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diff --git a/old/55728-0.txt b/old/55728-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index abacf93..0000000 --- a/old/55728-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2833 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Hellenism in Asia Minor, by Karl Dieterich - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: Hellenism in Asia Minor - -Author: Karl Dieterich - -Translator: Carrol N. Brown - -Release Date: October 10, 2017 [EBook #55728] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HELLENISM IN ASIA MINOR *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer and Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from images made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.) - - - - - - - - - HELLENISM - IN - ASIA MINOR - - BY - DR. KARL DIETERICH - - TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN - BY - CARROLL N. BROWN, Ph.D. - The College of the City of New York - - With an introductory preface by Theodore P. Ion, D.C.L., and - a brief article on Hellenic Pontus by D. H. Oeconomides, Ph.D. - - This publication is due to the generosity of - EURIPIDES KEHAYA of New York - - PUBLISHED FOR THE - AMERICAN-HELLENIC SOCIETY - 105 WEST 40TH STREET, NEW YORK, N. Y. - - BY - OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS AMERICAN BRANCH - 35 WEST 32ND STREET, NEW YORK - 1918 - - COPYRIGHT 1918 - BY THE - OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS - AMERICAN BRANCH - - THE QUINN & BODEN CO. PRESS - RAHWAY, N. J. - - - - -CONTENTS - - PAGE - - I A SURVEY OF HELLENISM IN ASIA MINOR 1 - - II HELLENISM IN ASIA MINOR—By Karl Dieterich, - of the University of Leipzig, translated by - Carroll N. Brown, Ph.D., of the College of - the City of New York. With a preface by - Theodore P. Ion, D.C.L. 8 - - III HELLENIC PONTUS—A Résumé of its History, by - D. H. Oeconomides, Ph.D. 56 - - AMERICAN-HELLENIC NEWS 63 - - - - -A SURVEY OF HELLENISM IN ASIA MINOR - - -Asia Minor is the country which, more than all others, recalls the -highest development of Hellenic civilization. Its deeply indented coast -formed a chaplet of Hellenic democracies which reached out into the -interior and actually attacked the Persian civilization, upon which -they imposed their own stamp. These democracies constituted the first -rampart of the civilized world of that time, holding back Persian -barbarism. Their history is one of continual struggle between these -two civilizations, a struggle that was terminated at Salamis and at -Platæa, where the Persian ambitions were definitively buried and Greek -civilization saved. - -The wise men, the thinkers, the philosophers, that these democracies -produced, were numerous, and the influence of their teachings was very -great. These even today are radiant with a sublimity that has never -been excelled. - -It was in this Greek element and among the populations Hellenized by -them that Christianity first germinated. It was the Greeks of Asia -Minor who first offered their blood for the triumph of the new faith. -The foremost Church Fathers, John Chrysostom, Saint Basil and very many -others, were born there or taught there. - -Throughout the Middle Ages the Byzantine-Greek civilization flourished -in these lands. It formed the most powerful barrier against the wave -of barbarism which threatened to inundate the civilized world. The -desperate resistance offered by Hellenism permitted the West, by its -contact with Byzantine Hellenism, to acquire those requisite elements -which have formed the basis of Western civilization. - -When the powerful tide of Turkish invasion, coming after so many -other barbarian inroads, completely submerged Greek culture there, -the Hellenic idea which this element represented was so strong that -it survived everything. It was in vain that the fierce conquerors, -as the tradition states, cut out the tongues of the inhabitants in -order to cause this people to unlearn its language; it was in vain -that they carried away their children to make of them fierce and cruel -janissaries, who became exterminators of their own people. The Hellenic -idea, the attachment to national traditions, was never submerged. - -As soon as the fury of the conqueror was somewhat appeased, and at -a time when that part of the Balkan Peninsula where Hellenism first -arose and from which later it radiated over the then known world all -the brilliance of its beauty was no longer showing any sign of life, -the Greeks of Asia Minor founded the first Greek school of modern -times, that of Cydonia (Aïvali). This school produced the first real -ecclesiastics, the first genuinely educated men. Smyrna, called by the -Turk himself “the infidel city,” because of its preponderant Greek -element, followed her example. The graduates of these schools formed -the nucleus from which the idea of the Greek renaissance sprang forth. -From this source have come the men that have sacrificed their lives and -their fortunes in order that Hellenic culture, which seemed forever to -have disappeared, might again be revived. - -It is this country of which we are going to study the ethnological -composition. - -Its boundaries are, on the north, the Black Sea; on the east, the -Russian frontier traversing the snow-covered mountain range of the -Taurus and Antitaurus and continuing to the Gulf of Alexandretta; on -the south, west and northwest, the Mediterranean, the Ægean Sea and the -Sea of Marmora. - -Its area is 534,550 square kilometers; it is traversed by numerous -watercourses and is one of the richest countries in the world. If well -administered, it could support tens of millions of inhabitants. - -It is divided for purposes of administration into eight provinces, -Sebastia, Trebizond, Kastamuni, Konia, Angora, Aïdin, Broussa, Adana -and four independent provinces, Chryssioupolis, Nicomedia, Balukiser, -Vizi or Dardanelles. - -To determine the importance of the Greek element in the population let -us examine each archbishopric from the ecclesiastic as well as secular -point of view. - -The following table presents statistics as to the numbers of churches, -priests, schools, etc., supported by the Greeks of Asia Minor: - - ================+========+=======+=======+========+=======+=======+========+====== - Metropolis |Churches|Priests| Boys’ |Teachers| Pupils| Girls’| Women |Pupils - | | |Schools| | |Schools|Teachers| - ————————————————+————————+———————+——————-+————————+——————-+——————-+————————+—————— - 1. Smyrna | 40 | 114 | 35 | 241 | 11,055| 27 | 202 | 7,651 - 2. Crine | 46 | 75 | 34 | 65 | 3,965| 14 | 32 | 2,055 - 3. Heliopolis | 53 | 77 | 41 | 100 | 4,360| 19 | 49 | 2,120 - 4. Pisidia | 46 | 54 | 18 | 53 | 2,685| 10 | 31 | 1,235 - 5. Philadelphia| 20 | 22 | 15 | 26 | 1,060| 8 | 16 | 723 - 6. {Ephesus } | | | | | | | | - {Magnesia} | 126 | 177 | 100 | 286 | 15,940| 65 | 150 |10,150 - 7. Cydonia } | | | | | | | | - 8. Broussa | 24 | 27 | 13 | 40 | 2,975| 7 | 20 | 1,045 - 9. Nicæa | 29 | 41 | 23 | 63 | 3,155| 8 | 25 | 1,210 - 10. Chalcedon | 43 | 100 | 28 | 99 | 6,970| 25 | 70 | 4,230 - 11. Nicomedia | 76 | 75 | 77 | 83 | 3,479| 6 | 20 | 1,120 - 12. Cyzicus | 81 | 128 | 72 | 195 | 8,115| 25 | 67 | 2,630 - 13. Proconnesos | 26 | 33 | 13 | 48 | 2,280| 8 | 19 | 790 - 14. Amassia | 330 | 441 | 286 | 586 | 17,000| 69 | 87 | 3,910 - 15. Ancyra | 8 | 13 | 5 | 20 | 840| 2 | 7 | 260 - 16. Iconium | 50 | 102 | 42 | 159 | 6,915| 23 | 50 | 2,070 - 17. Cæsarea | 44 | 98 | 58 | 133 | 5,075| 16 | 49 | 1,778 - 18. Rhodopolis | 65 | 86 | 57 | 120 | 3,300| | | - 19. Chaldia | 211 | 259 | 189 | 380 | 9,705| 2 | 5 | 160 - 20. Trapezus | 250 | 161 | 95 | 203 | 8,535| 11 | 35 | 1,679 - 21. Colonia | 120 | 140 | 93 | 182 | 3,840| | | - 22. Neocæsarea | 300 | 400 | 150 | 300 | 11,300| 15 | 36 | 2,100 - | ——- | ——- | ——- | ——- | ———-——| —- | —- | ————— - |1,988 |2,523 |1,444 | 3,382 |132,549| 360 | 970 |46,916 - ================+========+=======+=======+========+=======+=======+========+====== - - -The administration of the Greek Orthodox Church is in the hands -of twenty-two Metropolitans, or Archbishops, having under them a -proportionate number of bishops and priests. The Metropoles, or -Archbishoprics, are the following: Smyrna, Crine, Heliopolis, Pisidia, -Philadelphia, Ephesus and Magnesia, Cydonia, Broussa, Nicæa, Chalcedon, -Nicomedia, Cyzicus, Proconnesos, Amassia, Ancyra, Iconium, Cæsarea, -Rhodopolis, Chaldia, Trapezus, Colonia and Neocæsarea, under the -authority of the Œcumenical Patriarch of Constantinople.[1] - -The number of Greek inhabitants is probably above 2,000,000. The -Hellenic populations are chiefly concentrated in the provinces of Aïdin -and Broussa, where out of a population of approximately 3,000,000 the -Greek element is about 1,300,000, the coast regions, however, being -inhabited almost purely by Greeks. The non-Greek inhabitants are -largely Catholics, Armenians, Turks and Jews. On the coasts of the -Black Sea, too, the Greeks are largely in the majority. It is to be -noticed that in many villages of this region the inhabitants speak a -language closely approaching the ancient Greek, from the point of view -of syntax as well as of verb-formation. - -For their religious needs they have 1,988 churches and 2,523 priests, -and for the instruction of their children they maintain 1,444 schools -for boys with 3,382 teachers and 132,549 pupils, and 360 schools for -girls with 970 women teachers and 46,916 pupils. - -We must remember that the churches and schools are maintained at the -expense of the Greeks themselves, since the Turkish Government only -intervenes in order to impede and destroy. Reckoning at $500 a year -the pay of a priest or teacher, man or woman, we arrive at the sum of -$5,000,000 a year, which must be multiplied by three in order to cover -the expenses of the construction of churches and schools, their repair -and upkeep, and the salaries of the inferior employees of all these -establishments. - -The number of pupils of both sexes constitutes nearly nine per cent -of the whole Greek population (179,465 boys and girls). This is due -to the fact that many of the Greeks, not included in the preceding -enumeration, who live mingled with other populations, whether Armenian -or Turk, and who do not possess the means of supporting schools of -their own, send their children from great distances, in spite of the -difficult communications, in order to attend these schools. Often the -parents, who have lived for generations among the Turks, have lost the -knowledge of their national language, but their national consciousness -is nevertheless so strong that they expose their children to countless -dangers in order to permit them to learn the language of their -ancestors. These Turkish-speaking Greeks live chiefly in the interior -of the country, even as far as the Persian frontier, and the greater -part of these, lost among other more numerous peoples, are not included -in the above statistics. - -These numbers show that the people are loyally devoted to their -language, their traditions and their religion, for the tremendous -sacrifices to which they subject themselves for the sake of the -maintenance of Hellenic culture evidence the tenacity with which they -cling to their national sentiments. - -They show equally that this people is eager for progress in -civilization, for the number of educational establishments that it -maintains and the large number of children that attend them, show that -it wishes to acquire a higher civilization and thus become an agent -of progress for the peoples whom the fate of conquest has established -among them. - -Sober, industrious, intelligent and honest, it demands only liberty in -order to be able to give scope to its activity. Though conquered by the -Turk, the Greek, in his turn, won the upper hand by his intellectual -superiority. The Turk, who has become accustomed to the Greek way of -living and thinking, and has adopted many of his habits, among the -most prominent of which is the respect for woman and the sanctity of -the home, will be happy to live under the administration of his Greek -compatriot, with whom he was perfectly satisfied when the Turkish -Government, before the chauvinistic Young Turk party had established -its fierce tyranny, renounced the services of the Greek functionaries. - -An interesting side of this dwelling together of Greek and Turk is the -respect that the Anatolian Turk habitually professes for the Orthodox -religion. Sometimes the Mussulman even has recourse to the offices of -the Greek priest, either to have a mass chanted, or in order to touch -the holy sacraments, the saints’ pictures, etc., so as to be cured of -some illness, or to obtain some benefit which his ascetic religion does -not afford him. - -If the Turkish Government by its misrule had not provoked the driving -out of the Mussulman populations of Europe (a course which has -gradually reduced the territory of the Ottoman Empire), the uprisings -experienced periodically would not have been so frequent. These -numerous fanatics who had lived since the time of the conquest by -exploiting the Christian populations, transported their methods to Asia -Minor, and, seconded by a government whose materialism knew no limits, -they undertook the extermination of the Christian populations of Asia -Minor in order to rob them of their property. - -When one realizes that, under an administration which existed only to -mulct the worker by taxation, these populations have succeeded, in -spite of numberless persecutions, in making so formidable an effort -in order to secure their spiritual needs, it is easy to imagine what -progress in civilization and wealth awaits this country, when an -era of liberty and security shall be introduced under a paternal -administration. - -The Anatolian Mussulmans will be the first to profit by this. Patient -workers, loving the land, and living in harmony with their Christian -compatriots, they will be happy to secure the product of their labor, -of which the Turkish functionary constantly robbed them, so that he -finally made them dislike all labor, and urged them on into the path of -crime. - -This living together as friends, on a footing of equality, will perhaps -make Christianity flourish anew in this land which was the first to be -saved from paganism, and whose fruits, transplanted to the rest of the -world, have caused the springing forth of that glorious civilization -which Prussian megalomania is now staining with blood. - - - - - II. HELLENISM IN ASIA MINOR - - By KARL DIETERICH - - Translated from the German - - By CARROLL N. BROWN, PH.D., - The College of the City of New York - - - - -PREFACE - -By THEODORE P. ION, D.C.L. - - -The German dream of dominion from Hamburg to the Persian Gulf has -naturally attracted the attention of the world to Asia Minor, a country -which has been for centuries in a dormant condition on account of its -subjection to a moribund state. Conquered and reconquered by Asiatic -hordes, its wealth ravaged and pillaged many and many times, its -cities, towns and villages razed to the ground more than once, and -its inhabitants having been subjected again and again to massacres -_en masse_, Asia Minor has been and will naturally continue to be the -reservoir, so to speak, of European civilization for the Great East. - -From ancient times the rays of civilization which shone on this -peninsula were not Asiatic but European, that is Hellenic, the -civilizing influences of the language of Homer and Plato having been -kept alive even during the rule of the Mohammedan Arabs. - -As is well known, the Arabian Caliphs of Bagdad were always surrounded -by Hellenists and considered the books of the Greek sages more valuable -than gold.[2] - -Hence came the great impetus given to Arabian philosophy and positive -science through the translation of the writings of the Greeks, which -were subsequently transplanted to Europe by the Moors even before the -time of the renaissance. - -The darkest epoch of Asia Minor began undoubtedly with the advent -of the followers of Osman, who, ever since their irruption into -that country, have wrought havoc among its people, and within a -comparatively short space of time have reduced that fair land to -barbarity and desolation. The ancient seats of learning, the theaters, -the stadia, the treasures of art and other tokens of Hellenic -civilization are now nothing but heaps of ruins, inarticulate witnesses -to the ancient glory of Hellenism. - -It is a remarkable phenomenon that beneath these smoldering ruins -civilization was not entirely destroyed, for in spite of the slowly -burning fire Hellenism continued to exist, and toward the close of the -18th century began to show clear signs of that vitality and vigor which -blossomed forth so quickly in the following century, and, in our own -time, have produced such far-reaching results. - -Hence the apprehension shown by the Turkish conquerors during the -tyrannical régime of Abdul Hamid. Hence the great efforts made by that -potentate to bring from the confines of Russia Mohammedan hordes such -as Circassians and other unruly tribes and freebooters in order that -they might roam about or settle there according to their fancy, with -the view to offsetting the ever-increasing Greek population of Asia -Minor. Hence the inrush to that country of Mohammedan emigrants from -the territories which have been wrested from the Turk ever since the -events of 1878, it being immaterial whether these Mussulman fanatics -gave themselves to robbery, murder and massacres of the Christians in -the land, or settled there in order to develop the great possibilities -of agriculture in the country. - -The diplomacy of Europe, having been satisfied with the platitudes -embodied in the Treaty of Berlin of 1878 as to the introduction -of reforms by the Sublime Porte, both in its European and Asiatic -provinces, has let things take their natural course, the first outcome -being the Armenian horrors of the Hamidian era, which were continued -under the “constitutional régime of the Young Turks” and culminated -in the scientific extermination, by starvation, of that highly gifted -Armenian nation, carried out under the high patronage and guidance -of the Germano-Turanians, whose diabolical activities during the -present world war have overwhelmed in a like catastrophe the Hellenic -population of the Ottoman Empire and particularly of Asia Minor.