELLULOSE._ - - Cellulose.--Action of Acids on Cellulose.--Physical - Characteristics of Cellulose.--Micrographic Examination of - Vegetable Fibres.--Determination of Cellulose.--Recognition of - Vegetable Fibres by the Microscope. - - -=Cellulose.=--Vegetable fibre, when deprived of all incrusting or -cementing matters of a resinous or gummy nature, presents to us the -true fibre, or _cellulose_, which constitutes the essential basis -of all manufactured paper. Fine linen and cotton are almost pure -cellulose, from the fact that the associated vegetable substances -have been removed by the treatment the fibres were subjected to in -the process of their manufacture; pure white, unsized, and unloaded -paper may also be considered as pure cellulose from the same cause. -Viewed as a chemical substance, cellulose is white, translucent, -and somewhat heavier than water. It is tasteless, inodorous, -absolutely innutritious, and is insoluble in water, alcohol, and -oils. Dilute acids and alkalies, even when hot, scarcely affect -it. By prolonged boiling in dilute acids, however, cellulose -undergoes a gradual change, being converted into _hydro-cellulose_. -It is also affected by boiling water alone, especially under high -pressure, if boiled for a lengthened period. Without going deeply -into the chemical properties of cellulose, which would be more -interesting to the chemist than to the paper manufacturer, a few -data respecting the action of certain chemical substances upon -cellulose will, it is hoped, be found useful from a practical point -of view, especially at the present day, when so many new methods of -treating vegetable fibres are being introduced. - - -=Action of Acids on Cellulose.=--When concentrated sulphuric acid -is added very gradually to about half its weight of linen rags -cut into small shreds, or strips of unsized paper, and contained -in a glass vessel, with constant stirring, the fibres gradually -swell up and disappear, without the evolution of any gas, and a -tenacious mucilage is formed which is entirely soluble in water. -If, after a few hours, the mixture be diluted with water, the -acid neutralised with chalk, and after filtration, any excess -of lime thrown down by cautiously adding a solution of oxalic -acid, the liquid yields, after a second filtration and the -addition of alcohol in considerable excess, a gummy mass which -possesses all the characters of _dextrin_. If instead of at once -saturating the diluted acid with chalk, we boil it for four or -five hours, the _dextrin_ is entirely converted into grape sugar -(_glucose_), which, by the addition of chalk and filtration, as -before, and evaporation at a gentle heat to the consistence of -a syrup, will, after repose for a few days, furnish a concrete -mass of crystallised sugar. Cotton, linen, or unsized paper, thus -treated, yield fully their own weight of gum and one-sixth of -their weight of grape sugar. Pure cellulose is readily attacked -by, and soon becomes dissolved in, a solution of oxide of copper -in ammonia (_cuprammonium_), and may again be precipitated in -colourless flakes by the addition of an excess of hydrochloric -acid, and afterwards filtering and washing the precipitate. -Concentrated boiling hydrochloric acid converts cellulose into a -fine powder, without, however, altering its composition, while -strong nitric acid forms nitro-substitution products of various -degrees, according to the strength of the acid employed. "Chlorine -gas passed into water in which cellulose is suspended rapidly -oxidises and destroys it, and the same effect takes place when -hypochlorites, such as hypochlorite of calcium, or bleaching -liquors, are gently treated with it. It is not, therefore, the -cellulose itself which we want the bleaching liquor to operate -upon, but only the colouring matters associated with it, and care -must be taken to secure that the action intended for the extraneous -substances alone does not extend to the fibre itself. Caustic -potash affects but slightly cellulose in the form in which we have -to do it, but in certain less compact conditions these agents -decompose or destroy it."--_Arnot._[1] - - -=Physical Characteristics of Cellulose.=--"The physical condition -of cellulose," says Mr. Arnot, "after it has been freed from -extraneous matters by boiling, bleaching, and washing, is of great -importance to the manufacturer. Some fibres are short, hard, -and of polished exterior, while others are long, flexible, and -barbed, the former, it is scarcely necessary to say, yielding -but indifferent papers, easily broken and torn, while the papers -produced from the latter class of fibres are possessed of a great -degree of strength and flexibility. Fibres from straw, and from -many varieties of wood, may be taken as representatives of the -former class, those from hemp and flax affording good illustrations -of the latter. There are, of course, between these extremes all -degrees and combinations of the various characteristics indicated. -It will be readily understood that hard, acicular[2] fibres do not -felt well, there being no intertwining or adhesion of the various -particles, and the paper produced is friable. On the other hand, -long, flexible, elastic fibres, even though comparatively smooth -in their exterior, intertwine readily, and felt into a strong -tough sheet.... Cotton fibre is long and tubular, and has this -peculiarity, that when dry the tubes collapse and twist on their -axes, this property greatly assisting the adhesion of the particles -in the process of paper-making. In the process of dyeing cotton, -the colouring matter is absorbed into the tubes, and is, as will -be readily appreciated, difficult of removal therefrom. Papers made -exclusively of cotton fibre are strong and flexible, but have a -certain sponginess about them which papers made from linen do not -possess." - -Linen--the cellulose of the flax-plant--before it reaches the hands -of the paper-maker has been subjected to certain processes of -steeping or _retting_, and also subsequent boilings and bleachings, -by which the extraneous matters have been removed, and it therefore -requires but little chemical treatment at his hands. "Linen fibre," -Arnot further observes, "is like cotton, tubular, but the walls of -the tubes are somewhat thicker, and are jointed or notched like a -cane or rush; the notches assist greatly in the adhesion of the -fibres one to another. This fibre possesses the other valuable -properties of length, strength, and flexibility, and the latter -property is increased when the walls of the tubes are crushed -together under the action of the beating-engine." From this fibre -a very strong, compactly felted paper is made; indeed, no better -material than this can be had for the production of a first-class -paper. Ropes, coarse bags, and suchlike are made from hemp, the -cellulose or fibre of which is not unlike that of flax, only it is -of a stronger, coarser nature. Manilla[3] yields the strongest of -all fibres. Jute, which is the fibre or inside bark of an Indian -plant (_Corchorus capsularis_), yields a strong fibre, but is very -difficult to bleach white. Esparto fibre holds an intermediate -place between the fibres just described and those of wood and -straw.... The fibre of straw is short, pointed, and polished, and -cannot of itself make a strong paper. The nature of wood fibre -depends, as may readily be supposed, upon the nature of the wood -itself. Yellow pine, for example, yields a fibre long, soft, and -flexible, in fact very like cotton; while oak and many other woods -yield short circular fibres which, unless perfectly free from -extraneous matters, possess no flexibility, and in any case are not -elastic. - - -=Micrographic Examination of Vegetable Fibres.=--The importance -of the microscope in the examination of the various fibres that -are employed in paper manufacture will be readily evident from -the delicate nature of the cellulose to be obtained therefrom.[4] -Amongst others M. Girard has determined, by this method of -examination, the qualities which fibres ought to possess to suit -the requirements of the manufacturer. He states that absolute -length is not of much importance, but that the fibre should be -slender and elastic, and possess the property of turning upon -itself with facility. Tenacity is of but secondary importance, for -when paper is torn the fibres scarcely ever break. The principal -fibres employed in paper-making are divided into the following -classes:-- - - 1. _Round, ribbed fibres_, as hemp and flax. - - 2. _Smooth_, or _feebly-ribbed fibres_, as esparto, jute, - phormium (New Zealand flax), dwarf palm, hop, and sugar-cane. - - 3. _Fibro-cellular substances_, as the pulp obtained from the - straw of wheat and rye by the action of caustic ley. - - 4. _Flat fibres_, as cotton, and those obtained by the action of - caustic ley upon wood. - - 5. _Imperfect substances_, as the pulp obtained from sawdust. - In this class may also be included the fibre of the so-called - "mechanical wood pulp." - - -=Determination of Cellulose.= For the determination of cellulose -in wood and other vegetable fibres to be used in paper-making -Müller recommends the following processes:[5] 5 grammes weight -of the finely-divided substance is boiled four or five times in -water, using 100 cubic centimètres[6] each time. The residue is -then dried at 100° C. (212° Fahr.), weighed, and exhausted with -a mixture of equal measures of benzine and strong alcohol, to -remove fat, wax, resin, &c. The residue is again dried and boiled -several times in water, to every 100 c.c. of which 1 c.c. of strong -ammonia has been added. This treatment removes colouring matter and -pectous[7] substances. The residue is further bruised in a mortar -if necessary, and is then treated in a closed bottle with 250 c.c. -of water, and 20 c.c. of bromine water containing 4 c.c. of bromine -to the litre.[8] In the case of the purer bark-fibres, such as flax -and hemp, the yellow colour of the liquid only slowly disappears, -but with straw and woods decolorisation occurs in a few minutes, -and when this takes place more bromine water is added, this being -repeated until the yellow colour remains, and bromine can be -detected in the liquid after twelve hours. The liquid is then -filtered, and the residue washed with water and heated to boiling -with a litre of water containing 5 c.c. of strong ammonia. The -liquid and tissue are usually coloured brown by this treatment. The -undissolved matter is filtered off, washed, and again treated with -bromine water. When the action seems complete the residue is again -heated with ammoniacal water. This second treatment is sufficient -with the purer fibres, but the operation must be repeated as often -as the residue imparts a brownish tint to the alkaline liquid. The -cellulose is thus obtained as a pure white body; it is washed with -water, and then with boiling alcohol, after which it may be dried -at 100° C. (212° Fahr.) and weighed. - - -=Recognition of Vegetable Fibres by the Microscope.=--From -Mr. Allen's admirable and useful work on "Commercial Organic -Analysis"[9] we make the following extracts, but must refer the -reader to the work named for fuller information upon this important -consideration of the subject. In examining fibres under the -microscope, it is recommended that the tissues should be cut up -with sharp scissors, placed on a glass slide, moistened with water, -and covered with a piece of thin glass. Under these conditions:-- - -_Filaments of Cotton_ appear as transparent tubes, flattened and -twisted round their axes, and tapering off to a closed point at -each end. A section of the filament somewhat resembles the figure -8, the tube, originally cylindrical, having collapsed most in the -middle, forming semi-tubes on each side, which give the fibre, -when viewed in certain lights, the appearance of a flat ribbon, -with the hem of the border at each edge. The twisted, or corkscrew -form of the dried filament of cotton distinguishes it from all -other vegetable fibres, and is characteristic of the matured pod, -M. Bauer having found that the fibres of the unripe seed are -simply untwisted cylindrical tubes, which never twist afterwards -if separated from the plant. The matured fibres always collapse -in the middle as described, and undergo no change in this respect -when passing through all the various operations to which cotton is -subject, from spinning to its conversion into pulp for paper-making. - -_Linen_, _or Flax Fibre_, under the microscope, appears as hollow -tubes, open at both ends, the fibres being smooth, and the inner -tube very narrow, and joints, or _septa_,[10] appear at intervals, -but are not furnished with hairy appendages as is the case with -hemp. When flax fibre is immersed in a boiling solution of equal -parts of caustic potash and water for about a minute, then removed -and pressed between folds of filter-paper, it assumes a dark yellow -colour, whilst cotton under the same treatment remains white or -becomes very bright yellow. When flax, or a tissue made from it, -is immersed in oil, and then well pressed to remove excess of -the liquid, it remains translucent, while cotton, under the same -conditions, becomes opaque. - -_New Zealand Flax_ (_Phormium tenax_) may be distinguished from -ordinary flax or hemp by a reddish colour produced on immersing -it first in a strong chlorine water, and then in ammonia. In -machine-dressed New Zealand flax the bundles are translucent and -irregularly covered with tissue; spiral fibres can be detected in -the bundles, but less numerous than in Sizal. In Maori-prepared -phormium the bundles are almost wholly free from tissue, while -there are no spiral fibres. - -_Hemp Fibre_ resembles flax, and exhibits small hairy appendages at -the joints. In Manilla hemp the bundles are oval, nearly opaque, -and surrounded by a considerable quantity of dried-up cellular -tissue composed of rectangular cells. The bundles are smooth, very -few detached ultimate fibres are seen, and no spiral tissue. - -_Sizal_, _or Sisal Hemp_ (_Agave Americana_), forms oval fibrous -bundles surrounded by cellular tissue, a few smooth ultimate fibres -projecting from the bundles; is more translucent than Manilla, and -a large quantity of spiral fibres are mixed up in the bundles. - -_Jute Fibre_ appears under the microscope as bundles of tendrils, -each being a cylinder, with irregular thickened walls. The -bundles offer a smooth cylindrical surface, to which the silky -lustre of jute is due, and which is much increased by bleaching. -By the action of hypochlorite of soda the bundles of fibres -can be disintegrated, so that the single fibres can be readily -distinguished under the microscope. Jute is coloured a deeper -yellow by sulphate of aniline than is any other fibre. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -_MATERIALS USED IN PAPER-MAKING._ - - Raw Materials.--Rags.--Disinfecting Machine.--Straw.--Esparto - Grass.--Wood.--Bamboo.--Paper Mulberry. - -In former days the only materials employed for the manufacture of -paper were linen and cotton rags, flax and hemp waste, and some -few other fibre-yielding materials. The reduction of the excise -duty, however, from 3d. to 1½d. per lb., which took effect in the -first year of Her Majesty's reign--namely, in 1837--created a -greatly increased demand for paper, and caused much anxiety amongst -manufacturers lest the supply of rags should prove inadequate -to their requirements. Again, in the year 1861 the excise duty -was totally abolished, from which period an enormously increased -demand for paper, and consequently paper material, was created -by the establishment of a vast number of daily and weekly papers -and journals in all parts of the kingdom, besides reprints of -standard and other works in a cheap form, the copyright of which -had expired. It is not too much to say, that unless other materials -than those employed before the repeal of the paper duty had been -discovered, the abolition of the impost would have proved but of -little service to the public at large. Beneficent Nature, however, -has gradually, but surely and amply, supplied our needs through the -instrumentality of man's restless activity and perseverance. - -The following list comprises many of the substances from which -cellulose, or vegetable fibre, can be separated for the purposes of -paper-making with advantage; but the vegetable kingdom furnishes -in addition a vast number of plants and vegetables which may also -be used with the same object. We have seen voluminous lists of -fibre-yielding materials which have been suggested as suitable -for paper-making, but since the greater portion of them are never -likely to be applied to such a purpose, we consider the time wasted -in proposing them. It is true that the stalks of the cabbage tribe, -for example, would be available for the sake of their fibre, but -we should imagine that no grower of ordinary intelligence would -deprive his ground of the nourishment such waste is capable of -_returning to the soil_, by its employment as manure, to furnish -a material for paper-making. Again, we have seen blackberries, -and even the pollen (!) of plants included in a list of paper -materials, but fortunately the manufacturer is never likely to be -reduced to such extremities as to be compelled to use materials of -this nature. - - -Raw Materials. - - Cotton rags. - - Cotton wool. - - Cotton waste. - - Cotton-seed waste. - - Linen rags. - - Linen waste. - - Hemp waste. - - Manilla hemp. - - Flax waste, etc. - - Jute waste, etc. - - China grass. - - Bamboo cane. - - Rattan cane. - - Banana fibre. - - Straw of wheat, etc. - - Rushes of various kinds. - - New Zealand flax. - - Maize stems, husks, etc. - - Esparto grass. - - Reeds. - - Woods of various kinds, especially white non-resinous woods, as - poplar, willow, etc. - - Wood shavings, sawdust, and chips. - - Barks of various trees, especially of the paper mulberry. - - Peat. - - Twigs of common broom and heather. - - Mustard stems after threshing. - - Buckwheat straw. - - Tobacco stalks. - - Beetroot refuse from sugar works. - - Megass, or "cane trash"--refuse of the sugar cane after the juice - has been extracted. - - Fern leaves. - - Tan waste. - - Dyers' wood waste. - - Old bagging. - - Old bast matting. - - Hop-bines. - - Bean stalks. - - Old canvas. - - Old rope. - - Gunny bags. - - Waste paper. - - Binders' clippings, etc. - - Old netting. - - Sailcloth. - - Sea grass (_Zostera marina_). - - Fibrous waste resulting from pharmaceutical preparations. - - Potato stalks. - - Stable manure. - - Silk cocoon waste. - - Oakum. - - Flax tow. - - Rag bagging. - - Leather waste. - - Tarpaulin. Etc., etc. - - -=Rags.=--Linen and cotton rags are imported into Great Britain -from almost all the countries of Europe, and even from the distant -states of South America, British South Africa, and Australasia. The -greater proportion, however, come from Germany. The rags collected -in England chiefly pass through the hands of wholesale merchants -established in London, Liverpool, Manchester, and Bristol, and -these are sorted to a certain extent before they are sent to the -paper-mills. By this rough sorting, which does not include either -cleansing or disinfecting, certain kinds of rags which would be -useless to the paper-maker are separated and sold as manure. -Woollen rags are not usually mixed with cotton rags, but are -generally kept apart to be converted into "shoddy." The importance -of disinfecting rags before they pass through the hands of the -workpeople employed at the paper-mills cannot be over-estimated, -and it is the duty of every Government to see that this is -effectually carried out, not only at such times when cholera and -other epidemics are known to be rife in certain countries from -which rags may be imported, but at all times, since there is no -greater source of danger to the health of communities than in the -diffusion of old linen and cotton garments, or pieces, which are -largely contributed by the dwellers in the slums of crowded cities. - -Respecting the disinfecting of rags, Davis[11] thus explains the -precautions taken in the United States to guard against the dangers -of infection from rags coming from foreign or other sources. -"When cholera, or other infectious or contagious diseases exist -in foreign countries, or in portions of the United States, the -health officers in charge of the various quarantines in this -country require that rags from countries and districts in which -such diseases are prevalent shall be thoroughly disinfected before -they are allowed to pass their stations. Rags shipped to London, -Hull, Liverpool, Italian, or other ports, and re-shipped from such -ports to the United States, are usually subjected to the same rule -as if shipped direct from the ports of the country in which such -diseases prevail. It is usually requisite that the disinfection -shall be made at the storehouse in the port of shipment, by boiling -the rags several hours under a proper degree of pressure, or in a -tightly-closed vessel, or disinfected with sulphurous acid, which -is evolved by burning at least two pounds of roll sulphur to every -ten cubic feet of room space, the apartment being kept closed -for several hours after the rags are thus treated. Disinfection -by boiling the rags is usually considered to be the best method. -In the case of rags imported from India, Egypt, Spain, and other -foreign countries where cholera is liable to become epidemic, it -is especially desirable that some efficient, rapid, and thorough -process of disinfecting should be devised. In order to meet the -quarantine requirements, it must be thorough and certain in its -action, and in order that the lives of the workmen and of others -in the vicinity may not be endangered by the liberating of active -disease-germs, or exposure of decaying and deleterious matters, and -that the delay, trouble, and exposure of unbaling and rebaling may -be avoided, it must be capable of use upon the rags while in the -bale, and of doing its work rapidly when so used." - - -=Disinfecting Machine.=--To facilitate the disinfecting of rags -while in the bale, Messrs. Parker and Blackman devised a machine, -for which they obtained a patent in 1884, from which the following -abstract is taken. - -Formerly rags and other fibrous materials were disinfected by being -subjected to germ-destroying gases or liquids in enclosed chambers, -but in order to render the disinfecting process effectual, it was -found necessary to treat the material in a loose or separated -state, no successful method having been adopted for disinfecting -the materials while in the bale. "This unbaling and loosening or -spreading of the undisinfected material is absolutely unsafe and -dangerous to the workmen, or to those in the vicinity, because of -the consequent setting free of the disease germs, and the exposing -of any decaying or deleterious matters which may be held in the -material while it is compressed in the bale. The unbaling and -necessary rebaling of the material for transportation also involves -much trouble and expense and loss of time. Large and cumbrous -apparatus is also necessary to treat large quantities of material -loosened or opened out as heretofore." - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.] - -It is specially necessary that rags coming from Egypt and other -foreign countries should be thoroughly disinfected by some rapid -and effectual means, which, while not endangering the health of -workmen employed in this somewhat hazardous task, will fully meet -all quarantine requirements. The apparatus devised by Messrs. -Parker and Blackman,[12] an abridged description of which is given -below, will probably accomplish this much-desired object. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.] - -In the illustration, Fig. 1, A is the disinfecting chamber. At one -end is an opening A^1, and a door B, hinged at its lower edge and -adapted to be swung up, so as to close the opening tightly. For -supporting and carrying the bale C of material to be placed in the -chamber is a carriage C^1, consisting of a platform supported upon -wheels or castors _c c_. While the carriage is wholly within -the chamber A, as shown in Fig. 2, these wheels rest upon the -false bottom B^2; when the carriage is rolled back and out of the -chamber, as shown in Fig. 1, they roll upon the upper face of door -B swung down. The carriage is provided with a clamping device D -to hold the bale firmly and immovably. To cause the carriage to -move into and out of the chamber, the inventors provide upon the -under side of the platform a fixed sleeve E, interiorly threaded to -fit the screw E^1, journalled at one end near the opening in the -chamber end in a stationary block E^2 fixed upon the false bottom -B^2. From this end the screw extends along under the carriage -through the screw sleeve and to the other end of the chamber. A -collar _e_^2 on the screw bears against the inner end of this -journal-bearing, and upon the end of the shank _e_ bearing against -the other end of the journal is fixed a pinion F, which is to be -driven in either direction as desired. Above this journal-bearing -is a series of similar bearings (five being shown), G G, passing -through the wall of the chamber. Of these the middle one is in -a line with the centre of the bale, supported and held on the -carriage. The others are arranged at the corners of a square. -Journalled in these bearings are the hollow shanks H H of the -hollow screws I I pointed at I^1 I^1. Each screw is perforated, -_i i_, between the threads _i_^1 _i_^1 from the fixed collar K K. -Upon the tubular shanks H H of the screws are fixed the gear-wheels -L L. At a short distance from the end of the chamber, A is the -hollow chamber or receptacle M, into which is to be forced the -disinfectant liquid or gas. The tubular shanks H H of the screws -project through the wall M, passing through stuffing-boxes _m m_, -and their bores communicate with the interior of the chamber, the -shank of the middle screw being continued through the opposite -wall and a stuffing-box, its solid or projecting end being provided -with two fixed pulleys, N N, and a loose pulley O. When a gaseous -disinfectant is used, it can be forced by any desired means through -the pipe S into the chamber. Where a liquid disinfectant is used, -an elevated tank R containing the fluid may be used. As most -fibrous materials, and especially rags, are baled so as to be in -layers, it is preferable so to place the bale upon the carriage -that the perforated screws may penetrate the material at right -angles to the layers by which the gas or liquid issuing through the -holes in the screws passes in all directions throughout the mass -within the bale. - -In the upper part of chamber A are perforated shelves V V, upon -which, if desired, the material can be spread out and subjected to -disinfecting gas or vapour. On the top of the chamber is a tank -W nearly filled with disinfecting liquid. A passage W^1 extends -from upper part of the chamber up into the tank above the level of -the liquid therein, and is then carried at its end down below the -surface of the liquid. At its other end the tank is provided at its -top with a discharge opening X and a suitable pipe X^1, forming a -continuation of the opening; by this means all foul and deleterious -vapours or gases passing out of the closed chamber A through the -passage W must pass through the disinfecting liquid in the tank -before escaping through the opening X and stack X^1 into the air, -and are thus rendered harmless. - -When a sufficient amount of the disinfectant has been forced into -and through the bale, the disinfectant is turned off, and cold dry -air can be forced through chamber M, and out through the nozzles -and bale, whereby the material within the bale becomes cooled and -dried, and all the foul air from the chamber A driven out, so that -it may be opened and entered with safety. Any suitable disinfectant -may be used with this apparatus, as, for example, sulphurous acid, -in gas or solution, superheated steam, carbolic acid, or any -solution or vapour containing chlorine. - - -=Straw.=--Very large quantities of this material are used in the -manufacture of paper, but more especially for newspapers, the straw -from wheat and oats being mostly employed. Although the percentage -of cellulose in straw is about equal to that of esparto, the severe -treatment it requires to effectually remove the silicious coating -by which the fibre is protected, and to render the knots amenable -to the action of the bleach, greatly reduces the yield of finished -pulp. Many processes have been introduced for the treatment of -straw for paper-making, but the most successful of them appear to -be modifications of a process introduced in 1853 by MM. Coupier and -Mellier. - - -=Esparto Grass.=--This important fibrous material is largely -imported from Algeria, Spain, and other countries, and constitutes -one of the most valuable fibre-yielding materials with which the -manufacturer has to deal. Some idea of the amount of esparto and -other fibres which find their way to our shores may be gleaned -from the fact that while the import of cotton and linen rags in -the year 1884 was 36,233 tons, of the value of £487,866, that of -esparto and other fibres amounted to 184,005 tons, of the value of -£1,125,553. - - -=Wood.=--As a paper-making material, the fibre obtained from -various kinds of wood now holds an important position, since -the sources of supply are practically inexhaustible. The first -practical process for manufacturing pulp from wood fibre was -perfected and introduced by the author's father, the late Mr. -Charles Watt, who, in conjunction with Mr. H. Burgess, obtained -a patent for the invention on August 19th, 1853. The process was -afterwards publicly exhibited at a small works on the Regent's -Canal, when the Earl of Derby (then Lord Stanley), many scientific -men and representatives of the press, were present, and expressed -themselves well satisfied with its success. Specimens of the wood -paper, including a copy of the _Weekly Times_ printed thereon, -were exhibited, as also some water-colour drawings which had -been produced upon paper made from wood pulp. Failing to get the -process taken up in England, an American patent was applied for and -obtained in 1854, which was subsequently purchased; but with the -exception of an instalment, the purchase-money was never paid to -the inventor! Thus the process "got" into other hands, the original -inventor alone being unbenefited by it. - -It has been repeatedly stated,[13] no doubt unwittingly, that a -person named Houghton first introduced the wood paper process into -this country; but considering that his patent was not obtained -until 1857, or four years after the process above referred to was -patented and publicly exhibited in England, it will be seen that -the statement is absolutely without foundation. The first knowledge -Mr. Houghton received concerning wood as a paper-making material -was from the author's father, and he (Mr. Houghton), in conjunction -with Mr. Burgess, introduced the Watt and Burgess process into -America in the year 1854. These are the facts. - - -=Bamboo= (_Bambusa vulgaris_).--The leaves and fresh-cut stems of -this plant are used for paper material, but require to pass through -a preliminary process of crushing, which is effected by suitable -rolls, the second series of crushing rolls being grooved or -channelled to split or divide the material, after which the stems -are cut to suitable lengths for boiling. - - -=Paper Mulberry= (_Broussonetia papyrifera_).--The inner bark of -this tree, and also some other basts, have long been used by the -Japanese and Chinese in the manufacture of paper of great strength, -but of extreme delicacy. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -_TREATMENT OF RAGS._ - - Preliminary Operations.--Sorting.--Cutting.--Bertrams' Rag-cutting - Machine.--Nuttall's Rag-cutter.--Willowing.--Bertrams' Willow and - Duster.--Dusting.--Bryan Donkin's Duster or Willow.--Donkin's - "Devil." - - -=Preliminary Operations.=--Before the rags are submitted to the -various processes which constitute the art of paper-making, they -are subjected to certain preliminary operations to free them -from dirty matters, dust, and even sand, which is sometimes -fraudulently introduced into rags to increase their weight. This -preliminary treatment may be classified under the following heads, -namely:--Sorting; Cutting; Willowing; Dusting. - - -=Sorting.=--The rags being removed from the bags or bales in which -they are packed, require first to be sorted according to the nature -and quality of the fabrics of which they are composed; thus linen, -cotton, hemp, wool, &c., must be carefully separated from each -other; the thickness of the substance, its condition as to the -wear it has undergone, and the colour of the material, all these -considerations are taken into account by the women and girls who -are employed in the operation of sorting. The finer qualities are -set aside for writing-paper, inferior sorts being used separately, -or mixed, according to the requirements of the manufacturer. -Blue rags are generally separated from the rest and kept for the -manufacture of blue paper, but most of the other coloured rags -require bleaching. In sorting rags, a good deal of judgment and -skill are required to avoid mixing the better qualities with -those of an inferior class, which would occasion loss in the -manufacture. It is also important that those of inferior colour -should not be mixed with the finer qualities, which would be liable -to affect the colour and deteriorate the quality of the paper. -Paper manufacturers generally classify the rags obtained from home -sources, that is, from different parts of the United Kingdom, under -the following heads:-- - -HOME RAGS. - - New cuttings. - Linen pieces. - Cotton pieces. - Fines (whites). - Superfines (whites). - Outshots (whites). - Seconds (whites). - Thirds (whites). - Colours or prints. - Blues. - Gunny, clean. - Gunny, dirty. - Rope (white). - Rope (hard). - Rope, bagging, etc. - -Foreign rags are distinguished as below:-- - -BELGIAN RAGS. - - White linens. - Mixed fines (linens and cottons). - Grey linens. - Strong linens. - Extra fine linens. - Blue linens. - Superfine white cottons. - Outshot cottons. - Seconds. - Half jute and linen. - Light prints. - Mixed prints. - Blue cottons. - Fustians. - Black calicoes. - White hemp, strings, and rope. - Tarred hemp, strings, and rope. - Jute spinners' waste. - Jute waste. - -_New._ - - White linens. - Grey linens. - Blue linens. - Unbleached cottons. - White linens and cottons. - Print cuttings (free from black). - Blacks. - Fustians. - -FRENCH RAGS. - - French linens. - White cotton. - Knitted cotton. - Blue cotton. - Coloured cotton. - Black cotton. - Marseilles whites. - Light prints. - Mixed prints. - New white cuttings. - -GERMAN RAGS. - - S. P. F. F. F. - S. P. F. - F. F. - F. G. - L. X. F. - L. F. R. blue. - C. S. P. F. F. F. - C. F. B. blue. - C. F. X. coloured. - -TRIESTE. - - P. P. white linen (first). - P. white linen (second). - S. fine greys. - X. coloured cottons. - -LEGHORN. - - P. L. linens. - P. C. cottons. - S. C. - T. C. - -TURKEY AND BEYROUT. - - Bright reds. - -ALEXANDRIA. - - Whites. - Blues. - Colours. - -BALTIC AND RUSSIAN. - - S. P. F. F. - S. P. F. - L. F. B. - F. G. - F. F. - B. G. - L. F. X. - -Woollen rags are only used to a very moderate extent in blotting -and filtering papers and also in coarse papers and wrappers. Many -attempts have been made to bleach woollen rags, but the severity -of the treatment required invariably ended in a destruction of the -fibrous substances mingled with them. It is customary to dispose -of such material for re-making into common cloths, and for shoddy. -Rags collected in large cities, in consequence of the frequent -bleachings they have been subjected to, are considerably weakened -in fibre, tearing easily, and are therefore subject to loss in -process of manufacture into pulp. Country rags, being coarser and -greyer because less bleached, are stronger in fibre and give a -better body to the paper. In sampling rags it is necessary to take -precautions against the fraudulent "tricks of the trade," which -are often resorted to to cheat the manufacturer. Samples should -be taken from the interior of the bags or bales, to ascertain -if the material in the interior is equal in quality with that at -the outside--that is to say, that the quality is fairly averaged -throughout. It may also be found that the rags have been purposely -wetted to increase their weight. If such is found to be the case, a -few handfuls should be weighed, and then dried in a warm room, and -afterwards re-weighed, when if the loss exceeds 5 to 7 per cent. it -may be assumed that the rags have been fraudulently wetted. It is -generally found, however, that the merchants in the principal towns -transact their business honourably and are therefore reliable. - -The sorting is generally performed by women, who not only separate -the various qualities of the rags, which they place in separate -receptacles, but also remove all buttons, hooks and eyes, -india-rubber, pins and needles, &c., and loosen all seams, hems -and knots. The rags are next carefully looked over by women called -_over-haulers_, or over-lookers, whose duty it is to see that the -previous operations have been fully carried out in all respects. -Usually there is one over-hauler to every eight or ten _cutters_. - - -=Cutting.=--In some mills it is preferred to have the rags cut -into pieces from 2 to 4 inches square, but the actual size is not -considered of much importance. The chief object is to have them in -such a condition that they may be thoroughly cleansed in subsequent -operations, and able to float throughout the water in the -rag-engine, without twisting round the roller. If the rag pieces -are smaller than is required to effect this it tends to create a -loss of fibre in the operations of willowing and dusting. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.] - -The process of cutting is performed by hand or by machinery. When -the rags are cut by hand, the operation, which is accomplished by -women, is conducted as follows:--The cutter takes her place in -front of an oblong box, as in Fig. 3, covered with coarse wire -netting, containing three threads per inch, through which dust, -&c., passes to a receptacle beneath; in the centre is fixed, in -a slanting position, a large-bladed knife of peculiar form, with -its back towards the operator, who is surrounded by a number of -boxes, corresponding with the number of the different qualities of -rags; these are lined at the bottom with coarse wire gauze. In the -operation of cutting, if any foreign substances, such as buttons, -hooks, &c., which may have escaped the sorters are found, these are -at once removed. The rags as they are cut are put into baskets to -be conveyed to the rag-engine room. In some mills rags are cut by -machinery, but hand cutting is usually adopted for the better kinds -of paper, as it is obvious that the machine would not be able to -reject, as is the case in hand cutting, unpicked seams and other -irregularities which may have escaped observation by the sorters -and overhaulers. Machine cutting is, therefore, generally adopted -for the materials which are to be used for the coarser papers. -There are several rag-cutting machines in use, of which one or two -examples are given below. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.] - -=Bertrams' Rag-Cutting Machine.=--The engraving, Fig. 4, represents -a machine manufactured by Messrs. Bertrams, Limited, of St. -Katherine's Works, Edinburgh, to whose courtesy we are indebted -for this and other illustrations of their machinery, which have -been reproduced in outline from their illustrated catalogue. The -machine, which is suitable either for rags or ropes, has three -revolving knives, and one dead knife, which is rendered reversible -to four edges, and has self-acting feed gear, side frames, drum, -and other connections of substantial construction; it is wood -covered, and furnished with sheet-iron delivery spout. The -material passes into the machine along the table at _a_, where it -passes between the dead knife _c_ and the knives _b_ fixed to the -revolving drum _d_. The cut rags fall into a receptacle beneath the -drum. - - -=Nuttall's Rag Cutter.=--Another type of rag cutter, and which is -also suitable for cutting bagging, sailcloth, tarpaulin, Manilla -and other fibres, is Nuttall's Rag Cutter, a drawing of which is -shown in Fig. 5. This machine is manufactured by Messrs. Bentley -and Jackson, of Bury, near Manchester, and is generally known as -the "Guillotine Rag Cutter," from the principle of its action, -which is that of chopping the material. The machine is adopted at -many mills, and a large-sized machine has recently been put down at -the _Daily Telegraph_ mills, Dartford. A medium-sized machine will -cut about one ton of rags in an hour. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.] - -=Willowing.=--In some mills the cut rags are conveyed to a machine -called the "willow," which in one form of machine consists of -two cast-iron cylinders, 2½ feet in diameter and 3½ feet wide, -provided with numerous iron teeth, which project about 4 inches. -These cylinders are placed one behind the other, and beneath them -is a semi-circular screw, and above them a cover of the same -form. This cover is also furnished with teeth, and is so adjusted -that the teeth in the cylinders pass those in the cover at a -distance of ½ to ¾ of an inch. In front are a pair of rollers and -revolving apron, which carry the rags into the cylinders, which -rotate rapidly; and the rags, which are thrown by the first into -the second cylinder, are allowed to remain in them for about 20 -seconds, when a sliding door, which rises three times per minute, -allows the rags to be discharged into a duster. Each time the -sliding door opens the revolving apron moves forward and recharges -the willow with a fresh supply. The rags, after being beaten and -teazed in the willow, are considerably loosened in texture, and -a good deal of dust and gritty matters fall through the screen -beneath. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.] - -Fig. 6 represents a combined willow and duster, specially -useful for waste rags and jute, but may be used for all fibres, -manufactured by Bertrams, Limited, the main features of which are -thus described:--"There are two drums, which have malleable-iron -cross-bars and teeth, and malleable-iron harp motion below for -escape of dust. The framework of the willow is of cast iron, and -the sides are filled in with cast-iron panel doors, the top being -covered in with sheet iron. The gear is arranged so that the willow -will deliver to the duster or otherwise by self-acting motion -continuously or intermittently. The feed to the willow can also be -made continuous or intermittent. The drums, framework, panels, and -casing being made of iron, the chance of fire from the friction of -its working is reduced to a minimum. The duster, as a rule, is 12 -feet long, about 5 feet in diameter, and has eight longitudinal -bars of cast iron fitted between the front and end revolving -rings. These bars are fitted with malleable-iron spikes, pitched -and so arranged that the rags or fibres are delivered at the exit -end automatically. The outside of the duster can be lined with -wire-cloth, perforated zinc, iron, etc. It is driven by outside -shafts and friction gear, so that there is no internal shaft to -interfere with the delivery of the fibres." - - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.] - -=Dusting.=--In Fig. 7 is shown a rag-dusting machine, manufactured -by Messrs. Bryan Donkin and Co., of Bermondsey, London. The -cylinder of this machine, which is conical in form, to enable the -rags to travel from one end to the other, whence they are ejected, -revolves, as also does a second cylinder of a skeleton form, but -in the opposite direction. Each cylinder is fitted with knives, or -spikes--those of the outer cylinder projecting towards the centre; -the knives of the centre cylinder being attached to its exterior -surface: when the machine is in motion the two sets of blades pass -each other so that when the rags come between them the action is -that of scissors. When the rags are ejected at the end of the -cylinder, they pass into another cylinder of wire, through which -the dust falls and leaves them in a fairly clean condition, when -they are lowered through a trap-door to the boiling room below. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.] - -=Donkin's "Devil."=--For removing the dust and dirt from coarse -and very dirty rags, oakum, rope, etc., the presence of which -would seriously injure the quality of the paper, a still more -powerful machine has been introduced, called the "devil," which is -constructed on the same principle as the willow, but revolves at a -lower speed. The revolving axle of this machine is conical, and is -provided with teeth, arranged in a spiral form. The case in which -it rotates is fed continuously, instead of intermittently; and -although it facilitates the subsequent treatment of the fibre, it -is said to be wasteful, while also consuming a considerable amount -of power. A machine, or "devil," for cleaning rags or half stuff is -manufactured by Messrs. Donkin and Co., a representation of which -is shown in Fig. 8. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -_TREATMENT OF RAGS_ (_continued_). - - Boiling Rags.--Bertrams' Rag Boiler.--Donkin's Rag Boiler.-- - Washing and Breaking.--Bertrams' Rag Engine.--Bentley and - Jackson's Rag Engine.--Draining.--Torrance's Drainer. - - -=Boiling Rags.=--To remove greasy matters, and also to dissolve out -the cementing substances from the stems of flax and shell of the -cotton, the rags are next boiled in a solution of caustic soda, -caustic lime, or a mixture of carbonate of soda and lime. The -boiling has also the effect of loosening the dirt contained in the -rags, whereby the colour of the material is greatly improved, while -at the same time it is rendered more susceptible to the action of -the bleaching agent. Strong linen rags will sometimes lose from -one-third to one-fifth of their weight by the process of boiling. -The vessels for boiling rags are of various construction, and have -been the subject of numerous ingenious patents. These boilers -are either cylindrical or spherical, and are also stationary or -rotary--the latter form being devised for the purpose of keeping -the caustic alkali solution freely diffused throughout the mass of -fibre during the boiling. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.] - -=Bertrams' Rag Boiler.=--An illustration of a spherical boiler, as -manufactured by Bertrams, Limited, of Edinburgh, is given in Fig. -9. The shell of this boiler is made from malleable iron, is 8 feet -in diameter and 9 feet deep. The boiler is constructed on what is -termed the "vomiting" principle, by which a free circulation of the -alkaline liquor is constantly maintained. These boilers are made -to withstand any pressure of steam, but the size given is usually -worked at from 35 to 45 lbs. pressure, and carries about 30 cwt. of -dry esparto. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.] - -=Donkin's Rag Boiler.=--The spherical boiler of Messrs. Bryan -Donkin and Co. is shown in Fig. 10. Being of a spherical form, it -is twice as strong as a cylindrical boiler of the same diameter -and thickness. The plates used are, notwithstanding, of the usual -substance, thus rendering it perfectly safe, durable, and suitable -for high-pressure steam. The spherical shape also allows the rags -to fall out by themselves when the boiler is revolving with the -cover off. Within the boiler are strainers to carry off the dirt, -and lifters to agitate the rags during the process of either -boiling or washing. To avoid cement, or even lead joints, the -gudgeons and the boiler are turned true in the lathe to fit each -other, the joints being simply made with red lead. These boilers -are usually about 8 feet in diameter, and are capable of boiling -from 20 cwt. to 25 cwt. of rags. The idea of giving motion to the -boiler, so as to insure a perfect mixture of the rags and the -caustic liquor, is of American origin, and was first introduced -into this country by Messrs. Bryan Donkin and Co. It is usual to -fix the boiler so that it can be fed with rags through a trap in -the floor above, while the boiler is in a vertical position and the -lid removed. The trunnions are hollow, to admit the introduction -of steam, alkaline ley, or water, and its rotary motion, which is -about three times in two minutes, is given by the gearing on the -left of the illustration. - -The alkalies used for boiling rags are either caustic soda, soda -ash, slaked lime, made into a cream and sifted, or a mixture of -slaked lime and carbonate of soda. A description of the preparation -of caustic soda ley will be found in another chapter. It has been -customary at most of the larger paper-mills to purchase their -caustic soda direct from the alkali manufacturers, who supply -it in a solid form enclosed in iron drums, hermetically closed, -which are broken and the contents removed and dissolved when -required for use. As to the strength of caustic soda liquor to be -used for boiling rags, this is regulated according to the nature -and condition of the material, and the quality of the paper it -is intended for (see p. 34). For the finest papers the caustic -soda should be perfectly pure, and as there are various grades of -this chemical substance sold by the alkali makers, only the purer -qualities are used for the better kinds of paper. The proportion -of caustic soda per cwt. of rags varies to the extent of from 5 to -10 per cent. of the former to each cwt. of the latter, the coarser -materials, of course, requiring more alkali than those of finer -quality. In cases where rags are boiled in an open boiler--as -was formerly the case--a much larger proportion of caustic soda -would be required than when the boiling is conducted under high -pressures, as is now very generally the custom. In boiling the -finer qualities of rags, less pressure of steam is required than -for the coarser qualities, and the heat being proportionately -lower, there is less destruction of the fibre. Some paper-makers -prefer to boil the rags with caustic lime only, in which case the -lime, after being slaked in the usual way, is mixed with water -until it attains a milky consistence, when it is passed through a -sieve to separate any solid particles which may be present. About -the same percentage of lime may be used as in the former case. - -When a mixture of lime and carbonate of soda is used, a method -much adopted on the Continent, the lime should be well screened -from lumps before being mixed with the soda. The usual method -of preparing this mixture is as follows:--A wooden tank, 15 -feet long, 5 feet wide, and 4 feet deep is divided into three -compartments, each of which has a false bottom perforated with -½-inch holes to keep back lumps, stones, pieces of coal, etc., -which frequently abound in the lime. The fresh lime is put into the -first compartment, where it is slaked with water in the usual way; -the resulting powder is then put into the next compartment together -with sufficient water, where it is agitated until converted into -what is technically termed "milk of lime." In the partition which -separates the second from the third division is a movable sluice, -through which the milk of lime flows into the third compartment; in -this is fitted a revolving drum, similar to the drum-washer of the -breaking-engine, through which the milk of lime which flows from -the sluice becomes strained, and is lifted in the same way as water -is lifted by the drum-washer of the breaking-engine, and is thence -discharged through a pipe into the rag boilers; an additional -straining can be effected by placing a fine wire strainer over -the mouth of this pipe leading to the boiler, which will prevent -objectionable particles from entering the boiler. Each compartment -is provided with a large waste pipe, through which, by the aid of a -sufficient supply of water, all impurities which have been rejected -by the drum are carried away. The soda solution is prepared by -dissolving the required proportion in water, and the resulting -liquor, after careful straining, is introduced into the boiler to -which the charge of rags has been given; the head of the boiler is -then fixed in its position and steam turned on, until a pressure of -about 20 to 30 lbs. to the square inch is attained, and the boiling -kept up for two to six hours, according to the quality of the rags. -By the Continental system of boiling rags, for No. 1 stuffs, 216 -lbs. of lime and 114 lbs., of 48 per cent., soda ash are used for -every 4,000 lbs. of rags; for Nos. 3 and 5 stuffs, 324 lbs. of lime -and 152 lbs. of soda ash are used; and for No. 4 stuff 378 lbs. of -lime and 190 lbs. of soda ash, and the boiling in each case is kept -up for twelve hours, under a pressure of 30 lbs., the operation -being conducted in boilers which revolve horizontally. - -In boiling the finest qualities of rags, it is considered -preferable to boil with lime alone, which is believed to be less -injurious to delicate fibres than caustic soda. Dunbar[14] gives -the following proportions of 70 per cent. caustic soda per cwt. of -rags:-- - -S. P. F. F. F. is boiled with lime alone, then washed in the -boiler, and again boiled with 2 per cent. of soda ash. - - S. P. F. F. is boiled with 12 lbs. of (70%) caustic soda per cwt. - S. P. F " " 14 " " " " - Fines " " 7 " " " " - Seconds " " 6 " " " " - L. F. X. " " 20 " " " " - C. L. F. X. " " 27 " " " " - C. C. L. F. X. " " 30 " " " " - F. F. " " 15 " " " " - -These are all boiled at a pressure of from 20 to 25 lbs. for 10 -hours, in stationary boilers without vomit, and also in boilers -revolving horizontally. In some mills, where the best qualities of -paper are made, iron boilers are objected to, as small particles -of oxide of iron are apt to become dislodged from the interior of -the boiler, and produce discolouration of the paper. In such cases -wooden vats, with mechanical stirrers, are employed; sometimes a -jacketed boiler is used. - - -[Illustration: Figs. 11 and 12.] - -=Washing and Breaking.=--The removal of the dirty water resulting -from the boiling is effected in the washing and breaking engine, or -"rag engine," as it is commonly called, which is constructed on the -same principle as the beating engine, but is provided with an extra -drum, called the _drum-washer_, which, being covered with wire -gauze, allows the washing waters to escape without permitting the -fibrous stuff to pass through. The rag engine, having been invented -by a Dutchman, acquired, and still retains, the name of the -_Hollander_, and although it has been considerably improved upon, -its principle is still retained in the modern engines, of which -there are many different forms. The ordinary rag engine, Figs. 11 -and 12, consists of a cast-iron trough A, about 10 feet long, 4½ -feet wide, and 2½ feet deep, and rounded at the ends, and is firmly -bolted to a wooden foundation. It is provided with a partition -termed the _midfeather_ B, of such a length as to have the trough -of uniform width round it. A cylinder, or _roll_, C, furnished with -a series of steel knives, rotates in one of the divisions formed -by the midfeather, and the floor of the trough in this division is -inclined in such a manner as to cause the pulp, as it travels, to -pass under the roll. Beneath the roll is the _bed-plate_, which -is fitted with a series of steel knives _c c_ similar to those on -the exterior of the roll. The distance between the knives of the -roll and the bed-plate is regulated by levelling screws, which -are so adjusted that both ends of the roll are raised at the same -time, which is a great improvement upon the older types of breaking -engines in which only one end of the roll was raised, whereby the -knives became unequally worn. By the present method of regulating -the distance between the respective sets of knives, any required -degree of fineness can be given to the fibrous substances treated. -The roll is generally caused to rotate at a speed of about 230 -revolutions per minute, causing the water and rags to circulate in -the engine and to be constantly under the action of the knives. In -the other division F F of the trough is the drum-washer H, which, -being covered with fine gauze wire, allows the water to enter, but -keeps back the fibrous material. The ends of the drum are formed -of two discs of wood, generally mahogany, upon which the coarse -gauze is fastened as a backing, and this is covered with the fine -wire gauze. The interior of the drum is sometimes furnished with a -series of buckets, which conduct the water to a trough in the axis -of the drum, by which it is led away. This is also accomplished by -dividing the interior of the cylinder into compartments by means of -a partition. The drum-washer is so arranged that it can be wholly -raised out of the trough, which is necessary in certain parts of -the operation, when the removal of the liquid is not required; or -it can be partially raised, or otherwise, according to requirement. -The floor of the compartment containing the roll C is inclined at -D, so as to cause the pulp to pass directly under the roll, and at -D′ is the _backfall_, over which the pulp travels to the opposite -side of the midfeather. - -In working the rag engine, it is first partly filled with water, -and then set in motion; the boiled stuff is then gradually put -in, and a constant supply of clean water is run in from a cistern -provided with means of preventing sand or other impurities from -finding their way into the engine. It is of the utmost importance -that the water should be abundant and of good quality, more -especially as the material (rags) is mostly required for making -the finer qualities of paper. In this respect the county of Kent -and a few other localities on the chalk formation are considered -specially suitable for this particular manufacture. - -With respect to the driving of the engines, this was formerly -effected by what is called _toothed gearing_, but cog-wheels were -afterwards replaced by iron spur-wheel gearing, which enabled -manufacturers to drive four or more engines from one source of -power, by continuing the line of shafting and spur-wheels; but even -with small rolls the wear and tear on this system was considerable, -while it was quite inadequate to the driving of a number of -large rolls of 30 inches in diameter, such as are now used. The -introduction of belt-gearing, by Messrs. G. and W. Bertram, proved -to be a great improvement on the older system, and it is found that -the rags are broken not only more uniformly, but in less time, as -the rolls work more steadily on the plates than with any system of -wheel-gearing, while the various working parts of the engine last -longer than when subjected to the vibrating action of wheel-gearing. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.] - -=Bertrams' Rag Engine.=--This engine, of which a drawing is shown -in Fig. 13, may be used either as a washing and breaking engine, -potcher, or beater. It is provided with double lifting gear, and -has "all sweeps, curves, and angles" of the most improved design -to save lodgments and ensure steady and thorough travelling of -the pulp. The drum-washer is shown lifted by rack and pinion and -worm gear, and empties down the midfeather direct to mouthpiece. -The emptying can be done by spout and pipe, or by a chamber cast -on the engine, down back or front side, as well as through the -midfeather; but it is not advisable that it should be emptied down -the midfeather if the rag engine is to be used as a beater. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.] - -=Bentley and Jackson's Rag Engine.=--This form of engine is shown -in Fig. 14. The trough is of cast-iron, and made whole, and the -engine can be obtained of any required dimensions. The trough is -provided with a sand-well, cast-iron grate, and cock in front of -the roll, and a sand-well, cast-iron grate, and brass valve on -the back of the midfeather, a brass let-off valve and a brass -waste-water valve. The bottom of the trough is "dished," to prevent -the stuff from lodging. There are two movable bridge trees, fitted -with pedestals and brass steps, and wrought-iron lifting links -and screws, worm-wheels, worms, cross-shaft and hand-wheel for -simultaneously lifting the roll on both sides. The roll is covered -by a polished pitch-pine cover. The drum-washer may have either -iron or wooden ends, has strong copper brackets, and is covered -with brass backing and covering wires, mounted on a wrought-iron -shaft, and carried by cast-iron stands, fitted with improved -lifting gear, driving-wheels, and pulley. - -When the engine is set in motion by the revolving shaft or spindle, -the combined action of the knives of the roll and bed-plate causes -the rags, which circulate in the water, to be gradually cut into -small fragments, and the operation is kept up until the rags are -converted into what is technically termed _half-stuff_. While -this process is going on, fresh water is constantly supplied by a -pipe at the end of the washing-engine; and when it is found that -nothing but clear water escapes from the drum-washer, this is -raised, and the spindle bearing the roll is lowered, so as to bring -the respective knives closer together, to enable them to cut the -reduced material still finer. - - -=Draining.=--When the material is sufficiently _broken_, as it is -termed, the engine is then emptied by means of its valves, and -the contents run into large vats or _drainers_, furnished with -perforated zinc floors, in which it is allowed to drain thoroughly; -and in order to remove the water more effectually, the pulp is -afterwards pressed, either by an extractor or a centrifugal -drainer, which dries it sufficiently for gas-bleaching, or for -treatment in the _potcher_ or _poacher_. This is a larger engine -than the washer, and instead of the cylinder and bars, has a -hollow drum which carries on its periphery a number of cast-iron -paddles, which thoroughly agitate the pulp, and thus render it -more susceptible of being freely and uniformly acted upon by the -bleaching agent. The drum-washer of this engine should have a finer -wire than is used for the breaker. - - -=Torrance's Drainer.=--This machine, which has been extensively -used, is manufactured by Messrs. J. Bertram and Son, of Edinburgh. -It consists of a perforated cylindrical box, enclosed in a fixed -case, which revolves at about two hundred and fifty revolutions per -minute. The machine is capable of treating about 4 cwt. of pulp per -hour. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -_TREATMENT OF ESPARTO._ - - Preliminary Treatment.--Picking.--Willowing Esparto.--Boiling - Esparto.--Sinclair's Esparto Boiler.--Roeckner's - Boiler.--Mallary's Process.--Carbonell's Process.--Washing Boiled - Esparto.--Young's Process.--Bleaching the Esparto. - - -=Preliminary Treatment: Picking.=--Esparto is imported in bales or -trusses, tightly compressed by hydraulic presses, and bound with -twisted bands of the same material, much in the same manner as hay, -except that which comes from Tripoli, which is bound with iron -bands. The bands being cut, the loosened material is then spread -out upon tables, partly covered with iron, or galvanised-iron, -netting, to allow earthy matter or sand to pass through to a -receptacle beneath. Here it is carefully picked by women and girls, -who remove all roots, other kinds of grass, weeds, and heather. -The material thus cleansed from impurities is transferred to the -boiling-room. This careful preliminary treatment has been found -necessary, since pieces of root and other vegetable matters which -may be present are liable to resist the action of the bleaching -liquor to a greater extent than the grass itself, and therefore -produce specks, or "sheave" as they are termed at the mill, in the -manufactured paper. - -At some mills, however, as at the Horton Kirby Mills of Messrs. -Spalding and Hodge, at South Darenth, for example, the cleaning -of esparto is admirably effected by means of a willow, or -esparto-cleaner, constructed by Messrs. Masson, Scott, and -Bertram, which entirely supersedes the system of hand-picking. -Having recently visited the mill referred to, we were enabled, -through the courtesy of Mr. Sydney Spalding, to witness the -action of this willow, which appeared to perform its functions -with perfect uniformity, and to clean the grass most effectually. -The _rationale_ of the operation of willowing esparto may be thus -described:-- - - -=Willowing Esparto.=--A bale of the grass is unbound at a short -distance from the machine, and the grass, which is in the form of -small bundles or sheaves, tied with bands of the same material, -is thrown by a woman on to a table or platform placed by the side -of the willow, and a second woman, standing near the hopper of -the machine, takes the bundles, a few at a time, and drops them -into the hopper. The machine being in motion, in a few moments -the grass, freed from its bands and dirty matters, appears in a -perfectly loose condition at the wider end of the drum, and passes -upward along a travelling-table to a room above, in the floor of -which are the man-holes of a series of esparto boilers. During the -passage of the loosened fibre, women standing on steps or platforms -at the sides of the travelling-table are enabled to examine the -material, and to remove any objectionable matters that may be -present. Beneath the drum of the machine is a pipe, through which -the dust and dirty matters are drawn away by means of a fan. - - -=Boiling Esparto.=--In the boiling-room at the mill referred to -is a series of vertical stationary boilers, each about twenty -feet high, and capable of holding about three tons of grass. The -man-holes of these boilers pass through the floor of a room above, -being nearly level with it, into which the cleaned esparto is -conveyed, as described, by the travelling-table of the willowing -machine. In this room is a series of compartments in which the -willowed esparto is stored until required for boiling, when it is -fed into the boilers by means of two-pronged forks provided for the -purpose. The boiler being partially charged with caustic ley at -14° Twad., the esparto is introduced, and steam also, by which the -esparto becomes softened, and thus a larger quantity of the fibre -can be charged into the vessel. When the full charge of ley and -esparto have been introduced the head of the boiler is securely -fixed by means of its bolts, and steam then turned on until a -pressure of about 20 lbs. to the square inch has been reached, -which pressure is kept up for about three hours, when the steam -is shut off and the blow-off tap opened. When the steam is blown -off, the spent liquor is run off, and hot water then run into the -boiler, steam again turned on, and the boiling kept up for about -twenty minutes to half an hour, at the end of which time the steam -is shut off and the blow-pipe opened. As soon as the steam has -blown off, the washing water is run off by the bottom pipe, and the -grass allowed to drain as thoroughly as possible. A door at the -lower end of the boiler is then opened, and the grass emptied into -trucks and conveyed to the washing-engines. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.] - -=Sinclair's Esparto Boiler.=--Another form of boiler, known as -Sinclair's boiler, of the vertical cylindrical type, is shown in -Figs. 15 and 16. It is constructed on what is termed the "vomiting" -principle, but without the central vomiting-pipes generally used, -and is fitted with one or more vomiting-pipes close to the side, -two diametrically opposite pipes being used by preference. Steam -jet pipes, with upwardly-directed nozzles, are fitted into the -vomiting-pipes at points a little above the bends, between the -vertical and horizontal parts. The liquid or ley thrown up the -vomiting-pipes by the action of the steam is delivered from the -upper ends of the pipes over a diaphragm or plate fixed near the -top of the boiler, and the liquid is retained at a certain depth -on the diaphragm by a number of small tubes fixed in it, and the -liquid becomes well heated by the steam before overflowing down -the tubes, which tubes also serve to distribute it uniformly -over the fibrous materials in the boiler. A casing is formed at -the bottom of the boiler, and in some cases extended more or -less up the sides, and is supplied with steam, which should be -superheated, or of high pressure. With this arrangement the heat -in the boiler is maintained without the excessive condensation of -steam and consequent dilution and weakening of the liquors which -occurs in ordinary boilers. Figs. 15 and 16 are horizontal and -vertical sections of one form of this boiler. The boiler is made -with a vertical cylindrical shell, 1; with a flat top, 2; and -flat bottom, 3; and there is an inner or second bottom, 4; the -space between it and the bottom, 3, being for steam to assist in -heating the contents of the boiler. At a little distance above -the inner bottom, 4, there is the usual perforated horizontal -diaphragm, 5, down through which the liquid or ley drains from -the fibre. Two diametrically opposite vertical vomiting-pipes, 6, -are formed by the attachment of curved plates to the cylindrical -shell, 1, and these vomiting-pipes, 6, have their upper ends above -a horizontal diaphragm, 7, attached by stays to the boiler top, -2. This diaphragm is perforated, and short tubes, 8, are fixed in -the perforations so as to project upwards, by which arrangement -the liquid, rising up the vomiting-pipes, 6, lies on the diaphragm -to the depth of the tubes, 8, and overflows down through them all -equally, so as to be uniformly distributed over the materials in -the boiler. Steam jet nozzles, 9, are fitted in the lower parts of -the vomiting-pipes, being supplied with steam by pipes, 10, from -one of which a branch, 11, supplies steam to the double bottom, -3, 4. The steam jets cause the liquid to be drawn from under the -perforated diaphragm, 5, and thrown up the pipes, 6, whereby a -constant circulation of the liquid through the fibre is maintained. -The liquors are drawn off by the pipe, 15. In another form of -boiler Mr. Sinclair employs vomit-pipes formed of thin steel -plates riveted to opposite sides of the boiler, and the liquid -which drains through the perforated double bottom is forced upward -through the vomit-pipes to the perforated plates above, through -which it distributes over the material in fine jets. The boiler -is capable of holding from 2 to 3 tons of esparto, and under a -pressure of from 40 to 50 lbs. the boiling occupies about two hours. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.] - -=Roeckner's Boiler.=--This boiler, of which an illustration of -two in series is given in Fig. 17, has been extensively adopted -by paper manufacturers. It will be noticed that the vomit-pipe A -is placed outside the boiler, and the steam enters at the cock B, -forcing the liquor up the vomit-pipe A and distributing it over -the esparto. A pipe C is used for heating the liquor by means of -waste steam at the commencement of the operation. The grass is fed -into the boiler at the opening D. At E E are gauges for showing -the height of the liquor in the boiler, F F F are pipes for the -supply of steam, strong ley, and water, and the door G is for the -discharge of the boiled grass. Each boiler is capable of holding 3 -tons of esparto, and the boiling is completed in about two and a -half hours, at a pressure of from 35 to 40 lbs. per square inch. -It is said that the boiler effects a saving both in time and the -amount of soda used. - - -=Mallary's Process.=--By this process the inventor says that he -obtains the fibre in greater length, and gets rid of the gummy -and resinous matters in a more economical way than by the present -system. The materials used form a species of soap, with which and -with the addition of water, the esparto is boiled. To carry out his -process, he places in a boiler a suitable quantity of water, to -which caustic soda, or a ley of the required strength to suit the -nature of the fibre, is added; magnesite, or carbonate of magnesia, -in the proportion of about 2 per cent. of the fibrous material, or -a solution of sulphate of magnesia, is then added and mixed with -the ley. He next adds "an improved saponaceous compound" to produce -the required result, and when the boiling is completed, the stuff -is treated as ordinary stock, to be applied for paper-making or -other uses. The proportions are as follows:--2 gallons of petroleum -or its products, 1 gallon of mustard oil, 10 to 15 lbs. of caustic -soda, and 1 per cent. of boracic acid. These are placed in a copper -and heated for 1 to 2 hours, until properly saponified. From 3 to -6 gallons of the "saponaceous compound" are added to the ley and -magnesite, previously placed in the boiler with the fibre, and the -boiling is kept up for the usual length of time, when the fibre -will be found "beautifully soft, and the greater portion of the -gum, silica, and resinous matters removed, or so softened as to -be no hindrance to the perfect separation of the fibres, whilst -the strength, silkiness, and softness are preserved in all their -natural integrity." Considering that caustic soda ley "of the -required strength" forms an essential part of this process, we -should imagine that the auxiliaries mentioned would scarcely be -necessary. - - -=Carbonell's Process.=--In this process, devised by M. Carbonell, -of Paris, 200 lbs. of raw esparto are placed in a wooden vat -furnished with a perforated steam-pipe, 20 lbs. of soda and 30 -lbs. of quicklime being mixed with it: the vat is then supplied -with cold water until the esparto is completely covered. Steam is -then turned on, and the materials boiled for 4 hours. The spent -liquor is then drained off, and the esparto submitted to hydraulic -pressure. It is afterwards washed and broken in a rag engine, and -in about 15 minutes is reduced to half-stuff. 20 lbs. of chloride -of lime dissolved in water are then introduced, and the cylinder -kept in motion as usual. In another vessel, lined with lead, 1¼ -lb. of sulphuric acid is dissolved in 3 lbs. of water, and this -gradually added to the pulp, which immediately assumes a reddish -colour; but in the course of about three quarters of an hour it -becomes perfectly white, when the pulp is ready for the paper-maker. - -In the boiling of esparto, several important points have to -be considered. The kind of esparto to be treated is the first -consideration, since this grass differs materially in character in -the different countries from which it is imported. Spanish esparto -is considered the best for paper-making, as it is stronger in -fibre and yields a whiter pulp than other varieties. Of the African -espartos there are several varieties, which are known respectively -as Oran, Tripoli, Sfax, Gabes, and Susa. Of these, the first-named -(Algerian esparto) is held in highest estimation amongst -paper-makers, since it more closely resembles Spanish esparto than -the other varieties, though not so hard and stiff as the latter. -These grasses usually have a length of about 10 to 12 inches. -Tripoli esparto has an entirely different growth, being sometimes -as long as 2½ or 3 feet, and proportionately stouter, and is also -softer than Oran esparto, which is not so hard as the Spanish -variety. Tripoli esparto does not yield a strong paper by itself, -but in conjunction with Oran esparto gives more favourable results. -Sfax and Gabes espartos have a closer resemblance to Oran than -Tripoli, but are not so strong as Oran, being green and spongy, and -not so dry as the latter variety. Susa esparto of good quality is -said to equal Oran, but not to yield so high a percentage of fibre. - -The next important consideration is to determine the percentage -of caustic alkali which should be used per hundredweight of the -particular variety of esparto to be treated, and we cannot do -better than give the following proportions recommended by Mr. -Dunbar. - - Fine Spanish 18 to 20 lbs. of 70 per cent. caustic soda per cwt. - Medium Spanish 16 to 18 " " " " - Fine Oran 18 " " " " - Medium Oran 16 to 17 " " " " - Susa 18 " " " " - Tripoli 19 to 20 " " " " - Sfax 20 to 21 " " " " - -Mr. Dunbar says that the above figures "insure a first-class boil, -with the steam pressure of 25 lbs. and not exceeding 30 lbs., but -are liable to alteration according to circumstances--such as the -form of boilers, quality of the water for boiling purposes, and -steam facilities, which ought at all times to be steady and uniform -to get the absolute regularity required." - -Respecting the strength of caustic ley used for boiling esparto, as -indicated by Twaddell's hydrometer, this appears to range from 7° -to 15°, some preferring to boil with stronger liquors than others. -The time occupied in boiling also varies at different mills, and -depends greatly upon the character of the boiler used. We are -informed that a Sinclair boiler will turn out, on an average, -three boils in twenty-four hours, including filling, boiling, -discharging, &c., the boiling occupying about four hours for each -batch of grass. - -The boiling being completed, the liquor is run off into tanks, to -be afterwards treated for the recovery of the soda, and the esparto -is then subjected to a second boiling with water only for about 20 -minutes. The liquor from the second boiling is sometimes thrown -away, even when the soda from the first liquor is recovered; but -a more economical method is to use this liquor, in lieu of water, -strengthened with soda for a first boiling; or to mix it with the -first liquors and evaporate the whole together. The second boiling -being finished, the steam is turned off, and water then run in and -steam again turned on for a short time, and the water then run off -and the esparto allowed to drain thoroughly. The boiled grass is -then discharged into trucks which convey it to the washing engines. - -The liquor resulting from the boiling of esparto, which is of a -dark brown colour, contains nearly all the soda originally used, -but it also contains silicious, resinous, and other vegetable -matters which it has dissolved out of the grass, the silica -taking the form of silicate of soda. The esparto liquor, which -was formerly allowed to run to waste, polluting our rivers to a -serious extent, is now treated by several ingenious methods for -the recovery of the soda with considerable advantage alike to the -manufacturer and the public. The process consists essentially -in boiling down the liquor to dryness, and incinerating the -residue. During the process of incineration the carbonaceous -matter extracted from the grass is converted into carbonic acid, -which, combining with the soda, reconverts it into carbonate of -soda, which is afterwards causticised with lime in the usual way, -and the caustic soda thus obtained is again used in the boiling -of esparto. Although one or other of the "recovery" processes is -adopted at a good many of our paper-mills, the recovery of the -soda is by no means universal as yet, but the time will doubtless -soon arrive when the economical advantages of the process will -be fully recognised. Indeed, we know it to be the fact that some -manufacturers are watching, with keen interest, the progress of -some of the newer systems of soda recovery, with the full intention -eventually of adopting one or other of them. - - -=Washing Boiled Esparto.=--This operation is usually performed in -engines similar to those used in washing rags, but in some mills -the boiled grass is washed in a series of tanks, so arranged -that water flows in at one end of the series, thence passing -in succession through each batch of grass in the other tanks, -and finally issues at the farthest end of the series as a very -concentrated liquor. By this arrangement there is great economy -of water, while at the same time no loss of fibre occurs. The -concentrated washing liquors thus obtained may be evaporated, -and the alkali recovered, which would be an undoubted saving, -since these liquors obtained in the ordinary way by washing in -the boilers are generally run off as waste. The engines used for -washing esparto and converting it into half-stuff are generally of -large size, and capable of treating a ton of boiled esparto. In -this engine, however, there is no bed-plate, as the action of the -roll alone is sufficient to reduce the boiled and softened esparto -to half-stuff. A drum-washer is also furnished to the engine, which -carries off the dirty washing water, while an equivalent proportion -of clean water is kept constantly running into the engine from -an elbowed pipe at its end. In charging the washing-engine, it -is first about three parts filled with water, when the washing -cylinder is lowered, and the esparto is then put in, care being -taken not to introduce more of the material than will work freely -under the action of the roll; if the mass be too stiff, portions -of the material may be imperfectly washed. While the washing is in -progress, the workman, armed with a wooden paddle, constantly stirs -the esparto, clearing it away from the sides of the engine, so that -none of the material may escape a perfect washing. At the bottom of -the engine is a "sand-trap," covered with perforated zinc, through -which any sand or other solid particles which may be present -escape. When the washing is complete, the fresh water supply is -shut off, and the drum-washer allowed to run until enough water has -been removed to make room for the bleaching liquor. - - -=Young's Process.=--By this process the boiled and strained esparto -is passed through elastic covered rollers, so adjusted as to split -up and squeeze out the dissolved matters or liquid from the fibres, -thus leaving them clean and open for the access of the bleaching -liquor. - - -=Bleaching the Esparto.=--It is usual to bleach esparto in the -washing engine, for which purpose a tank of bleaching liquor of -the required strength (about 6° T. for Spanish) is placed close to -the engine, which is provided with a pipe leading to the engine -and another pipe proceeding from the tank in which the bleaching -liquor is stored. The supply tank is furnished inside with a gauge, -divided into inches--each inch representing so many gallons of -liquor--by means of which the workman is enabled to regulate the -quantity of bleaching liquor he is instructed by the manager or -foreman to introduce into the engine. About half an hour after -the bleach has become well incorporated with the fibre, sulphuric -acid in the proportion of six ounces of the acid (which must be -well diluted with water) to each hundredweight of the fibre. -The dilute acid should be added gradually, and the proportions -given must not be exceeded. The bleaching being completed, the -half-stuff is next treated in a machine termed the _presse-pâte_, -which not only cleanses the material from sand and dirt, but also -separates all knots and other imperfections from the fibre in a -most effectual and economical manner. Indeed, we were much struck -with the excellent working of this machine at Messrs. Spalding and -Hodge's mill, at South Darenth, and the remarkably fine quality -of the finished pulp obtained through its agency. The presse-pâte -was formerly used in the preparation of pulp from straw, but its -advantages in the treatment of esparto are now fully recognised. -The apparatus and method of working it may be thus briefly -described:-- - -The machine is on the principle of the _wet end_ of a paper -machine, and consists of several stone chests for holding the -bleached half-stuff, in which are fitted agitators to keep the -stuff in suitable condition. From these chests the stuff is pumped -into a mixing box, and from thence over a series of sand traps made -of wood, and with slips of wood fixed in the bottom, in which any -sand present is retained. The stuff then passes into a series of -strainers, which, while allowing the clean fibre to pass through, -retain all impurities, such as knots, &c., and the clean stuff is -allowed to flow on to the wire-cloth in such a quantity as to form -a thick web of pulp. A greater portion of the water escapes through -the wire-cloth, but a further portion is removed by the passage -of the pulp across two vacuum boxes, connected with four powerful -vacuum pumps, which renders the half-stuff sufficiently dry to -handle; but to render it still more so, it now passes between couch -rolls, and is either run into webs, or, as is sometimes the case, -it is discharged into boxes, the web of pulp thus treated being -about an inch in thickness. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -_TREATMENT OF WOOD._ - - Chemical Processes.--Watt and Burgess's Process.--Sinclair's - Process.--Keegan's Process.--American Wood Pulp - System.--Aussedat's Process.--Acid Treatment of Wood.--Pictet - and Brélaz's Process.--Barre and Blondel's Process.--Poncharac's - Process.--Young and Pettigrew's Process.