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-Project Gutenberg's The Theory of Environment, by Armin Hajman Koller

-

-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most

-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions

-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of

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-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.

-

-Title: The Theory of Environment

-       An outline of the history of the idea of Milieu, and its present status

-

-Author: Armin Hajman Koller

-

-Release Date: September 24, 2017 [EBook #55619]

-

-Language: English

-

-Character set encoding: UTF-8

-

-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT ***

-

-

-

-

-Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed

-Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was

-produced from images generously made available by The

-Internet Archive)

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-

-

-                       THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT

-

-                                 Part I

-

-

-                       The University of Chicago

-

-

-

-

-                       THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT

-   _An Outline of the History of the Idea of Milieu, and its Present

-                                Status_

-                                 PART I

-                             A DISSERTATION

- SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE

-          IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

-            DEPARTMENT OF GERMANIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES

-

-

-                                   BY

-

-                          ARMIN HAJMAN KOLLER

-

-

-                          The Collegiate Press

-

-                    GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY

-                           MENASHA, WISCONSIN

-                                  1918

-

-

-

-

-                       THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT

-

-                                 PART I

-

-   _An Outline of the History of the Idea of Milieu, and its Present

-                                Status_

-

-                                   BY

-                       ARMIN HAJMAN KOLLER, PH.D.

-                          Instructor in German

-                       The University of Illinois

-

-            “.............................

-            _He fixed thee ’mid this dance

-            Of plastic circumstance_.”

-

-                        Robert Browning, “_Rabbi Ben Ezra_.”

-

-                          The Collegiate Press

-                    GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY

-                           MENASHA, WISCONSIN

-                                  1918

-

-

-

-

-                            _Copyright, 1918

-                          By Armin H. Koller_

-

-

-

-

-                                   TO

-                               MY PARENTS

-

-

-

-

-                                CONTENTS

-

-

-                                                                    PAGE

-

- Introductory Remark. Meanings of the Word _Milieu_                    1

-

-   I. A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Down to the

-        Nineteenth Century                                             7

-

-  II. A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Since the

-        Beginning of the Nineteenth Century                           27

-

-      Anthropo-geography, Geography and History                       27

-

-      Geography and History                                           42

-

-      More Recent Anthropo-geographical Treatises                     65

-

-      Primitive Peoples and Environment                               69

-

-      Society and Physical Milieu                                     74

-

-      Government, War, Progress, and Climate                          76

-

-      Climate and Man’s Characteristics                               80

-

-      Man’s Intellect and Physical Environment                        81

-

-      Religion and Physical Milieu                                    83

-

-      Climate and Conduct                                             84

-

-      Climatic Control of Food and Drink                              91

-

- Summary                                                              93

-

- Appendix                                                             97

-

-

-

-

-                                PREFACE

-

-

-In 1912 (see _Publications of the Modern Language Association of

-America_, Vol. 28, N. S., Vol. 21, 1913, Proceedings for 1912, p.

-xxxix), I called attention to the Herder-Taine problem on milieu. The

-paper discussing that problem awaits the completion of another paper

-entitled “Herder’s Conception of Milieu.” The latter was my starting

-point. Setting about to inform myself on the history of the theory, I

-determined to obtain for myself, if possible, a tolerably complete idea,

-at least in its essentials, of the theory of milieu, to see where the

-theory led to, where it started from, what changes it has undergone, and

-what were its ramifications. My plan was to state briefly my findings in

-a chapter preparatory to stating Herder’s idea of milieu. As guide-posts

-were lacking, at least I knew of none, I was bound to seek by accident

-and for a number of years. In stumbling along, I first chanced upon the

-Herder-Taine problem. When my material swelled to proportions that could

-not be controlled in part of a chapter or in a chapter, I had to

-separate it, by its main divisions, into parts. The question arose,

-should it be a _concrete_ treatise on environment. I soon found that to

-be, at least for the time being, beyond my province and also beyond my

-present purpose; besides, it would have swerved me too far afield;

-moreover, it would have had to be limited to a small portion of the

-subject. My present concern in this theory being genetic and historical,

-it seemed best to assemble all the sources one could find bearing on the

-history of the theory and to indicate the trend of its development in a

-rough preliminary sketch. Such a sketch is a requisite first step and

-perhaps a modest contribution to a history of the theory under

-consideration. The first part of this sketch is herein given. The

-original plan, mentioned above, of a prefatory chapter to Herder

-accounts for the retention of untranslated passages in the text of this

-part, a practice to be eschewed in the subsequent parts of this study

-which are to appear shortly.

-

-Nearly all the material was collected by October, 1915, and this

-manuscript was finished early in January, 1917.

-

-I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to Professor Martin Schütze of

-the University of Chicago for the suggestion, made in 1907, to find out

-what Herder’s idea of milieu is; to my friend and former colleague at

-the University of Illinois, Dr. Charles C. Adams (now Assistant

-Professor of Ecology at Syracuse University) for references given me at

-my request (but he is in no wise to be held responsible for the bringing

-in of these references); and to my good friend and colleague, Professor

-John Driscoll Fitz-Gerald of the University of Illinois for a number of

-helpful suggestions given when reading the manuscript and for assisting

-with the reading of the galley proof.

-

-                                                        ARMIN H. KOLLER.

-

- _Champaign, Illinois,

-     April, 1918._

-

-

-

-

-                          INTRODUCTORY REMARK

-                     MEANINGS OF THE WORD “MILIEU”

-

-

-Before entering upon the discussion of the principal theme of this

-study,[1] it is necessary to cast a brief glance over the origin and

-development of the meaning and use of the word milieu.

-

-“Milieu” (_mi-lieu=medius locus_), originally signifying middle point or

-part, central place or portion, mid-point, center, had been employed in

-France as a term in physics at least as early as the seventeenth century

-(Pascal). The fourth edition of the dictionary of the French Academy[2]

-defines it as follows: “En termes de Physique, on appelle _Milieu_, Tout

-corps, soit solide, soit fluide, traversé par la lumière ou par un autre

-corps.” [In the fifth edition—1813—the following illustration in italics

-is added to the foregoing: “La lumière se rompt différemment en

-traversant différens milieux.”]

-

-“On appelle aussi _milieu_, Le fluide qui environne les corps. _L’air

-est le milieu dans lequel nous vivons. L’eau est le milieu qu’habitent

-les poissons._”

-

-Diderot’s Encyclopedia[3] testifies to this same sense of “medium”:

-“_Milieu_, dans la Philosophie mêchanique, signifie un espace matériel à

-travers lequel passe un corps dans son mouvement, ou en général, un

-espace matériel dans lequel un corps est placé, soit qu’il se meuve ou

-non.

-

-“Ainsi on imagine l’éther comme un _milieu_ dans lequel les corps

-célestes se meuvent.—L’air est un _milieu_ dans lequel les corps se

-meuvent près de la surface de la terre.—L’eau est le _milieu_ dans

-lequel les poissons vivent & se meuvent.—Le verre enfin est un _milieu_,

-en égard à la lumière, parce qu’il lui permet un passage à travers ses

-pores.”

-

-Auguste Comte[4] extended its signification as a term in biology to

-include “the totality of external conditions of any kind whatsoever”:

-“_Milieu_ ..., non-seulement le fluide où l’organisme est plongé, mais,

-en général, _l’ensemble total des circonstances extérieurs d’un genre

-quelconque_ [the italics are ours], nécessaires à l’existence de chaque

-organisme déterminé. Ceux qui auront suffisamment médité sur le rôle

-capital que doit remplir, dans toute biologie positive, l’idée

-correspondante, ne me reprocheront pas, sans doute, l’introduction de

-cette expression nouvelle.”

-

-Hippolyte Taine who generalized it still further, broadened its

-connotation to comprehend the whole social surroundings.[5] Milieu as a

-_terminus technicus_ is ordinarily considered as having been coined by

-Taine, but whether that be so or not, one may safely say that its wide

-acceptance is due, primarily, to him and to his renowned disciple

-Zola.[6]

-

-In the course of the last century, the designation milieu became not

-only more generalized and more frequent in use, but also more extensive,

-and more specific and distinctive in meaning: “Depuis BALZAC [who in

-1841 in his _Comédie humaine, La maison du chat-qui-pelote_, préface, p.

-2, used the term loosely, in the “vulgar” sense], le sens vulgaire du

-milieu social n’a fait que s’affirmer davantage par un emploi toujours

-plus généralisé: c’est devenu un cliché de la conversation de parler

-aujourd’hui d’un ‘bon milieu,’ d’un ‘milieu intéressant,’ etc.”[7]

-

-Littré[8] registers eighteen different definitions for the word milieu.

-

-Friedrich Düsel[9] renders milieu by eighteen (18) German words.

-

-In _Unsere Umgangssprache_,[10] milieu is translated into German by

-forty-six (46) words and phrases.

-

-Claude Bernard, the celebrated French physiologist, differentiates

-between inner and outer milieu:[11] “Je crois ..., avoir le premier

-insisté sur cette idée qu’il y a pour l’animal réellement deux milieux:

-un milieu extérieur dans lequel est placé l’organisme et un milieu

-intérieur dans lequel vivent les éléments des tissus....” Probably as a

-result, we have today “micro-milieu” in micro-biology.

-

-According to Jean Finot,[12] milieu “includes the sum total of the

-conditions which accompany the conception and earthly existence of a

-being, and which end only with its death.”

-

-The term milieu was introduced by Herbert Spencer into English

-literature as “environment,” says Martin Schütze.[13] Although Carlyle

-employed the term “environment” as early as 1827,[14] nevertheless, the

-fact that the term is generally current, is undoubtedly attributable in

-the first place to Spencer.

-

-The word “Umwelt” is quoted by J. H. Campe,[15] who believed himself to

-have been the coiner of the term; five years later (1816) Goethe used it

-at the beginning of his “Italienische Reise.”[16]

-

-The painstaking and scholarly German lexicographer, Daniel Sanders, who

-seldom fails to give his reader some reliable suggestion, refers in his

-_Wörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache_[17] (which despite the contributions

-of recent scholarship still remains a great work) to a passage in the

-poetical works of the Danish writer Baggesen (2, 102) in which the word

-“Umwelt” is employed. This passage occurs in the elegy entitled

-“Napoleon” addressed to Voß and written in 1800.[18] Baggesen, then,

-made use of “Umwelt” a decade before Campe.

-

-Its Italian equivalent is “ambiente,” which is noted here only because

-of the French “l’ambiance” and the English “ambient” and

-“circumambiency.”

-

------

-

-Footnote 1:

-

-  For brief but valuable sketches of one phase or another of the

-  history of the theory of milieu, cf. Friedrich Ratzel,

-  _Anthropogeographie_. 1. _Teil: Grundzüge der Anwendung der Erdkunde

-  auf die Geschichte_ (2. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1899, 604 pp.), pp. 13–23,

-  25–30, 31–40; Gustav Schmoller, _Grundriß der Allgemeinen

-  Volkswirtschaftslehre_. Erster Teil (Vierte bis sechste Aufl.,

-  Leipzig, 1901), p. 127, pp. 137 f., 144 ff., Zweiter Teil (Erste bis

-  sechste Aufl., Leipzig, 1904), pp. 656 ff.; _Ferdinand v.

-  Richthofen’s Vorlesungen über Allgemeine Siedlungs- und

-  Verkehrsgeographie_, bearb. und herausgegeben von O. Schlüter

-  (Berlin, 1908, 351 pp.—A course of lectures delivered in the summer

-  semester of 1891 in Berlin, repeated in the winter semester in

-  1897/8), pp. 6–13; Jean Brunhes, _La Géographie Humaine_ (Deuxième

-  édition, Paris: Alcan, 1912, 801 pp.), pp. 36 ff.; A. C. Haddon and

-  A. H. Quiggin, _History of Anthropology_ (London, 1910, 158 pp.),

-  pp. 131 f., 150–52; William Z. Ripley, “Geography and Sociology,”

-  _Political Science Quarterly_, X (1895), pp. 636–54; also the same

-  author’s _The Races of Europe_ (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1899),

-  pp. 2–5. Cf. also O. Schlüter, “Die leitenden Gesichtspunkte der

-  Anthropogeographie, insbesondere der Lehre Friedrich Ratzels,”

-  _Arch. f. Sozialwissenschaft_, Bd. IV (1906), S. 581–630, and Rudolf

-  Goldscheid, _Höherentwicklung und Menschenökonomie_, I

-  [Philosophisch-soziologische Bücherei, Band VIII], (Leipzig: W.

-  Klinkhardt, 1911, 664 pp.), p. 52. For bibliographies, in addition

-  to those yet to be mentioned, see also Ratzel, _l.c._, pp. 579–85;

-  Brunhes, _l.c._, nn.; Ellen C. Semple, _Influences of Geographic

-  Environment, On the Basis of Ratzel’s System of Anthropo-geography_

-  (New York: H. Holt & Co., 1911, 637 pp.), to each chapter of which

-  an extensive bibliography is added; William J. Thomas, _Source Book

-  for Social Origins_ (Chicago and London, 1909) pp. 134–39:

-  Bibliography to Part I: The Relation of Society to Geographic and

-  Economic Environment (pp. 29–129, Comment on Part I, pp. 130–33);

-  Ripley, “Geography and Sociology,” _Pol. Sc. Quar._, X (1895), pp.

-  654–5.

-

-Footnote 2:

-

-  _Dictionnaire de l’Académie Françoise._ Quatrième Édition. Tome Second

-  (Paris, 1762), p. 143.

-

-Footnote 3:

-

-  _Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences_, etc. Nouvelle

-  Éd. 1778, ed. by Diderot and D’Alembert, 21st vol., p. 853.

-

-Footnote 4:

-

-  _Cours de Philosophie Positive_ (6 vols., 1830–42, 5^e édition, Paris,

-  1892–94), see vol. 3, p. 235 n.

-

-Footnote 5:

-

-  Cp. esp. the Introduction to his _Histoire de la Littérature

-  Anglaise_, 5 Tomes (8^e Édition, Paris: Hachette, 1892); the first

-  edition appeared in 1863, after Taine had been at work on it for

-  well-nigh a decade.

-

-Footnote 6:

-

-  For Zola as the disciple of Taine, cf. H. Wiegler, _Geschichte und

-  Kritik der Theorie des Milieus bei Émile Zola_ (Diss., Rostock, 1905),

-  esp. pp. 19–36.

-

-Footnote 7:

-

-  _Vide_ Émile Waxweiler, _Esquisse d’une Sociologie_ (Bruxelles, 1906),

-  p. 65.

-

-Footnote 8:

-

-  _Dictionnaire de la Langue Française_, vol. 3 (1885), pp. 559 f.

-

-Footnote 9:

-

-  _Verdeutschungen, Wörterbuch fürs tägliche Leben_ (Braunschweig,

-  Verlag von George Westermann, 1915, 176 pp.), p. 93.

-

-Footnote 10:

-

-  _Verdeutschungsbücher des Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins, III_

-  (Zweite Aufl., neu bearb. v. Edward Lohmeyer, Berlin, Verlag des

-  Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins, 1915, 182 pp.), pp. 91 f.

-

-Footnote 11:

-

-  _Phénomènes de la vie_ (2^e éd., Paris, 1885), t. I, p. 112. See

-  Waxweiler, _l.c._, p. 36.

-

-Footnote 12:

-

-  _Race Prejudice_, transl. by Florence Wade-Evans (London, 1906), p.

-  130.

-

-Footnote 13:

-

-  “The Services of Naturalism to Life and Literature. Reprinted, with

-  Additions, from _The Sewanee Review_, October, 1903,” p. 2.

-

-Footnote 14:

-

-  See Murray’s NED., vol. III, Part II, (1897), p. 231.

-

-Footnote 15:

-

-  _Wörterbuch d. d. Sprache_ (1811), Bd. 5, S. 113.

-

-Footnote 16:

-

-  See the article by I. Stosch on “Umwelt-_milieu_,” _Zeitschrift für

-  Deutsche Wortforschung_, g. v. Fr. Kluge, 7. Bd. (1905), pp. 58–9.

-

-Footnote 17:

-

-  2. Bd., 2. Hälfte (Leipzig: Otto Wigand, 1865), p. 1556^b.

-

-Footnote 18:

-

-  A. Gombert cites the passage in question in his article “Umwelt,” _Z.

-  f. D. Wf._, 7. Bd. (1905), pp. 150–52.

-

-

-

-

-                                   I

-  A SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE IDEA OF MILIEU DOWN TO THE NINETEENTH

-                                CENTURY

-

-

-Recorded mesologic[19] thinking begins with the ancient Jewish Prophets

-whose striking _aperçus_ concerning the providential correspondence

-between the configuration of the surface of the earth and the destiny of

-nations, concerning the connection between “Landesnatur” and

-“Volkscharakter,” etc., anticipated[20] a number of great thoughts of

-later anthropo-geographers.

-

-Hippocrates (if he really is the author of the essay commonly ascribed

-to him and entitled περὶ αέρων ὑδάτων τόπων) investigates the effect of

-climate on man’s nature, character, temperament, and life, with the

-emphasis on the regularity of the effect.[21] Owing to the imperfection

-of knowledge in his day, his observations are necessarily vague.[22] He

-limited himself to the problem of the relation between land and

-people.[23] He is said to be the founder of anthropo-geography.[24] His

-treatise is admirable and unequalled in the eyes of Auguste Comte.[25]

-Hippocrates, “in his work, _About Air, Water, and Places_, first

-discusses the influence of environment on man, physical, moral, and

-pathological. He divided mankind into groups, impressed with homogeneous

-characters by homogeneous surroundings, demonstrating that mountains,

-plains, damp, aridity, and so on, produced definite and varying

-types.”[26]

-

-Aristotle, in his _Politics_, enquires into the influence especially of

-geographical position on laws and the form of government,[27] while in

-his _Problems_ he shows the far-reaching dependence of national

-character on the physical environment: “Zeigt ja doch Aristoteles selbst

-in einem andern Werke das entschiedenste Bestreben, eine sehr

-weitgehende Abhängigkeit des Volkscharakters von geographischen

-Verhältnissen zu erweisen. Während die Politik [especially parts of the

-seventh book] nicht über Andeutungen [on the effect of the milieu]

-hinausgeht [discussed by Poehlmann, _l.c._, on pp. 64–8], läßt der

-vierzehnte Abschnitt der ‘Probleme,’ welcher sich mit den Einwirkungen

-der Landesnatur auf Physik und Ethik des Menschen beschäftigt, deutlich

-einen Standpunkt erkennen, welcher auf das Lebhafteste an die

-physiologische Betrachtungsweise der neueren französisch-englischen

-Geschichtsphilosophie erinnert ...”[28]

-

-Eratosthenes, in a work cited by Varro, sought to prove, in the opinion

-of the Italian scholar Matteuzzi prematurely, that man’s character and

-the form of his government are subordinated to proximity or remoteness

-from the sun.[29] The greatest geographer of antiquity, Strabo, in his

-Geography, connected man with nature in a causal relation.[30]

-

-John M. Robertson, noting that “theories of the influence of climate on

-character were common in antiquity,” refers[31] to Vitruvius (VI, 1),

-Vegetius (“De re militari,” 1, 2), and Servius (on Vergil, _Aeneid_, VI,

-724). Ritter does not mention the effort of the ancients in this line of

-ideas.[32]

-

-Giovanni Villani, the noted Florentine historian of the fourteenth

-century, observes with a deal of finesse that Arezzo by reason of its

-air and position produces men of great subtilty of mind.[33]

-

-The Arabic statesman and philosopher of history, Ibn Khaldūn, little

-mentioned, yet known by his great work, the _Universal History_,

-attempted in the _Muqaddama_[34] (the preface, comprising the first

-volume of his _History_), which he composed between 1374 and 1378,[35]

-to explain the history and civilization of man, more especially of

-some of the Arabic peoples, by the encompassing physical and social

-conditions. The “First Section of the ‘Prolegomena’ treats of society

-in general, and of the varieties of the human race, and of the regions

-of the earth which they inhabit, as related thereto. It starts from

-the position that man is by nature a social being. His body and mind,

-wants and affections, for their exercise, satisfaction, and

-development, all imply and demand co-operation and communion with his

-fellows,—participation in a collective and common life....