[3] - -From the time that the present German emperor resolved to make the Near -and perhaps the Far East the great market for Teutonic trade, German -scientists of all kinds have been dispatched to Asia Minor to study the -country from every point of view, so that the German Government may, at -the opportune moment, be ready to seize the “golden fleece.” - -As a result there have appeared various essays dealing with Asia Minor -from different points of view, and in particular the one with which we -are here concerned, by Dr. Karl Dieterich, forming the principal part -of the present publication of the American-Hellenic Society.[4] - -It is worth noticing that the German essayist describes in a vivid -manner the vitality and the potentialities of the Hellenic population -of Asia Minor, and, unlike the ruling class of Germany and many of his -compatriots, he speaks favorably of the Greek populations of Anatolia. - -Dr. Dieterich, referring to the persecution of the Greeks, says -erroneously that these “systematic persecutions,” as he admits them to -be, began with the spring of 1914 (see p. 19), while, as a matter of -fact, they commenced on the very day that the Young Turks consolidated -their power (1908-1909), when, in spite of their much heralded formula -of “equality, justice and fraternity,” they designed and instituted -a well-organized method for the annihilation of the Christian -populations, the Adana massacres of the Armenians in April, 1909, being -the precursors of all the subsequent horrors. - -Nor did these would-be “reformers,” or “constitutionalists,” conceal -their plans for the Turkification of the Christians in the Ottoman -Empire, for they openly resorted either to forced conversions to -Mohammedanism or to the annihilation of those who seemed unlikely to -submit to be “Ottomanized.” Thus, as early as September, 1908, one of -the moving spirits of the Committee of Union and Progress, namely, Dr. -Nazim, during his visit to Smyrna, at a social gathering held in the -house of a British subject, spoke freely about this matter.[5] - -The Young Turks having thus initiated, under the very eyes of Europe, -a systematic extermination of the Armenians,—whom the bloody hand of -Abdul Hamid had not completely destroyed,—turned their attention to the -“more dangerous Greeks.” - -It was this plan for the destruction of the Christian nations that, -in 1912, brought together the Balkan States, who saw that under the -new régime in Turkey the peoples of these various nationalities -would gradually be annihilated, if they did not take some preventive -steps. The result was the war of these States against Turkey, the -complete defeat of the latter and the freeing from the Turkish yoke of -hundreds of thousands of people. As a further consequence of this war, -there began on the part of Turkey a wholesale expulsion of the Greek -population from the coast of Asia Minor simply because the neighboring -islands of the Ægean had been incorporated with the Greek Kingdom. -Up to the declaration of the present world war hundreds of thousands -of Greeks were expelled from Turkey, having been, at the same time, -deprived by the Turks of all their movable and immovable property. -All these unfortunate people took refuge in Greece and gave no little -embarrassment to the Greek Government.[6] - -It is therefore incorrect to say, as the German writer alleges, that -the persecutions of the Greeks began with the outbreak of the present -war (p. 19). - -The difference, however, between the _ante-bellum_ persecutions and -those perpetrated subsequently is this, that while in the former cases -the Greeks were expelled from their native country and were deprived -only of their wealth and their property generally, in the latter not -only were they compelled to abandon everything they owned, but they -also perished through untold hardships and starvation. (See details -about the tragical condition of the Greeks in Publication No. 3 of the -American-Hellenic Society cited above.) - -Nor did the Turks in carrying out this cruel work care whether Greece -was friendly or unfriendly to Turkey. As a matter of fact, these -persecutions were in full swing during the “régime of Constantine” -(see dates in _Persecutions of the Greeks_, etc.) when that potentate -was in close relationship not only with the Germans, but also with -the Bulgarians and the Turks, and consequently the persecutions of -the Greeks had nothing to do with the alleged projected territorial -compensations to Greece; besides, Turkey was assured by Germany that -Constantine, who then had the upper hand in Greece, would under no -circumstances attack Turkey. - -Therefore it is not correct to say, as the German writer asserts, that -one of the reasons for these persecutions was the promise made to -Greece by the Entente Powers in 1915 of territorial concessions in Asia -Minor (see p. 19). - -An indication that even such an evidently impartial writer as Dr. -Dieterich cannot divest himself of the German point of view is his -statement that in the struggle for life the Greeks were on the -offensive, while the Turks were on the defensive (see p. 19). This, in -plain words, means that it suffices for a nation to be intelligent, -active, frugal, moral (as he too acknowledges the Greeks to be, p. 50), -in order to acquire the odium of carrying on an offensive struggle -if another nation living side by side with it happens to be stupid, -fatalist, immoral and incapable of holding its ground in the struggle -for life. - -The writer’s theory of the existence of a Greek propaganda in -Asia Minor, “forwarded by every possible means,” is a gratuitous -supposition. Dr. Dieterich evidently misunderstands the conditions in -which the Greek populations have been living in Asia Minor and trying -to promote or revive their national ideals. As a matter of fact, all -the existing Greek schools in Asia Minor,—which is also the case with -the Greek educational institutions in every part of Turkey,—have been -established and supported by the Greek communities themselves, and if, -at times, they have received outside financial aid, this was due to -the generosity of persons who were natives of the country, who had -emigrated to foreign lands and acquired wealth abroad. The many names -of these benefactors appearing on the Greek school buildings attest -the accuracy of this statement.[7] Therefore the allegation of the -writer that a Greek propaganda is carried out in Asia Minor is totally -incorrect. - -Another supposition of the German author that the Greeks of Anatolia -intermarried with the “Seljuk Conquerors” is not a historical fact. -On the contrary, judging from the general character of the people and -their attachment to the Christian religion, it is certain that the -Greeks did not intermarry with the Seljuks, since they invaded Asia -Minor after their conversion to Mohammedanism. - -That many Greeks, abandoning the faith of their forefathers, embraced -Mohammedanism, is an incontrovertible and historical fact, but that -Turks or other adherents of Islam could not become Christians and -consequently could not intermarry with the Greeks is also a truism. -For, according to Mohammedan Law, a “true believer” who abandons -Islam is liable to be put to death. Therefore, although many Greeks -by becoming Mohammedans lost their nationality, no Turks or other -Mussulmans could become Christians and, consequently, Greeks. That has -been the strongest shield of Hellenism for the preservation of the -Greek nationality. - -In the same way his allegation that, as the language of the Greeks in -the interior of Asia Minor was Turkish, they “did not share in the -national and racial consciousness of their kinsmen on the coast” (p. -52) is equally erroneous. Anyone who has lived in that country and -intermingled with these people could not have helped noticing their -intense patriotic spirit and their attachment to Greek ideals, the best -evidence of these being the creation of schools for the study of the -language of their forefathers, namely Greek. Nor is the other statement -of this writer that the Greeks “succeeded in introducing the Greek -language in their schools alongside of the Turkish” correct, because, -as a matter of fact, these schools were established for the study of -the Greek and not the Turkish language, the latter tongue being taught -as a foreign language, occupying the same place in the curriculum of -the Greek schools as foreign languages hold in European or American -schools. - -The observation of the author that Germany will have to come to terms -with the Greek peasant of Asia Minor, because “he is on a higher moral -plane,” is worthy of especial notice, and his further remark that “it -would be just as perverse as it would be foolish to depend on the -Turk to the exclusion of the Greek, who has the controlling hand in -trade and traffic, as well as in the cultivation of the soil” (p. 50), -confirms the favorable opinion of both German and other writers and -travelers as to the vitality of the Hellenic element of Asia Minor. - -Thus, a distinguished French geographer,—whose statistics, however, -on the populations of Asia Minor are not accurate, since they are -presumably based principally on Turkish sources,—referring to the -Greeks of the Province of Smyrna, says that “among all the Christian -communities of the Province of Smyrna that of the Orthodox Greeks is -the most considerable and that it is, in a general way, better educated -and more prosperous. It is among them,—apart from the merchants who are -best fitted for handling large enterprises,—that are found the most -clever mechanics, often excelling in their various callings, and the -best agriculturists, their well-known characteristics being industry -and activity.” (See Vital Cuinet, _La Turquie d’Asie, Géographie -Administrative_, etc., vol. III., p. 355.) - - -So, too, the famous English historian of the Crimean War, Kinglake, -writing in 1845, refers to Smyrna, which the Turks call, as he says, -“infidel Smyrna,” in the following terms: “I think that Smyrna may be -called the chief town and capital of the Grecian race. For myself, I -love the race, in spite of all their vices.”[8] (See _Eothen, or Traces -of Travel brought Home from the East_, by Alexander William Kinglake, -p. 41, ed. 1876). - -Another English traveler, who made the tour of Asia Minor on foot, -describing the American College in the city of Marsovan and referring -to the Greek students there, says: “Like all Greeks, whether of Europe -or of Asia, they have a quality which always compels interest. In -general intelligence, in quickness of perception, in the power of -acquiring knowledge, they are said, as a race, to have no equals among -their fellow-students—nor in their capacity for opposing each other and -making mountains of difference out of nothing. Watching them, it grows -upon the observer that traditional Greek characteristics have survived -strongly in the race, and that Asia Minor Greeks of today are probably -not different from the Greeks of twenty centuries ago.” (See W. J. -Childs, _Across Asia Minor on Foot_, p. 55, 1917.) - - -An English general, who during the administration of Lord Beaconsfield -was sent to Asia Minor on a special mission after the conclusion of the -Cyprus Convention of 1878, after referring to some of the well-known -characteristics of the Greeks of Anatolia as an enterprising, -keen-witted people, well gifted with a rare commercial instinct, goes -on to say: - -“Profuse expenditure on education is a national characteristic, and -to acquire a sufficient fortune to found a school or hospital in his -native town is the honorable ambition of every Greek merchant.... -The Anatolian Greeks generally are active and intelligent, laborious -and devoted to commercial pursuits. They learn quickly and well, and -become doctors, lawyers, bankers, innkeepers, etc., filling most of -the professions. They are good miners and masons, and villages are -generally found near old lead and copper mines. They have much of the -versatility, the love of adventure and intrigue, which distinguished -the ancient Greeks, and a certain restlessness in their commercial -speculations which sometimes leads to disaster. The democratic feeling -is strong; the sole aristocracy is that of wealth, and ancient lineage -confers no distinction. The children of rich and poor go to the same -schools and receive the same free education” (Sir Charles W. Wilson, -_Murray’s Hand-book for Travellers in Asia Minor_, 1905, pp. 70-71). - -A brilliant French Hellenist and scholar, in referring to the Greeks -of Smyrna, gives the following picturesque description of them. “They -are,” he says, “so numerous in that city, that they consider it as -part of their domain. Wide-awake, lively, playfully sly and always -interesting, they are here the tavern-keepers, the grocers, the -boatmen. These are the three trades that most of the Greeks of the poor -class prefer, just as the profession of lawyer and that of physician -are particularly popular among the Greeks of the well-to-do class. As -tavern-keepers they talk all day long; they keep up with the news, they -discuss politics, they run down the Turks, they are always stirring, -bustling and struggling, in their way, for the ‘grand idea.’” - -“As grocers they sell a little of everything. They do business as money -changers, an infinite happiness for a Hellene. As boatmen they have the -sea, this old friend of the descendants of Ulysses, as their constant -companion; they go right and left in the hustling of the port, they see -new faces; they question the travelers who come from afar; they dispute -with them about the boatfare, which is yet another rare pleasure for -the Greeks. An amusing race, sympathetic, on the whole, notwithstanding -its faults; patriotic, persistent, sober, mildly obstinate in its -indomitable hope.” - -“Because of their constant activity and their wit, the Greeks have -supplanted the Turks in many places in Turkey.”[9] - -The vivid description of Hellenism in Asia Minor given by the German -author, and corroborated by numerous other writers and travelers, shows -the important rôle that the Hellenic element is destined to play if -that unfortunate country is ever favored with the blessings of good -government. - -The Hellenic State should undoubtedly be the natural inheritor or at -any rate the executor of the estate of the Sick Man of the East; if -not of all of Asia Minor, at any rate of a great part of it, _i.e._, -western Anatolia. But if the Ottoman sway in Anatolia is prolonged, -it is to be hoped that the country will, at least, be under the joint -tutelage of some civilized states which will take into consideration -the wishes and aspirations of the Hellenic people. - - - - -HELLENISM IN ASIA MINOR[10] - -By KARL DIETERICH, - -Privatdocent in Mediæval and Modern Greek Literature in the University -of Leipzig. - - -The political unrest in the Near East which preceded the present world -war and accompanied its beginnings has turned attention once more to -the existence of the Greek element in the population of Asia Minor. -Two factors in particular have entered into this feeling of unrest: -first, the systematic persecutions of the Greeks by the Young Turks, -which have been going on ever since the spring of 1914, and secondly, -the recent communications in the press dealing with alleged promises on -the part of the Triple Entente to indemnify Greece through extensive -territorial concessions in Asia Minor—the talk was of an extent of -100,000 to 120,000 sq. km.—in order to repay her for her intervention -in the war. However one may feel as to both these points and their -justification, this much is clear, that the Turks believed that they -were in the presence of a Greek peril.