--Fridet and Matussière's - Process. - - -The advantages of wood fibre as a paper material have been fully -recognised in the United States and in many Continental countries, -but more especially in Norway, Sweden, and Germany, from whence -large quantities of wood pulp are imported into this country. There -is no doubt that our home manufacturers have recently paid much -attention to this material, and it is highly probable that wood, as -an inexhaustible source of useful fibre, will at no distant date -hold a foremost rank. Indeed, the very numerous processes which -have been patented since the Watt process was first made known, -indicate that from this unlimited source of fibre the requirements -of the paper-maker may be to a large extent satisfied, provided, of -course, that the processes for reducing the various suitable woods -to the condition of pulp can be economically and satisfactorily -effected. The great attention which this material has received at -the hands of the experimentalist and chemist--the terms not being -always synonymous--shows that the field is considered an important -one, as indeed it is, and if successfully explored will, it is to -be hoped, yield commensurate advantages both to inventors and the -trade. - -The object of the numerous inventors who have devised processes -for the disintegration of wood fibre--that is, the separation of -cellulose from the intercellular matters in which the fibres are -enveloped--has necessarily been to dissolve out the latter without -injury to the cellulose itself, but it may be said that as yet the -object has not been fully attained by either of the processes which -have been introduced. To remove the cellular matter from the true -fibre or cellulose, without degrading or sacrificing a portion of -the latter, is by no means easy of accomplishment when practised -on an extensive scale, and many processes which present apparent -advantages in one direction are often found to exhibit contrary -results in another. The field, however, is still an open one, and -human ingenuity may yet discover methods of separating wood fibre -from its surrounding tissues in a still more perfect manner than -hitherto. - -The various processes for treating wood for the extraction of its -fibre have been classified into: (1) chemical processes; and (2) -mechanical processes. We will give precedence to the former in -describing the various wood pulp processes, since the pulp produced -by the latter, although extensively used, is chiefly employed, -in combination with other pulps, for common kinds of paper. In -reference to this part of our subject Davis says:--"Experience -has dictated certain improvements in some of the details of -those earlier methods, by which so-called 'chemical wood pulp' -is manufactured very largely on the Continent of Europe.... It -is possible to obtain a pulp of good quality, suitable for some -classes of paper, by boiling the chipped wood in caustic soda, but -when it is desired to use the pulp so prepared for papers having a -perfectly white colour it has been demonstrated in practice that -the action of the caustic soda solution at the high temperature -which is required develops results to a certain degree in weakening -and browning the fibres, and during the past five years much labour -has been expended in the endeavour to overcome the objections -named. The outcome of these efforts has been a number of patents, -having for their object to prevent oxidation and subsequent -weakening of the fibres." In several of these patents, to which we -shall refer hereafter, bisulphite of lime is employed as the agent -to prevent oxidation and consequent degradation of the fibres, and -in other processes bisulphite of magnesia has been used for the -same purpose. Davis further remarks: "Although a common principle -runs through all these methods of preparing cellulose from wood, -they differ in detail, as in the construction of the digesters -employed, methods of treating the wood stock before boiling it in -the sulphurous acid solution, and also as regards pressure, blowing -off the sulphurous acid gas, etc., but all these processes present -a striking similarity to the method patented by Tilghmann in 1867." -There can be no doubt that the action of caustic soda, under high -pressures, is highly injurious both to the colour and strength of -the fibres, and any process that will check this destructive action -in a thoroughly practical way will effect an important desideratum. - - -=I. Chemical Processes=: _Watt and Burgess's Process_.--This -process, which, with some modifications, is extensively worked -in America, consists in boiling wood shavings, or other similar -vegetable matter, in caustic soda ley, and then washing to remove -the alkali; the wood is next treated with chlorine gas, or an -oxygeneous compound of chlorine, in a suitable vessel, and it is -afterwards washed to free it from the hydrochloric acid formed. It -is now treated with a small quantity of caustic soda in solution, -which instantly converts it into pulp, which only requires to -be washed and bleached, and beaten for an hour and a half in -the beating engine, when the pulp is ready for the machine. The -wood-paper process as carried out in America has been described by -Hofmann, from whose work[15] we have abridged the following:-- - -The wood, mostly poplar, is brought to the works in 5-feet lengths. -The bark having been stripped off by hand, it is cut into ½-inch -slices by a cutter which consists of four steel knives, from 8 -to 10 inches wide by 12 to 15 inches long, which are fastened in -a slightly inclined position to a solid cast-iron disc of about -5 to 7 feet diameter, which revolves at a high speed, chopping -the wood--which is fed to the blades through a trough--into thin -slices across the grain. The trough must be large enough to receive -the logs, usually 10 or 12 inches thick, and it is set at such an -angle that the logs may slide down towards the revolving cutters; -this slanting position only assists the movement of the logs, -while a piston, which is propelled by a rack, pushes them steadily -forward until they are entirely cut up. The piston, or _pusher_, -then returns to its original position, fresh wood is put into the -trough, and the operation repeated. In this way many tons of wood -can be chopped up by one of these cutters in a day. The sliced wood -is conveyed by trucks to an elevator by which it is hoisted up two -storeys to a floor from which the boilers are filled. The boilers -are upright cylinders, about 5 feet in diameter and 16 feet high, -with semi-spherical ends, provided inside with straight perforated -diaphragms, between which the chips from one cord of wood are -confined. A solution of caustic soda, at 12° B., is introduced with -the chips, and fires are started in a furnace underneath. At other -works the boilers are heated by steam circulating through a jacket -which covers the bottom and sides of the boiler. - -The boiling is continued for about six hours, when the digestion -is complete, and the contents of the boilers are emptied with -violence, under the pressure of at least 65 lbs. of steam, which -had been maintained inside. A large slide valve is attached to -the side of each boiler for this purpose close to the perforated -diaphragm, and connected by a capacious pipe with a sheet-iron -cylinder of about 12 feet diameter and 10 feet high, which receives -the contents--pulp, liquor, and steam. The object of these large -chambers--one of which serves for two boilers--is to break the -force of the discharging mass. The steam passes through a pipe on -the top of each, and from thence through a water reservoir, while -the liquid containing the pulp flows through a side opening and -short pipe into movable boxes, or drainers, mounted on wheels, and -each capable of holding the contents of one boiler; these boxes are -pushed along a tramway up to the collecting chambers, where the -pulp is received. In a building 132 feet long and 75 feet wide, ten -digesting boilers are arranged in one straight line, and parallel -with the boilers runs the main line of rails, side tracks extending -from it to each of the chambers, and a turn-table is supplied at -every junction. By this arrangement the drainer waggons can be -pushed from the side tracks on to the main line, which leads to -the washing-engines in an adjoining room. A system of drainage -is established below the tramways, by which all the liquid which -drains from the waggons is carried away and collected for treatment -by evaporation; these carriers remain on the side tracks until the -pulp is ready for the washing-engine. - -When the greater portion of the liquor has drained off, warm -water is sprinkled over the pulp from a hose for the purpose of -extracting all the liquid which is sufficiently concentrated -to repay the cost of evaporation--the most advantageous method -of recovering the soda. The contents of the waggons--from the -same number of boilers--are then placed in two washing-engines, -each capable of holding 1,000 lbs. of pulp. After being -sufficiently worked in these engines the pulp is transferred -to two stuff-chests, and from thence conveyed by pumps to two -wet-machines. The screens (strainers) of the wet-machines retain -all impurities derived from knots, bark, and other sources, and the -pulp, or half-stuff, obtained is perfectly clean and of a light -grey colour. The pulp is bleached with solution of bleaching powder -like rags, then emptied into drainers and allowed to remain therein -with the liquid for twenty-four to forty-eight hours, or long -enough to render the use of vitriol in the bleaching unnecessary. -The portion of the white pulp which is to be worked up into paper -in the adjoining mill is taken from the drainers into boxes -running on tramways in the moist state, but all the pulp which has -to be shipped to a distance is made into rolls on a large cylinder -paper-machine with many dryers. The object being merely to dry the -pulp, a very heavy web can be obtained, since the water leaves this -pulp very freely. The wood pulp thus obtained is perfectly clean, -of a soft, white spongy fibre, and a greater portion of it is mixed -with a small proportion of rag pulp and worked into book and fine -printing papers. Sometimes the wood pulp is used alone or mixed -with white paper shavings for book paper. The fibres are rather -deficient in strength, but as a material for blotting paper they -are said to be unsurpassed, while the wood paper is much liked by -printers. - -The wood from poplar, which is generally preferred, furnishes a -very white fibre, and is easily digested, but since the fibres are -short it is sometimes found advantageous to mix them with longer -fibres, as those of the spruce or pine, although the latter wood -requires a much more severe treatment in boiling with alkali than -the former. In reference to this process the following remarks -appeared in _The Chemist_,[16] 1855:--"The process occupies only -a few hours; in fact, a piece of wood may be converted into -paper and printed upon within twenty-four hours." An interesting -verification of this was published a few years since in an American -paper, the _Southern Trade Gazette_, of Kentucky, which runs as -follows:--"At a wood-pulp mill at Augusta, Ga., a tree was cut -down in the forest at six o'clock A.M., was made into pulp, and -then into paper, at six o'clock in the evening, and distributed -amongst the people as a newspaper by six o'clock the next morning. -From a tree to a newspaper, being read by thousands, in the brief -round of twenty-four hours!" The wood-paper process referred to has -given rise to many subsequent modifications, some of which we will -briefly describe. - - -=Sinclair's Process.=--The wood is first cut into pieces about -1 inch broad, ⅛th inch thick, and from 2 to 3 inches long. It is -then placed in a boiler and a solution of caustic soda, in the -proportions of 600 gallons to 10 cwts. of dry wood, is poured over -it. The boiler having been securely closed, the heat is raised -till a pressure of 180 to 200 lbs. on the square inch is obtained, -when the fire is withdrawn and the boiler allowed to cool, after -which the ley is blown off, the top door removed, and the contents -scalded. The discharge door is now opened and the pulp transferred -to a poaching-engine to be washed with pure water, when the resin, -&c., are easily removed and the clean fibres obtained, which, it is -said, are longer and firmer than those obtained by other methods. - - -=Keegan's Process.=--By this method soft deal or pine is sawn up -into pieces from 6 to 12 inches long and ½ inch thick, it being -preferable that all the pieces should be of an equal size, but the -smaller they are the more rapid, of course, will be the operation. -The pieces of timber are placed in a cylindrical boiler, turning -upon a horizontal axis while the digestion is progressing. In a -second boiler is prepared a solution of caustic soda of about 20° -B. (specific gravity 1·161), which is introduced through a pipe -into the first boiler, this being afterwards hermetically closed, -and the soda is forced into the pores of the wood by means of a -pump. When the wood is not more than half an inch in thickness -a pressure of 50 lbs. on the square inch is sufficient, and the -injection of the caustic soda solution is completed in half an -hour. The superabundant liquor is pumped back into the second -boiler for the next operation. The excess of liquor having been -removed from the wood as stated, steam is introduced between the -double sides of the first boiler, and the temperature of the wood -raised from 150° to 190° C. (334° to 438° F.). The wood is next -washed in the usual way until the liquor runs off perfectly limpid, -and the half-stuff thus produced may be converted into pulp either -before or after bleaching, according to the quality and colour of -the paper to be produced. - - -=American Wood-Pulp System.=--Another method of carrying out the -wood-pulp process has recently been described by Mr. E. A. Congdon, -Ph.B.,[17] from which we extract the following:--"Poplar, pine, -spruce, and occasionally birch, are used in the manufacture of -chemical fibre. Pine and spruce give a longer and tougher fibre -than poplar and birch, but are somewhat harder to treat, requiring -more soda and bleach. Sticks of poplar, freed from bark, and -cleansed from incrusting matter and dirt, are reduced to chips by a -special machine having a heavy iron revolving disc set with knives, -and are then blown by means of a Sturtevant blower into large -stove chambers after passing over a set of sieves having 1¼-inch -for the coarse and 1⅛-inch mesh for the fine sieves, from whence -they pass to the digesters, which are upright boilers 7 by 27 -feet, with a manhole at the top for charging the chips and liquor, -and a blow-valve at the bottom for the exit of the boiled wood. A -steam-pipe enters at the bottom, beneath a perforated diaphragm, -and keeps the liquor in perfect circulation during the boiling of -the wood by means of a steam-ejector of special construction." - -_Boiling._--The average charge of wood for each digester is 4·33 -cords,[18] giving an average yield of 4,140 lbs. of finished fibre -per digester. A charge of 3,400 gallons of caustic soda solution -of 11° B. is given to each digester charged with chips, and the -manhead is then placed in position and steam turned on. Charging -the digester occupies from thirty to forty-five minutes, and steam -is introduced until the gauge indicates a pressure of 110 lbs., -which occupies about three hours. This pressure is kept up for -seven hours, when it is reduced by allowing the steam to escape -into a large iron tank which acts as a separating chamber for the -spent liquor it carries, the steam entering in at one end and -passing out at the other through a large pipe, the liquor remaining -in the tank. The steam is allowed to escape until the pressure -is reduced to 45 lbs., when the digester is blown. The blow-cap -being removed, the blow-valve is raised and the contents of the -digester are discharged into a pan of iron covered with a suitable -hood. The contents strike against a dash-plate placed midway in -the pan, which thoroughly separates the fibres of the wood. The -time occupied in the foregoing operations is from eleven to eleven -and a half hours. It takes from nine to ten hours to free the pans -from alkali, when they are removed to washing-tanks with perforated -metal bottoms, where the material receives a final washing before -being bleached. - -_Washing._--Each of the three digesters has a pan into which -its contents are discharged, and there are also four iron tanks -used for holding the liquors of various strengths obtained -from the cleansing of the pulp and a fifth tank is kept as the -separating-tank before mentioned. When the digester is blown, -the pulp is levelled down with a shovel, and the liquor from the -separating-tank is allowed to flow into it. The contents of the -next strongest pan are pumped upon it, while at the same time the -strongest store tank flows into this pan. This flowing from the -tank to the pan, pumping from here to the pan just blown, and from -there to the evaporators, is kept up until the liquor is not weaker -than 6° B. hot (130° F.). The second pan is now down to 4° B. hot, -and the process of "pumping back" is commenced. The two weakest -tanks are put upon this pan and pumped out of the bottom of it into -the two tanks in which are kept the strongest liquors. The two weak -tanks have been filled in the process of completing the cleansing -of the third pan (the weakest) on which water was pumped until the -last weak tank stood at only ½° B. This pan, now cleaned, is hosed -and pumped over to the washing tanks. A fresh blow is now made in -this pan, and the same treatment kept up as with the first pan. - -The foregoing system is thus illustrated by Mr. Congdon:-- - - Pan A.--Just blown. - " B.--Partly cleaned. - " C.--Almost cleaned. - - Tank 1.--3½° B. hot. - " 2.--2° " " - " 3.--1° " " - " 4.--½° " " - - Separating tank, strong. - -A is levelled down; contents of separating-tank allowed to flow -upon it; B is pumped on to A; at the same time liquor from the two -strong store tanks is put on it (B), and this continued to be sent -from A to the evaporator until it is now weaker than 4° B. hot; the -process of "pumping back" is then commenced. The two weakest are -allowed in succession to flow on to it, and the liquor purified -from the bottom of B into the two strong tanks, filling No. 1, -the stronger, before No. 2. The weakest are filled in the process -of completing the cleansing of C, on which water is pumped until -the last tank from it tests only ½° B. C is now hosed and pumped -over to the washing tanks. A fresh digester is blown in C, and the -process repeated as with A. - -The above system has been modified by having an extra pan into -which the liquor from the last pan blown (after sending to the -evaporators until down to 6° hot, and bringing down to 4° hot, by -the stored liquor) is pumped. When the strength is reduced to 4° -the pumping is stopped. The liquor from this pan is put in the next -pan blown, after the liquor from the separating-tank has been put -upon it, whereby an economy in time is effected. - -The pulp, after being partially cleaned in the pans, still -contains an appreciable quantity of soda. It is hosed over to the -washing-tanks and receives a final washing with hot water. When the -pulp is thoroughly free from alkali, and the water flowing from -under the tank is colourless, the contents are hosed down by hot -water into the bleaching-tanks. The superfluous water is removed -by revolving washers, and about 1,000 gallons of a solution of -chloride of lime at 4° B. are then introduced, and the contents -agitated as usual. The bleaching occupies about six or seven hours, -when the pulp is pumped into draining tanks, where it is left to -drain down hard, the spent bleach flowing away. The stock is then -hosed and pumped into a washing-tank, where it acquires the proper -consistency for the machine. From here it is pumped into the stuff -chest, whence it goes over a set of screens and on to the machine, -from which the finished fibre is run off on spindles. The rolls -are made of a convenient size to handle, averaging about 100 lbs. -each. The fibre is dried on the machine by passing over a series -of iron cylinders heated by steam. The finished product is a heavy -white sheet, somewhat resembling blotting paper. The whole of the -foregoing operations are stated to occupy forty-five hours. - - -=Aussedat's Process.=--By this method the wood is disintegrated -by the action of jets of vapour. In one end of a cylindrical -high-pressure boiler, about 4½ feet in diameter and 10 feet high, -is fixed a false bottom, whereby the wood placed upon it may be -removed from the liquor resulting from steam condensed in the -chamber, the whole being mounted on lateral bearings which serve -for the introduction of the vapour, and the wood is fed through a -manhole at the upper end of the boiler. Taps are fixed at the upper -and lower ends for the liquid and uncondensed vapour. The wood -having been placed in the boiler, the jet is gradually turned on in -such a way that at the end of three or four hours the temperature -becomes about 150° C., the pressure being about five atmospheres, -which point is maintained for an hour. As the slightest contact -between the wood and the condensed water would at once discolour -the former, it is essential that the liquid be removed from time to -time by one of the outlets provided for the purpose. - -The treatment above described is said to be suitable for all kinds -of wood, and although it is the usual practice to introduce it in -logs about a yard long, any waste wood, as chips, shavings, etc., -may be used. It is preferable, though not necessary, to remove the -bark, but all rotten wood may be left, as it becomes removed in the -condensed water. The logs, after the above treatment, by which the -fibre is disintegrated and the sap and all matters of a gummy or -resinous nature are removed, are afterwards cut up by any suitable -means into discs of about an inch, according to the nature of the -fibre required. These are then introduced into a breaker, in which -they become converted into half-stuff, which, after being mixed -with a suitable quantity of water is passed through mills provided -with conical stones, in which it becomes reduced to whole-stuff. -The pulp thus prepared is principally used in the manufacture of -the best kinds of cardboard, but more particularly such as is used -by artists, since its light brownish shade is said to improve the -tone of the colours. Bourdillat says that in the above process -the vapour has a chemical as well as a mechanical action, for in -addition to the vapour traversing the cellular tissues of the wood -and dissolving a considerable portion of the cell-constituents, -acetic acid is liberated by the heat, which assists the vapour in -its action on the internal substance of the wood. - - -=Acid Treatment of Wood.=--A series of processes have been -introduced from time to time, the object of which is to effect -the disintegration of wood fibre by the action of acids. The -first of these "acid processes" was devised by Tilghmann in -1866, in which he employed a solution of sulphurous acid; the -process does not appear to have been successful, however, and -was subsequently abandoned, the same inventor having found that -certain acid sulphites could be used more advantageously. Other -processes have since been introduced, in which wood is treated in a -direct way by the action of strong oxidising acids, as nitric and -nitro-hydrochloric acids, by which the intercellular matters of the -wood become dissolved and the cellulose left in a fibrous condition. - - -=Pictet and Brélaz's Process.=--By this process wood is subjected -to the action of a vacuum, and also to that of a supersaturated -solution of sulphurous acid at a temperature not exceeding 212° F. -In carrying out the process a solution of sulphurous acid is used, -consisting of, say from ⅕ to ⅓ lb. avoirdupois of sulphurous acid -to each quart of water, and employed under a pressure of from three -to six atmospheres at 212° F. Under these conditions the cementing -substances of the wood "retain their chemical character without a -trace of decomposition of a nature to show carbonisation, while -the liquor completely permeates the wood and dissolves out all the -cementing constituents that envelop the fibres." In carrying out -the process practically, the wood is first cut into small pieces -as usual and charged into a digester of such strength as will -resist the necessary pressure, the interior of which must be lined -with lead. Water is then admitted into the vessel and afterwards -sulphurous acid, from a suitable receiver in which it is stored -in a liquid form until the proportion of acid has reached that -before named, that is, from 100 to 150 quarts of the acid to 1,000 -quarts of water. The volume of the bath will be determined by the -absorbing capacity of the wood, and is preferably so regulated -as not to materially exceed that capacity. In practice it is -preferable to form a partial vacuum in the digester, by which -the pores of the wood are opened, when it will be in a condition -to more readily absorb the solution and thereby accelerate the -process of disintegration. When disintegration is effected, which -generally occurs in from twelve to twenty-four hours, according -to the nature of the wood under treatment, the liquor, which is -usually not quite spent in one operation, is transferred to another -digester, a sufficient quantity of water and acid being added to -complete the charge. In order to remove the liquor absorbed by the -wood, the latter is compressed, the digester being connected with -a gas-receiver, into which the free gas escapes and in which it -is collected for use again in subsequent operations. The bath is -heated and kept at a temperature of from 177° to 194° F. by means -of a coil in the digester supplied with steam from a suitable -generator. The wood, after disintegration, undergoes the usual -treatment to convert it into paper pulp, and may thus be readily -bleached by means of chloride of lime. The unaltered by-products -contained in the bath may be recovered and treated for use in the -arts by well-known methods. - - -=Barre and Blondel's Process= consists in digesting the wood for -twenty-four hours in 50 per cent. nitric acid, used cold, by which -it is converted into a soft fibrous mass. This is next boiled for -some hours in water and afterwards in a solution of carbonate of -soda; it is then bleached in the usual way. - - -=Poncharac's Process.=--In this process cold nitro-hydrochloric -acid (aqua regia) is employed for disintegrating wood in the -proportions of 94 parts of the latter to 6 parts of nitric acid, -the mixture being made in earthen vessels capable of holding 175 -gallons. The wood is allowed to soak in the acid mixture for six to -twelve hours. 132 lbs. of aqua regia are required for 220 lbs. of -wood. When it is desired to operate with a hot liquid, 6 parts of -hydrochloric acid, 4 parts of nitric acid, and 240 parts of water -are used in granite tubs provided with a double bottom, and it is -heated by steam for twelve hours and then washed and crushed. - - -=Young and Pettigrew's Process.=--These inventors use either nitric -or nitrous acids, and the acid fumes which are liberated are -condensed and reconverted into nitric acid. - - -=Fridet and Matussière's Process.=--This process, which was -patented in France in 1865, consists in treating wood with -nitro-hydrochloric acid, for which purpose a mixture of 5 to 40 per -cent. of nitric acid and 60 to 95 per cent. of hydrochloric acid -is used, which destroys all the ligneous or intercellular matter -without attacking the cellulose. After the wood (or straw) has been -steeped in the acid mixture, the superfluity is drawn off, and -the remaining solid portion is ground under vertically revolving -millstones. The brownish-coloured pulp thus obtained is afterwards -washed and bleached in the usual way. - -It is quite true that cellulose can be obtained from wood and -other vegetable substances by treatment with nitric acid alone, -or with a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, but it will -be readily seen that the employment of such large quantities of -these acids as would be required to effect the object in view on a -practical scale, would be fraught with incalculable difficulties, -amongst which may be mentioned the insuperable difficulty of -obtaining vessels that would resist the powerful corrosive action -of the acids. Moreover, since nitric acid forms with cellulose an -explosive substance (_xyloidin_) of the gun cotton series, the risk -involved in the drying of the cellulose obtained would be quite -sufficient to forbid the use of processes of this nature. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -_TREATMENT OF WOOD (continued)._ - - Sulphite Processes.--Francke's Process.--Ekman's Process.--Dr. - Mitscherlich's Process.--Ritter and Kellner's Boiler.--Partington's - Process.--Blitz's Process.--McDougall's Boiler for Acid - Processes.--Graham's Process.--Objections to the Acid or Sulphite - Processes.--Sulphite Fibre and Resin.--Adamson's Process.--Sulphide - Processes.--Mechanical Processes.--Voelter's Process.--Thune's - Process. - - -=Sulphite Processes.=--An important and successful method of -treating wood has been found in employing sulphurous acid, -combined in certain proportions with soda, lime, or magnesia, -whereby a bisulphite of the alkaline or earthy base is obtained. -One of the principal attributes of these agents is that in -boiling wood at high pressures oxidation and consequent browning -of the fibres is prevented. Of these sulphite, or more properly -bisulphite, processes, several of those referred to below have -been very extensively adopted, and vast quantities of so-called -"sulphite pulp" are imported into this country from Norway, -Germany, Scandinavia, &c., the product from the latter source -being considered specially suited for the English market. Some of -these processes are also being worked in this country, but more -particularly those of Partington, McDougall, and Ekman. - - -=Francke's Process.=--In this process, which is known as -the "bisulphite process," the active agent employed for the -disintegration of wood is an acid sulphite of an alkaline or earthy -base, as soda or potassa, lime, &c., but it is scarcely necessary -to say that the process has since been modified by others. The -invention is applicable to the treatment of wood, esparto, straw, -etc., and may be thus briefly described:--A solvent is first -prepared, which is an acid sulphite of an alkali or earth, that -is, a solution of such sulphite with an excess of sulphurous acid. -As the cheapest and most accessible base the inventor prefers -lime. It has long been known that a solution of sulphite of lime, -combined with free sulphurous acid, would, at a high temperature, -dissolve the intercellular portions of vegetable fibres, leaving -the fibres in a suitable condition for paper manufacture; but Mr. -Francke claims to have determined the conditions under which this -can be effected with rapidity, and in such a way as to preserve the -strength of the fibres, and to have obtained a practical method -of preparing pulp by his process. For his purpose he employs a -moderately strong solution of the solvent at a high temperature, -with gentle but constant agitation. The acid sulphite is produced -by this process at small cost and at a temperature nearly high -enough for use in the following way:--A tower or column is charged -with fragments of limestone, which are kept wetted with a shower -of water; fumes of sulphurous acid, produced by burning sulphur, -or by roasting pyrites, etc., are then passed through the tower. -The liquid which collects at the bottom of the tower is the -desired solvent, which should have a strength of 4° to 5° B. It -is not essential that the limestone should be pure, as magnesian -limestone, etc., will answer equally well. The soluble alkalies, -as soda and potassa, may also be used when their greater cost is -not an objection. But for these alkalies the treatment is modified, -as follows:--The tower is charged with inert porous material, such -as coke, bricks, etc., and these are kept wetted by a shower of -caustic alkali at 1° to 2° B., while the sulphurous acid fumes -are passed through the tower. In like manner carbonate of soda or -potassa may be used, but in this case the solution showered on the -porous material should be stronger than that of the caustic alkali, -so that it may contain approximately the same amount of real -alkali. Whichever alkaline base be employed, the liquid collected -at the bottom of the tower should have a strength of 4° to 5° B.; -this being the acid sulphite of the base is used as the solvent -employed for the manufacture of pulp. When wood is to be treated, -it is freed as much as possible from resinous knots by boring and -cutting them out, and is then cut--by preference obliquely--into -chips of a ¼ to ¾ of an inch thick. Esparto, straw, and analogous -fibres are cut into fragments. The fibrous material and solvent -are charged into a digester heated by steam at a pressure of four -or five atmospheres, and consequently capable of raising the -temperature of the contents to about 300° F. As agitation greatly -promotes the pulping of the materials, Mr. Francke employs a -revolving cylindrical boiler, which is allowed to revolve while the -charge is under treatment. - - -=Ekman's Process.=--In this process, which in some respects bears -a resemblance to the preceding, native carbonate of magnesia -(magnesite) is first calcined to convert it into magnesia; it is -then placed in towers lined with lead, and sulphurous acid gas, -obtained by the burning of sulphur in suitable furnaces, is passed -through the mass, a stream of water being allowed to trickle down -from the top of the towers. The supply of gas is so regulated that -a continual formation of a solution of bisulphite of magnesium, of -an uniform strength, is obtained; great care, however, is necessary -to avoid excess and consequent loss of sulphurous acid by its -conversion into sulphuric acid. In boiling, the fragments of wood, -previously crushed by heavy rollers, are placed in a jacketed, -lead-lined, cylindrical boiler, suspended on trunnions, so that it -can be inverted to remove the charge. The pressure in the outer -jacket is 70 lbs. per square inch, and that within the boiler is -90 lbs. per square inch. The boiling occupies twelve hours. This -process has been extensively worked by the Bergvik and Ala Company, -of Sweden, for many years with great success, and we understand -that the company has been turned over to an English company--the -Bergvik Company, Limited. The Ilford Mill and Northfleet Works have -been largely supplied with sulphite pulp from the Swedish works. - -One great drawback to the bisulphite processes is that the boiling -cannot be effected in iron boilers unless these be lined with some -material which will protect the iron from the destructive action of -the bisulphite, which, being an acid salt, would exert more action -upon the iron than upon the fibre itself, and the solution of iron -thus formed would inevitably prove injurious to the colour of the -fibre. In several of the systems adopted iron boilers lined with -lead have been used, but the heavy cost of this material and its -liability to expand unequally with the iron, especially at the high -temperatures which the solvent necessarily attains under pressure, -causes the lead to separate from the iron, while it is apt to bulge -out in places, and thus becomes liable to crack and allow the acid -liquor to find its way to the interior of the iron boiler which it -was destined to protect. To overcome this objection to the simple -lead lining, Dr. Mitscherlich patented a process which has been -extensively adopted in Germany, and is now being carried out by -several companies in different parts of America. This process is -briefly described below. - - -=Dr. Mitscherlich's Process.=--The digester employed in this -process is lined with thin sheet lead, which is cemented to the -inner surface of the boiler by a cement composed of common tar and -pitch, and the lead lining is then faced with glazed porcelain -bricks. In this process a weaker bisulphite of lime is used than -in Francke's, and the time of boiling is consequently considerably -prolonged. - - -=Ritter and Kellner= have proposed to unite the inner surface of -the boiler to its lead lining by interposing a soft metal alloy, -fusible at a temperature lower than that of either metal, and it -is claimed that the iron and lead are thus securely united, while -the alloy being fusible under the normal working temperature of the -digester, the lead lining can slide freely on a boiler shell. - - -=Partington's Process.=--This process, which has been for some -time at work at Barrow, and for the further development of which -a private company, entitled the Hull Chemical Wood Pulp Company, -Limited, has been formed, consists in the employment of sulphite -of lime as the disintegrating agent. The process consists in -passing gaseous sulphurous acid--formed by burning sulphur in a -retort, into which is forced a current of air at a pressure of -5 lbs. to the square inch--through a series of three vessels, -connected by pipes, the vessels being charged with milk of lime. -The first two of these vessels are closed air-tight, and the gas -is then introduced, while the third vessel remains open; from this -latter a continuous stream of nitrogen escapes, due to the removal -of the oxygen by the burning sulphur from the air passed into the -retort. This process is said to be a very economical one, so far as -relates to the cost of materials used. - - -=Blitz's Process.=--This process consists of employing a mixture -composed of bisulphite of soda 2 parts, caustic soda 1 part; and -vanadate of ammonia 1 gramme, in hydrochloric acid 4 grammes to -every 6 kilogrammes of the bisulphite. The wood, after being cut -up in the ordinary way, is submitted to the action of the above -mixture, under a pressure of three or four atmospheres, for from -four to eight hours, and the pulp is then ground; it is said to -possess some of the qualities of rag pulp and to look much like it. - - -=McDougall's Boiler for Acid Processes.=--This invention is -intended to obviate the difficulties which arise in using -lead-lined boilers, owing to the unequal expansion and contraction -of the lead and the iron on their being alternately heated by steam -and cooled, on the discharge of each successive batch of pulp. This -invention consists in constructing the boilers with an intermediate -packing of felt, or other compressible and elastic material, -so that when the interior leaden vessel is heated, and thereby -enlarged and pressed outwards by the steam, the compressible and -elastic packing yields to the pressure and expansion. Also in the -cooling of the vessels the packing responds to the contraction, -and approximates to its original bulk and pressure between the two -vessels, and so prevents the rupture or tearing of the lead and -consequent leakage and other inconveniences. Another part of this -invention consists in the construction of the outer iron or steel -vessel in flanged sections, which are fitted to incase the interior -leaden vessel with a space between the two vessels, into which the -compressible and elastic materials are packed. In the construction -of these vessels the iron or steel flanged sections are placed on -to the leaden vessel and packed with the compressible and elastic -lining in succession. As each section is packed it is screwed -close up to the adjoining section by the screw bolts, fitted into -corresponding holes in the flanges of the contiguous section until -completed. This method of construction secures economy by the -retention of the heat, which is effected by the packing between the -two vessels. The materials used for the packing are caoutchouc, -felt, flocks, asbestos, etc., and a space of about two inches -between the vessels is preferred, into which the packing is filled. - - -=Graham's Process.=--This process consists in boiling fibrous -substances in a solution of sulphurous acid, or a sulphite or -bisulphite of soda, potash, magnesia, or lime, or other suitable -base and water. The boiling is preferable conducted in a closed -boiler, lined with lead, to protect it from the action of the -chemical substances used, and is fitted with a valve which can be -opened to allow the gases and volatile hydrocarbons contained in -and around the fibres to escape. The method of carrying out the -process has been thus described:--"In carrying out the process -there is a constant loss of sulphurous acid gas going on, and -consequently a continual weakening of the solution employed, to -avoid which it is preferable to employ monosulphite of potash, -soda, magnesia, lime, or other suitable base, and water. Either -of these substances, or a suitable combination of them, and -water are placed in the boiler with the fibrous substances to be -treated, and the temperature raised to the boiling point. After -the hydrocarbons, air, and gases natural to the fibrous substances -have been driven out by the heat and allowed to escape, sulphurous -acid, in its gaseous or liquid state, or in combination with -either of the bases referred to, is pumped or injected into the -boiler. There is thus forming in the closed boiler a solution -containing an excess of sulphurous acid above that required to -form, in combination with the base, a monosulphite. The operation -of injecting sulphurous acids, or the sulphites, may be repeated -from time to time during the boiling, so as to fully maintain, -and if necessary increase, the strength and efficiency of the -chemical solution. It is said that by this process a saving of the -chemicals employed is effected, as little or no sulphurous acid gas -is lost during the time the gaseous hydrocarbons, air, and other -gaseous matters are being expelled from the fibrous materials. -If an open vessel is used instead of a closed boiler, it will be -necessary to keep the solution at a fairly uniform strength, and -if necessary to increase the strength, but the result will be -substantially the same; but as it is evident that, when using an -open boiler, the excess of sulphurous acid supplied during the -boiling will be constantly driven off as gas, it must be replaced -by further injections, while the acid fumes may be conveyed away -and condensed, so as to be available for further use. When the -fibrous substances are boiled as above, with the addition of -potash, soda, etc., during the boiling, the result will be equally -beneficial. The inventor prefers to inject the sulphurous acid -or its combinations into the boiler at the bottom, and to cause -it to come in contact with the solution therein before reaching -the fibrous materials. For this purpose there is formed a kind of -chamber beneath the boiler, but separated from it by a perforated -disc or diaphragm of lead or other suitable material not acted upon -by the solution, so as to allow the latter to fill the chamber, to -which is connected a pipe, through which the sulphurous acid or -solutions of the sulphites is forced by any suitable apparatus. - - -=Objections to the Acid or Bisulphite Processes.=--While -the various methods of boiling wood in caustic soda at high -temperatures are well known to be open to serious objections, the -acid treatment of wood also presents many disadvantages, which -it is to be hoped may be yet overcome. In reference to this, -Davis makes the following observations:--"In the acid treatment -of wood for the purpose of converting the fibres into pulp for -use in paper manufacture, the general practice has been to use -alkaline solutions of soda, combined in various proportions with -certain acids, such, for instance, as sulphurous acid, hydrochloric -acid, etc. These solutions have been heated in digesting vessels, -and the high temperature resulting from this process of heating -developing a pressure of from six to seven atmospheres, the wood -being disintegrated by the action of the boiling solutions, the -gum, resinous constituents, and other incrustating or cementing -substances that bind the fibres together are decomposed, destroyed, -or dissolved, while pure cellulose, which constitutes the essential -element of the ligneous fibres, is separated therefrom. To this end -high temperatures had to be employed, otherwise the disintegration -was found to be only partial, the wood remaining in a condition -unfit for further treatment. The high temperature not unfrequently -converts a large proportion of the resinous and gummy constituents -of the wood into tar and pitch--that is to say, carbonaceous bodies -that penetrate into the fibre and render its bleaching difficult, -laborious, and costly, while the frequent washing and lixiviation -necessary to bleach such products seriously affect the strength -of the fibre and its whiteness, and also materially reduce the -percentage of the product, in some instances to the extent of 18 -per cent. These difficulties and detrimental results materially -enhance the cost of production, while the fibre itself suffers -considerably in strength from the repeated action of the chloride -of lime.... The difficulties are chiefly due to the carbonisation -of certain constituent parts of the fibres under temperatures -exceeding 212° F., such carbonised matters being insoluble and -incapable of being bleached, and as they permeate the fibre, cannot -be entirely removed. - -"To overcome these difficulties, the wood should be chemically -treated at a temperature sufficiently low to ensure that the -decomposition of the connecting substances of the fibres will -remain chemically combined with the other elements, such as -hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, in order to obtain an increased -product of superior quality and render the process more economical." - - -=Sulphite Fibre and Resin.=--A German manufacturer sent the -following communication to the _Papier Zeitung_, which may -be interesting to the users of sulphite pulp:--"In making -[disintegrating] cellulose by the soda or sulphite process, the -object in boiling is to loosen the incrusting particles in the -wood, resin included, and to liberate the fibres. The resin is -dissolved both in the soda and sulphite processes, but in the -former it is at the same time saponified, and is consequently -very easily washed out. In the case of sulphite fibre, however, -the resin attaches itself by its own adhesiveness to the fibres, -but can also be removed by as hot washing as possible, and adding -a little hydrochloric acid, which produces a very great effect. -At the same time, however, sulphite fibre loses in whiteness -by thorough washing, and assumes a reddish-grey shade. As the -paper manufacturer insists upon white fibre, the manufacturer of -sulphite fibre not only often omits washing, but adds some sulphite -solution (bisulphite of lime). This not only enables him to give -his customers white fibre, but he also sells a quantity of the -incrusting particles and sulphite residuum as cellulose. - -"So long as the manufacturer looks more to white than to -well-washed cellulose, or does not wash it well before working up -the fibre, these annoyances cannot be avoided. Not only this, but -other disadvantages will be added in the course of time, as the -action of the sulphurous acid in the pulp will have very injurious -consequences on metals--[and on the fibre itself?] especially -iron--coming in contact with it. This should be the more avoided, -as the whiteness of the unwashed cellulose is of very short -duration. The paper made from it soon turns yellow and becomes -brittle. Well-washed sulphite fibre, on the other hand--provided -no mistakes have been made in the boiling process--makes a strong, -grippy paper, which can withstand both air and sunlight. I have -made no special studies as to resin, but believe that pine and fir -act differently, especially with solvents." - - -=Adamson's Process.=--Mr. W. Adamson, of Philadelphia, obtained -a patent in 1871 for the use of hydrocarbons in the treatment of -wood. His process consisted in treating the wood with benzine in -closed vessels, under a pressure of 5 to 10 lbs., according to the -nature of the wood. His digester consisted of an upright cylinder, -in which the wood-shavings were placed between two perforated -diaphragms. The mass was heated beneath the lower diaphragm by -a coil through which steam was passed. The vapours which were -given off were allowed to escape through a pipe on the top of the -digester, to which was connected a coil immersed in a vessel of -cold water, and the condensed liquid then returned to the lower -part of the digester. The remaining portion of the benzine in the -digester, which was still liquid but saturated with the extracted -matters, was drawn off through a faucet at the bottom. Benzine -being a very cheap article in America, a similar process was -recommended in another patent by the same author for extraction of -pitch and tar from rags [tarpaulin, ropes, &c.?], and for removing -oil from rags and cotton waste. - - -=Sulphide Processes.=--Many attempts were made about thirty years -ago, and in subsequent years, to employ the soluble sulphides as a -substitute for caustic soda in boiling wood and other fibres, but -these processes do not appear to have been very successful. Later -improvements in the construction of boilers or digesters, however, -seem to have induced further experiments in this direction, and we -understand that several sulphide processes are being worked on the -Continent, the processes of MM. Dahl and Blitz being amongst them. -One of the supposed advantages of these sulphides over caustic soda -is that by evaporation and calcination of the liquors, or leys, by -which the organic matters become destroyed, the original product -would be recovered, which merely requires to be dissolved out for -further use. There are, however, several important objections to -the use of sulphides in this way, amongst which may be mentioned -the deleterious vapours which they emit; and this alone would -doubtless prevent their employment--at all events in this country. - - -=II. Mechanical Processes.=--Besides the various chemical methods -of separating cellulose from woody fibres, before described, -certain processes have been devised for reducing wood to the -condition of pulp directly by mechanical means without the aid -of any chemical substance whatsoever. In this direction Heinrich -Voelter, of Wurtemburg, appears to have been the first to introduce -a really practical process for the conversion of wood into pulp -for paper-making, although, as far back as 1756, Dr. Schaeffer, -of Bavaria, proposed to make paper from sawdust and shavings -mechanically formed into pulp: the process was not successful, -however, with the machinery then at his command. - - -=Voelter's Process for Preparing Mechanical Wood Pulp.=--In 1860-65 -and 1873 Voelter obtained patents in this country for his methods -of treating wood mechanically, and the process may be thus briefly -described:--Blocks of wood, after the knots have been cut out by -suitable tools, are pressed against a revolving grindstone, which -reduces the material to a more or less fine condition, but not in -a powdery form, and the disintegrated fibre is caused to press -against a wire screen, which allows the finer particles to pass -through, retaining the coarser particles for further treatment. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17A.--Voelter's Wood-pulping Machine. - - [_To face page 78._] - -The apparatus employed, which is shown in Fig. 17A, consists of a -pulping apparatus A, with vat K, in which the revolving stone S is -placed; the blocks of wood are held against the stone at _p p_, -and water is introduced at G, and the revolving stone carries the -pulp against the screen E, which admits the passage of the finer -particles of the wood, while the coarser particles are led by the -trough F to the first refining cylinder B, after passing through an -oscillating basket, which retains the coarser particles. From -thence it is led through a distributing apparatus and hopper C, to -be uniformly supplied to the refining cylinder D, these cylinders -being of the ordinary construction, and, as usual, covered with -fine gauze wire sieves. The ground material which fails to pass -through the sieves is transferred by an elevator to the millstones -E, which are of ordinary construction, and after leaving these -unites with the finer fibres which pass through E, the whole now -entering a mixing reservoir F, whence it is thrown on to the -cylinder G, and the pulp which passes into this is distributed -on to a similar cylinder H, the contents of which then passes -through the last cylinder I, which is differently constructed -to the others, inasmuch as its lower part is surrounded by an -impervious leather jacket, so that the pulp ascends in order to -enter it. The disintegrated fibres that are retained by the wires -of the cylinders pass into the refiners, which consist of a pair -of horizontal cylinders of sandstone, one of which (the upper one) -only revolves, and by the action of these the coarser fibres become -further reduced, the finer particles, as before, passing through -the wire gauze of the cylinders, the operation being repeated in -the same order until the whole of the fibres have passed through -the sieves. - - -=Thune's Process.=--Mr. A. L. Thune, of Christiana, U.S.A., has -recently patented an apparatus for disintegrating wood, which -consists of a grinding apparatus connected to a turbine. In this -arrangement the grindstone, fixed on a shaft, is worked by a -turbine, and the wood, which is used in small blocks, is pressed -against the stone by means of a series of hydraulic presses. The -fine pulp is afterwards made into thick sheets by means of a -board-machine, the pulp, mixed with water, passing down a shoot -into a vat beneath, in which is a revolving cylinder covered with -wire-cloth, which in its revolution carries with it a certain -quantity of pulp in a continuous sheet; this is taken on to an -endless travelling belt by means of a small couch-roll, and passes -on to a pair of rolls, round the upper one of which the sheet -becomes wound, and is removed when sufficiently thick. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -_TREATMENT OF VARIOUS FIBRES._ - - Treatment of Straw.--Bentley and Jackson's Boiler.--Boiling - the Straw.--Bertrams' Edge-runner.--M. A. C. Mellier's - Process.--Manilla, Jute, etc.--Waste Paper.--Boiling Waste - Paper.--Ryan's Process for Treating Waste Paper. - - -=Treatment of Straw.=--As a paper-making material, the employment -of straw is of very early date, a patent for producing paper from -straw having been taken out by Matthias Koops as far back as -1801. The material, however, was used in its unbleached state, -and formed a very ugly paper. White paper was not obtained from -straw until 1841, but no really practical method of treating this -material was devised until about ten years later, in France, when -MM. Coupier and Mellier introduced a process which, with subsequent -modifications, has been extensively adopted. A great advance in -the manufacture of paper from straw has since been effected by the -introduction of various boilers, specially constructed for boiling -the material at high pressures, and for keeping the alkaline -liquors freely circulated amongst the fibre during the progress of -the boiling. These boilers are of different forms--being either -cylindrical or spherical--and are preferably of the revolving type, -which causes the caustic ley employed in the boiling to become -uniformly mixed with the fibre. Sometimes the vomiting boilers -described elsewhere are used by paper-makers in preference to those -referred to. - - -=Bentley and Jackson's Boiler.=--This boiler, a representation of -which is shown in Fig. 18, is 7 feet in diameter, 18 feet long on -the cylindrical surface, with hemispherical ends of Martin-Siemens -steel plate 7/16 inch thick in the shell, and ½ inch thick in -the ends. It is double riveted in the longitudinal seams, has -two manholes 3 × 2, forged out of solid steel plate. Inside are -two perforated lifting plates or shelves, each 1 foot wide, ¼ -inch thick, the full length of the shell, and secured to the ends -by strong angle-irons; it is supported on two turned cast-iron -trunnions. These boilers are tested by hydraulic pressure to 120 -lbs. per square inch. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.] - -The varieties of straw generally used for paper-making in this -country are wheat and oats, though rye and barley straws are also -used, but in a lesser degree. The treatment of straw differs -greatly at different mills, some makers using strong liquors -and boiling at a lower pressure, while others prefer to use -less caustic soda and boil at a higher pressure. There can be -little doubt, however, that the high temperatures resulting from -boiling at very high steam pressure must deteriorate the fibre -considerably, causing subsequent loss of fibre in the processes of -washing and bleaching. - -=Boiling the Straw.=--The straw is first cut into short lengths -of one or two inches by means of a chaff-cutter, or by a machine -similar to a rag-cutter, and the cut material is then driven by -an air-blast through a wooden tube into a chamber having coarse -wire-gauze sides: a second chamber surrounds this, in which the -dust from the straw collects as it passes through the wire gauze. -The winnowed straw, freed from dust and dirt, is then conveyed in -sacks to the boilers. In charging the boilers, a certain quantity -of ley is first introduced, and steam also, and the cut straw then -added, which soon becomes softened, and sinks to the bottom of the -boiler, when further quantities of the material are added, until -the full charge has been given. The requisite proportion of ley -and water is then run in and the head of the boiler secured in its -place. Steam is now turned on, until a pressure of 20 to 40 lbs., -or even more, has been reached, when the boiling is kept up for -3½ to 8 hours, according to the pressure used and the strength of -the alkaline liquor, which varies from 9° to 16° Tw. From 10 to 20 -lbs. of caustic soda per cwt. of straw are generally required to -boil the material thoroughly. The boiling being complete, steam is -turned off, and when the boiler has somewhat cooled, the material, -which is in the form of a pulp, is discharged by the pipes beneath -into a large tank or strainer, the bottom of which is fitted with -a series of plates having long narrow openings or slits, through -which the liquor drains. The pulp is then washed with water, and -again allowed to drain thoroughly, after which it is dug out and -transferred to the potcher to be again washed and bleached. At -some mills the straw is boiled whole and not subjected to any -preliminary cutting In such cases the boiled straw, not being so -fully pulped as when cut into short lengths, is emptied from the -boiler through the manholes used for charging the material into the -boiler. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.] - -=Bertrams' Edge-runner.=--For the purpose of crushing the knots -of the straw, and other hard particles derived from weeds, etc., -a machine termed the "koller-gang" or "edge-runner" is sometimes -employed. This machine, which is manufactured by Bertrams, Limited, -and of which an illustration is given in Fig. 19, consists of two -large millstones, made from hard red granite, the surfaces of -which are sometimes grooved with V-shaped equidistant grooves. -These stones are worked by a horizontal spindle, and are caused to -revolve very rapidly in an iron basin, in which the washed pulp -is placed, and by this means the knots and harder portions of the -fibre not fully acted upon by the caustic alkali, become so reduced -as to be more readily accessible to the action of the bleach, -and thus a very superior straw pulp is produced. In using this -machine in the way indicated, the washed pulp is mixed in a chest -provided with agitators, with water, is then pumped into a second -chest above it, from whence it flows into the basin shown in the -engraving, while the stones are revolving. - - -=M. A. C. Mellier's Process.=--By this method the straw is first -cut into small lengths as usual; it is then steeped for a few hours -in hot water, and afterwards placed by preference in a jacketed -boiler, the object being to heat the materials without weakening -the ley by the direct introduction of steam into the body of the -material. The boiler is to be heated to a pressure of 70 lbs. to -the square inch, or to a temperature of about 310° F., by which -means, it is said, a considerable saving of alkali is effected, -as also time and fuel, as compared with the ordinary practice of -boiling. The alkaline ley which M. Mellier prefers to use is from -2° to 3° B., or of the specific gravity of from 1·013 to 1·020, -and in the proportion of about 70 gallons of such solution to each -cwt. of straw. The boiler should revolve very slowly, making about -1 or 2 revolutions per minute. The boiling occupies about 3 hours, -at the pressure named, when the steam is turned off and cold water -passed through the jacket of the boiler, which assists in cooling -the pulp, the water thus used being afterwards employed in washing -the pulp. The pulp is then thoroughly washed until the last water -runs off quite clear, when it is next steeped for about an hour -in hot water acidulated with sulphuric acid, in the proportion of -about 2 per cent. of the weight of the fibre. The pulp is then -washed with cold water, when it is ready for bleaching in the usual -way. - - -=Manilla, Jute, etc.=--Previous to boiling these fibres it is -usual to cut them into short pieces by a machine such as is used -for cutting straw, after which they are cleaned in a willowing and -dusting machine. The boiling is then conducted in the same way as -for esparto. Manilla fibre is not so much used in this country -as in the United States, where its employment forms an important -feature in the manufacture of certain kinds of paper. Some idea of -the extent to which it is used by the paper-makers of America may -be gleaned from the following statement of Mr. Wyatt:--"Another -large and important branch of the American paper trade are the -mills running on news and Manilla paper. Many of these mills turn -out a vast quantity of paper, running up to two hundred tons per -week, besides making their own ground wood pulp. The American news -is composed mainly of ground wood pulp, with an admixture of about -15 to 25 per cent. of sulphite wood or jute fibre, and not much -loading, and the machines are run at high speed. What is termed -Manilla paper is very largely used in the States, and much more so -than with us for common writings, envelopes, and wrapping papers. -The paper is composed of Manilla, jute fibre, old papers, etc., and -is highly finished at the machine. I was told of one mill belonging -to a large company running altogether six mills on news and -Manilla, turning out, with one 96-inch machine and beater capacity -of 1,800 lbs., and one Jordan, 10 to 12 tons of 2,000 lbs., of -Manilla paper per day at an average speed of 200 feet per minute." - -Jute is seldom reduced to the condition of a fine white pulp since -the treatment necessary to obtain that condition would result in -a weak fibre; it is usual, therefore, to only partially reduce -the material, when a strong fibre is obtained, which, lacking -in whiteness, is used for coarse papers. This also applies to -Adamsonia, or Baobab, another description of bast obtained from -the West Coast of Africa. These fibres are chiefly used for papers -which require strength rather than whiteness of colour, such as -wrapping papers, &c. - -"Broke" paper is a term applied to paper which has been imperfectly -formed on the paper machine or damaged while passing over the -drying cylinders. Imperfect sheets when they are not sold as -_retree_, and clean waste paper, also come under this designation -and are re-converted into pulp after undergoing the treatment -described below. - - -=Waste Paper.=--In treating waste paper for conversion into pulp -for paper-making, it is doubtless advisable to separate, as far as -can be done economically, papers which have been written upon with -common ink, as old letters, documents, &c., from printed papers, -since the latter require a more severe treatment than the former. -While simple boiling in water containing a little soda-ash will -discharge ordinary writing ink, printer's ink can only be extracted -by using rather strong solutions of soda-ash or caustic soda; and -even with this treatment it can only be rendered serviceable for an -inferior paper, owing to the grey colour of the resulting pulp, due -to the carbon of the printer's ink, upon which the alkali has no -solvent effect. - - -=Boiling Waste Paper.=--This is sometimes effected in iron vats, -about 8 feet deep and 8 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about -6 inches wider at the top. At the bottom of each vat is a false -bottom, closely perforated with small holes. Steam is introduced -by a pipe below the false bottom, which passes through the -perforations and thus becomes uniformly distributed to all parts -of the vat. To facilitate the emptying of the vats, the false -bottoms have connected to them three or four iron rods, to the -tops of which iron chains are hooked, and by this means the false -bottom, carrying the mass of boiled paper can be raised by a steam -hoisting engine or crane and deposited where desired. When the -boiling is commenced, the vat should first be about one-fourth -filled with a solution of soda-ash, and the steam then turned on. -When the liquor boils, the papers having been previously dusted, -are introduced gradually, and well distributed through the liquor; -if they are thrown into the vat in large quantities at a time, and -especially if they are in a compact state, the portions in contact -may not be reached by the liquor, and an imperfect boiling will be -the result. To ensure a uniform distribution of the boiling liquor -over the surface of the material, an iron pipe extends from the -centre of the false bottom to nearly the top of the vat, and this -pipe is covered with a hood, which causes the soda liquor to be -evenly spread over the whole mass. The vats are either cased with -wood or coated with asbestos to prevent the escape of heat, and -the vessel is covered with a flat iron cover, which is generally -in two halves. The steam enters the tubs at the side, below the -false bottom, and the exhausted liquor is drawn off through a valve -connected to the bottom of the vat. In some mills the liquor is -not drawn off after each boiling, but the boiled paper is hoisted -from the vat as before described, and the liquor strengthened by -the addition of from 10 to 20 lbs. of soda-ash for each 100 lbs. -of the paper to be next boiled. Paper that is thickly coated with -printing ink requires an extra dose of soda-ash. The boiling is -continued for twelve to twenty-four hours according to the nature -and condition of the waste paper under treatment. - -Waste papers are frequently boiled, after dusting, in revolving -boilers, in a solution of soda-ash or caustic soda, but it not -unfrequently happens that some portions of the material become so -agglomerated or half pulped during the boiling that the alkali -fails to reach all the ink, and as this cannot be removed by the -after processes of washing and breaking, it remains in the body -of the pulp and necessarily forms a constituent part of the paper -to be produced from it. The mass, when discharged from the boiler -and drained is then conveyed to the washing-engine, in which it -becomes broken and freed from alkali and so much of the ink as may -have been dissolved or loosened, and it is afterwards treated in -the beater and mixed with varying portions of other paper stock, -according to the quality of paper to be produced. In some mills the -boiled waste paper is disintegrated after boiling, by means of the -edge-runner (Fig. 19). - - -=Ryan's Process for Treating Waste Paper.=--The following process -for treating waste paper so as to produce a "first-class clean -paper" therefrom, was patented by Mr. J. T. Ryan, of Ohio. The -waste paper is first passed through a duster in the usual way, all -thick old books being previously torn apart to separate the leaves. -The papers are then boiled in a hot alkaline liquor without pulping -them, whereby the alkali acts on the surfaces of the papers, and -dissolves off, carrying away all the ink into the liquor. The -papers, which are still in sheet form, are then drained as free as -convenient from the alkaline liquor, and are next washed in the -washing-engine, which leaves the material perfectly clean. It is -then pulped in the beating-engine; and it is claimed that it can be -formed into first-class paper without the addition of any new or -expensive paper stock. The details of the process are thus given by -the patentee: "Into a bucking-keir put a soda-ash solution having -a density of 5° B., at 160° F., put in the stock, and shower for -eight hours at a temperature of 160° F., without pulping the paper, -then lift and drain, and cleanse well in the washing-engine; then -pulp and form into paper. As the draining will always be imperfect, -each charge removed will carry away some of the soda-ash solution, -and leave the remainder of impaired strength. After each drainage -add water to make up for loss in quantity of the solution, and add -enough soda-ash solution at a density of 13° B., to bring all the -liquor up to 5° B. at 160° F. In about eighteen working days the -liquor will have accumulated considerable ink and other matter. -Then blow one half of the liquor, and restore the quantity for -proper working. None of the soda-ash solution is wasted, except -such as falls to drain and what is blown out as last mentioned." In -carrying out this process every care must be taken to guard against -pulping before the alkali is washed out. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -_BLEACHING._ - - Bleaching Operation.--Sour Bleaching.--Bleaching with Chloride - of Lime.--Donkin's Bleach Mixer.--Bleaching with Chlorine - Gas (Glaser's Process).--Electrolytic Bleaching (C. Watt's - Process).--Hermite's Process.--Andreoli's Process.--Thompson's - Process.--Lunge's Process.--Zinc Bleach Liquor.--Alum Bleach - Liquor.--New Method of Bleaching. - - -=Bleaching Operation.=--The half-stuff treated in the -breaking-engine is run into the potcher, and the water it contains -is lifted out as far as practicable by the washer; the spent liquor -from the presses or drainers is then run in in lieu of water, and -as much fresh bleaching liquor as may be required is then measured -in, and in from two to six hours the pulp becomes perfectly -white. "However well managed a mill may be," says Mr. Arnot, "it -is scarcely possible to avoid having a small residue of unused -chlorine in the liquid which drains from the bleaching stuff." The -rule, therefore, is to use this liquor in the way above indicated, -by which the unexhausted chlorine, operating upon fresh half-stuff, -becomes available, and is, therefore, not wasted. "That as little -of this residual chlorine as possible may remain in the stuff," -Mr. Arnot further observes, "when put into the beating-engine, -powerful hydraulic presses are employed to compress the stuff -and squeeze out the liquid. These presses should be large enough -to contain easily the whole contents of a poaching-engine, and -of unexceptional workmanship. The perforated lining especially -should be carefully prepared and properly secured. I have seen -much trouble from negligent workmanship in this respect. Recently -I examined a number of samples of press drainings, and found -the unexhausted chlorine to vary very much--from a few grains of -bleaching powder per gallon to about one ounce." - -Sometimes it is the practice to partly fill the potcher with water, -and the engine being set in motion, the half-stuff is gradually -introduced until the full charge has been given, and the stuff is -then washed for some time, after which the drum-washer is raised, -and the bleaching liquor then run in, care being taken that the -necessary quantity is not exceeded, otherwise the fibre will -suffer injury from the chemical action of the bleaching agent. -When vitriol is employed to liberate the hypochlorous acid, the -vitriol, previously diluted with water, should be placed in a -small lead-lined tank in such a position that the acid liquor may -slowly trickle into the engine at the rate of 1 lb. of sulphuric -acid in twenty minutes. As soon as the bleaching is complete the -stuff is emptied into large stone chests, each of which will hold -the contents of two engines. On the bottom of these chests are -perforated zinc drainers, while a similar drainer runs up the back -of each chest. The bleached stuff is allowed to remain as long as -may be convenient in these chests, after which it is removed to -the beating or refining engines. In some mills the bleaching is -effected in the breaking-engine, while at other mills the operation -is performed in the beating-engine. - -In bleaching it is considered to be more advantageous to employ -moderately strong liquors rather than weaker ones, inasmuch as -the object is effected in less time than when weaker liquors are -employed. An extreme in the opposite direction, however, must be -avoided, since a very strong bleach will inevitably cause injury to -the fibre. Sometimes the potchers are fitted with steam-pipes, in -order that the diluted bleaching liquor may be heated, if required, -to facilitate the operation. If the temperature be raised too high, -however, the effect upon the fibre will be at least as injurious -as if too strong a bleach were employed. It must also be borne in -mind that in either case, after the pulp has been bleached and the -liquor allowed to run off, the mass has to remain some time--even -if pressed to remove as much of the liquor as possible--in direct -contact with the products resulting from the decomposition, and -probably some undecomposed hypochlorite also, which will continue -their chemical action upon the fibre until removed by washing, or -neutralised by one or other of the agents employed for the purpose. - - -=Sour Bleaching.=--When the bleaching liquor, after acting upon -the half-stuff for some time, has become partially exhausted, -dilute sulphuric acid--about one part acid to fifteen parts of -water--is added, which, by liberating hypochlorous acid, hastens -the bleaching considerably, and when the chemical action resulting -from this treatment is nearly complete, the spent liquor is -allowed to drain away, and fresh bleaching liquor is introduced, -the strength being regulated by the progress made in the first -case, which will depend upon the character of the fibre treated. -In the second application of the bleach no acid is used. When -sulphuric acid is added to the bleaching liquor, as above, the -process is termed _sour bleaching_. Sometimes hydrochloric acid is -used for this purpose, but in either case it is necessary to avoid -employing the acid in too concentrated a state, or in too great a -quantity, otherwise free chlorine will be liberated, which, besides -being injurious to the health of the workmen and the surrounding -machinery, also involves loss, while the colour and strength of the -fibre itself will also be impaired. In some mills the bleaching is -effected in the beating-engine, the bleaching liquor being pumped -in while the machine is in motion. - -Respecting the time which the bleaching operation should occupy, -there appears to be some difference of opinion, or, at all events, -the practice seems to vary in different mills, but there is, no -doubt, an advantage, so far as ultimate yield is concerned, in -moderately slow bleaching at a moderate temperature, inasmuch as -there is less risk of chemical action upon the cellulose itself -than when strong liquors are used, at a higher temperature, with a -view to hasten the operation and economise the bleaching powder. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.] - -=Bleaching with Chloride of Lime= (_Preparation of the Bleaching -Liquor_).--Chloride of lime, or hypochlorite of lime, commonly -called bleaching powder, when well prepared, contains from 32 to -35 per cent. of active chlorine. Being readily decomposed by the -air, and also by heat, this substance should always be stored in a -cool and dry place until required for use. A solution of bleaching -powder is generally prepared in large tanks lined with lead, which -are provided with agitators or stirrers, so that the powder, when -added to the water, may be freely diffused, and its active material -dissolved in the liquid. A machine, or "bleach-mixer," manufactured -by Messrs. Bryan Donkin and Co., of Bermondsey, is shown in Fig. -20, which is so constructed that the strong bleach liquor does -not destroy it. The device for agitating the contents of the tank -explains the principle of the machine. To prepare the bleaching -liquor, about ½ lb. of chloride of lime to each gallon of water -is used, which yields a liquor at about 6° T. When the required -quantity of bleaching powder and water have been introduced into -the mixer and sufficiently agitated, the vessel is allowed to -rest until the residue, which chiefly consists of free lime and -its carbonate, has subsided, when the clear liquor may be run off -for use. When all the clear liquor has been drawn off the residue -should be washed with water, and after again settling, the washing -water run off, and fresh water added, these washings being repeated -as often as necessary to remove the last traces of the "bleach," as -it is technically called. The washing waters may be used in lieu -of water in the preparation of fresh bleaching liquors. In some -mills the bleaching powder is mixed with from 2 to 3 times its -weight of water; the mixture is then well agitated and the residue -afterwards allowed to settle, the clear solution being afterwards -drawn off and the residue then washed as before. In either case the -residual matter is afterwards well drained and then cast aside. The -bleaching liquor is stored in large tanks ready for use, from which -it is withdrawn as required by means of a syphon or otherwise. - - -=Bleaching with Chlorine Gas= (_Glaser's Process_).--This method of -bleaching is not so much adopted in England as formerly, but has -found much favour in Germany; indeed, within the past few years, -namely, in March 3rd, 1880, a process was introduced by Mr. F. Carl -Glaser for treating straw, in which, after boiling with caustic -soda as usual, the pulp is bleached by the action of chlorine -gas. The straw, after being separated from weeds by a slight or -superficial picking, is cut into pieces of from ⅓ to ⅔ of an inch -in length. The cut straw is then placed in a rotary boiler for -about four hours, at a pressure of about 4 to 4½ atmospheres, in a -solution composed of 29 lbs. of caustic soda at 71°, and 48 lbs. -of calcined soda at 90°, rendered caustic, for every 220 lbs. of -straw. After boiling, the dirty ley is drawn off, and the boiled -straw subjected to two washings with water. It is then conveyed -to the washing-engine, where it is washed for an hour; the drum -of the machine should have a sieve or sifter, the apertures -of which are about 60 to the square inch. The washed straw is -next dried by centrifugal force in a hydro-extractor, until it -contains about 70 per cent. of water, which is necessary for the -action of the chlorine gas. To effect this, so as to obtain not -very solid or close cakes of straw, the holes of the wire of the -hydro-extractor should not be more than 50 to the square inch. -The cakes of straw thus formed are then exposed to the action -of chlorine in leaden chambers of the ordinary kind, in which -they are placed in layers upon hurdles, or upon shelves. If the -chlorine is produced by hydrochloric acid, for every 220 lbs. of -unboiled straw, 51½ lbs. of the acid at 20° B., and a corresponding -quantity of 70 per cent. peroxide of manganese are used. After -the bleaching operation, the acid formed is removed by washing in -a washing-engine. If a complete reduction of the fibres has not -been effected by the bleaching, this may be completed by the aid -of well-known machines, and either before or subsequent to the -after-bleaching there is used for 220 lbs. of straw about 4½ lbs. -of chloride of lime, at 35° [per cent.?] The patentee then gives -the following explanation:--"As pine wood or fir is chemically -freed from its colouring principle and transformed into fibres as -well as cellulose, the object of the intense action of the chlorine -is to destroy the mucilage of the straw, as well as the incrusting -matters which have not been destroyed by the boiling with caustic -soda, and consequently to strip or expose and open the fibres." It -will be readily seen that this process bears a close resemblance to -Mr. C. Watt's wood-pulp process. - - -=Electrolytic Bleaching= (_C. Watt, jun.'s, Process_).--At the -present time, when the means of obtaining the electric current for -practical purposes in the arts have so far exceeded that which -would have been deemed probable some forty years since, we find -that many ingenious processes, which were found to be unpractical -at that time from the want of cheap electrical power, have since -reappeared in the form of patented inventions, which would seem to -possess every merit--but originality. - -So long ago as September 25th, 1851, the author's brother, Mr. -Charles Watt, obtained a patent for, amongst other claims, -decomposing chlorides of sodium and potassium, and of the metals of -the alkaline earths into hypochlorites by electricity. It may be -well to make a few extracts here from his specification in order -that some of the subsequent patents, to which we shall refer, may -be traced to what may, perhaps, be considered their true origin. -In the specification in question, the inventor says:--"The third -part of my invention consists of a mode of converting chlorides of -potassium and sodium, and of the metals of the alkaline earths, -into hypochlorites and chlorates, by means of a succession of -decompositions in the solution of the salt operated upon, when -induced by the agency of electricity.... Electricity first -decomposes the chloride, the chlorine being eliminated at one of -the electrodes, and the alkaline or earthy metallic base at the -other electrode.... The liberated chlorine will, when it is set -free, combine with a portion of alkali or alkaline earth in the -solution, and a hypochlorite will be formed. The hypochlorite thus -formed will, by the continued action of heat, be resolved partly -into a chlorate of the alkali or alkaline earth, and partly into -a chloride of the metallic base, and the chloride will again be -subjected to decomposition, and a hypochlorite formed.... If I -desire to produce a hypochlorite of the alkali or earth, I merely -keep the vessel warm ... and continue the process until as much -of the saline matter has been converted into a hypochlorite as -may be required for the purpose to which the solution is to be -applied. This mode of forming a hypochlorite of the alkalies and -alkaline earths may be used for preparing a bath for the purpose of -bleaching various kinds of goods, and the bath may be strengthened -[recuperated] from time to time by the action of the electric -current." - -Thus it will be seen that this specification clearly described a -process by which the chlorides of sodium and potassium, and of the -metals of the alkaline earths (chloride of magnesium, for example), -may be converted into hypochlorites by electrolysis, and the -hypochlorite solution obtained used for the purposes of bleaching. -It would appear difficult to conceive how any subsequent patent for -accomplishing the same thing, and using essentially the same means, -can claim originality in the face of such "prior publication" as -was effected by the usual "Blue-book," which any person can buy for -eightpence. - - -=Hermite's Process.=--The following description of this process -has been furnished by the engineers engaged in connection with -the process to the _Paper Trade Review_:--"Briefly described, -the Hermite process consists in manufacturing a solution of high -bleaching power by electrolysing an aqueous solution of magnesium -chloride. The salt is decomposed by the current at the same time -as the water. The nascent chlorine, liberated from the magnesium -chloride, and the nascent oxygen, liberated from the water, unite -at the positive pole, and produce an unstable oxygen compound of -chlorine of very high bleaching power. The hydrogen and magnesium -go to the negative pole; this last decomposes the water and forms -magnesium oxide, whilst the hydrogen is disengaged. If in this -liquid coloured vegetable fibre is introduced, the oxygen compound -acts on the colouring matter, oxidising it. Chlorine combines with -the hydrogen to form hydrochloric acid, which finding itself in the -presence of magnesium in the liquid combines with it, and forms the -initial chloride of magnesium." - - -=Andreoli's Process.=--This process consists, avowedly, in -bleaching pulps "by means of hypochlorite of sodium, produced -by electrolytical decomposition of a solution of chloride of -sodium." In carrying out his process, M. Andreoli uses as an -electrolyte "concentrated or non-concentrated sea-water, or a -solution of chloride of sodium, the specific gravity of which -varies according to the quality and nature of the materials to be -treated. Generally the solution to be electrolysed works better -with a density of 8° to 12° B., but although salt is cheap, and the -solution when exhausted may be regenerated by passing an electric -current, I always endeavour to have when possible (_sic_) a weak -solution, and with some kinds of pulp an electrolyte having the -density of sea-water (3° B.) is sufficiently strong to bleach." - -The foregoing are the only electrolytic processes for bleaching -fibres that need recording, and we fancy there will be little -difficulty in tracing the resemblance between the two latter and -the process of Mr. C. Watt. - - -=Thompson's Process.