-

-“There follows a lengthened description of the physical basis and

-conditions of history and civilisation. The chief features of the

-inhabited portions of the earth, its regions, principal seas, great

-rivers, climates, &c., are made the subjects of exposition. The seven

-climatic zones, and the ten sections of each, are delineated, and their

-inhabitants specified. The three climatic zones of moderate temperature

-are described in detail, and the distinctive features of the social

-condition and civilisation of their inhabitants dwelt upon. The

-influence of the atmosphere, heat, &c., on the physical and even mental

-and moral peculiarities of peoples is maintained to be great. Not only

-the darkness of skin of the negroes, but their characteristics of

-disposition and of mode of life, are traced to the influence of climate.

-A careful attempt is also made to show how differences of fertility of

-soil—how dearth and abundance—modify the bodily constitution and affect

-the minds of men, and so operate on society....

-

-“The Second Section of the ‘Prolegomena’ treats of the civilisation of

-nomadic and half-savage peoples.

-

-“In it Ibn Khaldūn appears at his best, ... He begins by indicating how

-the different usages and institutions of peoples depend to a large

-extent on the ways in which they provide for their subsistence. He

-describes how peoples have at first contented themselves with simple

-necessities, and then gradually risen to refinement and luxury through a

-series of states or stages all of which are alike conformed to nature,

-in the sense of being adapted to its circumstances or environment.”[36]

-

-Ibn Khaldūn seems also to have had a clear idea of some aspects of the

-principle of relativity,[37] an integral part and inevitable concomitant

-of the theory of milieu, since “As causes of historians erring as they

-have done, there are mentioned [by Khaldūn in the introduction] the

-overlooking of the differences of times and epochs, ...”[38]

-

-About the middle of the sixteenth century we find Michelangelo avowing

-to Vasari (who hailed from Arezzo): “Any mental excellence I may

-possess, I have because I was born in the fine air of your Aretine

-district.”[39]

-

-In “Measure for Measure” (Act III, Sc. I, v. 8–11), a play first

-produced in 1604, Shakespeare affirms of man:

-

-              “... a breath thou art,

-              Servile to all the skyey influences

-              That do this habitation where thou keep’st,

-              Hourly afflict.”

-

-During the Renaissance, Greek thought on milieu is resurrected in

-France. Thence it spreads later, particularly in the eighteenth century,

-to England and Germany. Jean Bodin bridges the gap existent since the

-close of classical antiquity. He is the first among modern writers not

-only to revive the idea in Western Europe,[40] but also to make it a

-subject for detailed investigation. Bodin thus first in French letters

-introduces and firmly establishes a line of study destined to be

-followed by a long list of authors among whom are to be found many

-illustrious French names.

-

-Bodin “treats of physical causes with considerable fulness in the fifth

-chapter of the ‘Method,’[41] and in a still more detailed and developed

-form in the first chapter of the fifth book of the ‘Republic.’”[42] He

-traces the relation between climate and the ever changing fate of

-States, and elaborates the manifold effects of climate on States, laws,

-religion, language, and temperament.[43] In Bodin’s view, man’s physical

-constitution is closely and directly connected with climate and

-surrounding nature; it is in harmony with the behavior of the earth in

-the respective zones of his abode.[44] From this assumption of

-dependence of the human body on climate, there follow a number of

-inferences concerning the physical properties of man’s constitution.[45]

-Temperament varies according to climate. Language, the generative power,

-diseases likewise depend indirectly on climate.[46] Man’s talents and

-capacities do so no less.[47] The climate in each region always favors

-the development of some special aptitude; on this basis he groups the

-peoples of the earth.[48] Although the nexus between human abilities and

-the physical milieu is thus intimate, yet reason, common to all men and

-invariable, is _per se_ independent of physical environment.[49] He

-postulates, then, reason as the absolute part of the mind, not subject

-to surrounding influences, whereas the unfolding of the human faculties

-is relative to the environment. By taking this middle course concerning

-the effect of nature on man, Bodin escapes the extreme views of nature’s

-compelling influence over man, on the one hand, and of man’s total

-independence of nature, on the other.[50]

-

-Bodin also investigates the influence upon national character of

-geographical situation, of elevation, of the quality of the native soil,

-and of an east-west position.[51] Nations and their civilizations differ

-according to the particular conditions of a given national

-existence.[52]

-

-He holds fast to the doctrine of the freedom of the will. Man is morally

-free from environmental control. The circumambient medium determines

-only the _development_ of man’s capabilities.[53] Man can counteract,

-and may, even though with difficulty, overcome the injurious action of

-climate and nature.[54]

-

-“... It is altogether unfair,” concludes Flint,[55] “to put their

-general enunciations [_i.e._, those made by Hippocrates, Plato,

-Aristotle, Polybius, and Galen] of the principle that physical

-circumstances originate and modify national characteristics, on a level

-with Bodin’s serious, sustained, and elaborate attempt to apply it over

-a wide area and to a vast number of cases. Dividing nations into

-northern, middle, and southern,[56] he investigates with wonderful

-fulness of knowledge how climatic and geographical conditions have

-affected the bodily strength, the courage, the intelligence, the

-humanity, the chastity, and, in short, the mind, morals, and manners of

-their inhabitants; what influence mountains, winds, diversities of soil,

-&c., have exerted on individuals and societies; and he elicits a vast

-number of general views....”

-

-Bodin, “der größte theoretische Politiker Frankreichs im 16.

-Jahrhundert,” declares Renz,[57] “besitzt ... das unbestreitbare

-Verdienst, wenn nicht die Grundgedanken und nicht ausschließlich

-originale Gedanken, so doch die erste weitgehende wissenschaftliche

-Untersuchung über den Zusammenhang zwischen umgebender Natur und

-Menschenwelt in neuerer Zeit auf dem Boden der Erfahrung und

-Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts angestellt zu haben.”

-

-Bodin, “writing in 1577 OF THE LAWES AND CUSTOMES OF A COMMON

-WEALTH (English edition [translated by Richard Knowlles] 1605),

-contains, as Professor J. L. Myres has pointed out (Rept. Brit.

-Assoc., 1909 [1910], p. 593), ‘the whole pith and kernel of modern

-anthropo-geography....’”[58] And Renz believes that “In der

-Bodinschen Behandlung der Theorie des Klimas finden sich die

-Anfänge der Anthropogeographie und der Ethnographie...”[59]

-

-Writing in 1713, Lenglet du Fresnoy, toward the end of the sixth chapter

-of the first volume of his _Méthode pour étudier l’histoire_, expresses,

-decades before Montesquieu, the latter’s basic idea of the effect of

-social and political milieu on laws.[60]

-

-In any discussion of milieu, Montesquieu is the writer most frequently

-mentioned, although not the most often read and quoted. He devotes the

-well-known five “Books,” from the fourteenth to the eighteenth, of his

-magnum opus, _L’Esprit des Lois_ (1748),[61] to a consideration of this

-idea which, as has already been seen, was anything but original with

-him.[62] In Books fourteen to seventeen he treats of the relation of

-laws to climate, and in Book eighteen of their relation to soil. In the

-fourteenth[63] he discusses the effect of climate on the body (and mind)

-of individual man, in the fifteenth[64] on civil slavery, in the

-sixteenth[65] on domestic slavery, in the seventeenth[66] on political

-servitude, and lastly in the eighteenth[67] he delineates the influence

-of the fertility and barrenness of the soil. By climate he means little

-more than heat and cold. In the light of the continued high praise

-bestowed on him for much longer than a century, the altogether too

-general and dogmatic statements of these short seventy-odd pages would

-seem somewhat meager, so that upon their perusal one is very likely to

-suffer an outright disenchantment. Therefore, Flint’s judgment appears

-overdrawn, when he says that Montesquieu “showed on a grand scale and in

-the most effective way ... that, like all things properly historical,

-they [laws, customs, institutions] must be estimated not according to an

-abstract or absolute standard, but as concrete realities related to

-given times and places, to their determining causes and condition, and

-to the whole social organism to which they belong, and the whole social

-medium in which they subsist. Plato and Aristotle, Machiavelli and

-Bodin, had already, indeed, inculcated this historical and political

-relativism; but it was Montesquieu who gained educated Europe over to

-the acceptance of it.”[68]

-

-Turgot’s sketch of a ‘Political Geography’ shows “that he had attained

-to a broader view of the relationship of human development to the

-features of the earth and to physical agencies in general than even

-Montesquieu. And he saw with perfect clearness not only that many of

-Montesquieu’s inductions were premature and inadequate, but that there

-was a defect in the method by which he arrived at them.... The excellent

-criticism of Comte, in the fifth volume of the ‘Philosophie Positive,’

-and in the fourth volume of the ‘Politique Positive,’ on this portion of

-Montesquieu’s speculations, is only a more elaborate reproduction of

-that of Turgot, and is expressed in terms which show that it was

-directly suggested by that of Turgot.”[69]

-

-Cuvier “had not hesitated to trace the close relation borne by

-philosophy and art to the underlying geological formations.”[70]

-

-In the teaching of a number of great thinkers of the seventeenth and

-eighteenth centuries, man is “the product of environment and education”

-and, in their opinion, “all men were born equal and later became unequal

-through unequal opportunities.”[71]

-

-Goethe echoed Herder’s thought when he remarked to Eckermann on the

-flora of a country and the disposition of its residents: “Sie haben

-nicht Unrecht, sagte Goethe (d. 2. April 1829), und daher kommt es denn

-auch, daß man der Pflanzenwelt eines Landes einen Einfluß auf die

-Gemütsart seiner Bewohner zugestanden hat. Und gewiß! wer sein Leben

-lang von hohen ernsten Eichen umgeben wäre, müßte ein anderer Mensch

-werden, als wer täglich unter luftigen Birken sich erginge...”[72] And

-again, when he said of environment and national character: “... so viel

-ist gewiß, daß außer dem Angeborenen der Rasse, sowohl Boden und Klima

-als Nahrung und Beschäftigung einwirkt, um den Charakter eines Volkes zu

-vollenden ...”[73] And in the following, Goethe but reiterates Herder’s

-oft uttered admiration for islanders and coast dwellers: “Auch von den

-Kräften des _Meeres_ und der _Seeluft_ war die Rede gewesen (d. 12. März

-1828), wo denn Goethe die Meinung äußerte, daß er alle Insulaner und

-Meer-Anwohner des gemäßigten Klimas bei weitem für produktiver und

-tatkräftiger halte als die Völker im Innern großer Kontinente.”[74] And:

-“Es ist ein eigenes Ding, erwiederte Goethe (d. 12. März 1828),—liegt es

-in der Abstammung, liegt es im Boden, liegt es in der freien Verfassung,

-liegt es in der gesunden Erziehung,—genug! die Engländer überhaupt

-scheinen vor vielen anderen etwas voraus zu haben ...”[75]

-

-Wolf and Niebuhr began to examine historical _sources_ “nach neuen

-Prinzipien des Eingetauchtseins in eine bestimmte seelische Umwelt, in

-ein klargezeichnetes zeitgenössisches Milieu.”[76]

-

-One of the principal offices of an historian, according to August

-Wilhelm Schlegel, is “Die zeit- und kulturgeschichtliche Bedingtheit

-aller Erscheinungen aufzuzeigen.”[77] But the effect of physical milieu

-on history is not rated high in the philosophy of the romanticists.[78]

-

-Ingeniously, albeit not with his wonted acuteness, Hegel penned the

-concept “Volksgeist.”[79] The saying, which now seems trivial, that

-every nation and every man in the nation is “ein Kind seiner Zeit,” is

-said to be Hegel’s.[80] Hegel, however, distinctly rejected the idea of

-explaining “die Geschichte und den Geist der verschiedenen Völker aus

-dem Klima ihrer Länder.”[81] The implication would be that one single

-factor might satisfactorily be held responsible for all progress in

-human history. As climate can not explain everything to Hegel, it seems

-not to explain anything at all to him. Hegel, then, is excessive in his

-denial of the power of environment. This is markedly shown by his

-thinking his position substantiated by the fact that the climate of

-Greece, although the same since classical antiquity, has not changed the

-Turks who now [_i.e._, early in the nineteenth century] dwell in Greece

-into ancient Greeks.[82]

-

------

-

-Footnote 19:

-

-  The Belgian sociologist De Greef, in his _Introduction à la

-  Sociologie_ (1886–89), raised “Mésologie” (denoting “Erkenntnis der

-  milieux”) to a special introductory branch of sociology for the

-  purpose of discussing, according to Ratzel superficially, the external

-  factors of history; cf. Paul Barth, _Die Philosophie der Geschichte

-  als Soziologie_, I (Leipzig: Reisland, 1897), p. 70 and Ratzel, _l.c._

-  p. 29. The term “Mésologie” was in use in France at an earlier date

-  than that. See for example the title of an article written at the

-  close of the Franco-German war by Dr. Bertillon, “De l´Influence du

-  milieu ou Mésologie,” _La Philosophie Positive_, Revue dirigée par É.

-  Littré & G. Wyrouboff, Tome IX (Paris, 1872), pp. 309–20. Or see M. E.

-  Jourdy, “De l´Influence du milieu ou Mésologie,” _ibid._, Tome X

-  (1873), pp. 154–60.

-

-Footnote 20:

-

-  Fr. de Rougemont, in his important work _Les deux cités; la

-  philosophie de l´histoire aux différents âges de l´humanité_ (1874)

-  treats this question exhaustively. See Robert Poehlmann, _Hellenische

-  Anschauungen über den Zusammenhang zwischen Natur und Geschichte_

-  (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1879, 93 pp.), pp. 8 f.

-

-Footnote 21:

-

-  _Vide_ Eugénie Dutoit, _Die Theorie des Milieu_ (Diss., Bern, 1899,

-  136 pp.), pp. 52–5.

-

-Footnote 22:

-

-  “Hippocrate fut le premier à observer quelques-uns des effets du

-  milieu sur l’individu. Ses observations sont nécessairement nébuleuses

-  et chaotiques, plutôt descriptives et qualitatives, étant donnée

-  l’imperfection des connaissances de son temps.”—Auguste Matteuzzi,

-  _Les Facteurs de l’Évolution des Peuples_ (Paris, 1900), p. 6

-  (Avant-Propos).

-

-Footnote 23:

-

-  “Wir sahen, daß sich das Buch des Hippokrates durchaus darauf

-  beschränkte, die Wechselbeziehungen zwischen Landesnatur und

-  Volkscharakter zu erörtern.”—Poehlmann, _l.c._, p. 51.

-

-Footnote 24:

-

-  “Hippokrates von Kos, ‘der Vater der Heilkunde’ (ca. 460 bis ca. 370),

-  ist der _Begründer der Anthropogeographie_. Er schrieb ein Buch über

-  Klima, Wasser und Bodenbeschaffenheit und ihren Einfluß auf die

-  Bewohner eines Landes in physischer und geistiger Beziehung. Der

-  philosophische Gedanke war damit angeregt, fand aber keine weitere

-  Entwicklung.”—_F. v. Richthofen’s Vorlesungen_, etc. (Berlin, 1908),

-  p. 7.

-

-Footnote 25:

-

-  _System of Positive Polity_ (4 vols., London: Longmans, Green & Co.,

-  1875–77—the original was published in 1851–54), vol. II, p. 364: “...

-  a study [of the aggregate of material influences: Astronomical,

-  Physical, Chemical] which was commenced by the great Hippocrates in

-  his admirable and unequalled Treatise upon Climate.”

-

-Footnote 26:

-

-  Haddon and Quiggin, _Hist. of Anthropology_ (1910), p. 150.—Poehlmann

-  discusses Hippocrates in _Hellenische Anschauungen_, etc., pp.

-  12–37.—Ludwig Stein, in his book _Die soziale Frage im Lichte der

-  Philosophie_ (2. verb. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1903), p. 403, n., says that

-  “Aless. Chiapelli, _Le promesse filosofiche del Socialismo_ (Napoli,

-  1897), p. 41, hebt die interessante Tatsache hervor, daß die Lehre vom

-  ‘Milieu’ ihrem Keime nach auf Hippokrates zurückgeht.” But a little

-  over three decades earlier, Peschel in his _Geschichte der Erdkunde_

-  (1. Aufl., 1865) surveyed on two pages some important phases of

-  Hippocrates and Strabo on milieu. And earlier still, a half century

-  before Peschel, Ukert in his _Geographie der Griechen und Römer_

-  (1816), I, 1, 79, noted Hippocrates as carefully observing the effect

-  of climate on the body and mind of man. (_Vide_ Poehlmann, l.c., pp. 7

-  f.)—And to Herder, Hippocrates was the principal author on climate:

-  “... _Hippocrat. de aere, locis et aquis_, ... Für mich der

-  Hauptschriftsteller über das Klima.”—_Herders Sämmtliche Werke_, hg.

-  v. B. Suphan, 13, 269 n.

-

-Footnote 27:

-

-  See Dutoit, _Die Theorie des Milieu_, pp. 55–8.

-

-Footnote 28:

-

-  Poehlmann, _l.c._, p. 68.—Aristotle neglects to give credit to

-  Hippocrates in connection with his ideas on environment, although

-  indebted to Hippocrates whom he mentions elsewhere. See Dutoit,

-  _l.c._, p. 57.

-

-Footnote 29:

-

-  “Varron, _De re rustica_, 1, cite une oeuvre d’Eratosthènes où

-  celui-ci cherchait à démontrer que le caractère de l’homme et la forme

-  du gouvernement sont subordonnés au voisinage ou à l’éloignement du

-  soleil. Tentative sublime mais prématurée, pour ramener les phénomènes

-  sociaux à des lois uniques et générales.”—Auguste Matteuzzi, _Les

-  Facteurs de l’Évolution des Peuples_ (Paris, 1900), p. 6.