[11] - -There was thus started, in Asia Minor, a defensive struggle on the -part of the Turks that was just as sharply defined as the offensive -which this Greek element had for a long time been actually carrying on -against the Turks of this region; with this difference, however, that -the Turkish defensive has only recently acquired sufficient strength to -make its action felt, while the Greek offensive has for decades -been quietly at work getting the upper hand economically, culturally -and nationally in that land where they once ruled for a period of -more than a thousand years. Granted that the Greek propaganda, which -has, for a considerable time, been forwarded in Asia Minor by every -possible means, has in many particulars been carried on too bitterly, -and has injured the sensibilities of the Ottomans, the fact remains -that the Greeks in Asia Minor economically and culturally have control -of Asia Minor even now, not as an outside or foreign element in the -population, though the movement has been forwarded from the outside, -but as something that has developed from within on the very soil of -the country itself, something that has in centuries of growth become -a historic fact and that is only to be understood when one has fully -grasped what has gone before. - -To do this one must go back into times which are long since past, -though their resultant forces, far from having ceased to operate, seem -just now, as a matter of fact, to be renewing their strength. - -Asia Minor was in prehistoric times a field for Greek colonization. -Long after its littoral had, in early Hellenic times (dating back, -in fact, to the 10th century B.C.), been bordered with a fringe of -Greek settlements, which were the basis of the old Ionic and Æolic -civilizations, this coast colonization had, in later Greek times, been -extended and developed through the victorious eastern expeditions of -Alexander the Great into a real colonization of the interior. - -Just as had been the case in the whole of the western regions of Asia -Minor, there arose in the 4th to 2nd centuries B.C., in the interior -of the country as well, a whole series of new Greek cities, which from -that time on have constituted firmly fixed centers for the Hellenizing -and civilizing of the land. This began with Byzantine and Turkish times -and has extended up to the present, forming a sure testimony to the -stubborn endurance of this late Greek civilization. One needs only to -think of towns like Nicæa, Nicomedia, Prusa, Pergamon, Philadelphia, -Thyatira, Laodicea, etc., which were all founded in the 3rd and 2nd -centuries B.C. and were named after the Diadochi[12] or their wives. -After the fall of the states founded by the Diadochi, the Romans came -in and conquered Asia Minor. Without having succeeded in permanently -Romanizing it, they gave it a solidity which enabled the Byzantine -emperors, after the later Hellenizing of the Eastern Roman Empire, to -advance farther and farther into the interior and toward the east, -accompanying the victorious advance of Christianity: in Cappadocia, the -home of Greek monastic life in the East, there was firmly established -in Cæsarea, in the 6th century, a new outpost of Greek civilization. - -Thus, throughout the centuries, by a process of colonization that -was forwarded now by peaceful means and again by war, Hellenism -forced its way steadily eastward, and on the basis of the older -indigenous population a new sphere for Greek colonization was opened -up which developed its own peculiar cultural strength only after the -passing away of the ancient Greek civilization, in Christian, that -is, and Byzantine times. Up to the end of the first millennium of -the Christian Era, at a time when the Balkan Peninsula, including -Ancient Greece, had long since lost its ancient city-life and culture -beneath the inroads and devastations of Goths, Avars and Slavs, Asia -Minor was still a populous and blooming land with countless large -cities, whose inhabitants combined Hellenistic culture with Christian -fervor. Intellectual traditions, associated with the names of Arrian, -Dio Cassius, Strabo, Galen and Epictetus, were still living and -were perpetuated in the writings of the Byzantine historians of the -10th-14th centuries, the most famous of whom came from Asia Minor.[13] -At that time the strongly ascetic ideals of Greek monastic life were -still in full vigor, as they had been first preached and practiced by -the three great Church Fathers, Basil of Cæsarea, the Cappadocian, -and the two Gregories of Nyssa and Nazianzus, and as they had assumed -controversial form in the monastic castles of Asia Minor (the -forerunners of the monasteries of Mount Athos), built on the Bithynian -Olympus, which is still called by the Turks Keshish-Dagh, _i.e._, -Monks’ Mount, on the Auxentios (also in Bithynia), on Mounts Sipylus, -in Lydia, and Latmos, in Caria. In ecclesiastical architecture, too, -Asia Minor was an originator: the so-called “Domed” Basilika, which -reached its greatest perfection in St. Sophia in Constantinople and its -most perfect reproduction in St. Mark’s in Venice, owes its development -to Asia Minor.[14] - -Finally there arose in Asia Minor a new folk-poetry that dealt with the -deeds of heroes. What the Nibelungen is to the Germans, the Chanson de -Roland to the French, and Beowulf to the English, that, to the Greeks -of the Middle Ages, was the romantic epic of Akritas (_i.e._, Count) -Basilios. Discovered only a few decades ago, though scattered widely, -wherever Greek is spoken, in countless fragments of folk-poetry, it -is a sort of crystal precipitate in verse of those struggles which -the Byzantine Counts were forced to wage against the Saracens on the -eastern confines of their realm, in Cappadocia. The poem has for us a -double value: first, as proving that the national center of gravity of -Hellenism lay then in Asia Minor, and second, as enlightening us as to -the ethnological relations of the country, for its hero is the son of a -Greek woman by an Arab Emir (hence his surname Digenis, that is, born -of two races).[15] - -From a political as well as a cultural point of view, Asia Minor -formed a center of Hellenism. From here sprang all the great ruling -families, which from the 8th century to the 13th constantly renewed the -kingdom: the Isaurians (717-867), the Armenians (867-1057), the Comneni -(1057-1185), the Laskarides (1204-1261), the Palæologi (1261-1453). -They are all rooted in the feudal nobility of Asia Minor, which is -comparable with our east Elbe colonial nobility. If it had not been -for these powerful and energetic noble families the Byzantine Empire, -and with it Hellenism as well, would long ago have been destroyed, and -if the Greeks in Asia Minor had not succeeded in these struggles, that -lasted 300 years, in stemming the advance of the Turks, their hordes -would have poured over the Balkan Peninsula and Hungary centuries -earlier than they did. We must briefly review these wars, for in no -other way can the present ethnical and cultural constitution of the -country and the position of Hellenism in it be fully understood. The -annihilation of Hellenism and the coincident erection, one after the -other, of two Turkish empires came in two great phases: the first, at -the end of the 11th century, in the conquest by the Seljuks, and the -second, at the beginning of the 14th century, in that by the Ottomans. -The geographical situation of the capitals of these two kingdoms, -Iconium (Konia) and Prusa (Brussa), is in itself an indication of the -swinging of the Turkish center of gravity from the east toward the -northwest. - -Although the Seljuk kingdom did not embrace the whole peninsula within -its boundaries, it threatened, at first, with that terrific thrusting -strength of the Mongolian conquerors, to reach out far beyond its -boundaries, and to wrest from the Greeks that northwestern part of -Asia Minor that was so greatly coveted. In 1080 the Seljuks were -already in the extreme northwest in Bithynia, and in possession of -Nicæa and Nicomedia, and were ranging the whole coast regions from -Smyrna to Attalia (Adalia) as pirates. The Greeks, who were at first -purely on the defensive, joined in with the Crusaders, and succeeded, -after twenty years of stubborn fighting, in thrusting the Turkish -conquerors back of a line which corresponds pretty closely to that -of the Eskishehr-Karahissar-Akshehr railroad line of today. This was -in the early part of the 12th century (1117). A second thrust by -the Greeks (1139) drove them back upon their old base and center, -Iconium. Western Asia Minor was thus again rescued to the Greeks and -nearly forty years of quiet followed. This time was utilized by the -Greek emperors to build a strong line of fortresses against possible -further attacks; all strategically important points were defended by -strong forts, especially the valley of the Sangarios, which formed the -corridor of attack against Constantinople. Even today, as one travels -over the railroad from Ismid-Eskishehr, he sees numerous, fairly -well preserved ruins of these Byzantine forts which served the same -purpose of border-defense as those of today in the valley of the Saal -in our own land.[16] They bear Turkish names, but he who has studied -into these things knows that these are only literal translations of -old Greek names: Inegeul, shortened from Angelokome = Angelstown; -Kupruhissar, from the Greek Gephyrokastron = Bridgefort; Karadjahissar -= Greek Melangeia (Turkish, karadja = blackish). They mark, therefore, -the boundary between Byzantine and Turkish history. - -Thanks to these fortresses, the Greeks succeeded in repulsing the -Turkish assaults, so vehemently renewed in 1177, until, by the Latin -conquest of 1204, the Byzantine Empire was entirely restricted to Asia -Minor, where, in the so-called Nicæan Empire, it experienced such a -promising rebirth that it soon embraced the whole northern half of -western Asia Minor. This new kingdom secured to the Greeks the mastery -in Asia Minor for 125 years more, and it would have secured it to -them for an even longer period if the Mongol invasion of 1241 and the -consequent weakening of the Seljuks had not tempted the ambitious -Greek emperors to stretch out their hands once more toward that fatal -Constantinople, instead of using their whole strength in maintaining -their hold on Asia Minor; for the Greek Empire of that time was no -longer strong enough to hold control over two continents that were so -seriously threatened, especially since a new avalanche was already -rolling in from the east, the mighty Ottomans, who rose up in the -strength of youth among the ruins of the fallen empire of the Seljuks. -What the Seljuks in 240 years had failed to accomplish, the Ottomans -were destined to bring about in a single generation, the ruination of -Hellenism in Asia Minor. - -It was in 1299 that the petty Turkish feudal prince, Osman, broke -through the fortified region of the Sangarios, and after sixteen -years of desperate fighting succeeded in forcing his way through to -Nicæa, the chief defensive point of the Greeks, in order to lay the -foundations of that great Ottoman Empire that was to be the mighty -successor to the Byzantine Empire. He still met with almost invincible -resistance; Nicæa with its mighty walls could not be forced, and it -was only in 1326, the year of his death, that Prusa, after a ten-year -siege, fell, and under the name of Brussa became the first Ottoman -capital. In 1330, and after a siege of fifteen years, came the fall of -Nicæa, and later that of Nicomedia. The hardest part of the task had -thus been done, the first great breach had been made in the stronghold -of the Greek Empire, and the conquerors now turned to the south. -Pergamon fell in 1335, Sardis in 1369, and Philadelphia (Alashehr), -the last of the Greek cities of the interior, which, according to the -expression of a Greek chronicler, stands like a star in a clouded sky, -was captured in 1391. Smyrna, the old Greek acropolis, had already -fallen a prey early in the 14th century to the Seljuks, who had found -in Aïdin, the ancient Tralles, a last support for their sinking -power. Apart from Trebizond in the extreme northeast, which up to -1461 maintained itself as the capital of the little coast state which -was also called Trebizond, all Asia Minor was now in the hands of the -Turks. The Greeks, as a political factor, had ceased to play any part. -The question as to whether they had ceased to be of any importance as a -civilizing and cultural factor we must now attempt to investigate. - -Byzantine sources show clearly enough that Asia Minor, even in the -11th century, was suffering from decrease in its population. This -was caused partly by the endless levies of troops, necessitated by -the struggles against the Bulgarians in the Balkans, and partly by -agrarian conditions in Asia Minor, of which I have yet to speak. The -consequences of this systematic depopulation first became evident -when the country collapsed under the inroads of Seljuks, Mongols and -Ottomans; for the defensive military strength that was for a while -maintained could not disguise the fact that the national strength of -the Greeks was already broken when the inroads of these peoples began. -Furthermore, there was no longer any means at hand to renew this -strength which had been for centuries so systematically drained. On -the contrary, the depopulation went on from bad to worse, and it took -place in different ways according to the varying character of the three -conquering peoples. - -The Seljuks, who were bent chiefly on gaining new pasturing grounds, -seem to have drawn the Greek population closer to themselves and to -have made them of some service, instead of attempting to drive them -out by force. This is proven by the accounts of voluntary or forced -submission to the conquerors, into which the inhabitants were driven by -the unsound agrarian conditions in Asia Minor, which were characterized -by an ever-growing tendency toward larger and larger estates, a -tendency against which, even in the 10th century, the clear-sighted -emperors had vainly enacted the strictest laws. The consequences -appeared at the time of the inroads of the Seljuks; evidently with full -knowledge of these conditions, they promised the oppressed peasants in -the conquered regions complete freedom in return for the payment of a -head tax, if they would yield to their control. Thus great masses of -the Greek population went over to the Turks and were lost to Hellenism. -Emperor John Comnenos, on one of his campaigns against the Seljuks of -Iconium (1120), was forced first to fight bitterly with the Greeks -of that region, who had either been already half Turkified, or were, -at any rate, strongly Turcophile. We see, then, that at that time -large intermixtures of the native Greeks (or of the Hellenized native -population) with the Seljuks must have taken place, for only through -such intermixture is the fact to be explained that the Anatolian -population of today, both Christian and Mohammedan, instead of showing -a distinct racial stamp, rather presents strongly modified features -which cannot be described as either Aryan or Mongolian.[17] - -The Ottomans were less bent on peaceful assimilation than on forcible -subjection and extermination. In their character as masters they -sought to make the conquered as harmless as possible, and they used -to this end a means that they had learned from the Byzantine emperors; -they transplanted, from the conquered cities that had a large Greek -population, large numbers of these Greeks to other cities where the -Greeks were less numerous, so that everywhere the Greeks were forced -into a minority. Furthermore, the Greeks were no longer permitted -to live in the large cities that were at that time still strongly -walled, but were compelled to settle outside in the suburbs. From -these suburbs there gradually developed later, as the Greek population -increased, entirely new towns, which crowded the old city-center -from its predominating position and established itself in its place. -This system, as we shall see, resulted in strengthening rather than -weakening the Greek element. And yet, in this Turkish conquest, a -great part of the Greeks in the towns were constantly being forced -to leave Asia Minor and to take refuge in the European part of the -Empire, for the Byzantine historians of that time (the 14th century) -tell of mass emigrations to Europe, of homeless refugees crowded in and -around Constantinople, and of growing insecurity in the neighborhood -of the capital. This exodus from the towns betokens a second essential -difference as compared with what had happened in the Balkan Peninsula. -While, in the Balkans, the cities appear as the supporting centers, the -bulwarks, of the Greeks against the Slav inundation, forming a base -of operations for winning back the open country that had become Slav, -in Asia Minor not only the country regions but the towns as well fell -into the hands of the conquerors, evidently because the Turks were -better trained soldiers and more familiar with the art of besieging -towns than were the Slavs, who were accustomed only to campaigns in -the open. The degree to which the Greek communities of Asia Minor -suffered under the Turkish conquest is shown by the old Church Acts -which are still preserved in the Patriarchate in Constantinople.[18] -While Asia Minor before the Turkish invasion counted no less than -fifty seats of Metropolitans (the highest church dignitaries) it has -today only twenty.