=--This process, for which a patent was -obtained on February 3rd, 1883, may be thus briefly described:--In -bleaching linen fabrics the material is boiled for about three -hours in a solution of cyanide of potassium or sodium--about -half an ounce of the salt to each gallon of water--to remove the -resinous matter from the fibre, so that the cellulose may be -exposed to the action of the bleach. The fabric is then washed, -and again boiled for three hours more in a similar solution, and -after being again washed is ready for bleaching. With cotton the -preliminary boiling is not necessary, unless the material is -greasy, in which case a solution of half the strength and two -hours' boiling is sufficient. In ordinary cases cotton is not -boiled at all, but is simply washed in cold water and squeezed. -In bleaching, all vegetable fibres are treated in the same way, -the only difference being in point of time. The cotton or linen, -after being treated as described, is then piled somewhat loosely -in an air-tight vessel, 9 lbs. of cloth to the cubic foot of space -being considered sufficient. The vessel is then filled with a weak -solution of bleaching liquor, consisting of about one ounce of dry -bleaching powder to each gallon of water. "After the vessel has -been filled, the liquor is immediately run out, and is replaced -by an atmosphere of carbonic acid, which quickly liberates the -chlorine on the fibre, and thus decomposes the water, uniting with -the hydrogen and liberating the oxygen, the result of which, is -to bleach the fibre or fabric. In about an hour the whole of the -bleaching liquor in the fibre will have been thus decomposed, and -this operation must be repeated until the material is of the proper -whiteness to be withdrawn from the action of the chlorine. The -material is then washed and squeezed. Chlorine, however, always -leaves these materials of a yellowish white." To remove this tint, -the material is passed through a solution of oxalic acid--about 2 -oz. to the gallon--squeezed as it passes out of this solution, and -then passed through another solution made by dissolving ¼ grain -of triethyl rose aniline to the gallon of water, or 20 grains -of indigo, as may be preferred. To this solution oxalic acid is -added until it becomes of an opaque but bright turquoise blue. The -material, after washing, is then white. - -The patent describes and illustrates the apparatus to be used -in conjunction with certain parts of existing apparatus used in -bleaching. - - -=Lunge's Process.=--In this process acetic acid is used in place -of hydrochloric or sulphuric acids, etc., to set free the chlorine -or hypochlorous acid, in the ordinary method of bleaching with -hypochlorite of lime, or bleaching powder, which, the inventor -says, "combines all the advantages of the materials formerly -employed, without any of their drawbacks.... The price is no -impediment, for a minimal quantity is sufficient, the same being -regenerated over and over again. At first acetic acid and chloride -of lime decompose into calcium acetate and free hypochlorous -acid. In the bleaching process the latter yields its oxygen, -hydrochloric acid being formed. The latter instantly acts upon the -calcium acetate; calcium chloride is formed and acetic acid is -regenerated, which decomposes a fresh quantity of chloride of lime, -and so forth. Consequently the smallest quantity of acetic acid -suffices for splitting up any amount of chloride of lime.... The -hydrochloric acid formed is never present in the free state, as it -instantly acts upon the calcium acetate. This is very important, -since hydrochloric acid weakens the fibre by prolonged contact, -whilst acetic acid is quite harmless. Since there are no insoluble -calcium salts present, the operation of 'souring' after bleaching -is quite unnecessary; this not merely saves the expense of acid, -and of the subsequent washing of the fabrics, but it also avoids -the danger, especially present in the case of stout fabrics, of -leaving some of the acid in the stuff, which concentrates on drying -and weakens the fibre; it may also prove injurious in subsequent -dyeing operations. But in the new process no free acid is present -except acetic acid, which has no action upon fibre, even in its -concentrated state and at a high temperature." - -The acetic acid may be employed in various ways, including the -following:--A small quantity of the acid may be added from the -first to the bleaching liquor; or the fabric, after being treated -in the ordinary way with a solution of the bleaching powder, may -be steeped, without previous washing, in water containing a little -acetic acid; or the fabric may be steeped in water acidulated with -acetic acid, and bleaching liquor afterwards run in slowly and -gradually, with continuous agitation in the usual way. In the case -of hard water, or of impure bleaching liquors, a good deal of the -acetic acid would be consumed in neutralising the lime; in this -case, some hydrochloric or sulphuric acid may be added, but only -sufficient for the purpose, so that no acid but hypochlorous or -acetic acid exists in the free state. The process is applicable to -the bleaching of vegetable fibres, whether spun or in the unspun -state, and for bleaching paper pulp made from rags, wood, straw, -esparto, etc. Besides acetic acid, any other weak organic acid of -an analogous nature may be used. - - -=Zinc Bleach Liquor.=--Strong acids are often objectionable for -liberating chlorine from bleaching powder, and especially in -bleaching some classes of paper pulp. If a solution of sulphate -of zinc be added to one of bleaching powder, sulphate of lime is -precipitated, and the zinc hypochlorite formed at once splits up -into zinc oxide and a solution of free hypochlorous acid. Chloride -of zinc acts similarly; for a saturated solution of zinc in -hydrochloric acid decomposes as much bleaching powder as half its -weight of concentrated oil of vitriol.--_Varrentrapp._ Consequently -zinc salts can be employed in place of sulphuric acid, and thus -bleach the paper pulp very quickly. When this mixture is employed -in bleaching pulp, the precipitated sulphate of lime resulting from -the reaction and also the oxide of zinc formed, remain in the pulp, -and serve as loading materials. - - -=Alum Bleach Liquor.=--Orioli[19] recommended for use, in -paper-mills especially, a bleach liquor made by decomposing -equivalent quantities of a solution of chloride of lime and -sulphate of alumina, formerly known as _Wilson's Bleach Liquor_. -Sulphate of lime is precipitated, and hypochlorite of aluminium -remains in solution; this being a very unstable salt can be applied -for bleaching without the addition of an acid, splitting up into -aluminium chloride and active oxygen. Consequently the liquid -always remains neutral, and the difficulty caused by the obstinate -retention of free acid in the fibre, by which it is strongly acted -upon in drying, in this case does not exist. The aluminium chloride -also acts as an antiseptic, so that the paper stock may be kept for -many months without undergoing fermentation or other decomposition. -The solution is allowed to act for about ten minutes in the -engine.--_Lunge._ - - -=New Method of Bleaching.=--Young's Paraffin Oil Company have -recently introduced what they term an "intermediate oil for -paper-making," to be used with alkali in the boiling of rags and -esparto, for the purpose of increasing the bleaching power of -the powder, and producing a softer pulp, at the same time having -no smell. Several well-known paper-makers have tried, and speak -favourably of it. The quantity of oil to be added to the caustic -varies for different stock, but may be said to average about 1½ -gallon per ton.[20] - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -_BEATING OR REFINING._ - - Beating.--Mr. Dunbar's Observations on Beating.--Mr. Arnot on - Beating Engines.--Mr. Wyatt on American Refining-Engines.--The - Beating Engine.--Forbes' Beating-Engine.--Umpherston's Beating - Engine.--Operation of Beating.--Test for Chlorine.--Blending. - - -=Beating.=--One of the most important operations in the manufacture -of first-class paper is that of _beating_, by which the half-stuff -becomes reduced to a fine state of division, and the fibres which, -in the condition of half-stuff, are more or less loosely held -together in a clotted state, become separated, and are thus put -into a condition in which they will intertwine with each other, or -_felt_, as it is termed, when submitted to the vibratory motion -of the wire-cloth of the paper machine. The beating-engine, or -beater, as it is commonly called, much resembles in construction -the washing- and breaking-engine, but since it is required to still -further reduce the pulp to a condition suitable for paper-making, -the knives of this engine are more numerous and are made to revolve -more rapidly. In this engine the half-stuff is cleansed from -bleach, hydrochloric or sulphuric acid--whichever acid may have -been used in the bleaching--chloride of calcium, and the various -products resulting from the decomposition of the chloride of lime. -In this engine, also, the loading, sizing, and colouring materials -are worked up with the pulp, and the stuff fully prepared for its -final transfer direct to the paper-machine. Before describing -the various forms of beating-engines which have been from time -to time introduced, including some of the most recent types, to -which special attention will be drawn, we purpose quoting some -observations of well-known experts in paper manufacture which will -be read with interest, since they fully explain the importance that -attaches to the proper manipulation of the beating-engine for the -production of paper of high quality. - - -=Mr. Dunbar's Observations on Beating.=--There is no operation of -the paper-mill that requires more careful attention and experienced -judgment than that of beating, or refining, to bring the pulp to -the finest possible condition for paper-making; in this department, -Mr. Dunbar urges, "none but thoroughly efficient men should be -employed, for it is here that the paper is really made--that is, -the quality of the paper produced at the paper-machine will be -in proportion to the treatment the material has received; and if -the half-stuff sent to the beating-engines is not subjected to -judicious manipulation and careful preparation for the special -paper to be made, all future doctoring will prove unsatisfactory." - - -=Mr. Arnot on Beating Engines.=--On this subject Mr. Arnot -says:--"Upon the management of the beating-engine the character of -the paper produced largely depends. What is wanted is not a mincing -or grinding of the fibre, but a drawing out or separation of the -fibres one from another; in fact, the name of the machine indicates -pretty accurately the nature of the action required--beating. -Long, fine fibres can only be produced [obtained] by keeping the -roll slightly up off the bed-plate, and giving it time to do -the work. Sharp action between the roll and the bed-plate will, -no doubt, make speedy work of the fibre, but the result will be -short particles of fibre only, which will not interlace to make a -strong felt. Indeed, the action I refer to will reduce the long, -strong fibre of linen to little better than that of wood or straw. -Practice and careful observation can alone make a good beater-man, -and for the finer classes of paper none but careful, experienced -men should be entrusted with the management of the beating-engine. -Sometimes the operation is conducted in two successive engines, -the first being called the intermediate beater, but I have hitherto -failed to see wherein the advantage of this system lies. The time -usually occupied in beating esparto for printing-paper is about -four hours, while for rags the time may vary from four to twelve -hours, or even more." This, however, depends upon the nature of the -rags themselves, and the purposes to which they are to be applied. - - -=Mr. Wyatt on American Refining-Engines.=--Referring to the -engines adopted in America, Mr. Wyatt says:--"There are various -modifications of the original Jordan, the principal ones being -the Marshall, Jeffers, and improved Jordan; but I gathered that -experience proves the Jordan type to be the most practical and -efficient in the end, and is one of the most generally used. -One Jordan is required for each machine, refining all the stuff -supplied to it. The roll, or plug, runs from 350 to 400 revolutions -per minute, the horse-power consumed varying from 25 to 40 -horse-power according to the work done, and an engine will do up to -1,000 lbs. of pulp per hour. The time saved in the beating-engine -by the use of the Jordan is just about one-third of what would -otherwise be necessary, that is to say, pulp requiring otherwise -six hours beating only takes four hours if finished in the Jordan. -The half-beaten pulp is emptied into a stuff-chest, and the Jordan -is furnished with a small stuff-pump and service-box, just as at -the paper-machine what the Jordan does not take flows back again -into the chest: the pulp from the Jordan is run into the ordinary -machine stuff-chests. The finished pulp can be taken from the -Jordan at three different levels from the circumference of the -roll, or plug. If the pulp is wanted 'free,' it is drawn from the -bottom of the engine; if wanted 'wet,' or well greased, it is drawn -from the top; and if medium from the centre." - - -=The Beating-Engine.=--The ordinary form of beater consists of a -cast-iron trough 13 feet 6 inches long × 6 feet 6 inches wide, and -the bottom is dish-shaped, so as to prevent the pulp from lodging, -which would inevitably be the case if the bottom were flat, as the -pulp would be apt to lodge in the angles formed by the junction of -the bottom with the vertical walls of the trough. The iron trough -is fitted with a cast-iron roll, 3 feet 6 inches × 3 feet 6 inches, -which is provided with 69 "roll-bars," or knives, arranged in 23 -groups of 3 bars each; this roll is suspended upon a malleable iron -shaft 5 inches in diameter, resting upon side levers; suitable -gearing is attached by which the roll can be lifted or lowered at -will, the action being uniformly equal on both sides, by which the -knives of the roll are kept uniform with those of the bed-plate -beneath. The bed-plate, furnished with 20 steel knives, of the -same length as the roll, is placed immediately beneath the roll. -When the knives of the bed-plate are straight they are fitted into -the plate-box at an angle, but in some cases they are bent at a -slight angle, when they are termed _elbow plates_. There have -been, however, many improvements in the beating-engine introduced -of late years, some of which are of considerable importance, and -to some of these we will now direct attention. Although our own -manufacturers have introduced improvements in beaters which have -been fully recognised by the trade, the American engineers have -not been behindhand in devising modifications which appear to -have some important advantages. The Jordan beater, which has been -extensively adopted in the States, consists of a roll in the form -of a truncated cone, furnished with knives in the usual way; this -revolves in a box of a similar form, fitted with knives in the -direction of its length, but at slightly different angles. In this -engine the stuff enters at the narrow end through a box having an -arrangement which regulates its flow, and the pulp is discharged -by several openings in the cover at the wider end. In an engine -invented by Mr. Kingsland there is a circular chamber furnished -with knives covering its sides; between this is a circular plate, -also fitted with knives, which revolves. The stuff enters through -a pipe in the centre of one of the sides of the chamber, and flows -out through an opening in the opposite side. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.] - -=Forbes' Beating Engine.=--This engine, an illustration of which -is given in Fig. 21, is manufactured by Bertrams, Limited, of -St. Katherine's Works, Edinburgh. The engine has three chambers, -two rolls, and a mixing wheel; the rolls, only one of which is -uncovered in the engraving, are fixed in the outer channels, -and the mixing wheel is placed in the middle channel. By this -arrangement the pulp flows alternately into the two outer channels, -and after passing through the rolls again it enters the centre -channel at the opposite end. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.] - -=Umpherston's Beating Engine.=--This engine, for which a patent -was granted in 1880, has been successfully adopted at the _Daily -Chronicle_ and other mills, and presents several important -advantages, one of the chief being that it occupies much less -ground space than ordinary beating-engines. Indeed, we have heard -it remarked of this engine that it will do double the amount of -work in the same ground space as the ordinary engine, and this, -in some mills, would be a decided advantage. The construction -of this beater, a drawing of which is shown in Fig. 22, is thus -described by the patentee:--"In the common and almost universal -form of engines used for preparing pulp for paper-making, the -pulp travels horizontally in a trough with semi-circular ends, -and straight sides, partly divided longitudinally by a partition -called the midfeather, around which the pulp flows from the back -of the roll to its front, where it passes under the roll and over -the bottom working-plate, and is again delivered over the back -fall to pass again round the midfeather to the front of the roll. -In the course of these repeated revolutions part of the pulp near -the circumference of the tub has much farther to travel than the -part near the midfeather, and consequently is not so often operated -upon, and the pulp is thus unequally treated. As an improvement -upon this form of tub, I make it so that the pulp passes from the -back of the roll to its front through a longitudinal passage under -the back fall, the pulp thus moving as through an inverted syphon, -the superincumbent weight of the semi-fluid pulp, as delivered -over the back fall of the roll, pressing it along this passage and -upwards, to enter again in front of the roll. The roll A, bottom -plate B, and the form of the back fall C, are similar to those -of ordinary engines, but the trough is formed with the passage D -under the bottom plate B, so that the semi-fluid contents of the -engine, in travelling from the back fall C to the front of the roll -A, pass by means of the passage D under the bottom plate B in the -direction indicated by the arrows, the superincumbent weight of -the semi-fluid pulp, as it is delivered over the back fall C at -the back of the roll A, pressing it along the under passage D and -upwards to the front of the roll A. The position of a drum-washer -is shown at E, and at F is seen a section of the cross shaft for -raising or lowering both ends of the roll A simultaneously; G is -the roll cover, which may be of any usual form. By this invention -the semi-fluid pulp is acted upon in a more effective manner, and -its particles are also more equally treated than has hitherto been -the case." - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.] - -The beating-engines are usually driven from a separate engine, but -Messrs. Bertrams have introduced a system of direct driving for -these engines by which, it is said, there is a considerable saving -in power. The accompanying engravings, Figs. 23 and 24, show a -series of eight beaters, each carrying 300 lbs. of pulp, driven by -one of their compound direct-driving steam-engines, and now being -worked at the Forth Paper Mills. - - -=Operation of Beating.=--Having referred to some of the more -important improvements connected with the beating-engines, we will -proceed to explain the operation of beating as briefly as possible. -The bleached half-stuff is removed from the tray of the press in -caked masses, and in this condition is conveyed in trucks or boxes -to the beating-engine. The first thing to be attended to is the -removal of the last traces of chlorine from the pulp, which, if -not effectually done, would cause injury to the size, and also -corrode the strainer plates and wire-gauze of the paper-machine. -It is possible to wash out the chlorine by an abundant application -of pure water, but this method of removing the chlorine is very -tedious and occupies a long time, while it also involves the use -of enormous quantities of water--a serious consideration in some -mills; to this may be added the still more important fact that -by the method of washing out the chlorine a considerable loss of -fibre takes place. The plan most usually adopted is to neutralise -the chlorine left in the pulp by the application of suitable -chemical agents, whereby the chlorine is rendered inert. These -agents, technically termed "antichlors," are sometimes objected -to, however, although they are in themselves practically harmless -so far as their action upon cellulose is concerned. Mr. Arnot, -who has considered this subject very thoroughly, says:--"I do not -think there is much in this objection, as those agents that are -soluble pass through the wire of the machine almost completely, -while those that are insoluble are in the finest possible state of -division and pearly white. The chemical agent most largely used is -hyposulphite of soda, but hyposulphite of lime is also employed, -and those agents, known by the name of 'antichlor,' are put into -the engine in such a quantity as will ensure the neutralisation -of the whole of the chlorine. The products of the reaction, when -the soda salts are used, are chloride of sodium (common salt) and -sulphate of soda (Glauber's salt), and, when the lime salt is used, -chloride of calcium and sulphate of lime, the latter identical with -the pearl hardening so well known as a loading agent." From this -it will be seen that little or no harm can possibly occur either -to the fibre or the metal work of the machine by the employment of -the neutralising agents named, and when it is borne in mind that -the simple washing of the pulp would occupy the beating-engine -for a lengthened period and exhaust a considerable quantity of -water--which, as we have said, would in some mills be a serious -matter--the adoption of the neutralising method would undoubtedly -have the preference. - -The engine, being partly filled with water, is set in motion, and -the bleached half-stuff introduced in small quantities at a time, -each portion being allowed to become thoroughly mixed with the -water before the next batch is added. The charging of the beater -with half-stuff is kept up until the mass becomes so thick that it -will only just move in the trough under the action of the revolving -roll. If the beater is of the older type, portions of the pulp -are liable to lodge in corners, to remove which the "beater-man" -uses a wooden paddle, with which tool he also pushes the slowly -moving pulp in the direction of the roll, especially when the stiff -mass appears to move too slowly. At this stage the neutralisation -of the chlorine in the pulp is effected, which is done by adding -a solution of hyposulphite of soda, a little at a time, until -the liquor ceases to redden blue litmus paper, strips of which -should be dipped into the pulp every few minutes until the paper -persistently retains its blue colour. This operation should be -conducted with great care, so as to exactly neutralise the traces -of chlorine without adding an excess of the hyposulphite of soda. -Besides this salt, other substances are used as "antichlors," as, -for example, hyposulphite of lime, which is prepared by boiling -milk of lime (slacked lime made into a thin mixture with water) and -flour of sulphur in an iron vessel until the latter is dissolved, -when, after cooling and settling, the resulting solution, which -is of an orange-yellow colour, is ready for use. One great -objection to the use of hyposulphite of lime, however, is that when -decomposed by the chloride of lime remaining in the pulp sulphur -is set free, which, mingling with pulp, will impart to it a yellow -tint; besides this, in passing over the drying cylinders of the -machine the sulphur present in the paper may attract oxygen from -the air, converting it into sulphuric acid, which must inevitably -prove injurious to the manufactured paper. Sulphite of soda has -also been used as an antichlor, and is said to be preferable to -hyposulphite of soda,[21] inasmuch as the latter salt is liable to -decompose with the liberation of free acid, which is not the case -with the sulphite of soda. - - -=Test for Chlorine.=--Instead of relying solely upon the litmus -paper test when applying the antichlor, the following test for -chlorine may also be used with advantage:--Take 2 drachms (120 -grains) of white starch, and make it into a paste with a little -cold water; then pour over it about half a pint of boiling water, -stirring briskly; to this add 1 drachm of iodide of potassium, -and stir until dissolved and well incorporated with the starch -solution. The mixture is then to be allowed to cool, when it is -ready for use. A few drops of this mixture dropped upon a small -sample of the pulp will indicate if any chlorine be present by the -spot assuming a blue colour; if such be not the case, the pulp may -be considered free from chlorine. - -During the beating, the roll, which should make not less than 220 -revolutions per minute, is lowered, a little at a time, so that -the cutting edges of the bars and plate may be brought together -gradually and equally until the pulp is reduced to the desired -condition. The pulp is made long or short according to the quality -of paper to be produced; news papers, which require strength, are -made of long-fibred pulp, while writing paper, or paper of fine -texture, is made of shorter pulp. The stuff should be what is -called "mellowed" in the engine, which is effected by a judicious -working of the roll, not lowering it suddenly but gradually, and -not much at one time, on the plate, until the pulp attains the -fineness required. This is generally arrived at in about three and -a half to four hours, though sometimes the beating of pulp from -rags is continued for more than double that time. It should be -added that if the cutting edges of the roll and plate are brought -together suddenly and too closely, the fibre will be cut, and as a -consequence the paper produced will be tender. - -Esparto, which, in the process of boiling becomes reduced to -such a soft condition that the fibres may be readily separated -by the fingers, does not require such excessive beating as rags; -indeed, the perfect disintegration of the fibres of esparto is -practically accomplished in about half the time occupied by rags, -and often much less, but this of course depends upon the nature -of the esparto itself and upon the thoroughness of the boiling. -Wood pulps also require but moderate beating, since the process of -disintegration is generally pretty effectually accomplished by the -processes to which the raw material is subjected in the course of -manufacture into half-stuff, which is the condition in which this -paper material is furnished to the manufacturer. - - -=Blending.=--To produce papers of the different qualities required -by the trade, a system of blending is adopted, which may be -effected--(1) by mixing the materials in the raw state, or the -rags, previous to boiling; and (2) blending the half-stuff in -the beating-engine. The latter method, however, is generally -preferred. Sometimes, also, pulps of different character are beaten -separately and then mixed in the stuff-chests, where they are mixed -as thoroughly as possible before passing on to the machine, but -this method would be less likely to ensure a perfect mixture of -the respective pulps than would be effected with proper care in -the beater. The proportions of the several materials to be blended -is also a matter of important consideration. In blending esparto -with rag stuff, if the former be in excess it becomes reduced -to the proper condition before the latter is sufficiently fine, -which causes the rag fibre to appear in "knots and threads" in the -manufactured paper. But if the rag stuff be allowed to predominate, -the beating is conducted as though no esparto were present, by -which, while the rag stuff becomes reduced to the proper length of -fibre, the esparto, which is still further reduced, in mingling -with the longer fibre of the rags forms what is called a "close" -paper. Mr. Dunbar, in his useful little work, "The Practical -Paper-maker," furnishes a series of receipts for blending for -high-class papers, as also the proportions of colouring matter to -be used, which the reader will do well to consult. For news papers, -esparto and straw pulps are generally used, in varying proportions -according to the nature and quality of the esparto; these -proportions have to be regulated according to the judgment of the -paper-maker, and vary greatly at different mills. A large quantity -of sulphite and other wood pulps are also used, those coming from -Scandinavia and Germany being especially suited to the requirements -of the English manufacturer. Mechanical wood pulp is also used in -a moderate degree--sometimes up to 15 per cent., in some English -mills, but it is said that in Germany this paper stock is sometimes -used to the extent of 90 per cent. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -_LOADING.--SIZING.--COLOURING._ - - Loading.--Sizing.--French Method of Preparing Engine - Size.--Zinc Soaps in Sizing.--Colouring.--Animal or - Tub-Sizing.--Preparation of Animal Size.--American Method of - Sizing.--Machine-Sizing.--Double-sized Paper.--Mr. Wyatt's - Remarks on Sizing. - - -=Loading.=--The very finest qualities of paper are usually made -without the addition of any _loading_, as it is called, but for -most other papers more or less loading material is added, according -to the quality of paper to be produced. The loading material used -for ordinary qualities is kaolin, or china clay, and for the better -qualities sulphate of lime or _pearl hardening_, as it is termed in -the trade. China clay, as it occurs in commerce, is in the form of -soft lumps and powder, is nearly white, and when rubbed between the -finger and thumb should present no hard particles of gritty matter. -To prepare it for mixing with the pulp it is first worked up into a -thin cream with water, which is usually done in a vessel furnished -with an agitating arrangement by which the clay becomes intimately -mixed with the water. The cream is then strained through a fine -sieve to separate any impurities present, and is then allowed to -flow into the beating-engine containing the stuff while in motion, -by which it soon becomes mingled with the pulp. The proportion of -china clay or other loading material which is to be introduced into -the pulp depends upon the quality of the fibre and the requirements -of the manufacturer, some makers using less of the material than -others. From 3 per cent. to 10 or 15 per cent. appears to be about -the extreme range for employing the material as a necessary -ingredient, in the production of various classes of paper, above -which figures the addition of loading material may be considered as -an adulteration. Sometimes nearly twice the largest amount named is -employed, no doubt to meet the exigences of keen competition--from -foreign sources especially. - -One effect of the loading, whether it be china clay or sulphate -of lime, is to close the pores of the paper, whereby a smoother -surface is obtained, while at the same time, if the material has -been used in proportions suited to the quality of the fibre, and -not in immoderate excess, a stronger paper is produced. A species -of asbestos termed _agalite_ has been introduced as a loading -material, and since it has a fibrous texture, it blends with the -fibres of the pulp, forming, as it were, a vegeto-mineral paper. It -is stated that as much as 90 per cent. of the agalite used in the -beating-engine enters into the manufactured paper, while not much -more than half the china clay used is held by the pulp. - - -=Sizing.=--"Engine sizing," as it is termed, consists in adding -certain ingredients to the pulp while in the beating-engine. The -materials generally used are alum and resin soap, in proportions -suitable to the paper to be produced. Resin soap is formed by -boiling ordinary resin in a jacketed pan such as is used by -soapmakers for preparing small quantities of fancy or other soaps, -with a solution of soda crystals in the following proportions: -Resin, 16 lbs.; soda crystals dissolved in water, 8 lbs.; and the -boiling is kept up for about two hours, or until a soap is produced -which is perfectly soluble in water. The method of preparing this -soap as conducted at the soapworks has been described in the -author's work on soap-making,[22] p. 64, from which the following -abstract is taken: "Put into a pan capable of holding about 12 -gallons, 2¼ gallons of fresh caustic soda ley at 30° B. Apply -gentle heat, and when the ley begins to boil throw in, every few -minutes, in small quantities at a time, finely powdered and sifted -resin until 37 lbs. have been introduced. The mixture must be well -stirred the whole time to prevent the resin from 'clogging' and -adhering to the pan. It is important to moderate the heat, as the -resin soap has a great tendency to expand and an excess of heat -would cause it to boil over. The heat, however, must be kept to -near the boiling point, otherwise the mass will become thick and -of a very dark colour. When kept at near the boiling point it is -always clear and its colour of a reddish yellow. If, during the -boiling, the resin soap rises and threatens to overflow, the heat -must be checked by throwing in a little cold water, only using -sufficient to effect this object. It is absolutely necessary to -stir the mass continually, otherwise the resin will agglomerate in -masses and thus prevent the alkali from acting freely upon it. The -boiling takes about two hours, when the soap is run into an iron -frame and allowed to cool. It is very important that the resin used -is freed from particles of wood, straw, etc., for which purpose it -should be passed through a tolerably fine sieve." - -Respecting the preparation of resin soap, Davis says:--"The -proportion of resin used to each pound of soda ash varies in -different mills, 3, 4, or even 5 lbs. of resin being used to each -pound of soda ash. The proportion of resin, soda ash, and water, -can be best determined by practical experience, as no prescription -could be devised which would be suitable to every case." M. -d'Arcet, who modified the proportions recommended by M. Bracconot, -recommends for the preparation of resin soap-- - - Powdered resin 4·80 parts. - Soda crystals at 80° (French, alkalimeter) 2·22 " - Water 100 " - -Theoretically speaking, only 2·45 parts of alum would be required -to precipitate the resin; but the waters, which are almost always -calcareous, neutralise part of the alum. Crystals of soda are -much more expensive than soda ash, but on account of their greater -purity they are sometimes preferred to the latter. At the present -day the resin soap is preferably made by dissolving ordinary -resin with a solution of carbonate of soda under boiling heat in -a steam-jacketed boiler, the class of paper to be made governing -the quantity of resin to be employed. The boiling usually requires -from two to eight hours, according to the relative proportions of -soda ash and resin used--the greater the proportion of soda used -the less time is required for boiling--the process being completed -when a sample of the soap formed is completely soluble in water.... -About 3 lbs. of resin to 1 lb. of soda is the usual proportion. The -resin soap is cooled after boiling by running it into iron tanks, -where it is allowed to settle, the soap forming a dense syrup-like -mass, and the colouring matters and other admixtures of the resin -rising to the top are easily removed. It is important to run off -the mother liquor (ley) containing the excess of alkali, for when -the soap is used it consumes the alum to neutralise it." - -When the impurities and ley have been removed the soap is dissolved -in water, and if, from imperfect boiling, a portion of the resin -is found not to have been saponified, a small quantity of a strong -solution of soda crystals is added to the water used for dissolving -the soap. - -Where starch is used for stiffening purposes, the soap is mixed -with a quantity of starch paste in the proportion of 1½ part of -starch to 1 part of resin soap. Some manufacturers, Mr. Davis -states, mix the starch paste with the kaolin in lieu of mixing -it with the resin soap. In either case the materials should be -thoroughly strained before being added to the pulp. From 3 to 4 -lbs. of the mixture of resin soap and starch paste to each 100 -lbs. of dry pulp are about the proportions in which the size is -generally used, but the quantity added to the pulp in the beater -depends upon whether the paper is to be soft-sized or hard-sized. - -Sizing is chiefly applied to papers which are to be written upon -with ordinary inks, and also, with a few exceptions, to printing -papers, the object being to close the pores of the paper and render -it non-absorbent, by which the spreading or running of the ink is -effectually prevented. While the finest lines may be written upon a -well-sized paper (as ordinary writing paper, for example) without -spreading in the least degree, a similar stroke of the pen upon -blotting paper, tissue, or unsized printing paper would spread in -all directions, owing to the highly absorptive property of the -cellulose. - -The sizing of the pulp is conducted as follows:--After the -loading material has been introduced and well mixed, the resin -soap, previously dissolved in water, a little carbonate of soda -being sometimes added, is mixed with a paste of starch prepared -by dissolving starch in boiling water, and the mixture of soap -and starch is then passed through a fine sieve to keep back -any particles or lumps that may be present. The proportion of -the materials used in sizing vary at the different mills, each -manufacturer having formulæ of his own; about 1 part of resin size -to 3 of starch paste, and, say, from 9 to 12 lbs. of the mixture, -may be used for 300 lbs. of pulp; and, if preferred, the respective -ingredients may be put into the engine separately, a method adopted -at some mills. Some manufacturers of the finest papers, instead of -dissolving the starch in hot water, make it into a thin paste with -cold water, in which condition it is introduced into the pulp, the -object being to impart to the paper a particular feeling to the -touch which is not obtainable by other means. - -The mixture of resin size and starch paste, with or without the -addition of water, is added to the pulp in the beater, in which -the pulp is circulating, and the engine allowed to run until the -materials are well incorporated in the pulp. At this stage a -solution of alum (about 28 to 30 lbs. for 300 lbs. of pulp), or -of sulphate of alumina,[23] is introduced, which causes the resin -soap to become "separated," the sulphuric acid of the alum uniting -with the alkali of the soap and setting the resin and alumina -free in the form of minute particles; the resin in the subsequent -drying on the calenders becomes fused, as it were, and thus cements -the fibres and alumina together, at the same time rendering them -non-absorbent and improved in whiteness by the precipitated -alumina. Sometimes ordinary soap is added to the resin soap, which -is said to impart a higher finish to the paper in the operation of -calendering. - -The so-called "concentrated alum," which contains a higher -percentage of sulphate of alumina than the crystallised alum, -is considered the most economical in use, being proportionately -cheaper, and the variety known as "pearl alum" is specially -recommended. "Aluminous cake" is another preparation which has -found favour in many mills, but since it sometimes contains a -large excess of free sulphuric acid it requires to be used with -caution, since this acid, although it will brighten the colour of -some aniline dyes, will discharge the colour from others, while -at the same time it may injuriously affect the brass-wire cloths -of the paper machine. The alum solution should be prepared in a -lead-lined tank, fitted with a steam pipe for heating the contents -when required. - -The proportions of the materials used in sizing differ considerably -in different mills, but the following may be taken as an average -for common writing and printing papers:-- - - Per 100 parts of dried pulp 10 to 12 parts of resin. - " " " 20 " 30 " starch. - " " " 10 " 12 " alum. - -To the sizing solution is generally added from 30 to 50 parts -of kaolin. When a colour is present on which alum would have a -prejudicial effect this is usually replaced by about one-third of -its weight of sulphate of zinc. Many mineral substances have from -time to time been added to paper stock, principally to increase its -weight, and in 1858 Sholl took out a patent for adding carbonate -of lime, a substance which, however, had long been fraudulently -used in order to increase the weight, but he found it to have -the property of fixing the ink in the pores of the paper, thus -rendering it immovable. The only useful addition is kaolin, or some -similar aluminous compound, as it attaches itself to the fibre, -and, while giving the required opacity and a good surface, takes -both printing and writing ink well, and has the advantage, from a -manufacturer's point of view, of increasing the weight. It has been -proposed that small quantities of glycerine be added to the pulp, -in order to give the paper greater flexibility, and especially to -give copying-paper the quality of taking up colour readily.[24] - - -=French Method of Preparing Engine Size.=--Thirteen pails of water -are boiled in a copper-jacketed pan capable of holding about 150 -gallons; 90 lbs. of soda crystals are then introduced and allowed -to dissolve, when 200 lbs. of finely-powdered resin are gradually -introduced, with constant stirring, and the boiling is sustained -for about two hours after the last portion of resin has been added. -A further addition of water is now made by putting in five pails -of cold water, and the water is then boiled for an hour and a half -longer. The resin soap is then transferred to stock-chests, in -which it is allowed to remain for ten days or longer, fresh batches -being prepared in rotation, to meet the requirements of the mill. - -To determine whether an excess of resin soap or of alum has been -added to the pulp, red and blue litmus papers should be employed, -the former turning blue if an excess of resin soap be present, and -the latter red when alum or sulphate of alumina is in excess. For -uncoloured papers the aluminous material should be added until the -pulp becomes faintly acid, which will be indicated by the blue -litmus paper turning slightly red when immersed in the pulp. - -Besides resin soap, various substances have been proposed as sizing -materials, including wax dissolved in a strong solution of caustic -soda and precipitated with alum, but the cost would be an objection -to the use of this material except for the highest classes of -paper. It is stated that 12 lbs. of gum tragacanth to each 500 lbs. -of resin has been used in preparing some kinds of engine-sized -papers, and is said to impart to them an appearance equal to that -of tub-sized papers. - - -=Zinc Soaps in Sizing.=--According to a paragraph in the -_Papermakers' Monthly Journal_, a somewhat novel method of sizing -is employed in Germany, which consists in the precipitation in the -stock of zinc soaps. Cottonseed oil soap or Castille soap is worked -up in the engine with the stuff, and after it has become well -mixed with the pulp a solution of sulphate of zinc is added, which -results in the formation of a white and heavy zinc soap, which is -insoluble, and adheres well to the fibres. The weight and whiteness -of the zinc soap are the main points in favour of this method, -which is said to yield good results. - - -=Colouring.=--The pulp, after passing through the various processes -described, although apparently white, invariably presents a yellow -tinge when converted into paper. To obviate this it is usual to -"kill" the yellow tint by adding to the pulp small quantities of -blue and pink colouring matters. The blue colours generally used -are ultramarine, smalts, and various aniline blues, and the pinks -are usually prepared from cochineal, either in a liquid form or as -"lakes" (compounds of cochineal and alumina) or aniline dyes, the -former being preferable, as it is not injuriously affected by the -alum used in sizing. The ultramarine should be of good quality, -otherwise it will become decomposed, and its colouring property -destroyed by the action of the alum, but more especially so if -the alum contains an excess of free acid. Smalts blue, which is a -kind of coloured glass, is not affected by acids. In preparing the -colouring matters for mixing with the pulp they must first be mixed -with water, and the liquid should then be strained, to keep back -any solid particles that may be present in the material. Aniline -blues should be dissolved in hot water, or alcohol, and then -diluted. Samples of the pulp are examined from time to time until -the desired effect is produced, which the practised eye of the -beater-man can readily determine. - - -=Animal or Tub-sizing.=--Another process of sizing, termed -"animal-sizing," "tub-sizing," or "surface-sizing," is also -adopted in the manufacture of certain classes of paper, and is -either accomplished by hand or on the machine. The former method -having been elsewhere described (p. 132) we will now describe the -operation of sizing on the machine, to which the term tub-sizing is -also applied. The size employed, which is prepared from what are -called "glue pieces," or clippings of "limed" and unhaired skins of -animals, requires to be as colourless as possible, in order that -the colour of the paper may not be injuriously affected by it. - - -=Preparation of Animal Size.=--This operation is generally -conducted at the mill, the materials from which the size is -produced being the cuttings or parings of animal skins and hides, -or _pelts_, which have undergone the processes of "liming" and -unhairing preparatory to being tanned. The cuttings, or _pates_, -commonly called "glue pieces," are first soaked in a mixture of -lime and water, placed in large tubs for several days, after which -they are put into a wooden cylinder, or drum, five or six feet -in diameter, and about ten feet in length, which revolves upon -a horizontal shaft, which, being hollow, admits the passage of -water to the interior of the drum. The drum is perforated, and -revolves in a large tank, while a continuous stream of water is -allowed to pass through it, and the dirty water escapes through -the perforations in the drum. When the cuttings are sufficiently -cleansed in this way, they are transferred to an iron copper, -furnished with a false bottom and steam-pipe, or a jacketed pan. -The cuttings are next covered with water; steam is then turned -on, and the liquid brought to a temperature below boiling point, -or say, about 180° to 190° F., it being very important that the -liquid should not actually boil. This operation is carefully kept -up for twelve to sixteen hours, according to the nature of the -cuttings, by which time all the material excepting any membranous -or fatty matters that may be present, will have become dissolved -and a solution of gelatine obtained. The liquor is then allowed -to settle for a short time to allow fatty matters to rise to the -surface and membranous substances to deposit, and the fatty matters -must afterwards be carefully removed by skimming. The liquor should -next be strained to separate any floating particles of a membranous -character. Sometimes the gelatine solution is clarified by adding -a small quantity of powdered lime, which is thoroughly mixed by -stirring, after which it is allowed to rest. When it is found that -the impurities and lime deposit too slowly, a little weak sulphuric -acid is added, which, forming an insoluble sulphate of lime, the -solid matters quickly subside, leaving the liquor quite clear. -The solution is next filtered through felt, and is afterwards -treated with a solution of alum, which at first causes the liquid -to thicken and become nearly solid, but it becomes fluid again, -however, on the addition of more alum solution. When this condition -is finally attained, the liquid is ready for use in the process of -sizing. The addition of the alum (which should not contain any free -acid) to the gelatine greatly improves its sizing property, besides -preserving it from decomposition. The treatment of the glue pieces -for the purpose of obtaining gelatine solutions is fully described -in the author's work on "Leather Manufacture," p. 401.[25] - - -=American Method of Sizing.=--Another method of preparing size, -and which is adopted in America, is the following:--In large paper -mills the size is generally prepared in a room devoted to the -purpose, and is commonly situated near the machine. The finest -grades of light hide and skin clippings are used for No. 1 letter -papers, but less costly stock is employed for the lower grades of -animal-sized papers. To preserve the glue pieces the tanners and -tawers macerate the clippings in milk of lime and afterwards dry -them. As the clippings require to be freed from the lime, the first -treatment they receive at the paper-mill is to put them in large -wooden tubs partly filled with water, in which they are allowed to -soak for several days. They are afterwards more perfectly cleansed -by means of a drum-washer, such as we have before described. Fresh -hide and skin clippings, that is, those which have not been limed -and dried at the tanneries, and which are occasionally purchased -by the paper manufacturers, require to be used as soon as possible -after they arrive at the mill as they readily decompose, and are -placed in tubs partly filled with water, in which 2 per cent. by -weight of caustic lime has been dissolved. The pieces, if from -calfskins, are allowed to remain in the lime bath for ten to -fifteen days, clippings of sheepskins fifteen to twenty days, and -trimmings from heavy hides, as ox, etc., twenty-five to thirty -days, the milk of lime being renewed once or twice a week, and -the material well stirred from time to time. The glue-stock, as -it is sometimes termed, is afterwards thoroughly washed in the -drum-washer, and when this operation is complete the material is -spread out in the yard to drain, and when sufficiently dried is -ready for boiling, or may be stored until required for use. - -To prepare size from the material treated as described, it is -placed in a boiler of cast or wrought-iron or copper, furnished -with a perforated false bottom, and capable of holding from 100 -to 400 lbs. of the raw material, according to the requirements of -the mill. Several such boilers may be placed close to each other. -At the bottom of the boiler is a stop-cock for drawing off the -gelatine solution when required. When the requisite charge of -glue-stock has been introduced into the boiler, water is poured -over it and steam turned on, which passes through a pipe fixed -beneath the false bottom, and care is taken that the temperature -of the contents of the boiler should not exceed 200° F., which -heat is kept up for ten to eighteen hours, according to the -nature of the materials treated. The gelatine solution is drawn -off from the boiler as it is formed, into wooden tubs, and at the -same time carefully strained to remove membranous matters and -suchlike impurities. Several boilings are made from the same batch -of glue-stock, and all the solutions are afterwards mixed together -in the receiving tubs, and a solution of alum is added in such -proportions as to be recognised by tasting the liquor. One object -in adding the alum being to prevent the gelatine from decomposing, -more of this substance should be added in warm than in cold weather. - -When the solutions are cool they are ready for use, and the -gelatine is removed from the receiving tubs and dissolved in a -separate tub as required for use, the dissolving tub being provided -with a steam-pipe. The proportion of water--which should only be -lukewarm--used in dissolving the gelatine varies from a quarter to -half the bulk of the latter, the nature of the fibre and thickness -of the paper regulating the proportion of water to gelatine, the -strength of the size liquors being greater for thin papers and weak -fibres than for thick papers and strong fibres. - -The operation of sizing is considered one of the most difficult -and uncertain with which the paper-maker has to deal, since the -material (gelatine) is greatly influenced by the conditions of the -atmosphere, both as regards its temperature and humidity, while -the temperature of the liquid size itself has also an important -influence on the success of the operation. The condition of -the paper, again, also affects the result, for if it be highly -porous it will probably be weak, and consequently there may be -considerable waste during the process of sizing from the necessary -handling it is subjected to; moreover, should the paper have -been blued with ultramarine, a strongly offensive odour is often -imparted to it; this, however, may be obviated by employing fresh -size and drying the paper as completely as possible. There are two -systems of animal-sizing employed at the mill, namely, hand-sizing -and machine-sizing, which is also called tub-sizing, the former -being applied to papers of the finest quality. Papers that have -been made by the machine, after being cut into sheets, are -hand-sized, as described in the next chapter. - - -=Machine-Sizing.=--The lower-priced papers, to be machine-sized, -are first partly dried over a few cylinders, after which the paper -passes through a tank containing liquid size, from whence it passes -between two rollers, which squeeze out the superfluous size; it is -then wound on to a reel on which it remains some time to enable the -size to thoroughly permeate the paper, after which it is wound on -to another reel, and from thence it passes over a series of wooden -drums or cylinders, each of which is furnished with a revolving -fan; by this means the paper becomes dried slowly, whereby a more -perfect sizing of the material is effected. - - -=Double-Sized Paper.=--This term is applied to paper which, after -being sized in the engine in the usual way, is afterwards "surface -sized," as it is called, with animal size in the manner described. - -Respecting the drying of paper after it has been tub-sized there -seems to be some difference of opinion as to whether it is best -to hang it in a loft to dry or to dry it over the cylinders of a -drying machine. Upon this point the New York _Paper Trade Journal_ -makes the following remarks:--"When the paper is passed through -the size-tub, it is again wet; the fibres expand, and their hold -on each other is relaxed. Now it must make a difference to the -subsequent strength and quality of this paper whether it be hung -up in a loft to dry or run over a drying machine. If it is hung in -the loft no strain is put upon it and the fibres are at liberty -to shrink, or slowly contract, in all directions; whereas if it -is run over a drying machine, consisting of from 50 to 100 reels, -the longitudinal strain prevents the fibres from shrinking and -reassuming their normal position in that direction. Attempts have -been made to obviate this defect by regulating the speed of each -section of the machine in such a manner as to allow for the -shrinking, but this only remedies the evil by preventing the paper -from breaking as it travels over the machine. Everything else being -equal, it would seem that loft-dried paper must be superior to that -dried over the drying machine. Our home manufacturers endorse this -view, inasmuch as they continue to prefer the system of loft-drying -to the less expensive machine methods." - - -=Mr. Wyatt's Remarks on Sizing.=--Mr. James W. Wyatt, in a -paper on the "Art of Paper-making,"[26] makes the following -observations on engine-sizing and animal-sizing which will be -read with interest:--"Engine-sizing renders the paper fully as -non-absorbent as animal size. The latter penetrates the sheets only -slightly and forms a coating or skin on each surface, whereas the -engine size surrounds each fibre and impregnates the whole mass. -Surface-sizing, however, produces a stronger, firmer sheet, and is -smoother for the pen to travel over; the manufacturer also gets -the benefit in the price of the paper of the additional weight of -the size, amounting to 7 per cent. on the average. On the other -hand, as the animal size is mostly a skin on the surface, if the -coating be broken anywhere by the use of a knife in scratching, -the paper will only imperfectly resist ink in that place, a great -disadvantage for account and office-books and ledgers. Engine-sized -paper is much cheaper to produce than animal sized, and is -therefore used principally for the lower qualities of writings and -for almost all kinds of printings where firmness and smoothness is -not so much a desideratum. Most tub-sized papers have a certain -portion of engine size mixed with the pulp. This not only ensures -the thorough sizing of the sheet, but also is a measure of economy -in reducing the absorbing power of the paper for the animal -size. Papers for ledgers and office-work are best given an extra -proportion of engine size to ensure their ink-resisting properties, -and they are also sized by hand in animal size and loft dried." The -following rough estimate of the comparative cost in materials and -wages of engine-sizing and animal-sizing paper may be of interest: - - Engine-sizing, per 20,000 lbs.:-- - - £ s. d. - Materials 5 2 0 - Wages 0 12 6 - ---------- d. - Total £5 14 6 Cost per lb. = 0·068 - ========== - - Animal-sizing, per 20,000 lbs.:-- - - £ s. d. - Materials 36 0 0 - Wages 4 10 0 - ----------- - Total £40 10 0 - =========== - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -_MAKING PAPER BY HAND._ - - The Vat and Mould.--Making the Paper.--Sizing and Finishing. - - -Under the old system of making paper by hand, the rags were -reduced to a fine state of division by a process of _retting_, or -slow putrefaction. The rags were first washed in water, and then -piled in heaps, in which condition they were allowed to remain -until they became tender, that is, readily pulled asunder by the -fingers. During the decomposition the rags not unfrequently became -rotten in some portions of the heaps, thus involving considerable -loss of fibre. The rags were next placed in a strong chest, in -which iron-shod stamping rods were fitted, and these by their -continued action gradually reduced them to a pulp. The stampers -were eventually superseded by the beating-engine, the invention -of a Dutchman, which received and still retains the name of the -"Hollander." Other machines, as the duster, washing and breaking -engines, and the beating engine, have entirely taken the place of -the older system, which required the work of forty pairs of stamps -for twenty-four hours to produce one hundredweight of paper. - - -=The Vat and Mould.=--The pulp being prepared, is conveyed from -the beaters to the working vat, where it is diluted with water. -The vat is a wooden or stone vessel about 5 feet square and 4 -feet deep, being somewhat wider at the top than at the bottom. A -steam-pipe is supplied to the vat, so that the pulp and water may -be heated to a convenient temperature for working, and an agitator -is also furnished to keep the pulp and water uniformly mixed. The -mould in which the pulp is raised from the vat to form a sheet of -paper, consists of a wooden frame, neatly joined at the corners, -with wooden bars running across, about 1½ inch apart, and flush -with the top edge of the frame. Across these again, in the length -of the frame, wires are laid, about fifteen or twenty in an inch, -which are placed parallel to each other. A series of stronger -wires are laid along the cross-bars, to which the other wires are -fastened; these give to what is termed "laid" paper, the ribbed or -"water-marked" lines noticeable in hand-made paper. Upon the mould -is fitted a movable frame, called the _deckle_ or _deckel_, which -must fit very neatly or the edges of the paper will be rough. The -mould and deckle form together a kind of shallow tray of wire. -Sometimes the mould is divided by narrow ribs of wood, so that two -or four sheets of paper may be made in one operation. Connected -with the vat is a slanting board, called the _bridge_, with copper -fillets attached lengthwise upon it, so that the mould may slide -easily along the bridge. - - -=Making the Paper.=--When preparing for work, the vat-man stands -on one side of the vat, and has on his left hand a smaller board, -one end of which is fastened to the bridge, while the other rests -on the side of the vat. An assistant, called the _coucher_, is at -hand, whose duty it is to handle the frames or moulds containing -the pulp after they have passed through the hands of the vat-man or -maker. The latter now takes in his hand a mould, and lays it upon -the deckle; he then dips the mould, with its deckle in its proper -place, into the vat of agitated pulp, and lifts up as much of the -pulp as will form a sheet of paper. This, as will be readily seen, -requires the greatest dexterity, since the workman has nothing -but his sense of feeling to guide him. It is said, however, that -practice gives him such a nicety of feeling in this respect that -he can make sheet after sheet of the largest-sized drawing papers -with a difference in weight of not more than one or two grains in -any two of them. Great skill is also required to hold the mould in -a perfectly horizontal position, otherwise during the felting and -settling of the pulp the sheet of paper would be thicker on one -part than another. The mould being held lengthwise, that is, with -the long parallel wires running from right to left hand, he gives -the mould a gentle shake from his chest forward and back again, -which is called the _fore-right shake_; this shake takes place -across the wires, not in the direction of their length. He next -gives a shake from right to left, and back again, the respective -movements thus propelling the pulp in four directions. The vat-man -now pushes the mould along the small board on his left, and removes -the deckle, which he connects to another mould and proceeds to -form another sheet of paper, and so on. The coucher, taking the -first mould in hand, turns it upside down upon a piece of woollen -felt-cloth, then removing the mould, he takes another piece of -felt and lays it over the sheet and returns the mould by pushing -it along the bridge to the vat-man, when he receives in return a -second mould to be treated as before. - -In the above way felts and paper are laid alternately until a -pile of six or eight quires is produced, which is afterwards -submitted to pressure in a very powerful press. When sufficiently -compressed, the machine is relaxed, and the felts are then drawn -out, on the opposite side, by an operative, called a _layer_, who -places the felts one by one upon a board, and the sheets of paper -upon another board. The coucher then uses the felts again for -further operations. Two men and a boy only are employed in this -part of the work. In the evening all the paper made during the -day is put into another press, and subjected to moderate pressure -to obliterate the felt marks and expel a further portion of the -water. On the following day the paper is all separated, which is -called _parting_, again pressed, and is then transferred to the -drying-loft. The drying is effected by suspending the sheets of -paper upon a series of ropes, attached to wooden supports; ropes -of cow-hair are used for the purpose, as this material does not -stain the paper. - - -=Sizing and Finishing.=--When the paper is dry, it is taken down -and laid carefully in heaps ready for sizing, which is the next -operation to which the paper is subjected. The preparation of the -size from animal skins, etc., is described in Chapter XI. When -preparing to size the paper, the workman takes several quires of -the paper, and carefully spreads the sheets out in the liquid size, -which is placed in a large tub, taking care that each sheet is -uniformly moistened before introducing the next. The superfluous -size is afterwards pressed out, and the paper then "parted" into -separate sheets, which are again subjected to pressure, and finally -transferred to the drying-room, where they are allowed to dry -slowly. When dry, the paper is conveyed to the finishing-house, to -be again pressed and looked over by women, who, being furnished -with small knives, pick out knots and other imperfections and -separate the perfect from the imperfect sheets. The paper is now -again pressed, and then handed to the finisher, to be counted into -reams and packed, the reams being afterwards pressed and finally -tied up and conveyed to the warehouse for sale. When the paper is -required to be hot-pressed, this is done by placing each sheet of -paper alternately between two smoothed sheets of pasteboard, and -between each group of fifty pasteboards is placed a hot plate of -iron, and the pile then submitted to heavy pressure, whereby the -surface of writing paper acquires a fine, smooth surface. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -_MAKING PAPER BY MACHINERY._ - - The Fourdrinier Machine.--Bertrams' Large Paper - Machine.--Stuff Chests.--Strainers.--Revolving Strainer - and Knotter.--Self-cleansing Strainer.--Roeckner's Pulp - Strainers.--The Machine Wire and its Accessories.--Conical - Pulp Saver.--The Dandy Roll.--Water Marking.--De la Rue's - Improvements in Water-marks.--Suction Boxes.--Couch Rolls.-- - Press Rolls.--Drying Cylinders.--Smoothing Rolls.--Single - Cylinder Machine. - - -=The Fourdrinier Machine.=--It is just ninety years since Louis -Robert, a Frenchman, devised a machine for making a continuous -web of paper on an endless wire-cloth, to which rotary motion was -applied, thus producing a sheet of paper of indefinite length. -The idea was subsequently improved upon by Messrs. Fourdrinier, -who adopted and improved upon M. Robert's machine, and with the -valuable aid of Mr. Bryan Donkin, a young and gifted machinist, -in the employ of Mr. Hall, engineer, of Dartford, constructed a -self-acting machine, or working model, in 1803, which, from its -effectiveness and general excellency of workmanship, created -at the time a profound sensation. This machine was erected at -Frogmore, Hertfordshire; and in 1804 a second machine was made -and put up at Two-Waters, Herts, which was completely successful, -and the manufacture of continuous paper became one of the most -useful and important inventions of the age. From that period the -"Fourdrinier," with some important improvements introduced by Mr. -Donkin, gradually, but surely, became established as an absolutely -indispensable machine in every paper-mill all over the world. -Although the machine has been still further improved from time to -time, those of recent construction differ but little in principle -from the original machine. An illustration of the machine is shown -in Fig. 25, the detailed parts of which are expressed on the -engraving. - - -=Bertrams' Large Paper Machine.=--The principal aim in the -construction of the paper-making machine has been to imitate, and -in some particulars to improve, the operations involved in the -art of making paper by hand, but apart from the greater width -and length of paper which can be produced by the machine, the -increased rapidity of its powers of production are so great that -one machine can turn out as much paper in three minutes as could -be accomplished by the older system in as many weeks. The drawing -represents the modern paper-machine as manufactured by Bertrams, -Limited, who supplied one of these machines to Mr. Edward Lloyd, -for the _Daily Chronicle_ Mill, at Sittingbourne, which runs a -wire 40 feet long by 126 inches wide, this being, we believe, the -largest and widest paper-machine in the world. It is provided with -20 cylinders, chilled calenders, double-drum reeling motion, with -slitting appliance for preparing webs to go direct to the printer's -office without the assistance of a re-reeling machine, and is -driven by a pair of coupled condensing steam-engines. On our recent -visit to Mr. Lloyd's mill we were much struck with the excellent -working of this splendid machine. - -In the illustration, as will be seen, there are two sets of -drying cylinders, while small cylinders, or felt drying-rolls, -from 16 to 24 inches in diameter, are introduced to the felts of -the cylinders, before the smoothing-rolls, which discharge the -moisture with which the felts are impregnated from the damp paper, -whereby a considerable saving in felts is effected. Messrs. Bertram -state that the highest speed yet attained has been by their own -machinery, and is 270 feet of paper per minute. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.] - -The progress of the pulp after it leaves the beating-engines for -conversion into paper may be described as follows:--The valve at -the bottom of the beating-engine is opened, when the pulp flows -through a pipe into the stuff-chests, which are generally situated -below the level of the engines. The beaters are then rinsed with -clean water to remove any pulp that may still cling to them, the -rinsing water passing also into the stuff-chests. - - -=Stuff-chests.=--These are large vessels of a cylindrical form, so -that the pulp may have no corners to lodge in, and are generally -made of wood, though sometimes they are made of cast-iron plates -bolted together. The chests are of various dimensions, according -to the requirements of the mill, being usually about 12 feet in -diameter and 6 feet deep, having a capacity for 1,000 to 1,200 -lbs. of stuff. To keep the pulp well mixed in the stuff-chest, -of which two are usually employed for each machine, a vertical -shaft, carrying two horizontal arms, each extending nearly across -the interior of the chest, are provided, which are only allowed -to revolve at a moderate speed, that is, about two or three -revolutions per minute, otherwise the pulp would be liable to work -up into knots, and thus form a defective paper. Motion being given -to the shaft, the rotating arms keep the pulp and water uniformly -mixed, at the same time preventing the pulp from sinking to the -bottom of the stuff-chest. - -The pulp is next transferred to a regulating box, or "supply box," -by means of a pump called the _stuff-pump_. The regulating-box, -which has the effect of keeping a regular supply of pulp in the -machine, is provided with two overflow pipes, which carry back to -the stuff-chests any superfluous pulp that may have entered them, -by which the stuff in the regulating-box is kept at a uniform -level, while the machine is supplied with a regular and uniform -quantity of the diluted pulp. The stuff-pump conveys the pulp -through a valve in the bottom of the regulating-box in a greater -quantity than is actually required, the superfluity returning -to the stuff-chests by the overflow pipes; thus the supply-box, -being always kept full, furnishes a regular and uniform supply -of pulp to the sand-tables, or sand-traps as they are sometimes -called. _Sand-tables_ are large wooden troughs, varying in size at -different mills, but Mr. Dunbar gives the following proportions for -a first-class sand-trap; namely, 14 feet long by 8 feet wide, and 8 -inches deep. The bottom of the trap is covered with felt, sometimes -old first-press felt being used, and is divided into several -compartments by thin bars of lead or iron, or strips of wood, which -keep the felt in position, and also retain any particles of sand -or other heavy solid matter that may be accidentally present in -the pulp. For the purpose of diluting the pulp for the machine, -there is, attached to the inlet of the sand-traps, a box with -two supply-taps, one for the delivery of pulp, and the other for -water; and these being turned on, the pulp and water flow over the -sand-traps, and the diluted pulp then falls into the strainers, -which, while allowing the fine pulp to pass freely, keep back all -lumps of twisted fibre, and particles of unboiled fibre, which -latter, if not removed, would appear as specks on the surface of -the finished paper. - - -=The Strainers= are formed of brass or bronze plates, in which are -cut a very large number of narrow slits, which gradually widen -downward, so as to prevent the pulp from lodging. Each plate has -about 510 slits, and several plates, connected together by bolts, -constitutes the complete strainer. When in use, the strainer -receives a jogging motion, which is communicated to it by means of -small ratchet wheels keyed on shafts passing beneath the machine; -this causes the fibres to pass more freely through the slits. There -are many different forms of strainers, which have been the subject -of numerous patents. It will be sufficient, however, to give one or -two examples of improved strainers which have been more recently -adopted by manufacturers. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.] - -=Revolving Strainer and Knotter.=--The revolving strainer, which -was invented by the late senior partner in the firm of Messrs. G. -and W. Bertram (now Bertrams, Limited), has since been extensively -adopted, and the present firm have introduced a patent knotter -in conjunction with the apparatus, the complete arrangement of -which is shown in Fig. 26. The standard size for these revolving -strainers is 7 feet long by 18⅜ inches wide on each side of the -four surfaces. The vats are of cast iron, and the apparatus is -supplied with driving gear, bellows, regulating boxes and spouts, -as necessary. The firm also supply these strainers with White's -patent discs, and Annandale and Watson's arrangement. A A are two -revolving strainers, as applied to the paper-machine, showing -gearing for strainers and bellows. B is the patent knotter as used -for two strainers. C is the counter-shaft overhead. D D is the back -shaft of the machine, and E E the wire of the paper-machine. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.] - -=Self-cleansing Strainer.=--The same firm also introduced this -form of strainer, an illustration of which is given in Fig. 27. The -action of the strainer is described as follows:-- - -The pulp flows on to the strainer at A, and passes away through -the pipes B B. At C is a valve for the discharge of waste pulp. -The strainer plates have an inclination of about 1 inch in the -direction of their length, and in those which are nearest to A, -where the pulp enters, the slits are wider, the knots being pushed -forward by the energy of the flow. The vacuum pumps, D D, are -worked from the shaft E. The tubes F F are for supplying water to -the plates, by which the coarser particles of the pulp are pushed -forward, and the slits are thus kept clean. The strainer will pass -from 18 to 20 tons of the finest paper per week. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.] - -=Roeckner's Pulp Strainers.=--This invention consists in -constructing boxes, with one or both ends open, forming the -strainers, fixed, or to slide in or out, so as to be readily -cleaned. One or more fans are fitted in these boxes, and are put in -motion from the outside, so as to cause what is called "suction" -through the strainers. One or a number of such boxes are fixed -into a vat, the open ends discharging the pulp which has passed -through the strainers to the paper-machine, and can be so arranged -that all the fans are worked on one shaft. The vat may be divided -into compartments, so that the stuff flows from one to the other. -Instead of boxes, the strainers may be formed of tubes, in which -suitable slits or perforations have been provided. The tubes will -be perfectly closed at one end, and the strained pulp, after -passing through them, will be delivered to the paper-machine from -their open ends, which may fit into a ring, so that when cleaning -is required they may be easily lifted out or in. The suction is -provided inside these tubes by the fans, which are oscillated by -suitable gear from the outside of the vat. The strainers may, -instead of being stationary, be attached to the fans and oscillate -with them, in which case the open ends would have to be attached -to the vat by an indiarubber or cloth ring, or the strainers may -oscillate whilst the fans are stationary. Any number of these -strainers may be fixed into vats, disposed vertically or otherwise. -In the vat A, Fig. 28, which receives the pulp to be strained, -are several tubes, _p p p_, with one end open, having slits in -them similar to strainer plates. Inside of these are two, three, -or more plates, _f f f_, Fig. 29, running the full length of the -tube fixed to the shafts, _s s s_, and to the sides of the tubes, -which serve as fans, besides giving strength to the tubes. The -shafts _s s s_ are carried in bearings at each end, and have each -one end projecting through, upon which are keyed levers, _h h -h_, which, being connected to a rod _r_, worked by an eccentric, -_e_, at the end, gives an oscillating motion to the tubes and -fans. Any number of tubes may be in the vat, and may either work -separately or divided. With several tubes it is preferable to have -them arranged as shown in the drawing by division plate _d_, so -that the accumulated "knots," &c., may flow finally into the end -compartment (which will form an auxiliary strainer), and may be -mixed with more water, so that the fine pulp still contained in -the stuff can flow away through the slits and the knots, &c., be -taken out when necessary. The tubes should be placed so far apart -that a workman can get his hand between. The closed ends work free -in the stuff, while the open ends run through indiarubber sheet or -other material, fitted so well to the tube that the fibre can only -get through the slits of the tube to flow on to the paper-machine -through the channel at side by the sluice _v_. The arrows indicate -the direction of the flow of pulp. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.] - -Mr. Dunbar says, "the straining power necessary to pass and clean -pulp in an efficient manner for 25 tons of finished paper per week -is two revolving strainers, consisting of four rows of plates, or 7 -feet by 18 inches of straining surface on each of the four sides, -the plates being cut No. 2½ Watson's gauge." - -After passing through the strainers the pulp should be absolutely -free from knots or objectionable particles of any kind, and in a -proper condition for conversion into paper. - - -=The Machine Wire and its Accessories.=--On leaving the strainers -the pulp passes into a vat, in which is a horizontal agitator, -which causes the pulp and water to become well mixed, and ready to -flow on to the endless wire-cloth of the machine. The wire-cloth is -made of exceedingly fine wire, the meshes ranging from 60 threads -and upwards to the inch, there being sometimes as many as 1,900 -holes per square inch, but the meshes usually employed run from -2,000 to 6,000 per square inch. The ends of the cloth are united by -being sewn with very fine wire. The width of the wire-cloth varies -considerably, the greatest width being, we believe, that supplied -for the large machine at Mr. Edward Lloyd's mill at Sittingbourne, -which is 126 inches. The length of the wire-cloth is generally from -35 to 40 feet, the latter being considered preferable. Beneath the -wire is placed a shallow box called the "save-all," which receives -the water as it flows through the wire cloth from the pulp. In -order to effect a further saving of pulp which escapes through the -meshes of the wire-cloth, a machine called a "pulp-saver" is used -at some mills, through which the backwater, as it leaves the box or -save-all referred to, is passed. - -The wire-cloth is supported by a series of brass tube rolls, which -are so placed as to render the layer of pulp on the wire absolutely -uniform, by which a regular thickness of the finished paper is -ensured. The wire is attached to a malleable iron frame, having a -sole-plate of cast iron, and carries a brass or copper breast-roll, -18 inches in diameter, a guide-roll 7 inches in diameter, and four -brass or copper rolls 5 inches in diameter under the wire, with -shafts extending through the rolls, and furnished with brass bushes -and brackets, and a self-acting guide upon the 7-inch guide-roll. -The tube-rolls or "carrying tubes" are carried upon brass bearings. -Attached to the sole-plate of the wire framing are three cast-iron -stands on each side for supporting the save-all beneath the wire. -To regulate the width of the paper there is on the top of the wire -a set of brass "deckles," carried on a brass frame passing over the -first suction box, of which there are two, and supported on the -wire frame by iron studs fixed in the frame. At each end of the -deckle-frame is a pulley for carrying the deckle-strap, with three -similar pulleys for expanding it. The deckle-frame is furnished -with two endless straps of india-rubber, these straps keeping the -pulp to the width required for forming ledges at the sides of the -web. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.] - -=The Conical Pulp-saver=, which is shown in Fig. 31, was invented -by the late Mr. George Bertram and Mr. Paisley, and is manufactured -by Bertrams, Limited. Its use is to extract fibres from the washing -water before going into the river or otherwise. For the water -from the drum-washer, washing and beating engines, and for the -water from the paper-making machine, save-all, &c., it has proved -itself of great utility. It is simple in construction, small in -cost, takes up little room, and is easily repaired. When placed to -receive the washings from the beaters or paper-machine, the pulp -saved, if kept clean, can always be re-used. A is a conical drum -which is covered with wire-cloth, and it is made to revolve slowly -by suitable gearing. The water enters by the pipe B, which is -perforated, as shown, and passes through the meshes of the gauze, -while the pulp gradually finds its way to the wider end of the -drum, where it escapes into the box C, and can be conveyed again to -the beating-engines. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.] - -=The Dandy-roll.=--When it is required to produce a design or name, -termed a _water-mark_, upon the paper, this is done by means of a -roll called the _dandy-roll_, which consists of a skeleton roll -covered with wire-cloth, upon which the design is worked by means -of very fine wire. If the paper is required to be alike on both -sides, without any specific pattern or name upon it, the roll is -simply covered with wire-cloth, the impressions from which upon the -moist pulp correspond with those of the machine-wire on the under -surface. By this means paper known as "wove" paper is produced. A -dandy-roll of this character is shown in Fig. 32. "Laid" paper, -as it is termed, is distinguished by a dandy-roll having a series -of equidistant transverse wires on the upper surface of the wire -cylinder, as shown in Fig. 33, the effect of which is to produce -parallel lines on the paper, caused by the pulp being thinner where -the moist paper is impressed by the raised wires, which renders the -lines more transparent than the rest of the paper. The dandy-roll, -which is usually about 7 inches in diameter, corresponds in length -to the width of wire on which it rests, and is placed over the -wire-cloth between the suction-boxes. The journals of the roll -turn in slits in two vertical stands, one behind the machine frame -and the other in front of it. The roll, however, rests with its -whole weight on the wire, and revolves by the progressive motion -of the wire. The stands which support the roll prevent it from -being influenced by the lateral motion of the wire. By thus running -over the surface of the pulp when the wire is in motion, this roll -presses out a considerable quantity of water, at the same time -rendering the paper closer and finer in texture. Dandy-rolls of -various lengths, and bearing different designs or patterns, are -kept at the paper-mills, and great care is exercised to preserve -them from injury. - - -=Water-Marking.=--Dr. Ure describes the following processes -for producing a design for a line water-mark:--1. The design -is engraved on some yielding surface in the same way as on a -copper-plate, and afterwards, by immersing the plate in a solution -of copper sulphate, and producing an electrotype in the usual -way, by which all the interstices become so filled up as to give -a casting of pure copper. This casting, on being removed from the -sulphate bath, is ready for attaching to the wire gauze of the -dandy-roll. 2. The design is first engraved on a steel die, the -parts required to give the greatest effect being cut deepest; the -die, after being hardened, is forced by a steam hammer into some -yielding material, such as copper, and all of this metal which -remains above the plain surface of the steel is subsequently -removed by suitable means; the portion representing the design -being left untouched would then be attached to the wire-gauze -as before. Light and shade can be communicated to the mark by a -modification of the above process, for which purpose an electrotype -of the raised surface of a design is first taken, and afterwards -a second electrotype from this latter, which consequently will be -identical with the original surface. These two are then mounted -on lead or gutta-percha, and employed as dies to give impression -to fine copper-wire gauze, which is then employed as a mould. Thus -absolute uniformity, such as could not be attained by the old -system of stitching wires together, is now attained in bank-notes -by the adoption of the above method. It may be mentioned that when -the moulds were formed by stitching the fine wires together to -form a design, no less than 1,056 wires, with 67,584 twists, and -involving some hundreds of thousands of stitches, were required to -form a pair of £5 note moulds, and it was obviously impossible that -the designs should remain absolutely identical. - -Sometimes water-marks are produced by depressing the surface of the -dandy-roll in the form of a design, which causes the paper to be -thicker where the design is than in the rest of the sheet of paper. -This modification was invented by Dr. De la Rue. - - -=De La Rue's Improvements in Water-marks.