-

-Footnote 30:

-

-  “Die vollständigste Beschreibung [of the earth] gab erst Strabo in

-  seinem Werk γεογραφικά. Hier begegnen wir zum zweitenmal der

-  philosophischen Idee, _Mensch und Natur in Kausalzusammenhang_

-  miteinander zu bringen. Strabos Geographie ist als ‘Länder- und

-  Völkerkunde’ das größte Werk des Altertums. Die Anschauung eines

-  kausalen Zusammenhanges des Menschen mit der Natur ging darauf unter

-  [according to him, until the middle of the eighteenth century, until

-  Montesquieu].”—_Richthofen’s Vorlesungen_, etc. (1908), p. 8.

-

-Footnote 31:

-

-  _Buckle and his Critics_ (London, 1895, 548 pp.), p. 7 n.

-

-Footnote 32:

-

-  See Poehlmann, _l.c._, p. 7.—For a brief statement of the theory of

-  milieu in Greek writers (Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato, Aristotle,

-  Theophrastus), cf. Curtius, _Boden und Clima von Athen_ (1877), p. 4

-  f. For Aristotle, compare also Dondorff, _Das hellenische Land als

-  Schauplatz der althellenischen Geschichte_ (Hamburg, 1899, 42 pp.),

-  pp. 11 f. Poehlmann, _l.c._, discusses the views on environment of

-  Herodotus (pp. 37–47), of Thucydides (pp. 52–4), of Xenophon (pp. 55

-  f.), of Ephoros [only fragments of his great work, A Universal

-  History, are extant; cited by Strabo] (pp. 56–9), of Plato (pp.

-  59–64), of Aristotle (pp. 64–74), of Polybios (pp. 75–7), of

-  Posidonios [in Strabo and in Galen] (pp. 78–80), of Strabo (pp.

-  80–90), of Galen (pp. 91 f.).

-

-Footnote 33:

-

-  _Vide_ Élisàr v. Kupffer, _Klima und Dichtung, Ein Beitrag zur

-  Psychophysik_ [in _Grenzfragen der Literatur und Medizin_ in

-  Einzeldarstellungen hg. v. S. Rahmer, Berlin, 4. Heft] (München,

-  1907), p. 63.

-

-Footnote 34:

-

-  Translated into French by Baron Meg. F. de Slane (3 vols., Paris,

-  1862–8).

-

-Footnote 35:

-

-  See R. Flint, _History of the Philosophy of History, Historical

-  Philosophy in France and French Belgium and Switzerland_ (New York:

-  Scribner, 1894, 706 pp.), pp. 159 f.—“His [Mohammed Ibn Khaldūn’s]

-  fame rests securely ... on his _magnum opus_, the ‘Universal History,’

-  and especially on the first part of it, the ‘Prolegomena’ (p. 162)....

-  They [the Prolegomena] may fairly be regarded as forming a distinct

-  and complete work.... It consists of a preface, an introduction, and

-  six sections or divisions (p. 163).”

-

-Footnote 36:

-

-  Flint, _l.c._, pp. 164 f.

-

-Footnote 37:

-

-  _Vide infra_, p. 27.

-

-Footnote 38:

-

-  Flint, _l.c._, p. 164.—Cf. also pp. 158–72, for Ibn Khaldūn in

-  general.

-

-Footnote 39:

-

-  Cf. Kupffer, _Klima and Dichtung_, p. 63.

-

-Footnote 40:

-

-  “Da Bodin hauptsächlich an die Anschauungen des Aristoteles anknüpft,

-  ...—Auch an Strabo, der dem Einfluß des Klimas und der Landesnatur

-  schon die schöpferischen Kräfte des Volksgeistes gegenübergestellt

-  hat, lehnt sich Bodin an.”—Fritz Renz, _Jean Bodin, Ein Beitrag z.

-  Geschichte d. hist. Methode im 16. Jahrhundert_ [Geschichtliche

-  Untersuchungen hg. v. Karl Lamprecht, III. Bd., I. Heft], (Gotha,

-  1905, 84 pp.), p. 48 n.

-

-Footnote 41:

-

-  _Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem_, published in 1566.

-

-Footnote 42:

-

-  Flint, _l.c._, 198.—The ‘Republic’ was first published in 1576 in

-  French under the title _De la République_. Eight years later (1584)

-  Bodin himself translated it into Latin as _De Republica Libri Sex_.

-  See Ludwig Stein, _Die soziale Frage im Lichte der Philosophie_ (2.

-  verb. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1902), p. 217 n.

-

-Footnote 43:

-

-  Compare Dutoit, _Die Theorie des Milieu_, pp. 58–62.

-

-Footnote 44:

-

-  “Die physische Konstitution des Menschen hängt nach Bodin eng mit den

-  klimatischen Verhältnissen seiner Heimat zusammen und entspricht dem

-  Verhalten der Erde, die er bewohnt ...”—Renz, _Jean Bodin_ (1905), p.

-  50.—“... Da der animalische Körper wie alle Körper aus einer Mischung

-  der Elemente besteht, so ergibt sich eine direkte Abhängigkeit der

-  physischen Konstitution von der umgebenden Natur, ja sogar eine

-  Übereinstimmung mit dem Verhalten der Erde in dem betreffenden

-  Himmelsstrich. Der menschliche Körper reagiert auf die klimatischen

-  Einflüsse genau so wie die Erde, die er bewohnt, ...”—_Ibidem_, p. 44.

-

-Footnote 45:

-

-  Discussed by Renz, _l.c._, pp. 47–61, in the chapter “Die Theorie des

-  Klimas.”—“Behandelt wird die Theorie des Klimas nach dem 5. Kapitel

-  des ‘Methodus,’ in dem sich Bodin zum ersten Male mit dieser Doktrin

-  befaßte; zur Erläuterung wird auch das 1. Kapitel des V. Buches der

-  ‘République’ herangezogen, in dem die Theorie des Klimas, aber in

-  gedrängterer Form, wiederholt wird.”—_Ibid._, p. 47 n. Cf. also p. 45.

-

-Footnote 46:

-

-  “Sogar das Temperament variiert nach dem Klima ...

-

-  “Wie das Temperament wird die Sprache von dem inneren physischen Bau

-  abhängig gedacht ...

-

-  “Ebenso wird die Fortpflanzungsfähigkeit in direkte Abhängigkeit von

-  der physischen Konstitution gebracht ...”—_Ibid._, pp. 52 f.

-

-Footnote 47:

-

-  “Wie das Äußere und die physische Konstitution hängen auch die Anlagen

-  und Fähigkeiten der Völker mit den klimatischen Verschiedenheiten

-  zusammen ...”—_Ibid._, p. 54.

-

-Footnote 48:

-

-  “... Nach der Dreiteilung der seelischen Fähigkeiten bei dem

-  Einzelmenschen und den Bewohnern jedes Staates werden die Völker auf

-  der ganzen Erde gruppiert, indem durch das Klima immer eine Anlage

-  besonders zur Ausbildung kommt ...”—_Ibid._, p. 46.

-

-Footnote 49:

-

-  “... Bodin nimmt zwei Teile des menschlichen Seelenlebens an, erstens

-  eine allen Menschen gemeinsame, unveränderliche geistige Befähigung,

-  die Vernunft, und zweitens Anlagen, die von dem Klima und der

-  physischen Natur des Menschen abhängen. In der ‘République’ wird

-  ausgeführt, daß diese abhängigen Anlagen nur verschiedene von dem

-  geographischen Milieu abhängige Entwicklungsstufen des Verstandes

-  sind, während dieser an sich von den einzelnen Gegenden unabhängig ist

-  ...”—_Ibid._, p. 45.

-

-Footnote 50:

-

-  “... Indem er [Bodin] als erster in der Neuzeit auf streng

-  wissenschaftlicher Grundlage versucht, die Wechselwirkung, die

-  zwischen dem historischen Verlauf und der Natur stattfindet,

-  festzustellen, gelangt er zu der Annahme von zwei Teilen des

-  geistig-seelischen Innenlebens, eines von den umgebenden Verhältnissen

-  abhängigen und eines absoluten, gegen äußere Einflüsse sich passiv

-  verhaltenden Teils. Willensfreiheit neben der durch das Milieu

-  bedingten Ausbildung bestimmter Anlagen und Fähigkeiten ist der

-  mittlere Weg, den er zwischen der Annahme des zwingenden Einflusses

-  der äußeren Natur und der gänzlichen Unabhängigkeit von ihr einschlägt

-  ...”—_Ibid._, p. 77.

-

-Footnote 51:

-

-  “Neben dem Horizontal- wendet Bodin den Vertikalmaßstab zur

-  Beurteilung der Völker an, indem er untersucht, wie die verschiedene

-  Erhebung des Bodens auf die Gestaltung des Volkscharakters einwirkt

-  ...

-

-  “Ebenso wird die Natur der Völker von der Qualität des heimatlichen

-  Bodens beeinflußt, ...”—_Ibid._, p. 58.—“Der Einfluß, der sich aus der

-  östlicheren oder westlicheren Wohnlage auf den Volkscharakter geltend

-  macht, ist, wo nicht in der Richtung Süd-Nord sich erstreckende

-  Gebirge eine deutlichere Scheidelinie bilden, nach Bodin schwer zu

-  bestimmen ...”—_Ibid._ p. 57.

-

-Footnote 52:

-

-  “Neben der Vorstellung von der geistig-sittlichen Einheit der Menschen

-  geht die Erkenntnis der Verschiedenartigkeit der Nationen und ihres

-  Bildungsgrades her, die aus den partikularen Bedingungen des

-  nationalen Einzeldaseins resultiert. Zur Erklärung des Volkscharakters

-  wird, wie schon dargelegt, die Theorie des Klimas herangezogen

-  ...”—_Ibid._, p. 62.

-

-Footnote 53:

-

-  “Bodin hat sich deswegen mit der Theorie des Klimas beschäftigt, weil

-  er in der Geschichte und im Völkerleben bestimmte regelmäßige

-  Erscheinungen wahrnahm, die er sich nur aus dem Einfluß des

-  geographischen Milieus erklären konnte. Bei dem strengen Festhalten an

-  der menschlichen Willensfreiheit konnte er sich diesen Einfluß nur

-  durch die Annahme einer von äußeren Verhältnissen abhängigen

-  Entwicklungsfähigkeit der geistigen Anlagen in bestimmter Richtung

-  erklären...”—_Ibid._, p. 60 f.—“Das unbedingte Festhalten an der

-  menschlichen Willensfreiheit mußte Bodin vor der Annahme bewahren, daß

-  der Einfluß des geographischen Milieus auf die Menschen ein zwingender

-  sei. Nur die Entwicklung der Anlagen wird von der Umwelt bestimmt,

-  nicht aber das sittliche Wollen ...”—_Ibid._, p. 59.

-

-Footnote 54:

-

-  “Wo die äußere Natur zur Entwicklung schlechter Anlagen führt, besitzt

-  nach Bodin die Menschheit in der Erziehung ein Mittel, diesem

-  Übelstand zu begegnen.”—_Ibid._, p. 77.—“... den Menschen [wird] die

-  Fähigkeit zugesprochen ..., die schädlichen Einwirkungen des Klimas

-  wenn auch schwer, zu überwinden ...”—_Ibid._, p. 60.

-

-Footnote 55:

-

-  _L.c._, p. 198.

-

-Footnote 56:

-

-  “... Den Vergleich der drei Völkergruppen [südliche, mittlere,

-  nördliche] mit den menschlichen Lebensaltern hat Bodin von Aristoteles

-  entlehnt, was er Meth. V 140, 141 selbst zugibt.”—Renz, _l.c._, p. 57.

-

-Footnote 57:

-

-  _L.c._, p. 48.

-

-Footnote 58:

-

-  Haddon and Quiggin, _Hist. of Anthropology_ (London, 1910), p. 150.

-

-Footnote 59:

-

-  _L.c._, p. 77.—For Bodin in general, cf. Renz, _Jean Bodin_; Flint,

-  _l.c._, pp. 190–200; Ludwig Stein, _Die soziale Frage im Lichte der

-  Philosophie_, pp. 217–19. H. Morf, _Französische Literatur im

-  Zeitalter der Renaissance_ (2. verb. Aufl., Straßburg: Trübner, 1914),

-  is brief on Bodin, _vide_ esp. pp. 131 f.; cf. also p. 125.

-

-Footnote 60:

-

-  _Vide_ E. Bernheim, _Lehrbuch der historischen Methode_ (5. u. 6.

-  Aufl, Leipzig, 1908), p. 230.

-

-Footnote 61:

-

-  Montesquieu, _The Spirit of Laws_ (translated from the French by Th.

-  Nugent, new ed., revised by J. V. Prichard, 2 vols., London: Geo. Bell

-  and Sons, 1906), I, 238–314.

-

-Footnote 62:

-

-  “Seine [Montesquieu’s] Hervorkehrung des Einflusses, den Klima und

-  Bodenbeschaffenheit auf die Soziabilität der Menschennatur ausüben,

-  geht ebenfalls auf Locke, weiterhin auf Bodin zurück.”—L. Stein, _Die

-  soziale Frage_, etc., p. 364.—According to Dutoit (_Die Theorie des

-  Milieu_, p. 62), Montesquieu concealed his obligation to Bodin.

-

-Footnote 63:

-

-  _L.c._, pp. 238–53.

-

-Footnote 64:

-

-  _L.c._, pp. 253–69.

-

-Footnote 65:

-

-  _L.c._, pp. 270–83.

-

-Footnote 66:

-

-  _L.c._, pp. 284–91.

-

-Footnote 67:

-

-  _L.c._, pp. 291–314.

-

-Footnote 68:

-

-  Flint, _l.c._, pp. 279 f.

-

-Footnote 69:

-

-  Flint, _l.c._, p. 286.—(Turgot died in 1781.)

-

-Footnote 70:

-

-  Ripley, _The Races of Europe_ (1899), p. 4.—Cuvier was twenty years

-  younger than Goethe; both died in the same year.

-

-Footnote 71:

-

-  E. G. Conklin, _Heredity and Environment in the Development of Men_

-  (Princeton Univ. Press, 1915, 533 pp.), p. 303.

-

-Footnote 72:

-

-  _Eckermanns Gespräche mit Goethe_, neu herausgegeben v. H. H. Houben

-  (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1909), p. 264.

-

-Footnote 73:

-

-  _Ibid._, p. 265.—These two passages are also cited by Kupffer, _Klima

-  and Dichtung_, p. 64.

-

-Footnote 74:

-

-  _Eckermanns Gespräche mit Goethe_, p. 542.

-

-Footnote 75:

-

-  _Ibid._, p. 546.

-

-Footnote 76:

-

-  Karl Lamprecht, “Neue Kulturgeschichte” (pp. 449–64 in Das Jahr 1913,

-  _Ein Gesamtbild der Kulturentwicklung_, hg. v. D. Sarason,

-  Leipzig-Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1913), p. 453.

-

-Footnote 77:

-

-  Albert Poetzsch, _Studien zur frühromantischen Politik und

-  Geschichtsauffassung_ (Leipzig: Voigtländer, 1907, 111 pp.), p. 89.

-

-Footnote 78:

-

-  “Die Einwirkung der äußeren Natur auf die Geschichte tritt zurück [in

-  der romantischen Geschichtsphilosophie]”; and in a note is added:

-  “Wenn auch der Zusammenhang von Boden und Geschichte, namentlich von

-  natürl. Grenzen u. Staat, der Betrachtung nicht verloren geht. Vgl. A.

-  W. Schlegel, Enz. 216. 697.”—_Ibid._, p. 94.

-

-Footnote 79:

-

-  Bernheim, _Lehrb. d. hist. Methode_, p. 650.

-

-Footnote 80:

-

-  _Ibid._, p. 515.

-

-Footnote 81:

-

-  See Ludwig Gumplowicz, _Der Rassenkampf_ (2.... Aufl., Innsbruck,

-  1909), p. 9 n.

-

-Footnote 82:

-

-  _Vide_ the quotation from Hegel by Gumplowicz, _l.c._, p. 13 n.

-

-

-

-

-                                   II

-A SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE IDEA OF MILIEU SINCE THE BEGINNING OF THE

-                           NINETEENTH CENTURY

-

-

-              _Anthropo-geography, Geography and History_

-

-The theory of social environment, as we have seen, gradually rises,

-especially since the renaissance, parallel with the theory of physical

-milieu. The stream of thought commences to broaden on both sides as we

-approach the eighteenth century, and broadens still further, and

-deepens, in the nineteenth, when specialization occurs or continues in

-anthropo-geography, biology, jurisprudence and economics, anthropology,

-sociology, and literature, and latterly in physics. These furnish us the

-divisions for subsequent discussions.[83]

-

-All antecedent thought on the subject converges in Herder and from this

-focal point, as a collecting and fructifying center, it emerges,

-branches out and radiates in a definite number of directions. This can

-only be indicated here.[84] One main ramification leads us to

-anthropo-geography. Consequently, we must now turn to a detailed

-consideration of the idea of milieu in anthropo-geography.[85]

-

-Karl Ritter first in anthropo-geography elucidated Herder’s ideas on

-environment. “... KARL RITTER steht auf HERDERS Schultern, wenn er in

-seiner ‘Allgemeinen Erdkunde’ den Gedanken der tiefgehenden

-Beeinflussung der Völkergeschichte durch die äußeren Umgebungen

-entwickelt ...”[86] Ritter is said to be given too much credit for

-connecting scientifically geography and history: “C. Ritter führte, ...

-die Herder’schen Anschauungen deutlicher aus. Die wissenschaftliche,

-nicht bloß äußerliche Verbindung von Geographie und Geschichte kettet

-sich an seinen Namen. Nicht ganz mit Recht; ...”[87] Richthofen thinks

-that Ritter’s basic idea was almost without influence on geography; only

-the historians profited by it.[88] Alexander von Humboldt, on the other

-hand, declares in the first volume of his _Cosmos_ that “The views of

-comparative geography have been specially enlarged by that admirable

-work, Erdkunde im Verhältnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte, in which Carl

-Ritter so ably delineates the physiognomy of our globe and shows the

-influence of its external configuration on the physical phenomena on its

-surface, on the migrations, laws, and manners of nations, and on all the

-principal historical events enacted upon the face of the earth.”[89]

-

-In the _Erdkunde_,[90] Ritter propounds a program for

-anthropo-geographical investigation, i.e., for the investigation of the

-mutual relation between man and his environment. As every moral man

-should, so should also “jeder menschliche Verein, jedes Volk seiner

-eigenen inneren und äußeren Kräfte, wie derjenigen der Nachbarn und

-seiner Stellung zu allen von außen herein wirkenden Verhältnissen inne

-werden.”[91] Nature exercises greater influence over peoples than over

-individual men: “Die Eigentümlichkeit des Volkes kann nur aus seinem

-Wesen erkannt werden, aus seinem Verhältnis zu sich selbst, zu seinen

-Gliedern, zu seinen Umgebungen, und weil kein Volk ohne Staat und

-Vaterland gedacht werden kann, aus seinem Verhältnis zu beiden und aus

-dem Verhältnis von beiden zu Nachbarländern und Nachbarstaaten. Hier

-zeigt sich der Einfluß, den die Natur auf die Völker, und zwar in einem

-noch weit höheren Grade, als auf den einzelnen Menschen ausüben muß ...