[19] Of these, twelve alone are distributed in the -western provinces, while the other provinces have only eight. Even -of these the greater part are maintained only for the sake of the -names. These numbers show better than anything else how seriously the -Greek town-population in the interior of Asia Minor melted away as -a result of the Turkish conquest, for every withdrawal of the seat -of a Metropolitan, and every uniting of several such seats in one, -presupposes a decided decrease in the population of a district. - -The greatest direct losses of the Greeks were caused by the two -great Mongolian invasions of the years 1241 and 1402, especially the -latter under the much-feared Timur. These hordes found their only -joy in burning, murdering and pillaging, and poured forth like a -plague of locusts “in separate bands over Galatia, Phrygia, Bithynia, -Paphlagonia, the coast region of Caria, Lycia and Pamphylia in such a -way that it seemed as if the whole Tartar army was billeted in every -separate province, so numerous were they.” So says one of the last -Byzantine historians (Dukas), who pictures also, in vivid colors, the -consequences of this predatory incursion in the words, “Timur left -neither living men, nor weeping children, nor barking dogs, nor crowing -cocks, but everywhere nothing but the stillness of death.” Thus every -one of these three Turkish inundations had in its own way contributed -to decimate the Greek population of Asia Minor. - -Only in two greater districts have compact groups of Greeks of -considerable extent preserved their nationality, their speech and, in -part, their religion, that is, in Middle Cappadocia, in the interior -of eastern Asia Minor, and in Pontus, in the extreme northern coast -region; in the former as a relic of the old church settlements and -in the latter as the last remains of that latest Greek effort at -establishing a state in Asia Minor, the Empire of Trapezus. The Greek -population of these two districts can therefore serve to bring clearly -before us the Asia Minor Greeks of the Middle Ages, in their physical -as well as their linguistic character. - -Before proceeding further I must state that these peoples, like those -of the Balkan Peninsula, must already have acquired their present -physical stamp in the early Middle Ages, at any rate, before the -Seljuk-Turkish conquest, for the modified, ethnically but slightly -distinguished type of the western Anatolian peasant population is -not characteristic of these Greeks. Rather do the Cappadocian Greeks -show unmistakable Armenian influence, especially in the broad and -extraordinarily high skull, and the large fleshy nose, as well as -in their compact and sturdy build, while those of the mountainous -coast region of Pontus have retained the more finely cut features of -the Greeks and their more graceful form. Some claim to find a third -type in the Greeks of south-eastern Asia Minor, a type which shows -strikingly Semitic features, and which is probably to be traced -back to the numerous Syrian immigrations into Asia Minor during the -supremacy of the Isaurian Dynasty of Byzantium, 717-867. In the same -way the Armenian type of the inland Greeks is to be traced back to the -extensive intermingling of Byzantine Greeks and Armenians during the -9th and 10th centuries, when the Byzantine Empire received a strong -quickening of Armenian blood. A dynasty of Armenian origin at that -time gave the Byzantine imperial throne a new hold and lent renewed -strength to the new kingdom and a great Byzantine province of Asia -Minor was called “the Armenian Province.” In any case, we must be -on our guard against deriving our present ethnographical picture of -Asia Minor directly from the old racial divisions into Hittites, -Phrygians and Lydians. The fact that Asia Minor served as a bridge -between Asia and Europe prevented such a preservation of the old -ethnical relations, as had been the case in the Balkan Peninsula, that -great reservoir of people in migration; here as there, in judging -of ethnological characteristics, we should, far more than has up to -now been the case, start out from Byzantine times, which completely -transformed the ancient ethnological nature of both peninsulas.[20] -That we have to do, however, in the case of the Cappadocian and -Pontic Greeks with autochthonous remains of pre-Turkish times, and -not with later immigrants, is shown not only by their racial type but -by their dialect. This belongs to the very oldest forms of the Modern -Greek language, if one leaves out of account the still more ancient -Tzakonian, and enables us to conclude that it broke away from other -Greek at a very early period, and followed a separate development of -its own. This is particularly true of the Pontic dialect of Samsun -(Amisos), Œnoe (Unieh) and Ophis; there is in the phonetics of the -dialect, as well as in the vocabulary, so much that is peculiar that -it is almost unintelligible to those conversant with the ordinary -Modern Greek. But this holds true also of the dialect of some twenty -Cappadocian towns—for with only twenty are we here concerned—a -dialect which is still quite on the level of the Greek of the early -Middle Ages, evidently going back to the time of the settlements in -the country of the old monks, which can be proved, in the region of -Cæsarea, to go back in many cases as far as the 4th century B.C. -These dialects,[21] however, are, as compared with those larger and -continuous regions where common Greek is spoken, only small and -distinct islands of the Greek speech, which are constantly wearing away -and giving up ground, more and more, although the proportion of Greeks -in these regions is much higher than elsewhere. The ratio is highest -in Pontus, where there are nearly 250,000 Greeks (25 to 30 per cent of -the population), and where they form a large percentage even of the -city population, especially in Trebizond and Samsun. On the contrary, -in Cappadocia they are to be found settled only in a large number -of villages, comprising altogether something like 40,000 souls.[22] -The number of these Greeks in Pontus as well as in Cappadocia is, -furthermore, all the harder to fix accurately, because there are among -them many communities of Christians who conceal the fact that they are -Christians, and, for political reasons, pass as adherents of Islam -(even making use of the Turkish language), but who are really devoted -to Christianity and have kept up their Greek national feeling. In -Pontus they are especially to be found in the districts of Tonia and -Ophis, where in the seventies of the last century they were estimated -at about 14,000, while in other districts, as in Krom and Torul, a -strong process of Christianizing them anew has taken place.[23] - -Apart from these two isolated areas of Greeks, the Turks have inundated -the whole peninsula, subjecting it to the Turkish nationality and -to the Turkish language, while Hellenism, though not entirely -destroyed, has been so seriously broken up and shattered that it has -been obliged to give up even its language and its religion, that is -to say, has completely lost its national consciousness. The numerous -Greek names of rivers, villages and mountains have, with very few -exceptions, all disappeared, being replaced by Turkish names.[24] As -far as administration and ways of living were concerned, the Turkish -conquest produced very few radical changes. The very towns which -under Greek control had formed commercial and administrative centers, -continued to be such under the Turks, keeping, for the most part, -their old Greek names as a proof of the strength of 1500-year-old -traditions. Towns like Smyrna, Prusa, Pergamon, Magnesia, Attalia, -Adana, Tarsus, Iconium, Ancyra, Cæsarea, Amasia, Castamuni, Trapezus, -Sinope, Amisos and others experienced a new quickening under their -old names, which the Turks altered only slightly. Not only did they -continue to be the capitals of their various districts for purposes -of administration, but their names were extended so as to apply to -the entire districts of which they were centers. Practically all the -vilayets and sanjaks of Asia Minor received their names from these old -centers of city-civilization and comparatively few have Turkish names, -the ancient Tralles, Philadelphia and Dorylæum, for example, bearing -the Turkish names Aïdin, Alashehr and Eskishehr respectively. On this -weighty point, therefore, the Turks, as an unhistoric people, have been -as little able to interrupt the continuity of civilization as in the -Balkan Peninsula, where the larger towns likewise have kept their Greek -names. - -Just as the Turks in Asia Minor have taken over the way of living -of their predecessors in power, so too have they accepted almost -unchanged their social relations. Two points alone deserve special -mention here, the possession of large landed estates and the feudal -system. The Turkish landowners, the Beys, are nothing but the direct -successors of the Byzantine archontes, and the Turkish peasants have -been forced to render compulsory service to the Beys just as the -Christian peasants did to the archontes. That strongly developed feudal -system, too, which has existed from Byzantine times, especially ever -since the 11th century, with its distinction between the little and -large fiefs for foot soldiers and cavaliers, respectively, was taken -over by the Turks, and was by them even more highly developed. - -In this accommodation to the conditions and institutions of the subject -peoples did the strength, as well as the weakness, of the new masters -consist: in so far as they found before them fast-bound customs, -which they simply took over, they were obliged to accept, along with -their advantages, their drawbacks as well. The only real advantage -that they received came from their acceptance of feudalism, while the -retention of cultural and social conditions in town and country was -bound gradually to weaken their power, because these conditions either -outlived them or, at any rate, were not suited to them. The first -statement applies to agrarian relations, and the latter to commercial -relations in the towns. This free shepherd and peasant race (for this -they had previously been) lost its free character through taking over -the Byzantine provincial nobility without, however, in doing this, -developing a genuinely urban civilization, which is an absolutely -necessary prerequisite for trade-activity. Thus the Turkish peasantry -went backward without a Turkish bourgeoisie arising. At any rate, only -a limited town-folk arose which made its living by handicraft but did -not know how to conquer economically the regions that it had subdued -politically. There existed here, therefore, a twofold, dangerous breach -in the social organism of Mohammedanism, and into this breach sprang -the ever-alive and ever-enterprising Greek, first the Greek trader, and -then the Greek farmer. Both had in the west coast of Asia Minor and -in the islands, regions where Greeks have always lived, a field for -their activity that, though at first modest, has slowly but steadily -broadened out. - -In the first place, Greek trade in Asia Minor was destined to have an -awakening. The impulse to this came from the trade policy inaugurated -in the Levant by Colbert, the gifted Minister of Louis XIV. A special -trade-society was founded for this purpose (1664), the consular system -was reformed, French merchants were united in permanent corporations -and a state system of control was arranged between the most important -harbors of the Levant and Marseilles. An interesting account has been -preserved, dating back to the year 1733, which tells of measures -taken to increase the trade of Smyrna as over against its rival -Constantinople, and one from the year 1778, containing a regulation -decided upon by the Marseilles Chamber of Commerce for the French -merchants of Smyrna.[25] - -The number of firms there that represented French houses had, in -the period from 1752 to 1783, already increased to twenty-nine as -against eleven in Constantinople and eight in Salonika. This French -trade-policy was systematically based on a strengthening of Smyrna, -with the evident purpose of driving the rival trade of Italy out of the -field. In this it must have succeeded, for in the forty years from 1750 -to 1789 the value of French goods imported from Smyrna to Marseilles -rose from 5,629,000 pounds to 12,805,000 pounds and, at the same time, -the export from Marseilles to Smyrna rose from 4,250,000 pounds to -9,500,000 pounds. This increase in the trade of Marseilles naturally -postulated a similar increase in the trade of Smyrna; this attained -even in 1787 no less a figure than 52,750,000 Turkish pounds, in which -figures is included the rapidly increasing trade with Russia which -resulted from the latter’s position as Turkey’s protector since 1774. -Smyrna thus became a new and important reloading place in the trade of -the Levant, and although, at the beginning of the 18th century, it had -numbered hardly 30,000 inhabitants, it had, in the year 1803, 100,000, -of whom about a third were Greeks. The new blood was mostly to the -advantage of the Greeks. In fact, one may say that the new enlargement -of Smyrna, which had formerly been the center of Hellenism in Asia -Minor and became so in an increasing degree from now on, opened a new -period of prosperity to the Greeks of Asia Minor; from all parts of the -Greek Orient a stream of enterprising Greeks gathered together here, so -that the old capital of Ionia soon became once more an almost purely -Greek city; in 1850, of about 125,000 inhabitants, 60,000 were Greeks, -in 1880 of about 160,000, 75,000 or 80,000 were Greeks, and in 1910, -over 100,000 inhabitants of the city’s 225,000 were Greeks. On the -contrary, the number of Turks has, in the last 100 years, dropped from -75,000 to 60,000, or, according to some authorities, to 50,000, while -the number of Greeks has almost quadrupled.[26] The trade of Smyrna -has correspondingly increased, especially since the opening up of the -interior through the railroads that go out from Smyrna into the valleys -of the Hermos and Mæander. Though the trade in 1839 amounted only to -53 million francs, it had increased in 1855 to 120 million, and by -1881 had even reached the figure of 220 million francs. It had already -surpassed the commerce of Constantinople, and the Turks therefore call -Smyrna too, mingling envy and scorn, “the infidel Smyrna” (Giaour -Ismir). For Hellenism in Asia Minor, however, it became a new and firm -support for its interests and a source of prosperity. Even in the -year 1818 the Greek merchants of Smyrna were able to build at their -own expense a beautiful casino, intended alike to serve business and -social ends. This proved, however, to be a tender blossom that had come -out prematurely and was soon destroyed by the storms of the Greek War -for Independence (1821-1829), though it did bloom forth all the more -strongly after the war’s fortunate ending. - -For Hellenism began to spread over the west coast in a large number -of little places, which were in part old Hellenic sites, and in part -places settled during the Middle Ages, or in later Turkish times. -Among the very old sites is Phocæa, which through a strange play of -circumstances has formed the beginning and the ending of a development -that has embraced the world. Famous as the metropolis of Marseilles -(Massilia), it was, after a long period of decay, revived in modern -times by the reflux movement from her daughter of old, a movement that -affected Smyrna first, and then its neighbor Phocæa as well, for this -too, in spite of its changing political fortunes, had always been a -bulwark of Christianity and was again destined to experience a new, -though modest, rejuvenescence. Although, during the first half of the -19th century, the Greeks there were still in the minority, as compared -with the Turks, constituting two-fifths of the population (2,000 out -of 5,000), the relation has in the intervening decades so changed that -now out of 8,000 inhabitants, 6,000 are Greeks, so that these now -form three-quarters of the inhabitants. This increase is due to the -vigorous local shipping trade which centers here and which numbers -annually something like 3,000 ships. The most remarkable thing is, -however, that this rejuvenated Old Phocæa has already become once more -the mother-city of a young Phocæa (New Phocæa), which is about ten -kilometers northwest of the old and although only a few decades old -already has about 5,000 inhabitants of whom about 4,000 are Greeks. New -and Old Phocæa then, taken together, already number about 10,000 Greek -inhabitants as compared with 3,000 Turks. Working the salt pits and -exportation of raisins constitute the chief sources of livelihood of -the two cities. - -The two other important harbors north of Smyrna are, like Phocæa, of -recent origin and are therefore purely Greek; I mean Dikeli and Aïvali. -Dikeli may really be described as founded by the German archæologist -Karl Humann, who in 1869 had the road that led to this place from -Pergamon rebuilt, in order the better to transport the Pergamene -sculptures excavated by him. Enterprising Greek merchants have taken -advantage of this road in the exportation of the products of the -country, and have built up here a trading place which in 1880 had 3,000 -exclusively Greek inhabitants but which now contains 5,000 such.