=--By one method, patented -in 1869, dandy-rolls, having a surface of embossed wire-gauze, -are used; the indentations in the gauze are inwards, causing a -thickening of the paper where they are brought in contact with -it. These thickenings correspond in form to the configuration of -the design or water-mark. The inventor has also affixed wire to -the surface of such dandy-rolls so as to form projections, in -order to thin the paper where the projections come in contact with -it, by which means light lines are obtained in the water-mark, -strengthening the effect of the thickened opaque design. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.] - -By another patent, dated May, 1884, No. 8348, the inventor forms -the surface of the dandy-roll of wire-gauze embossed in such a -manner that parts of the surface of the gauze, corresponding to -the configuration of the design of the water-mark, are raised, -and project out from the general surface, and other parts -corresponding to the line shading of the design are depressed -below the level of the general surface. The accompanying drawing, -Fig. 34, shows diagrammatically, and greatly enlarged, a section -of a portion of the surface of a dandy-roll made in accordance -with this invention. _a_ represents the section of a ridge or -projection raised on the surface of the gauze; _b_ represents the -section of a groove or depression in the wire-gauze, which, with -other similar grooves, serves to produce an opaque shading to the -design. _c_ is an auxiliary ridge or projection, serving to define -the shading line, and to intensify it by driving the pulp into -the groove or depression _b_. Further effects may be obtained by -attaching wires to the dandy-roll, either in the usual way, where -the surface is unembossed, or upon the raised parts _a_, which -give the configuration to the water-mark. In place of forming the -ridges or projections _a_, which produce the configuration of the -water-mark, by raising portions of the wire-gauze above the general -surface, they may be formed by sewing on suitably shaped slips -of wire-gauze, or of sheet metal perforated all over with fine -holes, on to the surface of the gauze which is embossed with the -grooves _b_, but it is much to be preferred that both the ridges -_a_ and the grooves _b_ should be produced by embossing the gauze. -Water-marks may also be produced by placing sheets of finished -paper in contact with plates of copper or zinc, bearing a design in -relief, and submitting them to heavy pressure. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.] - -=Suction-Boxes.=--These boxes, which are fitted under the wire, -are made of wood, and are open at the top, the edges being lined -with vulcanite. The ends of the boxes are movable, so that they -may be adjusted to suit the width of the paper required; they are -also provided with air-cocks for regulating the vacuum, which is -obtained by means of two sets of vacuum pumps, having three 6-inch -barrels to each set: a vacuum pump of this form is shown in Fig. -35. As the wire travels over these boxes, the action of the pumps -draws the wire upon them with sufficient pressure to render them -air-tight; by this means a large portion of the water which the -pulp still retains at this point becomes extracted, thereby giving -to it such a degree of consistency that it can stand the pressure -of the couch-rolls without injury. The backwater extracted by the -suction-boxes, as also that collected in the save-all, is added to -a fresh supply of pulp before it flows on to the sand-tables. - - -=Couch-Rolls.=--At the extreme end of the wire-cloth from the -breast-roll, and inside the wire, is the under couch-roll, from -which the wire receives its motion. This roll, which is of brass, -is usually about 14 inches in diameter, is carried upon a cast-iron -framing with brass bearings, and is ground to a working joint with -the top roll, which is also of brass, and 20 inches in diameter. -Both these rolls are covered with a seamless coating of woollen -felt. The upper roll rests upon the lower one, and the wire-cloth, -and the web of paper upon it, pass between the rolls, receiving -gentle pressure, by which the paper becomes deprived of more water, -rendering it still more compact. It is at this stage that the web -of paper leaves the wire-cloth, and passes on to a continuously -revolving and endless web of woollen felt, termed the "wet felt," -from the moist condition of the paper. This felt, which is carried -on wooden rollers, is about 20 feet long, and is manufactured with -considerable care. - - -=The Press-Rolls.=--The paper now passes on to the _first -press-rolls_, which deprive it of a still further quantity of -water, and put it in a condition to bear gentle handling without -injury. The upper roll is fitted with a contrivance termed the -"doctor," which keeps the roll clean by removing fragments of paper -that may have become attached to it. The doctor is furnished with -a knife which passes along the entire length of the roll, pressing -against it from end to end. These rolls are generally of iron, -jacketed with brass, the under one being 14 inches in diameter, and -the top roll 16 inches. Sometimes this roll is made of fine-grained -cast-iron. When the roll is of iron the doctor blade is steel; but -when this roll is brass the knife is of the same material. The -under surface of the paper, which has been in contact with the -felt, and necessarily being in a moist condition, receives more or -less an impression from the felt over which it travelled, while the -upper surface, on the other hand, will have been rendered smooth -by the pressure of the top roll of the first press. To modify -this, and to render both surfaces of the paper as nearly uniform -as possible, the paper passes through another set of rolls, termed -the _second press-rolls_, in which the paper becomes reversed, -which is effected by causing it to enter at the back of the rolls, -which rotate in a reverse direction to those of the first press, by -which the under or wire side of the paper comes in contact with -the top roll of the press. By this arrangement the underside of -the paper is rendered equally smooth with the upper surface. The -second set of press-rolls is provided with an endless felt of its -own, which is usually both stronger and thicker than that used in -connection with the first press-rolls. In some mills each set of -press-rolls is provided with a doctor, to prevent the web of paper -from adhering to the metal. Sometimes the doctor knives are made -from vulcanite, a material which would seem specially suited for a -purpose of this kind. From this point the paper passes to the first -set of drying cylinders. - - -=The Drying Cylinders.=--The invention of the steam drying cylinder -is due to Mr. T. B. Crompton, who, in the year 1821, obtained a -patent for this useful addition to the paper-machine. Since that -period, however, the system of drying the paper by steam-heat has -been brought to a high state of perfection; not only this, but -the number of cylinders has gradually increased, while the heat -to which they are raised has proportionately decreased, and as -a consequence the size, which is injuriously affected by rapid -drying, is gradually deprived of its moisture, and thus renders -the paper closer and stronger, while at the same time a very rapid -speed can be maintained. The drying cylinders in the machine shown -in the engraving are 4 feet in diameter and 12 in number, being -arranged in two groups of 8 and 4 cylinders respectively, and in -the aggregate present a very large drying surface, it being very -important that the operation should be effected gradually, more -especially at its earlier stages. There is a passage between the -second press-roll and the cylinders, through which the machine-men -can pass from one side of the machine to the other. The first two -or three of the first section of cylinders are only moderately -heated, and having no felt on them, allow the moisture from the -paper to escape freely. The next five cylinders, however, are -provided with felts, which press the paper against the heated -surfaces, by which it becomes smooth and flattened, thus putting it -into a proper condition for passing between the _smoothing-rolls_. -The cylinders are heated by steam, and are generally of decreasing -diameter, to allow for the shrinking of the paper during the drying. - - -=Smoothing-Rolls.=--These consist of highly polished cast-iron -rolls, heated by steam. The paper being in a somewhat moist -condition when it passes through these rolls, they have the effect -of producing a fine smooth surface. - -The paper next passes over the last four drying cylinders, all -being provided with felts, to keep the paper closely pressed -against their heating surfaces, by which the remaining moisture -becomes expelled and the paper rendered perfectly dry. The paper -now passes through the calender rolls, and is then wound on to -reels at the extreme end of the machinery. The operation of -calendering will be treated in the next chapter. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.] - -=Single Cylinder Machine.=--For the manufacture of thin papers, -as also for papers which are required to be glazed on one side -only, a single cylinder machine, called the Yankee machine, has -been introduced, a representation of which is shown in Fig. 36. -It is constructed on the same principle as the larger Fourdrinier -machine up to the couching-rolls, when the paper leaves the -wire-cloth and passes on to an endless felt running round the top -couch-roll, and passes from thence to a large drying cylinder, -which is about 10 feet in diameter and heated by steam, the surface -of which is highly polished, giving to the surface of the paper -in contact with it a high gloss. There is attached to the machine -an arrangement for washing the felt for the purpose of cooling -and opening it out after passing through a cold press-roll and -the hot drying cylinder. This machine, as manufactured by Messrs. -Bentley and Jackson, for cap, skip, and thin papers, consists of -a rocking frame, and wrought-iron side bars, fitted with brass -bearings, the necessary brass and copper tube-rolls, couch-rolls, -with driving shaft, stands and pulley; self-acting wire guide, -brass deckle sides and pulleys, brass slice, vacuum boxes, pipes -and cocks; wet felt frame, with the necessary water pipes and -cocks, and carriages to carry the couch-rolls and felt-rolls; the -necessary wet felt-rolls and a felt washing apparatus; one bottom -press-roll carried by brass steps, and fitted with compound levers -and weight; one large cast-iron drying cylinder about 10 feet in -diameter, and fitted with a central shaft, steam admission and -water delivery nozzles, two water lifters and pipes, a manhole and -vacuum valve, a large spur driving wheel, spur pinion, driving -shaft and pulley; massive cast-iron framework, with pedestals to -carry the cylinder; traversing steel doctor and frames; copper -leading roll and carriages, a pair of reeling stands fitted with -brass steps, friction pulleys and plates, regulating screws, etc.; -a wooden platform and iron guard rail, all carried by strong -cast-iron framing; the necessary pulp and backwater pumps, shake, -knotter, stuff chests, service cistern, pipes and valves, shafting, -pedestals, change wheels, pulleys, &c. These machines can be -obtained of any desired width. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -_CALENDERING, CUTTING, AND FINISHING._ - - Web-glazing.--Glazing Calender.--Damping-Rolls.--Finishing.-- - Plate Glazing.--Donkin's Glazing Press.--Mr. Wyatt on American - Super-calendering.--Mr. Arnot on Finishing.--Cutting.--Revolving - Knife Cutter.--Bertrams' Single-sheet Cutter.--Packing the - Finished Paper.--Sizes of Paper. - - -To impart a higher gloss, or, as it is technically termed "glaze," -to paper after it leaves the machine, it has to be subjected to -further calendering, which is accomplished either in the web, or in -sheets, according to the quality of the paper. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 37.] - -=Web-Glazing.=--_Glazing Calender._--When paper has to be glazed -in the web, it is passed between a series of rolls, which are -constructed upon several different systems. In one form of this -machine the rolls are alternately of finely polished iron, and -compressed paper, or cotton, the iron rolls being bored hollow to -admit of their being connected to steam pipes, for heating them -when necessary. In this machine there are eight rolls, the centre -pair being both paper rolls, which have an effect equivalent to -reversing the paper, by which both sides are made alike. Another -form of glazing calender, of American origin, but which has -been improved upon by our own engineers, consists of a stack of -rolls made from chilled iron, the surfaces of which are ground -and finished with exquisite precision upon a system adopted in -America. A representation of this calender as manufactured by -Messrs. Bentley and Jackson is given in Fig. 37. Such rolls as -require heating are bored through, and their ends fitted with -brass junctions and cocks, to regulate the admission of steam. -The standards are of cast iron, planed and fitted with phosphor -bronze bearings; the bearings to carry the top roll of the stack -are furnished with wrought-iron screws and hand wheels, and -wrought-iron lifting links can be attached to raise one or more of -the rolls, according to the finish required on the paper. Compound -levers are also supplied, to regulate and adjust the pressure on -the ends of the rolls. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.] - -_Damping Rolls._--An important improvement in connection with -the calendering of paper was introduced by Messrs. G. and W. -Bertram a few years since, by which a higher finish is given to -the paper than had previously been attainable. This consists -of a damping apparatus A (Fig. 38) which is placed between the -last drying cylinders B of the machine and the glazing calenders -C. The damping-rolls consist of two brass or copper rolls, -about 14 inches in diameter, through which a constant stream of -cold water is passed, while a line of steam jets, issued from -finely-perforated pipes, plays over the face of the rolls. The cold -water within the rolls condenses the steam, thereby imparting a -uniform moisture to the under surface of the paper, which enables -it to take a better surface when passing through the glazing -rolls. The steam-pipes can be regulated so as to give any amount -of dampness required by adjusting the steam cocks accordingly. -By reference to the engraving, it will be observed from the -disposition of the rolls that the web of paper is reversed, thus -equalising the moisture on both sides, by which the paper-maker is -enabled to produce an evenly-finished paper. - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.] - -The chilled-iron glazing-rolls, as originally introduced, were -fitted up in stacks of seven, and sometimes as many as nine rolls, -but it was found in practice that so large a number of rolls gave -unsatisfactory results; the heavy pressure, acting on the paper -immediately after leaving the drying cylinders, had the effect of -"crushing" the paper, giving it a thin feel. It is now considered -preferable to use calenders having not more than four, or at most -five rolls. An arrangement of this description, manufactured -by Bertrams, is represented in Fig. 39. The system recommended -by Mr. Dunbar is to employ three sets of rolls, disposed as -follows:--"First, a set of three rolls; second, a set to consist -of four rolls, and a stack of five to give the finishing or dry -surface. With this arrangement of calenders, and the assistance -of the damping apparatus, any desired surface can be got by -varying and regulating the drying of the paper, which any careful -machine-man can do with ordinary attention." - - -=Finishing.=--To give a still higher finish to the paper, it is -subjected to what is termed "friction-glazing," which consists in -passing it through a stack of rolls, formed alternately of small -iron rolls and larger paper ones, the iron rolls revolving at a -much higher speed than the paper-rolls. The effect of this final -glazing operation gives the paper a very fine surface. - - -=Plate-Glazing.=--_Donkin's Glazing Press._--This term, which -is also called "super-calendering," is applied to a method of -glazing hand-made paper, and is also adopted for the better -qualities of machine-made paper. It consists in placing sheets of -paper between highly polished plates of either copper or zinc, -the latter being more generally used. The metal plates, with the -sheets of paper placed alternately between them, are made up into -packs or "handfuls" (the operation being usually performed by -women), and these are passed between two powerful rolls, giving a -pressure of from twenty to thirty tons, and each pack, consisting -of about forty plates and as many sheets, is passed through the -rolls several times, the pressure being regulated by means of -screws or levers and weights acting on the ends of the top roll. -A machine for glazing paper in packs, manufactured by Messrs. -Bryan Donkin and Co., is shown in Fig. 40. Some descriptions of -paper, as "antique" and "old style," for example, are surfaced with -good cardboard instead of copper or zinc plates. As soon as the -handful has passed through the rollers, the motion of the machine -is reversed, by which means the pack is made to pass forwards -and backwards repeatedly, according to the extent of gloss or -smoothness required. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.] - -=Mr. Wyatt on American Super-calendering.=--Mr. Wyatt, on a -recent visit to America, had many opportunities of witnessing the -systems of manufacture adopted there, and subsequently delivered an -interesting address to the members of the Paper-Makers' Club,[27] -in which he acknowledged the superiority of the high-class printing -papers for book-work, which has so often been the subject of -recognition in this country. Indeed, if we compare the surface of -the paper used even for ordinary technical journals in America -and that generally adopted for our own periodicals of a similar -class, we are constrained to admit that the difference is in -favour of our transatlantic competitors. "In the manufacture of -high-class super-calendered printing papers," Mr. Wyatt observes, -"for fine book-work, or as they call them book papers, the -Americans certainly excel. Whether this be due to the kind of raw -material used, to the almost universal use of the refining-engine, -which renders the pulp very soft and mellow, or to the state of -perfection to which they have brought the art of super-calendering, -or perhaps due to all three, I could not exactly determine. The -material generally used for this class of paper is poplar chemical -fibre and waste paper to the extent of 50 per cent., and even up to -75 and 80 per cent. of the total fibre, the balance being rags, or, -in cheaper qualities, sulphite wood pulp; the stuff is all mixed -together in large beaters, holding from 800 lbs. up to 1,500 lbs. -of pulp, where it is about half beaten, and then finished in one or -other form of refining-engine. - -"The Americans have, I think, more thoroughly studied the question -of super-calendering paper than we, and in this respect get better -results and better work. The paper is mostly slit and trimmed -on the paper-machine, and reeled up in from two to four widths -by an ingenious contrivance called the _Manning-winder_, which -automatically keeps the tension constant on each of the reels, -whatever the diameter, and is super-calendered in narrow widths on -small calenders. These calenders are from 36 inches to 42 inches -wide, and consist of a stack of 9 to 11 rolls, alternately chilled -iron, and cotton or paper; the paper is passed through the rolls -two or three times, never less than twice, under great pressure -applied by hand-screws. The power required is very high, being -from 40 to 50 h.p. for each calender, and the speed from 450 feet -up to 600 feet per minute. The paper is not usually damped before -calendering, but is left rather under-dried from the machine; -neither is steam heat used in the rolls, which get very warm, -owing to the high speed at which they run. The rolls are driven -entirely by straps, the arrangements for the fast and slow speed -and for reeling on and off the paper being well designed and -worked out; the main strap, running at high speed, runs on a loose -pulley on the shaft of the bottom roll, by means of a powerful -friction clutch; this pulley can be made a tight one. On this -same bottom shaft is keyed a multiple V-shaped grooved friction -pulley. Another, and independent shaft, driven from the main shaft -by a crossed belt, has a small grooved pulley keyed on it, which -can be thrown in and out of gear with the large grooved pulley. -Strap-driving is thus secured throughout, and the speed can be -increased gradually without jerks, from the starting up to the -fastest speed by working the levers, gearing the friction clutch -and pulleys slowly." - -In reference to the high finish of American papers, we are disposed -to attribute this mainly to the nature of the chief raw material -used--wood fibre. In the year 1854, when specimens of Mr. Charles -Watt's wood-fibre paper were first printed upon, the remarkable -gloss of the wood paper attracted much attention, and it was -noticed that the impression of the ink appeared to be well _on the -surface of the paper_, and not, as was often the case with ordinary -printing papers of the time, partially absorbed by the paper -itself. Mr. Wyatt states that poplar chemical fibre and waste paper -to the extent of 50 per cent., and even up to 75 and 80 per cent., -are used, the balance being rags; now since the waste paper in all -probability would be composed largely of wood fibre, and as, in the -cheaper qualities, sulphite wood pulp is used in lieu of rags, it -will be fair to assume that the chief basis of the highly-finished -papers for which the Americans are justly famous is wood fibre, and -we believe that there is no other variety of cellulose which is so -susceptible of producing a naturally glossy paper as that which is -obtained from wood by the soda process. - - -=Mr. Arnot on Finishing.=--Mr. Arnot makes the following -observations respecting the finishing of paper:--"The paper may -be slit into widths, suitable for wet calenders, or may be cut up -into sheets, and glazed by the plate or board calenders. The former -method of surfacing or finishing has come extensively into use -in recent times, the labour involved being much less than in the -older method of finishing in sheets. Still, however, the plate -calenders are kept at work upon the higher classes of goods, it -being possible to give almost any degree of surface to good paper -by that means. There is little doubt, too, that the paper glazed by -the plate rolls retains its original softness to a greater degree -than that passed through web calenders. In the latter it is exposed -in one thickness to great pressure, and is thinned in consequence; -whereas, when the sheets are made up into piles, along with copper -or zinc plates, there is a certain amount of spring or elasticity -in the treatment which largely counteracts the crushing action of -the rolls. The web calenders consist of a series of rollers erected -in a vertical frame, and between these the paper winds, beginning -at the top and coming downwards, so that the pressure gradually -increases as the paper moves on its journey. It will be observed -that the under rolls have to bear the weight of the upper ones, -and that consequently the pressure on the paper will be greater -the lower down it descends. Many of the rollers themselves are now -made of paper, and as these possess a slight degree of elasticity, -and take a high polish, they are alternated with iron rollers -with good effect. The paper-rolls are made by sliding an immense -number of circular sheets, perforated in the centre, on to an iron -core or shaft, pressing these close together by hydraulic action, -and trimming them off on the lathe. The plate or broad calenders -consist only of two rollers, the upper one heavily weighted, -preferably by compound levers. Between these rollers the sheets -of paper, alternated with plates of copper or zinc, and made up -into bundles about an inch in thickness, are passed backwards and -forwards, the reciprocating action being produced by the movement -of a lever in the hand of an attendant. The metal and paper sheets -of different bundles may be interchanged, and the process repeated -with the effect of increasing the beauty and equality of the -finish." - - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.] - -=Cutting.=--_Revolving Knife._--When paper is to be used in a -continuous printing-machine, or, as is often the case, has to -be exported in the web, it is supplied in rolls; otherwise it -is cut into sheets before leaving the mill. The form of cutter -generally used is what is termed the _revolving knife-cutter_, an -illustration of which, as manufactured by Bertrams, Limited, is -shown in Fig. 41. At A is shown a series of webs, the paper from -which is drawn forward by the rolls, B, and is then slit into -suitable widths, and the margin at the same time pared by circular -knives, one of which is shown at C. It then passes through a pair -of leading-rolls, after which it comes in contact with a knife, -D, attached to a revolving drum, E, pressing against a dead knife -not shown in the engraving. The sheets, as they are thus cut, drop -upon a travelling felt or apron, F, from which they are lifted and -placed in piles, by boys or girls standing on each side of the -felt. These machines will cut eight webs at one time. - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.] - -_Bertrams' Single-sheet Cutter._--In cases where it is necessary -that the sheets should be cut with great uniformity, as in the -case of paper bearing a water-mark, in which it is requisite that -the design should appear exactly in the centre of the sheet, -the ordinary cutter is not found to be sufficiently reliable; a -machine termed a "single-sheet cutter" is therefore used for this -purpose, of which an illustration is shown in Fig. 42. The paper -is led direct from the paper-machine, or from a reel frame, to the -drawing-in rolls, A; after which it passes through the circular -slitting-knives, B; from here it is led by the roller C to a large -wood-covered drum, D, and at the front of this drum the sheets are -cut by the cross-cutting knives, E. There are two cast-iron tapered -cones, with belt guide for adjusting the speed; a fly-wheel to -promote steadiness in working; a series of wrought-iron levers, -cranks, eccentrics, shafts, etc., for accurately regulating the -travel of paper and the cut of the horizontal knives; a small -pasting table is also fitted across the machine for mending broken -sheets. - - -=Packing the Finished Paper.=--The paper, after it leaves the -cutting-machine, is conveyed to the _finishing-house_, where it -is carefully examined by women, who cast aside all defective or -damaged sheets, which, under the trade names of "imperfections" -or "retree," are sometimes disposed of, at a lower rate, to the -customer for whom the order is executed. In the warehouse these -imperfections are marked with a capital R on the wrapper, or two -crosses, thus =X X=. If the paper is broken, it is sometimes -marked B =X X=; it is not generally the custom, however, to -sell imperfections, but to return them to the beater-man, to be -re-converted into pulp. The perfect sheets are then counted, and -packed up in reams consisting of 480 to 516 sheets. - - -=Sizes of Paper.=--The various sizes of paper are known in the -stationery trade under different designations, as demy, crown, -double crown, royal, imperial, etc. As paper is generally purchased -according to weight, the various weights per ream are also -distinguished with the size of the paper, as 16 lb. demy, 22 lb. -double crown, and so on. The following table shows the sizes of -some of the writing and printing papers in common use:-- - - +----------------------+----------------+-----------------+ - | Name. | Writing | Printing | - | | Papers. | Papers. | - +----------------------+----------------+-----------------+ - | | Inches. | Inches. | - | Foolscap | 17 × 13¼ | 17 × 13¼ | - | Small post (or post) | 18¾ × 15¼ | 18¾ × 15¼ | - | Crown | | 20 × 15 | - | Double crown | | 30 × 20 | - | Demy | | 22½ × 17¾ | - | Royal | | 25 × 20 | - | Imperial | | 30 × 22 | - | Double demy | | 35½ × 22½ | - | Double royal | | 40 × 25 | - +----------------------+----------------+-----------------+ - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -_COLOURED PAPERS._ - - Coloured Papers.--Colouring Matters used in Paper-Making.-- - American Combinations for Colouring.--Mixing Colouring Materials - with Pulp.--Colouring Paper for Artificial Flowers.--Stains for - Glazed Papers.--Stains for Morocco Papers.--Stains for Satin - Papers. - - -=Coloured Papers.=--There are several methods by which any desired -shade of colour may be imparted to paper, which are as follows:-- - -1. By blending with the pulp in the beating-engine some insoluble -substance, such as smalts blue--a kind of glass coloured by oxide -of cobalt--ultramarine, yellow ochre, etc. - -2. By adding a coloured liquid, which simply dyes or stains the -fibre. - -3. By using rags which are already coloured, in proportions to -give the required shade, in which case of course the process of -bleaching must be omitted. - -4. By employing two substances, as yellow prussiate of potash -(ferrocyanide of potassium) and a persalt of iron, for example, -which, when combined, yield the requisite blue tint--Prussian blue. - -By this latter method the buff shade given to what is termed -_toned paper_ is effected, by using a solution of copperas -(sulphate of iron) and an alkaline solution, or by using a solution -of pernitrate of iron. In experimenting in this direction we -have found that a mixture of solutions of sulphate of iron and -bichromate of potassa produce an agreeable and permanent buff tint. -The solutions may be added to the pulp alternately, or may be first -mixed and then at once put into the beater. From 2 to 3 ozs. of -each salt for each gallon of water may be used if the solutions are -to be mixed before using; but when applied separately the solutions -may be used in a more concentrated condition. - - -=Colouring Matters used in Paper-Making.=--The following -substances, used either alone or mixed in suitable proportions, are -employed in colouring pulp for paper-making:-- - - Smalts blue. - - Prussian blue. - - Indigo blue. - - Aniline blues. - - Aniline reds, including eosine. - - Cochineal, for pink, etc. - - Brazil wood, which imparts either a fine red or orange-brown - colour, according to the treatment it has undergone. - - Logwood, for violet colours. - - Chrome yellow and orange chrome. - - Orange mineral. - - Copperas, for mixing with other substances. - - Venetian red. - - Yellow ochre. - - Quercitron, or oak-bark. - - Nutgalls. - - Lamp black. - -_Blue._--The coarser kind of paper used for packing is prepared -from rags blued with indigo, which, when reduced to pulp, are -not subjected to the process of bleaching. The finer kinds of -paper are blued in various ways, but the chief material used is -what is known as artificial ultramarine, of which there are many -qualities in the market, to which reference is made in another -chapter. Prussian blue is also used, but this is usually produced -directly in the beating-engine by adding in solution, 95 parts -of sulphate of iron and 100 parts of ferrocyanide of potassium -(yellow prussiate of potash). Smalts blue, which was formerly much -used before the introduction of artificial ultramarine, is still -preferred for high-classed papers as the colour is more permanent. -To obtain smalts in an exceedingly fine state of division the best -plan is to grind the colour in a little water, and then to separate -the finest particle by the process of _elutriation_, that is, by -diffusing the reduced mass through a large volume of water, and -after allowing the larger particles to subside, pouring off the -liquor in which the finer particles are suspended, to a separate -vessel, in which they are allowed to subside. If this operation is -carefully conducted the smalts may be obtained in an exceedingly -fine state of division, and we have found that in this state the -colour blends well with the pulp, and has little or no disposition -to sink through it, but produces a uniform colouring throughout. - - -=American Combinations for Colouring.=--Hofmann gives the following -examples of the combination of colours which have been adopted by -American manufacturers:-- - -_Yellow Gold Envelope_ of fine quality is made of-- - - Bichromate of potash 10 lbs. - Nitrate of lead 18 " - Orange mineral 56 " - Porous alum 30 " - -each substance being separately dissolved and added to 400 lbs. of -pulp. - -_Orange-red Gold Envelope_:-- - - Bichromate of potash 7 lbs. - Nitrate of lead 10½ " - Orange mineral 60 " - Porous alum 20 " - -These substances are dissolved separately and added to 400 lbs. of -pulp. - -_Buff Envelope_ of fine deep shade is made from-- - - Bichromate of potash 3 lbs. - Nitrate of lead 5 " - Orange mineral 10 " - American ochre 20 " - Porous alum 30 " - -Some half-stuff of red jute bagging. For 400 lbs. of pulp. - -_Tea-Colour_ is made from a decoction of quercitron bark, the -liquid being poured into the engine, and 2 lbs. of copperas in -solution are added for every gallon of the bark extract. A little -ultramarine may be used to brighten the colour. - -_Drab._--Venetian red, well washed, added to a pulp of tea-colour -made as above will give a fine drab. - -_Brown_ is composed of several colours, or a very fine dark green -tea-colour brown, containing tea, buff, drab, and ink-grey, may be -made of-- - - Quercitron bark liquid 15 gals. - Bicarbonate of soda 2 lbs. - Venetian red 4 " - Extract of nutgalls 2½ " - Copperas 18 " - Porous alum 30 " - -The above proportions are for 400 lbs. of pulp. - -The large proportion of alum prescribed in all the above examples -serves as a mordant, and also, with the addition of resin soap, for -sizing. All the above mixtures should be passed through a No. 60 -wire-cloth into the beating-engine. - - -=Mixing Colouring Materials with Pulp.=--It will be readily -understood that when paper is sized in the pulp, as Mr. Hofmann -points out, the resinous alumina surrounds the fibres and prevents -the colouring materials from penetrating them. In such cases the -colouring materials are only loosely held, and a portion must -therefore be lost in the machine. If added to the pulp before it is -sized they become thoroughly mixed with the fibres, and with them -enveloped by the size. The pulp should always be coloured before it -is sized, except in cases where the alum or resin soap would injure -the colours, or be injured by them. While the pulp is being sized -and coloured, the finishing touch is given by the engine-man, who -examines it and empties it into the stuff-chest. - - -=Colouring Paper for Artificial Flowers.=--Davis gives the -following recipes for colouring one ream of paper of medium weight -and size, sap colours only being used, and principally those -containing much colouring matter. The gum arabic given in the -recipes is dissolved in the sap-liquor. - -_Blue_ (dark) 1.--Mix 1 gallon of tincture of Berlin blue with -2 ozs. each of wax soap and gum tragacanth. 2. Mix ¾ gallon of -tincture of Berlin blue with 2 ozs. of wax soap, and 4¼ ozs. of gum -tragacanth. - -_Crimson._--Mix 1 gallon of liquor of Brazil wood compounded with -borax, 2 ozs. wax soap and 8¾ ozs. of gum arabic. - -_Green._--1. Take ½ gallon of liquor of sap-green[28], 4¼ ozs. -of indigo rubbed up fine, 1 oz. of wax soap, and 4½ ozs. of gum -arabic. 2. ½ gallon of sap-green liquor, 4¼ ozs. of distilled -verdigris, 1 oz. of wax soap, and 4½ ozs. of gum arabic. - -_Yellow_ (golden).--Mix 6½ ozs. of gamboge with 2 ozs. of wax soap. - -_Yellow_ (lemon).--1. Compound 1 gallon of juice of Persian berries -with 2 ozs. of wax soap and 8¾ ozs. of gum arabic. 2. Add to 1 -gallon of quercitron liquor, compounded with solution of tin, 2 -ozs. of wax soap, and 8¾ ozs. of gum arabic. - -_Yellow_ (pale).--Mix 1 gallon of fustic, 2 ozs. of wax soap, and -8¾ ozs. gum arabic. - -_Yellow_ (green).--Compound 1 gallon of sap-green liquor with 2 -ozs. each of distilled verdigris and wax soap, and 8¾ ozs. of gum -arabic. - -_Red_ (dark).--1 gallon of Brazil-wood liquor, 2 ozs. of wax soap, -and 8¾ ozs. of gum arabic. - -_Rose Colour._--Mix 1 gallon of cochineal liquor with 2 ozs. of wax -soap, and 8¾ ozs. of gum arabic. - -_Scarlet._--1. Mix 1 gallon of Brazil wood liquor compounded with -alum and a solution of copper, with 2 ozs. of wax soap, and 8¾ ozs. -of gum arabic. 2. Mix 1 gallon of cochineal liquor compounded with -citrate of tin, with 2 ozs. of wax soap, and 8¾ ozs. of gum arabic. - - -=Stains for Glazed Papers.=--Owing to the cheapness of these -papers glue is used in lieu of the more expensive gums; 1 lb. of -glue dissolved in 1¼ gallon of water; the proportions of colouring -materials are given for 1 ream of paper of medium weight and size. - -_Black._--1. Dissolve 1 lb. of glue in 1¼ gallon of water; -triturate this with lampblack (1 lb.) previously rubbed up in rye -whiskey; Frankfort black, 2¾ lbs.; Paris blue, 2 ozs.; wax soap, 1 -oz.; then add liquor of logwood, 1½ lb. 2. 1½ gallon of liquor of -logwood compounded with sulphate of iron, 1 oz. of wax soap, and 4½ -ozs. of gum arabic. - -_Blue_ (azure).--1¼ gallon of glue liquor, as before, mixed with 1½ -lb. Berlin blue, 2¾ lbs. powdered chalk, 2¼ ozs. of light mineral -blue, and 2 ozs. of wax soap. - -_Blue_ (dark).--Mix with 1¼ gallon of glue liquor, 4½ lbs. of -powdered chalk, 4¼ ozs. of Paris blue, and 2 ozs. of wax soap. - -_Blue_ (pale).--1. Mix ½ gallon of tincture of Berlin blue and 1 -oz. of wax soap with 3½ ozs. of solution of gum tragacanth. 2. Take -1¼ gallon of glue liquor and mix with 4 lbs. of powdered chalk and -2 ozs. each of Paris blue and wax soap. - -_Brown_ (dark).--1. 1¼ gallon of glue liquor, mixed with 6 lbs. -each of colcothar (jewellers' rouge) and English pink, 1½ lb. of -powdered chalk, and 2 ozs. of wax soap. 2. Dissolve 1 oz. of wax -soap and 4½ ozs. of gum arabic in ½ gallon of good Brazil-wood -liquor, and add a like quantity of tincture of gallnuts. - -_Green_ (copper).--Mix in 1¼ gallon of glue liquor 4 lbs. of -English verdigris, 1½ lb. of powdered chalk, and 4 ozs. of wax soap. - -_Green_ (pale).--Mix with 1¼ gallon of glue liquor 1 lb. of Bremen -blue, 8½ ozs. of whiting, 1 oz. of pale chrome yellow, and 2 ozs. -of wax soap. - -_Lemon Colour._--Mix in 1¼ gallon of glue liquor 13 ozs. of lemon -chrome, 2 lbs. of powdered chalk, and 2 ozs. of wax soap. - -_Orange-Yellow._--Mix in 1¼ gallon of glue liquor 2 lbs. of lemon -chrome, 1 lb. of Turkish minium, 2 lbs. of white lead, and 2 ozs. -of wax soap. - -_Red_ (cherry).--Mix in 1¼ gallon of glue liquor 8½ lbs. of Turkey -red, previously mixed up with ¼ gallon of Brazil-wood liquor, and 2 -ozs. of wax soap. - -_Red_ (dark).--Mix ¾ gallon of Brazil-wood liquor with wax soap 1 -oz., and gum arabic 4½ ozs. - -_Red_ (pale).--To 1¼ gallon of glue liquor is to be added 8¼ lbs. -of Turkey red previously rubbed up with 2 ozs. of wax soap. - -_Violet._--4½ ozs. of gum arabic, and 1 oz. of wax soap are to -be mixed with ½ gallon of good logwood liquor. When the gum is -dissolved, mix with it enough potash to form a mordant. - - -=Stains for Morocco Papers.=--For 1 ream of paper of medium size -and weight the following recipes are recommended:-- - -_Black._--8¾ ozs. of good parchment shavings are dissolved in 1½ -gallon of water; into this liquid is to be stirred lampblack, 1 -lb., Frankfort black, 3 lbs., and Paris blue, 1¾ oz. - -_Blue_ (dark).--Dissolve parchment shavings, as before, and mix in -8¼ lbs. of white lead and 4½ lbs. of Paris blue. - -_Blue_ (light).--Dissolve parchment shavings, as before, and mix in -8¾ lbs. of white lead and 2¼ ozs. of Paris blue. - -_Green_ (dark).--Dissolve 13 ozs. of parchment shavings in 2½ -gallons of water, and mix in 10 lbs. of Schweinfurth green. - -_Green_ (pale).--Prepare solution of parchment as in the last, and -mix with 8¾ lbs. of Schweinfurth green and 1 lb. of fine Paris blue. - -_Orange-Yellow._--8¾ ozs. of parchment shavings are to be dissolved -in 1½ gallon of water, and then mixed with 1½ lb. of lemon chrome, -8¾ ozs. of orange chrome, and 1 lb. of white lead. - -_Red_ (dark).--To the same quantity of parchment liquor as the last -is to be added 7¾ lbs. of fine cinnabar, and 1 lb. of Turkey red. - -_Red_ (pale).--To the same quantity of parchment liquor add 8¾ ozs. -of Turkey red. - -_Violet_ (light).--To 1½ gallon of parchment liquor add 4¼ lbs. of -white lead, 13 ozs. of light mineral blue, and 8¾ ozs. of scarlet -lake. - -_Violet_ (dark).--To 1½ gallon of parchment liquor add 3¾ lbs. of -white lead, 1 lb. of pale mineral blue, and 8¾ ozs. of scarlet lake. - -_Yellow_ (pale).--To 1½ gallon of parchment liquor add 2 lbs. of -light chrome yellow and 8¾ ozs. of white lead. - - -=Stains for Satin Papers.=--For each ream of paper of medium weight -and size the following recipes are given:-- - -_Blue_ (azure).--13 ozs. of parchment are dissolved in 2½ gallons -of water and mixed with 3 lbs. of Bremen blue, 1¾ lb. of English -mineral blue, and 4½ ozs. of wax soap. - -_Blue_ (light).--8¾ ozs. of parchment are to be dissolved in 1½ -gallon of water, and to be mixed with light chrome yellow, 13 ozs.; -colcothar, 6½ ozs.; Frankfort black, 2 ozs.; powdered chalk 3 lbs., -and wax soap, 3½ ozs. - -_Brown_ (reddish).--1½ gallon of parchment liquor as the last, to -which is added yellow ochre, 1 lb.; light chrome yellow, 4½ ozs.; -white lead, 1 lb.; red ochre, 1 oz., and wax soap, 3½ ozs. - -_Brown_ (light).--1½ gallon of parchment liquor, as before, -to which is added 13 ozs. of light chrome yellow, 6½ ozs. of -colcothar, 2 ozs. of Frankfort black, 3 lbs. of powdered chalk, and -3½ ozs. of wax soap. - -_Grey_ (light).--1½ gallon of parchment liquor is mixed with 4¼ -lbs. of powdered chalk, 8¾ ozs. of Frankfort black, 1 oz. of Paris -blue, and 3½ ozs. of wax soap. - -_Grey_ (bluish).--To the above quantity of parchment liquor add 4¼ -lbs. of powdered chalk, 1 lb. of light mineral blue, 4¼ ozs. of -English green, 1¾ oz. of Frankfort black, and 3½ ozs. of wax soap. - -_Green_ (brownish).--To the same quantity of parchment liquor add -Schweinfurth green, 1 lb.; mineral green, 8¾ ozs.; burnt umber and -English pink, of each 4¼ ozs.; whiting, 1 lb., and wax soap, 3½ ozs. - -_Green_ (light).--To the same quantity of parchment liquor add -English green and powdered chalk, of each 2¾ lbs., and 3½ ozs. of -wax soap. - -_Lemon Colour._--To the same quantity of parchment liquor add lemon -chrome, 1½ lb.; white lead 1 lb., and wax soap, 3½ ozs. - -_Orange-Yellow._--Parchment liquor as before, 1½ gallon, to which -is added lemon chrome, 4¼ lbs.; Turkey red, 8¾ ozs.; white lead, 1 -lb., and wax soap, 3½ ozs. - -_Rose Colour._--1½ gallon of parchment liquor as before, to which -is added ¾ gallon of rose colour prepared from Brazil wood and -chalk, and 6½ lbs. of wax soap. - -_Violet_ (light).--1½ gallon of parchment liquor as above, mixed -with light mineral blue and scarlet lake, of each 1½ lb.; white -lead, 1 lb., and wax soap, 3½ ozs. - -_White._--To 1½ gallons of parchment liquor is added fine Kremnitz -white, 8¾ lbs., Bremen blue, 4¼ ozs., and wax soap, 3½ ozs. - -_Silver White._--1½ gallon of parchment liquor mixed with Kremnitz -white, 8¾ lbs., Frankfort black, 8¾ ozs., and wax soap, 3½ ozs. - -_Pale Yellow._--1½ gallon of parchment liquor, to which is added 4½ -lbs. of light chrome yellow, 1 lb. of powdered chalk, and 3½ ozs. -of wax soap. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -_MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS._ - - Waterproof Paper.--Scoffern and Tidcombe's process.--Dr. Wright's - process for preparing Cupro-Ammonium.--Jouglet's process.-- - Waterproof Composition for Paper.--Toughening Paper.--Morfit's - process.--Transparent Paper.--Tracing Paper.--Varnished Paper.-- - Oiled Paper.--Lithographic Paper.--Cork Paper.--New Japanese - Paper.--Blotting Paper.--Parchment Paper.--Test Papers. - - -=Waterproof Paper.=--_Scoffern and Tidcombe's Process._--In this -process, for which a patent was granted in 1875, the well-known -solubility of cellulose in cupro-ammonium is taken advantage of, -for the purpose of producing waterproof paper by destroying its -absorptive properties. After the paper is made and dried in the -usual way by the paper-making machine, it is led through a bath of -cupro-ammonium, having a roll or rollers therein, or in connection -therewith, either on reels on which the paper is reeled, or from -the continuous web of paper itself directly from the machine, -and from this bath it is led over a table of wire-cloth, or -india-rubber, or over a series of rollers forming a table, under -which steam-pipes are placed for the purpose of "setting," or -partially drying, the web; it is then led over suitable reels in -a hot-air chamber to season or finish the treated paper, which is -then cut as the paper runs, by the ordinary cutting machine, into -the required sheets. The chamber in which the paper is treated -is ventilated as follows:--Over the bath and hot-air chamber is -another chamber having openings leading into the hot-air chamber, -and at these openings a steam-blast, or fan-blast, is applied, -which ventilates the chamber in which the paper is heated, -and drives the ammonia into contact with either sulphurous or -hydrochloric acid, and by this means the ammonia is recovered in a -solid form which would otherwise be wasted. - -The inventors also incorporate hydrated oxide of copper with -paper pulp, so that after it is made into paper it has only to be -subjected to the action of ammonia, as ordinarily done, or to the -action of gaseous ammonia mingled with steam. Brown papers are -strengthened and glazed by passing them through a bath of pulp -containing cupro-ammonium, either with or without pitch, tar, or -other resinous matters. It is well known that by passing paper -through a cupro-ammonium bath it is surface dissolved and glazed -by its own material, and if it be desired to unite two or more -sheets together this is the most economical way of conducting the -operation; but if it be desired to strengthen and glaze a single -thickness of paper or millboard, it is considered undesirable to -make the glaze by dissolving a portion of the paper itself. In -this case the inventors pass the web or sheet of paper through a -bath, not of cupro-ammonium simply, but of cupro-ammonium in which -ligneous material is already dissolved; and when the glazing of -brown paper is to be effected, they prefer to fortify the bath -with tar, pitch, marine glue, or other resinous materials. By this -process, panels and tiles may be manufactured from millboard, -or thick sheets of ligneous material made from pulp already -incorporated with hydrated oxide of copper. The panels, etc., are -passed, by means of an endless web, through a bath of ammoniacal -solution, or the vapour of ammonia and steam, and the tiles or -panels may be surface-glazed by exposing them while moist to the -action of fluo-silicic acid gas, by which silica is deposited in -the material and on its surface. - - -=Dr. Wright's Process for preparing Cupro-ammonium.=--This process, -which has been adopted at the Willesden Paper Mills, may be thus -briefly described:--In the first part of the process, metallic -copper, in small lumps, solid metal, or clippings, etc., is covered -with a solution of ammonia in water, or with a weak solution -of cupro-ammonium hydrate, containing an amount of free ammonia -in solution dependent upon the strength of the copper solution -ultimately required; a current of air is then caused to pass -through the whole by means of an air-pump, in such a manner that -the bubbles of air pass over and amongst the fragments of metallic -copper, which, if in small particles, may be advantageously kept in -suspension by any convenient agitator. In a few hours the liquid -becomes saturated with as much copper as it can dissolve, the -rate of solution varying with the form of the vessel containing -the materials, the strength of the ammoniacal fluid, and the rate -of the passage of the stream of air. To carry this process into -effect, metallic copper in fragments of convenient size is loosely -piled inside a vertical tube or tower, and water is allowed to -trickle from a pipe over the copper so as to keep its surface -moist. At the base of the tower a current of air, mixed with -ammonia gas, is caused to pass into the tower, so as to ascend -upwards, meeting the descending water as it trickles over the -copper. Under these conditions the copper becomes oxidised, and the -water dissolves firstly the ammonia gas, and, secondly, the oxide -of copper formed, so that the liquor which passes out at the base -of the tower is a solution of cupro-ammonium hydrate, the strength -of which depends on the proportions subsisting between the bulk -of the mass of copper, the quantity of water trickling over it, -and the amount of air and ammonia gas supplied in a given time. -As an example of the method of carrying out the above process, -the inventor proceeds as follows:--He constructs a vertical iron -tower which may be ten inches in internal diameter and ten feet -in height, and this is filled with scraps of sheet copper. On -this water is allowed to trickle, whilst at the base of the tower -a mixture of air and gaseous ammonia is allowed to pass upwards -through the tower, by which a solution of cupro-ammonium is formed, -which is allowed to trickle out at the base of the tower into a -tank. It has been found advantageous to use a series of towers, -allowing the air and ammonia gas that pass out at the top of the -first tower to enter at the bottom of the second tower, and so on -successively throughout the series. The weaker solutions produced -in the later towers of the series are used instead of water in the -earlier towers, so that practically all the ammonia gas originally -used is obtained in the form of cupro-ammonium hydrate solution, -issuing from the first tower of the series. - -The cupro-ammonium process, as carried on at the Willesden -Mills, is applied to ropes, netting, etc., by immersing them in -a solution of cupro-ammonium, which, when they are subsequently -dried, gives them a varnished appearance, while at the same time, -the fibres having become cemented together by the action of the -cupro-ammonium, their strength is increased. By the same process -paper, canvas, and other manufactured articles are rendered -waterproof. A concentrated solution of cupro-ammonium may also be -used for securing envelopes, whereby the adhesion of the surfaces -of the paper is rendered perfect, and the only means of opening the -envelope is by cutting or tearing the paper. - - -=Jouglet's Process.=--This process, which with modifications has -been adopted by others, is based on the solvent action on cellulose -of a solution of oxide of copper in ammonia. A quantity of this -solution is placed in a tank, and the paper rapidly passed over and -in contact with the surface of the liquid, by means of suitable -rollers in motion. The paper is afterwards pressed between a pair -of rolls and dried by the ordinary drying cylinders. The brief -contact of the paper with the liquid occasions just sufficient -action on the cellulose to have the effect of an impermeable -varnish. - - -=Waterproof Composition for Paper.=--The following composition for -rendering paper waterproof for roofing and flooring purposes has -been patented in America.[29] By preference good, hard manilla -paper is selected, and a composition of the following ingredients -is applied with a brush, or by means of rollers:--Glue, 2 lbs., is -dissolved in 3 gallons of crude petroleum, of about the density of -33° B. at 60° F.; 35 gallons of resin oil, and about half a pint -of oil of eucalyptus, which will have the effect of destroying the -objectionable odour of the resin oil. To this mixture is further -added about 4 gallons of any ordinary drier. The above ingredients -are to be thoroughly mixed by agitation, and the composition -brushed over the paper in a room heated to about 80° F., and -allowed to dry. It is said that paper thus coated will exclude -wind, cold, dampness, and dust. - - -=Toughening Paper.=--_Morfit's Process._--The object of the -following process is to produce a paper "toughened in a degree -and quality distinctively from any other in the market," and -is applicable to all kinds of paper, but more particularly to -those made with inferior grades of pulp for printing newspapers, -and for wrapping papers. The means employed are the seaweeds -which form glutinous liquors with water, such as Carrageen, or -Irish moss, Agar-agar, and the like. Any of such seaweeds may be -employed, either separately or mixed with another of its kind, -according to the judgment of the operator and the sort of paper -to be manufactured, but some seaweeds are superior to others for -this purpose. The raw seaweed is first washed, and then boiled -with water until all the soluble matter has been extracted, and -the resulting liquor is then strained. The hot strained liquor -forms the bath in which sheets of paper or pulp are to be treated. -If desired, resin soap and aluminous cake may be added to the -glutinous liquor, but these "serve rather to size and make the -paper rustle than increase its toughness." If the paper is to be -treated in the form of sheets or web, it is to be passed, as it -leaves the wire-cloth in which it is formed, through a hot solution -of the seaweed alone, or mixed with resinous soap and aluminous -cake, and dried by means of suitable machinery. To apply it to -the pulp, the latter is to be diffused in the hot liquor, and -the sheets or web made therefrom in the usual manner. The proper -proportions of seaweed, resinous soap, and aluminous cake will -vary with the kind of pulp and sheets under treatment, and must be -adjusted as the judgment of the operator determines best for each -operation. - - -=Transparent Paper.=--There are several methods of rendering paper -transparent, amongst which the following has been recommended:-- - - Boiled and bleached linseed oil 120 parts. - Lead turnings 6 " - Oxide of zinc 30 " - Venice turpentine 3 " - -The above ingredients are placed in an iron or other suitable -vessel, in which they are thoroughly mixed, and the whole then -boiled for about eight hours. The mixture is then allowed to -cool, when it is again well stirred and the following substances -added:--White copal, 30 parts; gum sandarac, 2 parts, these -ingredients being well incorporated by stirring. - - -=Tracing Paper.=--Sheets of smooth unsized paper are laid flat on -a table, and then carefully coated on one side only with a varnish -composed of Canada balsam and oil of turpentine. The brush used -for this purpose must be a clean sash tool, and when the first -sheet has been varnished in this way it is to be hung across a line -to dry. The operation is then to be applied to fresh sheets in -succession until the required quantity of paper has been treated. -In the event of one coating of the varnish not rendering the paper -sufficiently transparent, a second coating may be applied when the -first coating has become quite dry. - - -=Varnished Paper.=--When it is desired to varnish the surface of -paper, card-work, pasteboard, etc., it must first be rendered -non-absorbent with two or three coatings of size, which will also -prevent the varnish from acting upon any colour or design which may -be impressed upon the paper. The size may be made by dissolving -isinglass in boiling water, or by boiling clean parchment cuttings -in water until a clear solution is formed, which, after straining, -is ready for use. If necessary, for very delicate purposes, the -size thus prepared may be clarified with a little white of egg. -The size should be applied, as in the former case, with a clean -sash tool, but the touch should be light, especially for the first -coating, lest the inks or colours should run or become bleared. -When dry, the varnish may be applied in the usual way. - - -=Oiled Paper.=--Sheets of paper are brushed over with boiled -linseed oil, and then hung up to dry. Paper thus prepared is -waterproof, and has been used as a substitute for bladder and -gut skins for covering jam pots, etc., but the introduction of -parchment paper has almost entirely superseded it. - - -=Lithographic Paper.=--This paper, which is written upon with -lithographic ink, may be prepared by either of the following -formulæ:--1. Take starch, 6 ozs.; gum arabic, 2 ozs.; alum, 1 oz. -Make a strong solution of each separately in hot water, then mix -the whole and strain the liquor through gauze. It must be applied -to one side of the paper while still warm by means of a soft brush -or sponge; a second or third coating may be given as the preceding -one becomes dry. The paper is finally pressed to render it smooth. -2. The paper must first receive three coats of thin size, one coat -of good white starch, and one coat of a weak solution of gamboge in -water. The ingredients are to be applied cold with a sponge, and -each coat allowed to dry before the next is applied. - - -=Cork Paper.=--A paper under this title was patented in America -by Messrs. H. Felt and Co.; it is prepared by coating one side -of a thick, soft, and flexible paper with a mixture composed of -glue, 20; gelatine, 1; and molasses, 3 parts, and covering with -finely-powdered cork, which is afterwards lightly rolled in. The -paper thus prepared is said to be used for packing bottles. - - -=New Japanese Paper.=--According to the _Bulletin du Musée -Commercial_, a native of Japan has recently invented a new process -by which paper may be made from seaweed. The paper thus made is -said to be very strong, almost untearable, and is sufficiently -transparent to admit of its being used as a substitute for window -glass; it takes all colours well, and in many respects resembles -old window glass.--_Board of Trade Journal._ - - -=Blotting Paper.=--This paper, requiring to be very absorbent, is -not sized, but is prepared with starch alone, which, while holding -the fibres together, does not affect the absorbent property of the -paper. Dunbar gives a recipe for making blotting paper which has -been found successful, and from which we make a few extracts. In -selecting materials for blotting, of high-class, cotton rags of the -weakest and tenderest description procurable should be chosen. Boil -them with 4 lbs. of caustic soda to the cwt.--that is, if you have -no facilities for boiling them in lime alone. When furnished to the -breaking-engine, wash the rags thoroughly before letting down the -roll; when this is done, reduce them to half-stuff, and as soon as -possible convey them to the potcher. When up to the desired colour, -drain immediately. The breaker-plate should be sharp for blottings, -and the beater-roll and plate also in good order, and the stuff -beaten smartly for not more than an hour and a half in the engine. -For pink blottings furnish two-thirds white cottons and one-third -of Turkey reds if they can be got, or dye with cochineal to desired -shade; empty down to the machine before starting, and see that the -vacuum pumps are in good condition. Remove weights from couch-roll, -and if there are lifting screws raise the top couch-roll a little. -Take shake-belt off, as the shake will not be required. Press light -with first press, and have the top roll of the second press covered -with an ordinary jacket similar to couch-roll jacket. Dry hard, and -pass through one calender with weights off, and roll as light as -possible, just enough to smooth slightly. - - -=Parchment Paper.=--This paper, which is extensively used for -covering jars and pots for pickles and jams, is prepared, according -to the process of Poumarède and Figuier, as follows:--White unsized -paper is dipped for half a minute in strong sulphuric acid, -specific gravity 1·842, and afterwards in water containing a -little ammonia. By Gaine's process (1857) unsized paper is plunged -for a few seconds into sulphuric acid diluted with half to a -quarter of its bulk of water (the acid being added to the water), -and the solution allowed to cool until of the same temperature as -the air. The paper is afterwards washed with weak ammonia. This -process, which has been extensively worked by Messrs. De la Rue and -Co., produces a far better material than the foregoing. - - -=Mill and Card-board.=--In the manufacture of boards refuse -materials of all kinds that occur in the paper-mill may be used, -and these are sorted according to the quality of boards for which -they are best suited. After being well beaten the resulting mass is -mixed with suitable proportions of rag pulp, kaolin, chalk, white -clays, &c. There are four principal processes by which boards are -manufactured, namely, - -1. By superposing several sheets of paper and causing them to unite -by a sizing material. - -2. By superposing several wet leaves at the time of couching. - -3. By moulds provided with thick deckles. - -4. By special machines similar to those used for making continuous -webs of paper, but without a drying cylinder, the sheets being -dried in the open air or in a heated room. - -The third method is only adopted for boards of moderate thickness, -as an excess of pulp would render the draining difficult. - - -=Making Paper or Cardboard with two Faces by Ordinary Machine.=--By -this process, recently patented by Mr. A. Diana, all kinds of thin -or thick paper or cardboard are manufactured with two different -faces by means of the ordinary paper-machine, having a single -flat table with a single wire-gauze web, without requiring a -second metallic web. For this purpose the two pulps are prepared -separately, and one is caused to pass on to the web in an almost -liquid condition; this is allowed to drain off sufficiently, and -the second pulp (also in a liquid condition) is then passed -uniformly upon the whole surface of the previous layer. The water -drains off from this layer through the first layer, and the paper -or cardboard is thus directly formed with two different faces, the -subsequent operations being as ordinarily employed in paper-making. -The space between two of the suction cases employed for drawing off -the water in the pulp is a suitable point for the distribution of -the diluted second pulp, which is almost liquid. - - -=Test Papers.=--These papers, which are extensively used both -in the laboratory and the factory, for determining the presence -of acids or alkalies in various liquids, may be prepared as -follows:--_Litmus paper_, for detecting the presence of acids, is -prepared by first making an infusion of litmus. Reduce to a paste -with a pestle and mortar 1 oz. of litmus, adding a little boiling -water; then add more boiling water--from 3 to 4 ozs. in all--and -put the mixture into a flask and boil for a few minutes; finally, -add more boiling water to make up half a pint, and when cold filter -the liquor. To prepare the test paper, a sufficient quantity of the -liquid being poured into a flat dish, pieces of unsized paper are -steeped in the blue liquid, so that all surfaces may be thoroughly -wetted; the paper is then to be hung up by one corner to drain, and -afterwards dried. As many sheets of paper as may be required should -be treated in this way, and the sheets afterwards cut up into -convenient strips for use. _Red litmus paper_, for detecting slight -traces of alkali in liquids, may be prepared by dipping a glass -rod, previously dipped into a very dilute solution of sulphuric -acid, into one-half of the above infusion, repeating the operation -cautiously until the liquid turns from blue to a slightly red tint. -Unsized paper when dipped in this will acquire a reddish colour -which is very sensitive to the action of weak alkaline liquors, and -the vapour of ammonia restores the blue colour instantly. _Turmeric -paper_ is prepared by dipping unsized paper in a decoction of -turmeric--about 2 ozs. to the pint. Paper steeped in this solution -and dried acquires a yellow colour, which turns brown in alkaline -solutions. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -_MACHINERY USED IN PAPER-MAKING._ - - Bentley and Jackson's Drum Washer.--Drying Cylinder.--Self-Acting - Dry Felt Regulator.--Paper Cutting Machine.--Single Web - Winding Machine.--Cooling and Damping Rolls.--Reversing or - Plate Glazing Calender.--Plate Planing Machine.--Roll Bar - Planing Machine.--Washing Cylinder for Rag Engine.--Bleach - Pump.--Three-roll Smoothing Presses.--Back-water Pump.--Web - Glazing Calender.--Reeling Machine.--Web Ripping Machine.-- - Roeckner's Clarifier.--Marshall's Perfecting Engine. - - -Apart from the mechanical contrivances which are referred to -in various parts of this work, in which their application is -explained, it will be necessary to direct attention to certain -machines and appliances which are adopted at some of the more -advanced paper-mills in this country and in America; but since -the various makers of paper-makers' machinery are constantly -introducing improvements to meet the requirements of the -manufacturer, we must refer the reader to these firms for fuller -information than can be given in the limited scope of this -treatise. Many of the improvements in paper-making machinery -consist in modifications--sometimes of a very important nature--in -the construction of certain parts of a machine, whereby the -efficiency of the machine as a whole is in some cases considerably -augmented. Without offering any critical remarks upon the merits -of the respective improvements which have been introduced, it -will be sufficient to direct attention to the manufacturer's own -description of the principal features of the special mechanical -contrivance which he produces for the use of the paper-maker. It -may also be said that innumerable patents have been obtained for -various improvements in machinery, or parts of machines, engines, -etc., which can readily be referred to at the Library of the Patent -Office, or any of the public libraries throughout the Kingdom. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.] - -=Bentley and Jackson's Drum-Washer.=--This drum-washer, for use in -the rag-engine, is shown in Fig. 43. It has cast-iron ends, strong -copper buckets, shaft, stands, lifting-gear, and driving-wheel, -but instead of the drum being covered with the ordinary strong -brass backing-wire, it is covered with their improved "honey-comb" -_backing-plates_, over which the fine wire is wrapped as usual. The -honey-comb backing consists of tough rolled brass or copper plates, -curved to suit the diameter of the drum, and secured to its ends by -cross-bars. It is practicably indestructible, strengthens the drum, -and by maintaining its cylindrical form, adds considerably to the -durability of the fine covering-wire. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.] - -=Drying Cylinders.=--These cylinders, by the same firm, for which -patents were obtained in 1872 and 1887, are made with concave and -convex ends, the latter type being shown in Fig. 44. The cylinder -body is made of hard cast-iron, turned and polished on outside -surface. The ends and trunnions are of tough cast iron, turned -to fit into their places, and there secured by bolts and nuts by -a patented method, whereby no bolts (excepting for the manhole) -are put through the metal, an unbroken surface is preserved, and -the annoyance of leakage through the bolt-holes is avoided. A -manhole and cover is fitted to all cylinders 3 feet in diameter -and upwards, and a water-lifter and pipe to remove the condensed -steam. The trunnions are bored to receive nozzles or junctions -for admitting steam, and the whole, when completed, is carefully -balanced and tested by steam pressure to 35 lbs. per square inch. -The firm state that they have made cylinders from 2 to 10 feet in -diameter by this system. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.] - -=Self-acting Dry Felt Regulator.=--This contrivance, which is -manufactured by Messrs. Bentley and Jackson, is represented in -front and side elevation in Fig. 45. A is the framing of the -paper-machine, B the felt-rollers, C the dry felt; D is a slide -carrying one end of the felt guide-roller B; C is a shaft across -the machine, with a pulley F, two-keyed on one end, and a bevel -pinion two-keyed on the other end. The pulley F and pinion H are -keyed together, and run loose upon the shaft G; I is a bevel-wheel, -gearing into the pinions H and 2. The wheel I is connected by -a spindle and a pair of bevel-wheels to a screw E, which works -through a threaded bush. When the machine is at work, if the felt -C should run on one side, it will pass between the pulley F and -the guide-roller B, causing the pulley to revolve, and turning the -screw E in the threaded bush, thereby moving the slide fixing D and -the guide-roller B, which causes the felt to run back. Should the -felt run to the other side, it will run in contact with the pulley -F 2, and thus reverse the motion of the guide-roller B. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 46.] - -=Paper-cutting Machine.=--This machine (Fig. 46), which is -manufactured by the same firm, is constructed to cut from one to -eight webs simultaneously, in sheets of any required length, from -8 to 60 inches. It is built on the "Verny" principle, and its -operation is as follows:--The webs of paper from the reel-rolls -are carried by an endless felt, and the paper is drawn off the -rolls by travelling cast-iron gripper beams, which firmly grasp -the felt and the webs of paper to be cut, the travel of the beams -being equal to the length of the sheet of paper to be cut. When the -required length of the sheet is drawn from the rolls, a cast-iron -clamp, placed close to the dead cross-cut knife, descends and -firmly holds the paper until the movable cross-cut knife has cut -off the sheets, which fall on a second endless felt, and are placed -by the catchers in the usual manner. As soon as the sheets are cut, -the clamp is released, and the travelling-grippers are again ready -to seize the paper and repeat the operation. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 47.] - -=Single Web Winding Machine.=--This machine (Fig. 47) is constructed -for preparing webs of paper for continuous printing-presses. The -roll of paper to be prepared is carried by brass bearings having -vertical and horizontal screw adjustments attached to standards -mounted on a slide, and movable by a screw transversely on the -machine to accommodate the deckle edges. The paper web is taken -through a pair of iron draw-rolls, carried by brass bearings, -fitted in cast-iron stands; there are two pairs of ripping-knives -with bosses, springs, and collars, mounted on turned wrought-iron -shafts running in brass bearings carried by cast-iron stands; a -wrought-iron leading-roll and carrying brackets fitted with brass -bushes; a copper measuring roll counter, geared to indicate up to -10,000 yards, with disengaging apparatus to cease measuring when the -paper breaks; a friction-drum 2 feet in diameter, made of wood, -mounted on cast-iron rings, and a wrought-iron shaft, all carefully -turned and balanced; two cast-iron swivelling arms, with brass -sliding bearings to carry the mandrel on which the prepared web is -to be wound, with screws, struts, wheels and shaft to regulate the -angular pressure of the roll of paper against the wood drum, -according to its weight and the quantity of paper. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.] - -=Cooling and Damping Rolls.=--The illustration (Fig. 48) represents -an apparatus, constructed by Messrs. Bentley and Jackson, for -cooling and damping paper after leaving the drying cylinders -and before passing through the calenders. It consists of two -brass rolls bored and fitted with cast-iron ends, brass nozzles, -and regulating taps, through which the rolls are supplied with -a constant flow of water. The rolls are carried by cast-iron -standards, fitted with brass steps and cast-iron caps. Jets of -steam are blown on each of the rolls from a perforated copper pipe -running parallel with, and at a little distance from, the body of -the roll. The steam is condensed on the cold surfaces of the brass -rolls, and absorbed by the web of paper, which passes around and in -contact with their surfaces, and is consequently damped on _both_ -sides. The perforated steam-pipes are enclosed by copper hoods, -to prevent the steam from spreading, and the supply of steam is -regulated by ordinary brass valves or cocks. The rolls are geared -together by a pair of spur-wheels, and driven by a pulley of -suitable diameter. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.] - -=Reversing or Plate-glazing Calender.=--This machine, which is -shown in Figs. 49 and 50, is also made by the firm referred to, and -consists of two hammered iron rolls, each about twelve inches in -diameter, of any suitable length, carefully turned and carried by -strong cast-iron standards, fitted with bell-metal steps. The top -roll is provided with setting-down blocks and brasses, compound -levers and weights to regulate the pressure required. The two rolls -are geared together by strong shrouded wheels, and driven by a -strong cast-iron spur-wheel and pinion, a driving-shaft, fast and -loose pulleys, carried by cast-iron stands and pedestals fitted -with brass steps. The machine is fitted with two metal feed-tables, -and a self-acting apparatus for returning the sheets to the rolls, -and a handle-lever, slide-bar, and strap-forks for starting and -reversing. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.] - -=Plate-planing Machine.=--This machine, which is manufactured by -Messrs. Bryan Donkin and Co., of Bermondsey, is shown in Fig. 51. -By its aid the plates of rag-engines can be sharpened without being -taken to pieces. The slide of the machine is made exactly like the -roll-bar planing machine (see below), and is so arranged that it -can easily be taken off and used for sharpening roll-bars. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.] - -=Roll-Ear Planing Machine.=--In the accompanying engraving (Fig. -52) is shown an apparatus fitted to a rag-engine for sharpening -rag-engine roll-bars, and it will be seen that by means of it the -operation can be performed without removing the roll from its -usual position. The edges of the bars are first planed by a tool -supplied by the manufacturers to render the whole cylindrical -before sharpening them; the bevelled sides are then planed by -suitable tools, two of which accompany the apparatus. This method -of sharpening renders the bars uniform in shape, the roll is kept -in better working order, and it can be dressed in considerably less -time, and at less expense, than can be done by chipping by hand. - - -=Washing-Cylinder for Rag-Engine.=--The illustration at Fig. 53 -represents the machine as manufactured by Messrs. Bryan Donkin and -Co. It is so made that the water is delivered on the driving side -of the rag-engine, thus avoiding any trough across the engine, and -admitting of the midfeather being thin, as is usual in cast-iron -engines. It is all self-contained, and the driving apparatus is -wholly on the outside of the engine. The raising and lowering are -effected by a worm and worm-wheel, so that the cylinder will stop -at any point required. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 54.] - -=Bleach Pump.=--In the accompanying engraving (Fig. 54) is shown -a pump, manufactured by Bryan Donkin and Co., which is arranged -expressly for the purpose of pumping up bleach-liquor. Each pump -is all self-contained, and merely requires a drum and strap to -drive it. The live and dead riggers upon the pump allow it to be -started and stopped at pleasure. "In all paper-mills," say the -manufacturers, "the bleach-liquor should be used over and over -again, not only to save bleach, which amounts to a considerable sum -in the course of a year, but also to keep the paper clean." - - -[Illustration: Fig. 55.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.] - -=Three-Roll Smoothing-Presses.=--The engraving (Fig. 55) shows a -damp smoothing-press, with rolls for smoothing the paper between -the two sections of drying cylinders of a paper-machine. The makers -are Messrs. Bryan Donkin and Co. A three-roll smoothing press, for -smoothing the paper at the end of a paper-machine, also by the same -makers, is shown in Fig. 56. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.] - -=Back-water Pump.=--The engraving (Fig. 57) shows a pair of back or -size-water pumps, manufactured by Bertrams, Limited. The barrels -are of cast-iron, lined with copper. The suction and discharge -valves are each contained in a chamber with covers, so that every -valve could be easily got at by simply releasing the cover. The -valve-seats are of brass, with brass guards and rubber clacks. -The plungers are of brass, with cup-leathers. All is fitted up -on a cast-iron sole-plate, with tall standards, disc-cranks, and -driving-pulley between frames. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.] - -=Web-glazing Calender.=--Fig. 58 represents Bertrams' web-glazing -calender, with steam-engine attached. The illustration shows the -machine in front elevation. The steam-engine is specially designed -for this class of work, having two cylinders 10 inches in diameter -by 16 inches stroke, fitted on a double-hooded sole-plate, with -double-throw crank-shaft, fly-wheel, two eccentrics, wrought-iron -piston-rods, connecting-rods and valve-rods, steam and exhaust -branch pipes with one inlet valve, lubricators, and the cylinders -cased with teak legging and brass hoops. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.] - -=Reeling Machine.=--One form of reeling machine manufactured by -Bertrams, Limited, is shown in Fig. 59, and is used for slitting -and re-reeling webs of paper, especially where large webs are -requisite for web-calendering, web-printing, and suchlike. The reel -of paper from the paper-machine is placed on a sliding-carriage -arrangement, the brackets of which are planed and fitted to a -planed sole, with wedge or dove-tail corners, and controlled by -screws, hand-wheel, etc., so that the reel can quickly and easily -be moved forward or backward to suit any unequal reeling that may -have taken place on the paper or the machine. A hot cast-iron is -provided for mending breaks in the web, and a measuring-roll and -counter is also applied. The machine has an important application -of drawing-in or regulating rolls of cast iron, with arrangement -of expanding pulley for regulating the tension on the paper. -Slitting-knives, regulating, dancing, or leading-rolls, of cast -iron, etc., are applied for separating the edges and guiding the -webs after they are slit. The reeling is performed by a 3-feet -diameter drum, cross-shafts, and arms, to which regulating heads -are fitted, so that several webs can be run up at one operation. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 60.] - -=Web-Ripping Machine.=--This machine, which is manufactured -by Messrs. Bentley and Jackson, is shown in Fig. 60, and is -constructed to divide webs of paper into two or more widths. -It consists of two brass bearings on cast-iron standards, with -screw adjustments, a break-pulley and friction-regulator, all -mounted on cast-iron slides, movable transversely by means of a -screw, geared-wheels, shaft and hand-wheel; a wood guide-roll, -about 7 inches diameter, with wrought-iron centres, carried by -brass bearings with screw adjustment; three skeleton drums, each -2 feet in diameter, on wrought-iron shafts, carried by brass -bearings, and driven by spur-wheels and pinions; two wrought-iron -leading-rolls, with brass bearings and cast-iron stands; a pair -of strong wrought-iron ripper shafts with circular steel knives, -bosses, springs, and collars; cast-iron stands and brass bearings, -spur-wheels and driving-pulley; two (or more) changeable wood -drums 1 foot 6 inches in diameter, each with wrought-iron shaft -and catch-box, carried by brackets fitted with brass steps for -easily changing, driven by wrought-iron shafts with pedestals and -friction-pulleys, 2 feet in diameter, with regulating screws and -lock-nuts, all carried by strong cast-iron framing and standards, -and driven by a wrought-iron driving-shaft, with fast and loose -driving-pulleys, strap-fork and levers for starting and stopping. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 61.] - -=Roeckner's Clarifier.=--In this apparatus, of which an -illustration is given in Fig. 61, Mr. Roeckner has taken advantage -of the fact that if a column of liquid is ascending very slowly and -quietly within a vessel, it will not be able to carry up with it -the solid particles which it contains, which will gradually fall -back and sink to the bottom under the action of gravity, without -ever reaching the top of the vessel, provided this be of sufficient -height. The illustration shows the arrangement of the apparatus on -a small scale; the liquor to be clarified is run into a well or -reservoir _b_; into this dip a wrought-iron cylinder _c_, which is -open at the lower end, but hermetically closed at the top by means -of the casing _d_. From this casing air can be withdrawn through a -pipe, _h_, by means of an air-pump _i_. As soon as this is done the -liquid will begin to ascend the cylinder _c_, and if the height of -this is below that to which the water will rise at the atmospheric -pressure (say 25 feet), the liquid will ascend until it fills -the cylinder and the casing. Into the pocket at the side of the -casing there dips a pipe _g_, which passes out through the opposite -side of the casing, descends below the level of the water in the -tank, and ends in a discharge-cock. When this cock is opened, the -cylinder _c_ and the pipe _g_ form between them a syphon, of which, -however, the descending leg is of very small diameter compared with -the ascending leg. In consequence, the liquid will rise in the -cylinder _c_ very slowly. The sediment it contains will sink back -and collect in the bottom of the tank _b_, and clear water will -flow out at the outlet. A sludge-cock at the bottom of the tank -allows the solid matter to be drawn off at intervals and conveyed -to any convenient place for drying, etc.[30] For drawing clear -water from a river, the clarifier would simply be placed in the -river, dipping 2 or 3 inches into it below the lowest water-level. -The clear water will then be drawn through the clarifier, while -the heavier matters will fall down and be carried away by the -river current. It is stated that this has proved a great advantage -to a paper-mill which used a river, and had, prior to its use, -been much troubled through the dirt being pumped with the water. -The clarifier to receive the waste from paper-machinery, or from -washings in the engines, can be placed in any convenient corner, -and by its action the water can be re-used, and the otherwise lost -fibres collected, without its action ever being stopped. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 62.] - -=Marshall's Perfecting Engine.