-

-“Denn durch eine höhere Ordnung bestimmt, treten die Völker wie die

-Menschen zugleich unter dem Einfluß einer Tätigkeit der Natur und der

-Vernunft hervor aus dem geistigen wie aus dem physischen Elemente in den

-Alles verschlingenden Kreis des Weltlebens. Gestaltet sich doch jeder

-Organismus dem inneren Zusammenhange und dem äußeren Umfange nach ...

-Sie (Völker und Staaten) stehen alle unter demselben Einflusse der Natur

-...”[92] To the problem of the reciprocal relation between external and

-internal factors, Ritter devoted a special essay, entitled “Über das

-historische Element in der geographischen Wissenschaft,” which he read

-before the Academy of Sciences at Berlin in 1833.[93]

-

-In Alexander von Humboldt’s _Ansichten der Natur_,[94] “Everywhere the

-reader’s attention is directed to the perpetual influence which physical

-nature exercises on the moral condition and on the destiny of man.”[95]

-In passing, Humboldt also touches on environment in the first volume of

-his chef-d’oeuvre, _Kosmos_, assigning it, however, but a modest rôle:

-“Es würde das allgemeine Naturbild, das ich zu entwerfen strebe,

-unvollständig bleiben, wenn ich hier nicht auch den Mut hätte, das

-Menschengeschlecht in seinen physischen Abstufungen, in der

-geographischen Verbreitung seiner gleichzeitig vorhandenen Typen, in dem

-Einfluß, welchen es von den Kräften der Erde empfangen und

-wechselseitig, wenn auch schwächer, auf sie ausgeübt hat, mit wenigen

-Zügen zu schildern. Abhängig, wenn gleich in minderem Grade als Pflanzen

-und Tiere, von dem Boden und den meteorologischen Prozessen des

-Luftkreises, den Naturgewalten durch Geistestätigkeit und stufenweise

-erhöhte Intelligenz, wie durch eine wunderbare sich allen Klimaten

-aneignende Biegsamkeit des Organismus leichter entgehend, nimmt das

-Geschlecht wesentlich Teil an dem ganzen Erdenleben.”[96]

-

-J. G. Kohl’s book, _Der Verkehr und die Ansiedlungen der Menschheit in

-ihrer Abhängigkeit von der Gestaltung der Erdoberfläche_,[97] occupies

-itself with the question of the dependence of human progress in general,

-and of density and concentration of population in particular, upon

-natural conditions. The causes of these phenomena are, to Kohl, partly

-moral or political, and partly physical. The physical causes of

-concentration are twofold: “Teils sind es solche, die von dem mehr oder

-minder großen Produktenreichtum des Bodens, teils solche, die von der

-Gestaltung der Erdoberfläche abhängen ... so zeigt sich dann, daß von

-allen verschiedenen Ursachen der Kondensierung der Bevölkerung die

-Bodengestaltung die allerwichtigste ist.”[98] Opposed to these natural

-conditions is a series of what Kohl styles political influences, such as

-national character, institutions created by the State, laws, etc.—“Die

-moralischen oder politischen Ursachen der verschiedenen Dichtigkeit der

-Bevölkerung sind in dem Kulturzustande und besonders in der politischen

-Verfassung der Bewohner der verschiedenen Erdstriche begründet ... Auch

-sind viele verschiedene Sitten der Völker als einflußreiche Ursachen der

-mehr oder minder großen Dichtigkeit der Bevölkerung zu betrachten.”[99]

-Not only national character, but also education is to be counted among

-the political influences: “Unter politischen und moralischen Einflüssen,

-die nicht von der Natur bedingt werden, verstehen wir solche Kräfte,

-solche Volkstalente und Eigentümlichkeiten des Charakters, die nicht der

-Boden, die Luft und das Klima dem Volke geben. So groß nämlich auch die

-Gewalt des Bodens, des Klimas und der Natur ist, so sehr die Zonen, die

-Gebirge, die Sümpfe, die Wälder, die Wüsten u.s.w. alle Bevölkerung, die

-in ihre Gebiete fällt, auf einerlei Weise zu bilden und zu modeln

-streben, so sehr behauptet doch immer noch nebenher der ursprüngliche

-Charakter des Stammes und die Erziehung, welche das Volk sich gibt, ihre

-eigenen Rechte. Es existieren beide Einflüsse neben einander,

-beschränken sich gegenseitig, aber sie heben sich nicht auf ... Das, was

-nun nicht vom Boden abhängt und was ein Volk auf jeden Boden, den es

-bezieht, mit hin bringt, ist wiederum Zweierlei, entweder etwas

-Angeborenes oder etwas Angenommenes.”[100] It is difficult to

-differentiate between what is due to original endowment and what to the

-milieu, yet natural influences can not be ignored: “Welcher Geist ...

-möchte den Versuch wagen, zu entscheiden, was im Charakter des Volkes

-... Angenommenes und was Selbstgegebenes sei, was endlich in ihren

-Handlungen und Bewegungen von Klima und Landesbeschaffenheit bedingt

-werde. Die Charaktergepräge der Nationen, wie wir sie jetzt in diesen

-neuesten Momenten der weltgeschichtlichen Entwicklung sehen, sind

-Gebilde, welche unter der Einwirkung unerforschbar vielfacher Einflüsse

-entstanden sind.... Und doch stehen sie (die Natureinflüsse, die von den

-Historikern gewöhnlich unberücksichtigt geblieben sind) vielleicht auch

-bei allen jenen Dingen, die wir im Vordergrunde agieren sehen, im

-Hintergrunde und wirken als die Quellen der Erscheinungen mittelbar

-selbst da, wo wir dieselben anderen Ursachen zuschreiben. So mag jede

-Art der Staatsverfassung, der Gewerbzweige geschöpft und hervorgeblüht

-sein aus der Tiefe des Nationalgeistes, des Boden- und des Luftgeistes,

-während wir sie als Willkürliches und Selbstgegebenes auffassen.”[101]

-

-The naturalist Karl Ernst von Baer discusses the influence of external

-nature upon the social relations of individual nations and upon the

-history of mankind in general,[102] while the geologist Bernhard Cotta

-attempts to show the effect of soil and geological structure on German

-life.[103] Accepting, in the main, Cotta as a basis, J. Kutzen, in _Das

-deutsche Land, Seine Natur in ihren charakteristischen Zügen und sein

-Einfluß auf Geschichte und Leben der Menschen, Skizzen und Bilder_,[104]

-the bulk of which book is physical geography, intersperses therewith

-anthropo-geographical statements that are in some cases interwoven in,

-and in others added to, the descriptive parts, pointing out the relation

-of environment to the life and history of the Germans.[105] Kutzen

-claims his work to be the first that treats the _whole_ of Germany in

-the way just indicated.

-

-In The Natural History of the German People,[106] W. H. Riehl studies

-the action of natural conditions on man. He is concerned with the

-connections between land and people: “Will man die naturgeschichtliche

-Methode der Wissenschaft vom Volke in ihrer ganzen Breite und Tiefe

-nachweisen, dann muß man auch in das Wesen dieser örtlichen

-Besonderungen des Volkstumes eindringen. In der Lehre von der

-bürgerlichen Gesellschaft ist das Verhältnis der großen natürlichen

-Volksgruppen zueinander nachgewiesen: hier sollen diese Gruppen nach den

-örtlichen Bedingungen des Landes, in welchem das Volksleben wurzelt,

-dargestellt werden. Erst aus den individuellen Bezügen von LAND UND

-LEUTEN entwickelt sich die kulturgeschichtliche Abstraktion der

-bürgerlichen Gesellschaft.”[107] And “Das vorliegende Buch hat sich das

-bescheidenere Ziel gesteckt, zusammenhängende Skizzen zu liefern zur

-Naturgeschichte des Volkes _in seinem Zusammenhang mit dem Lande_.”[108]

-His chief aim is to prove that the connection between land and people is

-the basis of all social development and of all social research: “Ich

-hatte mir von Anbeginn das Ziel gesteckt, den Zusammenhang von Land und

-Volk als Fundament aller sozialen und politischen Entwicklung, als

-Ausgangspunkt aller sozialen Forschung nachzuweisen, und dieses

-Hauptziel, die eigentliche Tendenz des Buches, hat heute noch denselben

-Wert, dieselbe fördernde Kraft wie vor einem Menschenalter.”[109] He

-wants to show how “Volksart” and “Landesart” hang together, how

-nationality grows organically out of the soil: “Ich nenne dieses

-Wanderbuch einen zweiten Band zu ‘Land und Leuten.’ In jener Schrift

-verarbeite ich zahlreiche Wanderskizzen, um den Zusammenhang von

-Volksart und Landesart, das organische Erwachsen des Volkstumes aus dem

-Boden nachzuweisen.”[110] Everywhere Riehl finds “an organic relation

-between nature and man,” according to Gooch.[111] Riehl recognizes “that

-man could only develop within the limits imposed by nature.”[112] The

-problem of how locality affects social groups has, of course, not

-originated with Riehl, but it received a reformulation at his hands. It

-must be added, however, that his bombastic assertions far outrun his

-data. His claims are disproportionate to his facts.[113]

-

-Alfred Kirchhoff brilliantly sketches the reciprocal relations between

-land and people in Germany, in an essay entitled _Die deutschen

-Landschaften und Stämme_.[114]

-

-Achelis[115] refers to Bastian’s doctrine of geographical provinces, “wo

-eine Reihe rein physikalischer Agentien: Temperatur, Boden, Flora,

-Fauna, etc. sich mit entsprechenden psychischen kombinieren, so daß man

-in konzentrischer Reihenfolge von botanischen, zoologischen und

-anthropologischen Kreisen reden könnte. Der leitende Grundsatz, sagt

-Bastian, für geographisch-typische Provinzen fällt in die Abhängigkeit

-des Organismus von seiner geographischen Umgebung (_le Milieu_ oder

-_Monde ambiant_), in eine gegenseitig festgeschlossene Wechselwirkung

-und also in Naturgesetze, mit denen sich rechnen läßt (_Zur Lehre von

-den geographischen Provinzen_ [Berlin, 1886], S. 6).”

-

-The reciprocal influences of man and his environment are illustrated by

-Alfred Kirchhoff in _Mensch und Erde, Skizzen von den Wechselbeziehungen

-zwischen beiden_.[116]

-

-Ferdinand von Richthofen[117] traces the gradual evolution of “Siedlung

-und Verkehr,” under which two concepts he subsumes all relations of man

-to the soil.[118]

-

-It was Friedrich Ratzel, however, who “performed the great service of

-placing anthropo-geography on a secure scientific basis. He had his

-forerunners in Montesquieu,[119] Alexander von Humboldt, Buckle,

-Ritter, Kohl, Peschel and others; but he first investigated the

-subject from the modern scientific point of view, ... and based his

-conclusions on world-wide inductions, for which his predecessors did

-not command the data.”[120] He “has written the standard work on

-_Anthropogeographie_.”[121] Employing the analytical method, Ratzel

-was the first to divide the subject-matter into categories: “Ratzel

-hat das Verdienst, daß er zuerst den Stoff in Kategorien teilte. Er

-wendet die analytische Methode der allgemeinen Geographie an und

-betrachtet den Einfluß einzelner Naturgegebenheiten auf den Menschen,

-z.B. der Inseln, Halbinseln, Gebirge, Ebenen, Steppen, Wüsten, Küsten,

-Flußmündungen[122] usw. Die analytische Methode allein kann zum Ziele

-führen.”[123] The great and permanent merit of Ratzel’s _Politische

-Geographie_[124] is its setting forth how closely the State is bound

-to the physical milieu.[125] It treats partly of the effect of nature

-and soil on the formation of the State and on political

-boundaries.[126] Ratzel expounds environmental action also in his

-books _Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika_,[127] _The History of

-Mankind_,[128] and in his article on “The Principles of

-Anthropo-geography.”[129] Among his followers is to be counted Andrew

-R. Cowan, whose _Master-Clues in World-History_[130] is “deeply

-impregnated with Ratzel’s teachings.”[131] Camille Vallaux devotes the

-fifth chapter (pp. 145–73) of his _Géographie Sociale, Le Sol et

-L’État_,[132] to a criticism of the theories of _Raum_ (space) and of

-Lage (situation) as developed by Ratzel in his _Politische

-Geographie_. And, in general, Ratzel’s “published work had been open

-to the just criticism of inadequate citation of authorities.”[133] O.

-Schlüter in “Die leitenden Gesichtspunkte der Anthropogeographie,

-insbesondere der Lehre Friedrich Ratzels”[134] gives us the best

-single estimate of Ratzel, the best orientation—within the compass of

-an article well written, well poised, and illuminating—on Ratzel’s

-work, thought, method, and application.[135]

-

-

-                        _Geography and History_

-

-We shall now see, first, the stand taken by some French writers, and

-then that taken by German and English writers, on the question of how

-physical environment affects history.

-

-One of the “three most philosophical writers on climate,”[136] Charles

-Comte, not related by birth to the founder of Positivism, is, likewise,

-one of the earliest disciples of Herder in France. Herder “seems to have

-helped to inspire”[137] Charles Comte’s _Traité de Législation_.[138]

-Charles Comte’s “discussion of the questions which relate to the

-influence of physical nature on human development must have been the

-fruit of long and careful study. It was as great an advance on

-Montesquieu’s treatment of the subject as Montesquieu’s had been on that

-of Bodin. It disproved, corrected, or confirmed a host of Montesquieu’s

-observations and conclusions. It showed that he had ascribed too much to

-climate, and too little to the configuration of the earth’s surface, the

-distribution of mountains and rivers, &c.; and that he had conceived

-vaguely, and even to a large extent erroneously, of the modes in which

-climate and the fertility or sterility of soil affect human development.

-But while Comte thus justly criticised Montesquieu, he himself

-exaggerated the efficiency of physical agencies. Indeed, he virtually

-traced to their operation the whole development of history ... he has

-assumed that physical agencies ultimately account for historical change

-and movement, for public institutions and laws....

-

-“Charles Comte fully recognises that the same physical medium has a very

-different influence on different generations; and that institutions and

-laws, education and manners, and, in a word, all the constituents of the

-social medium, have as real an influence on the development of history

-as those of the physical medium. Yet he assumes the latter to be the

-first, although to a large extent only indirect, causes of the whole

-amount of change effected.”[139]

-

-Victor Cousin, another Frenchman, reconnects with Herder. Cousin had

-direct acquaintance with at least the principal work of Herder, for the

-rendering of whose “Ideen” into French by Quinet he seems

-responsible.[140] In the eighth lecture of his “admired”[141] _Cours de

-1828 sur la Philosophie de l’Histoire_, he discourses on the rôle that

-geography plays in history.

-

-F. Guizot, in the fifth lecture of _The History of Civilization_,[142]

-comments briefly on the influence of external circumstances upon

-liberty.

-

-The romantic French historiographer, Jules Michelet, in his _Histoire de

-France_ (second volume, 1833), and in his _Histoire Romaine_ (1839),

-interlinks geography with history, and brilliantly describes the

-countries whose histories he is writing. Like some before him (such as

-Montesquieu), and many after him (such as Riehl, Curtius, and

-Gothein),[143] who traveled in the respective countries before

-describing them or composing their history, Michelet, as one preliminary

-measure toward equipping himself for such a task, visited Italy[144] and

-various parts of France, the latter repeatedly, in order to gain a first

-hand impression of the physical milieu and the people of those lands. He

-is said to be the first [_sic!_] in France who, under the influence of

-Herder, had the idea that geography was the foundation of history: “Sous

-l’influence de Herder, il [Michelet] eut, le premier en France, l’idée

-que la géographie était le fondement de l’histoire: ‘Le matériel, la

-race, le peuple qui la continue me paraissaient avoir besoin qu’on mît

-dessous une bonne et forte base, la terre, qui les portât et qui les

-nourrît. Et notez que ce sol n’est pas seulement le théâtre de l’action.

-Par la nourriture, le climat, etc., il y influe de cent manières. Tel le

-nid, tel l’oiseau. Telle la patrie, tel l’homme.’”[145] Without this

-basis, the actor in history, the people, would be treading on air like

-figures in some Chinese paintings. Says Jules Simon of the celebrated

-tableau in the second volume of the _Histoire de France_: “Son héros

-[Michelet’s] ... c’est la France. Il en fait une description qui remplit

-tout le troisième livre et qui est un chef-d’oeuvre. Chose nouvelle,

-cette géographie a autant de mouvement que l’histoire. Elle est animée,

-vivante, agissante. Il en montre à merveille l’utilité, la nécessité.

-Sans cette base géographique, le peuple, l’acteur historique, semblerait

-marcher en l’air, comme dans les peintures chinoises, où le sol

-manque.”[146] In the _Introduction to Universal History_ (1831),

-Michelet says, “In Germany and Italy, fatality is still strong; moral

-freedom is still borne down by powerful influences of race, locality,

-and climate.”[147]

-

-Ernst Kapp, in the _Philosophische Erdkunde_,[148] criticizes writers on

-the philosophy of history for their failure to give due attention to the

-geographical existence of the nations. Nor are geographical intermezzos

-alone sufficient: “Man [these writers] hat zwar eine Ahnung von dem

-geographischen Element in der Geschichte, nicht aber das deutliche

-Bewußtsein, daß die Menschheit an dem Planeten ihre physische

-Individualität besitzt, daß sie zu ihm sich verhält, wie die Seele zum

-Leib. Anstatt die geographische Betrachtung durch und durch mit der

-historischen verwachsen zu lassen [which he proposes to do], hat man

-teils geographische Intermezzos nach subjektivem Gutdünken ...

-eingestreut, teils auch sich mit einer dem Ganzen voraufgeschickten

-geographischen Grundlage ein für allemal begnügt. Man hat hierbei nicht

-bedacht, daß man die Geschichte, wenn man ihr den planetarischen Grund

-und Boden, auf den man sie von vornherein stellt, wegrückt, zwischen

-Himmel und Erde schweben läßt und ihre Behandlung dem veränderlichen

-Luftzuge des subjektiven Beliebens mehr oder minder preisgibt ... Darin

-ruht die Selbständigkeit der geographischen Wissenschaft, ..., daß ihr

-Objekt die Erde ist, ... die Erde, wie sie bestimmend auf die

-Entwicklung des Geistes einwirkt und hinwiederum vom Geist bestimmt und

-verändert wird. Dies Verhältnis des Planeten zum Geist ist ein

-wesentliches.”[149]

-

-Arnold H. Guyot, “ce Suisse transplanté en Amérique,”[150] treats the

-same topic in the _Géographie physique comparée, considérée dans ses

-rapports avec l’histoire de l’humanité_.[151]

-

-The frequently misquoted Henry Thomas Buckle, in the celebrated second

-chapter of the _History of Civilization in England_,[152] shows the

-largely indirect effects of climate, food, and soil, chiefly upon the

-civilizations—of India, Egypt, Mexico, Peru, etc.—anterior to those of

-Europe, and of a fourth class of physical agents, namely, of what he

-terms the general aspect of nature upon the imagination—religion,

-literature, art—of those peoples. Buckle does not maintain that these

-four classes of the Environment were the _sole_ factors in producing

-civilization; in fact he makes it quite clear that they were _not_ the

-only factors, that they affected the civilizations mentioned in an

-indirect way and he indicates how this has taken place. Buckle’s

-statements of his ideas had been misrepresented, twisted, and distorted

-to such a degree that John M. Robertson felt impelled to write a whole

-book[153] in rebuttal, in order to set Buckle’s detractors and

-controversial critics right and to refute their unfair imputations to

-Buckle’s intended meaning.