[27] -Owing to this fact the older harbor of Chandirli, situated more to -the north, has steadily diminished in importance. The chief exporting -harbor of northwest Asia Minor is, however, Aïvali, newly built in -the third decade of the 19th century on the site of an older Greek -settlement named Cydonia, a name which, like Aïvali, means “quince.” -It is an almost unique example, on Asia Minor soil, of a large, purely -Greek and practically self-governing community, with 25,000 to 30,000 -inhabitants, a yearly export business of ten to twelve million francs -and a shipping of over 3,000 vessels. It has thoroughly modern business -institutions as well as a Chamber of Commerce and Agriculture and an -Agricultural Bank. It is the seat of three consular agents, those of -England, France and Italy. Through Aïvali’s growth the ancient Adramit -(Adramyttium), which was formerly on the coast but is now further -inland away from the bay, has been put into the background and now -contains about 6,000 inhabitants. As compared with these three ports, -the three that are situated on the west coast, south of Smyrna, are by -no means so important, perhaps just because they are older settlements, -in which Hellenism has had to force its way against the Turks, who were -here numerically superior. This is particularly true of Chesme, which -lies on the projecting west point of the peninsula of Clazomenæ.[28] It -is a town of about 6,000 inhabitants, which prospers through its raisin -trade. The Turks, to be sure, form the majority of the population -(about two-thirds), but the shipping (2,500 ships annually) is entirely -in Greek hands. The chief place of export for the products of the -Mæander valley is Scalanova, settled in the Middle Ages and named by -the Turks Kush-Adassi, by the Greeks New Ephesus. The Greeks, 3,000 -to 4,000 in number, are constantly forcing the Turks, who are settled -in the old walled town and are about equal to them in number, further -into the background, and in commerce they completely control the -field. Lastly, Budrum, a Turkish settlement on the site of the ancient -Halicarnassus and still inhabited by about 3,000 Turks, has become -Hellenized in proportion as the growing importance of the place as a -center of export for southwest Asia Minor—the ancient Caria—has been -appreciated by the Greeks. Their number, which twenty years ago was a -little over 2,200, may since then have come to equal that of the Turks, -or may even have surpassed it. - -The other little seaport towns on the southwest coast, as Marmaras, -Macri, Levisi, Kalamaki and Phœnix, since they are not connected by -railroad lines with the interior, are as yet without any commercial -significance and are of importance only in connection with local -coast-shipping. None of them has more than 3,000 inhabitants, but these -are overwhelmingly Greek. - -With these constantly increasing Greek settlements on the west coast, -settlements which have their economical support in the great islands -just off the coast, Mitylene, Chios, Samos and Rhodes, the settlements -on the extended, exposed and less indented north and south coasts of -Asia Minor can bear no comparison either in number or in importance, -and this is true particularly of the south coast. The chief places here -are the ancient Adalia (Attalia) founded in Hellenistic times, with -about 30,000 inhabitants, and the entirely modern Mersina, founded in -1832, with about 22,000 inhabitants. In Adalia, which was an important -station for the fleet in Byzantine times, and is now the chief emporium -for the whole interior of the southwest, there live about 10,000 -Greeks, _i.e._, about a third of the total population, while in Mersina -they form the majority. This city, too, owing to the fact that it is -connected with the Bagdad railroad by the Mersina-Adana line, has -obtained the commercial supremacy on the south coast; it had in 1911 an -import and export business of some twelve to thirteen million francs, -while Adana had a business of only two and a quarter million. Here -too, therefore, the more flourishing condition of the cities is in -direct ratio with the increasing number of Greeks. On the north coast, -which is twice as long as the southern, no new Greek settlements have -developed, but those that have existed since antiquity have maintained -their importance, thanks to the fact that they have preserved their -Greek element, which from these bases has controlled the trade of the -Black Sea. Trebizond, Kerasunda (Kiresun), Œnoe (Unieh), Amisos -(Samsun), Sinope (Sinop), Ionopolis (Ineboli), Heraclea (Eregli) -are still strong supporting and gathering points of the Greeks, who -constitute in Trebizond half of the population (about 25,000 Greeks out -of 50,000 inhabitants), while Samsun, the greatest trade center of the -north coast, with an export business of about forty million francs, has -even a larger proportion of Greeks. - -Economically developed in quite another way, because more blessed by -nature and more highly favored by its nearness to Constantinople, -and on these accounts from of old, more densely populated, is the -northwest coast of Asia Minor, the littoral of the Sea of Marmora. -Here are situated on relatively shorter stretches of coast, no less -than seven important old seaports which also belong completely to the -Greek sphere of influence. There lie first, at and on the peninsula of -Cyzicus, the old cities of Panormos (Panderma) and Artake (Artaki). The -former is the more important as being the chief place of export for -the sheep of Asia Minor, the value of which, even in 1893, amounted to -fifteen million francs. Since then, the town, which has about 12,000 -inhabitants, of whom 2,000 are Greeks, has become the terminus of the -road that branches off from Manissa, and will take a sudden jump as -soon as it has direct steamer connection with Constantinople. Artaki, -an almost purely Greek town of about 7,500 inhabitants, subsists, -in great part, from its manufacture of wine, liqueurs and cognac. -In particular, the white wines produced here are highly esteemed in -Constantinople. In the southeast corner of the Sea of Marmora are -situated Mudania and Gemlik, the former, the old Apamea, the point of -departure of the railroad to Broussa, having about 4,000 Greek and -2,000 Turkish inhabitants; the latter, the ancient Kios, which the -Greeks have once more renamed by its old name, being an almost purely -Greek town of 5,000 to 6,000 inhabitants, which, like Aïvali, enjoys an -almost complete independence. The chief exports are chromium-ore and -tobacco (Kios-cigarettes!). Finally, in the deep bay of Ismid, besides -Ismid itself, are at one and the other side of the city Karamursal (the -ancient Prænetus) and Gebize (the Byzantine Dakibyza). Both are the -capitals of districts in which the Greek population already surpasses -the Turkish (1893: 15,000 Greeks and 11,000 Turks), although in the -towns themselves the Turks are still in the majority (Gebize has about -4,000 Turks and 2,000 Greeks). Alongside of these places, however, -especially along the line of the Haidar-Pasha-Ismid Railway are to be -found many Greek places whose Greek population increases, in a very -striking way, the nearer one gets to Constantinople. So, for example, -Daridsha, the Byzantine Aretzu, which is now once more inhabited -exclusively by Greeks, and Cadikioi, the ancient Chalcedon, which now -numbers 30,000 to 35,000 inhabitants, who consist in almost equal -numbers of Armenians, Greeks and Turks, while at the beginning of the -19th century it was inhabited almost entirely by Turks. - -Coming now to the last of these places, Ismid (the ancient Nicomedia), -we find that this has lost its old significance as a place of transfer, -toward Constantinople, of the products from the rich Bithynian plain, -since the Anatolian Railroad has drawn this business in great part to -itself, and its exports, which in 1893 amounted to thirty-two million -francs, have since then decreased proportionately with the decrease -in the number of its inhabitants, which furthermore is fluctuating -greatly, being now reported as 40,000, again as 25,000, and again as -only 20,000. The number of the Greeks up to twenty years ago, when they -numbered 6,000, was constantly increasing, for in the first half of the -19th century they were estimated at not more than 1,000. - -The whole Greek population of these sixteen towns is about 240,000, of -which number about half are found in Smyrna, so that the other fifteen -comprise a number about equal with that in Smyrna. But the number -of Greek inhabitants of the coast has not yet been fully enumerated. -For if we add the number of those who are settled in the districts of -the various provinces that border on the coast, we arrive at almost -twice this number, _i.e._, 450,000. There must then be living in these -coast regions, scattered outside the cities in the country, more than -200,000 Greeks. These make their living by fishing, and grape and fruit -raising, and extend in almost unbroken stretches between the towns -along the whole coast, so that the whole Greek population of the coast -consists in about equal proportions of city and country dwellers, a -ratio that we shall also find obtaining in the interior as well. - -This fringe or wreath of Greek colonies which extends toward the -south as well as toward the north forms not only a strong economical -force, but also a no less strong spiritual force. This is usually -underestimated, as is too, in general, that idealistic element which -is coexistent in the Greeks with that confessedly very prominent -materialistic element, and this even in the times of its deepest -national humiliation it has never lost. This idealistic element is -rooted in a very strong national feeling, which has been nourished -by the recollection of a great intellectual past and which finds -its finest and most effectual expression in the fostering of Greek -schools. This desire for schooling is implanted in the Greek nature -from the times of late antiquity, and though it often savors rather -strongly of scholasticism, it has prevented the Greeks from losing -their national consciousness, as have the Jews and, to a certain -degree, Armenians. Even the church is held so sacred by the Greeks -only because she has been the bearer of national ideals in the times -of slavery and has, at the same time, been a powerful political -organ of administration, forming the only means in Turkey of putting -through the national demands for schools. The relation of church and -school is therefore, in the Greek Orient, quite different from that -in Catholic or even Protestant Christian lands. The church regards -itself not as the mistress of the school but rather as her servant -and patron. This fact must be clearly understood in order rightly to -estimate the relations now to be considered. If, for example, a Greek -community wishes to establish a school on Turkish soil, the council of -the community informs the bishop of the diocese of this desire and the -latter communicates it to the superior bishop, who then acquaints the -Greek Patriarchate in Constantinople with the matter. The latter is the -religious head of the Greeks in Turkey and must therefore represent -their educational interests. It is his task then to obtain the Sultan’s -permission to establish the desired school, and in obtaining this, -money plays a not unimportant rôle. The richer the community is, -therefore, the more easily does it obtain the permission, and since -the Greek communities of the coast of Asia Minor have always been, for -the most part, very rich, they were able to proceed to establish their -own schools at an early date. The oldest are those in Smyrna, Aïvali -and Chesme, and those that first came into existence were not common -schools but higher institutions of learning, corresponding to the -development of the times and the aristocratic character of the Greek -merchants. The oldest and most famous of these schools, and the only -one which still exists, is the so-called Evangelical School in Smyrna. -It goes back to 1708, but the year 1733 is really to be regarded as the -year of its foundation. Existing under English protection since 1747, -and being therefore absolutely autonomous, it was, in 1810, recognized -by the Sultan as a fully authorized gymnasium, and after being twice -reorganized—in 1810 and 1828—the Greek Government, too, gave it full -recognition. Although supported entirely by the funds of the community -and benefactors’ gifts, and demanding for its upkeep more than 100,000 -francs, it still maintains in Smyrna two great affiliated schools. Its -significance for the intellectual life of Smyrna rests in its ancient -museum and in its rich library (30,000 volumes and 200 manuscripts), -the only one on Asia Minor soil.[29] - -In Smyrna too is still published the first Greek newspaper to appear on -Turkish soil, _Amalthea_, which has existed now for almost seventy-five -years. Alongside of this old school for advanced studies there were in -Smyrna in 1894 other Greek schools, and in particular seventeen grammar -schools, two trade schools (the oldest having existed since 1857), -four private girls’ schools and one large girls’ college with three -associated schools and more than 2,000 pupils in all. The largest Greek -school community in Asia Minor, next to that of Smyrna, is that of -Aïvali, the second largest Greek colony of the west coast. It supports -more than twenty grammar schools, two intermediate schools, a gymnasium -and a girls’ boarding school, which in 1892 were attended by more than -1,100 pupils. Then comes Chesme, known for its old advanced-school, -which at that time possessed only eleven schools but showed the largest -number of pupils (675). Nearly equal to this were Phocæa with nine -schools and 560 pupils, Adramit with nineteen schools and about 600 -pupils, Artaki with twenty-two schools and 700 pupils, Panderma with -fifteen schools and 536 pupils, Gemlik (Kios) with nine schools and -530 pupils, Mudania with eight schools and 330 pupils, Gebize with -thirteen schools and 1,000 pupils. Although the wide dissemination, as -well as the prosperity and the intellectual development of the Greeks -on the north part of the west coast is reflected in the large number -of Greek schools, that of the southern part is in this particular far -more backward. Apart from Scalanova with five Greek schools and 440 -pupils, Adalia on the south coast is alone worthy of mention with its -ten schools and 600 pupils. Taken all together these sixteen cities -have more than two hundred schools with more than 17,000 pupils,[30] -a number, the significance of which can only rightly be appreciated -when compared with the corresponding Turkish figures, which show, to -be sure, that the number of schools is a hundred larger but that the -number of pupils is 6,000 less than that of the Greeks. There are -therefore nearly three times as many pupils per school in the Greek -schools as in the Turkish. The Greek settlements on the north and -south coasts are to be distinguished from those on the west coast not -only through their smaller number, but also through the fact that only -scanty and weak settlements in the inland correspond to them. In the -west, on the contrary, as we have already seen, Greek colonization -has, since late antiquity, extended up into the interior, and the -consequences of this have been felt even up to the present time, or, -at any rate, have been made anew noticeable, owing to the fact that -the Greeks of the west coast have for several decades been pressing -farther and more vigorously into the interior, and have settled there -more definitely. This region that has at present been occupied by them -only in its chief centers is, in general, bounded by a line which may -be drawn from Ismid in the north, past Eskishehr, Afiun-Karahissar, -and Isbarta to Adalia. All that lies between this line and the west -coast may be regarded as within the Greek sphere. The second phase of -these Hellenizing efforts of today begins with this forward push into -the interior of this region. Just how far and in what way has this -succeeded? - -If we start on the basis of the actual facts of the case, we find that -in thirty towns of the western interior of Asia Minor of more than -5,000 inhabitants, the Greeks have a share in the population of from -1,000 to 10,000 inhabitants. Arranged according to the ratio of this -share in the population, these cities fall into different groups, as -follows: - -First, a Greek majority is found in only two cities, Michalitsh (about -7,000 Greeks out of a total of 8,000) and Koplu (about 5,000 out of -8,000). Second, in nine cities the Greeks form between one-half and -one-third of the population: Baindir (4,500 out of 10,000), Tireh -(6,000 out of 14,000), Edemish (3,000 out of 7,000), Menemen (about -3,000 out of 10,000), Bergama (5,500 out of 14,500), Isbarta (7,000 out -of 20,000), Sokia (4,000 out of 12,000), Soma (2,000 out of 6,000), -Manissa (11,000 out of 35,000). Third, in four cities the Greeks form -about a fourth: Inegeul (about 2,000 out of 8,000), Kassaba (6,000 -out of 23,000), Kermasti (1,200 out of 4,800), Aïdin (8,500 out of -35,000). Fourth, in five cities they form from a fifth to a sixth part: -Kutaiah (4,000 out of 22,000), Dimetoka (1,300 out of 7,000), Alashehr -(4,500 out of 22,000), Milas (2,000 out of 12,000), Bigha (1,600 out -of 10,000). Fifth, in five cities the Greeks form from a seventh to a -ninth of the total population: Kirkagatch (2,000 out of 18,000), Ushak -(1,500 out of 12,500), Balukiser (1,300 out of 10,000), Sabandsha -(1,000 out of 7,500), Kyrkagatch (about 200 out of 18,000). Sixth, less -than a tenth in seven cities: Denizli (1,600 out of 17,000), Soyut -(1,500 out of 18,000), Nazilli (1,700 out of 21,000), Brussa (6,000 out -of 80,000), Adabazar (1,600 out of 24,000), Eskishehr (1,150 out of -19,000), Nugla (1,100 out of 15,000). - -From this combination of facts several interesting conclusions may be -drawn as to the distribution of the Greek population