=--This engine, a longitudinal -section of which is shown in Fig. 62, has been introduced into -this country by Messrs. Bentley and Jackson, and is described -in _Industries_[31] as follows:--"The machine, which is the -invention of Mr. F. Marshall, of Turner's Falls, Mass., U.S.A., -is used in one of the processes of paper manufacture, and has for -its purpose the more effectual drawing of the pulp fibre, the -clearance of knots from the pulp previous to its delivery on to the -paper-making machine, and the saving of time in the treatment of -the material. As will be seen in the illustration (Fig. 62), the -machine consists essentially of a cast-iron conical casing, bored, -and fitted with about two hundred elbowed steel knives, G, placed -in sections. At the large end of this conical casing is placed a -movable disc, also fitted with about two hundred and ten steel -knives, F, and capable of adjustment by means of a screw, worm, -worm-wheel, and hand-wheel, E. The revolving cone and disc are of -cast iron, fitted with straight steel knives firmly keyed upon a -hammered iron shaft, and carefully balanced to prevent vibration. -The knives of the revolving cone and disc are brought into contact -with the stationary knives by means of the hand-wheel, E, and -the disc-knives can be independently adjusted by means of the -hand-wheel C, which actuates a screw on the conical casing by means -of the worm and worm-wheel shown. The machine is driven by means -of a pulley A, and the whole machine is mounted on a cast-iron -base-plate. The pulp material enters the engine in the direction -indicated by the arrow, B, at the small end of the cone, and is by -the rotary and centrifugal action of the revolving cone, propelled -to its large end, and during its passage is reduced to a fine pulp -by the action of the knives. It then passes through the knives, -F, of the stationary and rotating discs, by which the fibres are -further crushed or split up, all knots or strings rubbed out, and -the pulp effectually cleared previous to its exit through the -passage D." We are informed that the machine is capable of treating -from 900 lbs. to 1,200 lbs. of pulp per hour. The power required to -drive it is estimated at from 40 i.h.p. to 50 i.h.p. when making -300 revolutions per minute. This, however, is dependent on the -amount of friction caused between the surfaces of the fixed and -revolving knives. The flow space occupied is 12ft. 6in. in length, -and 4ft. in width. The perfecting machine, in its complete form, is -shown in Fig. 63. - -[Illustration: Fig. 63.] - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -_RECOVERY OF SODA FROM SPENT LIQUORS._ - - Recovery of Soda.--Evaporating Apparatus.--Roeckner's - Evaporator.--Porion's Evaporator--American System of Soda - Recovery.--Yaryan Evaporator. - - -=Recovery of Soda.=--Probably one of the most important -improvements in modern paper-making, at least from an economical -point of view, is the process of recovering one of the most costly, -and at the same time most extensively used, materials employed in -the manufacture--soda. While not a great many years since (and -in some mills is still the case even now), it was customary to -allow the spent soda liquors resulting from the boiling of various -fibres to run into the nearest rivers, thus not only wasting a -valuable product, but also polluting the streams into which they -were allowed to flow, means are now adopted by which a considerable -proportion of the soda is recovered and rendered available for -further use. The means by which this is effected are various, -but all have for their object the expulsion of the water and the -destruction of the organic matters dissolved out of the fibrous -substances in the process of boiling with caustic soda solutions. -One of the main objects of the various methods of recovering the -soda from spent liquors is to utilise, as far as practicable, all -the heat that is generated from the fuel used, whereby the process -of evaporation may be effected in the most economical way possible. -The principle upon which the most successful methods are based is -that the flame and heat pass over and under a series of evaporating -pans, and through side flues, by which time the heat has become -thoroughly utilised and exhausted. When all the water has been -expelled, the resulting dry mass is ignited and allowed to burn -out, when the black ash that remains, which is carbonate of soda, -is afterwards dissolved out, and the alkaline liquor causticised -with lime in the usual manner. According to Dunbar, 8 cwt. of -recovered ash and 4½ cwt. of good lime will produce 900 gallons -of caustic ley at 11° Tw. The liquor is then pumped into settling -tanks, from which it is delivered to the boilers when required. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 64.] - -=Evaporating Apparatus.=--An ordinary form of evaporator for the -recovery of the soda is shown in Fig. 64. It consists of a chamber -A, of the nature of a reverberatory furnace, lined with fire-brick, -the bottom of which is slightly hollowed. Above this is a tank -B containing the liquor, which is run down into the chamber as -required by means of a pipe C, provided with a tap. At one end of -the chamber is a furnace D, the flame of which passes through -the chamber and over the surface of the liquor lying upon the -floor, heating the chamber, evaporating, and at last incinerating, -its contents, and at the same time warming the liquor in the -tank above, and evaporating some of its water. The products of -the combustion in the furnace, and of evaporation, pass by the -flue into a chimney, and escape thence into the air. There is a -door E in the side of the furnace near the level of the floor of -the chamber, and this is opened from time to time to enable the -workmen to stir and move about the contents of the chamber, and -finally, when the process is sufficiently advanced, to draw out -the residue. The first effect produced is the reduction of the -liquor to the consistence of tar. Later on, a white crust, which -is the incinerated material, forms on the surface, and is drawn -on one side by the workmen, so as to allow of fresh crust being -formed. When all the charge has become solid it is drawn. The -charge is usually withdrawn before the conversion into carbonate is -completed; it is then raked out into barrows and placed in a heap, -generally in a shed or chamber, open on one side, but sometimes in -a closed brick-chamber or den, where the combustion continues for -several weeks. The result is the fusion of the material into a grey -rocky substance, which consists chiefly of carbonate and silicate -of soda. - -Various modifications of the esparto evaporator and calciner have, -however, been introduced since the recovery of soda has become more -general, and are in use at various works, all having for their -main object the economising of fuel and the utilising of the waste -heat of the fire, which in the old-fashioned calciner goes up the -chimney and is lost. The leading principle, of all of them is to -use the waste heat in concentrating the liquor preparatory to its -being run into the part where the calcination is to be effected. -This is done by so extending and widening out the flue as to cause -the heated air and flame, after they have performed their function -in the calcination, to pass over or under their layers of liquor, -lying upon shelves or floors in such a way that the liquor shall -become more and more concentrated as it approaches the calciner by -successive steps or gradations.[32]--_Dr. Ballard._ - - -[Illustration: Fig. 65.] - -=Roeckner's Evaporator.=--This apparatus, an illustration of which -is shown in Fig. 65, is thus described by Dr. Ballard, medical -officer of the Local Government Board, who was specially appointed -by the board to investigate the effluvium nuisances which arise -in connection with certain manufacturing industries. "In this -apparatus there is above the calcining floor a series of shelves -or shallow pans, alternating in such a manner that the liquor -flowing from the tank above into the uppermost of them, flows, -after a partial evaporation, over the edge of the shelf into the -shelf or shallow pan next below, and in this way from shelf to -shelf, still becoming more and more concentrated until it reaches -the final floor, over which the flame from the actual fire plays, -and where the first part of the calcination is effected. The -heated air, in passing to the chimney, passes over each of these -shelves in succession, heating them and concentrating the liquor -upon them. There is between the lower shelves an arrangement for -causing the liquor to pass from the upper to the lower by means of -a pipe, instead of its running over the edge. At the top of all -is a covered tank, where the temperature of the liquor is raised -before it is run into the evaporator. In order to promote the -heating of the liquor in this tank, the lower part of the tank is -made to communicate by side pipes with tubes passing across the -evaporator near the fire, as, for instance, at the bridge and at -the further end of the calcining floor. In this way a circulation -of liquor is set up which serves to heat the liquor in the tank -more effectually. A pipe from the top of the tank leads to the -chimney-shaft, conducting any vapours into it. As the incinerated -crust forms it is raked on one side, and when sufficient of it has -accumulated it is drawn to an opening (provided with a damper) at -the side or end of the floor, and discharged down this opening -into a brick chamber below, which is inclosed by iron doors, and -from which a flue conducts the vapours that arise during the final -fusion through the fire in such a way as to consume them." By -recent improvements Mr. Roeckner has constructed an apparatus for -condensing and rendering inoffensive the vapours eliminated from -the liquor during its evaporation on the successive shelves of his -evaporator. - - -=Porion's Evaporator.=--This evaporator and incinerating furnace -much resembles in principle an ordinary reverberatory furnace, -except that it is provided with paddle agitators, which project the -liquid upwards, causing it to descend in a spray, thus increasing -the surface of the liquid coming in contact with the hot air and -current of smoke traversing the furnace. By this method the expense -of fuel is greatly reduced. The residue is in a state of ignition -when it is withdrawn from the furnace, and is piled in heaps so -that it may burn slowly. When the combustion is complete, the -resulting calcined mass is treated with water, and the carbonate -of soda formed is afterwards causticised in the usual way. About -two-thirds of the soda is thus recovered. - - -=The Yaryan Evaporator.=--Mr. Homer T. Yaryan, of Toledo, Ohio, -U.S.A., has introduced some important improvements in evaporating -apparatus, which have been fully recognised in America, and appear -to have been attended with success. The principle involved is that -of multiple effects, in which the evaporation takes place while -the liquid is flowing through heated coils of pipe or conduits, -and in which the vapour is separated from the liquid in a chamber, -at the discharge end of the coils, and is conducted to the heating -cylinder surrounding the evaporating coils of the next effect, -from the first to the last effect. The objects of the invention -are: (1) to provide extended vaporising coils or conduits and -increased heating surface for each liquid feed supply in the -heating cylinders, and provide improved means for feeding the -liquid, whereby each set or coil of vaporising tubes will receive -a positive and uniform supply of liquid without danger of the -feed ducts being clogged by extraneous matter; (2) to positively -control the amount of liquid fed by the pump to the evaporating -coils, and make it more uniform than heretofore, regardless of the -speed of the pump; (3) to provide improved separating chambers at -the discharge ends of the vaporising coils so as to better free -liquid and solid particles from the vapours; (4) to provide for -the successful treatment of the most frothy liquids by causing -the vapours carrying solid and liquid particles to pass through -catch-all chambers, where they are arrested and precipitated and -then returned to the evaporating coils; (5) to secure a more -positive flow and circulation of liquid from the evaporating -cylinder of one effect to another, under the influence of a better -vacuum than heretofore in multiple-effect vacuum evaporating -apparatus; (6) to provide for transferring a better concentrated -liquid into the separating chamber containing cooler concentrated -liquid in direct connection with the condenser and vacuum pump, so -as to equalise the temperature of the two liquids, and then draw -off both by one tail pump. - -[Illustration: Fig. 66.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 67.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 68.] - - -[Illustration: Fig. 69. Fig. 70. Fig. 71.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 72. Fig. 73. Fig. 74.] - -The present invention comprises a series of important improvements -on an apparatus described by Mr. Yaryan in a former English patent, -No. 14,162 (1886), and covers a number of important modifications -in construction, whereby improved results are secured. It is only -necessary, therefore, to give the details of the new patent, -No. 213 (1888), since it embodies the latest improvements which -practical working of the apparatus has suggested. In reference to -the accompanying illustrations the following details are given: -Fig. 66 represents a side elevation of the apparatus; Fig. 67, -the front elevation; Fig. 68, a top plan view; Fig. 69, a vertical -section of a cylinder showing the evaporating coils and separating -chamber; Fig. 70 is a horizontal section; and Fig. 71, a vertical -section of the separating chamber shown in Fig. 69, both on -reduced scale; Fig. 72 is a broken section of the cylinders for -showing the connections of the liquid pipe from the first to the -third effect evaporator; Fig. 73 is a rear end view of a cylinder -with manifold, the feed pump and a sectional view of the feed -box and supply devices; Fig. 74 represents a sectional view, on -enlarged scale, of the manifold and a feed duct; Fig. 75 is an -inside view of a return bend-head; Fig. 76 an inside view of a -section of the head; Fig. 77, a vertical cross section thereof -on enlarged scale, and showing the partitions forming cells -for connecting the ends of the evaporating tubes; Fig. 78 is a -vertical longitudinal section of a catch-all chamber; Fig. 79, a -cross section thereof; Fig. 80 is a vertical longitudinal section -of new form of separating chamber; and Fig. 81 represents a side -view and Fig. 82 an end view of the cylinders for showing the pipe -connection between the separating chambers of the third and fourth -effect evaporators. - -[Illustration: Fig. 75. Fig. 76. Fig. 77.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 78. Fig. 79. Fig. 80.] - -The evaporating cylinders are mounted upon a framework Y, supported -upon columns X X, or other suitable supports. The apparatus is -shown arranged as quadruple effect, with four connected cylinders, -but multiple effect apparatus may be constructed with an increased -number of cylinders up to ten or twelve. The heating cylinders -B^1 B^2 B^3 B^4, containing the evaporating tubes or coils, are -preferably arranged in the same horizontal plane, and are provided -at the discharge ends of the evaporating coils with separating -chambers, A^1 A^2 A^3 A^4, of enlarged diameter, and at the supply -ends of the coils with the coils with return bend ends, C^1 C^2 -C^3 C^4. From each separating chamber, A^1, A^2, valve pipe D^1 -D^2 D^3 leads into the shell of the next heating cylinder, as -B^2, B^3, B^4, and vapour pipe D^4 leads from the last separator -A^4 to the condenser H, and the vacuum pump H^1. A cylindrical -catch-all chamber E^1, E^2, E^3, E^4, is connected in each vapour -pipe between each separator and each successive heating cylinder, -as shown in Figs. 66, 67, and 68, and in detail in Fig. 75. Gauge -glass and liquid receiving chambers, G^1, G^2, G^3, G^4, connect -with the bottom of each separating chamber for receiving the -liquid as it is separated from the vapour, and a gauge glass _g_ -is applied to each of such chambers. Liquid discharge and transfer -pipes _t_, _t^1_, having valves _h_, _h^1_, as best shown in Figs. -66, 68, and 72, lead respectively from chambers G^1, G^2, of the -first and second effect to the manifold feed pipes leading into the -cylinders B^3, B^4, of the third and fourth effect for the purpose -hereafter described. The main steam supply pipe F, having a safety -valve _f_ and stop valve _f^1_, Figs. 66, 67, and 68, connects with -the heating cylinder B^1 of the first effect. The evaporating tubes -1, 2, 3, 4, 5, are expanded or otherwise secured in the tube sheets -_d_ and _e″_ at opposite ends of the cylinders, and are properly -connected at the ends in sets of five to form coils. The outer rear -return-bend head C^1 C^2, etc., are provided on their insides with -numerous short intersecting partition plates _c_, forming single -and double cells, properly arranged for connecting the evaporating -tubes in sets of five, as shown in Figs. 75, 76, 77. - -[Illustration: Fig. 81. Fig. 82.] - -The heads are pierced with holes _c′_ for connecting the liquid -supply pipes M of the manifolds L. The inner return-bend head T in -the separating chambers are formed like heads C^1 C^2, etc., with -intersecting partition plates _x_, and are provided with discharge -openings _t″_ for every fifth tube, as shown in Fig. 69. Tube sheet -_d_ is made of considerably larger diameter than cylinders B^1 -B^2, etc., and acts as a vibrating diaphragm, to accommodate the -expansion and contraction of the tubes. The separating chambers may -be constructed with dash plates _b_ _b_, two or more in number, -having openings _g′_ _g′_ alternately upon opposite sides for the -passage of vapour, and opening _a′_ at the bottom for the passage -of liquid, as shown in Fig. 80. Here a tube sheet _z_ is provided -near the openings of the evaporating tubes, and in such sheet are -set numerous small horizontal tubes _n_, which discharge against a -vertical arresting plate _b′_ set near their open ends. Water and -solid matter are impelled against the plate and thereby arrested -and caused to flow down to the bottom of the chamber. The liquid -feed apparatus consists of a supply tank K, stand-pipe J, feed box -K^1, double pump I, manifold L, and connecting pipes and valves. -The liquid to be evaporated flows from tank K, through pipe _k_, to -stand-pipe J and box K^1, the flow being constant and uniform, and -of the desired quantity, by means of a valve _k′_ having a lever -handle _r′_ which is connected by a cord or chain passing over a -pulley _j_ with float _q_ in stand-pipe J. The valve opening in -pipe _k_ being properly adjusted by means of the float, etc., the -liquid is admitted to the stand-pipe J while the column of liquid -is automatically maintained at any desired height and pressure -regardless of the quantity in the supply tank, by means of the -float _q_, which, as it rises, tends to close valve _k′_, and as -it falls, to open the valve. From the bottom of the stand-pipe J, -nozzle _j′_ discharges a constant and uniform stream of liquid into -feed box K^1. The suction pipe I″ of pump I extends into box K^1, -where it terminates in a turned-down nozzle provided with valve _i_ -having a lever handle and float _z_. As a given amount of liquid is -constantly running into the box, should the pump run too fast the -float lowers, partially closing the valve and lessening the amount -of liquid drawn at each stroke of the pump, and preventing air from -being drawn in, since the end of the suction pipe is always sealed -by the liquid. The liquid is forced by pump I into the manifolds -L, from which it flows through the contracted ducts _l_ into the -enlarged feed pipes _m_, as shown in Figs. 73 and 74. Ducts _l_ are -of about one-half inch diameter, and the upper and lower sections -thereof are connected by a union coupling, one portion of which -_l′_ has a reducer with opening one-quarter inch diameter, more or -less, according to the amount of liquid it is desired to feed. - -The catch-all chambers E^1 E^2, etc., Figs. 66, 78, and 79, are -provided each at its inlet end _e_, with tube sheet _o_ extending -across its diameter a short distance in front of the opening of -vapour pipe D^1, and in such sheet are fixed numerous longitudinal -tubes _p_ extending to near the opposite head _e′_, so that vapours -carrying watery or solid particles are impelled against the head -and arrested. Liquid and solid matter, arrested in the catch-all -chambers, flow through pipes _v v′_ _v″_ down into the fluid -transfer pipe _t t′_ (Figs. 67, 68, and 72), and thence into the -evaporating coils and through pipe _v‴_ directly to the tail pump -W, Fig. 67. By use of the catch-all chambers the most frothy -liquids can he readily and economically managed. A liquid transfer -pipe _s_, having a valve _h″_, leads directly from receiving -chamber G^3 of the third effect to the separating chamber A^4 of -the fourth effect, the latent heat being carried off in the vapours -drawn by the vacuum pump H^1 into the chamber H, and the finished -liquid of both effects is drawn off through pipe _w_ by one and -the same tail pipe pump W. The water of condensation accumulating -in the heating cylinders B^1 B^2, etc., is transferred from one -to the other through connecting pipes _u u′ u″_ having valves -_y_, shown in Figs. 66, 67, and 68; and finally from cylinder B^4 -through pipe _u‴_ directly into condenser H. The specification of -the patent, which those interested will do well to consult, next -describes the operation of the apparatus. - - -=American System of Soda Recovery.=--Mr. Congdon gives an -exhaustive description[33] of the method of recovering soda -in the United States, from whose interesting paper we extract -the following:--The spent liquors are delivered to the Yaryan -evaporator from the pans at a density of 6° to 7° B. at 130° -F. Here they are concentrated to 34° to 42° at 140° F. At this -density they are fed into furnaces of a reverberatory type, where -they are burnt to a cherry-red heat; and the ash then raked out. -This ash, which averages 50 per cent. of soda, is weighed in iron -barrows on suitable scales, and wheeled into the leaching-room -for lixiviation. The system of leaching, as it is termed in the -States, is conducted as follows:--Iron tanks are used, with -suitable piping, that allows pumping from one tank to another, and -also to pump from any one of them up to the causticising tanks in -the alkali-room. There is also a water-line by which water may be -pumped into any of the tanks, and there is a spout used in washing -away the black ash sludge. The leaching-tanks have false bottoms -of 2in. by 2in. stuff, placed crosswise, over which is a layer of -gravel, on which lies a layer of straw, by which the liquor is -filtered. The gravel is removed every few days, and the straw -with every charge. When one of the tanks is filled with black ash, -it is "wet down" with the stored liquor (the strongest of the -stored weak liquors), and also with the strongest weak liquors -from the tanks, and with weak liquors obtained from these tanks by -pumping water upon them and keeping them full. This is all pumped -up to the causticising-tank until the strength is reduced to 2° -or 1½° B. The remaining liquor is then drained into a tank known -as the "clear-liquor" tank, owing to there being no black ash in -it. The liquor from the next weakest pan is then pumped upon the -pan containing the black ash, and the next weakest liquor pumped -upon this. The weaker pans are then in succession pumped upon -the stronger, and the water pumped upon these, and thus a very -perfect washing is obtained. The sludge left behind is nothing but -charcoal, with a slight trace of carbonate of soda. Mr. Congdon -illustrates the above system thus. The tanks stand as follows:-- - -No. 1. Clear liquor, 1° to 2° B. (strongest). - -No. 2. Black ash sludge (weaker than No. 3). - -No. 3. Black ash, after sending up to causticising-tank (strongest -sludge). - -No. 4. Fresh black ash. - -No. 5. Weaker than No. 2 (sludge only). - -No. 6. Weaker than No. 5 (sludge and weakest liquor). - -The method of procedure is as follows:-- - -Liquor from No. 3 drained into No. 1 (now full). - -No. 6 pumped on to No. 2 (No. 6 sludge thrown away). - -Liquor from No. 2 drained upon No. 3. - -Water put on No. 5. - -No. 5 pumped upon No. 2 (No. 5 sludge thrown away). - -The black ash is treated thus:-- - -No. 4, full of black ash, is wet down with Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and -pumped up to the causticising-tank. - -Water is pumped out to Nos. 2 and 3, and then drained upon No. -4, the liquor still being pumped up from No. 4 while the water -is being pumped upon Nos. 2 and 3, which are kept full. This is -continued until the liquor tests only 2° to 1° B. - -No. 4 is now drained upon No. 1. - -No. 3 pumped upon No. 4, and this drained into No. 1 (now full). - -No. 3 pumped upon No. 5. - -Water pumped upon No. 2 (No. 2 the next to be thrown away). - -No. 5 is by this time full of fresh black ash, and the same process -is carried out with No. 4. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -_DETERMINING THE REAL VALUE OR PERCENTAGE OF COMMERCIAL SODAS, -CHLORIDE OF LIME, ETC._ - - Examination of Commercial Sodas.--Mohr's Alkalimeter.--Preparation - of the Test Acid.--Sampling Alkalies.--The Assay.--Estimation of - Chlorine in Bleaching Powder.--Fresenius' Method.--Gay-Lussac's - Method.--The Test Liquor.--Testing the Sample.--Estimation of - Alumina in Alum Cake, etc. - - -In a manufacture such as paper-making, which involves the -consumption of enormous quantities of materials of variable -quality, as soda ash, caustic soda, and bleaching powder, for -example, it will be readily seen that some means should be at the -command of the consumer who does not avail himself of the services -of a practical chemist at his works, by which he can ascertain the -_actual_ value of the various substances he uses. An art which, up -to a certain point in its progress, is mainly a chemical operation, -it would undoubtedly be more safely and economically conducted when -supervised by persons well acquainted with chemical principles -and reactions, and less dependent upon individual judgment, than -is, perhaps, too frequently the case. Under such supervision more -perfect uniformity of results--a consideration of the greatest -importance in a manufacture of this kind--would be ensured. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 83. Fig. 84. Fig. 85.] - -=Examination of Commercial Sodas.=--The methods of determining the -percentage of real alkali in the commercial products which have -received the name of _Alkalimetry_ are fortunately of a simple -character, and such as a person of ordinary intelligence and -skill can readily manipulate and render thoroughly reliable by -exerting the necessary care. He must, however, be provided with a -few indispensable appliances, which will be described, and with -these he should make several trials upon various samples until -he finds that his results are uniform and his manipulation easy -and reliable. He will require a chemical balance,[34] capable of -weighing to the tenth of a grain; a few glass "beakers" (Fig. -83) of various sizes, capable of holding from four to eight or -ten ounces of fluid; several glass stirrers; a bottle of litmus -solution, made by dissolving litmus in hot water; books of litmus -and turmeric papers; and several glass flasks (Fig. 84) of various -sizes, capable of holding from four to eight ounces. Besides these -accessories, certain measuring instruments, termed _alkalimeters_ -or _burettes_, are employed, of which either of the two following -may be employed. These instruments are of glass, and hold up to 0 -or zero exactly 1,000 grains. The scale is graduated in a hundred -divisions, which are again subdivided into tenths. Bink's burette -is shown in Fig. 85, and Mohr's burette in Fig. 86. The latter, -being provided with a stand, enables the operator to add the test -liquor--with, which the burette is charged--drop by drop, when the -alkaline solution to be tested is near the point of saturation, -without engaging the hands. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 86. Fig. 87.] - -=Mohr's Alkalimeter.=--This useful instrument (Fig. 86) and the -method of using it is thus described by Mohr:--"I have succeeded -in substituting for expensive glass stop-cocks an arrangement -which may be constructed by any person with ease, which remains -absolutely air and water-tight for an indefinite period, which -may be opened and regulated at will by the pressure of the -fingers, and which costs almost nothing. It consists of a small -piece of vulcanized indiarubber tube, which is closed by a clamp -of brass wire (Fig. 87). The ends of this clamp, which I call a -pressure-cock, are bent laterally at right angles in opposite -directions and furnished with knobs, so that when both ends are -pressed the clamp is opened, and a single drop or a continuous -current of liquid may be allowed to escape at pleasure. The -measuring-tube is a straight glass cylinder, as uniform as -possible, graduated to 0·2 or 0·1 cubic centimètres, and somewhat -contracted at its lower end, so as to fit into the indiarubber -tube. A small piece of glass tube inserted below the pressure-cock -forms the spout. The pressure-cock has the advantage of not -leaking, for it closes itself when the pressure of the fingers -is removed. The measure, furnished with the pressure-cock, is -fastened upon an appropriate stand, which can be placed at any -required height. When used, it is filled above the zero point with -test liquor, the cock opened for an instant, so as to let the -air escape from the spout, and the level of the solution is then -adjusted. This is done by bringing the eye level with the zero -point, and applying a gentle pressure to the cock until the liquid -has sunk so low that the inferior curve of the liquid touches the -graduation like the circle of a tangent; the cock is then closed, -and at the same moment the liquid remains at zero, and continues to -do so for weeks if evaporation is prevented. The test-measure being -normally filled, the experiment may be commenced; this is done -sitting, while the filling of the measure is done standing. - -"The weighed sample of alkali is first placed in a beaker-glass, -and the test-liquor is allowed to flow into it by gently pressing -the cock. Both hands are set at liberty, for when the pressure-cock -is released it closes of itself. The volumetric[35] operation may -be interrupted at pleasure, in order to heat the liquid, shake it, -or do whatever else may be required. The quantity of liquid used -may be read off at any moment, and in repeating an experiment, -the limit of the quantity used before may be approached so near -that the further addition of liquid may be made drop by drop." -The test-acid to be used _volumetrically_--that is, with the -alkalimeter, has a specific gravity of 1·032 at 60° F., and 1,000 -grains by measure contain exactly 40 grains of real or anhydrous -(that is, without water) sulphuric acid. - -The chemical principles involved in the process of alkali-testing -may be thus briefly stated:--According to the laws of chemical -combination defined by the atomic theory of Dalton, all substances -combine in _definite_ proportions or "equivalents"; thus, 1 part by -weight of _hydrogen_ combines with 8 parts by weight of _oxygen_ -to form water. The equivalent number of hydrogen, therefore, is -1, and of oxygen 8, and that of water 9. Again, 3 equivalents of -oxygen combine with 1 equivalent of sulphur (16) to form sulphuric -acid; thus, sulphur 16, oxygen 24, equals anhydrous sulphuric -acid 40; therefore 40 is the _equivalent_ or combining number of -this acid, and it cannot be made to unite with alkalies or other -bases in any other proportion. For example, 40 _grains_ by weight -of _pure_ sulphuric acid will neutralise exactly 53 grains of -_dried carbonate of soda_, 31 grains of _pure anhydrous soda_, or -40 grains of _hydrate of soda_ (caustic soda). This being so, it -is only necessary to have exactly 40 grains of _real_ sulphuric -acid in 1,000 grains of water to form a _test-acid_, which, when -employed to neutralise an alkaline solution, will show, by the -proportion of dilute acid used to saturate the alkali, the absolute -percentage present in the sample. - - -=Preparation of the Test-Acid or Standard Solution.=--As there is -some trouble involved in the preparation of the test-liquor, it -is advisable to prepare a sufficient quantity at a time to last -for many operations. It may be readily made by mixing 1 part of -concentrated sulphuric acid with 11 or 12 parts of _distilled -water_, the mixture being made in what is termed a "Winchester" -bottle, which holds rather more than half a gallon, and is provided -with a glass stopper. The acid solution must be _adjusted_ or -brought to the proper strength after it has cooled down to 60° -F.; and it should be _faintly tinged_ with litmus, which will -give it a pinkish hue. The acid, to be of the proper strength, -should _exactly_ neutralise 53 grains of pure carbonate of soda, -previously calcined at a red heat, or 31 grains of pure anhydrous -soda. To prepare the anhydrous carbonate of soda, a few crystals of -carbonate of soda are placed in a Berlin porcelain crucible, and -this must be heated over a spirit-lamp or Bunsen burner. When all -the water of crystallisation has become expelled, the calcination -is continued until the mass is at a bright red heat, when the -vessel may be allowed to cool. 53 grains of the calcined carbonate -are now to be carefully weighed, and next dissolved in a glass -beaker, in about 2 ounces of distilled water. The alkalimeter is -now to be charged with the test-acid to the level of zero, and (if -Mohr's burette be used) the beaker containing the alkaline solution -is to be placed upon the stand immediately beneath the exit-tube. -Now press the knobs of the pressure-cock, and allow a portion -of the liquor to flow into the beaker. When the effervescence -which immediately sets up subsides, make further additions of the -test-liquor from time to time, until the effervescence becomes -sluggish, at which period the acid must be added with greater -caution. When the solution approaches saturation it acquires a -purplish tint (due to the litmus with which the acid is tinged), -which it retains until the point of saturation is reached, when it -suddenly changes to a pink colour. After each addition of the acid -the solution should be stirred with a thin and clean glass rod; -and before the final change from purple to pink, the end of the -glass rod should be applied to a strip of blue litmus paper, when, -if the moistened spot touched assumes a red colour, the saturation -is complete; if, on the contrary, the paper is unchanged, or has a -violet or reddish hue, add the test-liquor, one or two drops at a -time, with continued stirring, until a drop of the solution applied -with a glass rod reddens litmus paper, when the saturation is -finished. If any test-liquor remain in the burette, this indicates -that there is excess of acid in the test-liquor; consequently more -distilled water must be added to the bulk, the burette emptied -and refilled with the reduced liquor, and another 53 grains of -anhydrous carbonate of soda treated as before, until 1,000 grains -of the acid liquor _exactly_ neutralise the solution. Should the -whole contents of the burette in the first trial be used before -saturation is complete, a little more sulphuric acid must be put -into the Winchester or test-acid bottle, and a 53-grain solution -of carbonate of soda treated as before. A very little practice -will enable the operator to adjust his test-liquor with perfect -accuracy; and, to prevent mistakes, the bottle should be labelled -"Test-acid," and always be kept closed by its stopper. - - -=Sampling Alkalies.=--Soda-ash of commerce is usually packed in -wooden casks, and in order to obtain a fair average sample from a -large number of these casks, which may represent one consignment, -it is important to take small samples, as near the centre of each -cask as possible, from as many of the casks as time will permit. -Each sample, as drawn from the cask, should be at once placed -in a rather wide-mouthed bottle furnished with a well-fitting -cork. Each sample should be numbered and marked with the brand -which distinguishes the cask from which it was taken. The duty -of sampling should be placed in the hands of a person of known -integrity and intelligence. - -When about to test a sample of soda-ash, the contents of the bottle -should first be emptied upon a sheet of dry paper, and the larger -lumps then crushed to reduce the whole to a coarse powder, and -this must be done as quickly as possible to prevent absorption of -moisture from the atmosphere. 100 grains of the alkali must now -be accurately weighed and put into a glass flask (Fig. 84), and -the remainder of the alkali returned to the bottle and the vessel -securely corked. About half an ounce of distilled water is then to -be put into the flask and gentle heat applied, with an occasional -shaking, until the alkali is all dissolved. The flask is then to -be set aside for a few minutes, until any insoluble matter present -has subsided, when the clear liquor is to be carefully poured into -a beaker glass; the sediment must be washed several times with -small quantities of distilled water, and the washings added to -the solution in the beaker. This washing is of great importance -and must be performed several times, or until the last washing -liquor produces no effect upon yellow turmeric paper, which even -slight traces of alkali will turn a brown colour. So long as this -brown tint is given to the turmeric paper the presence of alkali -is assured, and the washing must be continued. It is important, -after each washing, to pour off the last drop of the liquor above -the sediment, by which the operation is more effectual, and is -effected with less water than when this precaution is not observed. -In order to ensure perfect accuracy in the result, every particle -of the washings must be added to the contents of the beaker-glass -in which the assay is to be made. - - -=The Assay.=--The alkalimeter is first to be filled with the -test-acid exactly to the line 0 or zero of the scale as described, -and the beaker containing the solution to be tested then placed -immediately beneath the dropping tube of the instrument; a thin -glass rod should be placed in the beaker as a stirrer. The acid -liquor is then allowed to flow gradually into the alkaline -solution (which should be repeatedly stirred with the glass rod), -by pressing the knobs of the pressure-cock, until the solution -assumes a purple tint, which it will retain until the exact point -of saturation has been arrived at, when, as before stated, it -will suddenly change to a pink colour. Before the latter stage is -reached the beaker should be placed over a spirit lamp or Bunsen -burner, and the liquid heated to expel the carbonic acid which is -evolved, and partly absorbed by the solution during the process of -saturation. When the neutralisation is complete, the alkalimeter -is allowed to repose for a few moments, so that the acid liquor -may drain from the interior of the glass tube into the bulk of the -fluid, and the quantity of test-acid used is then determined by -reading off the number of divisions of the alkalimeter that have -been exhausted, every one of which represents 1/100th part, or 1 -per cent. of _alkali_, whenever the _equivalent weight_ is taken -for assay. Every 1/10th part of an alkalimeter division represents -1/10th of 1 per cent., and the result is thus obtained without -the necessity of any calculation. The following table shows the -_equivalent_ or combining proportions of soda with 40 grains of -real (that is, anhydrous) sulphuric acid:-- - - Are - equivalent - to - 40 grains of sulphuric acid } 31 grains soda (anhydrous). - 1,000 grains of dilute } 40 grains hydrate of soda (pure - sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1·033) } caustic soda). - 1,000 grains of dilute } 53 grains carbonate of soda - sulphuric acid (water-grain } (anhydrous). - measure) sp. gr. 1·032 } 143 grains crystallized - } carbonate of soda. - -Mr. Arnot recommends the following method for alkali testing: "The -sample, which should be a fair average of the drum or cask from -which it is drawn, should, in the case of caustic soda, be quickly -crushed into small fragments, and returned to the stoppered bottle -in which it was collected for testing. It need not be finely -ground, and, indeed, should not be, as it very readily attracts -moisture from the air. The contents of the drum are usually pretty -uniform, and the crushing recommended will give the operator -a sample quite fit to work upon. Samples of soda-ash and soda -crystals will, of course, be fairly representative of the casks -from which they are drawn. One hundred grains of the prepared -sample must be weighed out upon a watch-glass or slip of glazed -paper, and transferred to a porcelain basin, with at least half a -pint of boiling water. The watch-glass is preferable for caustic -soda, and the weighing in the case of that agent must be done -expeditiously. While the sample is dissolving the burette will be -charged with the standard acid. To the soda solution a few drops -of solution of litmus, sufficient to colour it distinctly, will -be added. The acid will then be run into the blue soda liquor; -at first, within reasonable limits, this may be done rapidly, -but towards the close of the operation the acid must be added -cautiously, and the solution kept well stirred. In the case of -caustic, when the blue has distinctly changed to red, the operation -may be considered completed, and the measures may be read off the -burette; and this is, without calculation, the result required. -When the soda in the sample is a carbonate, the blue colour of the -litmus will be changed to pink before all the soda is neutralised, -owing to a portion of the liberated carbonic acid remaining in -the solution; this must be eliminated by placing the basin over a -Bunsen burner and boiling the solution. The blue colour will thus -be restored, and more acid must be added, repeating the boiling -from time to time, until the red colour becomes permanent. It is -sometimes necessary to filter the soda solution before testing; -this applies specially to recovered soda, and, although in a less -degree, to soda-ash." When the soda solution is filtered, it will -be necessary to thoroughly wash out the liquor absorbed by the -filtering paper, the washings being added to the bulk of the liquor -as before. The best plan is to allow the soda solution to stand -for some time until all the sediment has deposited, and then to -pour off as much of the liquor as possible, and then to wash the -sediment into a very small filter, in which it will receive further -washing, until no trace of alkali can be detected in the last wash -water. - - -=Estimation of Chlorine in Bleaching Powder.=--It is desirable that -the manager or foreman of a paper-mill should have at his command -some ready means by which he may test the percentage of chlorine -in samples of bleaching powder, or chloride of lime, delivered at -the mill, not alone to enable him to determine the proportions to -be used in making up his bleaching liquors, but also to ensure his -employers against possible loss in case of inferior qualities being -delivered at the mill. Bleaching powders being purchased according -to percentage, it is absolutely necessary that the purchaser should -have this determined to his own satisfaction before either using -or paying for the material. Good chloride of lime should contain -35 per cent. of available chlorine, but the powder should not be -accepted which contains less than 32 per cent. There are several -methods of estimating the percentage of chlorine in bleaching -powder, which is composed of hypochlorite of lime, chloride of -calcium, and hydrate of lime, the latter substances being of no -service in the bleaching process. - -According to Fresenius, in freshly prepared and perfectly normal -chloride of lime, the quantities of hypochlorite of lime and -chloride of calcium present stand to each other in the proportion -of their equivalents. When such chloride of lime is brought into -contact with dilute sulphuric acid, the whole of the chlorine it -contains is liberated in the elementary form. On keeping chloride -of lime, however, the proportion between hypochlorite of lime -and chloride of calcium gradually changes: the former decreases, -the latter increases. Hence from this cause alone, to say nothing -of original difference, the commercial article is not of uniform -quality, and on treatment with acid gives sometimes more, and -sometimes less, chlorine. As the value of bleaching powder depends -entirely upon the amount of chlorine set free on treatment with -acids, chemists have devised very simple methods of determining the -available amount of chlorine in any given sample, these methods -having received the name of _chlorimetry_. The method of Fresenius -is generally considered both practicable and reliable. - - -=Fresenius' Method= of preparing the solution of bleaching powder -to be tested is as follows:--Carefully weigh out 10 grains of -the sample, and finely triturate it in a mortar with a little -cold water, gradually adding more water; next allow the liquor to -settle, then pour the liquid into a litre flask, and triturate -the residue again with a little water, and rinse the contents of -the mortar carefully into the flask, which should then be filled -with water up to the graduated mark. Now shake the milky fluid -and proceed to examine it while in the turbid state; and each -time, before measuring off a fresh portion, the vessel must be -again shaken to prevent the material from depositing. The results -obtained with the solution in its turbid condition are considered -more accurate and reliable than when the clear liquid alone is -treated, even though the deposit be frequently washed. This may be -proved, Fresenius says, by making two separate experiments, one -with the decanted clear liquor, and another with the residuary -turbid mixture. In an experiment made in his own laboratory -the decanted clear fluid gives 22·6 of chlorine, the residuary -mixture 25·0, and the uniformly mixed turbid solution 24·5. One -cubic centimètre of the solution of chloride of lime so prepared -corresponds to 0·01 gramme of chloride of lime. - - -=Gay-Lussac's Method.=--This method, which is known as the -_arsenious acid process_, has been much adopted for the -determination of chlorine in bleaching powders, and is conducted as -follows:-- - -_The Test-liquor._--This is prepared by dissolving 100 grains of -_pure_ arsenious acid in about 4 ounces of pure hydrochloric acid, -and the solution is to be diluted with water until, on being poured -into a graduated 10,000 grains measure-glass, it occupies the -volume of 700 grains measure marked on the scale. Each 1,000 grains -measure of this liquid now contains 14·29 grains of arsenious acid, -corresponding to 10 grains of chlorine, or 1/10 grain of chlorine -for every division or degree of the scale of the chlorimeter, for -which purpose a Mohr's burette of the above capacity may be used, -or a graduated tube of the form shown in Fig. 85 may be employed. - -_Testing the Sample._--100 grains of the chloride of lime to -be tested are next dissolved in water, and poured into a tube -graduated up to 2,000 grains measure. The whole must be well shaken -in order to obtain a uniformly turbid solution, and half of it -(1,000 grains measure) transferred to a graduated chlorimeter, -which is, therefore, thus filled up to 0°, or the zero of the -scale, and contains exactly 50 grains of the chloride of lime -under examination, whilst each degree or division of the scale -contains only ½ grain. 1,000 grains measure of the arsenious acid -test-liquor are now poured into a glass beaker, and a few drops of -a solution of sulphate of indigo added, in order to impart a faint, -but distinct, blue colour to it; the glass is then to be shaken -so as to give a circular movement to the liquid, and whilst it is -whirling round the chloride of lime solution from the chlorimeter -is gradually and cautiously added until the blue tinge given to the -arsenious acid test-liquor is destroyed, care being taken to stir -the mixture well with a glass rod during the whole process, and to -stop as soon as the decoloration is complete. We will assume that -in order to destroy the blue colour of 1,000 grains measure of the -arsenious acid test-liquor 90 divisions or degrees of the chloride -of lime solution have been employed. These 90 divisions, therefore, -contained the 10 grains of chlorine required to destroy the colour -of the test solution; and since each division represents ½ grain -of chloride of lime, 45 grains of chloride of lime (10 grains of -chlorine) were present in the 90 divisions so employed, from which -the percentage strength may be ascertained:-- - - For 45 : 10 :: 100 : 22·22. - -The chloride of lime examined, therefore, contained 22¼ per -cent. (nearly) of chlorine. This method is extremely simple and -trustworthy when properly employed, but to ensure accuracy certain -precautions must be adopted. Instead of pouring the test liquor -into the solution of the sample (as in alkalimetry), the solution -of the sample must be poured into the test-liquor. If the contrary -plan were adopted the hydrochloric acid of the test-liquor would -liberate chlorine gas so fast that much would be lost, and the -result rendered incorrect. By pouring, on the contrary, the -chloride of lime solution into the arsenious acid solution the -chlorine is disengaged in small portions at a time, and meets with -an abundance of arsenious acid to react on. The mixture of chloride -of lime should also be employed turbid. - -=Estimation of Alumina in Alum Cake, etc.=--Mr. Rowland Williams, -F.C.S., in a paper read before the Chemical Society in June, -1888, describes a method of estimating the alumina in alums, -alum cakes, and sulphate of alumina, by which he obtained more -accurate results than are obtained by the ordinary ammonia method -of estimation. After pointing out several objections to the method -of precipitating the alumina by ammonia, he proceeds:--"There -is another method for the estimation of alumina which is not so -well known as the above. This is by means of sodium thiosulphate. -Having had a very extensive and successful experience of this -process, I can recommend it with confidence. Considerable practice -is, however, necessary in order to secure good results, as -certain conditions must be carefully attended to, otherwise the -precipitation will be incomplete. The estimation is made in a -moderately dilute solution. In the case of alum cake and sulphate -of alumina I dissolve 400 grains in water, filter, dilute to 10,000 -grains. I use 1,000 grains of this solution (equal to 40 grains of -the sample) for estimating the alumina. If any free acid is present -it is neutralised by a few drops of carbonate of soda solution, -and the whole diluted to about 8 ounces measure. A large quantity -of crystallized thiosulphate of soda is then added, and the liquid -boiled for at least half-an-hour, constantly replacing the water -lost by evaporation. By the end of that time all the alumina will -be precipitated in a finely-divided form, along with more or less -free sulphur. The precipitate is then filtered off and washed well -with boiling water. The filtration and washing take place very -rapidly, and may generally be accomplished in about twenty minutes, -this being a great saving of time in comparison with the long and -tedious washing by decantation, which is necessary in the case of -gelatinous alumina. Before filtration, it is advisable to add a -drop or two of carbonate of soda solution, lest the liquid should -have become slightly acid during boiling." - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -_USEFUL NOTES AND TABLES._ - - Preparation of Lakes.--Brazil-wood Lake.--Cochineal Lake.--Lac - Lake.--Madder Lake.--Orange Lake.--Yellow Lake.--Artificial - Ultramarine.--Twaddell's Hydrometer.--Dalton's Table showing the - proportion of Dry Soda in Leys of Different Densities.--Table - of Strength of Caustic Soda Solutions at 59° F.--Table showing - the Specific Gravity corresponding with the degrees of Baumé's - Hydrometer.--Table of Boiling Points of Alkaline Leys.--Table - showing the Quantity of Caustic Soda in Leys of Different - Densities.--Table showing the Quantity of Bleaching Liquid at 6° - Twaddell required to be added to Weaker Liquor to raise it to - the given Strength.--Comparative French and English Thermometer - Scales.--Weights and Measures of the Metrical System.--Table of - French Weights and Measures.--List of Works relating to Paper - Manufacture. - - -=Preparation of Lakes.=--These are prepared by either of the -following processes:--1. By adding a solution of alum, either -alone or partly saturated with carbonate of potassa, to a filtered -infusion or decoction of the colouring substance, and after -agitation precipitating the mixture with a solution of carbonate -of potash ("salt of tartar"). 2. By precipitating a decoction or -infusion of the colouring substance made with a weak alkaline -ley, by adding a solution of alum. 3. By agitating recently -precipitated alumina with a solution of the colouring matter, -prepared as before, until the liquid is nearly discoloured, or -the alumina acquires a sufficiently dark tint. The first method -is usually employed for aciduous solutions of colouring matter, -or for those whose tint is injured by alkalies; the second for -those that are brightened, or at least uninjured, by alkalies; -the third, those colouring matters that have a great affinity for -gelatinous alumina, and readily combine with it by mere agitation. -By attention to these general rules, lakes may be prepared from -almost all animal and vegetable colouring substances that yield -their colour to water, many of which will be found to possess great -beauty and permanence. - -The precise process adapted to each particular substance may -be easily ascertained by taking a few drops of its infusion or -decoction, and observing the effects of alkalies and acids on the -colour. - -The quantity of alum or of alumina employed should be nearly -sufficient to decolour the dye-liquor, and the quantity of -carbonate of potassa should be so proportioned to the alum as to -exactly precipitate the alumina, without leaving free or carbonated -alkali in the liquid. The first portion of the precipitate has -the deepest colour, and the shade gradually becomes paler as the -operation proceeds. - -A beautiful "tone" of violet, red, and even purple may be -communicated to the colouring matter of cochineal by the addition -of perchloride of tin; the addition of arseniate of potassa -(neutral arsenical salt) in like manner gives shades which may -be sought for in vain with alum or alumina. After the lake is -precipitated it must be carefully collected, washed with cold -distilled water, or the purest rain-water, until it ceases to give -out colour. - -=Brazil-wood Lake.=--1. Take of ground Brazil wood 1 lb., water -4 gallons; digest for 24 hours, then boil for 30 or 40 minutes, -and add of alum 1½ lb., dissolved in a little water; mix, decant, -strain, and add of solution of tin ½ lb.; again mix well and -filter; to the clear liquid add, cautiously, a solution of salt of -tartar or carbonate of soda, as long as a deep-coloured precipitate -forms, carefully avoiding excess. 2. Add washed and recently -precipitated alumina to a strong and filtered decoction of Brazil -wood. Inferior to the last. - -=Cochineal Lake.=--1. Cochineal (in coarse powder) 1 oz.; water -and rectified spirit, of each, 2½ ozs.; digest for a week; filter -and precipitate the tincture with a few drops of solution of tin, -added every 2 hours, until the whole of the colouring matter is -thrown down; lastly, wash the precipitate in distilled water and -dry it; very fine. 2. Digest powdered cochineal in ammonia water -for a week, dilute the solution with a little water, and add the -liquid to a solution of alum, as long as a precipitate falls, which -is the lake. Equal to the last. 3. Coarsely powdered cochineal 1 -lb., water 2 gallons; boil 1 hour, decant, strain, add a solution -of salt of tartar, 1 lb., and precipitate with a solution of alum. -By adding the alum first, and precipitating the lake with the -alkali, the colour will be slightly varied. All the above are sold -as carminated or Florence lake, to which they are often superior. - - -=Lac Lake.=--Boil fresh stick-lac in a solution of carbonate of -soda, filter the solution, precipitate with a solution of alum, and -proceed as before. A fine red. - - -=Madder Lake.=--1. Take of Dutch grappe or crop madder 2 oz., -tie it in a cloth, beat it well in a pint of water in a stone -mortar, and repeat the process with fresh water (about 5 pints) -until it ceases to yield colour; next boil the mixed liquor in an -earthen vessel, pour it into a large basin, and add of alum 1 oz., -previously dissolved in boiling water, 1 pint; stir well, and while -stirring, pour in gradually of a strong solution of carbonate of -potassa (salt of tartar) 1½ oz.: let the whole stand until cold, -then pour off the supernatant liquor, drain, agitate the residue -with boiling water, 1 quart (in separate portions), decant, drain, -and dry. Product, ½ oz. The Society of Arts voted their gold medal -to the author of the above formula. 2. Add a little solution -of acetate of lead to a decoction of madder, to throw down the -brown colouring matter, filter, add a solution of tin or alum, -precipitate with a solution of carbonate of soda or of potassa, -and otherwise proceed as before. 3. Ground madder, 2 lbs.; water, -1 gallon; macerate with agitation for 10 minutes, strain off the -water, and press the remainder quite dry; repeat the process a -second and a third time; then add to the mixed liquors, alum, ½ -lb., dissolved in water, 3 quarts; and heat in a water-bath for -3 or 4 hours, adding water as it evaporates: next filter, first -through flannel, and when sufficiently cold, through paper; then -add a solution of carbonate of potassa as long as a precipitate -falls, which must be washed until the water comes off colourless, -and lastly, dry. If the alkali be added in 3 successive doses, -3 different lakes will be obtained, successively diminishing in -beauty. - - -=Orange Lake.=--Take of the best Spanish annotta 4 ozs.; pearlash, -¾ lb.; water, 1 gallon; boil it for half an hour, strain, -precipitate with alum, 1 lb., dissolved in water, 1 gallon, -observing not to add the latter solution when it ceases to produce -an effervescence or a precipitate. The addition of some solution of -tin turns this lake a lemon yellow; acids redden it. - - -=Yellow Lake.=--1. Boil French berries, quercitron bark, or -turmeric, 1 lb., and salt of tartar, 1 oz., in water, 1 gallon, -until reduced to one half; then strain the decoction and -precipitate with a solution of alum. 2. Boil 1 lb. of the dye-stuff -with alum, ½ lb.; water, 1 gallon, as before, and precipitate the -decoction with a solution of carbonate of potash. - - -=Artificial Ultramarine.=--This is obtained by several processes, -of which the following are examples:--1. Take kaolin, 37 parts; -sulphate of soda, 15; carbonate of soda, 22; sulphur, 18; and -charcoal, 8 parts; mix these intimately, and heat in large covered -crucibles for twenty-four to thirty hours. The resulting product -is then to be again heated in cast-iron boxes at a moderate -temperature, until the required tint is obtained; it is finally -pulverised, washed in a large quantity of water, and the floating -particles allowed to subside in a separate vessel; the deposited -colour is now collected and dried. 2. Expose to a low red heat, -in a covered crucible as long as fumes are given off, a mixture -composed of: kaolin, 2 parts; anhydrous carbonate of soda and -sulphur, of each 3 parts. Some persons use one-third less carbonate -of soda. - - -=Twaddell's Hydrometer=, which is much employed for ascertaining -the strength of soda and chloride of lime solutions, etc., is so -graduated and weighted that the 0 or zero mark is equal to 1,000, -or the specific gravity of distilled water at the temperature of -60° F., and each degree on the scale is equal to ·005; so that by -multiplying this number by the number of degrees marked on the -scale, and adding 1·, the real specific gravity is obtained. Thus -10° Twaddell indicates a specific gravity of 1050, or 1·05, and so -on. - - -=Imitation Manilla Pulp from Wood.=--Mr. George E. Marshall, of -Turner's Falls, Mass., patented a process some years back by which -wood, under the action of hot water, and under a heavy pressure, -acquires the characteristic colour of manilla. The wood, having -been cut as usual, is placed in a closed vessel or tank capable -of resisting high pressure, if necessary, of 450 lbs. to the -square inch, the material being closely packed. At the bottom of -this tank is an opening with a valve, through which the water, -previously heated to a point above boiling, and below 280°, is -forced by a hydraulic press to such an extent as to saturate and to -completely permeate the wood, and to soften and drive out of the -pores the gum, resins, and acids; and if the temperature is kept -sufficiently hot, it gives the pulp the desired colour belonging -to a finely-made manilla paper. This may be aided somewhat by the -introduction of a small quantity of some alkaline substance to -act on the acids. The water may be heated in a coil outside, and -forced into the tank by a hydraulic press. The water thus heated -and forced in leaves the wood or the pulp in the most desirable -condition for work and for colour. Pulp made from wood treated -below the boiling point will be white; but this process is said to -secure the desired manilla colour by raising the temperature to -240° or 250° for a light pulp, and as high as 280° for a dark pulp. -No pressure is required from the steam above three atmospheres, but -the press may give from 450 to 500 lbs. to the square inch, and -practice has shown that the greater the pressure the more speedy is -the operation on the wood.[36] - - -=Testing Ultramarines.=--The sample of ultramarine should -be examined as to its power of resisting the action of alum -solutions, which may readily be done by the method suggested by Mr. -Dunbar:--"Dissolve the same amount of each sample in water, and -mix in this water about ½ lb. of pulp. When thoroughly mixed, and -each lot of pulp is well and evenly coloured, add one glassful -of the ordinary mill alum liquor, either from pure alum, or -aluminous cake to each, losing no time over the operation. Stir -each well and continuously with a glass rod, and note the glasses -carefully as to the length of time each sample keeps its colour." -To ascertain the _staining power_, so called, of the ultramarine, -and at the same time the tone, or tint, which it will impart when -mixed with pulp, 25 grains of each sample should be mixed with 100 -of kaolin or sulphate of lime (pearl hardening) and the several -mixtures then worked up into a paste with a little water by means -of a spatula, when the differences in the staining power of the -respective samples will at once become apparent if either be of -inferior quality. To make the test more complete, a like amount of -commercially pure ultramarine should be mixed with 100 grains of -kaolin for the purpose of comparison. In this way a ready judgment -may be formed as to the quality of the sample under examination. - - -=Strength of Paper.=--The comparative strength of samples of paper -may he determined by cutting strips an inch in width from each -sample, and suspending these from a rigid iron bar. Weights are -then cautiously attached to each until the sample breaks, when -the difference in the weights sustained by the respective samples -before the breaking point is reached will determine the comparative -strength of the samples tested. Mr. Parkinson, of St. George's -Road, Preston, furnishes a simple contrivance for determining the -breaking points of paper, and so comparing their value. - - - - -_TABLES._ - - -I.--DALTON'S TABLE SHOWING THE PROPORTION OF DRY SODA IN LEYS OF -DIFFERENT DENSITIES. - - Specific Dry Soda - gravity of per cent. Boiling - solution. by weight. points. - - 1·85 63·6 600° - 1·72 53·8 400° - 1·63 46·6 300° - 1·56 41·2 280° - 1·50 36·8 265° - 1·47 34·0 255° - 1·44 31·0 248° - 1·40 29·0 242° - 1·36 26·0 235° - 1·32 23·0 228° - 1·29 19·0 224° - 1·23 16·0 220° - 1·18 13·0 217° - 1·12 9·0 214° - 1·06 4·7 213° - - -II.--TABLE OF STRENGTH OF CAUSTIC SODA SOLUTIONS AT 59° F. = 150° -C. (TÜNNERMAN). - - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | Specific Gravity | Degrees | Per cent. of | Equivalent per cent. | - | (Water 1,000). | Twaddell. | Soda. | of 60 per cent. | - | | | | Caustic Soda. | - |------------------+-----------+--------------+----------------------| - | 1·0040 | 0·80 | 0·302 | 0·503 | - | 1·0081 | 1·62 | 0·601 | 1·001 | - | 1·0163 | 3·26 | 1·209 | 2·015 | - | 1·0246 | 4·92 | 1·813 | 3·021 | - | 1·0330 | 6·60 | 2·418 | 4·030 | - | 1·0414 | 8·28 | 3·022 | 5·037 | - | 1·0500 | 10·00 | 3·626 | 6·043 | - | 1·0587 | 11·74 | 4·231 | 7·051 | - | 1·0675 | 13·50 | 4·835 | 8·059 | - | 1·0764 | 15·28 | 5·440 | 9·067 | - | 1·0855 | 17·10 | 6·044 | 10·073 | - | 1·0948 | 18·96 | 6·648 | 11·080 | - | 1·1042 | 20·84 | 7·253 | 12·090 | - | 1·1137 | 22·74 | 7·857 | 13·095 | - | 1·1233 | 24·66 | 8·462 | 14·103 | - | 1·1330 | 26·60 | 9·066 | 15·110 | - | 1·1428 | 28·56 | 9·670 | 16·117 | - | 1·1528 | 30·56 | 10·275 | 17·125 | - | 1·1630 | 32·60 | 10·879 | 18·131 | - | 1·1734 | 34·68 | 11·484 | 19·140 | - | 1·1841 | 36·82 | 12·088 | 20·147 | - | 1·1948 | 38·96 | 12·692 | 21·153 | - | 1·2058 | 41·16 | 13·297 | 22·161 | - | 1·2178 | 43·56 | 13·901 | 23·170 | - | 1·2280 | 45·60 | 14·506 | 24·177 | - | 1·2392 | 47·84 | 15·110 | 25·170 | - +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ - - -III.--TABLE SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY CORRESPONDING WITH THE -DEGREES OF BAUMÉ'S HYDROMETER. - -Liquids denser than Water. - - +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ - | Degrees. | Specific | Degrees. | Specific | Degrees. | Specific | - | | Gravity. | | Gravity. | | Gravity. | - |----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------| - | 0 | 1·0000 | 26 | 1·2063 | 52 | 1·5200 | - | 1 | 1·0066 | 27 | 1·2160 | 53 | 1·5353 | - | 2 | 1·0133 | 28 | 1·2258 | 54 | 1·5510 | - | 3 | 1·0201 | 29 | 1·2358 | 55 | 1·5671 | - | 4 | 1·0270 | 30 | 1·2459 | 56 | 1·5833 | - | 5 | 1·0340 | 31 | 1·2562 | 57 | 1·6000 | - | | | | | | | - | 6 | 1·0411 | 32 | 1·2667 | 58 | 1·6170 | - | 7 | 1·0483 | 33 | 1·2773 | 59 | 1·6344 | - | 8 | 1·0556 | 34 | 1·2881 | 60 | 1·6522 | - | 9 | 1·0630 | 35 | 1·2992 | 61 | 1·6705 | - | 10 | 1·0704 | 36 | 1·3103 | 62 | 1·6889 | - | | | | | | | - | 11 | 1·0780 | 37 | 1·3217 | 63 | 1·7079 | - | 12 | 1·0857 | 38 | 1·3333 | 64 | 1·7273 | - | 13 | 1·0935 | 39 | 1·3451 | 65 | 1·7471 | - | 14 | 1·1014 | 40 | 1·3571 | 66 | 1·7674 | - | 15 | 1·1095 | 41 | 1·3694 | 67 | 1·7882 | - | | | | | | | - | 16 | 1·1176 | 42 | 1·3818 | 68 | 1·8095 | - | 17 | 1·1259 | 43 | 1·3945 | 69 | 1·8313 | - | 18 | 1·1343 | 44 | 1·4074 | 70 | 1·8537 | - | 19 | 1·1428 | 45 | 1·4206 | 71 | 1·8765 | - | 20 | 1·1515 | 46 | 1·4339 | 72 | 1·9000 | - | | | | | | | - | 21 | 1·1603 | 47 | 1·4476 | 73 | 1·9241 | - | 22 | 1·1692 | 48 | 1·4615 | 74 | 1·9487 | - | 23 | 1·1783 | 49 | 1·4758 | 75 | 1·9740 | - | 24 | 1·1875 | 50 | 1·4902 | 76 | 2·0000 | - | 25 | 1·1968 | 51 | 1·4951 | | | - +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ - - -IV.--TABLE OF BOILING POINTS OF ALKALINE LEYS. - - +---------------------------------------------------+ - | Alkaline | Specific | Percentage of | Boils at | - | Ley. | Gravity. | Alkali. | degrees | - | | | | Fahrenheit. | - |----------+----------+---------------+-------------| - | Soda | 1·18 | 13 | 217° | - | Potash | 1·23 | 19·5 | 220 | - | Soda | 1·23 | 16 | 220 | - | Potash | 1·28 | 23·4 | 224 | - | Soda | 1·29 | 19 | 224 | - | Soda | 1·32 | 23 | 228 | - | Potash | 1·33 | 26·3 | 229 | - | Soda | 1·36 | 26 | 235 | - | Soda | 1·40 | 29 | 242 | - | Potash | 1·42 | 34·4 | 246 | - | Soda | 1·47 | 34 | 255 | - | Potash | 1·44 | 36·8 | 255 | - | Soda | 1·5 | 36·8 | 265 | - | Potash | 1·52 | 42·9 | 276 | - | Potash | 1·6 | 46·7 | 290 | - | Soda | 1·63 | 46·6 | 300 | - | Potash | 1·68 | 51·2 | 329 | - +---------------------------------------------------+ - - -V.--TABLE SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF CAUSTIC SODA IN LEYS OF DIFFERENT -DENSITIES (WATER 1,000). - - +---------------------------------------------+ - | Specific | Soda | Specific | Soda | - | gravity. | per cent. | gravity. | per cent. | - |----------+-----------|----------+-----------| - | 1·00 | 0·00 | 1·22 | 20·66 | - | 1·02 | 2·07 | 1·24 | 22·58 | - | 1·04 | 4·02 | 1·26 | 24·47 | - | 1·06 | 5·89 | 1·28 | 26·33 | - | 1·08 | 7·69 | 1·30 | 28·16 | - | 1·10 | 9·43 | 1·32 | 29·96 | - | 1·12 | 11·10 | 1·34 | 31·67 | - | 1·14 | 12·81 | 1·35 | 32·40 | - | 1·16 | 14·73 | 1·36 | 33·08 | - | 1·18 | 16·73 | 1·38 | 34·41 | - | 1·20 | 18·71 | | | - +---------------------------------------------+ - - -VI.--TABLE SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF BLEACHING LIQUID AT 6° TWADDELL -(SPECIFIC GRAVITY 1·030) REQUIRED TO BE ADDED TO WEAKER LIQUOR TO -RAISE IT TO THE GIVEN STRENGTHS. - - +----------------------------------------------------------+ - | Strength of | Required | Proportions Required. | - | Sample in 1/12°. | Strength. |---------------------------| - | | |Given Sample.|Liquor at 6°.| - |------------------+-----------+-------------+-------------| - | | | parts. | part. | - | Water | 8/12° | 8 | 1 | - | 1 | " | 9¼ | 1 | - | 2 | " | 11 | 1 | - | 3 | " | 13½ | 1 | - | 4 | " | 17 | 1 | - | 5 | " | 23 | 1 | - | 6 | " | 35 | 1 | - | 7 | " | 71 | 1 | - | Water | 6/12° | 11 | 1 | - | 1 | " | 13½ | 1 | - | 2 | " | 17 | 1 | - | 3 | " | 23 | 1 | - | 4 | " | 35 | 1 | - | 5 | " | 71 | 1 | - | Water | 4/12° | 17 | 1 | - | 1 | " | 23 | 1 | - | 2 | " | 35 | 1 | - | 3 | " | 71 | 1 | - | Water | 3/12° | 23 | 1 | - | 1 | " | 35 | 1 | - | 2 | " | 71 | 1 | - +----------------------------------------------------------+ - - -VII.--COMPARATIVE FRENCH AND ENGLISH THERMOMETER SCALES. - - French or Centigrade. English or Fahrenheit. - - 0 Cent. or C. equals 32 Fahr. or F. - 5 " " 41 " - 10 " " 50 " - 15 " " 59 " - 20 " " 68 " - 25 " " 77 " - 30 " " 86 " - 35 " " 95 " - 40 " " 104 " - 45 " " 113 " - 50 " " 122 " - 55 " " 131 " - 60 " " 140 " - 65 " " 149 " - 70 " " 158 " - 75 " " 167 " - 80 " " 176 " - 85 " " 185 " - 90 " " 194 " - 95 " " 203 " - 100 " (Water boils) " 212 " (Water boils) - 200 " " 392 " - 300 " " 572 " - 356 " (Mercury boils) " 662 " (Mercury boils) - - -VIII.--WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF THE METRICAL SYSTEM. - -(From the British Pharmacopœia.) - -WEIGHTS. - - 1 Milligramme = the thousandth part of one gramme, or 0·001 gramme. - 1 Centigramme = the hundredth " " 0·01 " - 1 Décigramme = the tenth " " 0·1 " - 1 Gramme = weight of a cubic centimètre - of water at 4° C. 1·0 " - 1 Décagramme = ten grammes 10·0 " - 1 Hectogramme = one hundred grammes 100·0 " - 1 Kilogramme = one thousand grammes 1,000·0 " - -MEASURES OF CAPACITY. - - 1 Millilitre = 1 cubic centimètre, - or the measure of 1 gramme of water. - 1 Centilitre = 10 " " 10 " - 1 Décilitre = 100 " " 100 " - 1 Litre = 1,000 " " 1,000 " - -MEASURES OF LENGTH. - - 1 Millimètre = the thousandth part of one mètre, or 0·001 mètre. - 1 Centimètre = the hundredth " " 0·01 " - 1 Décimètre = the tenth " " 0·1 " - 1 Mètre = the ten-millionth part of a quarter of the meridian - of the earth. - - -IX.--TABLE OF FRENCH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. - - Kilogramme, 1,000 grammes, equals 2 lbs. 3¾ ozs. nearly. - Gramme (the unit) equals 15·432 grains. - -FRENCH MEASURE OF VOLUME. - - 1 Litre (the unit) equals 34 fluid ozs. nearly. - -LONG MEASURE. - - Mètre (the unit) equals 39·371 inches. - Décimètre (10th of a mètre) " 3·9371 " - Centimètre (100th of a mètre) " 0·3937 " - Millimètre (1,000th of a mètre) " 0·0393 " - - - - -LIST OF WORKS RELATING TO PAPER MANUFACTURE. - - -"Practical Remarks on Modern Paper." J. Murray. Edinburgh, 1829. - -"Manuel du Fabricant des Papiers." L. S. Le Normand. Paris, 1834. - -"L'Industrie de la Papetrie." G. Planche. Paris, 1853. - -"Die Fabrikation des Papiers." L. Müller. Berlin, 1855. - -"Manufacture of Paper and Boards." A. Proteaux. Philadelphia, 1866. - -"Manufacture of Paper." C. Hofmann. Philadelphia, 1873. - -"Pflanzenfasir." Hugo Müller. Leipzig, 1873. - -"Bamboo Considered as a Paper-making Material." London, 1875. - -"Etudes sur les Fibres Végétales." Vétillart. Paris, 1876. - -"Technology of the Paper Trade" (Cantor Lectures). Arnot. Journal -Society of Arts, 1877. - -"The Practical Paper-maker." J. Dunbar. London, 1881. - -"Forestry and Forest Products." Edinburgh, 1884. - -"A Treatise on Paper." R. Parkinson. Preston, 1886. - -"Manufacture of Paper." C. T. Davis. Philadelphia, 1887. - -"Manufacture of Paper." Tomlinson. - -"Text Book of Paper-making." C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan. - -Articles on paper-making will also be found in the following -encyclopædias, journals, etc:-- - -"Encyclopædia Britannica," vol. xvii.; "Encyclopædia -Metropolitana," 1845; "Tomlinson's Cyclopædia;" "New American -Cyclopædia;" "British Manufacturing Industries;" "English -Cyclopædia;" "Encyclopædia Americana;" "Penny Cyclopædia;" _Paper -Makers' Monthly Journal_; _Paper Makers' Circular_; _Paper Trade -Journal_; _American Paper Trade Journal_. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Acetic acid, 64, 98 - - Acid, arsenious, process, 231 - or bisulphite processes, objections to, 74 - boracic, 46 - carbonic, 97 - fluo-silicic, 175 - hydrochloric, 55, 232 - hypochlorous, 98 - nitric, 66 - nitrous, 66 - nitro-hydrochloric, 64 - oxalic, 98 - processes, McDougall's boiler for, 72 - sulphuric, 47, 99 - anhydrous, 225 - sulphurous, 55, 175 - test, 224 - test, preparation of, 225 - treatment of wood, 64 - - Acids, action of, on cellulose, 2 - - Acicular fibres, 3 - - Action of acids on cellulose, 2 - - Adamsonia, 85 - - Adamson's process, 77 - - African esparto, 47 - - Agalite, 115 - - Agar-agar, 178 - - Agave Americana, 8 - - Alexandria rags, 21 - - Algerian esparto, 47 - - Alkali, caustic, 48 - testing, 224 - - Alkalimeter, Mohr's, 223 - - Alkalimeters, 222 - - Alkalimetry, 221 - - Alkaline leys, boiling points of, 243 - - Alkalis, sampling, 227 - - Alum, 116 - - Alum, bleach liquor, 100 - cake, estimation of alumina in, 233 - concentrated, 119 - crystallised, 119 - liquor, 240 - pearl, 119 - porous, 167 - - Alumina, estimation of, in alum, &c., 233 - sulphate of, 100 - - Aluminium, chloride of, 100 - hypochlorite of, 100 - - Aluminous cake, 119 - - American combinations for colouring, 167 - method of sizing, 123 - ochre, 167 - refining engines, Mr. Wyatt on, 103 - system of soda recovery, 218 - wood pulp, 60 - - Ammonia, 233 - - Ammoniacal water, 6 - - Andreoli's electrolytic bleaching process, 96 - - Anhydrous soda, 225 - sulphuric acid, 225 - - Aniline blues, 166 - reds, 166 - sulphate of, 8 - triethyl rose, 98 - - Animal size, preparation of, 120, 122 - sized papers, 123 - or tub-sizing, 122 - - Annotta, Spanish, 238 - - Antichlor, 109 - - Antique paper, 157 - - Apparatus, disintegrating, 72 - evaporating, 205 - - Aqua regia, 66 - - Arnot, Mr., on beating-engines, 102 - on finishing, 160 - - Arnot's method of alkali testing, 229 - - Artificial flowers, colouring paper for, 168 - ultramarine, 238 - - Arsenious acid process, 231 - - Asbestos, 73, 115 - - Ash, black, 219 - - Aussedat's process, 63 - - Azure blue, 170 - - - Back-water pump, Bertrams', 195 - - Bagging, old, 10 - - Balsam, Canada, 179 - - Baltic rags, 21 - - Bamboo cane, 10, 18 - - Bambusa vulgaris, 18 - - Banana fibre, 10 - - Bank-notes, water-marking, 147 - - Baobab, 85 - - Bark fibres, 6 - oak, 166 - paper mulberry, 10 - - Barre and Blondel's process, 66 - - Bast bagging, 10 - - Baumé's hydrometer, 242 - - Beakers, 222, 224 - - Beater, 37 - Jordan, 103, 104 - Kingsland, 104 - - Beating, 101 - Dunbar's observations on, 102 - engine, 103 - Bertrams', 105 - Forbes', 105 - Umpherston's, 105 - engines, Arnot on, 102 - operations of, 107 - or refining, 101 - - Belgian rags, 20 - - Bentley and Jackson's boiler, 80 - cooling and damping rolls, 189 - drum-washer, 185 - dry felt self-acting regulator, 186 - glazing calender, 155 - rag-cutter, 24 - engine, 38 - single-cylinder machine, 153 - web-ripping machine, 198 - - Benzine, 5, 77 - - Berlin blue, 168 - - Bertrams' back-water pump, 195 - beating-engine, 105 - conical pulp-saver, 144 - damping-rolls, 155 - edge-runner, 82 - esparto-cleaner, 40 - large paper machine, 134 - rag boiler, 29 - cutting-machine, 23 - engine, 37 - revolving strainer and knotter, 137 - revolving knife-cutter, 162 - reeling machine, 197 - single-sheet cutter, 162 - web-glazing calender, 196 - willowing and dusting machine, 26 - - Beetroot refuse, 10 - - Beyrout rags, 21 - - Bichromate of potassa, 165 - - Binders' clippings, 10 - - Birch, 60 - - Bisulphite of lime, 71 - magnesium, 70 - process, Blitz's, 72 - Francke's, 68 - Graham's, 73 - Mitscherlich's, 71 - objections to, 74 - - Black ash, 219 - calicoes, 20 - cotton, 20 - Frankfort, 171 - lamp, 166 - - Blacks, 20 - - Bleach, 93 - liquor, alum, 100 - Wilson's, 100 - zinc, 99 - mixer, 92 - pump, Donkin's, 193 - - Bleaching, 89 - agent, 90 - with chloride of lime, 92 - chlorine gas, Glaser's process, 93 - C. Watt, jun.'s, electrolytic process, 94 - electrolytic, Andreoli's process, 96 - Hermite's process, 96 - esparto, 50 - liquid, table showing quantity to be used, 244 - liquor, 50, 91 - preparation of, 92 - - Bleaching liquors, 3 - Lunge's process of, 98 - new method of, 100 - operations, 89 - powder, 92 - estimation of chlorine in, 230 - Fresenius' method, 231 - Gay-Lussac's method, 231 - - Bleaching, sour, 91 - Thompson's process, 97 - Young's method, 100 - - Blending, 112 - - Blitz's process, 72 - - Blotting-papers, 21, 181 - - Blue, 166 - azure, 170 - Berlin, 168 - Bremen, 170 - cottons, 20 - dark, 170 - indigo, 166 - linens, 20 - mineral, 171 - pale, 170 - paper, 19 - Paris, 169 - Prussian, 165 - rags, 19 - smalts, 165 - - Blues, 20 - aniline, 166 - - Boiler, Bentley and Jackson's, 80 - Roeckner's, 45 - - Boiling, American, 60 - esparto, 41 - rags, 29 - straw, 81 - waste paper, 86 - - Boracic acid, 46 - - Borax, 169 - - Boxes, suction, 148 - - Brazil wood, 166 - lake, 236 - - Breaking half-stuff, 39 - points of paper, method of determining, 240 - - Breaking and washing, 34 - - Breast-roll, 149 - - Bremen blue, 170 - - "Broke" paper, 85 - - Bromine, 6 - water, 6 - - Broom, 10 - - Broussonetia papyrifera, 18 - - Brown, 167 - - brown, dark, 170 - reddish, 172 - - Bucking-keir, 88 - - Buckwheat straw, 10 - - Buff envelope, 167 - - Bunsen burner, 225 - - Burettes, 222 - - - Calcined soda, 93 - - Calciner, 206 - - Calcium, acetate of, 98 - chloride of, 109, 230 - hypochlorite of, 3 - salts, 99 - - Calender, glazing, 154 - - Calendering, 154 - super, Mr. Wyatt on, 158 - - Calicoes, black, 20 - - Canada balsam, 179 - - Cane, bamboo, 10 - rattan, 10 - - Caoutchouc, 73 - - Carbonate of lime, 119 - magnesia, 46 - potassa, 235, 236 - soda, 31 - - Carbonell's esparto process, 46 - - Carbonic acid, 97 - - Carbonisation, 75 - - Cardboard, 182 - with two faces by ordinary machinery, 182 - work, 179 - - Carminated lake, 237 - - Carrageen moss, 178 - - Carrying tubes, 143 - - Castile soap, 121 - - Caustic alkali, 48 - potash, 3, 7 - soda, 31 - ley, 31 - table showing quantities of, in leys of different densities, 243 - - Causticising soda, 32, 205 - tanks, 218 - - Cellulose, 1 - action of acids on, 2 - determination of, 5 - of flax, 4 - physical characteristics of, 3 - white, 76 - - Chemical combination, 224 - processes, 55 - wood pulp, 54 - - Chilled-iron glazing-rolls, 156 - - China clay, 114 - grass, 10 - - Chloride of aluminium, 100 - calcium, 101, 230 - lime, 47, 230 - bleaching with, 92 - testing samples of, 232 - magnesium, 96 - potassium, 95 - sodium, 95, 109 - zinc, 99 - - Chlorimeter, 232 - - Chlorimetry, 231 - - Chlorine, 2, 90, 232 - gas, bleaching with, 93 - in bleaching powder, estimation of, 230 - test for, 110 - - Chrome, lemon, 170 - orange, 166 - yellow, 166 - - Cinnabar, 171 - - Citrate of tin, 169 - - Clarifier, Roeckner's, 199 - - Clay, China, 114 - - Clogging, 116 - - "Close" paper, 112 - - Cobalt, oxide of, 165 - - Cochineal, 121, 166 - lake, 236 - - Colcothar, 170 - - Coloured cotton, 20 - papers, 165 - - Colouring, 121 - American combinations for, 167 - materials, mixing, with pulp, 168 - matters used in paper making, 166 - paper for artificial flowers, 168 - - Commercial sodas, examination of, 221 - - Comparative cost of animal and engine sizing, estimate of, 128 - French and English thermometer scales, 244 - - Composition for waterproof paper, 177 - - Concentrated alum, 119 - - Conical pulp-saver, 144 - - Cooling and damping rolls, Bentley and Jackson's, 189 - - Copal, white, 179 - - Copper, green, 170 - hydrated oxide of, 175 - sulphate, 146 - - Copperas, 165 - - Copying-paper, 120 - - Corchorus capsularis, 4 - - Cork, 180 - paper, 180 - - Cost of animal and engine sizing, comparative estimate of, 128 - - Cotton fibre, 3 - filaments of, 7 - pieces, 20 - rags, 10 - seed waste, 10 - oil soap, 121 - superfine whites, 20 - waste, 10 - wool, 10 - - Cottons, blue, 20 - outshot, 20 - unbleached, 20 - - Coucher, 130 - - Couch-rolls, 149 - - Coupier and Mellier's process, 80, 84 - - Crop madder, 237 - - Crystallised alum, 119 - - Cupro-ammonium, 2, 174 - Wright's process of preparing, 175 - - Cutting, 22, 161 - machine, 23 - Verny's, 187 - - Cutter, single-sheet, 162 - - Cutters, 22 - - Cylinder, drying, 185 - machine, single, 152 - washing, 193 - - Cylinders, drying, 151 - - - Dalton's table showing proportion of dry soda in leys of different - densities, 241 - - Damping-rolls, Bertrams', 155 - - Dandy-roll, 144 - - Deckle, 130 - frame, 143 - strap, 143 - - De la Rue's improvements in water-marks, 147 - - Determination of cellulose, 5 - - Determining the real value or percentage of commercial sodas, - chloride of lime, &c., 221 - - Devil, Donkin's, 27 - - Dextrin, 2 - - Diana's process for making paper or cardboard with two faces by - ordinary machinery, 182 - - Digester, 65 - - Disinfecting machine, 12 - - Disintegrating apparatus, 79 - - Doctor, the, 150 - - Donkin's bleach-mixer, 92 - pump, 193 - glazing machine, 157 - press, 157 - plate-planing machine, 191 - rag boiler, 30 - dusting machine, 26 - washing cylinder for rag-engine, 193 - - Double crown, 164 - demy, 164 - royal, 164 - - Double-sized paper, 126 - - Drab, 167 - - Drainers, 39 - - Draining, 39 - - Dr. Mitscherlich's process, 71 - - Drum-washer, 34 - Bentley and Jackson's, 185 - - Dry-felt regulator, self-acting, 186 - - Drying cylinder, 185 - cylinders, 151 - - Dunbar's method of treating esparto, 48 - observations on beating, 102 - - Duster, 26 - - Dusting, 26 - - Dutch grappe madder, 237 - - Dyers' wood waste, 10 - - - Edge-runner, Bertrams', 82 - - Ekman's process, 70 - - Elastic fibres, 3 - packing, 72 - - Electrolytic bleaching process, Andreoli's, 96 - Hermite's, 96 - C. Watt's, 94 - - Electrotypes for water-marking, 146 - - Engine, beating, 103 - Bertrams', 105 - Forbes', 105 - Umpherston's, 105 - Marshall's perfecting, 201 - size, French method of preparing, 120 - sizing, 115 - - Engines, beating, Mr. Arnot on, 102 - refining, American, Mr. Wyatt on, 103 - - English green, 172 - pink, 172 - - Envelope, buff, 167 - orange-red gold, 167 - yellow gold, 167 - - Eosine, 166 - - Equivalents, chemical, 224 - - Esparto, African, 47 - Algerian, 47 - bleaching, 50 - boiler, Sinclair's, 42, 43 - boiling, 41 - cleaner, Bertrams', 40 - Dunbar's treatment of, 48 - fibre, 4 - Gabes, 47 - grass, 10, 16 - Mallary's process for, 46 - Oran, 47 - picking, 40 - preliminary treatment of, 40 - Carbonell's process for, 46 - Sfax, 47 - Spanish, 47 - Susa, 47 - Tripoli, 47 - washing boiled, 49 - willowing, 41 - Young's process for boiling, 50 - - Estimation of alumina in alum cake, &c., 233 - of chlorine in bleaching powder, 230 - of commercial sodas, 221 - - Eucalyptus, oil of, 178 - - Evaporating apparatus, 205 - - Evaporator, esparto, 206 - Porion's, 208 - Roeckner's, 206 - Yaryan's, 208 - - Evaporators, American, 61, 208 - - Examination of commercial sodas, 221 - - - Feebly-ribbed, or smooth fibres, 5 - - Felt, 72, 101 - - Felting, 131 - - Fern leaves, 10 - - Ferrocyanide of potassium, 165 - - Fibre, banana, 10 - cotton, 3 - esparto, 4 - flax, 7 - hemp, 8 - jute, 4, 8 - linen, 4 - Manilla, 4 - sulphite, and resin, 76 - yellow pine, 4 - - Fibres, acicular, 3 - bark, 6 - elastic, 3 - round-ribbed, 5 - smooth, or feebly-ribbed, 5 - spiral, 8 - straw, 4 - various, treatment of, 80 - vegetable, micrographic examination of, 5 - vegetable, recognition of, by the microscope, 6 - - Fibrous waste, 11 - - Finished paper, packing the, 163 - - Finishing, 157 - Arnot on, 160 - house, 163 - and sizing, 132 - - First press-roll, 150 - - Flask, 227 - - Flax, cellulose of, 4 - fibre, or linen, 7 - New Zealand, 8, 10 - tow, 11 - waste, 10 - - Flocks, 73 - - Florence lake, 237 - - Foolscap, 164 - - Forbes' beating-engine, 105 - - Foreign rags, 20 - - Fourdrinier machine, 133 - - Francke's bisulphite process, 68 - - Frankfort black, 169 - - French and English thermometer scales, comparative, 244 - measure of volume, 245 - rags, 20 - weights and measures, table of, 245 - - Fresenius' method of estimating bleaching powder, 231 - - Friction-glazing, 157 - - Fridet and Matussière's process, 66 - - Furnace, incinerating, 208 - - Fustians, 20 - - Fustic, 169 - - - Gabes esparto, 47 - - Gaine's process for making parchment paper, 182 - - Gamboge, 169 - - Gas, chlorine, bleaching with, 93 - receiver, 65 - - Gay-Lussac's method of estimating bleaching powder, 231 - - German rags, 21 - - Glaser's process for bleaching with chlorine gas, 93 - - Glauber's salt, 109 - - Glazing calender, 154 - press, Donkin's, 157 - rolls, chilled-iron, 156 - web, 154 - - Glucose, 2 - - Glue pieces, 122 - stock, 124 - - Glycerin, 120 - - Graham's process, 73 - - Grass, China, 10 - esparto, 10, 16 - sea, 11 - - Green, copper, 170 - English, 172 - pale, 170 - Schweinfurth, 171 - - Grey linens, 20 - - Ground madder, 237 - wood pulp, 85 - - Guillotine rag-cutter, 24 - - Gum arabic, 169 - sandarac, 179 - tragacanth, 168 - - Gunny, 20 - bags, 10 - - Gutta-percha, 147 - - - Half jute and linen, 20 - stuff, 39, 101 - breaking, 39 - - Hemp fibre, 8 - Manilla, 4, 10 - sizal, 8 - tarred, 20 - waste, 10 - white, 20 - - Hermite's electrolytic bleaching