-

-The romanticist Ernst Curtius is sometimes referred to as one of those

-historians who give adequate expression to the action of the physical

-milieu upon the course of history. But Vallaux declares that Curtius,

-like Michelet, has made of human geography and of political geography

-_merely_ a preliminary and introductory science to history: “une science

-auxiliaire ou plutôt liminaire, sorte de _portique d’entrée_ [the

-italics are ours] pour leurs brillantes constructions,”[154] lending

-thus support to Kapp’s contention.[155] Nor would Ratzel be content with

-a portrayal of the land as an introduction to the history of a country,

-even though it be as richly colored as that drawn by Curtius.[156] A

-description, in itself, fails to penetrate to the core of the relation.

-If we now turn to Curtius’ _The History of Greece_,[157] we find that

-the first chapter in the first book[158] considers Land and People, a

-part of which (pp. 9–18) gives a geographical description of Hellas, and

-another part of which (pp. 19–25, seven pages scant) points out the

-connection between the land and the people. Elsewhere,[159] Curtius

-shows the interaction between the physical environment of Athens and the

-Athenians.[160]

-

-George Grote, whose account of the relation between the Greek land and

-the Greek people is held by some[161] to be excellent, in _A History of

-Greece_,[162] devotes four pages (227–30) of the chapter on General

-Geography and Limits of Greece to show the effects of the configuration

-of Greece upon the political relation of the inhabitants[163] and the

-effects upon their intellectual development,[164] the rest of the

-chapter being given over to a description of the geography of Greece.

-

-Alfred E. Zimmern, in _The Greek Commonwealth, Politics and Economics in

-Fifth-Century Athens_,[165] deals very cleverly with the main features

-of the material environment of Greek civilization: The Mediterranean

-Area; The Sea; The Climate; The Soil; Fellowship, or the Rule of Public

-Opinion, under which headings he discusses the influence of environment

-upon Greek institutions.[166]

-

-As early as 1864, G. P. Marsh investigates the subject of man’s reaction

-on his milieu in _Man and Nature, or Physical Geography as Modified by

-Human Action_ (London).

-

-John William Draper, in his _History of the Intellectual Development of

-Europe_,[167] in the composition of which Herderian ideas were the

-guides,[168] first attempts to show (vol. I, pp. 6–17) that individual

-man, as well as communities, nations, and universal humanity, are under

-the control of physical conditions; then (pp. 23–35) he points out how

-the topography, meteorology, and secular geological movements of Europe

-affected its inhabitants. On the whole, he overstates the force of

-environment and neglects the human factor; nevertheless his

-uncompromising affirmations bring out strikingly some of the

-environmental effects on man.

-

-The uncritical Max Duncker, in the nine volume _Geschichte des

-Altertums_,[169] not only has chapters on _Land und Volk_, or _Land und

-Stämme_ at the beginning of the history of a given nation, but he also

-dwells elsewhere in his text on the sway of geography in history.

-

-Élisée Réclus, in the magistral _Nouvelle Géographie Universelle_ (1879

-ff.), speaking of the difficulties encountered by research, queries:

-“... Was verdanken die Nationen dem Einfluß der Natur, die sie umgibt?

-Was verdanken sie dem Milieu, das ihre Vorfahren bewohnten, ihren

-Rasseinstinkten, ihren verschiedenartigen Mischungen, den von Außen

-eingeführten Überlieferungen? Man weiß es nicht, kaum daß einige

-Lichtstrahlen in jene Finsternis dringen.”[170] The preponderance of

-European nations is by no means attributable, as some arrogantly and

-self-conceitedly fancied, to any racial endowment; on the contrary, it

-is due to the favoring conditions of the physical environment prevailing

-in Europe: “Man weiß, wie mächtig der Einfluß des geographischen Milieu

-auf die Fortschritte der europäischen Nationen gewesen ist. Ihre

-Überlegenheit ist keineswegs, wie einige sich dünkelhafter Weise

-eingebildet haben, der eigentümlichen Anlage der Rassen zuzuschreiben,

-denn in anderen Gegenden der alten Welt haben sich eben dieselben Rassen

-weniger schöpferisch erwiesen. Es sind die glücklichen Bedingungen der

-Wärme, des Klimas, der Gestalt und Lage des Festlandes, welche den

-Europäern die Ehre verschafft haben, die ersten gewesen zu sein in der

-Kenntnis der Erde in ihrem ganzen Umfange und lange Zeit an der Spitze

-der Zivilisation geblieben zu sein.”[171] These conditions help to

-explain, in part, the character of the nations: “Mit vollem Recht lieben

-es also die historischen Geographen bei der Gestalt der verschiedenen

-Erdteile und bei den Folgen zu verweilen, welche sich daraus für die

-Bestimmung der Völker ergeben. Die Gestalt der Hochebenen, die Höhe der

-Berge, der Lauf und der Reichtum der Flüsse, die Nachbarschaft des

-Ozeans, die Gliederung der Küsten, die Temperatur der Atmosphäre, die

-Häufigkeit oder Seltenheit des Regens, die unzähligen wechselseitigen

-Einflüsse der Sonne, der Luft und der Gewässer, alle Erscheinungen des

-Pflanzenlebens habe eine Bedeutung in ihren Augen und dienen ihnen

-(wenigstens zum Teil), den Charakter und das erste Leben der Nationen zu

-erklären ...”[172] Continental and oceanic forms and other features of

-the globe vary in their value for man in accordance with the stage of

-civilization to which he attained.[173] Notwithstanding this separation,

-in principle, of natural and national influences upon social evolution,

-its application to concrete cases Réclus finds arduous: “Durch das

-Studium der Sonne und durch die unablässige Beobachtung der klimatischen

-Erscheinungen können wir ganz allgemein verstehen, welches der Einfluß

-der Natur auf die Entwicklung der Völker gewesen ist; aber es ist

-schwieriger, das auf jede Rasse, auf jede Nation zu verteilen....”[174]

-

-P. Mougeoulle’s theory in _Les problèmes de l’histoire_,[175] is an

-altogether one-sided geographical theory of history.[176] The sole cause

-of the external as well as the internal history of peoples, is, in his

-opinion, the geographical Milieu.[177] To Mougeoulle, the Milieu is the

-author, whereas man is the actor of the Drama of history.[178]

-

-Léon Metchnikoff, in _La Civilisation et Les Grands Fleuves

-Historiques_,[179] pays some attention to the influences (astronomic,

-physical—the geosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere—, vegetal,

-animal, anthropological) of the milieu on man and society; yet his main

-care is with the action of parts of the hydrosphere on human progress.

-Following C. Böttiger (_Das Mittelmeer_, Leipzig, 1859), Metchnikoff

-distinguishes the three milieus: fluvial or potamic, mediterranean or

-thalassic, and oceanic or universal.[180] On this basis he divides

-universal history into three periods: 1) the period of the fluvial

-civilizations (temps anciens), furnishing the principal theme of his

-argument (discussed in the last four chapters of his book); 2) that of

-the mediterranean civilizations (temps moyens); 3) and that of the

-oceanic civilizations. The fluvial or ancient period, from the

-beginnings to _circa_ 800 B.C., comprises the history of the four great

-civilizations of antiquity, in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, “qui

-ont eu pour milieu géographique des régions arrosées par certains

-fleuves ou couples de fleuves célèbres.” The mediterranean or middle

-period extends from the seventh century B.C.—the foundation of

-Carthage—to Charles the Fifth. The modern or oceanic period has two

-epochs: a) the _atlantic_ epoch, from the discovery of America to about

-the middle of the nineteenth century; and b) the _universal_ epoch, just

-beginning.[181] In the main, Metchnikoff limits the scope of his work to

-the compass of fluvial civilizations. He studies in detail the four

-great historical rivers or pairs of rivers (the Nile, the Tigris and the

-Euphrates, the Indus and the Ganges, and the Hoangho and the

-Yangtze-Kiang, those great educators of mankind) in their bearing upon

-the four grand civilizations—Chinese, Hindu, Assyro-Babylonian, and

-Egyptian—of remote antiquity, all of which expanded in fluvial

-regions.[182] The River, in all countries, presents itself to

-Metchnikoff as the living synthesis of all the complex conditions of the

-climate, of the soil, of the configuration of the earth, and of the

-geologic formation. In Egypt and in China, in India and in Mesopotamia,

-the River has been “comme une synthèse vivante des conditions

-géographiques les plus multiples.”[183] He finds that each of the four

-great monarchies of antiquity had been a natural consequence or result

-of the hydrological system of the country that served as its cradle, and

-that history, in the entire ancient world, had been a toil, a forced

-labor (“une corvée”), imposed on a part of mankind by certain orographic

-peculiarities of the Milieu. Metchnikoff concludes that in these empires

-“le Milieu s’est trouvé être invariablement le vrai créateur de

-l’histoire.” The eloquent example of these four grand ancient

-civilizations sufficiently proves to him that no important historical

-expansion could ever occur in any country of the world, unless the

-milieu condemned its inhabitants to that excessive solidarity which he

-shows to have been brutally imposed everywhere at the shores of these

-great historical rivers; a milieu is conceivable, however, where this

-condition, rigorously required by history, may be fulfilled by an

-environmental factor other than a river or a system of rivers.[184]

-Metchnikoff protests that he is far from advocating potamic[185] or

-geographical[186] fatalism.[187]

-

-Babington’s study of the power of environment over history points out

-the fallacy of the race theory in the history of the Roman empire, of

-Germany, and of China.[188]

-

-N. S. Shaler, in _Nature and Man in America_,[189] traces, on the one

-hand, the action of environment on organic life, and, on the other, the

-effect of geographic conditions on the development of peoples, more

-especially on that of man in North America.[190]

-

-Since about the middle of the eighties, under the leadership of the late

-historian E. A. Freeman and of the illustrious statesman and scholar,

-Lord James Bryce, “a marked revival of interest” has been exhibited in

-England in studying the physical milieu as it relates to man and human

-society, institutions and history.[191]

-

-The leading point of view in H. F. Helmolt’s _The History of the World,

-a Survey of Man’s Record_,[192] is the treatment of man’s relation to

-his physical environment, the relation of geography to history, the

-dependence of man on his geographical surroundings. “It [Helmolt’s

-_History_] deals with history in the light of physical environment....

-Its ground plan, so to speak, is primarily geographical....”[193] It was

-conceived in the spirit of Ratzel;[194] it is said to have brought for

-the first time “die Länder- und Völkerkunde in den Dienst der

-Weltgeschichtsdarstellung.”[195] Helmolt’s “great co-operative _History

-of Mankind_ ... emphasizes the sovereign influences of nature and

-geography,” says Gooch.[196]

-

-Rev. H. B. George, in _The Relations of Geography and History_,[197]

-attempts to “point out systematically how these [geographical] causes

-work [all history through], first in general, and then in reference to

-the various countries of Europe,”[198] although “This work does not

-pretend to attempt the impossible task of describing all the influence

-exerted by geographical conditions on human history. All that it

-professes to do is to indicate the modes in which that influence works,

-with sufficient illustrations from actual history.”[199]

-

-Professor Geddes, of Edinburgh, is the most energetic expounder of this

-idea—the anthropo-geographical conception of history—in the

-English-speaking world, says Small.[200]

-

-Throughout the entire treatment of Guglielmo Ferrero’s[201] _History of

-Rome_ (one of the most original and important historical works of recent

-years), geography thoroughly permeates history.[202]

-

-Robert Sieger[203] attempts to explain the history and policies of the

-Austro-Hungarian monarchy “aus ihren geographischen Grundlagen.”[204]

-

-Ellsworth Huntington, in _The Pulse of Asia_,[205] illustrates the

-geographic basis of history.[206]

-

-The Columbia School of sociological historians, and others, interpret

-history partly in terms of the milieu: physical (economic and

-geographic) and social.[207]

-

-Human geography, and political geography, have long been divided into

-fragmentary parts, contended for by economics, history, and

-sociology.[208] Yet the discipline of anthropo-geography has now become

-“eine mächtige Hilfswissenschaft der geschichtlichen Auffassung.”[209]

-So that, today, it has become a custom to include in textbooks of

-history one or more chapters on the relation of geography to history, to

-show the dependence of history on environment.[210] The study of the

-latter is a part of Kulturgeschichte or History of Civilization which is

-defined as embracing the non-political aspects of civilization such as

-the influence of nature, the pressure of economic factors, the origin

-and transformation of ideas, the contribution of science and art,

-religion and philosophy, literature and law, the material conditions of

-life, the fortunes of the masses.[211] Likewise, only on a broader

-scale, the milieu is being examined in a new branch of study, which is

-one resultant of anthropo-geographical research. This new branch of

-study is economic geography, which, according to John McFarlane,[212]

-“may be defined as the study of the influence exerted upon the economic

-activities of man by his physical environment, and more especially by

-the form and structure of the surface of the land, the climatic

-conditions which prevail upon it, and the place relations in which its

-different regions stand to one another.” Seligman says that the modern

-study of economic geography is but an expansion of the study of the

-influence of milieu.[213]

-

-Indeed, geography itself, _i.e._, the new geography, is conceived of as

-the science or study of the responses of organisms to inorganic, and to

-a certain extent organic, environmental control.[214] Professor William

-Morris Davis, of Harvard University, is one of the chief exponents of

-this theory in the United States. Very recently, Rollin D. Salisbury

-said:[215] “By common consent, Geography (as distinct from physical

-geography) is the science which deals with the relations of physical

-environment to life and its activities. In this sense, geography is a

-connecting link between geology, physiography, and climatology, on the

-one hand, and zoölogy, botany, sociology, economics, and history on the

-other. Its subject-matter is in process of formulation....”[216]

-

-

-             _More Recent Anthropo-geographical Treatises_

-

-James Bryce offers the most excellent general survey of man’s relation

-to his physical environment.[217]

-

-Herbertson’s very useful and readable introductory book gives “concrete

-pictures of human life under these very different conditions [typical

-environments]. They show, in the first place, how the occupation of

-different groups of mankind depends on their geographical surroundings,

-and how these occupations in turn affect not only the material life, the

-houses, food, clothing, etc., but also family life, notions of property,

-progress in trade and manufactures, power of expansion, and ideals of

-government. All these are classified, not according to race, which is

-often an accident, but according to those permanent influences by which

-all races are affected.”[218]

-

-Robert DeCourcy Ward, in his standard work on _Climate Considered

-Especially in Relation to Man_,[219] presents “typical illustrations” of

-environmental action on the life of man in the tropics (Ch. 8, pp.

-220–71), in the temperate zones (Ch. 9 pp. 272–321), and in the polar

-zones (Ch. 10, pp. 322–37).[220] In a chapter on the hygiene of the

-zones (Ch. 7, pp. 178–219), Ward also surveys “some of the relations

-between weather and climate and a few of the more important

-diseases.”[221]

-

-R. R. Marett’s chapter on “Environment” in his _Anthropology_[222]

-presents, beside a number of valuable general and critical remarks,

-chiefly a regional survey of the world showing the general effect of

-geographical environment on man.

-

-Camille Vallaux, in _Géographie Sociale, Le Sol et L’État_,[223]

-beginning with the sixth chapter, also discusses some phases of what

-would in E. C. Hayes’ classification[224] be called the technical

-milieu.

-

-The most recent German essay, Willy Hellpach’s[225] _Die

-Geopsychischen Erscheinungen: Wetter, Klima und Landschaft in ihrem

-Einfluß auf das Seelenleben_,[226] deals with the _direct_ effects of

-the surrounding _atmosphere_ and soil on the human psyche.[227]

-Hellpach seems primarily interested in “Psycho-Pathologie”;[228] he

-lays most stress on _das Pathologische_, particularly in the

-main—first two—parts of his essay: “Wetter und Seelenleben,” and

-“Klima und Seelenleben,” where the pathological effect is strongly

-emphasized. Hellpach’s valuable summary of what we know today of this

-phase of the milieu,[229] revealing as it does by the meager number of

-the facts assembled the crying need for many more such facts, may be,

-in its results, somewhat disappointing[230] for the present day, but

-it augurs well for future investigation.

-

-The latest extensive presentation of general anthropo-geography,[231]

-Jean Brunhes’ _La géographie humaine_,[232] pays more attention to

-present than to historical conditions,[233] and thus fittingly

-complements Ellen C. Semple’s _Influences of Geographic

-Environment_,[234] which “may be regarded as superseding Ratzel’s great

-work on Anthropo-geography.”[235]

-

-

-                  _Primitive Peoples and Environment_

-

-Karl Ritter, in the essay “Über das historische Element in der

-geographischen Wissenschaft” (1833), declares that the forces of nature

-which at the commencement of human history exerted a very decisive

-influence were bound to recede more and more, and their action had to

-diminish, in proportion to man’s progress. Civilized mankind extricates

-itself gradually, like single man, from the immediately conditioning

-fetters of nature and of its place of abode.[236] This opinion of

-Ritter’s was adopted by many.[237]

-

-Theodor Waitz regards primitive man both as purely a product of, and as

-being completely at the mercy of, circumambient nature: “Denken wir uns

-vom Menschen Alles hinweg, was an ihm Wirkung der Kultur ist, so steht

-er da als bloßes Produkt der Macht, die ihn in’s Leben rief, ... Das

-Erste, was an ihm charakteristisch für uns hervorträte, würde die sehr

-vollständige Abhängigkeit sein, in der er sich von seiner Naturumgebung

-befände: der gesammte Inhalt, den sein inneres Leben zunächst gewönne,

-würde ein ziemlich reines Produkt dieser letzteren sein. Der Naturmensch

-wird zunächst nur das, wozu die Naturverhältnisse ihn machen, unter die

-er sich gestellt findet; wovon er sich nährt, das werden diese ihm

-darbieten, auf welche Weise und durch welche Mittel er seine Nahrung

-gewinnt, dazu werden diese ihm Anleitung geben müssen; ob er Kleidung

-und sonstigen Schutz gegen äußere Schädlichkeiten bedarf, und wie er

-diesem Bedürfnis abzuhelfen strebt, werden sie ihn lehren und die

-Erfindungen, die hierzu nötig sind, ihm an die Hand geben müssen; sie

-werden mit einem Wort seine ganze Lebenseinrichtung bestimmen ...”[238]

-

-G. Gerland holds that man developed from and upon nature, on which he is

-very closely dependent and of which he is a small part, and that the

-higher he rises the more he frees himself from the compelling influence

-of the earth, which, however, he can never wholly escape.[239]

-

-In the opinion of Herbert Spencer, the earlier stages of social

-evolution are far more dependent on local conditions than the later

-stages. They are more at the mercy of their surroundings.[240] Both

-Spencer and Benjamin Kidd believe that primitive man is at the mercy of

-the milieu.[241] The “remotely ancient representatives of the human

-species ... were in their then wild state much more plastic than now to

-external nature,” according to Wallace.[242] Historical and statistical

-geography show us “die Menschen, wie sie in ihre aktive Rolle

-eingetreten sind und durch Arbeit die Überlegenheit über das Milieu

-gewinnen, das sie umgibt ... Nachdem der Mensch ganz den Einfluß des

-Milieu über sich ergehen ließ, hat er denselben zu seinem Nutzen

-umgestaltet ...”[243] The intimate connection of first civilizations

-with physical environment slackens with subsequent advance.[244] This

-apparently deep-rooted view is controverted by Ratzel who flatly

-contradicts it. Distinguishing between the direct and the indirect

-effects of milieu, he argues in straight opposition that with

-progressing civilization we are increasingly dependent on environment,

-that the degree of such dependence has not lessened with advancement in

-civilization, and that only the manner of the relation has changed.[245]

-Environment affects even the highest civilization, says Ripley.[246] G.