in the interior -itself, and as to the relation between the Hellenization of the -interior as compared with that of the coast regions. - -If we group the cities named above according to their distribution -in the various provinces and districts, we find that only fifteen of -these fall within the province of Aïdin, the largest province of the -west coast of Asia Minor, and the one that is held to most stubbornly -by the Turks. Of these fifteen, again, only thirteen come in the -district of Smyrna, Sarukan and Aïdin, which form the most populous -part of this province. These are Menemen, Manissa, Kassaba, Alashehr; -Kirkagatch, Soma, Bergama; Baindir, Tireh and Odemish; Sokia; Aïdin -and Nazilli. Now these thirteen towns, with the exception of Bergama, -all lie, as the above grouping indicates, on the four railroad lines -which go out in four directions from Smyrna, that is in those regions -of the province which belong economically to Smyrna. At any rate, -the significance for the Greek settlements of the economic factor -is clearly evidenced in these towns, for they are, almost without -exception, “capitals,” so to speak, of smaller districts, and are -therefore important distributing and collecting centers for the local -trade to and from Smyrna. With the increase of this trade the number -of the Greeks in this group of interior cities is bound to increase -quickly or has already done so. - -Most of the other towns named above are in the province of -Hodavendikiar, which lies due north of that of Aïdin; and once more -is it true that they are in the most densely inhabited parts of the -province, Brussa, Ertogrul and Kutaiah. Of the nine cities that belong -here, five, again, are found on the line of the Anatolian Railroad, -namely, Biledjik, Soyut, Eskishehr, Kutaiah and Ushak; one, Brussa, on -a branch road and three on no railroad at all, though within reach of -the Michalitch-Kirmasti-Inegeul Railroad. Here, too, therefore, the -cities which are more or less decidedly Greek in their population lie -along the main railroad lines, though they are not quite so strongly -Greek as those in the province of Aïdin; for we are here in the very -heart of Turkey, and its greatest city Brussa, which more than all the -other cities of this region has preserved its Turkish character more -purely. It is always to be borne in mind that the Anatolian Railroad -goes out from Constantinople and that this, with its strong Greek -population, is as important a gate of entrance to the northwest of Asia -Minor as Smyrna is for the west. - -Although up to this time it is impossible to speak of a Hellenizing of -the great interior cities of western Asia Minor, since these are (thus -being quite different from the coast cities) very far from succumbing, -either numerically or culturally, to the Greek invasion—the number of -Greeks is the largest in Manissa—yet, if one looks into the matter -narrowly, he gains the impression that in the interior the Hellenizing -influence comes from the smaller towns. This supposition, to be -sure, is opposed to the view, still broadly accepted, that the Greek -element is purely a city element, and that the country-folk consist -only of Turks. This view, which, as we have seen, does not hold even -in the coast regions, is, however, absolutely false and is only to be -explained as arising from the impressions of superficial travelers who -have rarely penetrated into the remoter regions with a predominantly -rural population. Anyone who has, for example, visited the larger Greek -islands of the Asiatic coast, like Mitylene, Chios, Samos and Rhodes, -knows that these dense populations live in great measure from grape and -fruit-raising or from silk culture, and only in a very small degree -from trade. Farming plays no very large part, simply because of the -lack of arable land. Since now, as we have said, these very islands -for something like fifty years have become very densely populated or -even in part overpopulated (as, for instance, Samos), there have been -periodical emigrations of the island peasants, in considerable numbers, -over to the mainland, where they have, in particular, settled in the -fruitful valleys of the Mæander and the Hermos in the western parts -of Asia Minor and in that of the Sangarios, farther north. In part, -it is the descendants of the former Greek landowners who have been -reduced to socagers or serfs, who, on getting possession of some little -capital, have now, in their turn, driven back the Turks by buying them -out or by working the soil more scientifically, a process in which -they were helped by the immigrant islanders. If a sufficient number of -them is thus found settled together, they try to obtain the Sultan’s -firman permitting them to settle in a town. Thus the English traveler -Hamilton states that the Greeks in a little town of Lydia (Singerli), -in which they had settled ten years before, had, in his time (1837), -increased to 40-50 families and were busied with building a new market. -In this way numerous new and dense settlements came into existence in -the midst of the more scattered Turkish populations, and the higher -fecundity of the Greek settlers, combined with their industry, their -intellectual keenness, their frugality and their community-feeling, -helped always by the retrogression of the Turkish population itself, -have contributed to extend the Hellenizing process more and more to the -country districts.[31] - -In particular have they taken possession of the regions adapted to -silk culture, like that of the lower Sangarios Valley, and also of -such regions as are adapted to raising grapes. More recently, Greek -industrial enterprises, too, especially silk-spinning mills, cognac -factories and steam oil mills, have sprung into existence, meeting -with no rivalry on the part of the Turks. With this Greek peasant of -Asia Minor, who is on a higher moral plane, and who is therefore more -congenial to us Germans than the Greek trader or innkeeper in the -coast-towns, our German spirit of enterprise which is seeking to get -the economic control over Asia Minor, will have to come to terms, and -it would be just as perverse as it would be foolish to depend on the -Turk to the exclusion of the Greek, who has the controlling hand in -trade and traffic, as well as in the cultivation of the soil.[32] - -Even to a traveler of a hundred years ago the great difference between -the Greeks of the cities and the peasants was especially noteworthy. -The former were subservient and cringing like the Armenians, while the -latter were energetic and intelligent, irreconcilable in their hatreds -and by no means lacking in courage. And it is to these praiseworthy -qualities, and not to their much-bruited craftiness, that they owe -their progress in the interior of Asia Minor.[33] - -As to the numbers of the Greek inhabitants of the interior of Asia -Minor, only an indirect estimate can be made. The whole number of all -the Greeks in the interior of the two provinces of Brussa and Aïdin, -exclusive of the inhabitants of the coast regions, even twenty years -ago, amounted to 200,000, _i.e._, less than half as many as in the -coast regions. About 100,000 of these lived in places with a population -of more than 5,000, so that about 100,000 were scattered among the -villages and towns. The distribution of this interior population -is very uneven. The densest Greek populations have gathered in the -Prefecture of Aïdin and here chiefly in the sub-prefecture of Smyrna, -with its five districts (Sarukan, with four districts, and Aïdin, -with only one). These three sub-prefectures, therefore, in their ten -districts, comprised, twenty years ago, a fifth part of the entire -population. In the province of Brussa the number of districts with -a considerable Greek population was only five, in the sub-prefecture -of Ertogrul, three; in those of Brussa and Kutaiah, one each. There -were the largest numbers in the district of Eskishehr, the ancient -Dorylæum, where they comprised two-fifths of the population, and in -Michalitch, where they formed one-third of the total. In fifteen of the -twenty-five districts of the interior of the two prefectures fifteen, -therefore, already contained a considerable part of the population. To -speak in greater detail, these districts may be classified as follows, -with relation to the proportions of their Greek inhabitants: The Greek -population is densest in the districts of Magnesia (Sanjak Sarukan), -and Eskishehr (Sanjak Kutaiah), where they constitute a fifth of the -population; less dense in the district of Sokia (Sanjak Aïdin), with -about a third; next comes the district Michalitch (Sanjak Brussa), with -from a fourth to a third; and then those of Bergama, Menemen, Baindir, -Tireh and Odemish (Sanjak Smyrna), where they form about a fourth; next -those of Alashehr (Sanjak Sarukan) and Yenishehr (Sanjak Ertogrul) with -about a fifth; and finally those of Inegeul, Biledjik (Sanjak Ertogrul) -and Soma (Sanjak Sarukan), with a sixth to a seventh of the entire -population. - -What made the estimating of the numbers of these Greeks in the interior -so very difficult was the fact that up to a few years ago they spoke -Turkish and therefore did not share in the national and racial -consciousness of their kinsmen on the coast, and also the fact that -they do not essentially differ in physical type from the Ottomans, -who have become assimilated to the race type of the conquered people -and have lost their special Turkish characteristics. This state of -affairs began to change when the Greeks, with the help of their church, -succeeded in introducing the Greek language in their schools alongside -of the Turkish. Since then, that is, since the seventies of the last -century, the national propaganda has made great progress among them, -and the number of schools has greatly increased. - -In the thirty cities of the interior of this region (prefectures -of Aïdin and Brussa) they possessed in the last decade of the 19th -century more than 400 schools with about 25,000 pupils, while the -Mohammedans in their thousand schools had only 20,000 pupils. The -number of pupils in each Greek school therefore averaged 60, while -those in the Turkish schools averaged only 20, a disproportion which -is to be explained by the fact that the Mohammedan schools are almost -exclusively poorly attended mosque-schools, while the Greek schools are -community-schools that are very well attended. The religious character -of the Turkish educational system is just as prejudicial to the Turks -as the nationalistic tendency of the Greek schools is beneficial to the -Greeks. There are towns in which, in spite of the Greeks being in a -minority, more Greek children attend the schools than Turkish children. -So Sokia, with 180 Turkish and 218 Greek children in school; the same -is true of Bigha (125:140), Alashehr (250:525), Nazilli (162:220), -Menemen (220:325), Biledjik (1,100:1,113). In other towns, such, for -example, as Bergama, Magnesia, Milas, Soyut, the number of the Greek -pupils almost equals that of the Turkish, and in most of them the -number is more than half as large as that of the Turkish pupils, even -in that stronghold of Mohammedanism, Brussa, where there are something -like 2,500 Greeks, as compared with 5,000 Turkish pupils, although the -Greeks comprise here only ten per cent of the population. These are -figures which more than anything else are indicative of the activity -and capacity for education of the Greek part of the population. The -intellectual superiority of the Greeks is set forth in an even stronger -light when one compares the sum total of the Greek schools and of their -pupils in both prefectures with that of the Turkish. For we find that -even in 1894 there were 540 Greek schools, with about 30,000 pupils, -as compared with 1,900 Turkish schools, with about 42,000 pupils. The -slight numerical superiority of the Turkish scholars is, to say the -least, entirely disproportionate to the large majority of Turks in the -population. - -According to recent statistics, which are, to be sure, taken from -Greek sources[34] and are, therefore, perhaps a little too optimistic -in their tone, the number of Greek schools has since then risen to -more than 700 and that of the pupils to more than 100,000 (69,274 -boys and 48,468 girls), which leads one to conclude that the Greek -population numbers a million, a number which, compared with the 650,000 -of twenty-five years ago, does not seem to be too high an estimate, -particularly if we take into account the great increase of the Greeks -through a higher birthrate and through immigration. Thus, the sum total -of the Greeks in both prefectures, which have together a population of -about three millions, would be about a third of this number and would, -at any rate, not fall far below this. - -With this rapidly increasing Greek population of the west coast -and interior, the prefectures of Brussa and Aïdin, and that in the -mountains of Pontus (prefecture of Trebizond) and Central Cappadocia -(prefecture of Angora), which number together a million and a third -more, we have not exhausted the list of Greeks of Asia Minor. There -are, as a matter of fact, large numbers scattered through the interior -and along the south coast, chiefly in the prefecture of Sivas and -Konia, where their number in 1890 approximated 75,000. Next comes the -prefecture of Adana, with about 50,000, and, least strongly Greek, the -prefectures Angora (about 30,000) and Kastamuni (about 25,000). It -has, however, been observed that the number of Greeks in the middle -and eastern provinces is always decreasing, which is doubtless due -to the fact that they wander away into the livelier and more fruitful -regions to the westward.[35] These are in this way becoming more and -more solid nuclei for the process of crystallization for Hellenism -in Asia Minor, which is thus once more, as it did in late antiquity, -shifting its center of gravity toward western Asia Minor, as though -it felt that here is ever that original free-flowing source to which -it now for the fourth time owes its strengthening and rejuvenation: -the first being when in the last centuries before the Christian Era -the native Lydians and Phrygians were assimilated; the second, when in -early Byzantine times it turned back the Romanizing process which had -been going on since the beginning of this era; the next, when in the -7th to the 10th centuries it averted the threatening Arabic peril, and -finally when, though apparently defeated by the Turkish conqueror, it -has after 500 years of relaxation again regained its vigor and strength -in order to fulfill its old historical mission, which consists not in -forcing its way on with the wild alarum of weapons, but through the -peaceful weapons put in its power by nature, _i.e._, by material and -spiritual civilizing agencies, that do their work quietly. This mission -Mohammedanism must meet through appropriate measures in administration -and education, if it desires to secure its political control even in -the western part of Asia Minor, now and in the future. - - - - -III. HELLENIC PONTUS, A RESUME OF ITS HISTORY - -By DEMOSTHENES H. OECONOMIDES - - [Among the most interesting of the irredenta regions - of Asia Minor, from many points of view, is Pontus, on - the southeast coast of the Black Sea. So strong is the - anti-Turkish feeling in this intensely Hellenic land - that a strong movement has recently arisen among her - expatriated sons to establish an independent Republic of - Pontus. Its mountainous inland districts have been so - isolated from the rest of the Greek world and its coast - regions have so strongly preserved their individuality - that language, blood and national feeling have been - maintained in quite a different way from elsewhere in the - Greek world. It has seemed fitting that Pontus therefore - should receive special consideration in this number of - the American-Hellenic Society’s publications, and we are - glad to present this scholarly treatise by Demosthenes - E. Oeconomides, a philologian of no mean repute, who is - a native of this region and has written amongst other - things an authoritative treatise on the Pontic dialect - entitled: _Lautlehre des Pontischen_, Leipzig, 1908.] - - -Pontus is bounded on the north by the southeast shore of the Euxine -or Black Sea, on the east by the Phasis River and Iberia, on the -south by the Argaeus and Antitaurus mountains, and on the west by the -Halys River. The whole country has at several epochs been variously -divided and has gone under different names, thus, for example, in -the time of the Parthians, the region that extended from the Phasis -to the Bosporus was called the Kingdom of Pontus; in the time of the -Romans, preserving the same boundaries, it was called the Polemoniac -Pontus. The best known cities of Pontus are Rizus, Trapezus, Kerasus, -Kotyora, Oenoe, Amisos, Sinope, Inepolis and Heraclea, all of which are -coast cities, while in the interior are Amasea, Paphra, Neocæsarea, -Nicopolis, Argyropolis, etc. Ecclesiastically it is divided into six, -or if Cæsarea be included, into seven Metropolitan districts: Trapezus, -Rhodopolis, Chaldia, Neocæsarea, Amasea, Cæsarea and Colonia. Of the -many monasteries in Pontus, the most important is that of Mela (now -called Soumela) founded by the Athenian monks, Barnabas and Sophronios, -in 376 A.D. in the time of Theodosius the Great. - -Since Trapezus, even in