process, 96 - - High-pressure boiler, 63 - - Hollander, or rag-engine, 34, 129 - - Home rags, 20 - - Hop-bines, 10 - - Hydrate of soda, 225 - - Hydrated oxide of copper, 175 - - Hydro-cellulose, 1 - - Hydrochloric acid, 55, 232 - - Hydro-extractor, 94 - - Hydrometer, Baumé's, 242 - Twaddell's, 238 - - Hypochlorite of aluminium, 100 - calcium, 3 - lime, 92, 98, 230 - soda, 8 - sodium, 96 - - Hypochlorous acid, 98 - - Hyposulphite of soda, 110 - - - Iodide of potassium, 111 - - Imitation Manilla pulp from wood, 239 - - Imperial, 164 - - Incinerating furnace, 208 - - Indiarubber, vulcanised, 223 - - Indigo, 98, 166 - sulphate of, 232 - - Ink, lithographic, 180 - - Introduction of wood pulp, 17 - - Irish moss, 178 - - Iron, oxide of, 34 - - Iron, pernitrate of, 165 - sulphate of, 170 - - Isinglass, 179 - - - Japanese paper, new, 180 - - Jordan's beating engine, 103, 104 - - Jouglet's process for waterproof paper, 177 - - Jute fibre, 4, 8 - Manilla, &c., 84 - spinners' waste, 20 - waste, 10, 20 - - - Kaolin, 114, 182 - - Keegan's process, 59 - - Killing the colour, 121 - - Kingsland beating-engine, 104 - - Knife, revolving, 161 - - Knotter and strainer, revolving, 137 - - Kollergang, or edge-runner, 82 - - - Lac lake, 237 - - Laid paper, 130 - - Lake, Brazil-wood, 236 - carminated, 237 - cochineal, 236 - Florence, 237 - lac, 237 - madder, 237 - orange, 238 - scarlet, 171 - - Lakes, preparation of, 235 - - Lamp-black, 166, 169 - - Leaching, 218 - tanks, 218 - - Lead, nitrate of, 167 - white, 171 - - Leather waste, 11 - - Leghorn rags, 21 - - Lemon chrome, 170 - - Leys, alkaline, boiling point of, 243 - of different densities, table showing quantities of caustic soda - in, 243 - - Lime, bisulphite of, 71 - carbonate of, 119 - chloride of, 23, 47, 110 - bleaching with, 92 - testing, 232 - hypochlorite of, 92, 98, 230 - milk of, 33, 72, 110 - sulphate of, 100 - - Limed skins, 122 - - Linen, 4 - fibre, 4 - or flax fibre, 7 - pieces, 20 - rags, 10 - waste, 10 - - Linens, blue, 20 - extra fine, 20 - grey, 20 - strong, 20 - white, 20 - - Liquor, bleaching, preparation of, 92 - - Liquors, bleaching, 3 - spent, recovery of soda from, 218 - - Lithographic ink, 180 - paper, 180 - - Litmus paper, 183 - - Lixiviation, 75 - - Loading, 114 - - Logwood, 166 - - Long measure, French, 246 - - Lunge's bleaching process, 9 - - - Machine, Bentley and Jackson's perfecting, 201 - web-ripping, 198 - Bertrams' large paper, 13 - rag-cutting, 23 - reeling, 197 - web-glazing, 196 - willowing and dusting, 26 - disinfecting, 12 - Donkin's plate-planing, 191 - rag-dusting, 23 - Fourdrinier, 133 - rag-cutting, 23 - roll-bar planing, 191 - single-cylinder, 152 - web-winding, 188 - sizing, 126 - Verny's paper-cutting, 187 - wire and its accessories, 142 - Yankee, 152 - - Machinery, making paper by, 133 - used in paper-making, 184 - - Machines, wet, 57 - - Madder, Dutch, 237 - ground, 237 - lake, 237 - - Magnesia, carbonate of, 46 - sulphate of, 46 - - Magnesian limestone, 69 - - Magnesite, 46, 70 - - Magnesium, bisulphite of, 70 - chloride of, 96 - - Maize husks and stems, 10 - - Making the paper, 130 - paper or cardboard with two faces by ordinary machinery, 182 - paper by hand, 129 - machinery, 133 - - Mallary's process for esparto, 46 - - Manganese, peroxide of, 94 - - Manilla fibre, 4 - hemp, 4, 10 - jute, &c., 84 - paper, 85 - - Manilla, imitation, from wood pulp, 239 - - Manning winder, 159 - - Maori-prepared phormium, 8 - - Materials, raw, 10 - used in paper-making, 9 - - Marking, water, 146 - - Marshall's perfecting engine, 201 - - McDougall's boiler for acid processes, 72 - - Mechanical processes, 78 - wood pulp, 113 - Voelter's process of preparing, 78 - - Megass, or cane trash, 10 - - Mellier's process, 84 - - Method of sizing, American, 123 - - Metrical system, weights and measures of, 245 - - Micrographic examination of vegetable fibres, 5 - - Microscope, recognition of vegetable fibres by, 6 - - Midfeather, 35 - - Milk of lime, 33, 72, 110 - - Millboard, 175, 182 - - Mincing the fibre, 102 - - Mineral blue, 171 - orange, 166 - - Miscellaneous papers, 174 - - Mixed fines, 20 - prints, 20 - - Mixing colouring materials with pulp, 168 - - Mohr's alkalimeter, 223 - - Molasses, 180 - - Morfit's process for toughening paper, 178 - - Morocco papers, stains for, 171 - - Mucilage, 94 - - Mustard oil, 46 - stems, 10 - - - Nascent chlorine, 96 - - Netting, old, 11 - - New Japanese paper, 180 - method of bleaching, 100 - - New rags, 20 - - New Zealand flax, 8, 10 - - Nitric acid, 66 - - Nitro-hydrochloric acid, 64 - - Nitrous acid, 66 - - Notes and tables, 235 - - Nutgalls, 166 - - Nuttall's rag-cutter, 24 - - - Oak-bark, 166 - - Oakum, 11 - - Objections to the acid or bisulphite process, 74 - - Ochre, American, 167 - yellow, 165, 166 - - Oil, boiled, 179 - cotton-seed, soap, 121 - of eucalyptus, 178 - linseed, 179 - mustard, 46 - resin, 178 - of turpentine, 179 - of vitriol, 100 - - Oiled paper, 180 - - Old bagging, 10 - bast bagging, 10 - canvas, 10 - netting, 11 - rope, 10 - style, 157 - - Operation of beating, 107 - - Oran esparto, 47 - - Orange chrome, 166 - lake, 238 - mineral, 166 - red gold envelope, 167 - yellow, 171 - - Organic acid, 99 - - Outshot cottons, 20 - - Outshots (whites), 20 - - Overhaulers, 22 - - Oxalic acid, 98 - - Oxide of cobalt, 165 - iron, 34 - zinc, 99 - - - Packing the finished paper, 163 - - Pale blue, 170 - - Panels, millboard, 175 - - Pasteboard, 179 - - Paper, animal-sized, 123 - antique, 157 - blotting, 21, 181 - blue, 19 - breaking points of, method of determining, 240 - "broke," 85 - or cardboard with two faces made by ordinary machinery, 182 - colouring, for artificial flowers, 168 - copying, 120 - cork, 180 - cutting machine, Verny's, 187 - double sized, 126 - hand-made, 129 - new Japanese, 180 - machine, Bertrams' large, 134 - Fourdrinier's, 133 - Yankee, 152 - making by hand, 129 - by machinery, 133 - machinery used in, 184 - materials used in, 9 - manilla, 85 - imitation manilla, from wood, 239 - Morfit's process for toughening, 178 - mulberry, 18 - bark, 10 - oiled, 180 - old style, 157 - parchment, 181 - shavings, 58 - sizes of, 164 - strength of, 240 - Parkinson's contrivance for determining, 240 - toned, 165 - toughening, 178 - tracing, 179 - transparent, 179 - turmeric, 183 - varnished, 179 - vegeto-mineral, 115 - waste, 85 - boiling, 86 - Ryan's process for treating, 87 - water-marked, 130 - waterproof, 174 - Jouglet's process, 177 - for windows, 181 - coloured, 165 - miscellaneous, 174 - Morocco, stains for, 171 - printing, 164 - satin, stains for, 172 - test, 183 - wrapping, 178 - writing, 164 - - Parchment liquor, 171 - paper, 181 - shavings, 171 - - Paris blue, 169 - - Parker and Blackman's disinfecting machine, 12 - - Parting, 131 - - Partington's process, 71 - - Pearl alum, 119 - - Pearlash, 238 - - Pearl hardening, 114 - - Peat, 10 - - Pectin, 6 - - Pectose, 6 - - Perchloride of tin, 236 - - Perfecting engine, Marshall's, 201 - - Pernitrate of iron, 165 - - Peroxide of manganese, 94 - - Petroleum, 178 - - Phormium tenax, 8 - - Physical characteristics of cellulose, 3 - - Picking esparto, 40 - - Pictet and Brélaz's process, 64 - - Pieces, cotton, 20 - linen, 20 - - Pink, 166 - English, 172 - - Plate-glazing, 157 - calender, reversing, 191 - planing machine, 190 - - Poplar, 10, 60 - - Porion's evaporator, 208 - - Porous alum, 167 - - Potash, 74 - carbonate of, 235 - caustic, 3, 7 - yellow prussiate of, 165 - - Potassa, carbonate of, 235 - - Potassium, chloride of, 95 - iodide of, 111 - ferrocyanide of, 165 - - Potcher, 37 - - Poucher, 39 - - Poumarède and Figuier's process for parchment paper, 181 - - Preliminary operations, 19 - treatment of esparto, 40 - - Preparation of animal size, 122 - bleaching liquor, 92 - lakes, 235 - test acid, 225 - - Press, glazing, Donkin's, 157 - - Press-rolls, 150 - - Presse-pâte, 51 - - Printing-paper, 103 - papers, 164 - - Prints, light, 20 - mixed, 20 - - Process, Adamson's, 77 - American wood pulp, 60 - Andreoli's electrolytic bleaching, 96 - arsenious acid, 231 - Aussedat's, 63 - Barre and Blondel's, 66 - Blitz's, 72 - Carbonell's esparto, 46 - Coupier and Mellier's, 80 - C. Watt's electrolytic bleaching, 94 - Diana's, for making paper with two faces by ordinary machinery, 182 - Dr. Mitscherlich's, 71 - Eckman's, 70 - Francke's bisulphite, 68 - Fridet and Matussière's, 66 - Gaine's, for making parchment paper, 182 - Graham's, 73 - Hermite's electrolytic bleaching, 96 - Jouglet's, for preparing waterproof paper, 177 - Keegan's, 59 - Lunge's bleaching, 98 - Mallary's esparto, 46 - Mellier's, 84 - Morfit's, 178 - Partington's, 71 - Pictet and Brélaz's, 64 - Poumarède and Figuier's, 181 - retting, 129 - Ritter and Kellner's, 71 - Ryan's, 87 - Scoffern and Tidcombe's, 174 - Sinclair's, 58 - Thompson's, 97 - Thune's, 79 - Voelter's, 78 - Watt and Burgess's, 55 - Wright's, 175 - Young's, 50 - Young and Pettigrew's, 66 - - Processes, acid or bisulphite, objections to, 74 - McDougall's boiler for, 72 - chemical, 55 - mechanical, 78 - sulphide, 77 - sulphite, 68 - - Prussian blue, 165 - - Prussiate of potash, 165 - - Pulp, ground wood, 85 - long-fibred, 111 - mechanical wood, 113 - mixing colouring matter with, 168 - rag, 72 - - Pulp saver, 143 - conical, 144 - strainers, 137 - Bertrams' revolving, 137 - Roeckner's, 140 - - Pulp, sulphite, 68, 160 - wood, American, 60 - first introduced by Mr. C. Watt, 17 - imitation Manilla from, 239 - - Pump, vacuum, 149 - - - Quercitron, 166 - - - Rag bagging, 11 - boiler, Bertrams', 29 - Donkin's, 30 - cutter, Nuttall's, 24 - cutting-machine, Bertrams', 23 - Donkin's, 26 - engine, 34 - Bentley and Jackson's, 38 - Bertrams', 37 - pulp, 72 - - Rags, 11 - Alexandria, 21 - Baltic, 21 - Belgian, 20 - Beyrout, 21 - blue, 19 - boiling, 29 - cotton, 10 - country, 21 - disinfecting, 12 - foreign, 20 - French, 20 - German, 21 - home, 20 - Leghorn, 21 - linen, 10 - new, 20 - Russian, 21 - sorting, 19 - treatment of, 19 - Trieste, 21 - Turkey, 21 - woollen, 21 - - Rattan cane, 10 - - Raw materials, 10 - - Recognition of vegetable fibres by the microscope, 6 - - Recovery of soda, American system, 218 - from spent liquor, 204 - - Red, cherry, 170 - dark, 170 - litmus paper, 183 - ochre, 172 - pale, 171 - Turkey, 170 - Venetian, 166 - - Reds, aniline, 166 - - Reeds, 10 - - Reeling machine, Bertrams', 197 - - Refining or beating, 101 - engine, 159 - Jordan's, 103 - engines, American, Mr. Wyatt on, 103 - - Regulating box, 136 - - Resin, 6, 115 - oil, 178 - size, 118 - soap, 116 - - Resinous soaps, 179 - - Retree, 85, 164 - - Retting, 4 - process of, 129 - - Reversing or plate-glazing calender, 190 - - Revolving knife, 161 - cutter, 162 - strainer and knotter, 137 - - Rhamnus catharticus, 169 - - Ritter and Kellner's process, 71 - - Roeckner's boiler, 45 - clarifier, 199 - evaporator, 206 - pulp strainers, 140 - - Roll-bar planing machine, 191 - - Rolls, couch, 149 - press, 150 - smoothing, 151, 152 - - Rope, 20 - bagging, 20 - hard, 20 - tarred, 20 - white, 20 - - Round-ribbed fibres, 5 - - Royal, 164 - - Russian rags, 21 - - Ryan's process for treating waste paper, 87 - - - Sailcloth, 11 - - Salt of tartar, 235 - - Sampling alkalies, 227 - - Sandarac, gum, 179 - - Sand-table, 136 - tables, 149 - trap, 50, 136 - - Sap green, 169 - - Satin papers, stains for, 172 - - Save-all, 143 - - Sawdust, 10 - - Scarlet lake, 171 - - Schweinfurth green, 171 - - Scoffern and Tidcombe's process for waterproof paper, 174 - - Sea grass, 11 - - Seaweeds, 178 - - Second press-roll, 150 - - Seconds rags, 20 - - Seconds, whites, 20 - - Self-acting dry felt regulator, 186 - cleansing strainer, 139 - - Separating tank, 61 - - Setting, 174 - - Settling of the pulp, 131 - - Sfax esparto, 47 - - Shavings, paper, 58 - parchment, 171 - wood, 10, 55 - - Shoddy, 11 - - Silk cocoon waste, 11 - - Silver white, 173 - - Sinclair's esparto boiler, 42, 43 - process, 58 - - Single-cylinder machine, 152 - - Single-sheet cutter, 162 - web-winding machine, 188 - - Sizal, or sisal hemp, 8 - - Size, animal, preparation of, 122 - engine, French method of preparing, 120 - resin, 118 - - Sizes of paper, 164 - - Sizing, 115 - American method of, 123 - and finishing, 132 - machine, 126 - tub or animal, 122 - Mr. Wyatt's remarks on, 127 - zinc soaps in, 121 - - Skip, 153 - - Small post, 164 - - Smalts blue, 121, 165 - - Smoothing presses, three-roll, 194 - rolls, 151, 152 - - Soap, Castile, 121 - cotton-seed oil, 121 - resin, 116 - - Soaps, zinc, in sizing, 121 - - Soda, anhydrous, 225 - ash, 31, 227 - calcined, 93 - carbonate, 31 - caustic, 31 - table showing the quantities of leys of different densities, 243 - dry, Dalton's table, showing the proportion of, in leys of - different densities, 241 - hydrate of, 225 - hypochlorite of, 8 - hyposulphite of, 110 - ley, caustic, 31 - recovery of, 104 - recovery of, American system of, 218 - solutions, caustic, table showing strength of, 241 - sulphite of, 110 - thiosulphite of, 110, 233 - - Sodas, commercial, examination of, 221 - - Sodium, chloride of, 95, 109 - hypochlorite of, 96 - thiosulphite of, 233 - - Sorting rags, 19, 22 - - Sour bleaching, 91 - - Souring, 99 - - Spanish annotta, 238 - esparto, 47 - - Spent liquors, recovery of soda from, 204 - liquors, 218 - - Spiral fibres, 8 - - Spruce, 60 - - Stable manure, 11 - - Staining power of ultramarines, 240 - - Stains for Morocco papers, 171 - satin papers, 172 - - Standard test-acid solution, 225 - - Starch paste, 117 - - Strainer and knotter, Bertrams' revolving, 137 - self-cleansing, 139 - - Strainers, 57, 137 - Roeckner's pulp, 140 - - Straw, 16 - boiling, 81 - buckwheat, 10 - fibres, 4 - wheat, 10 - - Strength of paper, determination of, 240 - - Strings, 20 - - Strong linens, 20 - - Stuff-chests, 57, 112, 136 - pump, 136 - - Sturtevant blower, 60 - - Suction boxes, 148 - - Sulphate of alumina, 100 - aniline, 8 - copper, 146 - indigo, 232 - iron, 170 - lime, 100 - magnesia, 46 - zinc, 99, 119 - - Sulphide processes, 77 - - Sulphite fibre, 76 - and resin, 76 - processes, 68 - pulp, 68 - of soda, 110 - wood pulp, 160 - - Sulphur, 72, 225 - - Sulphuric acid, 47, 91, 99 - anhydrous, 225 - - Sulphurous acid, 175 - gas, 55 - - Super-calendering, 157 - American, Mr. Wyatt on, 157 - - Superfine white cotton, 20 - - Superfines, white, 20 - - Supply-box, 136 - - Surface-sizing, 122 - - Susa esparto, 47 - - - Table of boiling points of alkaline leys, 243 - French and English thermometer scales, 244 - French weights and measures, 245 - showing proportion of dry soda in leys of different densities, 241 - showing the quantity of bleaching liquid to be used, 244 - showing the quantity of bleach liquor required to be added to - weaker liquors, 244 - showing the quantity of caustic sodas in leys of different - densities, 243 - showing the specific gravity corresponding with the degrees of - Baumé's hydrometer, 242 - of strength of caustic soda solutions, 241 - of weights and measures of the metrical system, 245 - - Tables and notes, 235 - sand, 149 - - Tan waste, 10 - - Tarpaulin, 11, 77 - - Tarred hemp, 20 - rope, 20 - string, 20 - - Tartar, salts of, 235 - - Tea colour, 167 - - Test acid, preparation of, 224, 225 - for chlorine, 110 - liquor, 232 - papers, 183 - - Testing chloride of lime, 232 - ultramarines, 239 - - Thermometer scales, comparative French and English, 244 - - Thiosulphite of soda, 110 - sodium, 233 - - Thirds, whites, 20 - - Thompson's bleaching process, 97 - - Three-roll smoothing process, 194 - - Thune's process, 79 - - Tiles, paper, 175 - - Tin, citrate of, 169 - perchloride of, 236 - - Tobacco stalks, 10 - - Toned paper, 165 - - Torrance's drainer, 39 - - Toughening paper, 178 - - Tracing paper, 179 - - Tragacanth, gum, 168 - - Transparent paper, 179 - - Treatment of esparto, 40 - rags, 19, 29 - various fibres, 80 - wood, 53, 68 - - Triethyl rose aniline, 98 - - Tripoli esparto, 47 - - Tub-sizing, 122 - - Turmeric paper, 183 - - Turkish minium, 170 - - Turkey rags, 21 - red, 170 - - Turpentine, oil of, 179 - Venice, 179 - - Twaddell's hydrometer, 238 - - - Ultramarine, 121, 165 - artificial, preparation of, 238 - - Ultramarines, staining power of, 240 - testing, 239 - - Umpherston's beating-engine, 105 - - Unbleached cottons, 20 - - - Vacuum pumps, 149 - - Vanadate of ammonia, 72 - - Various fibres, treatment of, 80 - - Varnished paper, 179 - - Varrentrapp's zinc bleach liquor, 100 - - Vat for hand paper-making, 129 - - Vegetable fibres, micrographic examination of, 5 - - Vegetable fibres, recognition of, by the microscope, 6 - - Vegeto-mineral paper, 115 - - Venetian red, 166 - - Venice turpentine, 179 - - Verdigris, 169 - - Verny's paper-cutting machine, 187 - - Violet, 171 - dark, 172 - light, 171 - - Vitriol, oil of, 57, 90, 106 - - Voelter's process for preparing mechanical wood pulp, 78 - - Volumetric assaying, 224 - - Vulcanised india-rubber, 223 - - Vulcanite, 148 - - - Washing, American, 61 - boiled esparto, 49 - and breaking, 34 - engine, 37 - cylinder for rag-engine, 193 - - Waste, cotton, 10 - cotton-seed, 10 - flax, 10 - hemp, 10 - jute, 10 - linen, 10 - liquors, recovery of soda from, 204 - paper, 10, 85 - boiling, 86 - Ryan's process for, 87 - tan, 10 - - Water-marked paper, 130 - - Water-marking, 146 - - Water-marks, De la Rue's improvements in, 147 - - Waterproof composition for paper, 177 - paper, 174 - for flooring, 177 - Jouglet's process, 177 - for roofing, 177 - - Watt and Burgess's wood-paper process, 55 - - Watt's electrolytic bleaching process, 94 - - Wax, 6, 120 - soap, 169 - - Web-glazing, 154 - calender, Bertrams', 196 - - Web-ripping machine, 198 - - Weights and measures, French table of, 245 - - Weights and measures of the metrical system, 245 - - Wet machines, 57 - - White cellulose, 76 - copal, 179 - hemp, 20 - lead, 171 - linens, 20 - - Willow and duster, Bertrams', 25 - Masson, Scott, and Co.'s, 40 - - Willowing, 24 - esparto, 41 - - Wilson's bleach liquor, 100 - - Winding machine, single-web, 188 - - Wood, acid treatment of, 64 - fibre, 53 - paper, Watt's patent for, 17 - pulp, American method of preparing, 60 - pulp, chemical, 54 - mechanical, 113 - shavings, 10, 55, 77 - pulp, sulphite, 160 - treatment of, 53, 68 - pulp, Voelter's mechanical process for preparing, 78 - waste, dyers', 10 - - Woollen rags, 21 - - Wrapping papers, 178 - - Wright's process for preparing cupro-ammonium, 175 - - Writing papers, 164 - - Wyatt, Mr., on American refining engines, 103 - on American super-calendering, 157 - - Wyatt, Mr., on sizing, 127 - - - Xyloidin, 67 - - - Yankee machine, 152 - - Yaryan evaporator, 208 - - Yellow chrome, 166 - gold envelope, 167 - lake, 238 - ochre, 165, 166 - pale, 172, 173 - pine fibre, 4 - - Young's method of bleaching, 100 - - Young and Pettigrew's process, 66 - - Young's process for cleaning esparto, 50 - - - Zinc bleach liquor, 99 - chloride of, 99 - oxide of, 99, 100 - salts, 100 - soaps in sizing, 121 - sulphate of, 99, 119 - - Zostera marina, 11 - - -PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED, CITY ROAD, LONDON - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Cantor Lectures, _Journal of Society of Arts_, vol. xxvi. p. 74. - -[2] Needle-shaped, slender and sharp-pointed. - -[3] Manilla hemp. - -[4] For this purpose, a microscope having a magnifying power of 120 -to 150 diameters will be found efficient. - -[5] "Commercial Organic Analysis." By A. H. Allen, F.C.S., vol. i. -p. 316. - -[6] For Table of French Measures see end of this work. - -[7] _Pectous_, pertaining to or consisting of _pectose_ or -_pectin_. Pectose is a substance contained in the pulp of unripe -fleshy fruit, also in fleshy roots and other vegetable organs. -It is insoluble in water, but under the influence of acids is -transformed into _pectin_. - -[8] A _litre_ equals 34 fluid ounces _nearly_. - -[9] "Commercial Organic Analysis." By A. H. Allen, F.C.S., vol. i. - -[10] _Septa_, plural of _septum_, a partition, as the partitions of -an orange, for example. - -[11] "Manufacture of Paper." By C. T. Davis, Philadelphia, 1887. - -[12] Patent dated 16th December, 1884, No. 539. - -[13] "Forestry and Forest Products," p. 501, and Cross and Bevan's -"Text Book of Paper-making," p. 65. - -[14] "Practical Paper Maker," by James Dunbar. Mackenzie and -Storrie, Leith, 1887. - -[15] "Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Paper." By Carl -Hofmann, Philadelphia, 1873. - -[16] _The Chemist._ Edited by Charles and John Watt, p. 552; 1855. - -[17] _School of Mines Quarterly, a Journal of Applied Science._ -Jan., 1889. - -[18] The _cord_ is a pile containing 128 cubic feet, or a pile 8 -feet long, 4 feet high, and 4 feet broad. - -[19] Wagner's "Jahresb." 1860, p. 188. - -[20] _Paper-Makers Monthly Journal_, March 15th, 1889. - -[21] Sometimes also called _thiosulphite of soda_. - -[22] "The Art of Soap-making." By Alexander Watt. London, Crosby -Lockwood and Son, 4th edition, 1890. - -[23] Sometimes called "concentrated alum," "pearl alum," etc. - -[24] Muspratt's "Chemistry Applied to the Arts." - -[25] "Art of Leather Manufacture." By Alexander Watt. Crosby -Lockwood and Son, 1885. - -[26] "Proceedings of the Society of Civil Engineers," vol. lxxix. -p. 245. - -[27] _Paper-Makers' Monthly Journal_, April 15th, 1889. - -[28] The berries of _Rhamnus catharticus_ made into a decoction by -boiling. - -[29] _Paper Trade Journal_, New York, April 20th, 1889. - -[30] _Sanitary World_, March 29th, 1884. - -[31] _Industries_, January 25th, 1889. - -[32] "Seventh Annual Report of Local Government Board," 1877-8. - -[33] School of Mines _Quarterly Journal of Applied Science_, -January, 1889, New York. - -[34] These balances may be obtained from Mr. Oertling, Coppice Row, -London, or of any philosophical instrument maker. - -[35] There are two principal methods of analysing or assaying -alkalies by means of the test-acid, namely, _volumetric_, or by -volume, and _gravimetric_, or by weight, in which a specific -gravity bottle, capable of holding exactly 1,000 grains of -distilled water, is used. - -[36] New York _Paper Trade Journal_, 1878. - - - * * * * * - - - - - 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LONDON, E.C. - _May, 1894._ - - A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS - - INCLUDING NEW AND STANDARD WORKS IN - ENGINEERING: CIVIL, MECHANICAL, AND MARINE; - ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING; - MINING, METALLURGY; ARCHITECTURE, - BUILDING, INDUSTRIAL AND DECORATIVE ARTS; - SCIENCE, TRADE AND MANUFACTURES; - AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING; - AUCTIONEERING, VALUING AND ESTATE AGENCY; - LAW AND MISCELLANEOUS. - - PUBLISHED BY - CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON. - - * * * * * - - -MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. - - -_=D. K. Clark's Pocket-Book for Mechanical Engineers.=_ - - _THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK OF TABLES, FORMULÆ, RULES - AND DATA._ A Handy Book of Reference for Daily Use in Engineering - Practice. By D. KINNEAR CLARK, M. Inst. C. E., Author of "Railway - Machinery," "Tramways," &c. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. - Small 8vo, 700 pages, 9_s_. bound in flexible leather covers, - with rounded corners and gilt edges. - -SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. - -MATHEMATICAL TABLES.--MEASUREMENT OF SURFACES AND SOLIDS.--ENGLISH -WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.--FRENCH METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.--FOREIGN -WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.--MONEYS.--SPECIFIC GRAVITY, WEIGHT AND -VOLUME--MANUFACTURED METALS.--STEEL PIPES.--BOLTS AND NUTS.--SUNDRY -ARTICLES IN WROUGHT AND CAST IRON, COPPER, BRASS, LEAD, TIN, -ZINC.--STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.--STRENGTH OF TIMBER.--STRENGTH -OF CAST IRON.--STRENGTH OF WROUGHT IRON.--STRENGTH OF -STEEL.--TENSILE STRENGTH OF COPPER, LEAD, ETC.--RESISTANCE OF -STONES AND OTHER BUILDING MATERIALS.--RIVETED JOINTS IN BOILER -PLATES.--BOILER SHELLS--WIRE ROPES AND HEMP ROPES.--CHAINS -AND CHAIN CABLES.--FRAMING.--HARDNESS OF METALS, ALLOYS AND -STONES.--LABOUR OF ANIMALS.--MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES.--GRAVITY AND -FALL OF BODIES.--ACCELERATING AND RETARDING FORCES.--MILL GEARING, -SHAFTING, ETC.--TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER.--HEAT.--COMBUSTION: -FUELS.--WARMING, VENTILATION, COOKING STOVES.--STEAM.--STEAM -ENGINES AND BOILERS.--RAILWAYS.--TRAMWAYS.--STEAM SHIPS.--PUMPING -STEAM ENGINES AND PUMPS.--COAL GAS, GAS ENGINES, ETC.--AIR IN -MOTION.--COMPRESSED AIR.--HOT AIR ENGINES.--WATER POWER.--SPEED OF -CUTTING TOOLS.--COLOURS.--ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. - -*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. - - "Mr. Clark manifests what is an innate perception of what is - likely to be useful in a pocket-book, and he is really unrivalled - in the art of condensation. Very frequently we find the - information on a given subject is supplied by giving a summary - description of an experiment, and a statement of the results - obtained. There is a very excellent steam table, occupying - five and-a-half pages; and there are rules given for several - calculations, which rules cannot be found in other pocket-books, - as, for example, that on page 497, for getting at the quantity of - water in the shape of priming in any known weight of steam. It - is very difficult to hit upon any mechanical engineering subject - concerning which this work supplies no information, and the - excellent index at the end adds to its utility. In one word, it - is an exceedingly handy and efficient tool, possessed of which - the engineer will be saved many a wearisome calculation, or yet - more wearisome hunt through various text-books and treatises, - and, as such, we can heartily recommend it to our readers, who - must not run away with the idea that Mr. Clark's Pocket-book is - only Molesworth in another form. On the contrary, each contains - what is not to be found in the other; and Mr. Clark takes more - room and deals at more length with many subjects than Molesworth - possibly could."--_The Engineer._ - - "It would be found difficult to compress more matter within a - similar compass, or produce a book of 650 pages which should - be more compact or convenient for pocket reference.... Will be - appreciated by mechanical engineers of all classes."--_Practical - Engineer._ - - "Just the kind of work that practical men require to have near to - them."--_English Mechanic._ - - -_MR. HUTTON'S PRACTICAL HANDBOOKS._ - - -_=Handbook for Works' Managers.=_ - - _THE WORKS' MANAGER'S HANDBOOK OF MODERN RULES, TABLES, AND - DATA._ For Engineers, Millwrights, and Boiler Makers; Tool - Makers, Machinists, and Metal Workers; Iron and Brass Founders, - &c. By W. S. HUTTON, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of - "The Practical Engineer's Handbook." Fourth Edition, carefully - Revised and partly Re-written. In One handsome Volume, medium - 8vo, price 15_s._ strongly bound. - -==> _The Author having compiled Rules and Data for his own use -in a great variety of modern engineering work, and having found -his notes extremely useful, decided to publish them--revised -to date--believing that a practical work, suited to the_ DAILY -REQUIREMENTS OF MODERN ENGINEERS, _would be favourably received._ - -_In the Fourth Edition the First Section has been re-written and -improved by the addition of numerous Illustrations and new matter -relating to_ STEAM ENGINES _and_ GAS ENGINES. _The Second Section -has been enlarged and Illustrated, and throughout the book a great -number of emendations and alterations have been made, with the -object of rendering the book more generally useful._ - -*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. - - "The author treats every subject from the point of view of one - who has collected workshop notes for application in workshop - practice, rather than from the theoretical or literary aspect. - The volume contains a great deal of that kind of information - which is gained only by practical experience, and is seldom - written in books."--_Engineer._ - - "The volume is an exceedingly useful one, brimful with engineers' - notes, memoranda, and rules, and well worthy of being on every - mechanical engineer's bookshelf."--_Mechanical World._ - - "The information is precisely that likely to be required in - practice.... The work forms a desirable addition to the library - not only of the works' manager, but of anyone connected with - general engineering."--_Mining Journal._ - - "A formidable mass of facts and figures, readily accessible - through an elaborate index.... Such a volume will be found - absolutely necessary as a book of reference in all sorts of - 'works' connected with the metal trades."--_Ryland's Iron Trades - Circular._ - - "Brimful of useful information, stated in a concise form, Mr. - Hutton's books have met a pressing want among engineers. The book - must prove extremely useful to every practical man possessing a - copy."--_Practical Engineer._ - - -_=New Manual for Practical Engineers.=_ - - _THE PRACTICAL ENGINEER'S HAND-BOOK._ Comprising a Treatise on - Modern Engines and Boilers: Marine, Locomotive and Stationary. - And containing a large collection of Rules and Practical Data - relating to recent Practice in Designing and Constructing all - kinds of Engines, Boilers, and other Engineering work. The whole - constituting a comprehensive Key to the Board of Trade and other - Examinations for Certificates of Competency in Modern Mechanical - Engineering. By WALTER S. HUTTON, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, - Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook for Engineers," &c. - With upwards of 370 Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised, with - Additions. Medium 8vo, nearly 500 pp., price 18_s._ Strongly - bound. - -==> _This work is designed as a companion to the Author's_ "WORKS' -MANAGER'S HAND-BOOK." _It possesses many new and original features, -and contains, like its predecessor, a quantity of matter not -originally intended for publication, but collected by the author -for his own use in the construction of a great variety of_ MODERN -ENGINEERING WORK. - -_The information is given in a condensed and concise form, and is -illustrated by upwards of 370 Woodcuts; and comprises a quantity -of tabulated matter of great value to all engaged in designing, -constructing, or estimating for_ ENGINES, BOILERS, _and_ OTHER -ENGINEERING WORK. - -*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. - - "We have kept it at hand for several weeks, referring to it as - occasion arose, and we have not on a single occasion consulted - its pages without finding the information of which we were in - quest."--_Athenæum._ - - "A thoroughly good practical handbook, which no engineer can go - through without learning something that will be of service to - him."--_Marine Engineer._ - - "An excellent book of reference for engineers, and a valuable - text-book for students of engineering."--_Scotsman._ - - "This valuable manual embodies the results and experience of the - leading authorities on mechanical engineering."--_Building News._ - - "The author has collected together a surprising quantity of rules - and practical data, and has shown much judgment in the selections - he has made.... There is no doubt that this book is one of the - most useful of its kind published, and will be a very popular - compendium."--_Engineer._ - - "A mass of information, set down in simple language, and in such - a form that it can be easily referred to at any time. The matter - is uniformly good and well chosen and is greatly elucidated - by the illustrations. The book will find its way on to most - engineers' shelves, where it will rank as one of the most useful - books of reference."--_Practical Engineer._ - - "Full of useful information and should be found on the office - shelf of all practical engineers."--_English Mechanic._ - - -_=Practical Treatise on Modern Steam-Boilers.=_ - - _STEAM-BOILER CONSTRUCTION._ A Practical Handbook for Engineers, - Boiler-Makers, and Steam Users. Containing a large Collection - of Rules and Data relating to Recent Practice in the Design, - Construction, and Working of all Kinds of Stationary, Locomotive, - and Marine Steam-Boilers. By WALTER S. HUTTON, Civil and - Mechanical Engineer, Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook," - "The Practical Engineer's Handbook," &c. With upwards of 300 - Illustrations. Second Edition. Medium 8vo, 18_s._ cloth. - -==> _This work is issued in continuation of the Series of Handbooks -written by the Author, viz_:--"THE WORKS' MANAGER'S HANDBOOK" -_and_ "THE PRACTICAL ENGINEER'S HANDBOOK," _which are so highly -appreciated by Engineers for the practical nature of their -information; and is consequently written in the same style as those -works_. - -The Author believes that the concentration, in a convenient form -for easy reference, of such a large amount of thoroughly practical -information on Steam-Boilers, will be of considerable service to -those for whom it is intended, and he trusts the book may be deemed -worthy of as favourable a reception as has been accorded to its -predecessors. - -*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. - - "Every detail, both in boiler design and management, is clearly - laid before the reader. The volume shows that boiler construction - has been reduced to the condition of one of the most exact - sciences; and such a book is of the utmost value to the _fin de - siècle_ Engineer and Works' Manager."--_Marine Engineer._ - - "There has long been room for a modern handbook on steam boilers; - there is not that room now, because Mr. Hutton has filled it. It - is a thoroughly practical book for those who are occupied in the - construction, design, selection, or use of boilers."--_Engineer._ - - "The book is of so important and comprehensive a character that - it must find its way into the libraries of everyone interested in - boiler using or boiler manufacture if they wish to be thoroughly - informed. We strongly recommend the book for the intrinsic value - of its contents."--_Machinery Market._ - - "The value of this book can hardly be over-estimated. The - author's rules, formulæ, &c., are all very fresh, and it is - impossible to turn to the work and not find what you want. No - practical engineer should be without it."--_Colliery Guardian._ - - -_=Hutton's "Modernised Templeton."=_ - - _THE PRACTICAL MECHANICS' WORKSHOP COMPANION._ Comprising a - great variety of the most useful Rules and Formulæ in Mechanical - Science, with numerous Tables of Practical Data and Calculated - Results for Facilitating Mechanical Operations. By WILLIAM - TEMPLETON, Author of "The Engineer's Practical Assistant," &c. - &c. Sixteenth Edition, Revised, Modernised, and considerably - Enlarged by WALTER S. HUTTON, C.E., Author of "The Works' - Manager's Handbook," "The Practical Engineer's Handbook," &c. - Fcap. 8vo, nearly 500 pp., with 8 Plates and upwards of 250 - Illustrative Diagrams, 6_s._, strongly bound for workshop or - pocket wear and tear. - -*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. - - "In Its modernised form Hutton's 'Templeton' should have a - wide sale, for it contains much valuable information which the - mechanic will often find of use, and not a few tables and notes - which he might look for in vain in other works. This modernised - edition will be appreciated by all who have learned to value the - original editions of 'Templeton'.--_English Mechanic._ - - "It has met with great success in the engineering workshop, as - we can testify; and there are a great many men who, in a great - measure, owe their rise in life to this little book."--_Building - News._ - - "This familiar text-book--well known to all mechanics and - engineers--is of essential service to the every-day requirements - of engineers, millwrights, and the various trades connected with - engineering and building. The new modernised edition is worth its - weight in gold."--_Building News._ (Second Notice.) - - "This well-known and largely-used book contains information, - brought up to date, of the sort so useful to the foreman and - draughtsman. So much fresh information has been introduced as to - constitute it practically a new book. It will be largely used in - the office and workshop."--_Mechanical World._ - - "The publishers wisely entrusted the task of revision of this - popular, valuable, and useful book to Mr. Hutton, than whom a - more competent man they could not have found."--_Iron._ - - -_=Templeton's Engineer's and Machinist's Assistant.=_ - - _THE ENGINEER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, and MACHINIST'S PRACTICAL - ASSISTANT._ A collection of Useful Tables, Rules and Data. By - WILLIAM TEMPLETON. 7th Edition, with Additions. 18mo, 2_s._ 6_d._ - cloth. - -*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. - - "Occupies a foremost place among books of this kind. A more - suitable present to an apprentice to any of the mechanical trades - could not possibly be made."--_Building News._ - - "A deservedly popular work. It should be in the 'drawer' of every - mechanic."--_English Mechanic._ - - -_=Foley's Office Reference Book for Mechanical Engineers.=_ - - _THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S REFERENCE BOOK_, for Machine and - Boiler Construction. In Two Parts. Part I. GENERAL ENGINEERING - DATA. Part II. BOILER CONSTRUCTION. With 51 Plates and numerous - Illustrations. By NELSON FOLEY, M.I.N.A. Folio, £5 5_s._ - half-bound. - -SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. - -PART I. - -MEASURES.--CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS, &C., SQUARES, CUBES, -FOURTH POWERS.--SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS.--SURFACE OF -TUBES--RECIPROCALS.--LOGARITHMS.--MENSURATION.--SPECIFIC GRAVITIES -AND WEIGHTS.--WORK AND POWER.--HEAT.--COMBUSTION.--EXPANSION -AND CONTRACTION.--EXPANSION OF GASES.--STEAM.--STATIC -FORCES.--GRAVITATION AND ATTRACTION.--MOTION AND -COMPUTATION OF RESULTING FORCES.--ACCUMULATED -WORK.--CENTRE AND RADIUS OF GYRATION.--MOMENT OF -INERTIA.--CENTRE OF OSCILLATION.--ELECTRICITY.--STRENGTH -OF MATERIALS.--ELASTICITY.--TEST SHEETS OF -METALS.--FRICTION.--TRANSMISSION OF POWER.--FLOW OF LIQUIDS.--FLOW -OF GASES.--AIR PUMPS, SURFACE CONDENSERS, &C.--SPEED OF -STEAMSHIPS.--PROPELLERS.--CUTTING TOOLS.--FLANGES.--COPPER SHEETS -AND TUBES.--SCREWS, NUTS, BOLT HEADS, &C.--VARIOUS RECIPES AND -MISCELLANEOUS MATTER. - - WITH DIAGRAMS FOR VALVE-GEAR, BELTING AND ROPES, DISCHARGE AND - SUCTION PIPES, SCREW PROPELLERS, AND COPPER PIPES. - -PART II. - -TREATING OF, POWER OF BOILERS.--USEFUL RATIOS.--NOTES -ON CONSTRUCTION.--CYLINDRICAL BOILER SHELLS.--CIRCULAR -FURNACES.--FLAT PLATES--STAYS.--GIRDERS.--SCREWS.--HYDRAULIC -TESTS.--RIVETING.--BOILER SETTING, CHIMNEYS, AND MOUNTINGS.--FUELS, -&C.--EXAMPLES OF BOILERS AND SPEEDS OF STEAMSHIPS.--NOMINAL AND -NORMAL HORSE POWER. - - WITH DIAGRAMS FOR ALL BOILER CALCULATIONS AND DRAWINGS OF MANY - VARIETIES OF BOILERS. - -*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. - - "This appears to be a work for which there should be a large - demand on the part of mechanical engineers. It is no easy - matter to compile a book of this class, and the labour involved - is enormous, particularly when--as the author informs us--the - majority of the tables and diagrams have been specially prepared - for the work. The diagrams are exceptionally well executed, and - generally constructed on the method adopted in a previous work - by the same author.... The tables are very numerous, and deal - with a greater variety of subjects than will generally be found - in a work of this kind; they have evidently been compiled with - great care and are unusually complete. All the information given - appears to be well up to date.... It would be quite impossible - within the limits at our disposal to even enumerate all the - subjects treated; it should, however, be mentioned that the - author does not confine himself to a mere bald statement of - formulæ and laws, but in very many instances shows succinctly - how these are derived.... The latter part of the book is devoted - to diagrams relating to Boiler Construction, and to nineteen - beautifully-executed plates of working drawings of boilers and - their details. As samples of how such drawings should be got out, - they may be cordially recommended to the attention of all young, - and even some elderly, engineers.... Altogether the book is one - which every mechanical engineer may, with advantage to himself - add to his library."--_Industries._ - - "Mr. Foley is well fitted to compile such a work.... The diagrams - are a great feature of the work.... Regarding the whole work, it - may be very fairly stated that Mr. Foley has produced a volume - which will undoubtedly fulfil the desire of the author and become - indispensable to all mechanical engineers."--_Marine Engineer._ - - "We have carefully examined this work, and pronounce it - a most excellent reference book for the use of marine - engineers."--_Journal of American Society of Naval Engineers._ - - "A veritable monument of industry on the part of Mr. Foley, who - has succeeded in producing what is simply invaluable to the - engineering profession."--_Steamship._ - - -_=Coal and Speed Tables.=_ - - _A POCKET BOOK OF COAL AND SPEED TABLES, for Engineers and - Steam-users._ By NELSON FOLEY, Author of "The Mechanical - Engineer's Reference Book." Pocket-size, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "These tables are designed to meet the requirements of every-day - use; they are of sufficient scope for most practical purposes, - and may be commended to engineers and users of steam."--_Iron._ - - "This pocket-book well merits the attention of the practical - engineer. Mr. Foley has compiled a very useful set of tables, - the information contained in which is frequently required by - engineers, coal consumers and users of steam."--_Iron and Coal - Trades Review._ - - -_=Steam Engine.=_ - - _TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE._ With a Supplement on Gas - Engines, and PART II. ON HEAT ENGINES. By T. M. GOODEVE, M.A., - Barrister-at-Law, Professor of Mechanics at the Royal College - of Science, London; Author of "The Principles of Mechanics," - "The Elements of Mechanism," &c. Twelfth Edition, Enlarged. With - numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6_s._ cloth. - - "Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine - which will bear comparison with anything written by Huxley or - Maxwell, and we can award it no higher praise."--_Engineer._ - - "Mr. Goodeve's text-book is a work of which every young engineer - should possess himself."--_Mining Journal._ - - -_=Gas Engines.=_ - - _ON GAS-ENGINES._ With Appendix describing a Recent Engine with - Tube Igniter. By T. M. GOODEVE, M.A. Crown 8vo, 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - "Like all Mr. Goodeve's writings, the present is no exception - in point of general excellence. It is a valuable little - volume."--_Mechanical World._ - - -_=Steam Engine Design.=_ - - _A HANDBOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE_, with especial Reference to - Small and Medium-sized Engines. For the Use of Engine-Makers, - Mechanical Draughtsmen, Engineering Students and Users of Steam - Power. By HERMAN HAEDER, C.E. English Edition, Re-edited by the - Author from the Second German Edition, and Translated, with - considerable Additions and Alterations, by H. H. P. POWLES, - A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. With nearly 1,100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, - 9_s._ cloth. - - "A perfect encyclopædia of the steam engine and its details, and - one which must take a permanent place in English drawing-offices - and workshops."--_A Foreman Pattern-maker._ - - "This is an excellent book, and should be in the hands of all who - are interested in the construction and design of medium sized - stationary engines.... A careful study of its contents and the - arrangement of the sections leads to the conclusion that there is - probably no other book like it in this country. The volume aims - at showing the results of practical experience, and it certainly - may claim a complete achievement of this idea."--_Nature._ - - "There can be no question as to its value. We cordially commend - it to all concerned in the design and construction of the steam - engine."--_Mechanical World._ - - -_=Steam Boilers.=_ - - _A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS: Their Strength, Construction, and - Economical Working._ By ROBERT WILSON, C.E. Fifth Edition. 12mo, - 6_s._ cloth. - - "The best treatise that has ever been published on steam - boilers."--_Engineer._ - - "The author shows himself perfect master of his subject, and - we heartily recommend all employing steam power to possess - themselves of the work."--_Ryland's Iron Trade Circular._ - - -_=Boiler Chimneys.=_ - - _BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS: Their Draught-Power and Stability._ - With a Chapter on _Lightning Conductors_. By ROBERT WILSON, - A.I.C.E., Author of "A Treatise on Steam Boilers," &c. Second - Edition. Crown 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "A valuable contribution to the literature of scientific - building."--_The Builder._ - - -_=Boiler Making.=_ - - _THE BOILER-MAKER'S READY RECKONER & ASSISTANT._ With Examples of - Practical Geometry and Templating, for the Use of Platers, Smiths - and Riveters. By JOHN COURTNEY, Edited by D. K. CLARK, M.I.C.E. - Third Edition, 480 pp., with 140 Illusts. Fcap. 8vo, 7_s._ - half-bound. - - "No workman or apprentice should be without this book."--_Iron - Trade Circular._ - - -_=Locomotive Engine Development.=_ - - _THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT._ A Popular Treatise - on the Gradual Improvements made in Railway Engines between 1803 - and 1893. By CLEMENT E. STRETTON, C.E., Author of "Safe Railway - Working," &c. Second Edition, Revised and much Enlarged. With 95 - Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - "Students of railway history and all who are interested in the - evolution of the modern locomotive will find much to attract and - entertain in this volume."--_The Times._ - - "The author of this work is well known to the railway world, - and no one probably has a better knowledge of the history and - development of the locomotive. The volume before us should - be of value to all connected with the railway system of this - country."--_Nature._ - - -_=Fire Engineering.=_ - - _FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE-BRIGADES._ With a History of - Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Management; Remarks - on Fire-Proof Buildings, and the Preservation of Life from Fire; - Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English Towns; Foreign Fire - Systems Hints on Fire-Brigades, &c. &c. By CHARLES F. T. YOUNG, - C.E. With numerous Illustrations. 544 pp., demy 8vo, £1 4_s._ - cloth. - - "To those interested in the subject of fires and fire apparatus, - we most heartily commend this book. It is the only English work - we now have upon the subject."--_Engineering._ - - "It displays much evidence of careful research; and Mr. Young - has put his facts neatly together. His acquaintance with the - practical details of the construction of steam fire engines, - old and new, and the conditions with which it is necessary they - should comply, is accurate and full."--_Engineer._ - - -_=Estimating for Engineering Work, &c.=_ - - _ENGINEERING ESTIMATES, COSTS AND ACCOUNTS_: A Guide to - Commercial Engineering. With numerous Examples of Estimates - and Costs of Millwright Work, Miscellaneous Productions, Steam - Engines and Steam Boilers; and a Section on the Preparation of - Costs Accounts. By A GENERAL MANAGER. Demy 8vo, 12_s._ cloth. - - "This is an excellent and very useful book, covering - subject-matter in constant requisition in every factory and - workshop.... The book is invaluable, not only to the young - engineer, but also to the estimate department of every - works."--BUILDER. - - "We accord the work unqualified praise. The information is given - in a plain, straightforward manner, and bears throughout evidence - of the intimate practical acquaintance of the author with every - phase of commercial engineering."--MECHANICAL WORLD. - - -_=Engineering Construction.=_ - - _PATTERN-MAKING: A Practical Treatise_, embracing the Main Types - of Engineering Construction, and including Gearing, both Hand - and Machine made, Engine Work, Sheaves and Pulleys, Pipes and - Columns, Screws, Machine Parts, Pumps and Cocks, the Moulding of - Patterns in Loam and Greensand, &c., together with the methods - of Estimating the weight of Castings; to which is added an - Appendix of Tables for Workshop Reference. By A FOREMAN PATTERN - MAKER. Second Edition, thoroughly Revised and much Enlarged. With - upwards of 450 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - "A well-written technical guide, evidently written by a man who - understands and has practised what he has written about.... We - cordially recommend it to engineering students, young journeymen, - and others desirous of being initiated into the mysteries of - pattern-making."--_Builder._ - - "More than 450 illustrations help to explain the text, which is, - however, always clear and explicit, thus rendering the work an - excellent _vade mecum_ for the apprentice who desires to become - master of his trade."--_English Mechanic._ - - -_=Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering Terms.=_ - - _LOCKWOOD'S DICTIONARY OF TERMS USED IN THE PRACTICE OF - MECHANICAL ENGINEERING_, embracing those current in the Drawing - Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smith's and - Boiler Shops, &c. &c. Comprising upwards of 6,000 Definitions. - Edited by A FOREMAN PATTERN-MAKER, Author of "Pattern Making." - Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. Crown 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ - cloth. - - "Just the sort of handy dictionary required by the various trades - engaged in mechanical engineering. The practical engineering - pupil will find the book of great value in his studies, and every - foreman engineer and mechanic should have a copy."--_Building - News._ - - "Not merely a dictionary, but, to a certain extent, also a most - valuable guide. It strikes us as a happy idea to combine with a - definition of the phrase useful information on the subject of - which it treats."--_Machinery Market._ - - -_=Mill Gearing.=_ - - _TOOTHED GEARING_: A Practical Handbook for Offices and - Workshops. By A FOREMAN PATTERN MAKER, Author of "Pattern - Making," "Lockwood's Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering Terms," - &c. With 184 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6_s._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - -SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. - -CHAP. I. PRINCIPLES.--II. FORMATION OF TOOTH PROFILES.--III. -PROPORTIONS OF TEETH.--IV. METHODS OF MAKING TOOTH FORMS.--V. -INVOLUTE TEETH.--VI. SOME SPECIAL TOOTH FORMS.--VII. BEVEL -WHEELS.--VIII. SCREW GEARS.--IX. WORM GEARS.--X. HELICAL -WHEELS.--XI. SKEW BEVELS.--XII. VARIABLE AND OTHER GEARS.--XIII. -DIAMETRICAL PITCH.--XIV. THE ODONTOGRAPH.--XV. PATTERN GEARS.--XVI. -MACHINE MOULDING GEARS.--XVII. MACHINE CUT GEARS.--XVIII. -PROPORTION OF WHEELS. - - "We must give the book our unqualified praise for its - thoroughness of treatment, and we can heartily recommend it to - all interested as the most practical book on the subject yet - written.--_Mechanical World._ - - -_=Stone-working Machinery.=_ - - _STONE-WORKING MACHINERY, and the Rapid and Economical Conversion - of Stone._ With Hints on the Arrangement and Management of Stone - Works. By M. POWIS BALE, M.I.M.E. With Illusts. Crown 8vo, 9_s._ - - "The book should be in the hands of every mason or student of - stone-work."--_Colliery Guardian._ - - "A capital handbook for all who manipulate stone for building or - ornamental purposes."--_Machinery Market._ - - -_=Pump Construction and Management.=_ - - _PUMPS AND PUMPING: A Handbook for Pump Users._ Being Notes - on Selection, Construction and Management. By M. POWIS BALE, - M.I.M.E., Author of "Woodworking Machinery," "Saw Mills," &c. - Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "The matter is set forth as concisely as possible. In fact, - condensation rather than diffuseness has been the author's aim - throughout; yet he does not seem to have omitted anything likely - to be of use."--_Journal of Gas Lighting._ - - "Thoroughly practical and simply and clearly written."--_Glasgow - Herald._ - - -_=Milling Machinery, etc.=_ - - _MILLING MACHINES AND PROCESSES: A Practical Treatise on Shaping - Metals by Rotary Cutters_, including Information on Making and - Grinding the Cutters. By PAUL N. HASLUCK, Author of "Lathe-work," - "Handybooks for Handicrafts," &c. With upwards of 300 Engravings, - including numerous Drawings by the Author. Large crown 8vo, 352 - pages, 12_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "A new departure in engineering literature.... We can recommend - this work to all interested in milling machines; it is what it - professes to be--a practical treatise."--_Engineer._ - - "A capital and reliable book, which will no doubt be of - considerable service, both to those who are already acquainted - with the process as well as to those who contemplate its - adoption."--_Industries._ - - -_=Turning.=_ - - _LATHE-WORK: A Practical Treatise on the Tools, Appliances, and - Processes employed in the Art of Turning_. By PAUL N. HASLUCK. - Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Cr. 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "Written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be - done, but who also knows how to do it, and how to convey - his knowledge to others. To all turners this book would be - valuable."--_Engineering._ - - "We can safely recommend the work to young engineers. To the - amateur it will simply be invaluable. To the student it will - convey a great deal of useful information."--_Engineer._ - - -_=Screw-Cutting.=_ - - _SCREW THREADS: And Methods of Producing Them._ With Numerous - Tables, and complete directions for using Screw-Cutting - Lathes. By PAUL N. HASLUCK, Author of "Lathe-Work," &c. With - Seventy-four Illustrations. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. - Waistcoat-pocket size, 1_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "Full of useful information, hints and practical criticism. Taps, - dies and screwing-tools generally are illustrated and their - action described."--_Mechanical World._ - - "It is a complete compendium of all the details of the - screw-cutting lathe; in fact a _multum in parvo_ on all the - subjects it treats upon."--_Carpenter and Builder._ - - -_=Smith's Tables for Mechanics, etc.=_ - - _TABLES, MEMORANDA, AND CALCULATED RESULTS, FOR MECHANICS, - ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, etc._ Selected and Arranged by - FRANCIS SMITH. Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged, - with a New Section of ELECTRICAL TABLES, FORMULÆ, and MEMORANDA. - Waistcoat-pocket size, 1_s._ 6_d._ limp leather. - - "It would, perhaps, be as difficult to make a small pocket-book - selection of notes and formulæ to suit ALL engineers as - it would be to make a universal medicine; but Mr. Smith's - waistcoat-pocket collection may be looked upon as a successful - attempt."--_Engineer._ - - "The best example we have ever seen of 270 pages of useful matter - packed into the dimensions of a card-case."--_Building News._ - - "A veritable pocket treasury of knowledge."--_Iron._ - - -_=French-English Glossary for Engineers, etc.=_ - - _A POCKET GLOSSARY of TECHNICAL TERMS: ENGLISH-FRENCH, - FRENCH-ENGLISH_; with Tables suitable for the Architectural, - Engineering, Manufacturing and Nautical Professions. By JOHN - JAMES FLETCHER, Engineer and Surveyor. Second Edition, Revised - and Enlarged, 200 pp. Waistcoat-pocket size, 1_s._ 6_d._ limp - leather. - - "It is a very great advantage for readers and correspondents - in France and England to have so large a number of the words - relating to engineering and manufacturers collected in a - Liliputian volume. The little book will be useful both to - students and travellers."--_Architect._ - - "The glossary of terms is very complete, and many of the - tables are new and well arranged. We cordially commend the - book."--_Mechanical World._ - - -_=Year-Book of Engineering Formulæe, &c.=_ - - _THE ENGINEER'S YEAR-BOOK FOR 1894._ Comprising Formulæ, Rules, - Tables, Data and Memoranda in Civil, Mechanical, Electrical, - Marine and Mine Engineering. By H. R. KEMPE, A.M. Inst.C.E., - M.I.E.E., Technical Officer of the Engineer-in-Chief's Office. - General Post Office, London, Author of "A Handbook of Electrical - Testing," "The Electrical Engineer's Pocket-Book," &c. With 700 - Illustrations, specially Engraved for the work. Crown 8vo, 600 - pages, 8_s._ leather. - - [_Just published._ - - "Represents an enormous quantity of work, and forms a desirable - book of reference."--_The Engineer._ - - "The book is distinctly in advance of most similar publications - in this country."--_Engineering._ - - "This valuable and well-designed book of reference meets the - demands of all descriptions of engineers."--_Saturday Review._ - - "Teems with up-to-date information in every branch of engineering - and construction."--_Building News._ - - "The needs of the engineering profession could hardly be supplied - in a more admirable, complete and convenient form. To say that it - more than sustains all comparisons is praise of the highest sort, - and that may justly be said of it."--_Mining Journal._ - - "There is certainly room for the new comer, which supplies - explanations and directions, as well as formulæ and tables. It - deserves to become one of the most successful of the technical - annuals."--_Architect._ - - "Brings together with great skill all the technical information - which an engineer has to use day by day. It is in every way - admirably equipped, and is sure to prove successful."--_Scotsman._ - - "The up-to-dateness of Mr. Kempe's compilation is a quality - that will not be lost on the busy people for whom the work is - intended."--_Glasgow Herald._ - - -_=Portable Engines.=_ - - _THE PORTABLE ENGINE; ITS CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT._ A - Practical Manual for Owners and Users of Steam Engines generally. - By WILLIAM DYSON WANSBROUGH. With 90 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, - 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "This is a work of value to those who use steam machinery.... - Should be read by everyone who has a steam engine, on a farm or - elsewhere."--_Mark Lane Express._ - - "We cordially commend this work to buyers and owners of steam - engines, and to those who have to do with their construction or - use."--_Timber Trades Journal._ - - "Such a general knowledge of the steam engine as Mr. Wansbrough - furnishes to the reader should be acquired by all intelligent - owners and others who use the steam engine."--_Building News._ - - "An excellent text-book of this useful form of engine. 'The Hints - to Purchasers' contain a good deal of commonsense and practical - wisdom."--_English Mechanic._ - - -_=Iron and Steel.=_ - - _"IRON AND STEEL": A Work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory, and - Office._ Containing ready, useful, and trustworthy Information - for Iron-masters and their Stock-takers; Managers of Bar, Rail, - Plate, and Sheet Rolling Mills: Iron and Metal Founders; Iron - Ship and Bridge Builders; Mechanical, Mining, and Consulting - Engineers; Architects, Contractors, Builders, and Professional - Draughtsmen. By CHARLES HOARE, Author of "The Slide Rule," &c. - Eighth Edition, Revised throughout and considerably Enlarged. - 32mo. 6_s._ leather. - - "For comprehensiveness the book has not its equal."--_Iron._ - - "One of the best of the pocket books."--_English Mechanic._ - - "We cordially recommend this book to those engaged in considering - the details of all kinds of iron and steel works."--_Naval - Science._ - - -_=Elementary Mechanics.=_ - - _CONDENSED MECHANICS._ A Selection of Formulæ, Rules, Tables, - and Data for the Use of Engineering Students, Science Classes, - &c. In Accordance with the Requirements of the Science and Art - Department. By W. G. CRAWFORD HUGHES, A.M.I.C.E. Crown 8vo, 2_s._ - 6_d._ cloth. - - "The book is well fitted for those who are either confronted - with practical problems in their work, or are preparing for - examination and wish to refresh their knowledge by going through - their formulæ again."--_Marine Engineer._ - - "It is well arranged, and meets the wants of those for whom it is - intended."--_Railway News._ - - -_=Steam.=_ - - _THE SAFE USE OF STEAM._ Containing Rules for Unprofessional - Steam-users. By an ENGINEER. Sixth Edition. Sewed, 6_d._ - - "If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler - explosions would become sensations by their rarity."--_English - Mechanic._ - - -_=Warming.=_ - - _HEATING BY HOT WATER_: with Information and Suggestions on - the best Methods of Heating Public, Private and Horticultural - Buildings. By WALTER JONES. Second Edition. With 96 - Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2_s._ 6_d._ _net_. - - "We confidently recommend all interested in heating by hot water - to secure a copy of this valuable little treatise."--_The Plumber - and Decorator._ - - -_THE POPULAR WORKS OF MICHAEL REYNOLDS_ - -("THE ENGINE DRIVER'S FRIEND"). - - -_=Locomotive-Engine Driving.=_ - - _LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE DRIVING: A Practical Manual for Engineers in - charge of Locomotive Engines._ By MICHAEL REYNOLDS, Member of the - Society of Engineers, formerly Locomotive Inspector L. B. and S. - C. R. Ninth Edition. Including a KEY TO THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. - With Illustrations and Portrait of Author. Crown 8vo. 4_s._ 6_d._ - cloth. - - "Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. We - can confidently recommend the book, not only to the practical - driver, but to everyone who takes an interest in the performance - of locomotive engines."--_The Engineer._ - - "Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter in the literature - of the day. This admirable practical treatise, of the - practical utility of which we have to speak in terms of warm - commendation."--_Athenæum._ - - "Evidently the work of one who knows his subject - thoroughly."--_Railway Service Gazette._ - - "Were the cautions and rules given in the book to become part of - the every-day working of our engine-drivers, we might have fewer - distressing accidents to deplore."--_Scotsman._ - - -_=Stationary Engine Driving.=_ - - _STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING: A Practical Manual for Engineers - in charge of Stationary Engines._ By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Fifth - Edition, Enlarged. With Plates and Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 4_s._ - 6_d._ cloth. - - "The author is thoroughly acquainted with his subjects, and his - advice on the various points treated is clear and practical.... - He has produced a manual which is an exceedingly useful one for - the class for whom it is specially intended."--_Engineering._ - - "Our author leaves no stone unturned. He is determined that - his readers shall not only know something about the stationary - engine, but all about it."--_Engineer._ - - "An engineman who has mastered the contents of Mr.Reynolds's - book will require but little actual experience with boilers and - engines before he can be trusted to look after them."--_English - Mechanic._ - - -_=The Engineer, Fireman, and Engine-Boy.=_ - - _THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, FIREMAN, and ENGINE-BOY._ - Comprising a Historical Notice of the Pioneer Locomotive - Engines and their Inventors. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. With numerous - Illustrations and a fine Portrait of George Stephenson. Crown - 8vo, 4_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "From the technical knowledge of the author it will appeal to the - railway man of to-day more forcibly than anything written by Dr. - Smiles.... The volume contains information of a technical kind, - and facts that every driver should be familiar with."--_English - Mechanic._ - - "We should be glad to see this book in the possession of everyone - in the kingdom who has ever laid, or is to lay, hands on a - locomotive engine."--_Iron._ - - -_=Continuous Railway Brakes.=_ - - _CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES: A Practical Treatise on the several - Systems in Use in the United Kingdom; their Construction and - Performance._ With copious Illustrations and numerous Tables. By - MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Large crown 8vo, 9_s._ cloth. - - "A popular explanation of the different brakes. It will be - of great assistance in forming public opinion, and will be - studied with benefit by those who take an interest in the - brake."--_English Mechanic._ - - "Written with sufficient technical detail to enable the principle - and relative connection of the various parts of each particular - brake to be readily grasped."--_Mechanical World._ - - -_=Engine-Driving Life.=_ - - _ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE: Stirring Adventures and Incidents in the - Lives of Locomotive-Engine Drivers._ By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Third - and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo, 1_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - "From first to last perfectly fascinating. Wilkie Collins's - most thrilling conceptions are thrown into the shade by - true incidents, endless in their variety, related in every - page."--_North British Mail._ - - "Anyone who wishes to get a real insight into railway life cannot - do better than read 'Engine-Driving Life' for himself; and if he - once take it up he will find that the author's enthusiasm and - real love of the engine-driving profession will carry him on till - he has read every page."--_Saturday Review._ - - -_=Pocket Companion for Enginemen.=_ - - _THE ENGINEMAN'S POCKET COMPANION AND PRACTICAL EDUCATOR FOR - ENGINEMEN, BOILER ATTENDANTS, AND MECHANICS._ By MICHAEL - REYNOLDS. With Forty-five Illustrations and numerous Diagrams. - Third Edition, Revised. Royal 18mo, 3_s._ 6_d._, strongly bound - for pocket wear. - - "This admirable work is well suited to accomplish its object, - being the honest workmanship of a competent engineer."--_Glasgow - Herald._ - - "A most meritorious work, giving in a succinct and practical form - all the information an engine-minder desirous of mastering the - scientific principles of his daily calling would require."--_The - Miller._ - - "A boon to those who are striving to become efficient - mechanics."--_Daily Chronicle._ - - -CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. - -_MR. HUMBER'S VALUABLE ENGINEERING BOOKS._ - - -_=The Water Supply of Cities and Towns.=_ - - _A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE on the WATER-SUPPLY OF CITIES AND - TOWNS._ By WILLIAM HUMBER, A-M.Inst.C.E., and M. Inst. M.E., - Author of "Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," &c. &c. - Illustrated with 50 Double Plates, 1 Single Plate, Coloured - Frontispiece, and upwards of 250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 - pages of Text. Imp. 4to, £6 6_s._ elegantly and substantially - half-bound in morocco. - -_List of Contents._ - -I. Historical Sketch of some of the means that have been adopted -for the Supply of Water to Cities and Towns.--II. Water and the -Foreign Matter usually associated with it.--III. Rainfall and -Evaporation.--IV. Springs and the water-bearing formations of -various districts.--V. Measurement and Estimation of the flow -of Water.--VI. On the Selection of the Source of Supply.--VII. -Wells.--VIII. Reservoirs.--IX. The Purification of Water.--X. -Pumps.--XI. Pumping Machinery.--XII. Conduits.--XIII. Distribution -of Water.--XIV. Meters, Service Pipes, and House Fittings.--XV. The -Law and Economy of Water Works.--XVI. Constant and Intermittent -Supply.--XVII. Description of Plates.--Appendices, giving Tables of -Rates of Supply, Velocities, &c. &c., together with Specifications -of several Works illustrated, among which will be found: Aberdeen, -Bideford, Canterbury, Dundee. Halifax, Lambeth, Rotherham, Dublin, -and others. - - "The most systematic and valuable work upon water supply hitherto - produced in English, or in any other language.... Mr. Humber's - work is characterised almost throughout by an exhaustiveness much - more distinctive of French and German than of English technical - treatises."--_Engineer._ - - "We can congratulate Mr. Humber on having been able to give so - large an amount of Information on a subject so important as the - water supply of cities and towns. The plates, fifty in number, - are mostly drawings of executed works, and alone would have - commanded the attention of every engineer whose practice may lie - in this branch of the profession."--_Builder._ - - -_=Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction.=_ - - _A COMPLETE AND PRACTICAL TREATISE ON CAST AND WROUGHT IRON - BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, including Iron Foundations._ In Three - Parts--Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By WILLIAM - HUMBER, A.M.Inst.C.E., and M.Inst.M.E. Third Edition, Revised - and much improved, with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first - appear in this edition), and numerous Additions to the Text. In - Two Vols., imp. 4to, £6 16_s._ 6_d._ half-bound in morocco. - - "A very valuable contribution to the standard literature of civil - engineering. In addition to elevations, plans and sections, large - scale details are given which very much enhance the instructive - worth of those illustrations."--_Civil Engineer and Architect's - Journal._ - - "Mr. Humber's stately volumes, lately issued--in which the - most important bridges erected during the last five years, - under the direction of the late Mr. Brunel, Sir W. Cubitt, Mr. - Hawkshaw, Mr. Page, Mr. Fowler, Mr. Hemans, and others among - our most eminent engineers, are drawn and specified in great - detail."--_Engineer._ - - -_=Strains, Calculation of.=_ - - _A HANDY BOOK FOR THE CALCULATION OF STRAINS IN GIRDERS AND - SIMILAR STRUCTURES, AND THEIR STRENGTH._ Consisting of Formulæ - and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous details for Practical - Application, &c. By WILLIAM HUMBER, A-M.Inst.C.E., &c. Fifth - Edition. Crown 8vo, nearly 100 Woodcuts and 3 Plates, 7_s._ 6_d._ - cloth. - - "The formulae are neatly expressed, and the diagrams - good."--_Athenæum._ - - "We heartily commend this really _handy_ book to our engineer and - architect readers."--_English Mechanic._ - - -_=Barlow's Strength of Materials, enlarged by Humber.=_ - - _A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS_: with Rules for - Application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension - Bridges, Railways, &c. By PETER BARLOW, F.R.S. A New Edition, - Revised by his Sons, P. W. BARLOW, F.R.S., and W. H. BARLOW, - F.R.S.; to which are added, Experiments by HODGKINSON, FAIRBAIRN, - and KIRKALDY; and Formulæ for Calculating Girders, &c. Arranged - and Edited by WM. HUMBER, A-M.Inst.C.E. Demy 8vo, 400 pp., with - 19 large Plates and numerous Woodcuts, 18_s._ cloth. - - "Valuable alike to the student, tyro, and the experienced - practitioner, it will always rank future, as it has - hitherto done, as the standard treatise on that particular - subject."--_Engineer._ - - "There is no greater authority than Barlow."--_Building News._ - - "As a scientific work of the first class, it deserves a foremost - place on the bookshelves of every civil engineer and practical - mechanic."--_English Mechanic._ - - -_MR. HUMBER'S GREAT WORK ON MODERN ENGINEERING._ - -Complete in Four Volumes, imperial 4to, price £12 12_s._, -half-morocco. Each Volume sold separately as follows:-- - - - _A RECORD OF THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEERING._ FIRST SERIES. - Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, Railway, - Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By WILLIAM HUMBER, - A-M.Inst.C.E., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to - a large scale, Photographic Portrait of John Hawkshaw, C.E., - F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, - &c., £3 3_s._ half-morocco. - -_List of the Plates and Diagrams._ - - Victoria Station and Roof, L. B. & S. C. R. (3 plates); Southport - Pier (2 plates); Victoria Station and Roof, L. C. & D. and G. W. - R. (6 plates); Roof of Cremorne Music Hall; Bridge over G. N. - Railway; Roof of Station, Dutch Rhenish Rail (2 plates); Bridge - over the Thames, West London Extension Railway (5 plates); Armour - Plates: Suspension Bridge, Thames (4 plates); The Allen Engine; - Suspension Bridge, Avon (3 plates); Underground Railway (3 - plates). - - "Handsomely lithographed and printed. It will find favour with - many who desire to preserve in a permanent form copies of the - plans and specifications prepared for the guidance of the - contractors for many important engineering works."--_Engineer._ - - - _HUMBER'S PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEERING._ SECOND SERIES. Imp. - 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of Robert - Stephenson, C.E., M.P., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive - Letterpress, Specifications, &c., £3 3_s._ half-morocco. - -_List of the Plates and Diagrams._ - - Birkenhead Docks, Low Water Basin (15 plates); Charing Cross - Station Roof, C. C. Railway (3 plates); Digswell Viaduct, - Great Northern Railway; Robbery Wood Viaduct, Great Northern - Railway; Iron Permanent Way; Clydach Viaduct, Merthyr, Tredegar, - and Abergavenny Railway; Ebbw Viaduct, Merthyr, Tredegar, and - Abergavenny Railway; College Wood Viaduct, Cornwall Railway; - Dublin Winter Palace Roof (3 plates); Bridge over the Thames, L. - C. & D. Railway (6 plates); Albert Harbour, Greenock (4 plates). - - "Mr. Humber has done the profession good and true service, by - the fine collection of examples he has here brought before the - profession and the public."--_Practical Mechanic's Journal._ - - - _HUMBER'S PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEERING._ THIRD SERIES. - Imp. 4to, with 40 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of J. - R. M'Clean, late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive - Letterpress, Specifications, &c., £3 3_s._ half-morocco. - -_List of the Plates and Diagrams._ - - MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS.--_North Side._--Map showing - Interception of Sewers; Middle Level Sewer (2 plates); Outfall - Sewer, Bridge over River Lea (3 plates); Outfall Sewer, Bridge - over Marsh Lane, North Woolwich Railway, and Bow and Barking - Railway Junction; Outfall Sewer, Bridge over Bow and Barking - Railway (3 plates); Outfall Sewer, Bridge over East London - Waterworks' Feeder (2 plates); Outfall Sewer, Reservoir (2 - plates); Outfall Sewer, Tumbling Bay and Outlet; Outfall Sewer, - Penstocks. _South Side._--Outfall Sewer, Bermondsey Branch (2 - plates); Outfall Sewer, Reservoir and Outlet (4 plates); Outfall - Sewer, Filth Hoist; Sections of Sewers (North and South Sides). - - THAMES EMBANKMENT.--Section of River Wall; Steamboat Pier, - Westminster (2 plates); Landing Stairs between Charing Cross and - Waterloo Bridges; York Gate (2 plates); Overflow and Outlet at - Savoy Street Sewer (3 plates); Steamboat Pier, Waterloo Bridge (3 - plates); Junction of Sewers, Plans and Sections; Gullies, Plans - and Sections; Rolling Stock; Granite and Iron Forts. - - "The drawings have a constantly increasing value, and whoever - desires to possess clear representations of the two great works - carried out by our Metropolitan Board will obtain Mr. Humber's - volume."--_Engineer._ - - - _HUMBER'S PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEERING._ FOURTH SERIES. Imp. - 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of John Fowler, - late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, - Specifications, &c., £3 3_s._ half-morocco. - -_List of the Plates and Diagrams._ - - Abbey Mills Pumping Station, Main Drainage, Metropolis (4 - plates); Barrow Docks (5 plates); Manquis Viaduct, Santiago and - Valparaiso Railway (2 plates); Adams Locomotive, St. Helen's - Canal Railway (2 plates); Cannon Street Station Roof, Charing - Cross Railway (3 plates); Road Bridge over the River Moka (2 - plates); Telegraphic Apparatus for Mesopotamia; Viaduct over - the River Wye, Midland Railway (3 plates); St. Germans Viaduct, - Cornwall Railway (2 plates); Wrought-Iron Cylinder for Diving - Bell; Millwall Docks (6 plates); Milroy's Patent Excavator; - Metropolitan District Railway (6 plates); Harbours, Ports, and - Breakwaters (3 plates). - - "We gladly welcome another year's issue of this valuable - publication from the able pen of Mr. Humber. The accuracy and - general excellence of this work are well known, while its - usefulness in giving the measurements and details of some of - the latest examples of engineering, as carried out by the - most eminent men in the profession, cannot be too highly - prized."--_Artisan._ - - -_=Statics, Graphic and Analytic.=_ - - _GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS, in their Practical Application - to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, Solid Girders, Lattice, - Bowstring and Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron Arches and Piers, - and other Frameworks._ By R. HUDSON GRAHAM, C.E. Containing - Diagrams and Plates to Scale. With numerous Examples, many taken - from existing Structures. Specially arranged for Class-work in - Colleges and Universities. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. - 8vo, 16_s._ cloth. - - "Mr. Graham's book will find a place wherever graphic and - analytic statics are used or studied."--_Engineer._ - - "The work is excellent from a practical point of view, and - has evidently been prepared with much care. The directions - for working are ample, and are illustrated by an abundance of - well-selected examples. It is an excellent text-book for the - practical draughtsman."--_Athenæum._ - - -_=Practical Mathematics.=_ - - _MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN_: Being a Commonplace Book of Pure - and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly for the use of Civil - Engineers, Architects and Surveyors. By OLINTHUS GREGORY, L.L.D., - F.R.A.S., Enlarged by HENRY LAW, C.E. 4th Edition, carefully - Revised by J. R. YOUNG, formerly Professor of Mathematics, - Belfast College. With 13 Plates. 8vo, £1 1_s._ cloth. - - "The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand rules - for solving nearly every mathematical difficulty that may arise - in his practice. The rules are in all cases explained by means of - examples, in which every step of the process is clearly worked - out."--_Builder._ - - "One of the most serviceable books for practical mechanics.... - It is an instructive book for the student, and a text-book for - him who, having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs - occasionally to refresh his memory upon them."--_Building News._ - - -_=Hydraulic Tables.=_ - - _HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, and FORMULÆ for finding the - Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and - Rivers._ With New Formulæ, Tables, and General Information on - Rainfall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for - Towns and Mill Power. By JOHN NEVILLE, Civil Engineer, M.R.I.A. - Third Ed., carefully Revised, with considerable Additions. - Numerous Illusts. Cr. 8vo, 14_s._ cloth. - - "Alike valuable to students and engineers in practice; its study - will prevent the annoyance of avoidable failures, and assist - them to select the readiest means of successfully carrying out - any given work connected with hydraulic engineering."--_Mining - Journal._ - - "It is, of all English books on the subject, the one nearest - to completeness.... From the good arrangement of the matter, - the clear explanations, and abundance of formulæ, the carefully - calculated tables, and, above all, the thorough acquaintance with - both theory and construction, which is displayed from first to - last, the book will be found to be an acquisition."--_Architect._ - - -_=Hydraulics.=_ - - _HYDRAULIC MANUAL._ Consisting of Working Tables and Explanatory - Text. Intended as a Guide in Hydraulic Calculations and Field - Operations. By LOWIS D'A. JACKSON, Author of "Aid to Survey - Practice," "Modern Metrology," &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. - Large cr. 8vo, 16_s._ cl. - - "The author has had a wide experience in hydraulic engineering - and has been a careful observer of the facts which have come - under his notice, and from the great mass of material at his - command he has constructed a manual which may be accepted as a - trustworthy guide to this branch of the engineer's profession. - We can heartily recommend this volume to all who desire to - be acquainted with the latest development of this important - subject."--_Engineering._ - - "The standard-work in this department of mechanics."--_Scotsman._ - - "The most useful feature of this work is its freedom from what is - superannuated, and its thorough adoption of recent experiments; - the text is, in fact, in great part a short account of the great - modern experiments."--_Nature._ - - -_=Drainage.=_ - - _ON THE DRAINAGE OF LANDS, TOWNS, AND BUILDINGS._ By G. D. - DEMPSEY, C.E., Author of "The Practical Railway Engineer," &c. - Revised, with large Additions on RECENT PRACTICE IN DRAINAGE - ENGINEERING, by D. KINNEAR CLARK, M.Inst.C.E. Author of - "Tramways: Their Construction and Working," "A Manual of Rules, - Tables, and Data for Mechanical Engineers," &c. Second Edition, - Corrected. Fcap. 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "The new matter added to Mr. Dempsey's excellent work is - characterised by the comprehensive grasp and accuracy of - detail for which the name of Mr. D. K. Clark is a sufficient - voucher."--_Athenæum._ - - "As a work on recent practice in drainage engineering, the - book is to be commended to all who are making that branch of - engineering science their special study."--_Iron._ - - "A comprehensive manual on drainage engineering, and a useful - introduction to the student."--_Building News._ - - -_=Water Storage, Conveyance, and Utilisation.=_ - - _WATER ENGINEERING_: A Practical Treatise on the Measurement, - Storage, Conveyance, and Utilisation of Water for the Supply of - Towns, for Mill Power, and for other Purposes. By CHARLES SLAGG, - Water and Drainage Engineer, A.M.Inst.C.E., Author of "Sanitary - Work in the Smaller Towns, and in Villages," &c. With numerous - Illusts. Cr. 8vo. 7_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "As a small practical treatise on the water supply of towns, and - on some applications of water-power, the work is in many respects - excellent."--_Engineering._ - - "The author has collated the results deduced from the experiments - of the most eminent authorities, and has presented them in - a compact and practical form, accompanied by very clear and - detailed explanations.... The application of water as a motive - power is treated very carefully and exhaustively."--_Builder._ - - "For anyone who desires to begin the study of hydraulics with a - consideration of the practical applications of the science there - is no better guide."--_Architect._ - - -_=River Engineering.=_ - - _RIVER BARS: The Causes of their Formation, and their Treatment - by "Induced Tidal Scour;"_ with a Description of the Successful - Reduction by this Method of the Bar at Dublin. By I. J. MANN, - Assist. Eng. to the Dublin Port and Docks Board. Royal 8vo, 7_s._ - 6_d._ cloth. - - "We recommend all interested in harbour works--and, indeed, - those concerned in the improvements of rivers generally--to - read Mr. Mann's interesting work on the treatment of river - bars."--_Engineer._ - - -_=Trusses.=_ - - _TRUSSES OF WOOD AND IRON. Practical Applications of Science - in Determining the Stresses, Breaking Weights, Safe Loads, - Scantlings, and Details of Construction_, with Complete Working - Drawings. By WILLIAM GRIFFITHS, Surveyor, Assistant Master, - Tranmere School of Science and Art. Oblong 8vo, 4_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "This handy little book enters so minutely into every detail - connected with the construction of roof trusses, that no student - need be ignorant of these matters."--_Practical Engineer._ - - -_=Railway Working.=_ - - _SAFE RAILWAY WORKING. A Treatise on Railway Accidents: Their - Cause and Prevention; with a Description of Modern Appliances - and Systems._ By CLEMENT E. STRETTON, C.E., Vice-President and - Consulting Engineer, Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants. - With Illustrations and Coloured Plates. Third Edition, Enlarged. - Crown 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "A book for the engineer, the directors, the managers; and, in - short, all who wish for information on railway matters will find - a perfect encyclopædia in 'Safe Railway Working.'"--_Railway - Review._ - - "We commend the remarks on railway signalling to all railway - managers, especially where a uniform code and practice is - advocated."--_Herepath's Railway Journal._ - - "The author may be congratulated on having collected, in a very - convenient form, much valuable information on the principal - questions affecting the safe working of railways."--_Railway - Engineer._ - - -_=Oblique Bridges.