-Elliot Smith maintains that “Environment, however it may act, whether

-directly or indirectly, is still helping to shape the human form, and is

-affecting the development of Man’s customs and achievements at least as

-powerfully as, if not more so than, ever before.”[247]

-

-

-                     _Society and Physical Milieu_

-

-The social evolution proceeds amidst the entire system of exterior

-conditions (chemical, physical, astronomical), by which its rate of

-progress is determined. Social phenomena can no more be understood apart

-from their environment than those of individual life.[248] The study of

-social evolution presupposes a relation to the physical milieu: “Das

-Studium der sozialen Entwicklung setzt eine Beziehung zwischen der

-Menschheit, welche den Vorgang vollführt, und der Gesamtheit der äußeren

-Einflüsse voraus, welche letztere man auch die sogenannte Umgebung

-heißen könnte.”[249]

-

-John Stuart Mill asserts that “All phenomena of society are phenomena of

-human nature, generated by the action of outward circumstances upon

-masses of human beings.”[250]

-

-To Schäffle, in the analysis of the structure and functions of human

-society there exist as influential factors the external surroundings, on

-the one hand, and the active elements of the social body (the individual

-and the population), on the other; for, as Schäffle emphasizes, not only

-economics, but all social science must take into consideration not only

-Society, but also Nature, _i.e._, the natural fund or stock, designated

-by soil and climate, of the immediate world-surroundings of the social

-body as the external sphere embracing societary life, and that, not only

-as a sum total of free possessions, but also as a multiplicity of free,

-_i.e._, unsubjugated resistances.[251]

-

-As “the result of a survey of social organizations, considered as

-machinery in motion, [Hermann] Post[252] points out very justly that it

-is useless to attempt to explain social phenomena on the basis of the

-psychological activities of individuals, as is too commonly assumed,

-because all individuals whose conduct we can possibly observe have

-themselves been educated in some society or other, and presume in all

-their social acts the assumptions on which that society itself

-proceeds.... It [Post’s method] is the same method, of course, which had

-already yielded such remarkable results to Montesquieu, and even to

-Locke. The point of view is no longer that of a Maine or a McLennan....

-It is that of a spectator of human society as a whole.... And its

-immediate outcome has been to throw into the strongest possible relief

-the dependence of the form and, still more, of the actual content of all

-human societies on something which is not in the human mind at all, but

-is the infinite variety of that external Nature which Society exists to

-fend off from Man, and also to let Man dominate if he can.”[253]

-

-

-                _Government, War, Progress, and Climate_

-

-James Bryce “has recently clearly set forth the climatic control of

-government in an essay on ‘British Experience in the Government of

-Colonies’ (_Century_, March, 1899, 718–729).”[254] Vallaux, however, is

-sceptical as to the influence of physical environment upon the

-State.[255] William Ridgeway avers that political and legal institutions

-are the result of environment.[256]

-

-Far-reaching and weighty historical consequences “have followed from

-special conditions of climate or weather. Maguire’s ‘Outlines of

-Military Geography’ (Cambridge, 1899) contains a chapter on the

-influence of climate on military operations, but this subject has

-hitherto received little attention. More recently, Bentley, in a

-presidential address before the Royal Meteorological Society, London,

-considered the matter.”[257] Still more recently, the relation of

-climate or weather to war has been scrutinized, among others, by F.

-Lampe in “Der erdkundliche Unterricht,”[258] by Otto Baschin in “Der

-Krieg und das Wetter,”[259] and by E. Alt in “Krieg und Witterung.”[260]

-

-Hellwald, “the well-known traveller and geographer,” compiled his

-“History of Civilization in its Natural Development” in 1874, according

-to the findings of which, cultural development is “a natural process,

-conditioned by race, geography, and climate. Civilisation means the

-mastering of nature and the taming of man.... Hellwald’s standpoint is

-shared, though less aggressively displayed by Henne-am-Rhyn.”[261]

-

-To the late meteorologist Cleveland Abbe, “Everything seems to combine

-to prove that the existing order of events both material and

-intellectual has been brought about by a slow process of change, due to

-the interaction of the atoms and masses that constitute the material

-world around us.”[262]

-

-The great diversity of existent civilizations, declares Auguste

-Matteuzzi, is due to the diversity of the milieus where they developed.

-In order to discover why any civilization becomes more heterogeneous and

-more perfect, one must study the geographic milieu where it evolved. The

-organic and inorganic milieu of evolving ethnic groups constrains human

-societies to an incessant process of adaptation, and these societies in

-their turn react upon the milieu and modify it.[263]

-

-In short, says Auguste Comte, “all human progress, political, moral, or

-intellectual, is inseparable from material progression, in virtue of the

-close interconnection which, as we have seen, characterizes the natural

-course of social phenomena.”[264]

-

-That civilization is a result of adaptation to environment, physical as

-well as political, is the view entertained by Bryce, Strachey, and

-Geikie.[265]

-

-

-                  _Climate and Man’s Characteristics_

-

-There are “certain broad, distinguishing characteristics of man in the

-temperate and tropical zones, in determining which it is reasonable to

-believe that climate has played a part. Similarly, there has been a

-natural tendency to attribute certain differences between northerners

-and southerners in the temperate zones to a difference in climate....

-These national differences are proverbial between northern and southern

-Germans, French, Spanish, Russians, Italians, Arabs, and other peoples.

-The influence of climate has likewise been traced in the sad, even

-pessimistic tone of much of the northern literature, and in the gravity

-and melancholy of modern northern music, as well as of the older

-northern folk-songs ... even racial distinctions are more or less

-directly traceable, in many instances, to climate.... Sir Archibald

-Geikie, in his _Scottish Reminiscences_, has emphasized the climatic

-influence in producing the grim character of the Scot....”[266]

-

-Tacitus, in the 29th chapter of the _Germania_, assures us that the soil

-and climate of the land of the Mattiaci caused them to be more bellicose

-than their neighbors.[267]

-

-Daudet, “who has written an entire novel (‘Numa Roumestan’) to depict

-the great influence of the climate of southern Europe upon conduct,

-says: ‘The Southerner does not love strong drinks; he is intoxicated by

-nature. Sun and wind distil in him a terrible natural alcohol to whose

-influence every one born under this sky is subject. Some have only the

-mild fever which sets their speech and gesture free, redoubles their

-audacity, makes everything seem rosy-hued, and drives them on to

-boasting; others live in a blind delirium. And what Southerner has not

-felt the sudden giving way, the exhaustion of his whole being, that

-follows an outburst of rage or enthusiasm?’”[268]

-

-Draper “emphasized the important historical consequences of the

-difference in the characteristics of northerners and southerners in the

-United States, which he attributed largely to climate, and which found

-expression in the Civil War.... The Boers in Africa have developed along

-lines different from those of the Dutch in the United States.”[269]

-

-

-               _Man’s Intellect and Physical Environment_

-

-Auguste Comte, who “was very slightly affected by German thought,” and

-who, in early youth, came under the influence of the philosophy that had

-become prevalent in France before the Revolution, “read the works of

-most of its leading representatives. He accepted its cardinal principle

-that ‘thought depends on sense, or, more broadly, on the

-environment.’”[270]

-

-Adolf Bastian worked unceasingly “among the conceptions of the

-Naturvölker—the ‘cryptograms of mankind,’ as he called them—...,

-demonstrating first the surprising uniformity of outlook on the part of

-the more primitive peoples, and secondly the correlation of differences

-of conceptions with differences in material surroundings, varying with

-geographical conditions. This second doctrine he elaborated in his _Zur

-Lehre von den geographischen Provinzen_, in 1886.”[271]

-

-Physiology and statistics “show that most human functions are subject to

-the influence of heat (Lombroso, ‘Pensiero e Meteore,’ Milan, 1878). It

-is to be expected, then, that excessive heat will have its effect upon

-the human mind.”[272]

-

-The physiographer, “... looking back over the history of life upon the

-earth’s surface, ... is forced to the conclusion that its highest estate

-embodied in the moral and intellectual qualities of man has been, in the

-main, secured by the geographic variations which have slowly developed

-through the geological ages.”[273]

-

-Benno Erdmann, in his “Gedächtnisrede auf Wilhelm Dilthey,” observes

-that in ripe old age Dilthey in the last of his larger works declared

-that man finds himself determined by the physical world in which mental

-occurrences appear only as interpolations.[274]

-

-

-                     _Religion and Physical Milieu_

-

-As physical characteristics “are in the main the result of environment,

-social institutions and religious ideas are no less the product of that

-environment.... We might just as well ask the Ethiopian to change his

-skin as to change radically his social and religious ideas. It has been

-shown by experience that Christianity can make but little headway

-amongst many peoples in Africa or Asia, where on the other hand

-Muhammadanism has made and is steadily making progress, ... This is

-probably due to the fact that Muhammadanism is a religion evolved ... in

-latitudes bordering on the aboriginal races of Africa and Asia, and that

-it is far more akin in its social ideas to those of the Negro or Malay

-than are those of Christianity, ...”[275]

-

-Ernest Renan “points out that the desert is monotheistic, its uniformity

-suggesting a belief in the unity of God.... In his _Seas and Skies in

-Many Latitudes_ (London, 1888, pp. 42–43), Abercromby gives two maps,

-showing respectively the areas of Mohammedanism and the districts in

-Asia and Africa with a mean annual rainfall of less than ten inches. The

-maps are strikingly similar. The author adds: ‘Whether this distribution

-of a great creed is the result of chance, or of some deep connection

-between the tenets of that religion and climatic influences, I can not

-say;—but still the relation is so remarkable that I have thought it well

-to bring the matter forward.’”[276]

-

-

-                         _Climate and Conduct_

-

-The “frequent and sudden weather changes of the temperate zones affect

-man in many ways, as do the larger seasonal changes. The relations

-between weather and conduct have frequently been investigated. Professor

-E. G. Dexter has made an extended empirical study of the effects of the

-weather ... Bertillon has collected data on suicides and seasons in

-France, ...”[277] Dexter studies empirically by means of

-statistics—plotting certain curves—the relation between temperature,

-barometric pressure, humidity, wind, character of the day,

-precipitation, on the one hand, and the child in school—work,

-deportment, attendance—, crime, insanity, health—sickness and death—,

-suicide, drunkenness, attention—errors in calculation made by clerks in

-banks—, on the other.[278] Of his general conclusions[279] the first is:

-“Varying meteorological conditions affect directly, though in different

-ways, the metabolism of life”; the second: “The ‘reserve energy’ capable

-of being utilized for intellectual processes and activities other than

-those of the vital organs is affected [_effected_, in the original] most

-by meteorological changes”; the third: “The quality of the emotional

-state is plainly influenced by the weather states”; the fourth:

-“Although meteorological conditions affect the emotional states, which

-without doubt have weight in the determination of conduct in its

-broadest sense, it would seem that their effects upon that portion of

-the reserve energy which is available for action are of the greatest

-import.”[280]

-

-The nervous effects of the weather including cyclonic winds have also

-been noted. Among the Eskimos, “Marriages take place at an early age,

-especially among the women, and the return of the sun after the long

-winter has a stimulating effect on the animal passions which leads to

-sexual excesses of all kinds.”[281]

-

-Albert Leffingwell investigates _The Influence of Seasons Upon

-Conduct_[282] in Great Britain and elsewhere. He formulates the

-underlying assumption of his inquiry in the following manner: “It is not

-a new theory, though I propose to carry it somewhat further than it has

-been pushed hitherto. Over half a century ago, Quetelet in his great

-work “On Man,” suggested the hypothesis.... The hypothesis toward which

-all the facts point is simply this: that upon the nervous organization

-of human bodies (perhaps specially upon dwellers in the temperate zones)

-there is exerted during the procession of the seasons, from winter’s

-close till midsummer, some undefined, specific influence, which in some

-manner tends to increase the excitability of emotion and passion, and

-thus also to increase all actions arising therefrom.”[283] To mention

-only one of Leffingwell’s illustrations, he brings together in a

-statistical table the total number of all crimes against persons in

-England for ten years (1878–87), the same facts for Ireland during the

-same decade, and for France during forty years (1830–69), and in

-conjunction therewith says: “Here, again, we find that all crimes, even

-those arising from personal antipathy or hatred, seem specially

-prevalent in the warmer half of the year. In England, 55 per cent of all

-such acts of violence during the ten years 1878–1887 happened in spring

-and summer, and in France during a period of forty years the average was

-the same. Ireland, indeed, shows a more even distribution of such

-crimes; but the tendency is seen even there.”[284]

-

-Cesare Lombroso, who is claimed to be the first to have essayed to

-portray the effect of physical environment on the human psyche,[285]

-states in his _Criminal Man_,[286] referring to Ferri and Holzendorf,

-that with high temperature there is an increase in crimes of violence,

-while low temperature has the effect of increasing the number of crimes

-against property. In “comparing statistics of criminality in France with

-those of the variations in temperature, Ferri noted an increase in

-crimes of violence during the warmer years.”[287]

-

-Lombroso, in his _Crime, Its Causes and Remedies_,[288] citing the

-conclusions of the relevant statistical evidence, establishes that in

-England and France and Italy the crimes of rape and of murder occur in

-greatest number in the hottest months; that the maximum number of all

-rebellions in the whole world between 1791 and 1880 falls everywhere in

-the hottest month, while its minimum number comes in the coldest months;

-and that crimes against property markedly increase in the winter.[289]

-

-In the southern parts of Italy and France “there occur many more crimes

-against persons than in the central and northern portions.... Guerry has

-shown that crimes against persons are twice as numerous in southern

-France (4.9) as in central and northern France (2.7 and 2.9). _Vice

-versa_, crimes against property are more frequent in the north (4.9),

-than in the central and southern regions (2.3).”[290] According to

-Buckle,[291] climate makes men’s habits regular or irregular.

-

-

-                  _Climatic Control of Food and Drink_

-

-William Ridgeway, summarizing his argument in “The Application of

-Zoölogical Laws to Man,”[292] says: “We have seen that environment is a

-powerful factor in the differentiation of the various races of man,

-alike in physique, institutions, and religion. It is probable that the

-food supply at hand in each region may be an important element in these

-variations, whilst the nature of the food and drink preferred there may

-itself be due in no small degree to climatic conditions.... The

-aboriginal of the tropics is distinctly a vegetarian, whilst the Eskimo

-within the arctic circle is practically wholly carnivorous. In each case

-the taste is almost certainly due to the necessities of their

-environment.... It is probable that the more northward man advanced the

-more carnivorous he became in order to support the rigours of the

-northern climate. The same holds equally true in the case of drink....

-All across Northern Europe and Asia there is a universal love of strong

-drink, which is not the mere outcome of vicious desires, but of climatic

-law.... This view derives additional support from the well-authenticated

-fact that one of the chief characteristics of the descendants of British

-settlers in Australia is their strong teetotalism. This cannot be set

-down to their having a higher moral standard than their ancestors, but

-rather, as in the case of Spaniards and Italians (temperance reformers

-point to the sobriety of the Spaniards, Italians, and other South

-Europeans), to the circumstance that they live in a country much warmer

-and drier than the British Isles. We must therefore, no matter how

-reluctantly, come to the conclusion that no attempt to eradicate this

-tendency to alcohol in these latitudes can be successful....”[293]

-

------

-

-Footnote 83:

-

-  This paper will carry the discussion through anthropo-geography.

-

-Footnote 84:

-

-  The whole question, including Herder’s own idea thereof and his

-  indebtedness to preceding authors, both German and foreign, as well as

-  his influence upon succeeding writers at home and abroad, his relation

-  to his contemporaries, etc., will be essayed more fully in a series of

-  papers, to be published soon, dealing with “Herder’s Conception of

-  Milieu,” “Herder’s Relations to France,” “Herder’s Relations to

-  England,” and “Herder in His Own Milieu.”

-

-Footnote 85:

-

-  The term “anthropo-geography” derives from the title of Fr. Ratzel’s

-  main work.—“... le domaine si intéressant, mais à peine défriché, de

-  l’_anthropogéographie_, semble avoir acquis à ce mot le droit de cité

-  dans le langage scientifique.”—L. Metchnikoff, _La Civilisation et Les

-  Grands Fleuves Historiques_ (Paris, 1889), p. 70 and n.—In England,

-  and in America, it is commonly called human geography, after the

-  French “la géographie humaine.” Various names have been proposed for

-  this subject. See also W. Z. Ripley, “Geography and Sociology.” The

-  Viennese Erwin Hanslick, I believe, denominates it “Kulturgeographie.”

-

-Footnote 86:

-

-  Walther May, “Herders Anschauung der organischen Natur,” _Archiv f. d.

-  Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften u. d. Technik_, etc., Leipzig, Bd.

-  4 (1913, S. 8–39, 89–113), p. 91.

-

-Footnote 87:

-

-  _Ferd. v. Richthofen’s Vorlesungen üb. Allgem. Siedlungs- u.

-  Verkehrsgeographie_, bearb. u. hg. v. O. Schlüter (Berlin, 1908), p.

-  11.

-

-Footnote 88:

-

-  “... Ritter selbst hat keine methodische Darstellung, kein Lehrgebäude

-  gegeben; sondern nur Andeutungen, die anregend sind. Daher blieb

-  Ritters Grundidee fast ohne Einfluß auf die Geographie; nur die

-  Historiker haben sie sich angeeignet und haben seitdem größeres

-  Gewicht auf die Landesnatur gelegt.”—_Ibid._, p. 11.

-

-Footnote 89:

-

-  _Cosmos, a Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe_,

-  translated by E. C. Otté (5 vols., New York: Harper, 1875–77), p. 48.

-

-Footnote 90:

-

-  _Die Erdkunde im Verhältnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte des Menschen

-  oder eine allgemeine, vergleichende Geographie_ was published in two

-  volumes at Berlin in 1817–18; the second edition, completely revised,

-  appeared in nineteen volumes from 1822 to 1859, the year of his death.

-  Neither edition is finished; the second deals only with Africa (vol.