ancient times, was the most important of the -Pontic cities and in the Middle Ages was, in fact, the capital of the -Trapezuntian Empire of the Comnenes, we must give a brief sketch of its -history. - -Trapezus, which was founded by a colony of Sinopians 756 B.C. on a site -peculiarly adapted to the cultivation and development of commerce, is -a most ancient and illustrious city. “The city Trapezus,” as Eugenicus -says, “most ancient and best of all the cities in the East,” and “most -venerable of all” according to the expression of Besarion (MS. Ven. -p. 133). We learn from Xenophon’s “Anabasis” (Book V. 5, 10) that -Trapezus paid tribute to its metropolis Sinope. Since, according to -this historian, neither the Colchians nor Chaldians recognized the -Persian sovereignty, we may infer from this that the Trapezuntians -never submitted to the Persians. Xenophon also furnishes us historical -and geographical information about Trapezus and the countries and -peoples round about it, for he was hospitably entertained there for -thirty days on the return of the 10,000. The fine coins of gold and -silver struck both before and after the time of Alexander the Great -testify that it was a free and prosperous city. It certainly maintained -its independence and freedom under Alexander the Great, for it is well -known that he drove out the Persian satraps and rulers wherever these -existed in Pontus and left all the districts and cities autonomous, -among which, under Persian rule, Amisos (Samsun) had been deprived -of its democratic government. During the time of the Diadochi, -(Alexander’s successors), there are recorded as ruling in Cappadocia, -Paphlagonia and a part of Pontus as far as Trapezus, Eumenes (322-315 -B.C.), Perdiccas, Mithridates and in particular Seleucus I, called -Nicator (312-208 B.C.), until the Mithridates again gained control up -to 63 B.C., when upon the final dissolution of their empire, Pontus, -under the Romans, entered upon a new period of life. - -From that time there was sent there by them annually a special governor -until in 46 B.C. Polemon from Tralles in Phrygia was established as -king of Pontus from Bosporus to Colchis. Many of the coast cities which -had been the allies of the Romans during the wars waged by them from -89-63 B.C. against Mithridates VII, called Eupator, and among them -Trapezus, were, however, still left autonomous. The Polemoniac Empire -lasted till 63 A.D., when Nero made Pontus a Roman province. - -After a short period of decline Trapezus rose again in the time of -Julian in 333. It had accepted Christianity from the first apostle, -Andrew, who came there from Samsun in 34 A.D. and transmitted it to the -surrounding peoples. Its first bishop was Eugeneos, known as the patron -and protector of the city, who endured martyrdom in 216 under the reign -of Diocletian (a Byzantine church, still existing, preserves his name). -He was succeeded by a long line of bishops who honored the Church. In -fact, some of them participated in Ecumenical Synods. - -In the time of the great Constantine, Trapezus continued to be a -provincial city under a pro-consul, as also in the time of Justinian -(6th century). As such it belonged, along with Cerasus, to Polemoniac -Pontus, the capital of which was then Neocæsarea. From then up to the -time of Leo the Isaurian, unfortunately, we know nothing about it, -but in the time of the Isaurians it appears as a starting point for -political and warlike operations undertaken against the Persians, the -Turcomans and the Arabs, having become the metropolis of the large and -important “thema” (district) of Chaldia, while it was, at the same -time, and even before the time of the Isaurians, a home of learning, as -the Siracene Ananias, a trustworthy Armenian writer of the 7th century, -testifies. - -With regard to the thema of Chaldia (the eighth in Asia Minor), it is -to be noted that this originally extended as far as Colonia, Kamak -and Keltzene, but in the time of Leo the Wise the two last districts -were added to the thema of New-Mesopotamia. We know that the archons -and dukes of Chaldia in the 11th century, seeking little by little -to free themselves from Byzantine rule, began to call themselves -dukes of Trapezus and their country Trapezousia. One in particular, -Theodore Gabras, from a noble family in Trapezus, and most skillful in -war, saved Trapezus and the surrounding country from two invasions, -one by the Seljuk-Turks in 1049 and the other under David, the king -of Georgia. He, therefore, regarded the country as his own private -possession and held it up to his death, as a prince, independent of -Byzantium. Of these Gabrades dukes of Trapezus, Theodore’s son Gregory -and his grandson Constantine Gabras are known to us. In the time of -the former Trapezus was again made dependent on Byzantium, but in the -time of the latter, since the dukes had offered important services to -the Byzantine Empire, it gained its independence again and held it -till Manuel I (Comnenos) 1143-1180, succeeded in attaching it to his -realm by taking advantage of a faction that had risen there against the -Gabras family, and from that time on Trapezus continued to be dependent -on Byzantium until its capture by the Latins, because at that time the -Trapezuntian Empire of the Comneni was established. - -From the foundation of this new empire until its fall through the -capture of Trapezus by the Turks, that is from 1204-1461, the following -rulers occupied the throne: - - (1) ALEXIOS I., the great Comnenos, the son of - Manuel, Sebastocrator and the founder of the - Trapezuntian Empire 1204-1222 - - (2) ANDRONIKUS I. Ghidus, son-in-law of the preceding 1222-1235 - - (3) JOHN I. Axouchus 1235-1238 - - (4) MANUEL I., the great Comnenos, who built the - beautiful church of St. Sophia in Trapezus - (still existent) 1238-1263 - - (5) ANDRONIKUS II., oldest son of the preceding 1263-1266 - - (6) GEORGE I., brother of the preceding 1266-1280 - - (7) JOHN II., brother of George I. 1280-1297 - - (8) THEODORA 1285 - - (9) ALEXIOS II., the great Comnenos 1297-1330 - - (10) ANDRONIKUS III., oldest son of Alexios II. 1330-1332 - - (11) MANUEL II. 1332 - - (12) BASIL 1332-1340 - - (13) IRENE, Palæologina 1340-1341 - - (14) ANNA, Comnenos 1341-1342 - - (15) JOHN III., Comnenos 1342-1344 - - (16) MICHAEL I. 1344-1349 - - (17) ALEXIOS III., the great Comnenos 1349-1390 - - (18) MANUEL III. 1390-1417 - - (19) ALEXIOS IV. 1417-1446 - - (20) JOHN IV., Kalogiannes 1446-1458 - - (21) DAVID Comnenos, brother of John IV. and last - emperor in the Trapezuntian Empire of the - Comneni 1458-1461 - -The fall of Trapezus which occurred a few years after the capture of -Constantinople dealt the final deadly blow to Hellenism as a whole. -At this time, in the very nature of things, it was impossible for the -Trapezuntian Empire to escape its fate, being compelled, as it was, to -fight against innumerable and well organized enemies, while previously, -during the 257-year period of its life, it had repulsed many barbarian -invasions and had shown great political and military efficiency. But -even in her fall she contributed not a little to the dissemination -of the seeds of civilization and literature in the West through her -illustrious sons, such as Bessarion, George the Trapezuntian and -other learned men. By a strange coincidence the two last emperors of -Hellenism, Constantine Palæologus of Byzantium and David of Trapezus, -fell as soldiers, the first fighting for his fatherland like a hero -on the fortifications of his capital, the second for his religion -in Constantinople itself, preferring with nobility of soul and true -Christian fortitude to see his children fall beneath the ax of the -executioner and then to fall himself exclaiming, “Just art Thou, O -Lord, and righteous are Thy judgments” rather than to forswear his -faith as proposed by the conqueror Mohammed. - -As everywhere, so, too, in Pontus, the Greek, though subjected to harsh -slavery, did not lose courage and hope, but by uniting the strength -left him and taking courage anew, he endeavored, just in so far as -he could, to render his living with his conquerors as endurable as -possible, an attempt in which he succeeded by enlisting their sympathy -and esteem whenever they made use of him for high positions, or in the -arts and trades in which they needed his help. Those that had special -skill in iron-working in Chaldia and others in other places were even -granted special privileges. - -The services rendered to the Ottoman Empire by the Hypsilanti, -Mourouzae and Carotsades of Pontus, were indeed invaluable, services -which brought honor and profit to their own fatherland and the Greek -race in general. Thus, Hellenism in Pontus partly by its steadily -honorable and sincere character, and partly by its intellectual -superiority generally, has made its impress on the conquerors and has -succeeded in distinguishing itself in education, in trade, in the -arts and sciences as the only element that makes for civilization. -Unceasingly cultivating Greek letters under the shield of the Greek -church, now in the monasteries or under the roof of the church, now in -special schools, it keeps alive the national feeling and sentiment, -which it has preserved and is preserving in a high degree, with the -hope of a more auspicious future and of some day recovering its full -freedom. - -Never has it forgotten its glorious past. Glorying in this, with -beating heart it sings, as it has always sung, of the Greek name and -of Greek courage. A clear testimony of this is the preservation of the -name “Hellene” and the words “Hellenic spear” in the demotic songs -of the period after the fall of Constantinople. Having succeeded in -preserving even in the times of slavery its language and nationality -and the faith of its fathers, it takes pride in this and cherishes -unshaken the conviction that at the proper time the historical rights -that it possesses will not be overlooked. - - -THE GREEK DIALECT AS SPOKEN IN PONTUS - -Of the many dialects of Modern Greek, that spoken in Pontus has taken -a prominent place in the investigation into Modern Greek in general -ever since linguistic scientists have undertaken to study it. And this -is certainly justified, for this study contributes substantially to -the elucidation, explanation and solution of many linguistic phenomena -in the other dialects and in the Κοινὴ διάλεκτος in general, for many -forms and many words which were formerly inexplicable from the point of -view of phonetics or semantics have been most happily explained by the -comparison of corresponding forms or words in the Pontic dialect. This, -too, is derived from the Koine, but owing to an admixture of certain -Ionic elements, and to the fact that in taking shape in the Middle -Ages it admitted new Byzantine words, it has so developed and grown -that its use on the one hand of sounds unknown to the common Greek, -and, on the other, the astounding variety of phonetic changes and -modifications (which appear in different forms) which it presents, its -manifold transformations on the basis of analogy, its not infrequent -syntactic peculiarities (which are due especially to the influence -of the Turkish language), and the large number of nouns, verbs and -adverbs formed from Turkish words or Turkish roots through the use of -Greek terminations, render it incomprehensible to many. This evolution -and the great difference between the Pontic language and the common -Greek are perfectly natural, both on account of the Ionic elements -which have been preserved from of old, and of the Turkish elements -which the language has received through the conquest of Pontus by the -Turks, and thirdly from its geographical position which separates its -inhabitants from the great masses of the Greek people and thus limits -the assimilating influence of modern Greek on the Pontic dialect. - -This form of the language has great importance for the reason that in -the variety and richness of its vocabulary it has preserved a rich -and extremely valuable store of forms and ancient words, some wholly -unchanged in form and signification, and some modified, to be sure, -but perfectly capable of being reduced to their original form by the -philologist.[36] - -[Illustration: ASIA MINOR] - - - - -AMERICAN-HELLENIC NEWS - -The first anniversary of the entrance of Greece into the great World -War was officially celebrated in New York City by a banquet tendered by -His Excellency, George Roussos, the Minister of Greece at Washington, -to about forty prominent and representative citizens of New York at -Delmonico’s, and these guests were invited to participate later in an -imposing celebration in the Century Theater. - -Many thousands of Greeks and Americans formed most enthusiastic and -appreciative listeners to speeches made by Mr. Roussos (whose address -is given below in full), Francis M. Hugo, Secretary of State of New -York, who came in behalf of His Excellency Governor Whitman; Richard -Enright, Commissioner of Police of New York City, who represented -the Mayor of the city; Demetrios Verenikis, Consul General of Greece -and recently appointed Minister of Greece to Japan; William Fellowes -Morgan, President of the Merchants’ Association, and Constantine -Voicly, President of the Pan-Hellenic Union in America. The invocation -was pronounced by the Rev. Demetrios Callimachos of the Greek Church. - -Among those guests at the banquet, who were also present at -the theater, were the Honorable Cunliffe-Owen, who presided -and felicitously introduced the various speakers; the Countess -Cunliffe-Owen; Baron de Sadelaer, formerly Minister of State of -Belgium; General Daniel Appleton, U. S. A.; Colonel DeWitt Clinton -Falls, commanding the Seventh Regiment; General W. A. White, C. B., -of the British War Mission; Commodore Lionel Wells, of the Royal -British Navy; General William A. Mann, U. S. A., commanding Governors -Island; Colonel George W. Burleigh, of the Governor’s Staff; Captain -L. Rebel, of the French Navy; J. K. Ohl, editor-in-chief of the New -York _Herald_; Pay Director Charles W. Littlefield, U. S. N.; David -Penny, vice-president of the Irving National Bank; Robert Grier Cooke, -president of the Fifth Avenue Association; Hon. Byron B. Newton, -collector of the Port of New York; J. S. Alexander, president of the -National Bank of Commerce; R. C. Veit, vice-president of the Standard -Oil Company; Elbert H. Gary, Samuel W. Fairchild, A. E. Stevenson, H. -W. Sackett, George T. Wilson, Colonel Benda of the Italian Army, and -Commodore Morrell, U. S. N. - -The members of the Executive Committee of the American-Hellenic Society -participated in both parts of the great celebration, which had been -so ably organized and effectively carried out by Mr. Cunliffe-Owen, a -member of our Committee as well as one of the Board of Governors of our -Society. - -The sentiment so eloquently uttered by Commissioner Enright that -Constantinople, which has always been an essentially Greek city, -should, at the round table of the peace delegates, be returned to -Greece, was greeted with cheers and the loudest applause. - - -SPEECH OF GEORGE ROUSSOS, THE MINISTER OF GREECE - -There are certain anniversaries, such as that of today, that fully -deserve to be celebrated, for they contain such reassuring lessons that -they are justly brought into prominence. - -We cannot help admiring the heroism of little Belgium, which stood out -so boldly against the outrageous demand of a militaristic power that -had resolved to trample upon morality, and to violate justice. - -We are compelled to extol that superhuman calmness with which -peace-loving France accepted the challenge which the German Colossus -launched at her, bidding her forget her sworn faith and all the -principles which she had taught and which gave her her beauty. - -We must honor, too, Great Britain, which, simply because, in the -person of Belgium, international right had been outraged, entered into -the war so gallantly at its very start, and sent her children—an act -unparalleled in history—by millions to offer their lives voluntarily -for the defense of the right. - -The Japanese, faithful to their alliance with Great Britain, followed. - -It is an indisputable fact that these countries have saved the world, -for the example that they have thus given humanity was so grand and -glorious that it has carried other nations with it. - -There have been moments of uncertainty and doubt, in the face of -the colossal strength of Germany, and the ferocity of her attacks. -In view of the destruction which seemed so certain, the instinct of -self-preservation, for a considerable time, dominated the peoples not -immediately touched by the war. - -But the cruelty of Germany and of her accomplices has finally roused -all the nobler and more generous nations. One after another they have -become involved, for their revulsion of feeling at her atrocities is -such that it has silenced every other sentiment. - -Italy was the first to set the example by turning away from an -alliance, the evil aims of which had been revealed to her, and she was -soon followed by Rumania. - -The Great Republic of the United States, after having for a long -time hoped to induce Germany to respect international treaties, has -resolutely entered into the great conflict. - -Greece was the last European state to enter into the fight. I say, the -last, although, in fact, she really takes her place next to England. -For it is a