=_ - - _A PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL ESSAY ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES._ With 13 - large Plates. By the late GEORGE WATSON BUCK, M.I.C.E. Third - Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. WATSON BUCK, M.I.C.E.; and - with the addition of Description to Diagrams for Facilitating the - Construction of Oblique Bridges, by W. H. BARLOW, M.I.C.E. Royal - 8vo, 12_s._ cloth. - - "The standard text-book for all engineers regarding skew arches - is Mr. Buck's treatise, and it would be impossible to consult a - better."--_Engineer._ - - "Mr. Buck's treatise is recognised as a standard text-book, and - his treatment has divested the subject of many of the intricacies - supposed to belong to it. As a guide to the engineer and - architect, on a confessedly difficult subject, Mr. Buck's work is - unsurpassed."--_Building News._ - - -_=Tunnel Shafts.=_ - - _THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS: A Practical and - Theoretical Essay._ By J. H. WATSON BUCK, M.Inst.C.E., Resident - Engineer, London and North-Western Railway. Illustrated with - Folding Plates. Royal 8vo, 12_s._ cloth. - - "Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the - mason; and the observations on the form of arch, the rules for - ordering the stone, and the construction of the templates will be - found of considerable use. We commend the book to the engineering - profession."--_Building News._ - - "Will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost - value, and calculated to save much time and obviate many - mistakes."--_Colliery Guardian._ - - -_=Student's Text-Book on Surveying.=_ - - _PRACTICAL SURVEYING_: A Text-Book for Students preparing for - Examination or for Survey-work in the Colonies. By GEORGE W. - USILL, A.M.I.C.E., Author of "The Statistics of the Water Supply - of Great Britain." With Four Lithographic Plates and upwards of - 330 Illustrations. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Including - Tables of Natural Sines, Tangents, Secants, &c. Crown 8vo, 7_s._ - 6_d._ cloth; or, on THIN PAPER, bound in limp leather, gilt - edges, rounded corners, for pocket use, 12_s._ 6_d._ - - "The best forms of instruments are described as to their - construction, uses and modes of employment, and there are - innumerable hints on work and equipment such as the author, in - his experience as surveyor, draughtsman, and teacher, has found - necessary, and which the student in his inexperience will find - most serviceable."--_Engineer._ - - "The latest treatise in the English language on surveying, and - we have no hesitation in saying that the student will find it - a better guide than any of its predecessors.... Deserves to be - recognised as the first book which should be put in the hands of - a pupil of Civil Engineering, and every gentleman of education - who sets out for the Colonies would find it well to have a - copy."--_Architect._ - - -_=Survey Practice.=_ - - _AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE, for Reference in Surveying, Levelling, - and Setting-out; and in Route Surveys of Travellers by Land - and Sea._ With Tables, Illustrations, and Records. By LOWIS - D'A. JACKSON, A.M.I.C.E., Author of "Hydraulic Manual," "Modern - Metrology," &c. Second Edition, Enlarged. Large crown 8vo, 12_s._ - 6d. cloth. - - "A valuable _vade-mecum_ for the surveyor. We can recommend this - book as containing an admirable supplement to the teaching of the - accomplished surveyor."--_Athenæum._ - - "As a text-book we should advise all surveyors to place it in - their libraries, and study well the matured instructions afforded - in its pages."--_Colliery Guardian._ - - "The author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and - practical experience which, aided by a clear and lucid style of - writing, renders the book a very useful one."--_Builder._ - - -_=Surveying, Land and Marine.=_ - - _LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING_, in Reference to the Preparation - of Plans for Roads and Railways; Canals, Rivers, Towns' Water - Supplies; Docks and Harbours. With Description and Use of - Surveying Instruments. By W. D. HASKOLL, C.E., Author of "Bridge - and Viaduct Construction," &c. Second Edition, Revised, with - Additions. Large cr. 8vo, 9_s._ cl. - - "This book must prove of great value to the student. We have no - hesitation in recommending it, feeling assured that it will more - than repay a careful study."--_Mechanical World._ - - "A most useful and well arranged book. We can strongly recommend - it as a carefully-written and valuable text-book. It enjoys a - well-deserved repute among surveyors."--_Builder._ - - "This volume cannot fail to prove of the utmost practical - utility. It may be safely recommended to all students who aspire - to become clean and expert surveyors."--_Mining Journal._ - - -_=Field-Book for Engineers.=_ - - _THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, AND CONTRACTOR'S FIELD-BOOK._ - Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations - of Systems, and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and - Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight - Edge and Set Square only; Levelling with the Theodolite, - Casting-out and Reducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting - Sections in the ordinary manner; setting-out Curves with the - Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples, with Right - and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument: Setting-out Curves - without Theodolite, on the System of Tangential Angles by sets - of Tangents and Offsets; and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep, - calculated for every 6 inches in depth. By W. D. HASKOLL, C.E. - Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, 12_s._ cloth. - - "The book is very handy; the separate tables of sines and - tangents to every minute will make it useful for many other - purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the - same."--_Athenæum._ - - "Every person engaged in engineering field operations will - estimate the importance of such a work and the amount of valuable - time which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable tables - prepared with the accuracy and fulness of those given in this - volume."--_Railway News._ - - -_=Levelling.=_ - - _A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF LEVELLING._ Showing - its Application to purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering, in - the Construction of Roads; with Mr. TELFORD'S Rules for the same. - By FREDERICK W. SIMMS, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E. Seventh Edition, with - the addition of Law's Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway - Curves, and TRAUTWINE'S Field Practice of Laying-out Circular - Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts. 8vo, 8_s._ 6_d._ - cloth. *** TRAUTWINE on Curves may be had separate, 5_s._ - - "The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools - and colleges."--_Engineer._ - - "The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the - profession, especially to the younger members, by bringing out - the present edition of Mr. Simms's useful work.--_Engineering._ - - -_=Trigonometrical Surveying.=_ - - _AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, - for the Formation of Geographical and Topographical Maps and - Plans, Military Reconnaissance, Levelling, &c._, with Useful - Problems, Formulæ, and Tables. By Lieut.-General FROME, R.E. - Fourth Edition, Revised and partly Re-written by Major-General - Sir CHARLES WARREN, G.C.M.G., R.E. With 19 Plates and 115 - Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, 16_s._ cloth. - - "The simple fact that a fourth edition has been called for is - the best testimony to its merits. No words of praise from us can - strengthen the position so well and so steadily maintained by - this work. Sir Charles Warren has revised the entire work, and - made such additions as were necessary to bring every portion of - the contents up to the present date."--_Broad Arrow._ - - -_=Field Fortification.=_ - - _A TREATISE ON FIELD FORTIFICATION, THE ATTACK OF FORTRESSES, - MILITARY MINING, AND RECONNOITRING._ By Colonel I. S. MACAULAY, - late Professor of Fortification in the R.M.A., Woolwich. Sixth - Edition. Crown 8vo, with separate Atlas of 12 Plates, 12_s._ - cloth. - - -_=Tunnelling.=_ - - _PRACTICAL TUNNELLING._ Explaining in detail the Setting-out of - the works, Shaft-sinking and Heading-driving, Ranging the Lines - and Levelling underground, Sub-Excavating, Timbering, and the - Construction of the Brickwork of Tunnels, with the amount of - Labour required for, and the Cost of, the various portions of the - work. By FREDERICK W. SIMMS, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E. Third Edition, - Revised and Extended by D. KINNEAR CLARK, M.Inst.C.E. Imperial - 8vo, with 21 Folding Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, 30_s._ - cloth. - - "The estimation in which Mr. Simms's book on tunnelling has been - held for over thirty years cannot be more truly expressed than - in the words of the late Prof. Rankine:--'The best source of - information on the subject of tunnels is Mr. F. W. Simms's work - on Practical Tunnelling.'"--_Architect._ - - "It has been regarded from the first as a text-book of the - subject.... Mr. Clark has added immensely to the value of the - book."--_Engineer._ - - -_=Tramways and their Working.=_ - - _TRAMWAYS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING._ Embracing a - Comprehensive History of the System; with an exhaustive Analysis - of the various Modes of Traction, including Horse-Power, Steam, - Cable Traction, Electric Traction, &c.; a Description of the - Varieties of Rolling Stock; and ample Details of Cost and Working - Expenses. New Edition, Thoroughly Revised, and Including the - Progress recently made in Tramway Construction, &c. &c. By D. - KINNEAR CLARK, M.Inst.C.E. With numerous Illustrations and - Folding Plates. In One Volume, 8vo, 700 pages, price about 25_s._ - - [_Nearly ready._ - - "All interested in tramways must refer to it, as all - railway engineers have turned to the author's work 'Railway - Machinery.'"--_Engineer._ - - "An exhaustive and practical work on tramways, in which the - history of this kind of locomotion, and a description and - cost of the various modes of laying tramways, are to be - found."--_Building News._ - - "The best form of rails, the best mode of construction, and the - best mechanical appliances are so fairly indicated in the work - under review, that any engineer about to construct a tramway will - be enabled at once to obtain the practical information which will - be of most service to him."--_Athenæum._ - - -_=Curves, Tables for Setting-out.=_ - - _TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES AND MULTIPLES for Setting-out - Curves from 5 to 200 Radius._ By ALEXANDER BEAZELEY, M.Inst.C.E. - Fourth Edition. Printed on 48 Cards, and sold in a cloth box, - waistcoat-pocket size, 3_s._ 6_d._ - - "Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed - on the theodolite, leaves the hands free to manipulate the - instrument--no small advantage as regards the rapidity of - work."--_Engineer._ - - "Very handy; a man may know that all his day's work must fall on - two of these cards, which he puts into his own card-case, and - leaves the rest behind."--_Athenæum._ - - -_=Earthwork.=_ - - _EARTHWORK TABLES._ Showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of - Embankments, Cuttings, &c., of Heights or Depths up to an average - of 80 feet. By JOSEPH BROADBENT, C.E., and FRANCIS CAMPIN, C.E. - Crown 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of - each cross section into three elements, two in which are constant - and one variable, is ingenious."--_Athenæum._ - - -_=Heat, Expansion by.=_ - - _EXPANSION OF STRUCTURES BY HEAT._ By JOHN KEILY, C.E., late of - the Indian Public Works and Victorian Railway Departments. Crown - 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - -SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. - - Section I. FORMULAS AND DATA. - Section II. METAL BARS. - Section III. SIMPLE FRAMES. - Section IV. COMPLEX FRAMES AND PLATES. - Section V. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY. - Section VI. MECHANICAL FORCE OF HEAT. - Section VII. WORK OF EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION. - Section VIII. SUSPENSION BRIDGES. - Section IX. MASONRY STRUCTURES. - - "The aim the author has set before him, viz., to show the effects - of heat upon metallic and other structures, is a laudable one, - for this is a branch of physics upon which the engineer or - architect can find but little reliable and comprehensive data in - books."--_Builder._ - - "Whoever is concerned to know the effect of changes of - temperature on such structures as suspension bridges and the - like, could not do better than consult Mr. Keily's valuable and - handy exposition of the geometrical principles involved in these - changes."--_Scotsman._ - - -_=Earthwork, Measurement of.=_ - - _A MANUAL ON EARTHWORK._ By ALEX. J. S. GRAHAM, C.E. With - numerous Diagrams. Second Edition. 18mo, 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "A great amount of practical information, very admirably - arranged, and available for rough estimates, as well as for - the more exact calculations required in the engineer's and - contractor's offices."--_Artizan._ - - -_=Strains in Ironwork.=_ - - _THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK_: with Practical Remarks - on Iron Construction. By F. W. SHEILDS, M.Inst.C.E. Second - Edition, with 5 Plates. Royal 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "The student cannot find a better little book on this - subject."--_Engineer._ - - -_=Cast Iron and other Metals, Strength of.=_ - - _A PRACTICAL ESSAY ON THE STRENGTH OF CAST IRON AND OTHER - METALS._ By THOMAS TREDGOLD, C.E. Fifth Edition, including - Hodgkinson's Experimental Researches. 8vo, 12_s._ cloth. - - -_=Oblique Arches.=_ - - _A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF OBLIQUE ARCHES._ By - JOHN HART. Third Edition, with Plates. Imperial 8vo, 8_s._ cloth. - - -_=Girders, Strength of.=_ - - _GRAPHIC TABLE FOR FACILITATING THE COMPUTATION OF THE WEIGHTS - OF WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL GIRDERS, etc._, for Parliamentary and - other Estimates. By J. H. WATSON BUCK, M.Inst.C.E. On a Sheet, - 2_s._ 6_d._ - - -_=Water Supply and Water-Works.=_ - - _A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE - CONSTRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS._ By W. K. BURTON, A.M.Inst.C E., - Professor of Sanitary Engineering in the Imperial University, - Tokyo, Japan, and Consulting Engineer to the Tokyo Water-Works. - With an Appendix on =Water-Works in Countries subject to - Earthquakes=, by JOHN MILNE, F.R.S., Professor of Mining in the - Imperial University of Japan. With numerous Plates and Illusts. - - [_In the press._ - - -MARINE ENGINEERING, SHIPBUILDING, NAVIGATION, etc. - - -_=Pocket-Book for Naval Architects and Shipbuilders.=_ - - _THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S POCKET-BOOK of Formulæ, - Rules, and Tables, and MARINE ENGINEER'S AND SURVEYOR'S Handy - Book of Reference._ By CLEMENT MACKROW, Member of the Institution - of Naval Architects, Naval Draughtsman. Fifth Edition, Revised - and Enlarged to 700 pages, with upwards of 300 Illustrations. - Fcap., 12_s._ 6_d._ strongly bound in leather. - -SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. - -SIGNS AND SYMBOLS, DECIMAL FRACTIONS.--TRIGONOMETRY.--PRACTICAL -GEOMETRY.--MENSURATION.--CENTRES AND MOMENTS OF FIGURES.--MOMENTS -OF INERTIA AND RADII OF GYRATION.--ALGEBRAICAL EXPRESSIONS FOR -SIMPSON'S RULES.--MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES.--CENTRE OF GRAVITY.--LAWS -OF MOTION.--DISPLACEMENT, CENTRE OF BUOYANCY.--CENTRE OF -GRAVITY OF SHIP'S HULL.--STABILITY CURVES AND METACENTRES.--SEA -AND SHALLOW-WATER WAVES.--ROLLING OF SHIPS.--PROPULSION AND -RESISTANCE OF VESSELS.--SPEED TRIALS.--SAILING, CENTRE OF -EFFORT.--DISTANCES DOWN RIVERS, COAST LINES.--STEERING AND RUDDERS -OF VESSELS.--LAUNCHING CALCULATIONS AND VELOCITIES.--WEIGHT -OF MATERIAL AND GEAR.--GUN PARTICULARS AND WEIGHT.--STANDARD -GAUGES.--RIVETED JOINTS AND RIVETING.--STRENGTH AND TESTS OF -MATERIALS.--BINDING AND SHEARING STRESSES, ETC.--STRENGTH OF -SHAFTING, PILLARS, WHEELS, ETC.--HYDRAULIC DATA, ETC.--CONIC -SECTIONS, CATENARIAN CURVES.--MECHANICAL POWERS, WORK.--BOARD -OF TRADE REGULATIONS FOR BOILERS AND ENGINES.--BOARD OF TRADE -REGULATIONS FOR SHIPS.--LLOYD'S RULES FOR BOILERS.--LLOYD'S -WEIGHT OF CHAINS.--LLOYD'S SCANTLINGS FOR SHIPS.--DATA OF ENGINES -AND VESSELS.--SHIPS' FITTINGS AND TESTS.--SEASONING PRESERVING -TIMBER.--MEASUREMENT OF TIMBER.--ALLOYS, PAINTS, VARNISHES.--DATA -FOR STOWAGE.--ADMIRALTY TRANSPORT REGULATIONS.--RULES -FOR HORSEPOWER, SCREW PROPELLERS, ETC.--PERCENTAGES FOR -BUTT STRAPS, ETC.--PARTICULARS OF YACHTS.--MASTING AND -RIGGING VESSELS.--DISTANCES OF FOREIGN PORTS.--TONNAGE -TABLES.--VOCABULARY OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH TERMS.--ENGLISH -WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.--FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.--DECIMAL -EQUIVALENTS.--FOREIGN MONEY.--DISCOUNT AND WAGE TABLES.--USEFUL -NUMBERS AND READY RECKONERS--TABLES OF CIRCULAR MEASURES.--TABLES -OF AREAS OF AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES.--TABLES OF AREAS OF -SEGMENTS OF CIRCLES.--TABLES OF SQUARES AND CUBES AND ROOTS OF -NUMBERS.--TABLES OF LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.--TABLES OF HYPERBOLIC -LOGARITHMS.--TABLES OF NATURAL SINES, TANGENTS, ETC.--TABLES OF -LOGARITHMIC SINES, TANGENTS, ETC. - - "In these days of advanced knowledge a work like this is of - the greatest value. It contains a vast amount of information. - We unhesitatingly say that it is the most valuable compilation - for its specific purpose that has ever been printed. No - naval architect, engineer, surveyor, or seaman, wood or iron - shipbuilder, can afford to be without this work."--_Nautical - Magazine._ - - "Should be used by all who are engaged in the construction or - designs of vessels.... Will be found to contain the most useful - tables and formulæ required by shipbuilders, carefully collected - from the best authorities, and put together in a popular and - simple form."--_Engineer._ - - "The professional shipbuilder has now, in a convenient and - accessible form, reliable data for solving many of the - numerous problems that present themselves in the course of his - work."--_Iron._ - - "There is no doubt that a pocket-book of this description must be - a necessity in the shipbuilding trade.... The volume contains a - mass of useful information clearly expressed and presented in a - handy form."--_Marine Engineer._ - - -_=Marine Engineering.=_ - - _MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS (A Treatise on)._ By - ROBERT MURRAY, C.E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with - considerable Additions by the Author and by GEORGE CARLISLE, - C.E., Senior Surveyor to the Board of Trade at Liverpool. 12mo, - 5_s._ cloth boards. - - "Well adapted to give the young steamship engineer or marine - engine and boiler maker a general introduction into his practical - work."--_Mechanical World._ - - "We feel sure that this thoroughly revised edition will continue - to be as popular in the future as it has been in the past, as, - for its size, it contains more useful information than any - similar treatise."--_Industries._ - - "As a compendious and useful guide to engineers of our - mercantile and royal naval services, we should say it cannot be - surpassed."--_Building News._ - - "The information given is both sound and sensible, and well - qualified to direct young sea-going hands on the straight road - to the extra chief's certificate.... Most useful to surveyors, - inspectors, draughtsmen, and young engineers."--_Glasgow Herald._ - - -_=Pocket-Book for Marine Engineers.=_ - - _A POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL TABLES AND FORMULÆ FOR MARINE - ENGINEERS._ By FRANK PROCTOR, A.I.N.A, Third Edition. Royal 32mo, - leather, gilt edges, with strap, 4_s._ - - "We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a - long-felt want."--_Naval Science._ - - "A most useful companion to all marine engineers."--_United - Service Gazette._ - - -_=Introduction to Marine Engineering.=_ - - _ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING: A Manual for Young Marine Engineers and - Apprentices._ In the Form of Questions and Answers on Metals, - Alloys, Strength of Materials, Construction and Management of - Marine Engines and Boilers, Geometry, &c. &c. With an Appendix - of Useful Tables. By JOHN SHERREN BREWER, Government Marine - Surveyor, Hong-Kong. Second Edition, Revised. Small crown 8vo, - 2_s._ cloth. - - "Contains much valuable information for the class for whom it is - intended, especially in the chapters on the management of boilers - and engines."--_Nautical Magazine._ - - "A useful introduction to the more elaborate - text-books."--_Scotsman._ - - "To a student who has the requisite desire and resolve to - attain a thorough knowledge, Mr. Brewer offers decidedly useful - help."--_Athenæum._ - - -_=Navigation.=_ - - _PRACTICAL NAVIGATION._ Consisting of THE SAILOR'S SEA-BOOK, by - JAMES GREENWOOD and W. H. ROSSER; together with the requisite - Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems, - by HENRY LAW, C.E., and Professor J. R. YOUNG. Illustrated. 12mo, - 7_s._ strongly half-bound. - - -_=Drawing for Marine Engineers.=_ - - _LOCKIE'S MARINE ENGINEER'S DRAWING-BOOK._ Adapted to the - Requirements of the Board of Trade Examinations. By JOHN LOCKIE, - C.E. With 22 Plates, Drawn to Scale. Royal 3vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "The student who learns from these drawings will have nothing to - unlearn."--_Engineer._ - - "The examples chosen are essentially practical, and are such as - should prove of service to engineers generally, while admirably - fulfilling their specific purpose."--_Mechanical World._ - - -_=Sailmaking.=_ - - _THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SAILMAKING._ By SAMUEL B. SADLER. - Practical Sailmaker, late in the employment of Messrs. Ratsey - and Lapthorne, of Cowes and Gosport. With Plates and other - Illustrations. Small 4to, 12_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - -SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. - -CHAP. I. THE MATERIALS USED AND THEIR RELATION TO SAILS.--II. ON -THE CENTRE OF EFFORT.--III. ON MEASURING.--IV. ON DRAWING.--V. -ON THE NUMBER OF CLOTHS REQUIRED.--VI. ON ALLOWANCES.--VII. -CALCULATION OF GORES.--VIII. ON CUTTING OUT.--IX. ON ROPING.--X. ON -DIAGONAL-CUT SAILS.--XI. CONCLUDING REMARKS. - - "This work is very ably written, and is illustrated by diagrams - and carefully worked calculations. The work should be in the - hands of every sailmaker, whether employer or employed, as it - cannot fail to assist them in the pursuit of their important - avocations."--_Isle of Wight Herald._ - - "This extremely practical work gives a complete education in - all the branches of the manufacture, cutting out, roping, - seaming, and goring. It is copiously illustrated, and will form a - first-rate text-book and guide."--_Portsmouth Times._ - - "The author of this work has rendered a distinct service to all - interested in the art of sailmaking. The subject of which he - treats is a congenial one. Mr. Sadler is a practical sailmaker, - and has devoted years of careful observation and study to the - subject; and the results of the experience thus gained he has set - forth in the volume before us."--_Steamship._ - - -_=Chain Cables.=_ - - _CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS._ Comprising Sizes and Curves of Links, - Studs, &c., Iron for Cables and Chains, Chain Cable and Chain - Making, Forming and Welding Links, Strength of Cables and Chains, - Certificates for Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain Cables - and Chains, Historical Notes, Acts of Parliament, Statutory - Tests, Charges for Testing, List of Manufacturers of Cables, - &c. &c. By THOMAS W. TRAILL, F.E.R.N., M. Inst. C.E., Engineer - Surveyor in Chief, Board of Trade, Inspector of Chain Cable - and Anchor Proving Establishments, and General Superintendent, - Lloyd's Committee on Proving Establishments. With numerous - Tables, Illustrations and Lithographic Drawings. Folio, £2 2_s._ - cloth, bevelled boards. - - "It contains a vast amount of valuable Information. Nothing - seems to be wanting to make it a complete and standard work of - reference on the subject."--_Nautical Magazine._ - - -MINING AND METALLURGY. - - -_=Mining Machinery.=_ - - _MACHINERY FOR METALLIFEROUS MINES_: A Practical Treatise for - Mining Engineers, Metallurgists, and Managers of Mines. By E. - HENRY DAVIES, M.E., F.G.S. Crown 8vo, 580 pp., with upwards of - 300 Illustrations, 12_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - "Mr. Davies, in this handsome volume, has done the advanced - student and the manager of mines good service. Almost every - kind of machinery in actual use is carefully described, and the - woodcuts and plates are good."--_Athenæum._ - - "From cover to cover the work exhibits all the same - characteristics which excite the confidence and attract the - attention of the student as he peruses the first page. The work - may safely be recommended. By its publication the literature - connected with the industry will be enriched, and the reputation - of its author enhanced."--_Mining Journal._ - - "Mr. Davies has endeavoured to bring before his readers the best - of everything in modern mining appliances. His work carries - internal evidence of the author's impartiality, and this - constitutes one of the great merits of the book. Throughout - his work the criticisms are based on his own or other reliable - experience."--_Iron and Steel Trades' Journal._ - - "The work deals with nearly every class of machinery or - apparatus likely to be met with or required in connection with - metalliferous mining, and is one which we have every confidence - in recommending."--_Practical Engineer._ - - -_=Metalliferous Minerals and Mining.=_ - - _A TREATISE ON METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND MINING._ By D. C. - DAVIES, F.G.S., Mining Engineer, &c., Author of "A Treatise on - Slate and Slate Quarrying." Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and - much Enlarged, by his Son, E. HENRY DAVIES, M.E., F.G.S. With - about 150 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 12_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "Neither the practical miner nor the general reader interested - in mines can have a better book for his companion and his - guide."--_Mining Journal._ - - "We are doing our readers a service in calling their attention to - this valuable work."--_Mining World._ - - "A book that will not only be useful to the geologist, the - practical miner, and the metallurgist, but also very interesting - to the general public."--_Iron._ - - "As a history of the present state of mining throughout the - world this book has a real value, end it supplies an actual - want."--_Athenæum._ - - -_=Earthy Minerals and Mining.=_ - - _A TREATISE ON EARTHY & OTHER MINERALS AND MINING._ By D. C. - DAVIES, F.G.S., Author of "Metalliferous Minerals," &c. Third - Edition, revised and Enlarged, by his Son, E. HENRY DAVIES, M.E., - F.G.S. With about 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 12_s._ 6_d._ - cloth. - - "We do not remember to have met with any English work on mining - matters that contains the same amount of information packed in - equally convenient form."--_Academy._ - - "We should be inclined to rank it as among the very best of - the handy technical and trades manuals which have recently - appeared."--_British Quarterly Review._ - - -_=Metalliferous Mining in the United Kingdom.=_ - - _BRITISH MINING: A Treatise on the History,Discovery, Practical - Development, and Future Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in - the United Kingdom._ By ROBERT HUNT, F.R.S., Editor of "Ure's - Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines," &c. Upwards of 950 - pp., with 230 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Super-royal - 8vo, £2 2_s._ cloth. - - "One of the most valuable works of reference of modern times. - Mr. Hunt, as Keeper of Mining Records of the United Kingdom, has - had opportunities for such a task not enjoyed by anyone else, - and has evidently made the most of them.... The language and - style adopted are good, and the treatment of the various subjects - laborious, conscientious, and scientific."--_Engineering._ - - "The book is, in fact, a treasure-house of statistical - information on mining subjects, and we know of no other work - embodying so great a mass of matter of this kind. Were this the - only merit of Mr. Hunt's volume, it would be sufficient to render - it indispensable in the library of everyone interested in the - development of the mining and metallurgical industries of this - Country.--_Athenæum._ - - "A mass of Information not elsewhere available, and of the - greatest value to those who may be interested in our great - mineral industries."--_Engineer._ - - -_=Underground Pumping Machinery.=_ - - _MINE DRAINAGE._ Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on - Direct-Acting Underground Steam Pumping Machinery, with a - Description of a large number of the best known Engines, their - General Utility and the Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode - of their Application, and their merits compared with other forms - of Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN MICHELL. 8vo, 15_s_. cloth. - - "Will be highly esteemed by colliery owners and lessees, mining - engineers, and students generally who require to be acquainted - with the best means of securing the drainage of mines. It is a - most valuable work, and stands almost alone in the literature of - steam pumping machinery."--_Colliery Guardian._ - - "Much valuable Information is given, so that the book is - thoroughly worthy of an extensive circulation amongst practical - men and purchasers of machinery."'--_Mining Journal._ - - -_=Prospecting for Gold and other Metals.=_ - - _THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK_: A Guide for the Prospector and - Traveller in Search of Metal-Bearing or other Valuable Minerals. - By J. W. ANDERSON, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S., Author of "Fiji and - New Caledonia." Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. - Small crown 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "Will supply a much felt want, especially among Colonists, in - whose way are so often thrown many mineralogical specimens the - value of which it is difficult to determine."--_Engineer._ - - "How to find commercial minerals, and how to identify them when - they are found, are the leading points to which attention is - directed. The author has managed to pack as much practical detail - into his pages as would supply material for a book three times - its size."--_Mining Journal._ - - -_=Mining Notes and Formulæ.=_ - - _NOTES AND FORMULÆ FOR MINING STUDENTS._ By JOHN HERMAN MERIVALE, - M.A., Certificated Colliery Manager, Professor of Mining in the - Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Third Edition, - Revised and Enlarged. Small crown 8vo, 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "Invaluable to anyone who is working up for an examination on - mining subjects."--_Iron and Coal Trades Review._ - - "The author has done his work in an exceedingly creditable - manner, and has produced a book that will be of service to - students, and those who are practically engaged in mining - operations."--_Engineer._ - - -_=Handybook for Miners.=_ - - _THE MINER'S HANDBOOK_: A Handybook of Reference on the Subjects - of Mineral Deposits, Mining Operations, Ore Dressing, &c. For the - Use of Students and others interested in Mining matters. Compiled - by JOHN MILNE, F.R.S., Professor of Mining in the Imperial - University of Japan. Square 18mo, 7_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - "Professor Milne's handbook is sure to be received with favour by - all connected with mining, and will be extremely popular among - students."--_Athenæum._ - - -_=Miners' and Metallurgists' Pocket-Book.=_ - - _A POCKET-BOOK FOR MINERS AND METALLURGISTS._ Comprising Rules, - Formulæ, Tables, and Notes, for Use in Field and Office Work. By - F. DANVERS POWER, F.G.S., M.E. Fcap. 8vo, 9_s._ leather, gilt - edges. - - "This excellent book is an admirable example of its kind, and - ought to find a large sale amongst English-speaking prospectors - and mining engineers."--_Engineering._ - - "Miners and metallurgists will find in this work a useful - vade-mecum containing a mass of rules, formulæ, tables, and - various other information, the necessity for reference to which - occurs in. their daily duties."--_Iron._ - - -_=Mineral Surveying and Valuing.=_ - - _THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COMPLETE GUIDE, comprising a - Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying and the Valuation of Mining - Properties, with New Traverse Tables._ By WM. LINTERN. Third - Edition, Enlarged. 12mo, 4_s._ cloth. - - "Mr. Lintern's book forms a valuable and thoroughly trustworthy - guide."--_Iron and Coal Trades Review._ - - -_=Asbestos and its Uses.=_ - - _ASBESTOS: Its Properties, Occurrence, and Uses._ With some - Account of the Mines of Italy and Canada. By ROBERT H. JONES. - With Eight Collotype Plates and other Illustrations. Crown 8vo, - 12_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "An interesting and invaluable work."--_Colliery Guardian._ - - -_=Explosives.=_ - - _A HANDBOOK ON MODERN EXPLOSIVES._ Being a Practical Treatise - on the Manufacture and Application of Dynamite, Gun-Cotton, - Nitro-Glycerine, and other Explosive Compounds. Including the - Manufacture of Collodion-Cotton. By M. EISSLER, Mining Engineer - and Metallurgical Chemist, Author of "The Metallurgy of Gold," - "The Metallurgy of Silver," &c. With about 100 Illusts. Crown - 8vo, 10_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "Useful not only to the miner, but also to officers of both - services to whom blasting and the use of explosives generally may - at any time become a necessary auxiliary."--_Nature._ - - "A veritable mine of information on the subject of explosives - employed for military, mining, and blasting purposes."--_Army and - Navy Gazette._ - - -_=Colliery Management.=_ - - _THE COLLIERY MANAGER'S HANDBOOK_: A Comprehensive Treatise on - the Laying-out and Working of Collieries, Designed as a Book of - Reference for Colliery Managers, and for the Use of Coal-Mining - Students preparing for First-class Certificates. By CALEB PAMELY, - Mining Engineer and Surveyor; Member of the North of England - Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers; and Member of the - South Wales Institute of Mining Engineers. With nearly 500 Plans, - Diagrams, and other Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised, with - Additions. Medium 8vo, about 700 pages. Price £1 5_s._ strongly - bound. - -SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. - -GEOLOGY.--SEARCH FOR COAL.--MINERAL LEASES AND OTHER -HOLDINGS.--SHAFT SINKING.--FITTING UP THE SHAFT AND SURFACE -ARRANGEMENTS.--STEAM BOILERS AND THEIR FITTINGS.--TIMBERING -AND WALLING.--NARROW WORK AND METHODS OF WORKING.--UNDERGROUND -CONVEYANCE.--DRAINAGE.--THE GASES MET WITH IN MINES; -VENTILATION.--ON THE FRICTION OF AIR IN MINES.--THE PRIESTMAN OIL -ENGINE; PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS.--SURVEYING AND PLANNING.--SAFETY -LAMPS AND FIRE-DAMP DETECTORS.--SUNDRY AND INCIDENTAL OPERATIONS -AND APPLIANCES.--COLLIERY EXPLOSIONS.--MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS & -ANSWERS. - -_Appendix_: SUMMARY OF REPORT OF H.M. COMMISSIONERS ON ACCIDENTS IN -MINES. - -*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. - - "Mr. Pamely has not only given us a comprehensive reference - book of a very high order, suitable to the requirements of - mining-engineers and colliery managers, but at the same time has - provided mining students with a class-book that is as interesting - as it is instructive."--_Colliery Manager._ - - "Mr. Pamely's work is eminently suited to the purpose for which - it is intended--being clear, interesting, exhaustive, rich in - detail, and up to date, giving descriptions of the very latest - machines in every department.... A mining engineer could scarcely - go wrong who followed this work."--_Colliery Guardian._ - - "This is the most complete 'all round' work on coal-mining - published in the English language.... No library of coal-mining - books is complete without it."--_Colliery Engineer_ (Scranton, - Pa., U.S.A.). - - "Mr. Pamely's work is in all respects worthy of our admiration. - No person in any responsible position connected with mines should - be without a copy."--_Westminster Review._ - - -_=Coal and Iron.=_ - - _THE COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM._ Comprising - a Description of the Coal Fields, and of the Principal Seams of - Coal, with Returns of their Produce and its Distribution, and - Analyses of Special Varieties. Also an Account of the occurrence - of Iron Ores in Veins or Seams; Analyses of each Variety; and - a History of the Rise and Progress of Pig Iron Manufacture. By - RICHARD MEADE, Assistant Keeper of Mining Records. With Maps. - 8vo, £1 8_s._ cloth. - - "The book is one which must find a place on the shelves of all - interested in coal and iron production, and in the iron, steel - and other metallurgical industries."--_Engineer._ - - "Of this book we may unreservedly say that it is the best of - its class which we have ever met.... A book of reference which - no one engaged in the iron or coal trades should omit from his - library."--_Iron and Coal Trades Review._ - - -_=Coal Mining.=_ - - _COAL AND COAL MINING: A Rudimentary Treatise on._ By the late - Sir WARINGTON W. SMYTH, M.A., F.R.S., &c., Chief Inspector of the - Mines of the Crown. Seventh Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With - numerous Illustrations. 12mo, 4_s._ cloth boards. - - "As an outline is given of every known coal-field in this - and other countries, as well as of the principal methods of - working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of - readers."--_Mining Journal._ - - -_=Subterraneous Surveying.=_ - - _SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, Elementary and Practical Treatise on_, - with and without the Magnetic Needle. By THOMAS FENWICK, Surveyor - of Mines, and THOMAS BAKER, C.E. Illust. 12mo, 3_s._ cloth boards. - - -_=Granite Quarrying.=_ - - _GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES._ By GEORGE F. HARRIS, - F.G.S., Membre de la Société Belge de Géologie, Lecturer - on Economic Geology at the Birkbeck Institution, &c. With - Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "A clearly and well-written manual on the granite - industry."--_Scotsman._ - - "An interesting work, which will be deservedly - esteemed."--_Colliery Guardian._ - - "An exceedingly interesting and valuable monograph on a subject - which has hitherto received unaccountably little attention in the - shape of systematic literary treatment."--_Scottish Leader._ - - -_=Gold, Metallurgy of.=_ - - _THE METALLURGY OF GOLD_: A Practical Treatise on the - Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing Ores. Including the - Processes of Concentration and Chlorination, and the Assaying, - Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. EISSLER, Mining Engineer and - Metallurgical Chemist, formerly Assistant Assayer of the U. S. - Mint, San Francisco. Third Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. - With 187 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 12_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "This book thoroughly deserves its title of a 'Practical - Treatise.' The whole process of gold milling, from the breaking - of the quartz to the assay of the bullion, is described in clear - and orderly narrative and with much, but not too much, fulness of - detail."--_Saturday Review._ - - "The work is a storehouse of information and valuable data, and - we strongly recommend it to all professional men engaged in the - gold-mining industry."--_Mining Journal._ - - -_=Silver, Metallurgy of.=_ - - _THE METALLURGY OF SILVER_: A Practical Treatise on the - Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation of Silver Ores. Including - the Assaying, Melting and Refining, of Silver Bullion. By M. - EISSLER, Author of "The Metallurgy of Gold," &c. Second Edition, - Enlarged. With 150 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 10_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "A practical treatise, and a technical work which we are - convinced will supply a long-felt want amongst practical men, and - at the same time be of value to students and others indirectly - connected with the industries."--_Mining Journal._ - - "From first to last the book is thoroughly sound and - reliable."--_Colliery Guardian._ - - "For chemists, practical miners, assayers, and investors alike, - we do not know of any work on the subject so handy and yet so - comprehensive."--_Glasgow Herald._ - - -_=Lead, Metallurgy of.=_ - - _THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD_: A Practical Treatise - on the Smelting of Silver-Lead Ores and the Refining of Lead - Bullion. Including Reports on various Smelting Establishments and - Descriptions of Modern Smelting Furnaces and Plants in Europe and - America. By M. EISSLER, M.E., Author of "The Metallurgy of Gold," - &c. Crown 8vo, 400 pp., with 183 Illustrations, 12_s._ 6_d._ - cloth. - - "The numerous metallurgical processes, which are fully and - extensively treated of, embrace all the stages experienced in - the passage of the lead from the various natural states to its - issue from the refinery as an article of commerce."--_Practical - Engineer._ - - "The present volume fully maintains the reputation of the author. - Those who wish to obtain a thorough insight into the present - state of this industry cannot do better than read this volume, - and all mining engineers cannot fail to find many useful hints - and suggestions in it."--_Industries._ - - "It is most carefully written and illustrated with capital - drawings and diagrams. In fact, it is the work of an expert - for experts, by whom it will be prized as an indispensable - text-book."--_Bristol Mercury._ - - -_=Iron, Metallurgy of.=_ - - _METALLURGY OF IRON._ Containing History of Iron Manufacture, - Methods of Assay, and Analyses of Iron Ores, Processes of - Manufacture of Iron and Steel, &c. By H. BAUERMAN, F.G.S., - A.R.S.M. With numerous Illustrations. Sixth Edition, Revised and - Enlarged. 12mo, 5_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "Carefully written, it has the merit of brevity and conciseness, - as to less important points, while all material matters are very - fully and thoroughly entered into."--_Standard._ - - -_=Iron Mining.=_ - - _THE IRON ORES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND_: Their Mode of - Occurrence, Age, and Origin, and the Methods of Searching for - and Working them, with a Notice of some of the Iron Ores of - Spain. By J. D. KENDALL, F.G.S., Mining Engineer. With Plates and - Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 16_s._ cloth. - - "The author has a thorough practical knowledge of his subject, - and has supplemented a careful study of the available literature - by unpublished information derived from his own observations. - The result is a very useful volume which cannot fail to - be of value to all interested in the iron industry of the - country."--_Industries._ - - "Constitutes a systematic and careful account of our present - knowledge of the origin and occurrence of the iron ores of Great - Britain, and embraces a description of the means employed in - reaching and working these ores."--_Iron._ - - "Mr. Kendall is a great authority on this subject and writes from - personal observation."--_Colliery Guardian._ - - "Mr. Kendall's book is thoroughly well done. In it there are the - outlines of the history of ore mining in every centre and there - is everything that we want to know as to the character of the - ores of each district, their commercial value and the cost of - working them."--_Iron and Steel Trades Journal._ - - -ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, etc. - - -_=Electrical Engineering.=_ - - _THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK OF MODERN RULES, FORMULÆ, - TABLES, AND DATA._ By H. R. KEMPE, M.Inst.E.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., - Technical Officer, Postal Telegraphs, Author of "A Handbook of - Electrical Testing," &c. Second Edition, thoroughly Revised, with - Additions. With numerous Illustrations. Royal 32mo, oblong, 5_s._ - leather. - - "There is very little in the shape of formulæ or data which the - electrician is likely to want in a hurry which cannot be found in - its pages."--_Practical Engineer._ - - "A very useful book of reference for daily use in practical - electrical engineering and its various applications to the - industries of the present day."--_Iron._ - - "It is the best book of its kind."--_Electrical Engineer._ - - "Well arranged and compact. The 'Electrical Engineer's - Pocket-Book' is a good one."--_Electrician._ - - "Strongly recommended to those engaged in the various electrical - industries."--_Electrical Review._ - - -_=Electric Lighting.=_ - - _ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTING_: A Handbook for Working Electrical - Engineers, embodying Practical Notes on Installation Management. - By JOHN W. URQUHART, Electrician, Author of "Electric Light," - &c. With numerous Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised, with - Additional Chapters. Crown 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "This volume deals with what may be termed the mechanics of - electric lighting, and is addressed to men who are already - engaged in the work or are training for it. The work traverses - a great deal of ground, and may be read as a sequel to the same - author's useful work on 'Electric Light.'"--_Electrician._ - - "This is an attempt to state in the simplest language the - precautions which should be adopted in installing the electric - light, and to give information, for the guidance of those who - have to run the plant when installed. The book is well worth the - perusal of the workmen for whom it is written."--_Electrical - Review._ - - "We have read this book with a good deal of pleasure. We believe - that the book will be of use to practical workmen, who will not - be alarmed by finding mathematical formulæ which they are unable - to understand."--_Electrical Plant._ - - "Eminently practical and useful.... Ought to be in the hands of - everyone in charge of an electric light plant."--_Electrical - Engineer._ - - "Mr. Urquhart has succeeded in producing a really capital book, - which we have no hesitation in recommending to the notice of - working electricians and electrical engineers."--_Mechanical - World._ - - -_=Electric Light.=_ - - _ELECTRIC LIGHT: Its Production and Use._ Embodying Plain - Directions for the Treatment of Dynamo-Electric Machines, - Batteries, Accumulators, and Electric Lamps. By J. W. URQUHART, - C.E., Author of "Electric Light Fitting," "Electroplating," &c. - Fifth Edition, carefully Revised, with Large Additions and 145 - Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "The whole ground of electric lighting is more or less covered - and explained in a very clear and concise manner."--_Electrical - Review._ - - "Contains a good deal of very interesting information, especially - in the parts where the author gives dimensions and working - costs."--_Electrical Engineer._ - - "A miniature _vade-mecum_ of the salient facts connected with the - science of electric lighting."--_Electrician._ - - "You cannot for your purpose have a better book than 'Electric - Light,' by Urquhart."--_Engineer._ - - "The book is by far the best that we have yet met with on the - subject."--_Athenæum._ - - -_=Construction of Dynamos.=_ - - _DYNAMO CONSTRUCTION: A Practical Handbook for the Use of - Engineer Constructors and Electricians-in-Charge._ Embracing - Framework Building, Field Magnet and Armature Winding and - Grouping, Compounding, &c. With Examples of leading English, - American, and Continental Dynamos and Motors. By J. W. URQUHART, - Author of "Electric Light," "Electric Light Fitting," &c. With - upwards of 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "Mr. Urquhart's book is the first one which deals with these - matters in such a way that the engineering student can - understand them. The book is very readable, and the author - leads his readers up to difficult subjects by reasonably simple - tests."--_Engineering Review._ - - "The author deals with his subject in a style so popular as - to make his volume a handbook of great practical value to - engineer contractors and electricians in charge of lighting - installations."--_Scotsman._ - - "'Dynamo Construction' more than sustains the high character - of the author's previous publications. It is sure to be widely - read by the large and rapidly-increasing number of practical - electricians."--_Glasgow Herald._ - - "A book for which a demand has long existed."--_Mechanical World._ - - -_=A New Dictionary of Electricity.=_ - - _THE STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY._ A Popular Dictionary of - Words and Terms Used in the Practice of Electrical Engineering. - Containing upwards of 3,000 Definitions. By T. O'CONNOR SLOANE, - A.M., Ph.D., Author of "The Arithmetic of Electricity," &c. Crown - 8vo, 630 pp., 350 Illustrations, 7_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - "The work has many attractive features in it, and is beyond - doubt, a well put together and useful publication. The amount of - ground covered may be gathered from the fact that in the index - about 5,000 references will be found. The inclusion of such - comparatively modern words as 'impedence,' 'reluctance,' &c., - shows that the author has desired to be up to date, and indeed - there are other indications of carefulness of compilation. The - work is one which does the author great credit and it should - prove of great value, especially to students."--_Electrical - Review._ - - "We have found the book very complete and reliable, and can, - therefore, commend it heartily."--_Mechanical World._ - - "Very complete and contains a large amount of useful - information."--_Industries._ - - "An encyclopædia of electrical science in the compass of a - dictionary. The information given is sound and clear. The book is - well printed, well illustrated, and well up to date, and may be - confidently recommended."--_Builder._ - - "We hail the appearance of this little work as one which will - meet a want that has been keenly felt for some time.... The - author is to be congratulated on the excellent manner in which he - has accomplished his task."--_Practical Engineer._ - - "The volume is excellently printed and illustrated, and should - form part of the library of every one who is directly or - indirectly connected with electrical matters."--_Hardware Trade - Journal._ - - -_=Electric Lighting of Ships.=_ - - _ELECTRIC SHIP-LIGHTING_: A Handbook on the Practical Fitting and - Running of Ship's Electrical Plant. For the Use of Shipowners and - Builders, Marine Electricians, and Sea-going Engineers-in-Charge. - By J. W. URQUHART, C.E., Author of "Electric Light," &c. With 88 - Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "The subject of ship electric lighting is one of vast importance - in these days, and Mr. Urquhart is to be highly complimented for - placing such a valuable work at the service of the practical - marine electrician."--_The Steamship._ - - "Distinctly a book which of its kind stands almost alone, and for - which there should be a demand."--_Electrical Review._ - - -_=Electric Lighting.=_ - - _THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC LIGHTING._ By ALAN A. - CAMPBELL SWINTON, Associate I.E.E. Third Edition, Enlarged and - Revised. With 16 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 1_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "Anyone who desires a short and thoroughly clear exposition of - the elementary principles of electric lighting cannot do better - than read this little work."--_Bradford Observer._ - - -_=Dynamic Electricity.=_ - - _THE ELEMENTS OF DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM._ By - PHILIP ATKINSON, A.M., Ph.D., Author of "Elements of Static - Electricity," "The Elements of Electric Lighting," &c. &c. Crown - 8vo, 417 pp., with 120 Illustrations, 10_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - -_=Electric Motors, &c.=_ - - _THE ELECTRIC TRANSFORMATION OF POWER_ and its Application by - the Electric Motor, including Electric Railway Construction. By - P. ATKINSON, A.M., Ph.D., Author of "The Elements of Electric - Lighting," &c. With 96 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ - cloth. - - -_=Dynamo Construction.=_ - - _HOW TO MAKE A DYNAMO: A Practical Treatise for Amateurs._ - Containing numerous Illustrations and Detailed Instructions for - Constructing a Small Dynamo, to Produce the Electric Light. By - ALFRED CROFTS. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, - 2_s._ cloth. - - "The instructions given in this unpretentious little book - are sufficiently clear and explicit to enable any amateur - mechanic possessed of average skill and the usual tools to be - found in an amateur's workshop, to build a practical dynamo - machine."--_Electrician._ - - -_=Text Book of Electricity.=_ - - _THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY._ By HENRY M. NOAD, - Ph.D., F.R.S. New Edition, carefully Revised. With Introduction - and Additional Chapters, by W. H. PREECE, M.I.C.E. Crown 8vo, - 12_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - -_=Electricity.=_ - - _A MANUAL OF ELECTRICITY: Including Galvanism, Magnetism, - Dia-Magnetism, Electro-Dynamics._ By HENRY M. NOAD, Ph.D., F.R.S. - Fourth Edition (1859). 8vo, £1 4_s._ cloth. - - -ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, etc. - - -_=Building Construction.=_ - - _PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION_: A Handbook for Students - Preparing for Examinations, and a Book of Reference for - Persons Engaged in Building. By JOHN PARNELL ALLEN, Surveyor, - Lecturer on Building Construction at the Durham College of - Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Medium 8vo, 450 pages, with 1,000 - Illustrations. 12_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - "This volume is one of the most complete expositions of building - construction we have seen. It contains all that is necessary - to prepare students for the various examinations in building - construction."--_Building News._ - - "The author depends nearly as much on his diagrams as on his - type. The pages suggest the hand of a man of experience in - building operations--and the volume must be a blessing to many - teachers as well as to students."--_The Architect._ - - "This volume promises to be the recognised handbook in all - advanced classes where building construction is taught from a - practical point of view. We strongly commend the book to the - notice of all teachers of building construction."--_Technical - World._ - - "The work is sure to prove a formidable rival to great and small - competitors alike, and bids fair to take a permanent place as a - favourite students' text-book. The large number of illustrations - deserve particular mention for the great merit they possess for - purposes of reference, in exactly corresponding to convenient - scales."--_Jour. Inst. Brit. Archts._ - - -_=Concrete.=_ - - _CONCRETE: ITS NATURE AND USES._ A Book for Architects, Builders, - Contractors, and Clerks of Works. By GEORGE L. SUTCLIFFE, - A.R.I.B.A. 350 pages, with numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, - 7_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - "The author treats a difficult subject in a lucid manner. The - manual fills a long-felt gap. It is careful and exhaustive; - equally useful as a student's guide and a architect's book of - reference."--_Journal of Royal Institution of British Architects._ - - "There is room for this new book, which will probably be for - some time the standard work on the subject for a builder's - purpose."--_Glasgow Herald._ - - "A thoroughly useful and comprehensive work."--_British - Architect._ - - -_=Mechanics for Architects.=_ - - _THE MECHANICS OF ARCHITECTURE_: A Treatise on Applied Mechanics, - especially Adapted to the Use of Architects. By E. W. TARN, - M.A., Author of "The Science of Building," &c. Second Edition, - Enlarged. Illust. with 125 Diagrams. Cr. 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - "The book is a very useful and helpful manual of architectural - mechanics, and really contains sufficient to enable a careful - and painstaking student to grasp the principles bearing upon - the majority of building problems.... Mr. Tarn has added, by - this volume, to the debt of gratitude which is owing to him by - architectural students for the many valuable works which he has - produced for their use."--_The Builder._ - - "The mechanics in the volume are really mechanics, and are - harmoniously wrought in with the distinctive professional manner - proper to the subject. The diagrams and type are commendably - clear."--_The Schoolmaster._ - - -_=The New Builder's Price Book, 1894.=_ - - _LOCKWOOD'S BUILDER'S PRICE BOOK FOR 1894._ A Comprehensive - Handbook of the Latest Prices and Data for Builders, Architects, - Engineers, and Contractors. _Re-constructed, Re-written, and - Greatly Enlarged._ By FRANCIS T. W. MILLER. 700 closely-printed - pages, crown 8vo, 4_s._ cloth. - - "This book is a very useful one, and should find a place in - every English office connected with the building and engineering - professions."--_Industries._ - - "An excellent book of reference."--_Architect._ - - "In its new and revised form this Price Book is what a work of - this kind should be--comprehensive, reliable, well arranged, - legible, and well bound."--_British Architect._ - - -_=Designing Buildings.=_ - - _THE DESIGN OF BUILDINGS_: Being Elementary Notes on the - Planning, Sanitation and Ornamentive Formation of Structures, - based on Modern Practice. Illustrated with Nine Folding Plates. - By W. WOODLEY, Assistant Master, Metropolitan Drawing Classes, - &c. Demy 8vo, 6_s._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - -_=Sir Wm. Chambers's Treatise on Civil Architecture.=_ - - _THE DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE._ By Sir WILLIAM - CHAMBERS, F.R.S. With Portrait, Illustrations, Notes, and an - Examination of Grecian Architecture, by JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A. - Revised and Edited by W. H. LEEDS. 66 Plates, 4to, 21_s._ cloth. - - -_=Villa Architecture.=_ - - _A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE: Being a Series of - Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles._ With Outline - Specifications and Estimates. By C. WICKES, Architect, Author of - "The Spires and Towers of England," &c. 61 Plates, 4to, £1 11_s._ - 6_d._ half-morocco. - - "The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work - of an artistic architect, and they will prove very valuable and - suggestive."--_Building News._ - - -_=Text-Book for Architects.=_ - - _THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE: Being a Text-Book of Useful Information - for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, Clerks of - Works, &c. &c._ By FREDERICK ROGERS, Architect. Third Edition. - Crown 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "As a text-book of useful information for architects, engineers, - surveyors, &c., it would be hard to find a handier or more - complete little volume."--_Standard._ - - -_=Taylor and Cresy's Rome.=_ - - _THE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES OF ROME._ By the late G. L. - TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.I.B.A., and EDWARD CRESY, Esq. New Edition, - thoroughly Revised by the Rev. ALEXANDER TAYLOR, M.A. (son of the - late G. L. Taylor, Esq.), Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, and - Chaplain of Gray's Inn. Large folio, with 130 Plates, £3 3_s._ - half-bound. - - "Taylor and Cresy's work has from its first publication - been ranked among those professional books which cannot be - bettered."--_Architect._ - - -_=Linear Perspective.=_ - - _ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE_: The whole Course and Operations of - the Draughtsman in Drawing a Large House in Linear Perspective. - Illustrated by 39 Folding Plates. By F. O. FERGUSON. 8vo, 3_s._ - 6_d._ boards. - - "It is the most intelligible of the treatises on this ill-treated - subject that I have met with."--E. INGRESS BELL, Esq., in the - _R.I.B.A. Journal_. - - -_=Architectural Drawing.=_ - - _PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING, for the Operative Builder and Young - Student in Architecture._ By GEORGE PYNE. With 14 Plates, 4to, - 7_s._ 6_d._ boards. - - -_=Vitruvius' Architecture.=_ - - _THE ARCHITECTURE of MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO._ Translated by - JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A., F.R.A.S. New Edition, Revised by the - Translator. With 23 Plates. Fcap. 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - -_=Designing, Measuring, and Valuing.=_ - - _THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEASURING AND VALUING - ARTIFICERS' WORK._ Containing Directions for taking Dimensions, - Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, - with Tables of Constants for Valuation of Labour, and for the - Calculation of Areas and Solidities. Originally edited by EDWARD - DOBSON, Architect. With Additions by E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A. Sixth - Edition. With 8 Plates and 63 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ - cloth. - - "This edition will be found the most complete treatise on the - principles of measuring and valuing artificers' work that has yet - been published."--_Building News._ - - -_=Pocket Estimator and Technical Guide.=_ - - _THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE, MEASURER, AND ESTIMATOR FOR BUILDERS - AND SURVEYORS._ Containing Technical Directions for Measuring - Work in all the Building Trades, Complete Specifications for - Houses, Roads, and Drains, and an easy Method of Estimating the - parts of a Building collectively. By A. C. BEATON. Sixth Edit. - Waistcoat-pocket size, 1_s._ 6_d._ leather, gilt edges. - - "No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his - 'Beaton.'"--_Building News._ - - -_=Donaldson on Specifications.=_ - - _THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS_; or, Practical Guide to the - Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing up - Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions. - Illustrated by Precedents of Buildings actually executed by - eminent Architects and Engineers. By Professor T. L. DONALDSON, - P.R.I.B.A., &c. New Edition. 8vo, with upwards of 1,000 pages of - Text, and 33 Plates. £1 11_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "Valuable as a record, and more valuable still as a book of - precedents.... Suffice it to say that Donaldson's 'Handbook of - Specifications' must be bought by all architects."--_Builder._ - - -_=Bartholomew and Rogers' Specifications.=_ - - _SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE._ A Guide to the - Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder. With an Essay on the - Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. Upon the Basis of the - Work by ALFRED BARTHOLOMEW, thoroughly Revised, Corrected, and - greatly added to by FREDERICK ROGERS, Architect. Third Edition, - Revised, with Additions. With numerous Illustrations. Medium 8vo, - 15_s._ cloth. - - "The collection of specifications prepared by Mr. Rogers on - the basis of Bartholomew's work is too well known to need any - recommendation from us. It is one of the books with which every - young architect must be equipped."--_Architect._ - - -_=Construction.=_ - - _THE SCIENCE OF BUILDING: An Elementary Treatise on the - Principles of Construction._ By E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A., Architect. - Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With 59 Engravings. Fcap. - 8vo, 4_s._ cl. - - "A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all - students."--_Builder._ - - -_=House Building and Repairing.=_ - - _THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR_; or, What will it Cost to Build, - Alter, or Repair? A Price Book for Unprofessional People, as well - as the Architectural Surveyor and Builder. By JAMES D. SIMON. - Edited by FRANCIS T. W. MILLER, A.R.I.B.A. Fourth Edition. Crown - 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times - over."--_Field._ - - -_=Cottages and Villas.=_ - - _COUNTRY AND SUBURBAN COTTAGES AND VILLAS_: How to Plan and - Build Them. Containing 33 Plates, with Introduction, General - Explanations, and Description of each Plate. By JAMES W. BOGUE, - Architect, Author of "Domestic Architecture," &c. 4to, 10_s._ - 6_d._ cloth. - - -_=Building; Civil and Ecclesiastical.=_ - - _A BOOK ON BUILDING, Civil and Ecclesiastical_, including Church - Restoration; with the Theory of Domes and the Great Pyramid, &c. - By Sir EDMUND BECKETT, Bart., LL.D., F.R.A.S. Second Edition. - Fcap. 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "A book which is always amusing and nearly always - instructive."--_Times._ - - -_=Sanitary Houses, etc.=_ - - _THE SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS OF DWELLING-HOUSES._ By A. J. WALLIS - TAYLER, A.M. Inst. C.E. Crown 8vo, with numerous Illustrations. - Price about 3_s._ cloth. - - [_Nearly ready._ - - -_=Ventilation of Buildings.=_ - - _VENTILATION. A Text Book to the Practice of the Art of - Ventilating Buildings._ By W. P. BUCHAN, R.P. 12mo, 4_s._ cloth. - - "Contains a great amount of useful practical information, as - thoroughly interesting as it is technically reliable."--_British - Architect._ - - -_=The Art of Plumbing.=_ - - _PLUMBING. A Text Book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the - Plumber._ By WILLIAM PATON BUCHAN, R.P. Sixth Edition, Enlarged. - 12mo, 4_s._ cloth. - - "A text-book which may be safely put in the hands of every young - plumber."--_Builder._ - - -_=Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, etc.=_ - - _PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer, and Mechanic._ - Giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of various - Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By E. W. TARN, M.A., - Architect. 8vo, 9_s._ cloth. - - "No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in - which the clearness of the rules laid down and the illustrative - diagrams have been so satisfactory."--_Scotsman._ - - -_=The Science of Geometry.=_ - - _THE GEOMETRY OF COMPASSES; or, Problems Resolved by the mere - Description of Circles, and the use of Coloured Diagrams and - Symbols._ By OLIVER BYRNE. Coloured Plates. Crown 8vo, 3_s._ - 6_d._ cloth. - - -CARPENTRY, TIMBER, etc. - - -_=Tredgold's Carpentry, Revised & Enlarged by Tarn.=_ - - _THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY._ A Treatise on the - Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resistance of - Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roofs, - Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added - an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c., with - Descriptions of the kinds of Wood used in Building; also numerous - Tables of the Scantlings of Timber for different purposes, the - Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By THOMAS TREDGOLD, C.E. - With an Appendix of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron and Stone, - Illustrated. Seventh Edition, thoroughly revised and considerably - enlarged by E. WYNDHAM TARN, M.A., Author of "The Science of - Building," &c. With 61 Plates, Portrait of the Author, and - several Woodcuts. In One large Vol., 4to, price £1 5_s._ cloth. - - "Ought to be in every architect's and every builder's - library."--_Builder._ - - "A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever - skilful carpentry is concerned. The author's principles are - rather confirmed than impaired by time. The additional plates are - of great intrinsic value."--_Building News._ - - -_=Woodworking Machinery.=_ - - _WOODWORKING MACHINERY_: Its Rise, Progress, and Construction. - With Hints on the Management of Saw Mills and the Economical - Conversion of Timber. Illustrated with Examples of Recent Designs - by leading English, French, and American Engineers. By M. POWIS - BALE, A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E. Second Edition, Revised, with large - Additions. Large crown 8vo, 440 pp., 9_s._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - "Mr. Bale is evidently an expert on the subject and he has - collected so much information that his book is all-sufficient - for builders and others engaged in the conversion of - timber."--_Architect._ - - "The most comprehensive compendium of wood-working machinery - we have seen. The author is a thorough master of his - subject."--_Building News._ - - -_=Saw Mills.=_ - - _SAW MILLS_: Their Arrangement and Management, and the Economical - Conversion of Timber. (A Companion Volume to "Woodworking - Machinery.") By M. POWIS BALE. Crown 8vo, 10_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "The _administration_ of a large sawing establishment is - discussed, and the subject examined from a financial standpoint. - Hence the size, shape, order, and disposition of saw-mills and - the like are gone into in detail, and the course of the timber - is traced from its reception to its delivery in its converted - state. We could not desire a more complete or practical - treatise."--_Builder._ - - -_=Nicholson's Carpentry.=_ - - _THE CARPENTER'S NEW GUIDE_; or, Book of Lines for Carpenters; - comprising all the Elementary Principles essential for acquiring - a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late PETER NICHOLSON'S - Standard Work. New Edition, Revised by A. ASHPITEL, F.S.A. With - Practical Rules on Drawing, by G. PYNE. With 74 Plates, 4to, £1 - 1_s._ cloth. - - -_=Handrailing and Stairbuilding.=_ - - _A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILING_: Showing New and Simple - Methods for Finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing the Moulds, - Bevelling, Jointing-up, and Squaring the Wreath. By GEORGE - COLLINGS. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, to which is added - A TREATISE ON STAIRBUILDING. 12mo, 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth limp. - - "Will be found of practical utility in the execution of this - difficult branch of joinery."--_Builder._ - - "Almost every difficult phase of this somewhat intricate branch - of joinery is elucidated by the aid of plates and explanatory - letterpress."--_Furniture Gazette._ - - -_=Circular Work.=_ - - _CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY_: A Practical Treatise on - Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. By GEORGE COLLINGS. - With Diagrams. Second Edit, 12mo, 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth limp. - - "An excellent example of what a book of this kind should be. - Cheap in price, clear in definition and practical in the examples - selected."--_Builder._ - - -_=Handrailing.=_ - - _HANDRAILING COMPLETE IN EIGHT LESSONS._ On the Square-Cut - System. By J. S. GOLDTHORP, Teacher of Geometry and Building - Construction at the Halifax Mechanic's Institute. With Eight - Plates and over 150 Practical Exercises. 4to, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "Likely to be of considerable value to joiners and others who - take a pride in good work. We heartily commend it to teachers and - students."--_Timber Trades Journal._ - - -_=Timber Merchant's Companion.=_ - - _THE TIMBER MERCHANT'S AND BUILDER'S COMPANION._ Containing New - and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and Measurement of Deals - and Battens, of all sizes, from One to a Thousand Pieces, and - the relative Price that each size bears per Lineal Foot to any - given Price per Petersburg Standard Hundred; the Price per Cube - Foot of Square Timber to any given Price per Load of 50 Feet; - the proportionate Value of Deals and Battens by the Standard, - to Square Timber by the Load of 50 Feet; the readiest mode of - ascertaining the Price of Scantling per Lineal Foot of any size, - to any given Figure per Cube Foot, &c. &c. By WILLIAM DOWSING. - Fourth Edition, Revised and Corrected. Cr. 8vo, 3_s._ cl. - - "Everything is as concise and clear as it can possibly be made. - There can be no doubt that every timber merchant and builder - ought to possess it."--_Hull Advertiser._ - - "We are glad to see a fourth edition of these admirable tables, - which for correctness and simplicity of arrangement leave nothing - to be desired."--_Timber Trades Journal._ - - -_=Practical Timber Merchant.=_ - - _THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT._ Being a Guide for the use of - Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c., comprising useful - Tables for all purposes connected with the Timber Trade, Marks of - Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the Growth of - Timber, &c. By W. RICHARDSON. Fcap. 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "This handy manual contains much valuable information for - the use of timber merchants, builders, foresters, and all - others connected with the growth, sale, and manufacture of - timber."--_Journal of Forestry._ - - -_=Timber Freight Book.=_ - - _THE TIMBER MERCHANT'S, SAW MILLER'S, AND IMPORTER'S FREIGHT BOOK - AND ASSISTANT._ Comprising Rules, Tables, and Memoranda relating - to the Timber Trade. By WILLIAM RICHARDSON, Timber Broker; - together with a Chapter on "SPEEDS OF SAW MILL MACHINERY," by M. - POWIS BALE, M.I.M.E., &c. 12mo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cl. boards. - - "A very useful manual of rules, tables, and memoranda relating to - the timber trade. We recommend it as a compendium of calculation - to all timber measurers and merchants, and as supplying a real - want in the trade."--_Building News._ - - -_=Packing-Case Makers, Tables for.=_ - - _PACKING-CASE TABLES_; showing the number of Superficial Feet in - Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and upwards. By W. - RICHARDSON, Timber Broker. Third Edition. Oblong 4to, 3_s._ 6_d._ - cl. - - "Invaluable labour-saving tables."--_Ironmonger._ - - "Will save much labour and calculation."--_Grocer._ - - -_=Superficial Measurement.=_ - - _THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEASUREMENT._ Tables - calculated from 1 to 200 inches in length, by 1 to 108 inches in - breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber - Merchants, Builders, &c. By JAMES HAWKINGS. Fourth Edition. - Fcap., 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "A useful collection of tables to facilitate rapid calculation - of surfaces. The exact area of any surface of which the limits - have been ascertained can be instantly determined. The book will - be found of the greatest utility to all engaged in building - operations."--_Scotsman._ - - "These tables will be found of great assistance to - all who require to make calculations in superficial - measurement."--_English Mechanic._ - - -_=Forestry.=_ - - _THE ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY._ Designed to afford Information - concerning the Planting and Care of Forest Trees for Ornament or - Profit, with Suggestions upon the Creation and Care of Woodlands. - By F. B. HOUGH. Large crown 8vo, 10_s._ cloth. - - -_=Timber Importer's Guide.=_ - - _THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, AND BUILDER'S STANDARD - GUIDE._ By RICHARD E. GRANDY. Comprising an Analysis of Deal - Standards, Home and Foreign, with Comparative Values and Tabular - Arrangements for fixing Net Landed Cost on Baltic and North - American Deals, including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, - Insurance, &c. &c. Together with copious Information for the - Retailer and Builder. Third Edition, Revised. 12mo, 2_s._ cloth - limp. - - "Everything it pretends to be: built up gradually, it leads one - from a forest to a treenail, and throws in, as a makeweight, - a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, - &c."--_English Mechanic._ - - -DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. - - -_=Woods and Marbles (Imitation of).=_ - - _SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS AND MARBLES_, as - Taught and Practised by A. R. VAN DER BURG and P. VAN DER BURG, - Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, - 18½ by 12½ in., Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates; - also 12 plain Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Second and Cheaper - Edition. Price £1 11_s._ 6_d._ - -_List of Plates._ - - 1. Various Tools required for Wood Painting--2, 3. Walnut: - Preliminary Stages of Graining and Finished Specimen--4. Tools - used for Marble Painting and Method of Manipulation--5, 6. St. - Remi Marble: Earlier Operations and Finished Specimen--7. Methods - of Sketching different Grains, Knots, &c.--8, 9. Ash: Preliminary - Stages and Finished Specimen--10. Methods of Sketching Marble - Grains--11, 12. Breche Marble: Preliminary Stages of Working and - Finished Specimen--13. Maple: Methods of Producing the different - Grains--14, 15. Bird's-eye Maple: Preliminary Stages and Finished - Specimen--16. Methods of Sketching the different Species of White - Marble--17, 18. White Marble: Preliminary Stages of Process and - Finished Specimen--19. Mahogany: Specimens of various Grains - and Methods of Manipulation--20, 21. Mahogany: Earlier Stages - and Finished Specimen--22, 23, 24. Sienna Marble: Varieties - of Grain, Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen--25, 26, - 27. Juniper Wood: Methods of producing Grain, &c.: Preliminary - Stages and Finished Specimen--28, 29, 30. Vert de Mer Marble: - Varieties of Grain and Methods of Working Unfinished and Finished - Specimens--31, 32, 33. Oak: Varieties of Grain, Tools Employed, - and Methods of Manipulation, Preliminary Stages and Finished - Specimen--34, 35, 36. Waulsort Marble: Varieties of Grain, - Unfinished and Finished Specimens. - - "Those who desire to attain skill in the art of painting woods - and marbles will find advantage in consulting this book.... - Some of the Working Men's Clubs should give their young men the - opportunity to study it."--_Builder._ - - "A comprehensive guide to the art. The explanations of the - processes, the manipulation and management of the colours, and - the beautifully executed plates will not be the least valuable to - the student who aims at making his work a faithful transcript of - nature."--_Building News._ - - -_=Wall Paper.=_ - - _WALL PAPER DECORATION._ By ARTHUR SEYMOUR JENNINGS, Author of - "Practical Paper Hanging." With numerous Illustrations. Demy 8vo. - - [_In preparation._ - - -_=House Decoration.=_ - - _ELEMENTARY DECORATION._ A Guide to the Simpler Forms of Everyday - Art. Together with _PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION_. By JAMES W. - FACEY. With numerous Illustrations. In One Vol., 5_s._ strongly - half-bound. - - -_=House Painting, Graining, etc.=_ - - _HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND SIGN WRITING_, A - Practical Manual of. By ELLIS A. DAVIDSON. Sixth Edition. With - Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings. 12mo, 6_s._ cloth boards. - - "A mass of information, of use to the amateur and of value to the - practical man."--_English Mechanic._ - - -_=Decorators, Receipts for.=_ - - _THE DECORATOR'S ASSISTANT_: A Modern Guide to Decorative - Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, Gilders, &c. Containing - upwards of 600 Receipts, Rules and Instructions; with a variety - of Information for General Work connected with every Class of - Interior and Exterior Decorations, &c. Fifth Edition, Revised. - 152 pp., crown 8vo, 1_s._ in wrapper. - - "Full of receipts of value to decorators, painters, gilders. &c. - The book contains the gist of larger treatises on colour and - technical processes. It would be difficult to meet with a work - so full of varied information on the painter's art."--_Building - News._ - - -_=Moyr Smith on Interior Decoration.=_ - - _ORNAMENTAL INTERIORS, ANCIENT AND MODERN._ By J. MOYR SMITH. - Super-royal 8vo, with 32 full-page Plates and numerous smaller - Illustrations, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt top, price 18_s._ - - "The book is well illustrated and handsomely got up, and contains - some true criticism and a good many good examples of decorative - treatment."--_The Builder._ - - -_=British and Foreign Marbles.=_ - - _MARBLE DECORATION and the Terminology of British and Foreign - Marbles._ A Handbook for Students. By GEORGE H. BLAGROVE, Author - of "Shoring and its Application," &c. With 28 Illustrations. - Crown 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "This most useful and much wanted handbook should be in the hands - of every architect and builder."--_Building World._ - - "A carefully and usefully written treatise; the work is - essentially practical."--_Scotsman._ - - -_=Marble Working, etc.=_ - - _MARBLE AND MARBLE WORKERS_: A Handbook for Architects, Artists, - Masons, and Students. By ARTHUR LEE, Author of "A Visit to - Carrara," "The Working of Marble," &c. Small crown 8vo, 2_s._ - cloth. - - "A really valuable addition to the technical literature of - architects and masons."--_Building News._ - - -_DELAMOTTE'S WORKS ON ILLUMINATION AND ALPHABETS._ - - _A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION, for the Use of Beginners_: - with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical Directions for - its Exercise, and Examples taken from Illuminated MSS., printed - in Gold and Colours. By F. DELAMOTTE. New and Cheaper Edition. - Small 4to, 6_s._ ornamental boards. - - "The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, - with much good sense, the author chooses from collections - accessible to all, are selected with judgment and knowledge, as - well as taste."--_Athenæum._ - - _ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, Ancient and Mediæval, from the Eighth - Century, with Numerals_; including Gothic, Church-Text, large and - small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illumination, - Monograms, Crosses, &c. &c., for the use of Architectural and - Engineering Draughtsmen, Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative - Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. &c. Collected - and Engraved by F. DELAMOTTE, and printed in Colours. New and - Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, 2_s._ 6_d._ ornamental boards. - - "For those who insert enamelled sentences round gilded chalices, - who blazon shop legends over shop-doors, who letter church walls - with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book will be - useful."--_Athenæum._ - - _EXAMPLES OF MODERN ALPHABETS, Plain and Ornamental_; including - German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew, - Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and - Arabesque; with several Original Designs, and an Analysis of the - Roman and Old English Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, - for the use of Draughtsmen, Surveyors, Masons, Decorative - Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. Collected and - Engraved by F. DELAMOTTE, and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper - Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, 2_s._ 6_d._ ornamental boards. - - "There is comprised in it every possible shape into which the - letters of the alphabet and numerals can be formed, and the - talent which has been expended in the conception of the various - plain and ornamental letters is wonderful."--_Standard._ - - _MEDIÆVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS FOR ILLUMINATORS._ By F. G. - DELAMOTTE. Containing 21 Plates and Illuminated Title, printed - in Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by J. WILLIS BROOKS. - Fourth and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, 4_s._ ornamental boards. - - "A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come forth - glorified in gilding and all the colours of the prism interwoven - and intertwined and intermingled."--_Sun._ - - _THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN._ Containing Initials, Emblems, - Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesiastical Devices, - Mediæval and Modern Alphabets, and National Emblems. Collected - by F. DELAMOTTE, and printed in Colours. Oblong royal 8vo, 1_s._ - 6_d._ ornamental wrapper. - - "The book will be of great assistance to ladies and young - children who are endowed with the art of plying the needle in - this most ornamental and useful pretty work."--_East Anglian - Times._ - - -_=Wood Carving.=_ - - _INSTRUCTIONS IN WOOD-CARVING, for Amateurs_: with Hints on - Design. By A LADY. With Ten Plates. New and Cheaper Edition. - Crown 8vo, 2_s._ in emblematic wrapper. - - "The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can impart - it, may be learnt from 'A Lady's' publication."--_Athenæum._ - - -NATURAL SCIENCE, etc. - - -_=The Heavens and their Origin.=_ - - _THE VISIBLE UNIVERSE_: Chapters on the Origin and Construction - of the Heavens. By J. E. GORE, F.R.A.S., Author of "Star Groups," - &c. Illustrated by 6 Stellar Photographs and 12 Plates. Demy 8vo, - 16_s._ cloth, gilt top. - - "A valuable and lucid summary of recent astronomical theory, - rendered more valuable and attractive by a series of stellar - photographs and other illustrations."