-  1) and Asia (vols. 2–19).

-

-Footnote 91:

-

-  _Die Naturkunde_, etc.—See Th. Achelis, _Moderne Völkerkunde_

-  (Stuttgart, 1896), p. 71.

-

-Footnote 92:

-

-  _Ibid._, see Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 72 f.

-

-Footnote 93:

-

-  In Felix Lampe’s book, _Große Geographen, Bilder aus der Geschichte

-  der Erdkunde_ (Leipzig u. Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1915, 288 S. [Band 28

-  der v. B. Schmid in Zwickau herausgegebenen “Naturwissenschaftlichen

-  Bibliothek”]), neither the chapter on Ritter (pp. 227–33), nor that on

-  “Die wissenschaftliche Geographie der Gegenwart” (pp. 281–87) is very

-  full.

-

-Footnote 94:

-

-  Stuttgart & Tübingen, 1808.

-

-Footnote 95:

-

-  _Views of Nature_ (London, 1850), Author’s Preface, p. X.

-

-Footnote 96:

-

-  p. 382. See Achelis, _Moderne Völkerkunde_, pp. 88 f.—The relation of

-  man to environment is also referred to in _Cosmos_ (English

-  translation by Otté), I, pp. 351–9.—_Kosmos_ was originally published

-  as follows: vols. 1 and 2 in 1845–7; vols. 3 and 4 in 1850–8; vol. 5

-  in 1862.

-

-Footnote 97:

-

-  Leipzig, 1841.

-

-Footnote 98:

-

-  Kohl, _Der Verkehr_, etc., p. 111. See Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 80 f.

-

-Footnote 99:

-

-  Ibid.

-

-Footnote 100:

-

-  Kohl, _l.c._, p. 537. See Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 81 f.

-

-Footnote 101:

-

-  Kohl, _Ibid._,—See Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 82 f.—The manifold influences

-  of nature are also exemplified in Kohl’s _Die geographische Lage der

-  Hauptstädte Europas_, 1874, and _L. Felix, Der Einfluß der Natur auf

-  die Entwicklung des Eigentums_, 1893.

-

-Footnote 102:

-

-  _Über den Einfluß der äußeren Natur auf die sozialen Verhältnisse der

-  einzelnen Völker und die Geschichte der Menschheit überhaupt, 1848_;

-  later published in _Studien aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissenschaft_, I,

-  1876.

-

-Footnote 103:

-

-  _Deutschlands Boden, sein geologischer Bau und dessen Einwirkungen auf

-  das Leben der Menschen_, 2 Bde., Leipzig, 1854.

-

-Footnote 104:

-

-  501 pp., Breslau: F. Hirt, 1855.

-

-Footnote 105:

-

-  Kutzen himself says in the _Vorwort_ that he “leans on” Cotta; he

-  cites the latter, for instance, on p. 466.

-

-Footnote 106:

-

-  _Die Naturgeschichte des Volkes als Grundlage einer deutschen

-  Sozialpolitik_, vol. 1 (11th ed., Stuttgart: Cotta, 1908): Land und

-  Leute.

-

-Footnote 107:

-

-  _Vide_ the first Preface, written in 1853, to volume one, pp. VI-VII.

-

-Footnote 108:

-

-  _Die Naturgeschichte_, etc., I, p. 42.

-

-Footnote 109:

-

-  _Ibid._, Vorwort zur achten Auflage, 1883, p. X.

-

-Footnote 110:

-

-  _Die Naturgeschichte, etc., Vierter Band, “Wanderbuch,” als zweiter

-  Teil zu “Land und Leute.”_ Vierte Aufl., 1903, p. 32.

-

-Footnote 111:

-

-  G. P. Gooch, _History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century_

-  (London & N. Y.; Longmans, Green & Co., 1913), p. 576.

-

-Footnote 112:

-

-  Gooch, _ibid._, p. 575.

-

-Footnote 113:

-

-  For Riehl’s view of milieu in a scheme of sciences, cf. _Die

-  Naturgeschichte_, etc., I, pp. 40–2.

-

-Footnote 114:

-

-  164 pp., Meyers Volksbücher, Leipzig u. Wien: Bibliographisches

-  Institut, _s.a._—This essay forms the second chapter in Hans Meyer’s

-  _Das deutsche Volkstum_ (2. Aufl., 1903), pp. 41–122.

-

-Footnote 115:

-

-  _Moderne Völkerkunde_, p. 81, n.

-

-Footnote 116:

-

-  2. Aufl., 1905 (_Aus Natur und Geisteswelt_, 31. Bändchen, Leipzig: B.

-  G. Teubner), 127 pp.—It has been translated into English under the

-  title _Man and Earth_ (London & N. Y., 1906. Reprinted 1914, 223 pp.)

-  by A. S. “from the second amended German edition,” in which are

-  intercalated two chapters: Chapter V, on _The British Isles and

-  Britons_, by the author; and Chapter VI, on _America and the

-  Americans_, by the translator.—The first four chapters of a general

-  nature—features of the globe, sea, steppes and deserts, in their

-  influence on civilization, the influence of man on landscape—are

-  followed by four chapters on _The British Isles and Britons, America

-  and the Americans, Germany and the Germans, China and the Chinese_.

-

-Footnote 117:

-

-  _Vorlesungen_, etc., delivered at Berlin in 1891 and 1897/8.

-

-Footnote 118:

-

-  “... Es ist mehr unsere Aufgabe gewesen, in dem großen Getriebe der

-  Siedlung und des Verkehrs der _allmählichen Entwicklung_ nachzugehen,

-  das steigende Maß der Überwindung von Widerständen durch den Menschen

-  zu zeigen, die Kräfte zu untersuchen, welche in der Entwicklung

-  wirksam sind,—als bei der großen Fülle des Tatsächlichen der heutigen

-  Zeit zu verweilen.” _Vorlesungen_, p. 351.

-

-Footnote 119:

-

-  It will be noted that Herder is not mentioned here.

-

-Footnote 120:

-

-  Ellen C. Semple, _Influences of Geographic Environment_ (N. Y., 1911),

-  p. V.

-

-Footnote 121:

-

-  “In Germany the exponents of these theories [of environmental

-  influence] were Cotta and Kohl, and later Peschel, Kirchhof, Bastian,

-  and Gerland; but the greatest name of all is that of Fr. Ratzel, who

-  has written the standard work on _Anthropogeographie_.”—Haddon and

-  Quiggin, _Hist. of Anthropology_ (London, 1910), p. 152.—The first

-  vol. of Ratzel’s _Anthropogeographie_ was published in 1882, 2nd ed.

-  in 1899, the second vol. in 1897.

-

-Footnote 122:

-

-  As further illustration, it might be instructive to compare here the

-  chapter headings of Semple’s _Influences of Geographic Environment_,

-  which book was written “On the Basis of Ratzel’s System of

-  Anthropo-geography.” They are as follows: I—Operation of Geographic

-  Factors in History (1–31); II—Classes of Geographic Influences

-  (22–50); III—Society and State in Relation to the Land (51–73);

-  IV—Movements of Peoples in Their Geographical Significance (74–128);

-  V—Geographical Location (129–67); VI—Geographical Area (168–203);

-  VII—Geographical Boundaries (204–41); VIII—Coast Peoples (242–91);

-  IX—Oceans and Enclosed Seas (292–317); X—Man’s Relation to the Water

-  (318–35); XI—The Anthropo-geography of Rivers (336–80); XII—Continents

-  and Their Peninsulas (380–408); XIII—Island Peoples (409–72);

-  XIV—Plains, Steppes and Deserts (473–523); XV—Mountain Barriers and

-  Their Passes (524–56); XVI—Influences of a Mountain Environment

-  (557–606); XVII—The Influences of Climate upon Man (607–37).

-

-Footnote 123:

-

-  _Richthofen’s Vorlesungen_, p. 13.

-

-Footnote 124:

-

-  1897; 2. Aufl. 1903.

-

-Footnote 125:

-

-  “Diese [die enge Erdgebundenheit] in ihrer ganzen tiefgreifenden

-  Bedeutung für das staatliche Leben erkannt und dargelegt zu haben,

-  bleibt freilich für immer ein großes Verdienst der ‘Politischen

-  Geographie’ ...”—O. Schlüter, “Die leitenden Gesichtspunkte d.

-  Anthropogeogr.,” _Arch. f. Sozialwiss._, Bd. IV, p. 620.

-

-Footnote 126:

-

-  _Vide_ Richthofen, _l.c._, p. 12.

-

-Footnote 127:

-

-  2 vols., München, 1893; see vol. 2, 2nd ed.: _Politische Geographie

-  der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung

-  der natürlichen Bedingungen u. wirtschaftlichen Verhältnisse_ (763

-  pp.), esp. pp. 1–176.

-

-Footnote 128:

-

-  London, 1896 (this is a translation of his _Völkerkunde_, 1887/8), cf.

-  the opening pp. of vol. 1.

-

-Footnote 129:

-

-  In Helmolt, _The History of the World_ (N. Y., 1902), vol. 1, pp.

-  62–103, where Ratzel discusses in turn The Coherence of Countries, The

-  Relation of Man to the Collective Life of the Earth, Races and States

-  as Organisms, Historical Movement, Natural Regions, Climate and

-  Location, Geographical Situation, Area, Population, The Water-Oceans,

-  Seas, and Rivers, Conformation of the Earth’s Surface.

-

-Footnote 130:

-

-  London & N. Y.: Longmans, 1915.

-

-Footnote 131:

-

-  See _The Nation_, N. Y., March 18, 1915, p. 310.

-

-Footnote 132:

-

-  Paris, 1911, 420 pp.

-

-Footnote 133:

-

-  Semple, _l.c._, p. VI; cf. also Ratzel, _Anthropogeogr._, I,^2 p. XII.

-

-Footnote 134:

-

-  _Archiv f. Sozialwissenschaft_, Bd. IV (1906), pp. 581–630.

-

-Footnote 135:

-

-  For Ratzel, cf. also Paul Barth, _Die Philosophie der Geschichte als

-  Soziologie_, I (Leipzig: Reisland, 1897), pp. 227–30; Jean Brunhes,

-  _La Géographie Humaine_, 2^e éd. (Paris: Alcan, 1912), pp. 39–47.

-

-Footnote 136:

-

-  Buckle, History of Civilization (1867), p. 32 n.

-

-Footnote 137:

-

-  Robertson, _Buckle and his Critics_ (London, 1895), p. 8 n.

-

-Footnote 138:

-

-  4. vols., 1822–3.

-

-Footnote 139:

-

-  Flint, _l.c._, pp. 577–9. See also p. 576.

-

-Footnote 140:

-

-  _Vide supra_ my note no. 84.

-

-Footnote 141:

-

-  Flint, _l.c._, p. 467.

-

-Footnote 142:

-

-  _The History of Civilization from the Fall of the Roman Empire to the

-  French Revolution_ (4 vols., translated by Wm. Hazlitt, N. Y.: D.

-  Appleton & Co., 1867—the lectures were delivered in the years 1828,

-  1829, and 1830), vol. 2, pp. 109 f.

-

-Footnote 143:

-

-  “Gothein had attracted attention by a study of the civilisation of

-  Southern Italy, which he had traversed on foot as Riehl had traversed

-  the Palatinate.”—Gooch, _l.c._, p. 587.

-

-Footnote 144:

-

-  “Voila pourquoi il [Michelet] va en Italie avant d’écrire son

-  _Histoire Romaine_; il veut avoir l’impression, le contact du sol, du

-  climat, du paysage.”—Lanson, _Hist. de la Litt. Franç._ (1912), p.

-  1021 n.

-

-Footnote 145:

-

-  Abry-Audic-Crouzet, _Littérature Française_ (3^e éd., Paris, 1916), p.

-  580.

-

-Footnote 146:

-

-  Jules Simon, _Mignet, Michelet, Henri Martin_ (Paris, 1890), p. 191.

-

-Footnote 147:

-

-  Flint, _l.c._, p. 540.

-

-Footnote 148:

-

-  _Philos. Erdk. als wissenschaftliche Darstellung der Erdverhältnisse

-  u. des Menschenlebens nach ihrem inneren Zusammenhange_, 2 vols.,

-  Braunschweig, 1845; the 2nd ed. appeared in 1868 under the title

-  _Allgemeine Vergleichende Erdkunde_.—This book holds a high place in

-  Ratzel’s estimation: “Kapp, dessen Philos. Erdk. eine tiefgedachte,

-  von überragendem philosophischem Standpunkte aus gewonnene Übersicht

-  der Naturbedingtheit des Geschichtsverlaufes in den größten Zügen

-  entrollt, ...”—Ratzel, _Anthropogeographie_, I^2, p. 34.

-

-Footnote 149:

-

-  See Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 76 f.

-

-Footnote 150:

-

-  Brunhes, _l.c._, p. 38 n.

-

-Footnote 151:

-

-  Boston, 1849—It has been translated into English under the title _The

-  Earth and man, or Physical geography in its relation to the history of

-  mankind, Slightly abridged, etc._ (London: Parker, 1852), and into

-  German as _Grundzüge der vergleichenden physikalischen Erdkunde in

-  ihrer Beziehung zur Geschichte des Menschen_ (1851).

-

-Footnote 152:

-

-  (N. Y.: D. Appleton & Co., 1867—first published in 1857–61), vol. I,

-  pp. 29–106: Influence exercised by physical laws over the organization

-  of society and over the character of individuals.

-

-Footnote 153:

-

-  _Buckle and his Critics_, London, 1895, 548 pp.

-

-Footnote 154:

-

-  Camille Vallaux, _Géographie Sociale_ (Paris, 1911), p. 23.

-

-Footnote 155:

-

-  _Vide supra_, p. 46 f.

-

-Footnote 156:

-

-  _Anthropogeographie_, I^2, p. 87.

-

-Footnote 157:

-

-  The German original appeared in 1857–67, and the English translation

-  by A. W. Ward in 1868–73.

-

-Footnote 158:

-

-  New York: Scribner, vol. I (1871), pp. 9–46; cf. esp. pp. 9–25, 34,

-  37.

-

-Footnote 159:

-

-  _Boden und Klima von Athen. Rede in der öffentlichen Sitzung_ [_der

-  Kgl. Akademie der Wissenschaften_] _am Leibniztage 5. Juli 1877_ (15

-  pp.).

-

-Footnote 160:

-

-  For the same, cf. also H. Koester “Über den Einfluß landschaftlicher

-  Verhältnisse auf die Entwicklung des attischen Volkscharakters”

-  (Progr., Saarbrücken, 1898).

-

-Footnote 161:

-

-  E.g. by Ratzel, jointly with Curtius’ account thereof. Cf.

-  _Anthropogeogr._, I^2, p. 37.

-

-Footnote 162:

-

-  In 12 vols., vol. II (London: John Murray, 1869), Part II, ch. I, pp.

-  213–37.

-

-Footnote 163:

-

-  Political effects of locality: strengthened defense; difficulty of

-  attack; politically disunited; indefinite multiplication of

-  self-governing cities.

-

-Footnote 164:

-

-  Intellectual effects of locality: the geographical position made them

-  mountaineers and mariners; variety of experience; each petty community

-  possessed an individual life, yet sympathized with the remainder;

-  commerce with a great diversity of half-country-men; Grecian

-  festivals; Homer dependent upon the conditions of his age.

-

-Footnote 165:

-

-  Oxford, Clarendon Press (1911, 454 pp.), pp. 13–64. “It is now

-  generally admitted that neither an individual nor a nation can be

-  properly understood without a knowledge of their surroundings and

-  means of support—in other words, of their geographical and economic

-  conditions.”—_Ibid._, Preface, p. 5.

-

-Footnote 166:

-

-  Zimmern refers in this book—_e.g._ p. 18, 41, 43, _et al._—to the

-  writings of Myres: “Greek Lands and the Greek People,” “Herodotus and

-  Anthropology” (in “Anthropology and the Classics”), and “The

-  Geographical Aspect of Greek Colonization” (in _Proceedings of the

-  Classical Association_, vol. VIII—1911).—Cf. also H. Dondorff, _Das

-  hellenische Land als Schauplatz der althellenischen Geschichte, in

-  Sammlung gemeinverständlicher wissenschaftlicher Vorträge, begründet

-  von Virchow u. Holtzendorf_, 1889, Neue Folge, Serie 3, Heft 72.

-

-Footnote 167:

-

-  Revised ed., in 2 vols. (N. Y.: Harper & Brothers, 1876). The Preface

-  of the first ed. is dated 1861.

-

-Footnote 168:

-

-  Heinrich Boehmer, _Geschichte der Entwicklung der

-  naturwissenschaftlichen Weltanschauung in Deutschland_ (Gotha, 1872,

-  232 pp.), p. 195: “... Herdersche Ideen waren leitend für den Aufbau

-  der Geschichte.”

-

-Footnote 169:

-

-  Leipzig, 1878–86.

-

-Footnote 170:

-

-  Cited by Achelis, _l.c._, p. 84.

-

-Footnote 171:

-

-  _Ibid._, pp. 85 f.

-

-Footnote 172:

-

-  _Ibid._, p. 86.

-

-Footnote 173:

-

-  “... Indessen darf man nicht vergessen, daß die allgemeine Gestalt der

-  Kontinente und der Meere und aller besonderer Züge der Erde in der

-  Geschichte der Menschheit einen wesentlich wechselnden Wert besitzen,

-  je nach dem Stande der Kultur, auf welchem die Nationen angelangt sind

-  ...”—_Ibid._

-

-Footnote 174:

-

-  _Ibid._, p. 87.

-

-Footnote 175:

-

-  Paris, 1886.

-

-Footnote 176:

-

-  _Vide_ P. Barth, _Die Philosophie der Geschichte als Soziologie_

-  (Leipzig, 1897), p. 230.

-

-Footnote 177:

-

-  See Barth, _l.c._, pp. 231 f.

-

-Footnote 178:

-

-  _Ibid._, p. 233.—Mougeoulle makes the milieu account for the great men

-  in history, the great popular epics, social and historical life in

-  general; the tendencies of the three historical schools—German,

-  French, and English—are connected with the differences in the milieus

-  of their respective countries.—Cf. _ibid._, pp. 230–2.

-

-Footnote 179:

-

-  _Avec une Préface de M. Élisée Réclus_ (Paris: Hachette, 1889, 369

-  pp.), pp. 53–71.

-

-Footnote 180:

-

-  _Ibid._, p. 156; 130.

-

-Footnote 181:

-

-  _Ibid._, p. 154; 157 f.

-

-Footnote 182:

-

-  _Ibid._, p. 278; 190 ff.; 188; 135.—But why does he confine himself to

-  these four countries?

-

-Footnote 183:

-

-  _Ibid._, p. 185; 364. For a general statement on the significance of

-  rivers, cf. _ibid._, pp. 188–90. The particular nature of the rivers

-  of the “territoire des civilisations fluviales” imposed on the

-  inhabitants the yoke of despotism.—_Ibid._, p. 161.

-

-Footnote 184:

-

-  _Ibid._, pp. 364 f.

-

-Footnote 185:

-

-  _Ibid._, p. 364.