well-known fact that in August, 1914, before the battle -of the Marne had taken place, at the time when the Germans were at -the gates of Paris, Greece, through her government, had offered her -aid: perhaps if at this moment the Allies had understood aright the -situation in the Orient, if they had taken advantage of this offer, -many disasters might have been averted. - -This mistaken policy on the part of the Allies permitted Germany to -utilize the instruments that she had been preparing for a long time -in the Orient. Two years had been lost: disasters had been piled on -disasters, before the necessary measures were taken and the Greek -people had become free to act according to its aspirations. There, too, -we see the same reassuring results. Noble sentiments obtained the upper -hand over feelings of self-interest. These feelings were so strong -that they silenced the doubts and fears even of timid souls. We must -recall that in June, 1917, Rumania was defeated, the Russian collapse -was complete and the German armies free to turn against Greece. On the -other hand, the dissension caused by German propaganda in Greece seemed -so deeply rooted, that even the friends of Greece did not believe that -she was capable of taking any important part in the struggle. - -Under the inspiring influence of the man who knows Greece best, because -he embodies all the better qualities of the Greek nature, Eleutherios -Venizelos, Greece refused to see the danger; she became united and -filled with an eager enthusiasm, and in less than a year her troops -have obtained appreciable results. - -What this renaissance cost in effort the world cannot yet know. When -the facts are known, when they can be fully studied, the Greek people -will receive the credit that it deserves, because what it has achieved -is due only to its patriotism and self-sacrifice. - -From the close of 1916, when Greece, though still divided, began the -struggle, up to today, when, as a united people, she is carrying on the -fight, she has sacrificed thousands of her children for the triumph -of the common ideal, and is arming herself more fully day by day, to -pour out her blood to the last drop in order to secure the victory for -freedom and right. She is paying forth freely without having demanded -anything in return. - -These facts prove our superiority to our enemies. A superiority which -consists in the fact that we are fighting for principles created and -imposed by a civilization which began with the beginnings of history, -principles that we wish to apply even to our enemies and which, -moreover, are free from any selfish motives. - -It is this absence of egotism in our aims which assures our perfect -union and, through this, our victory. - -If you wish to appreciate the palpable difference between us and the -others, look at what is today taking place in a hostile country which I -refrain from naming. - -Four peoples, that had formed a coalition, took from their neighbors -all that they could get. Now, in dividing the spoil, because of their -distrust of each other, they are taking precautions against one -another. One of the peoples against whom these precautions are being -taken becomes sulky and shows signs of wanting to go over to the other -side, because all Dobrudja (of which a large part is acknowledged -to be Rumanian by the official representative of this people in the -United States) is not given to her; because all Greek Macedonia is not -declared to be hers; because Serbia is not today obliterated from the -map. - -When people are associated in order to bring about some good result, -good faith is preserved in the partnership, but when, on the contrary, -an evil act is accomplished and unlawful gains are obtained, disunion -necessarily results, for “honor among thieves” is, after all, extremely -rare. - -Permit me a parenthesis, at this point. - -I have read lately with regard to this quarrel that the hope exists -that this country to which I have referred may become detached from her -allies and join in with us. - -I am convinced that this supposition cannot be realized. I insist, -however, in protesting even against the reasoning based on such an -hypothesis. - -Whatever may be the practical result that we can expect from the -perfidy of our enemies, our feelings revolt against profiting by such -treachery. Our cause is so just that it admits of no compromise. - -Should the country of which I am speaking show her repentance, by -restoring all that it has taken from its neighbors, it can find a place -at our side. But to admit in our circle of nations one who flees from -the enemy camp against which we are fighting because his part in the -booty is not that which his appetite has fixed, is impossible. In fact, -such an act would constitute the negation of the principles for which -we are fighting. - -We have no need of weakening ourselves. We are materially and, above -all, morally, far superior to our enemies. We must conserve the dignity -of our cause if we wish the results to be commensurate with our efforts. - -This is what stands forth preëminently in the celebration of such -anniversaries. They show to us that our civilizations, the Greco-Latin -as well as the Anglo-Saxon, have deep roots, and that they have created -conditions which are essential to our existence. - -That when these aspirations thus created in us are threatened, we are -willing to submit to any sacrifices, no matter how great they may be, -in order to defend them. - -That our ideals have conquered the greater part of the world, creating -strong bonds of solidarity between the peoples who are impregnated -with them, permitting us to face with confidence the creation of the -league of nations which will assure to the world an era of happiness in -freedom through law. - -Let us continue the fight; let us win, maintaining our principles -without compromise. We shall thus be sure of winning the commendation -of humanity. - -But we must understand that in order to achieve this result, the -complete liberation of the world, we must submit to great sacrifices of -men and of money. - -It is the need of our making these sacrifices which are being utilized -by the German propaganda in order to obtain an immediate peace which is -to the Germans an absolute necessity. - -Through its secret agents, she tries to convince us that in order to -obtain the victory against her, our sacrifices will be enormous, -while, if we satisfy some of her aspirations, she will be ready to -respect the liberty of the world. - -We must close our ears to these insidious suggestions. Everything that -comes from the enemy camp must arouse our distrust, for Germany wishes -indirectly to obtain what she has originally sought when she let loose -upon the world the dogs of war. - -Russia lies prostrate, and Germany wishes to reanimate her, but to -raise her with a German soul. When she has at her disposal the enormous -power of Russia, organized with Prussian efficiency, a more terrible -war awaits the world. The sacrifices to which we shall then be obliged -to submit will be much more terrific. - -If we wish to put our programme into operation, we must set ourselves -to change the German mind, showing the ruins that its inhumane -conceptions have accumulated, and the fall of German power that must -result from it. We have to do with fanatics of a peculiar kind, whom -only reality can bring to their senses. The Germans are fighting -in order to impose their civilization on the world by establishing -a domination like that of the Mussulmans, who have slaughtered the -Christians in order to assure their happiness in the future life. -If our victory is incomplete, if the liberty of the nations is not -completely restored, we shall have simply an interlude between acts. -The curtain will rise upon a more terrible tragedy. - -Let us endeavor to see beyond the limits of the present. Let us rise to -meet the emergency. The responsibility of our rulers is tremendous, but -they are endowed with the necessary ability to rise to these heights. - -Let them not be influenced by these crafty serpents which are subtly -attempting to weaken our moral fiber, for the confidence of the leaders -will maintain the strength of our peoples, which up to the present -nothing has been able to affect, and which constitutes our best means -to win. - -Following the example of the countries that for four years have been -shedding their precious blood to conquer the monster, and consenting -to undergo the same sacrifices, we can be absolutely sure that our -victory will be complete. - -In the name of the Government which I have the honor to represent, I -can assure you that Greece’s determination to see the struggle through -to the bitter end, is unshakable. - - - - -OBJECTS OF THE SOCIETY - - -The American-Hellenic Society is organized for the general purpose of -extending and encouraging among the citizens of the United States of -America an interest in the cultural and political relations between -the United States and Greece; and in particular to promote educational -relationships, including the establishment of exchange professorships -in the Universities of the United States and Greece, as a means to -diffuse knowledge of the literature and political institutions of the -United States throughout Greece, and to encourage in America the study -of the ancient and modern Hellenic language and literature; and further -to defend the just claims of Greece in particular and of Hellenism in -general. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] The Metropolis of Tarsus and Adana, although it is, geographically, -in Asia Minor, falls under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the -Patriarch of Antioch and is therefore omitted here. - -[2] See authorities for these statements in an essay by the present -writer, published in the _Michigan Law Review_, vol. VI., 1907-1908, -pp. 50-52, and entitled, “Roman Law and Mohammedan Jurisprudence,” Part -I. - -[3] See Publication No. 3 of the American-Hellenic Society, entitled -_Persecutions of the Greeks in Turkey since the Beginning of the -European War_, June, 1918. - -[4] The present writer, in carrying on researches dealing with Asia -Minor, came upon Dr. Dieterich’s study, and, after reading it, thought -that it would be better to publish this essay than to write a new one, -inasmuch as he noticed that, with the exception of a few observations -which were to be expected from a German writer, the author gives, -on the whole, an accurate and impartial account of the condition of -things in Asia Minor, and does not seem to share the views of many of -the civil and military officials of Germany, who consider that the -existence of the Hellenic element there is detrimental to the interests -of Deutschtum. It seemed, therefore, that no better testimony could be -found than that adduced by a subject of Kaiser Wilhelm on the material -and intellectual strength of Hellenism in Asia Minor, which is the -latest bugbear of the Teutons and the target of Turkish cruelty. - -[5] See an account of this interview in a Greek pamphlet entitled _How -Germany Destroyed Hellenism in Turkey_, by G. Mikrasianou, 1916, and -particularly the confidential letter of the Turkish Minister of the -Interior, Talaat Bey (now Prime Minister), dated May 14, 1914, to the -Governor of Smyrna, reproduced in _Le Temps_ of July 20, 1916, and the -English translation of it in Publication No. 3 of the American-Hellenic -Society, p. 70. - -[6] Supplement to the Greek White Book, entitled _Ministère des -Affaires Étrangers, Documents Diplomatiques, Supplément_, 1913-1917, -Nos. 1 and 4. - -[7] Oftentimes the name of the school embodies that of the donor, as, -_e.g._, Marasleion, Zographeion, Theologeion are named from Marasles, -Zographos and Theologos. - -[8] A much earlier and well-known English traveler calls Smyrna “the -lovely, the crown of Ionia, the ornament of Asia.” (See _Travels in -Asia Minor and Greece_, by Richard Chandler, ed. N. Revett, vol. I., p. -73, ed. 1825.) - -[9] See Gaston Deschamps, _Sur les routes d’Asie_, 1894, p. 152. - -[10] Das Griechentum Kleinasiens, von Dr. Karl Dieterich, in _Länder -und Völker der Türkei_ (Schriften des Deutschen Vorderasienkomitees, -herausgegeben von Dr. jur. et phil. Hugo Grothe, Leipzig, 1915). - -[11] A political treatment of the “Greek Question” was presented in a -pamphlet of the Vorderasienkomitee, under the title, _Die asiatische -Türkei und die deutschen Interessen_, Leipzig, 1913, S. 23-26. - -[12] The successors of Alexander the Great. - -[13] So Michael Psellus (11th-12th century) of Nicomedia, Michael -Attaliates (11th century) from Attalia in Pamphylia, Nicetas Acominatos -(12th-13th century) from Phrygia, Georgius Pachymeres (13th-14th -century) of Nicæa; Nicephoros Gregoras (14th century) from Pontus. -The two latter are, also, our chief source of information about the -invasion of Asia Minor by the Turks. Cf. K. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der -byzantinischen Litteratur_, 2, München, 1897, §§ 126 and 128. - -[14] Cf. J. Strzygowski, _Kleinasien, ein Neuland der Kunstgeschichte_, -Leipzig, 1903. - -[15] K. Krumbacher, _Gesch. der byzantin. Litteratur_, 2, § 358. - -[16] Cf. Von der Goltz, _Anatol. Ausflüge_, Berlin (1896), S. 70 ff. - -[17] As to the type of the Anatolian Turks, see L. Heermann, -_Rückerinnerungen aus dem Orient_ (Aschaffenburg, 1886, S. 13, 126); -A. Philippson, _Das Mittelmeergebiet_, 2, (Leipzig, 1906, S. 197); -H. Gelzer, _Geistliches und Weltliches aus dem griechisch-türkischen -Orient_ (Leipzig, 1900, S. 185); R. Fitzner, _Anatolien_ (Leipzig, -1902, S. 19). - -[18] On these old Church Acts is based the instructive investigation of -A. Waechter, _Der Verfall des Griechenthums in Kleinasien im 14. Jhd._, -Leipzig, 1903. - -[19] TRANSLATOR’S NOTE: There are at present twenty-two Metropolitans -in Asia Minor, or better, including that of Tarsus and Adana, which -is under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Antioch, -twenty-three. - -[20] On the question of the racial characteristics of the Greeks of -Asia Minor, cf. A. von Luschan, _Verhandlungen d. Gesellsch. f. Erdkde. -zu Berlin_, 15 (1888), S. 47-60; _Archiv f. Anthropol._, 19 (1889-90), -S. 31-53; _L’Anthropologie_, I., p. 679 ff., II., p. 25 f. - -[21] Specimens of the Pontic and Cappadocian dialects of today are to -be found in A. Thumb’s _Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache_, -2 (Strassburg, 1910), S. 294-298. Grothe, in his treatise, _Meine -Vorderasienexpedition 1906 u. 1907_, Bd. II., S. 175, calls attention -to the dialect of the Greeks of Farash in the southern Antitaurus. - -[22] Exact statistics as to the number of Greeks in Cappadocia are -given by R. M. Dawkins, in the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, 30 -(1910), pp. 109-132, 267-291. - -[23] For more exact information, see H. Kiepert, _Die griechische -Sprache im pontischen Küstengebirge, Zeitschr. d. Gesellsch. f. Erdkde. -in Berlin_, 25 (1890), S. 317 ff. - -[24] Only the two largest rivers of western Asia Minor, the Mæander and -the Sangarios have, in a characteristic manner, kept their old names in -the form of Menderes and Sakkaria. - -[25] These texts, so interesting for the history of trade, are -reproduced by D. Georgiades in _La Turquie actuelle_, Paris, 1892, pp. -197 ff., 218 ff., 224 ff. - -[26] The statistical data are based on Cuinet, _La Turquie -d’Asie_ (Paris, 1890-95), II. and III., completed from Baedeker, -_Constantinopel und Kleinasien_, 2 (1914). - -[27] In a similar way, in more recent times, the German excavations of -Priene and Miletus have benefited the neighboring Greek settlements. -Cf. H. Gelzer, _Geistliches und Weltliches_, S. 231. - -[28] Also called Kuru-Chesme, _i.e._, “dry fountain.” The place seems -to have a Greek name, Ξεροκρένε as its prototype, though no place of -this name is provable in Byzantine times. - -[29] Details about the history of this school are to be found in K. -Krumbacher, _Populäre Aufsätze_ (Leipzig, 1909), S. 251 ff. - -[30] These statistics about the schools are derived from Cuinet, as -above cited. - -[31] As to the decrease of the Turkish population of Asia Minor -and its causes, see L. Heermann, _Rückerinnerungen aus dem Orient_ -(Aschaffenburg, 1886), S. 128 Anm.; R. Fitzner, _Anatolien_, S. -20 f.; on the increase of the Greeks: K. Humann, _Verhandlgn. d. -Gesellsch. f. Erdkde. zu Berlin_, 7 (1880), S. 249-252; R. Fischer, -_Mittelmeerbilder_, N. F. (Leipzig, 1907), S. 401 f. - -[32] Hugo Grothe, too, in _Die Asiatische Türkei und die deutschen -Interessen_ (_Der neue Orient_, S. 25, 9 Heft), pleads for a -closer feeling between the Germans and the Asia Minor Greeks. So, -too, Blankenburg, Heft 1 of the _Schriftensammlung des Deutschen -Vorderasienkomitees, Die Zukunftsarbeit der deutschen Schule in der -Türkei_. - -[33] It is to be remembered that the higher professional places in the -towns of Asia Minor are filled almost exclusively by Greeks. Teachers, -doctors and engineers are for the most part Greeks and therefore among -the higher engineering and administrative officials of the Anatolian -and the Bagdad railways there are many Greeks. - -[34] The “Association d’Orient” in Athens. - -[35] See, for example, E. Naumann, _Vom Goldnen Horn zu den Quellen des -Euphrat_ (1893), S. 208. - -[36] For complete details and examples illustrating these relations, -see D. E. 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