--_The Times._ - - "In presenting a clear and concise account of the present state - of our knowledge, Mr. Gore has made a valuable addition to the - literature of the subject."--_Nature._ - - "One of the finest works on astronomical science that has - recently appeared in our language. In spirit and in method it - is scientific from cover to cover, but the style is so clear - and attractive that it will be as acceptable and as readable to - those who make no scientific pretensions as to those who devote - themselves specially to matters astronomical."--_Leeds Mercury._ - - "As interesting as a novel, and instructive withal; the text - being made still more luminous by stellar photographs and other - illustrations.... A most valuable book."--_Manchester Examiner._ - - -_=The Constellations.=_ - - _STAR GROUPS: A Student's Guide to the Constellations._ By J. - ELLARD GORE, F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A., &c., Author of "The Visible - Universe," "The Scenery of the Heavens." With 30 Maps. Small 4to, - 5_s._ cloth, silvered. - - "A knowledge of the principal constellations visible in our - latitudes may be easily acquired from the thirty maps and - accompanying text contained in this work."--_Nature._ - - "The volume contains thirty maps showing stars of the sixth - magnitude--the usual naked-eye limit--and each is accompanied by - a brief commentary, adapted to facilitate recognition and bring - to notice objects of special interest. For the purpose of a - preliminary survey of the midnight pomp of the heavens, nothing - could be better than a set of delineations averaging scarcely - twenty square inches in area, and including nothing that cannot - at once be identified."--_Saturday Review._ - - "A very compact and handy guide to the - constellations."--_Athenæum._ - - -_=Astronomical Terms.=_ - - _AN ASTRONOMICAL GLOSSARY_; or, Dictionary of Terms used in - Astronomy. With Tables of Data and Lists of Remarkable and - Interesting Celestial Objects. By J. ELLARD GORE, F.R.A.S., - Author of "The Visible Universe," &c. Small crown 8vo, 2_s._ - 6_d._ cloth. - - "A very useful little work for beginners in astronomy, and not to - be despised by more advanced students."--_The Times._ - - "A very handy book ... the utility of which is much increased by - its valuable tables of astronomical data."--_The Athenæum._ - - "Astronomers of all kinds will be glad to have it for - reference."--_Guardian._ - - -_=The Microscope.=_ - - _THE MICROSCOPE_: Its Construction and Management, including - Technique, Photo-micrography, and the Past and Future of the - Microscope. By Dr. HENRI VAN HEURCK, Director of the Antwerp - Botannical Gardens. English Edition, Re-Edited and Augmented by - the Author from the Fourth French Edition, and Translated by - WYNNE E. BAXTER, F.R.M.S., F.G.S., &c. About 400 pages, with - Three Plates and upwards of 250 Woodcuts. Imp. 8vo, 18_s._ cloth - gilt. - - "A translation of a well-known work, at once popular and - comprehensive."--_Times._ - - "The translation is as felicitious as it is accurate."--_Nature._ - - -_=Astronomy.=_ - - _ASTRONOMY._ By the late Rev. ROBERT MAIN, M.A., F.R.S. Third - Edition, Revised, by WM. THYNNE LYNN, B.A., F.R.A.S., formerly of - the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 12mo, 2_s._ cloth limp. - - "A sound and simple treatise, and a capital book for - beginners."--_Knowledge._ - - "Accurately brought down to the requirements of the present - time."--_Educational Times._ - - -_=Recent and Fossil Shells.=_ - - _A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA: Being a Treatise on Recent and Fossil - Shells._ By S. P. WOODWARD, A.L.S., F.G.S., late Assistant - Palæontologist in the British Museum. With an Appendix on _Recent - and Fossil Conchological Discoveries_, by RALPH TATE, A.L.S., - F.G.S. Illustrated by A. N. WATERHOUSE and JOSEPH WILSON LOWRY. - With 23 Plates and upwards of 300 Woodcuts. Reprint of Fourth - Ed., 1880. Cr. 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ cl. - - "A most valuable storehouse of conchological and geological - information."--_Science Gossip._ - - -_=Geology and Genesis.=_ - - _THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION; or, Geology and Genesis: their - Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord._ By GEORGE W. VICTOR LE - VAUX. Fcap. 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "A valuable contribution to the evidences of Revelation, and - disposes very conclusively of the arguments of those who would - set God's Works against God's Word. No real difficulty is shirked - and no sophistry is left unexposed."--_The Rock._ - - -_DR. LARDNER'S COURSE OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY._ - - _THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS._ Enlarged and almost Rewritten by - BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S. With 378 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6_s._ - cloth. - - "The perspicuity of the original has been retained, and chapters - which had become obsolete have been replaced by others of more - modern character. The explanations throughout are studiously - popular, and care has been taken to show the application of the - various branches of physics to the industrial arts, and to the - practical business of life."--_Mining Journal._ - - "Mr. Loewy has carefully revised the book, and brought it up to - modern requirements."--_Nature._ - - "Natural philosophy has had few exponents more able or better - skilled in the art of popularising the subject than Dr. - Lardner; and Mr. Loewy is doing good service in fitting this - treatise, and the others of the series, for use at the present - time."--_Scotsman._ - - _THE HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS._ New Edition, - Revised and Enlarged, by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S. With 236 - Illustrations. Post 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "For those 'who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of - physical science without the profound methods of mathematical - investigation,' this work is not merely intended, but well - adapted."--_Chemical News._ - - "The volume before us has been carefully edited, augmented - to nearly twice the bulk of the former edition, and all - the most recent matter has been added.... It is a valuable - text-book."--_Nature._ - - "Candidates for pass examinations will find it, we think, - specially suited to their requirements."--_English Mechanic._ - - _THE HANDBOOK OF HEAT._ Edited and almost entirely Rewritten by - BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S., &c. 117 Illusts. Post 8vo, 6_s._ cloth. - - "The style is always clear and precise, and conveys - instruction without leaving any cloudiness or lurking doubts - behind."--_Engineering._ - - "A most exhaustive book on the subject on which it treats, and - is so arranged that it can be understood by all who desire to - attain an accurate knowledge of physical science.... Mr. Loewy - has included all the latest discoveries in the varied laws and - effects of heat."--_Standard._ - - "A complete and handy text-book for the use of students and - general readers."--_English Mechanic._ - - _THE HANDBOOK OF OPTICS._ By DIONYSIUS LARDNER, D.C.L., formerly - Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University - College, London. New Edition. Edited by T. OLVER HARDING, B.A. - Lond., of University College, London. With 298 Illustrations. - Small 8vo, 448 pages, 5_s._ cloth. - - "Written by one of the ablest English scientific writers, - beautifully and elaborately illustrated."--_Mechanic's Magazine._ - - _THE HANDBOOK OF ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND ACOUSTICS._ By Dr. - LARDNER. Ninth Thousand. Edit. by GEORGE CAREY FOSTER, B.A., - F.C.S. With 400 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "The book could not have been entrusted to anyone better - calculated to preserve the terse and lucid style of Lardner, - while correcting his errors and bringing up his work to the - present state of scientific knowledge."--_Popular Science Review._ - - _THE HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY._ Forming a Companion to the "Handbook - of Natural Philosophy." By DIONYSIUS LARDNER, D.C.L., formerly - Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University - College, London. Fourth Edition, Revised and Edited by EDWIN - DUNKIN, F.R.A.S., Royal Observatory, Greenwich. With 38 Plates - and upwards of 100 Woodcuts. In One Vol., small 8vo, 550 pages, - 9_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "Probably no other book contains the same amount of information - in so compendious and well-arranged a form--certainly none at the - price at which this is offered to the public."--_Athenæum._ - - "We can do no other than pronounce this work a most valuable - manual of astronomy, and we strongly recommend it to all who wish - to acquire a general--but at the same time correct--acquaintance - with this sublime science."--_Quarterly Journal of Science._ - - "One of the most deservedly popular books on the subject.... We - would recommend not only the student of the elementary principles - of the science, but he who aims at mastering the higher and - mathematical branches of astronomy, not to be without this work - beside him."--_Practical Magazine._ - - -_=Geology.=_ - - _RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON GEOLOGY, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL._ - Consisting of "Physical Geology," which sets forth the leading - Principles of the Science; and "Historical Geology," which treats - of the Mineral and Organic Conditions of the Earth at each - successive epoch, especial reference being made to the British - Series of Rocks. By RALPH TATE, A.L.S., F.G.S., &c. With 250 - Illustrations. 12mo, 5_s._ cl. bds. - - "The fulness of the matter has elevated the book into a manual. - Its information is exhaustive and well arranged."--_School Board - Chronicle._ - - -_DR. LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART._ - - _THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART._ Edited by DIONYSIUS LARDNER, - D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in - University College, London. With upwards of 1,200 Engravings on - Wood. In 6 Double Volumes, £1 1_s._ in a new and elegant cloth - binding; or handsomely bound in half-morocco, 31_s._ 6_d._ - -*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. - - "This series, besides affording popular but sound instruction - on scientific subjects, with which the humblest man in the - country ought to be acquainted, also undertakes that teaching - of 'Common Things' which every well-wisher of his kind is - anxious to promote. Many thousand copies of this serviceable - publication have been printed, in the belief and hope that the - desire for instruction and improvement widely prevails; and - we have no fear that such enlightened faith will meet with - disappointment."--_Times._ - - "A cheap and interesting publication, alike informing and - attractive. The papers combine subjects of importance and great - scientific knowledge, considerable inductive powers, and a - popular style of treatment."--_Spectator._ - - "The 'Museum of Science and Art' is the most valuable - contribution that has ever been made to the Scientific - Instruction of every class of society."--Sir DAVID BREWSTER, in - the _North British Review_. - - "Whether we consider the liberality and beauty of the - illustrations, the charm of the writing, or the durable interest - of the matter, we must express our belief that there is hardly to - be found among the new books one that would be welcomed by people - of so many ages and classes as a valuable present."--_Examiner._ - -*** _Separate books formed from the above, suitable for Workmen's -Libraries, Science Classes, etc._ - - _=Common Things Explained.=_ Containing Air, Earth, Fire, Water, - Time, Man, the Eye, Locomotion, Colour, Clocks and Watches, &c. - 233 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 5_s._ - - _=The Microscope.=_ Containing Optical Images, Magnifying - Glasses, Origin and Description of the Microscope, Microscopic - Objects, the Solar Microscope, Microscopic Drawing and Engraving, - &c. 147 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2_s._ - - _=Popular Geology.=_ Containing Earthquakes and Volcanoes, the - Crust of the Earth, &c. 201 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2_s._ 6_d._ - - _=Popular Physics.=_ Containing Magnitude and Minuteness, - the Atmosphere, Meteoric Stones, Popular Fallacies, Weather - Prognostics, the Thermometer, the Barometer, Sound, &c. 85 - Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2_s._ 6_d._ - - _=Steam, and its Uses.=_ Including the Steam Engine, the - Locomotive, and Steam Navigation. 89 Illustrations, cloth gilt, - 2_s._ - - _=Popular Astronomy.=_ Containing How to observe the Heavens--The - Earth, Sun, Moon, Planets, Light, Comets, Eclipses, Astronomical - Influences, &c. 182 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 4_s._ 6_d._ - - _=The Bee and White Ants=_: Their Manners and Habits. With - Illustrations of Animal Instinct and Intelligence. 135 - Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2_s._ - - _=The Electric Telegraph Popularised.=_ To render intelligible - to all who can Read, irrespective of any previous Scientific - Acquirements, the various forms of Telegraphy in Actual - Operation. 100 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 1_s._ 6_d._ - - -_=Dr. Lardner's School Handbooks.=_ - - _NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS._ By Dr. LARDNER. 328 - Illustrations. Sixth Edition. One Vol., 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "A very convenient class-book for junior students in private - schools. It is intended to convey in clear and precise terms, - general notions of all the principal divisions of Physical - Science."--_British Quarterly Review._ - - _ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS._ By Dr. LARDNER. With 190 - Illustrations. Second Edition. One Vol., 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently - illustrated."--_Gardener's Chronicle._ - - -_=Lardner and Bright on the Electric Telegraph.=_ - - _THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH._ By Dr. LARDNER. Revised and Re-written - by E. B. BRIGHT, F.R.A.S. 140 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 2_s._ - 6_d._ cloth. - - "One of the most readable books extant on the Electric - Telegraph."--_English Mechanic._ - - -CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY. - - -_=Chemistry for Engineers, etc.=_ - - _ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY_; A Practical Treatise for the Use of - Analytical Chemists, Engineers, Iron Masters, Iron Founders, - Students, and others. Comprising Methods of Analysis and - Valuation of the Principal Materials used in Engineering Work, - with numerous Analyses, Examples, and Suggestions. By H. JOSHUA - PHILLIPS, F.I.C., F.C.S. formerly Analytical and Consulting - Chemist to the Great Eastern Railway. Second Edition, Revised and - Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 400 pp., with Illustrations, 10_s._ 6_d._ - cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - "In this work the author has rendered no small service to a - numerous body of practical men.... The analytical methods may be - pronounced most satisfactory, being as accurate as the despatch - required of engineering chemists permits."--_Chemical News._ - - "Those in search of a handy treatise on the subject of analytical - chemistry as applied to the every-day requirements of workshop - practice will find this volume of great assistance."--_Iron._ - - "The first attempt to bring forward a Chemistry specially written - for the use of engineers, and we have no hesitation whatever - in saying that it should at once be in the possession of every - railway engineer."--_The Railway Engineer._ - - "The book will be very useful to those who require a handy and - concise _resume_ of approved methods of analysing and valuing - metals, oils, fuels, &c. It is, in fact, a work for chemists, a - guide to the routine of the engineering laboratory.... The book - is full of good things. As a handbook of technical analysis, it - is very welcome."--_Builder._ - - "Considering the extensive ground which such a subject as - Engineering Chemistry covers, the work is complete, and - recommends itself to both the practising analyist and the - analytical student."--_Chemical Trade Journal._ - - "The analytical methods given are, as a whole, such as are likely - to give rapid and trustworthy results in experienced hands. There - is much excellent descriptive matter in the work, the chapter - on 'Oils and Lubrication' being specially noticeable in this - respect."--_Engineer._ - - -_=Alkali Trade, Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, etc.=_ - - _A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE_, including the Manufacture of - Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching Powder. By JOHN - LOMAS, Alkali Manufacturer, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and London. With - 232 Illustrations and Working Drawings, and containing 390 pages - of Text. Second Edition, with Additions. Super-royal 8vo, £1 - 10_s._ cloth. - - "This book is written by a manufacturer for manufacturers. - The working details of the most approved forms of apparatus - are given, and these are accompanied by no less than 232 - wood engravings, all of which may be used for the purposes - of construction. Every step in the manufacture is very - fully described in this manual, and each improvement - explained."--_Athenæum._ - - "We find not merely a sound and luminous explanation of the - chemical principles of the trade, but a notice of numerous - matters which have a most important bearing on the successful - conduct of alkali works, but which are generally overlooked by - even experienced technological authors."--_Chemical Review._ - - -_=The Blowpipe.=_ - - _THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, AND GEOLOGY._ Containing - all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Working Examples, - and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut.-Colonel W. - A. ROSS, R.A., F.G.S. With 120 Illustrations. Second Edition, - Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "The student who goes through the course of experimentation - here laid down will gain a better insight into inorganic - chemistry and mineralogy than if he had 'got up' any of the - best text-books, and passed any number of examinations in their - contents."--_Chemical News._ - - -_=Commercial Chemical Analysis.=_ - - _THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS_; or, Practical - Instructions for the determination of the Intrinsic or Commercial - Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, and in the - Arts. By A. NORMANDY, Editor of Rose's "Treatise on Chemical - Analysis." New Edition, to a great extent Re-written by HENRY - M. NOAD, Ph.D., F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, - 12_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "We strongly recommend this book to our readers as a guide, - alike indispensable to the housewife as to the pharmaceutical - practitioner."--_Medical Times._ - - "Essential to the analysts appointed under the new Act. The - most recent results are given and the work is well edited and - carefully written."--_Nature._ - - -_=Dye-Wares and Colours.=_ - - _THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE-WARES_: Their Properties, - Applications, Valuations, Impurities, and Sophistications. For - the use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. - SLATER. Second Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. Crown 8vo, - 7_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "A complete encyclopædia of the _materia tinctoria_. The - information given respecting each article is full and precise, - and the methods of determining the value of articles such as - these, so liable to sophistication, are given with clearness, and - are practical as well as valuable."--_Chemist and Druggist._ - - "There is no other work which covers precisely the same ground. - To students preparing for examinations in dyeing and printing it - will prove exceedingly useful."--_Chemical News._ - - -_=Modern Brewing and Malting.=_ - - _A HANDYBOOK FOR BREWERS_: Being a Practical Guide to the Art of - Brewing and Malting. Embracing the Conclusions of Modern Research - which bear upon the Practice of Brewing. By HERBERT EDWARDS - WRIGHT, M.A., Author of "A Handbook for Young Brewers." Crown - 8vo, 530 pp., 12_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "May be consulted with advantage by the student who is preparing - himself for examinational tests, while the scientific brewer - will find in it a _resume_ of all the most important discoveries - of modern times. The work is written throughout in a clear and - concise manner, and the author takes great care to discriminate - between vague theories and well-established facts."--_Brewers' - Journal._ - - "We have great pleasure in recommending this handybook, and have - no hesitation in saying that it is one of the best--if not the - best--which has yet been written on the subject of beer-brewing - in this country, and it should have a place on the shelves of - every brewer's library."--_The Brewer's Guardian._ - - "Although the requirements of the student are primarily - considered, an acquaintance of half-an-hour's duration cannot - fail to impress the practical brewer with the sense of having - found a trustworthy guide and practical counsellor in brewery - matters."--_Chemical Trade Journal._ - - -_=Analysis and Valuation of Fuels.=_ - - _FUELS: SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS_, Their Analysis and - Valuation. For the Use of Chemists and Engineers. By H. J. - PHILLIPS, F.C.S., formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist to - the Great Eastern Railway. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. - Crown 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "Ought to have its place in the laboratory of every metallurgical - establishment, and wherever fuel is used on a large - scale."--_Chemical News._ - - "Cannot fail to be of wide interest, especially at the present - time."--_Railway News._ - - -_=Pigments.=_ - - _THE ARTIST'S MANUAL OF PIGMENTS._ Showing their Composition, - Conditions of Permanency, Non-Permanency, and Adulterations; - Effects in Combination with Each Other and with Vehicles; and - the most Reliable Tests of Purity Together with the Science and - Art Department's Examination Questions on Painting. By H. C. - STANDAGE. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "This work is indeed _multum-in-parvo_, and we can, with good - conscience, recommend it to all who come in contact with - pigments, whether as makers, dealers or users."--_Chemical - Review._ - - -_=Gauging. Tables and Rules for Revenue Officers, Brewers, etc.=_ - - _A POCKET BOOK OF MENSURATION AND GAUGING_: Containing Tables, - Rules and Memoranda for Revenue Officers, Brewers, Spirit - Merchants, &c. By J. B. MANT (Inland Revenue). Second Edition, - Revised. 18mo, 4_s._ leather. - - "This handy and useful book is adapted to the requirements of - the Inland Revenue Department, and will be a favourite book - of reference. The range of subjects is comprehensive, and the - arrangement simple and clear."--_Civilian._ - - "Should be in the hands of every practical brewer."--_Brewers' - Journal._ - - -INDUSTRIAL ARTS, TRADES, AND MANUFACTURES. - - -_=Cotton Spinning.=_ - - _COTTON MANUFACTURE_: A Practical Manual. Embracing the various - operations of Cotton Manufacture, Dyeing, &c. For the Use of - Operatives, Overlookers, and Manufacturers. By JOHN LISTER, - Technical Instructor, Pendleton. With numerous Illustrations. - Demy 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - -_=Flour Manufacture, Milling, etc.=_ - - _FLOUR MANUFACTURE_: A Treatise on Milling Science and - Practice. By FRIEDRICH KICK, Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor - of Mechanical Technology in the Imperial German Polytechnic - Institute, Prague. Translated from the Second Enlarged and - Revised Edition with Supplement. By H. H. P. POWLES, Assoc. Memb. - Institution of Civil Engineers. Nearly 400 pp. Illustrated with - 28 Folding Plates, and 167 Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, 25_s._ cloth. - - "This valuable work is, and will remain, the standard authority - on the science of milling.... The miller who has read and - digested this work will have laid the foundation, so to speak, of - a successful career; he will have acquired a number of general - principles which he can proceed to apply. In this handsome volume - we at last have the accepted text-book of modern milling in good, - sound English, which has little, if any, trace of the German - idiom."--_The Miller._ - - "The appearance of this celebrated work in English is very - opportune, and British millers will, we are sure, not be slow in - availing themselves of its pages."--_Millers' Gazette._ - - -_=Agglutinants.=_ - - _CEMENTS, PASTES, GLUES AND GUMS_: A Practical Guide to the - Manufacture and Application of the various Agglutinants required - in the Building, Metal-Working, Wood-Working and Leather-Working - Trades, and for Workshop, Laboratory or Office Use. With upwards - of 900 Recipes and Formulæ. By H. C. STANDAGE, Chemist. Crown - 8vo, 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - "We have pleasure in speaking favourably of this volume. So far - as we have had experience, which is not inconsiderable, this - manual is trustworthy."--_Athenæum._ - - "As a revelation of what are considered trade secrets, this book - will arouse an amount of curiosity among the large number of - industries it touches."--_Daily Chronicle._ - - "In this goodly collection of receipts it would be strange if a - cement for any purpose cannot be found."--_Oil and Colourman's - Journal._ - - -_=Soap-making.=_ - - _THE ART OF SOAP-MAKING: A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture - of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, etc._ Including many New - Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste - Leys. By ALEXANDER WATT. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, - 7_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "The work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological - student, but to the practical soap-boiler who wishes to - understand the theory of his art."--_Chemical News._ - - "A thoroughly practical treatise on an art which has almost no - literature in our language. We congratulate the author on the - success of his endeavour to fill a void in English technical - literature."--_Nature._ - - -_=Paper Making.=_ - - _PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING_: A Manual for Paper-makers and Owners - and Managers of Paper-Mills. With Tables, Calculations, &c. By - G. CLAPPERTON, Paper-maker. With Illustrations of Fibres from - Micro-Photographs. Crown 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - "The author caters for the requirements of responsible mill - hands, apprentices, &c., whilst his manual will be found of great - service to students of technology, as well as to veteran paper - makers and mill owners. The illustrations form an excellent - feature."--_Paper Trade Review._ - - "We recommend everybody interested in the trade to get a copy of - this thoroughly practical book."--_Paper Making._ - - -_=Paper Making.=_ - - _THE ART OF PAPER MAKING: A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture - of Paper from Rags, Esparto, Straw, and other Fibrous Materials._ - Including the Manufacture of Pulp from Wood Fibre, with a - Description of the Machinery and Appliances used. To which - are added Details of Processes for Recovering Soda from Waste - Liquors. By ALEXANDER WATT, Author of "The Art of Soap-Making" - With Illusts. Crown 8vo, 7_s_. 6_d._ cloth. - - "It may be regarded as the standard work on the subject. The book - is full of valuable information. The 'Art of Paper-making,' is - in every respect a model of a text-book, either for a technical - class or for the private student."--_Paper and Printing Trades - journal._ - - -_=Leather Manufacture.=_ - - _THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE._ Being a Practical Handbook, in - which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing - are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning Explained, - and many Recent Processes Introduced; as also the Methods for - the Estimation of Tannin, and a Description of the Arts of - Glue Boiling, Gut Dressing, &c. By ALEXANDER WATT, Author of - "Soap-Making," &c. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 9_s._ cloth. - - "A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and its accessories. - It is an eminently valuable production, which redounds to the - credit of both author and publishers."--_Chemical Review._ - - -_=Boot and Shoe Making.=_ - - _THE ART OF BOOT AND SHOE-MAKING._ A Practical Handbook, - including Measurement, Last-Fitting, Cutting-Out, Closing, - and Making, with a Description of the most approved Machinery - employed. By JOHN B. LENO, late Editor of _St. Crispin_, and _The - Boot and Shoe-Maker_. 12mo, 2_s._ cloth limp. - - "This excellent treatise is by far the best work ever written. - The chapter on clicking, which shows how waste may be prevented, - will save fifty times the price of the book."--_Scottish Leather - Trader._ - - -_=Dentistry Construction.=_ - - _MECHANICAL DENTISTRY: A Practical Treatise on the Construction - of the various kinds of Artificial Dentures._ Comprising also - Useful Formulæ, Tables, and Receipts for Gold Plate, Clasps, - Solders, &c. &c. By CHARLES HUNTER. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, - 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "We can strongly recommend Mr. Hunter's treatise to all students - preparing for the profession of dentistry, as well as to every - mechanical dentist."--_Dublin Journal of Medical Science._ - - -_=Wood Engraving.=_ - - _WOOD ENGRAVING: A Practical and Easy Introduction to the Study - of the Art._ By WILLIAM NORMAN BROWN. Second Edition. With - numerous Illustrations. 12mo, 1_s._ 6_d._ cloth limp. - - "The book is clear and complete, and will be useful to anyone - wanting to understand the first elements of the beautiful art of - wood engraving."--_Graphic._ - - -_=Horology.=_ - - _A TREATISE ON MODERN HOROLOGY, in Theory and Practice._ - Translated from the French of CLAUDIUS SAUNIER, ex-Director of - the School of Horology at Maçon, by JULIEN TRIPPLIN, F.R A.S., - Besançon Watch Manufacturer, and EDWARD RIGG, M.A., Assayer in - the Royal Mint. With 78 Woodcuts and 22 Coloured Copper Plates. - Second Edition. Super-royal 8vo, £2 2_s._ cloth; £2 10_s._ - half-calf. - - "There is no horological work in the English language at all to - be compared to this production of M. Saunier's for clearness - and completeness. It is alike good as a guide for the student - and as a reference for the experienced horolegist and skilled - workman."--_Horological Journal._ - - "The latest, the most complete, and the most reliable of - those literary productions to which continental watchmakers - are indebted for the mechanical superiority over their - English brethren--in fact, the Book of Books, is M. Saunier's - 'Treatise.'"--_Watchmaker, Jeweller and Silversmith._ - - -_=Watchmaking.=_ - - _THE WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK._ Intended as a Workshop Companion - for those engaged in Watchmaking and the Allied Mechanical Arts. - Translated from the French of CLAUDIUS SAUNIER, and considerably - enlarged by JULIEN TRIPPLIN, F.R.A.S., Vice-President of the - Horological Institute, and EDWARD RIGG, M.A., Assayer in the - Royal Mint. With numerous Woodcuts and 14 Copper Plates. Third - Edition. Crown 8vo, 9_s._ cloth. - - "Each part is truly a treatise in itself. The arrangement is good - and the language is clear and concise. It is an admirable guide - for the young watchmaker."--_Engineering._ - - "It is impossible to speak too highly of its excellence. It - fulfils every requirement in a handbook intended for the use - of a workman. Should be found in every workshop."--_Watch and - Clockmaker._ - - "This book contains an immense number of practical details - bearing on the daily occupation of a watchmaker."--_Watchmaker - and Metalworker_ (Chicago). - - -_=Watches and Timekeepers.=_ - - _A HISTORY OF WATCHES AND OTHER TIMEKEEPERS._ By JAMES F. KENDAL, - M.B.H.Inst. 1_s._ 6_d._ boards; or 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth gilt. - - "Mr. Kendal's book, for its size, is the best which has yet - appeared on this subject in the English language."--_Industries._ - - "Open the book where you may, there is interesting matter in - it concerning the ingenious devices of the ancient or modern - horologer. The subject is treated in a liberal and entertaining - spirit, as might be expected of a historian who is a master of - the craft."--_Saturday Review._ - - -_=Electrolysis of Gold, Silver, Copper, etc.=_ - - _ELECTRO-DEPOSITION: A Practical Treatise on the Electrolysis - of Gold, Silver, Copper, Nickel, and other Metals and - Alloys._ With descriptions of Voltaic Batteries, Magneto and - Dynamo-Electric Machines, Thermopiles, and of the Materials - and Processes used in every Department of the Art, and several - Chapters on Electro-Metallurgy. By ALEXANDER WATT, Author of - "Electro-Metallurgy," &c. Third Edition,Revised. Crown 8vo, 9_s._ - cloth. - - "Eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition. - It contains practical descriptions of methods, processes - and materials as actually pursued and used in the - workshop."--ENGINEER. - - -_=Electro-Metallurgy.=_ - - _ELECTRO-METALLURGY: Practically Treated._ By ALEXANDER WATT, - Author of "Electro-Deposition," &c. Ninth Edition, including the - most recent Processes. 12mo, 4_s._ cloth boards. - - "From this book both amateur and artisan may learn - everything necessary for the successful prosecution of - electroplating."--_Iron._ - - -_=Working in Gold.=_ - - _THE JEWELLER'S ASSISTANT IN THE ART OF WORKING IN GOLD_: A - Practical Treatise for Masters and Workmen, Compiled from the - Experience of Thirty Years' Workshop Practice. By GEORGE E. GEE, - Author of "The Goldsmith's Handbook," &c. Cr. 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ - cloth. - - "This manual of technical education is apparently destined to be - a valuable auxiliary to a handicraft which is certainty capable - of great improvement."--_The Times._ - - "Very useful in the workshop, as the knowledge is practical, - having been acquired by long experience, and all the recipes - and directions are guaranteed to be successful."--_Jeweller and - Metalworker._ - - -_=Electroplating.=_ - - _ELECTROPLATING_: A Practical Handbook on the Deposition of - Copper, Silver, Nickel, Gold, Aluminium, Brass, Platinum, &c. &c. - With Descriptions of the Chemicals, Materials, Batteries, and - Dynamo Machines used in the Art. By J. W. URQUHART, C.E., Author - of "Electric Light," &c. Third Edition, Revised, with Additions. - Numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "An excellent practical manual."--_Engineering._ - - "An excellent work, giving the newest information."--_Horological - Journal._ - - -_=Electrotyping.=_ - - _ELECTROTYPING: The Reproduction and Multiplication of Printing - Surfaces and Works of Art by the Electro-deposition of Metals._ - By J. W. URQUHART, C.E. Crown 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "The book is thoroughly practical. The reader is, therefore, - conducted through the leading laws of electricity, then - through the metals used by electrotypers, the apparatus, and - the depositing processes, up to the final preparation of the - work."--_Art Journal._ - - -_=Goldsmiths' Work.=_ - - _THE GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK._ By GEORGE E. GEE, Jeweller, &c. Third - Edition, considerably Enlarged, 12mo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cl. bds. - - "A good, sound educator, and will be generally accepted as an - authority."--_Horological Journal._ - - -_=Silversmiths' Work.=_ - - _THE SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK._ By GEORGE E. GEE, Jeweller, &c. - Second Edition, Revised, with numerous Illustrations. 12mo, 3_s._ - 6_d._ cloth boards. - - "The chief merit of the work is its practical character.... The - workers in the trade will speedily discover its merits when they - sit down to study it."--_English Mechanic._ - -*** _The above two-works together, strongly half-bound, price 7s._ - - -_=Bread and Biscuit Baking.=_ - - _THE BREAD AND BISCUIT BAKER'S AND SUGAR-BOILER'S ASSISTANT._ - Including a large variety of Modern Recipes. With Remarks on the - Art of Bread-making. By ROBERT WELLS, Practical Baker. Second - Edition, with Additional Recipes. Crown 8vo, 2_s._ cloth. - - "A large number of wrinkles for the ordinary cook, as well as the - baker."--_Saturday Review._ - - -_=Confectionery for Hotels and Restaurants.=_ - - _THE PASTRYCOOK AND CONFECTIONER'S GUIDE._ For Hotels, - Restaurants and the Trade in general, adapted also for Family - Use. By ROBERT WELLS, Author of "The Bread and Biscuit Baker's - and Sugar-Boiler's Assistant." Crown 8vo, 2_s._ cloth. - - "We cannot speak too highly of this really excellent work. In - these days of keen competition our readers cannot do better than - purchase this book."--_Bakers' Times._ - - -_=Ornamental Confectionery.=_ - - _ORNAMENTAL CONFECTIONERY_: A Guide for Bakers. Confectioners and - Pastrycooks; including a variety of Modern Recipes, and Remarks - on Decorative and Coloured Work. With 129 Original Designs. By - ROBERT WELLS, Practical Baker, Author of "The Bread and Biscuit - Baker's and Sugar-Boiler's Assistant," &c. Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, - 5_s._ - - "A valuable work, practical, and should be in the hands of every - baker and confectioner. The illustrative designs are alone worth - treble the amount charged for the whole work."--_Bakers' Times._ - - -_=Flour Confectionery.=_ - - _THE MODERN FLOUR CONFECTIONER._ Wholesale and Retail. Containing - a large Collection of Recipes for Cheap Cakes, Biscuits, &c. With - Remarks on the Ingredients used in their Manufacture. To which - are added Recipes for Dainties for the Working Man's Table. By R. - WELLS, Author of "The Bread and Biscuit Baker," &c. Crown 8vo, - 2_s._ cl. - - "The work is of a decidedly practical character, and in every - recipe regard is had to economical working."--_North British - Daily Mail._ - - -_=Laundry Work.=_ - - _LAUNDRY MANAGEMENT._ A Handbook for Use in Private and Public - Laundries, Including Descriptive Accounts of Modern Machinery - and Appliances for Laundry Work. By the EDITOR of "The Laundry - Journal." With numerous Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, - 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "This book should certainly occupy an honoured place on the - shelves of all housekeepers who wish to keep themselves _au - courant_ of the newest appliances and methods."--_The Queen._ - - -HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS. - -By PAUL N. HASLUCK, - -EDITOR OF "WORK" (NEW SERIES); AUTHOR OF "LATHEWORK," "MILLING -MACHINES," &c. - -Crown 8vo, 144 pages, cloth, price 1_s._ each. - -==> _These_ HANDYBOOKS _have been written to supply information -for_ WORKMEN, STUDENTS, _and_ AMATEURS _in the several Handicrafts, -on the actual_ PRACTICE _of the_ WORKSHOP, _and are intended to -convey in plain language_ TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE _of the several_ -CRAFTS. _In describing the processes employed, and the manipulation -of material, workshop terms are used; workshop practice is fully -explained; and the text is freely illustrated with drawings of -modern tools, appliances, and processes._ - - - _THE METAL TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual for Workers at - the Foot-Lathe._ With over 100 Illustrations. Price 1_s._ - - "The book will be of service alike to the amateur and the - artisan turner. It displays thorough knowledge of the - subject."--_Scotsman._ - - _THE WOOD TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual for Workers at - the Lathe._ With over 100 Illustrations. Price 1_s._ - - "We recommend the book to young turners and amateurs. A multitude - of workmen have hitherto sought in vain for a manual of this - special industry."--_Mechanical World._ - - _THE WATCH JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on Cleaning, - Repairing, and Adjusting._ With upwards of 100 Illustrations. - Price 1_s._ - - "We strongly advise all young persons connected with the watch - trade to acquire and study this inexpensive work."--_Clerkenwell - Chronicle._ - - _THE PATTERN MAKER'S HANDYBOOK._ A Practical Manual on the - Construction of Patterns for Founders. With upwards of 100 - Illustrations. Price 1_s._ - - "A most valuable, if not indispensable, manual for the pattern - maker."--_Knowledge._ - - _THE MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on - Mechanical Manipulation._ Embracing Information on various - Handicraft Processes, with Useful Notes and Miscellaneous - Memoranda. Comprising about 200 Subjects. Price 1_s._ - - "A very clever and useful book, which should be found in every - workshop; and it should certainly find a place in all technical - schools."--_Saturday Review._ - - _THE MODEL ENGINEER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on the - Construction of Model Steam Engines._ With upwards of 100 - Illustrations. Price 1_s._ - - "Mr. Hasluck has produced a very good little book."--_Builder._ - - _THE CLOCK JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on Cleaning, - Repairing, and Adjusting._ With upwards of 100 Illustrations. - Price 1_s._ - - "It is of inestimable service to those commencing the - trade."--_Coventry Standard._ - - _THE CABINET WORKER'S HANDYBOOK_: A Practical Manual on the - Tools, Materials, Appliances, and Processes employed in Cabinet - Work. With upwards of 100 Illustrations. Price 1_s._ - - "Mr. Hasluck's thoroughgoing little Handybook is amongst - the most practical guides we have seen for beginners in - cabinet-work."--_Saturday Review._ - - _THE WOODWORKER'S HANDYBOOK OF MANUAL INSTRUCTION._ Embracing - Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances and Processes - employed in Woodworking. With 104 Illustrations. Price 1_s._ - - [_Just published._ - - _THE METALWORKER'S HANDYBOOK._ With upwards of 100 Illustrations. - - [_In preparation._ - -*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. - - "Written by a man who knows, not only how work ought to be - done, but how to do it, and how to convey his knowledge to - others."--_Engineering._ - - "Mr. Hasluck writes admirably, and gives complete - instructions."--_Engineer._ - - "Mr. Hasluck combines the experience of a practical teacher with - the manipulative skill and scientific knowledge of processes of - the trained mechanician, and the manuals are marvels of what can - be produced at a popular price."--_Schoolmaster._ - - "Helpful to workmen of all ages and degrees of - experience."--_Daily Chronicle._ - - "Practical, sensible, and remarkably cheap."--_Journal of - Education._ - - "Concise, clear and practical."--_Saturday Review._ - - -COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES, etc. - - -_=Commercial Education.=_ - - _LESSONS IN COMMERCE._ By Professor R. GAMBARO, of the Royal High - Commercial School at Genoa. Edited and Revised by JAMES GAULT, - Professor of Commerce and Commercial Law in King's College, - London. Crown 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "The publishers of this work have rendered considerable service - to the cause of commercial education by the opportune production - of this volume.... The work is peculiarly acceptable to English - readers and an admirable addition to existing class-books. In - a phrase, we think the work attains its object in furnishing - a brief account of those laws and customs of British trade - with which the commercial man interested therein should be - familiar."--_Chamber of Commerce Journal._ - - "An invaluable guide in the hands of those who are preparing for - a commercial career."--_Counting House._ - - -_=Foreign Commercial Correspondence.=_ - - _THE FOREIGN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT_: Being Aids to Commercial - Correspondence in Five Languages--English, French, German, - Italian, and Spanish. By CONRAD E. BAKER. Second Edition. Crown - 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "Whoever wishes to correspond in all the languages mentioned by - Mr. Baker cannot do better than study this work, the materials of - which are excellent and conveniently arranged. They consist not - of entire specimen letters but--what are far more useful--short - passages, sentences, or phrases expressing the same general idea - in various forms."--_Athenæum._ - - "A careful examination has convinced us that it is unusually - complete, well arranged, and reliable. The book is a thoroughly - good one."--_Schoolmaster._ - - -_=Accounts for Manufacturers.=_ - - _FACTORY ACCOUNTS_: Their Principles and Practice. A Handbook - for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on the - Nomenclature of Machine Details; the Income Tax Acts; the Rating - of Factories; Fire and Boiler Insurance; the Factory and Workshop - Acts, &c., including also a Glossary of Terms and a large number - of Specimen Rulings. By EMILE GARCKE and J. M. FELLS. Fourth - Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Demy 8vo, 250 pages, 6_s._ - strongly bound. - - "A very interesting description of the requirements of Factory - Accounts.... The principle of assimilating the Factory Accounts - to the general commercial books is one which we thoroughly agree - with."--_Accountants' Journal._ - - "Characterised by extreme thoroughness. There are few owners of - factories who would not derive great benefit from the perusal of - this most admirable work."--_Local Government Chronicle._ - - -_=Intuitive Calculations.=_ - - _THE COMPENDIOUS CALCULATOR_; or, Easy and Concise Methods of - Performing the various Arithmetical Operations required in - Commercial and Business Transactions, together with Useful - Tables. By DANIEL O'GORMAN. Corrected and Extended by Professor - J. R. YOUNG. Twenty-seventh Edition, Revised by C. NORRIS. Fcap. - 8vo, 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth limp; or, 3_s._ 6_d._ strongly half-bound - in leather. - - "It would be difficult to exaggerate the usefulness of a book - like this to everyone engaged in commerce or manufacturing - industry. It is crammed full of rules and formulæ for shortening - and employing calculations."--_Knowledge._ - - -_=Modern Metrical Units and Systems.=_ - - _MODERN METROLOGY: A Manual of the Metrical Units and Systems - of the Present Century._ With an Appendix containing a proposed - English System. By LOWIS D'A. JACKSON, A.M.Inst.C.E., Author of - "Aid to Survey Practice," &c. Large crown 8vo, 12_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "We recommend the work to all interested in the practical reform - of our weights and measures."--_Nature._ - - -_=The Metric System and the British Standards.=_ - - _A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British Standard - Measures and Weights are compared with those of the Metric System - at present in Use on the Continent._ By C. H. DOWLING, C.E. 8vo, - 10_s._ 6_d._ strongly bound. - - "Mr. Dowling's Tables are well put together as a ready-reckoner - for the conversion of one system into the other."--_Athenæum._ - - -_=Iron and Metal Trades' Calculator.=_ - - _THE IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION._ For expeditiously - ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by Weight, - from 1_s._ per cwt. to 112_s._ per cwt., and from one farthing - per pound to one shilling per pound. By THOMAS DOWNIE. 396 pp., - 9_s._ leather. - - "A most useful set of tables; nothing like them before - existed."--_Building News._ - - "Although specially adapted to the iron and metal trades, the - tables will be found useful in every other business in which - merchandise is bought and sold by weight."--_Railway News._ - - -_=Chadwick's Calculator for Numbers and Weights Combined.=_ - - _THE NUMBER, WEIGHT, AND FRACTIONAL CALCULATOR._ Containing - upwards of 250,000 Separate Calculations, showing at a glance the - value at 422 different rates, ranging from 1/125th of a Penny - to 20_s._ each, or per cwt., and £20 per ton, of any number of - articles consecutively, from 1 to 470.--Any number of cwts., - qrs., and lbs., from 1 cwt. to 470 cwts.--Any number of tons, - cwts., qrs., and lbs., from 1 to 1,000 tons. By WILLIAM CHADWICK, - Public Accountant. Third Edition, Revised and Improved. 8vo, - 18_s._, strongly bound for Office wear and tear. - -==> _Is adapted for the use of Accountants and Auditors, Railway -Companies, Canal Companies, Shippers, Shipping Agents, General -Carriers, etc. Ironfounders, Brassfounders, Metal Merchants, -Iron Manufacturers, Ironmongers, Engineers, Machinists, Boiler -Makers. Millwrights, Roofing, Bridge and Girder Makers, Colliery -Proprietors, etc. Timber Merchants, Builders, Contractors, -Architects, Surveyors, Auctioneers, Valuers, Brokers, Mill Owners -and Manufacturers, Mill Furnishers, Merchants, and General -Wholesale Tradesmen. Also for the Apportionment of Mileage Charges -for Railway Traffic._ - -*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. - - "It is as easy of reference for any answer or any number of - answers as a dictionary, and the references are even more - quickly made. For making up accounts or estimates the book must - prove invaluable to all who have any considerable quantity of - calculations involving price and measure in any combination to - do."--_Engineer._ - - "The most complete and practical ready reckoner which it has been - our fortune yet to see. It is difficult to imagine a trade or - occupation in which it could not be of the greatest use, either - in saving human labour or in checking work. The publishers have - placed within the reach of every commercial man an invaluable and - unfailing assistant."--_The Miller._ - - "The most perfect work of the kind yet prepared."--_Glasgow - Herald._ - - -_=Harben's Comprehensive Weight Calculator.=_ - - _THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR._ Being a Series of Tables upon a New - and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at One Reference the exact - Value of any Weight from 1 lb. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive - Rates, from 1_d._ to 168_s._ per cwt., and containing 186,000 - Direct Answers, which, with their Combinations, consisting of a - single addition (mostly to be performed at sight), will afford - an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers; the whole being calculated - and designed to ensure correctness and promote despatch. By HENRY - HARBEN, Accountant. Fourth Edition, carefully Corrected. Royal - 8vo, £1 5_s._ strongly half-bound. - - "A practical and useful work of reference for men of - business generally; it is the best of the kind we have - seen."--_Ironmonger._ - - "Of priceless value to business men. It is a necessary book in - all mercantile offices."--_Sheffield Independent._ - - -_=Harben's Comprehensive Discount Guide.=_ - - _THE DISCOUNT GUIDE._ Comprising several Series of Tables for - the use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and others, by - which may be ascertained the exact Profit arising from any mode - of using Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and - the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount or Advancing - a Price, so as to produce, by one operation, a sum that will - realise any required profit after allowing one or more Discounts: - to which are added Tables of Profit or Advance from 1¼ to 90 per - cent., Tables of Discount from 1¼ to 98¾ per cent., and Tables - of Commission, &c., from ⅛ to 10 per cent. By HENRY HARBEN, - Accountant, Author of "The Weight Calculator." New Edition, - carefully Revised and Corrected. Demy 8vo, 544 pp., £1 5_s._ - half-bound. - - "A book such as this can only be appreciated by business men to - whom the saving of time means saving of money. We have the high - authority of Professor J. R. Young that the tables throughout - the work are constructed upon strictly accurate principles. - The work is a model of typographical clearness, and must - prove of great value to merchants, manufacturers, and general - traders."--_British Trade Journal._ - - -_=Iron Shipbuilders' and Merchants' Weight Tables.=_ - - _IRON-PLATE WEIGHT TABLES: For Iron Shipbuilders, Engineers, and - Iron Merchants._ Containing the Calculated Weights of upwards - of 150,000 different sizes of Iron Plates, from 1 foot by 6 in. - by ¼ in. to 10 feet by 5 feet by 1 in. Worked out on the basis - of 40 lbs. to the square foot of Iron of 1 inch in thickness. - Carefully compiled and thoroughly Revised by H. BURLINSON and W. - H. SIMPSON. Oblong 4to, 25_s._ half-bound. - - "This work will be found of great utility. The authors have had - much practical experience of what is wanting in making estimates: - and the use of the book will save much time in making elaborate - calculations."--_English Mechanic._ - - -AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. - - -_Dr. Fream's New Edition of "The Standard Treatise on Agriculture."_ - - _THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLE-BREEDER'S - ASSISTANT_: A Compendium of Husbandry. Originally Written - by WILLIAM YOUATT. Thirteenth Edition, entirely Re-written, - considerably Enlarged, and brought up to the Present Requirements - of Agricultural Practice, by WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D., Steven - Lecturer in the University of Edinburgh, Author of "The Elements - of Agriculture," &c. Royal 8vo, 1,100 pp., with over 450 - Illustrations. £1 11_s._ 6_d._ strongly and handsomely bound. - -EXTRACT FROM PUBLISHERS' ADVERTISEMENT. - - "A treatise that made its original appearance in the first - decade of the century, and that enters upon its Thirteenth - Edition before the century has run its course, has undoubtedly - established its position as a work of permanent value.... The - phenomenal progress of the last dozen years in the Practice and - Science of Farming has rendered it necessary, however, that - the volume should be re-written, ... and for this undertaking - the publishers were fortunate enough to secure the services of - Dr. FREAM, whose high attainments in all matters pertaining to - agriculture have been so emphatically recognised by the highest - professional and official authorities. In carrying out his - editorial duties, Dr. FREAM has been favoured with valuable - contributions by Prof. J. WORTLEY AXE, Mr. E. BROWN, Dr. BERNARD - DYER, Mr. W. J. MALDEN, Mr. R. H. REW, Prof. SHELDON, Mr. J. - SINCLAIR, Mr. SANDERS SPENCER, and others. - - "As regards the illustrations of the work, no pains have been - spared to make them as representative and characteristic as - possible, so as to be practically useful to the Farmer and - Grazier." - -SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. - - BOOK I. ON THE VARIETIES, BREEDING, REARING, FATTENING, AND - MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. - BOOK II. ON THE ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY. - BOOK III. ON THE BREEDING, REARING, AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES. - BOOK IV. ON THE BREEDING, REARING, AND FATTENING OF SHEEP. - BOOK V. ON THE BREEDING, REARING, AND FATTENING OF SWINE. - BOOK VI. ON THE DISEASES OF LIVE STOCK. - BOOK VII. ON THE BREEDING, REARING, AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. - BOOK VIII. ON FARM OFFICES AND IMPLEMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. - BOOK IX. ON THE CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. - BOOK X. ON THE CULTIVATION AND APPLICATION OF GRASSES, PULSE, - AND ROOTS. - BOOK XI. ON MANURES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO GRASS LAND&CROPS. - BOOK XII. MONTHLY CALENDARS OF FARMWORK. - -*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS ON THE NEW EDITION. - - "Dr. Fream is to be congratulated on the successful attempt he - has made to give us a work which will at once become the standard - classic of the farm practice of the country. We believe that it - will be found that it has no compeer among the many works at - present in existence.... The illustrations are admirable, while - the frontispiece, which represents the well-known bull, New - Year's Gift, bred by the Queen, is a work of art."--_The Times._ - - "The book must be recognised as occupying the proud position of - the most exhaustive work of reference in the English language on - the subject with which it deals."--_Athenæum._ - - "The most comprehensive guide to modern farm practice that exists - in the English language to-day.... The book is one that ought to - be on every farm and in the library of every landowner."--_Mark - Lane Express._ - - "In point of exhaustiveness and accuracy the work will certainly - hold a pre-eminent and unique position among books dealing with - scientific agricultural practice. It is, in fact, an agricultural - library of itself."--_North British Agriculturist._ - - "A compendium of authoratative and well-ordered knowledge - on every conceivable branch of the work of the live stock - farmer; probably without an equal in this or any other - country."--_Yorkshire Post._ - - "The best and brightest guide to the practice of husbandry, - one that has no superior--no equal we might truly say--among - the agricultural literature now before the public.... In every - section in which we have tested it, the work has been found - thoroughly up to date."--_Bell's Weekly Messenger._ - - -_=British Farm Live Stock.=_ - - _FARM LIVE STOCK OF GREAT BRITAIN._ By ROBERT WALLACE, F.L.S., - F.R.S.E., &c., Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy in the - University of Edinburgh. Third Edition, thoroughly Revised and - considerably Enlarged. With over 120 Phototypes of Prize Stock. - Demy 8vo, 384 pp., with 79 Plates and Maps, 12_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "A really complete work on the history, breeds, and management - of the farm stock of Great Britain, and one which is likely - to find its way to the shelves of every country gentleman's - library."--_The Times._ - - "The latest edition of 'Farm Live Stock of Great Britain' is - a production to be proud of, and its issue not the least of - the services which its author has rendered to agricultural - science."--_Scottish Farmer._ - - "The book is very attractive ... and we can scarcely imagine the - existence of a farmer who would not like to have a copy of this - beautiful work."--_Mark Lane Express._ - - "A work which will long be regarded as a standard authority - whenever a concise history and description of the breeds of - live stock in the British Isles is required."--_Bell's Weekly - Messenger._ - - -_=Dairy Farming.=_ - - _BRITISH DAIRYING._ A Handy Volume on the Work of the Dairy-Farm. - For the Use of Technical Instruction Classes, Students in - Agricultural Colleges, and the Working Dairy-Farmer. By Prof. J. - P. SHELDON, late Special Commissioner of the Canadian Government, - Author of "Dairy Farming," &c. With numerous Illustrations. Crown - 8vo, 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "May be confidently recommended as a useful text-book on dairy - farming.--_Agricultural Gazette._ - - "Probably the best half-crown manual on dairy work that has yet - been produced.--_North British Agriculturist._ - - "It is the soundest little work we have yet seen on the - subject."--_The Times._ - - -_=Dairy Manual.=_ - - _MILK, CHEESE AND BUTTER_: Their Composition, Character and the - Processes of their Production. A Practical Manual for Students - and Dairy Farmers. By JOHN OLIVER, late Principal of the Western - Dairy Institute, Berkeley. Crown 8vo, 380 pages, with Coloured - Test Sheets and numerous Illustrations, 7_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - -_=Agricultural Facts and Figures.=_ - - _NOTE-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL FACTS AND FIGURES FOR FARMERS AND FARM - STUDENTS._ By PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, B.Sc. Fifth Edition. Royal - 32mo, roan, gilt edges, with band, 4_s._ - - "Literally teems with information, and we can cordially - recommend it to all connected with agriculture."--_North British - Agriculturist._ - - -_=Small Farming.=_ - - _SYSTEMATIC SMALL FARMING; or, The Lessons of my Farm._ Being an - Introduction to Modern Farm Practice for Small Farmers. By ROBERT - SCOTT BURN, Author of "Outlines of Modern Farming," &c. With - numerous Illustrations, crown 8vo, 6_s._ cloth. - - "This is the completest book of its class we have seen, and one - which every amateur farmer will read with pleasure and accept as - a guide."--_Field._ - - -_=Modern Farming.=_ - - _OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING._ By R. SCOTT BURN. Soils, Manures, - and Crops--Farming and Farming Economy--Cattle, Sheep, and - Horses--Management of Dairy, Pigs, and Poultry--Utilisation of - Town-Sewage, Irrigation, &c. Sixth Edition. In One Vol., 1,250 - pp., half-bound, profusely Illustrated, 12_s._ - - "The aim of the author has been to make his work at once - comprehensive and trustworthy, and he has succeeded to a degree - which entitles him to much credit."--_Morning Advertiser._ - - -_=Agricultural Engineering.=_ - - _FARM ENGINEERING, THE COMPLETE TEXT-BOOK OF._ Comprising - Draining and Embanking; Irrigation and Water Supply; Farm Roads, - Fences, and Gates; Farm Buildings; Barn Implements and Machines; - Field Implements and Machines; Agricultural Surveying, &c. By - Prof. JOHN SCOTT, In One Vol., 1,150 pages, half-bound, with over - 600 Illustrations, 12_s._ - - "Written with great care, as well as with knowledge and ability. - The author has done his work well; we have found him a very - trustworthy guide wherever we have tested his statements. The - volume will be of great value to agricultural students."--_Mark - Lane Express._ - - -_=Agricultural Text-Book.=_ - - _THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN_: A Text-Book of Agriculture, - adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and Art Department. For - Elementary and Advanced Students. By HUGH CLEMENTS (Board of - Trade). Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. 18mo, 2_s._ - 6_d._ cloth. - - "A most comprehensive volume, giving a mass of - information."--_Agricultural Economist._ - - "It is a long time since we have seen a book which has pleased - us more, or which contains such a vast and useful fund of - knowledge."--_Educational Times._ - - -_=Tables for Farmers, etc.=_ - - _TABLES, MEMORANDA, AND CALCULATED RESULTS for Farmers, Graziers, - Agricultural Students, Surveyors, Land Agents, Auctioneers, etc._ - With a New System of Farm Book-keeping. Selected and Arranged by - SIDNEY FRANCIS. Third Edition, Revised. 272 pp., waistcoat-pocket - size, 1_s._ 6_d._ limp leather. - - "Weighing less than 1 oz., and occupying no more space than a - match box, it contains a mass of facts and calculations which - has never before, in such handy form, been obtainable. Every - operation on the farm is dealt with. The work may be taken as - thoroughly accurate, the whole of the tables having been revised - by Dr. Fream. We cordially recommend it."--_Bell's Weekly - Messenger._ - - -_=The Management of Bees.=_ - - _BEES FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT_: A Guide to the Manipulation of - Bees, the Production of Honey, and the General Management of the - Apiary. By G. GORDON SAMSON. With numerous Illustrations. Crown - 8vo, 1_s._ cloth. - - "The intending bee-keeper will find exactly the kind of - information required to enable him to make a successful start - with his hives. The author is a thoroughly competent teacher, and - his book may be commended."--_Morning Post._ - - -_=Farm and Estate Book-keeping.=_ - - _BOOK-KEEPING FOR FARMERS & ESTATE OWNERS._ A Practical Treatise, - presenting, in Three Plans, a System adapted for all Classes - of Farms. By JOHNSON M. WOODMAN, Chartered Accountant. Second - Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth boards; or 2_s._ - 6_d._ cloth limp. - - "The volume is a capital study of a most important - subject."--_Agricultural Gazette._ - - "The young farmer, land agent, and surveyor will find - Mr. Woodman's treatise more than repay its cost and - study."--_Building News._ - - -_=Farm Account Book.=_ - - _WOODMAN'S YEARLY FARM ACCOUNT BOOK._ Giving a Weekly Labour - Account and Diary, and showing the Income and Expenditure under - each Department of Crops, Live Stock, Dairy, &c. &c. With - Valuation, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet at the end - of the Year. By JOHNSON M. WOODMAN, Chartered Accountant, Author - of "Book-keeping for Farmers." Folio, 7_s._ 6_d._ half-bound. - - "Contains every requisite form for keeping farm accounts readily - and accurately."--_Agriculture._ - - -_=Early Fruits, Flowers, and Vegetables.=_ - - _THE FORCING GARDEN_; or, How to Grow Early Fruits, Flowers, and - Vegetables. With Plans and Estimates for Building Glasshouses, - Pits, and Frames. With Illustrations. By SAMUEL WOOD. Crown 8vo, - 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - "A good book, and fairly fills a place that was in some degree - vacant. The book is written with great care, and contains a great - deal of valuable teaching."--_Gardeners' Magazine._ - - -_=Good Gardening.=_ - - _A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING_; or, How to Grow Vegetables, - Fruits, and Flowers. By S. WOOD. Fourth Edition, with - considerable Additions, &c., and numerous Illustrations. Crown - 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cl. - - "A very good book, and one to be highly recommended - as a practical guide. The practical directions are - excellent."--_Athenæum._ - - "May be recommended to young gardeners, cottagers, and specially - to amateurs, for the plain, simple, and trustworthy information - it gives on common matters too often neglected."--_Gardeners' - Chronicle._ - - -_=Gainful Gardening.=_ - - _MULTUM-IN-PARVO GARDENING_; or, How to make One Acre of Land - produce £620 a-year by the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables; - also, How to Grow Flowers in Three Glass Houses, so as to - realise £176 per annum clear Profit. By SAMUEL WOOD, Author of - "Good Gardening," &c. Fifth and Cheaper Edition, Revised, with - Additions. Crown 8vo, 1_s._ sewed. - - "We are bound to recommend it as not only suited to the case - of the amateur and gentleman's gardener, but to the market - grower."--_Gardeners' Magazine._ - - -_=Gardening for Ladies.=_ - - _THE LADIES' MULTUM-IN-PARVO FLOWER GARDEN, and Amateurs' - Complete Guide._ With Illusts. By S. WOOD. Cr. 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ - cl. - - "This volume contains a good deal of sound common sense - instruction."--_Florist._ - - "Full of shrewd hints and useful instructions, based on a - lifetime of experience."--_Scotsman._ - - -_=Receipts for Gardeners.=_ - - _GARDEN RECEIPTS._ Edited by CHARLES W. QUIN. 12mo, 1_s._ 6_d._ - cloth limp. - - "A useful and handy book, containing a good deal of valuable - information."--_Athenæum._ - - -_=Market Gardening.=_ - - _MARKET AND KITCHEN GARDENING._ By Contributors to "The Garden." - Compiled by C. W. SHAW, late Editor of "Gardening Illustrated." - 12mo, 3_s._ 6_d._ cloth boards. - - "The most valuable compendium of kitchen and market-garden work - published."--_Farmer._ - - -_=Cottage Gardening.=_ - - _COTTAGE GARDENING; or, Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables for Small - Gardens._ By E. HOBDAY. 12mo, 1_s._ 6_d._ cloth limp. - - "Contains much useful information at a small charge."--_Glasgow - Herald._ - - -AUCTIONEERING, VALUING, LAND SURVEYING ESTATE AGENCY, etc. - - -_=Auctioneer's Assistant.=_ - - _THE APPRAISER, AUCTIONEER, BROKER, HOUSE AND ESTATE AGENT AND - VALUER'S POCKET ASSISTANT_, for the Valuation for Purchase, Sale, - or Renewal of Leases, Annuities and Reversions, and of property - generally; with Prices for Inventories, &c. By JOHN WHEELER, - Valuer, &c. Sixth Edition, Re-written and greatly extended by C. - NORRIS, Surveyor, Valuer, &c. Royal 32mo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable - and clearly-arranged list of prices for inventories, and a - very practical guide to determine the value of furniture, - &c."--_Standard._ - - "Contains a large quantity of varied and useful information - as to the valuation for purchase, sale, or renewal of leases, - annuities and reversions, and of property generally, with prices - for inventories, and a guide to determine the value of interior - fittings and other effects."--_Builder._ - - -_=Auctioneering.=_ - - _AUCTIONEERS: THEIR DUTIES AND LIABILITIES._ A Manual of - Instruction and Counsel for the Young Auctioneer. By ROBERT - SQUIBBS, Auctioneer. Second Edition, Revised and partly - Re-written. Demy 8vo, 12_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - -*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. - - "The standard text-book on the topics of which it - treats."--_Athenæum._ - - "The work is one of general excellent character, and gives much - information in a compendious and satisfactory form."--_Builder._ - - "May be recommended as giving a great deal of information on the - law relating to auctioneers, in a very readable form."--_Law - Journal._ - - "Auctioneers may be congratulated on having so pleasing a writer - to minister to their special needs."--_Solicitors' Journal._ - - "Every auctioneer ought to possess a copy of this excellent - work."--_Ironmonger._ - - "Of great value to the profession.... We readily welcome this - book from the fact that it treats the subject in a manner - somewhat new to the profession."--_Estates Gazette._ - - -_=Inwood's Estate Tables.=_ - - _TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING OF ESTATES, Freehold, Copyhold, or - Leasehold; Annuities, Advowsons, etc._, and for the Renewing - of Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or other - Corporate bodies, for Terms of Years certain, and for Lives: - also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next - Presentations, &c.; together with SMART'S Five Tables of Compound - Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower and Intermediate - Rates. By W. INWOOD. 24th Edition, with considerable Additions, - and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult - Computations of the Interest of Money, Discount, Annuities, &c., - by M. FEDOR THOMAN, of the Société Crédit Mobilier of Paris. - Crown 8vo, 8_s._ cloth. - - "Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the - adjustment of compensation cases, as well as in transactions in - annuities, life insurances, &c., will find the present edition of - eminent service."--_Engineering._ - - "'Inwood's Tables' still maintain a most enviable reputation. The - new issue has been enriched by large additional contributions by - M. Fedor Thoman, whose carefully arranged Tables cannot fail to - be of the utmost utility."--_Mining Journal._ - - -_=Agricultural Valuer's Assistant.=_ - - _THE AGRICULTURAL VALUER'S ASSISTANT._ A Practical Handbook - on the Valuation of Landed Estates; including Rules and - Data for Measuring and Estimating the Contents, Weights, - and Values of Agricultural Produce and Timber, and the - Values of Feeding Stuffs, Manures, and Labour; with Forms of - Tenant-Right-Valuations, Lists of Local Agricultural Customs, - Scales of Compensation under the Agricultural Holdings Act, &c. - &c. By TOM BRIGHT, Agricultural Surveyor. Second Edition, much - Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 5_s._ cloth. - - "Full of tables and examples in connection with the valuation of - tenant-right, estates, labour, contents, and weights of timber, - and farm produce of all kinds."--_Agricultural Gazette._ - - "An eminently practical handbook, full of practical tables and - data of undoubted interest and value to surveyors and auctioneers - in preparing valuations of all kinds."--_Farmer._ - - -_=Plantations and Underwoods.=_ - - _POLE PLANTATIONS AND UNDERWOODS_: A Practical Handbook on - Estimating the Cost of Forming, Renovating, Improving, and - Grubbing Plantations and Underwoods, their Valuation for Purposes - of Transfer, Rental, Sale, or Assessment. By TOM BRIGHT, Author - of "The Agricultural Valuer's Assistant," &c. Crown 8vo, 3_s._ - 6_d._ cloth. - - "To valuers, foresters and agents it will be a welcome - aid."--_North British Agriculturist._ - - "Well calculated to assist the valuer in the discharge of his - duties, and of undoubted interest and use both to surveyors and - auctioneers in preparing valuations of all kinds."--_Kent Herald._ - - -_=Hudson's Land Valuer's Pocket-Book.=_ - - _THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT_: Being Tables on a very much - Improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of Estates. With Tables - for reducing Scotch, Irish, and Provincial Customary Acres to - Statute Measure, &c. By R. HUDSON, C.E. New Edition. Royal 32mo, - leather, elastic band, 4_s._ - - "Of incalculable value to the country gentleman and professional - man."--_Farmers' Journal._ - - -_=Ewart's Land Improver's Pocket-Book.=_ - - _THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK OF FORMULÆ, TABLES, and - MEMORANDA required in any Computation relating to the Permanent - Improvement of Landed Property._ By JOHN EWART, Land Surveyor - and Agricultural Engineer. Second Edition, Revised. Royal 32mo, - oblong, leather, gilt edges, with elastic band, 4_s._ - - "A compendious and handy little volume."--_Spectator._ - - -_=Complete Agricultural Surveyor's Pocket-Book.=_ - - _THE LAND VALUER'S AND LAND IMPROVER'S COMPLETE POCKET-BOOK._ - Being of the above Two Works bound together. Leather, with strap, - 7_s._ 6_d._ - - -_=House Property.=_ - - _HANDBOOK OF HOUSE PROPERTY._ A Popular and Practical Guide to - the Purchase, Mortgage, Tenancy, and Compulsory Sale of Houses - and Land, including the Law of Dilapidations and Fixtures; - with Examples of all kinds of Valuations, Useful Information - on Building, and Suggestive Elucidations of Fine Art. By E. L. - TARBUCK, Architect and Surveyor. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. 12mo, - 5_s._ cloth. - - "The advice is thoroughly practical."--_Law Journal._ - - "For all who have dealings with house property, this is an - indispensable guide."--_Decoration._ - - "Carefully brought up to date, and much improved by the addition - of a division on fine art.... A well-written and thoughtful - work."--_Land Agent's Record._ - - -LAW AND MISCELLANEOUS. - - -_=Private Bill Legislation and Provisional Orders.=_ - - _HANDBOOK FOR THE USE OF SOLICITORS AND ENGINEERS_ Engaged in - Promoting Private Acts of Parliament and Provisional Orders, for - the Authorization of Railways, Tramways, Works for the Supply of - Gas and Water, and other undertakings of a like character. By - L. LIVINGSTON MACASSEY, of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law, - M.Inst.C.E.; Author of "Hints on Water Supply." Demy 8vo, 950 - pp., 25_s._ cl. - - "The author's double experience as an engineer and barrister has - enabled him to approach the subject alike from an engineering and - legal point of view."--_Local Government Chronicle._ - - -_=Law of Patents.=_ - - _PATENTS FOR INVENTIONS, AND HOW TO PROCURE THEM._ Compiled - for the Use of Inventors, Patentees and others. By G. G. M. - HARDINGHAM, Assoc.Mem.Inst.C.E., &c. Demy 8vo, 1_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - -_=Labour Disputes.=_ - - _INDUSTRIAL CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION_: An Historical Sketch, - with Practical Suggestions for the Settlement of Labour Disputes. - By J. S. JEANS, Author of "Railway Problems," "England's - Supremacy," &c. Crown 8vo, 200 pp., 2_s._ 6_d._ cloth. - - [_Just published._ - - -_=Pocket-Book for Sanitary Officials.=_ - - _THE HEALTH OFFICER'S POCKET-BOOK_: A Guide to Sanitary Practice - and Law. For Medical Officers of Health, Sanitary Inspectors, - Members of Sanitary Authorities, &c. By EDWARD F. WILLOUGHBY, - M.D. (Lond.), &c., Author of "Hygiene and Public Health." Fcap. - 8vo, 7_s._ 6_d._ cloth, red edges, rounded corners. - - [_Just published._ - - "A mine of condensed information of a pertinent and useful - kind on the various subjects of which it treats. The matter - seems to have been carefully compiled and arranged for facility - of reference, and it is well illustrated by diagrams and - woodcuts. The different subjects are succinctly but fully and - scientifically dealt with."--_The Lancet._ - - "Ought to be welcome to those for whose use it is designed, - since it practically boils down a reference library into - a pocket volume.... It combines, with an uncommon degree - of efficiency, the qualities of accuracy, conciseness and - comprehensiveness."--_Scotsman._ - - "An excellent publication, dealing with the scientific, technical - and legal matters connected with the duties of medical officers - of health and sanitary inspectors. The work is replete with - information."--_Local Government Journal._ - - -_=A Complete Epitome of the Laws of this Country.=_ - - _EVERY MAN'S OWN LAWYER: A Handy-Book of the Principles of Law - and Equity._ By A BARRISTER. Thirty-first Edition, carefully - Revised, and including the Legislation of 1893. Comprising - (amongst other Acts) the _Voluntary Conveyances Act_, 1893; the - _Married Women's Property Act_, 1893; the _Trustee Act_, 1893; - the _Savings Bank Act_, 1893; the _Barbed Wire Act_, 1893; the - _Industrial and Provident Societies Act_, 1893; the _Hours of - Labour of Railway Servants Act_, 1893; the _Fertiliser and - Feeding Stuffs Act_, 1893, &c., as well as the _Betting and Loans - (Infants) Act_, 1892; the _Gaming Act_, 1892; the _Shop Hours - Act_, 1892; the _Conveyancing and Real Property Act_, 1892; - the _Small Holdings Act_, 1892; and many other new Acts. Crown - 8vo, 700 pp., price 6_s._ 8_d._ (saved at every consultation!), - strongly bound in cloth. - - [_Just published._ - -*** _The Book will be found to comprise (amongst other matter)_-- - -THE RIGHTS AND WRONGS OF INDIVIDUALS--LANDLORD AND -TENANT--VENDORS AND PURCHASERS--PARTNERS AND AGENTS--COMPANIES -AND ASSOCIATIONS--MASTERS, SERVANTS, AND WORKMEN--LEASES AND -MORTGAGES--LIBEL AND SLANDER--CONTRACTS AND AGREEMENTS--BONDS -AND BILLS OF SALE--CHEQUES, BILLS, AND NOTES--RAILWAY AND -SHIPPING LAW--BANKRUPTCY AND INSURANCE--BORROWERS, LENDERS, -AND SURETIES--CRIMINAL LAW--PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS--COUNTY -COUNCILS--MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS--PARISH LAW, CHURCH-WARDENS, -ETC.--PUBLIC HEALTH AND NUISANCES--COPYRIGHT AND PATENTS--TRADE -MARKS AND DESIGNS--HUSBAND AND WIFE, DIVORCE, ETC.--TRUSTEES -AND EXECUTORS--GUARDIAN AND WARD, INFANTS, ETC.--GAME LAWS -AND SPORTING--HORSES, HORSE DEALING, AND DOGS--INN-KEEPERS, -LICENSING, ETC.--FORMS OF WILLS, AGREEMENTS ETC. ETC. - -==> _The object of this work is to enable those who consult it -to help themselves to the law; and thereby to dispense, as far -as possible, with professional assistance and advice. There are -many wrongs and grievances which persons submit to from time to -time through not knowing how or where to apply for redress; and -many persons have as great a dread of a lawyer's office as of a -lion's den. With this book at hand it is believed that many a_ -SIX-AND-EIGHTPENCE _may be saved; many a wrong redressed; many -a right reclaimed; many a law suit avoided; and many an evil -abated. The work has established itself as the standard legal -adviser of all classes, and has also made a reputation for itself -as a useful book of reference for lawyers residing at a distance -from law libraries, who are glad to have at hand a work embodying -recent decisions and enactments._ - -*** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. - - "It is a complete code of English Law, written in plain - language, which all can understand.... Should be in the hands - of every business man, and all who wish to abolish lawyers' - bills."--_Weekly Times._ - - "A useful and concise epitome of the law, compiled with - considerable care."--_Law Magazine._ - - "A complete digest of the most useful facts which constitute - English law."--_Globe._ - - "This excellent handbook.... Admirably done, admirably arranged, - and admirably cheap."--_Leeds Mercury._ - - "A concise, cheap and complete epitome of the English law. So - plainly written that he who runs may read, and he who reads may - understand."--_Figaro._ - - "A dictionary of legal facts well put together. The book is a - very useful one."--_Spectator._ - - "A work which has long been wanted, which is thoroughly well - done, and which we most cordially recommend."--_Sunday Times._ - - "The latest edition of this popular book ought to be in every - business establishment, and on every library table."--_Sheffield - Post._ - - "A complete epitome of the law; thoroughly intelligible to - non-professional readers."--_Bell's Life._ - - -_=Legal Guide for Pawnbrokers.=_ - - _THE PAWNBROKERS', FACTORS' AND MERCHANTS' GUIDE TO THE LAW OF - LOANS AND PLEDGES._ With the Statutes and a Digest of Cases. By - H. C. FOLKARD, Esq., Barrister-at-Law. Fcap. 8vo, 3_s._ 6_d._ - cloth. - - -_=The Law of Contracts.=_ - - _LABOUR CONTRACTS_: A Popular Handbook on the Law of Contracts - for Works and Services. By DAVID GIBBONS. Fourth Edition, - Appendix of Statutes by T. F. UTTLEY, Solicitor. Fcap. 8vo, 3_s._ - 6_d._ cloth. - - -_=The Factory Acts.=_ - - _SUMMARY OF THE FACTORY AND WORKSHOP ACTS (1878-1891)._ For the - Use of Manufacturers and Managers. By EMILE GARCKE and J. M. - FELLS. (Reprinted from "FACTORY ACCOUNTS.") Crown 8vo, 6_d._ - sewed. - - -OGDEN, SMALE AND CO. LIMITED, PRINTERS, GREAT SAFFRON HILL, E.C. - - - - -Weale's Rudimentary Series. - -[Illustration: (Obverse side of the medal)] - -LONDON, 1862. - -THE PRIZE MEDAL - -Was awarded to the Publishers of - -"WEALE'S SERIES." - -[Illustration: (Reverse side of the medal)] - - -A NEW LIST OF - -WEALE'S SERIES - -RUDIMENTARY SCIENTIFIC, EDUCATIONAL, AND CLASSICAL. - -_Comprising nearly ++Three Hundred and Fifty++ distinct works in -almost every department of Science, Art, and Education, recommended -to the notice of ++Engineers, Architects, Builders, Artisans, and -Students generally++, as well as to those interested in ++Workmen's -Libraries, Literary and Scientific Institutions, Colleges, Schools, -Science Classes++, &c., &c._ - - - ==> "WEALE'S SERIES includes Text-Books on almost every - branch of Science and Industry, comprising such subjects as - Agriculture, Architecture and Building, Civil Engineering, - Fine Arts, Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering, Physical and - Chemical Science, and many miscellaneous Treatises. The whole - are constantly undergoing revision, and new editions, brought up - to the latest discoveries in scientific research, are constantly - issued. The prices at which they are sold are as low as their - excellence is assured."--_American Literary Gazette._ - - "Amongst the literature of technical education, WEALE'S SERIES - has ever enjoyed a high reputation, and the additions being made - by Messrs. CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON render the series more complete, - and bring the information upon the several subjects down to the - present time."--_Mining Journal._ - - "It is not too much to say that no books have ever proved more - popular with, or more useful to, young engineers and others than - the excellent treatises comprised in WEALE'S SERIES."--_Engineer._ - - "The excellence of WEALE'S SERIES is now so well appreciated, - that it would be wasting our space to enlarge upon their general - usefulness and value."--_Builder._ - - "The volumes of WEALE'S SERIES form one of the best collections - of elementary technical books in any language."--_Architect._ - - "WEALE'S SERIES has become a standard as well as an - unrivalled collection of treatises in all branches of art and - science."--_Public Opinion._ - - -[Illustration: (Obverse side of the medal)] - -PHILADELPHIA, 1876. - -THE PRIZE MEDAL - -Was awarded to the Publishers for - -Books: Rudimentary, Scientific, - -"WEALE'S SERIES," ETC. - -[Illustration: (Reverse side of the medal)] - - -CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON, - -7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, LONDON, E.C. - - - - -WEALE'S RUDIMENTARY SCIENTIFIC SERIES. - -[Illustration: Capio Lumen] - -*** The volumes of this Series are freely Illustrated with -Woodcuts, or otherwise, where requisite. Throughout the following -List it must be understood that the books are bound in limp cloth, -unless otherwise stated; _but the volumes marked with a ‡ may also -be had strongly bound in cloth boards for 6d. extra_. - -_N.B.--In ordering from this List it is recommended, as a means of -facilitating business and obviating error, to quote the numbers -affixed to the volumes, as well as the titles and prices._ - - -CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC. - - No. - - 31. _WELLS AND WELL-SINKING._ By JOHN GEO. SWINDELL, A.R.I.B.A., - and G. R. BURNELL, C.E. Revised Edition. With a New Appendix on - the Qualities of Water. Illustrated. 2s. - - 35. _THE BLASTING AND QUARRYING OF STONE_, for Building and other - Purposes. By Gen. Sir J. BURGOYNE, Bart. 1s. 6d. - - 43. _TUBULAR, AND OTHER IRON GIRDER BRIDGES_, particularly - describing the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges. By G. - DRYSDALE DEMPSEY, C.E. 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