-

-Footnote 186:

-

-  _Ibid._, _e.g._, p. 128; 224–27.

-

-Footnote 187:

-

-  His general theory is stated on pp. 39–42, 53–71, 79 f., 89, 99 f.,

-  102–60. Chapter 7, pp. 161–90, is a general discussion of the

-  geographical environment of the “Civilisations Fluviales,” followed

-  successively by a detailed treatment of “Le Nil” (ch. 8, pp. 191–234),

-  of “Le Tigre et L’Euphrate” (ch. 9, pp. 235–78), of “L’Indus et Le

-  Gange” (ch. 10, pp. 279–319), of “Le Hoang-Ho et Le Yangtse-Kiang”

-  (ch. 11, pp. 320–66).

-

-Footnote 188:

-

-  W. D. Babington, _Fallacies of Race Theories as Applied to National

-  Characteristics_ (Longmans, Green & Co., 1895).

-

-Footnote 189:

-

-  N. Y., Scribner, 1893, 290 pp.

-

-Footnote 190:

-

-  For the rôle of the physical milieu in American history, cf. also:

-  Justin Winsor, _The Mississippi Basin, The Struggle in America between

-  England and France: 1697–1763_ (Boston & N. Y., 1898) [influence of

-  geography over history during colonization and settlement]; Frederick

-  Jackson Turner, _Rise of the New West_: 1819–1829 (N. Y. & London:

-  Harper & Brothers, 1906) [vol. 14 of _The American Nation, A History_,

-  ed. by A. B. Hart, in 27 vols. In the Author’s Preface, p. XVII,

-  Turner remarks: “In the present volume I have kept before myself the

-  importance of regarding American development as the outcome of

-  economic and social as well as political forces.” And, he should have

-  added, of geographical environment. _Vide_ especially the first half

-  of his book for the working out of his milieu idea]; James Bryce, _The

-  American Commonwealth_, (2 vols., new ed., completely revised, N. Y.:

-  Macmillan, 1910–11) [see vol. 2, ch. 91 (pp. 449–68), “The home of the

-  nation,” for a statement of the influence of physical conditions on

-  American history]; E. C. Semple, _American History and Its Geographic

-  Conditions_ (Boston & N. Y.: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1903, 435 pp.)

-  [regarded, I believe, as one of the best treatises on the subject]; A.

-  P. Brigham, _Geographic Influences in American History_ (Boston: Ginn,

-  1903, 355 pp.) [a concrete essay; has much physiography; includes

-  present conditions]; A. M. Simons, _Social Forces in American History_

-  (N. Y.: Macmillan, 1914, 325 pp.) [a discussion of the effect of the

-  industrial and economic environment on social institutions in

-  America]; perhaps it may be added here that some American universities

-  offer a course on the relation of geography to American history.

-

-Footnote 191:

-

-  See Ripley, “Geography and Sociology” (1895), p. 637; and Ripley, _The

-  Races of Europe_ (1899), pp. 4 ff.; for titles of their writings on

-  this subject, cf. _ibid._, pp. 4–6 nn., and “Geogr. and Soc.,” pp. 654

-  f.

-

-Footnote 192:

-

-  8 vols., N. Y., Dodd, Mead & Co., 1902–7.

-

-Footnote 193:

-

-  See Bryce’s article in Helmolt’s _Hist. of the World_, vol. 1, p. XL.

-

-Footnote 194:

-

-  “Anderseits wieder hat ja Helmolt in seinem geschichtlichen

-  Sammelwerke im Geiste Ratzels den Versuch gemacht, ein

-  Gesamtgeschichtsbild auf geographischer Grundlage aufzubauen, so daß

-  kein Teil der Ökumene aus der Weltgeschichte ausgeschlossen

-  bleibt.”—L. Gumplowicz, Der _Rassenkampf_ (2 .... Aufl., 1909), p. 403

-  (Anhang).

-

-Footnote 195:

-

-  “... die bisherigen Weltgeschichten waren gar keine Geschichte der

-  Welt oder auch nur unserer Welt, sondern einzig eine solche der

-  Kulturnationen. Mit dieser Gepflogenheit hat Helmolts Werk in

-  ebenso glücklicher wie origineller Weise gebrochen, indem es zum

-  ersten Male die Länder- und Völkerkunde in den Dienst der

-  Weltgeschichtsdarstellung hineinzog.”—From a review of the first

-  ed. of _Helmolts Weltgeschichte_ (1899) in the “Braunschweigische

-  Landeßeitung” (February 4, 1908), quoted in the prospectus of the

-  second German edition.

-

-Footnote 196:

-

-  _History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century_ (London, 1913).

-

-Footnote 197:

-

-  Second ed., Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1903, 288 pp.

-

-Footnote 198:

-

-  George, _l.c._, p. V (Preface).

-

-Footnote 199:

-

-  _Ibid._, pp. 111 f.—George cites no authorities or sources; he has no

-  bibliography; he does not quote a single book in his discussion; he

-  has no _Auseinandersetzung_ with his predecessors in the field; and

-  finally, he gives no clue as to the origin of his data.—Chaps. 1–8

-  (pp. 1–110) are the general part of the book; chaps. 9–20 (pp.

-  111–282) deal with: The Outlines of Europe, The British Islands,

-  France, The Spanish Peninsula, Italy, The Alpine Passes, Switzerland,

-  The Rhineland, The Baltic Region, The Danube Basin, Theatres of

-  European War, The Mediterranean Basin.

-

-Footnote 200:

-

-  A. W. Small, _General Sociology_ (Chicago, 1905), p. 53.

-

-Footnote 201:

-

-  The distinguished Italian historian is the son-in-law of the late

-  eminent Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso.

-

-Footnote 202:

-

-  _Vide_ Jean Brunhes, _La Géographie Humaine_ (2^e éd., Paris, 1912),

-  p. 721.—For references to historical works dealing with history on a

-  geographical basis, cf. _ibid._ (1^e éd., Paris, 1910), ch. X, 1:

-  L’esprit géographique dans les sciences économiques, sociales et

-  historiques (pp. 739 ff., esp. 774 ff. [Michelet, Vidal de la Blache,

-  Th. Reinach, A. Leroy-Beaulieu, C. Jullian, A. Harnack, H. F. Helmolt,

-  G. Ferrero, E. C. Semple, Erwin Hanslick, & o.]).

-

-Footnote 203:

-

-  _Die geographischen Grundlagen der österreichisch-ungarischen

-  Monarchie u. ihrer Außenpolitik_ (Leipzig u. Berlin: B. G. Teubner,

-  1915).

-

-Footnote 204:

-

-  See the review of Sieger’s book by Edwin Rollett in the

-  _Österreichische Rundschau_, Bd. 43, H. 4 (15. Mai 1915), pp. 188 f.

-

-Footnote 205:

-

-  Boston & N. Y., Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1907.

-

-Footnote 206:

-

-  Cf. esp. ch. 18 (pp. 359–85) for a summary of conclusions.

-

-Footnote 207:

-

-  _Vide_ _e.g._ James Harvey Robinson’s _The New History, Essays

-  Illustrating the Modern Historical Outlook_ (N. Y.: Macmillan, 1912),

-  for references to the theory of milieu, cf. esp. p. 64, 73, 76 f., 92

-  f., 97 f., 124–6, 144, 145 f., 247, 253–7, and ch. 3 (pp. 70 ff.): The

-  new allies of history. Or take for choice the title of a recent book

-  by Charles A. Beard: _An Economic Interpretation of American Politics_

-  (Macmillan, 1916), to be further persuaded of the attention bestowed

-  by historians on the milieu. Or, see works by Seligman and J. T.

-  Shotwell.

-

-Footnote 208:

-

-  _Vide_ C. Vallaux, _Géographie Sociale, Le Sol et L’État_ (Paris,

-  1911), p. 23.—Such economists as Blanqui, Bastiat, and J.—B. Say,

-  brought to light the geographical bases of the material life of

-  societies. The sociologists themselves, “bien que leur science soit

-  jeune, n’ont pas toujours oublié le cadre naturel et la position

-  terrestre des agrégats qu’ils étudient. Par tous ces chercheurs de

-  tendances diverses, la géographie humaine et la géographie politique

-  ont progressé tout autant que par les efforts des géographes

-  proprement dits.”—_Ibid._

-

-Footnote 209:

-

-  E. Bernheim, _Lehrbuch der historischen Methode_ (5. u. 6. Aufl.,

-  Leipzig, 1908), p. 316; 636.—Cf. also E. Fr. Th. Lindner,

-  _Geschichtsphilosophie, das Wesen der geschichtlichen Entwicklung_ (2.

-  erweiterte u. umgearb. Aufl., Stuttg. u. Berlin: Cotta, 1904, 241

-  pp.), 2. Abschnitt (pp. 23–34): Die Veränderung, but more esp. 10.

-  Abschnitt (pp. 217–41): Die Ursachen u. die Weise der Entwicklung.

-

-Footnote 210:

-

-  For orientation and literature on views opposing the naturalistic

-  interpretation of history, cf. L. Stein, _Philosophische Strömungen

-  der Gegenwart_ (Stuttgart, Verl. v. F. Enke, 1908), pp. 430 ff.

-

-Footnote 211:

-

-  See G. P. Gooch, _History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century_

-  (London & N. Y.: Longmans, Green & Co., 1913), p. 573; see ch. 28 (pp.

-  573–94): “The History of Civilisation;” also _The Cambridge Modern

-  History_ [ed. by A. W. Ward and others, Cambridge: The Univ. Press,

-  1910], vol. 12: _The Latest Age_, ch. 26 (pp. 816 ff.: “The Growth of

-  Historical Science” by G. P. Gooch).

-

-Footnote 212:

-

-  _Economic Geography_ (N. Y.: Macmillan, _s.a._—1915?—; not earlier

-  than 1910, for statistics for that year are given in the text; 560

-  pp.), p. 1.

-

-Footnote 213:

-

-  “Since his [Buckle’s] time much more has been done, not only in

-  studying, as Buckle himself did, the immediate influence of climate

-  and soil, but also in explaining the allied field of the effect of the

-  fauna and the flora on social development. The subject of the

-  domestication of animals, for instance, and its profound effect on

-  human progress has not only been investigated by a number of recent

-  students [especially E. Hahn, _Die Haustiere u. ihre Beziehung zur

-  Wirtschaft des Menschen_, 1896], but has been made the very basis of

-  the explanation of early American civilization by one of the most

-  brilliant and most learned of recent historians [Payne, _History of

-  the New World called America_; esp. vol. 1, bk. II]. A Russian scholar

-  has shown in detail the connection between the great rivers and the

-  progress of humanity, and the whole modern study of economic geography

-  is but an expansion on broader lines of the same idea.”—Edwin R. A.

-  Seligman, _The Economic Interpretation of History_ (N. Y.: The

-  Columbia Univ. Press, 1902, 166 pp.), pp. 13 f.

-

-Footnote 214:

-

-  See Wm. Morris Davis, _Geographical Essays_, ed. by D. W. Johnson

-  (Ginn & Co.: Boston, _s.a._, copyright 1909), esp. the first two

-  essays: “An inductive study of the content of geography” (1906), pp.

-  3–22, and “The progress of geography in the schools” (1902), pp.

-  23–69.

-

-Footnote 215:

-

-  In an address delivered at the dedication of Julius Rosenwald Hall,

-  printed in _The University of Chicago Magazine_ (vol. VII, No.

-  6—April, 1915—, pp. 175–8) under the title “Some Matters of History.”

-  See p. 177.

-

-Footnote 216:

-

-  Felix Lampe, in _Große Geographen_ (Leipzig, 1915), has a rather brief

-  chapter (pp. 281–7) on “Die wissenschaftliche Geographie der

-  Gegenwart.”

-

-Footnote 217:

-

-  See the Introductory Essay by the Right Hon. [now Viscount] James

-  Bryce in Helmolt’s _Hist. of the World_, vol. 1, pp. I-LX, esp. pp.

-  XXV-XLI.

-

-Footnote 218:

-

-  A. J. Herbertson and F. D. Herbertson, _Man and his Work, an

-  Introduction to Human Geography_ (London: Black, 1909, 132 pp.), p. 6.

-

-Footnote 219:

-

-  N. Y., G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908, 363 pp.

-

-Footnote 220:

-

-  “In the chapters on the life of man in the different zones, I have

-  made liberal use of Ratzel’s _Anthropogeographie_ (2d ed., Stuttgart,

-  1899).”—Ward, _op. cit._, p. VI.

-

-Footnote 221:

-

-  Ward, _op. cit._, p. V.

-

-Footnote 222:

-

-  N. Y. and London, 1911. See ch. 4, pp. 94–129.

-

-Footnote 223:

-

-  Paris, 1911, 420 pp.

-

-Footnote 224:

-

-  _Vide supra_, p. 27.

-

-Footnote 225:

-

-  “Die soziale Geographie, hauptsächlich von Bastian und Ratzel tiefer

-  begründet, wird gegenwärtig immer sorgsamer ausgebaut und hat

-  namentlich in dem Wiener Erwin Hanslick einen eifrigen Förderer, der

-  auf die Ermittlung von geographischen Kulturgrenzen ausgeht. In andrer

-  Weise nimmt von ihr Willy Hellpach seinen Ausgang, der Geographie,

-  Psychologie und Soziologie zu einem neuen Gebiet zu vereinigen

-  sucht.”—Rudolf Goldscheid, “Soziologie” in _Das Jahr 1913, Ein

-  Gesamtbild der Kulturentwicklung_, herausgegeben von D. Sarason

-  (Leipzig und Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1913), p. 432.

-

-Footnote 226:

-

-  Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1911, 368 pp.—“Hier [in Hellpach’s book] wird

-  alles zusammengefaßt, was über den Einfluß von ‘Wetter, Klima und

-  Landschaft’ auf das Seelenleben bekannt ist.”—Otto Schlüter,

-  “Anthropogeographie” in _Das Jahr 1913_, etc., p. 401.

-

-Footnote 227:

-

-  See Hellpach, _op. cit._, p. 4.—Chiefly with those of the atmosphere;

-  he devotes nine pages (98–107) to the telluric elements of the

-  weather, and 87 pages (230–317) to the third main part of the book:

-  “Landschaft und Seelenleben.” For soil as a co-factor, cf. also the

-  ch. “Klimawechsel” in Part II (pp. 118–38). Hellpach defines

-  Landschaft (p. 230) as follows: “Unter Landschaft verstehen wir den

-  _sinnlichen_ Gesamteindruck, der von einem Stück der Oberfläche und

-  dem dazu gehörigen Abschnitt des Himmelsgewölbes in uns erweckt wird.

-  ... das _sicht_bare Landschaftsbild bildet unter allen Umständen den

-  Kern dessen, was wir Landschaft nennen ... [And he adds that for an

-  investigation of the effect of Landscape upon the human soul] sind die

-  nicht-optischen sinnlichen Eigenschaften der Landschaft von

-  unentbehrlicher Bedeutung: Töne und Geräusche, Düfte und Gerüche und

-  eine höchst verwickelte Summe von Affizierungen der Berührungs-,

-  Temperatur-, ja zuweilen der Schmerzempfindlichkeit erst bilden mit

-  Farben und Formen zusammen das natürliche Ganze, das wir in seelischen

-  Wirkungen als _Landschaft_ erleben.”

-

-Footnote 228:

-

-  _Vide_, _e.g._, p. 8.

-

-Footnote 229:

-

-  Hellpach himself testifies (p. 318) that his book is a “Sammlung der

-  Tatsachen.” Cf. also Schlüter’s opinion cited above in note no. 226.

-

-Footnote 230:

-

-  Manifestly, this is to be understood as a virtue in Hellpach, and not

-  as a fault, since this conviction is gained only by dint of Hellpach’s

-  clear delimitation of the scope of his work; it constitutes one of the

-  results of his own labor.

-

-Footnote 231:

-

-  See Schlüter’s art. in _Das Jahr 1913_, p. 402.

-

-Footnote 232:

-

-  Paris, 1910; 2nd ed. 1912.

-

-Footnote 233:

-

-  For a statement of principles (theoretical exposition), cf. the first

-  two chaps. (pp. 1–92); for a summary, cf. ch. X, section 2 (pp.

-  780–9): “Le facteur psychologique dans les phénomènes naturels et

-  l’activité humaine,” and section 3 (pp. 790–807): “L’adaptation

-  humaine aux conditions géographiques.” In the preface to the second

-  ed., there are quoted seven pages from a review of the first ed. of

-  Brunhes’ work by Paul Mantoux, wherein the scope, content, and import

-  of the first ed. are succinctly summarized.

-

-Footnote 234:

-

-  N. Y., 1911, 637 pp.

-

-Footnote 235:

-

-  _Vide_ Wm. J. Thomas, _Source Book for Social Origins_ (Chicago and

-  London, 1909), p. 138 (Bibliogr. to Part I).—Without fear of

-  contradiction, it may be said that the best two recent treatises on

-  human geography are those by Brunhes and Semple.—For a brief concrete

-  anthropo-geographical sketch, besides the works previously cited, cf.

-  also W. Ule, _Grundriß der Allgemeinen Erdkunde_ (2. verm. Aufl.,

-  Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1915, 487 pp.), pp. 361 ff. See also the brief

-  résumé in G. Schmoller’s _Grundr. d. Allgem. Volkswirtschaftslehre_

-  (Leipzig, 1901), pp. 144 ff.

-

-Footnote 236:

-

-  “Unverkennbar ist es, daß die Naturgewalten in ihren bedingenden

-  Einflüssen auf das Persönliche der Völkerentwicklung immer mehr und

-  mehr zurückweichen mußten, in demselben Maße wie diese vorwärts

-  schritten. Sie übten im Anfange der Menschengeschichte als

-  Naturimpulse über die ersten Entwicklungen in der Wiege der Menschheit

-  einen sehr entscheidenden Einfluß aus, dessen Differenzen wir

-  vielleicht noch in dem Naturschlage der verschiedenen Menschenrassen

-  oder ihrer physisch verschiedenen Völkergruppen aus einer gänzlich

-  unbekannten Zeit wahrzunehmen vermochten. Aber dieser Einfluß mußte

-  abnehmen, ... Die zivilisierte Menschheit entwindet sich nach und

-  nach, ebenso wie der einzelne Mensch, den unmittelbar bedingenden

-  Fesseln der Natur und ihres Wohnortes. Die Einflüsse derselben

-  Naturverhältnisse und derselben tellurischen Weltstellungen der

-  erfüllten Räume bleiben sich also nicht durch alle Zeiten gleich.”

-  Ritter, _l.c._; see Achelis, _op. cit._, p. 74 _et seq._

-

-Footnote 237:

-

-  “Man ist in Nachfolge C. Ritters vielfach geneigt, anzunehmen, daß die

-  Natureinflüsse sich mit zunehmender Kultur immer weniger geltend

-  machen.”—E. Bernheim, _Lehrb. d. hist. Methode_ (Leipzig, 1908), p.

-  642.

-

-Footnote 238:

-

-  Theo. Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, I (Leipzig, 1859), p.

-  341; see Achelis, _op. cit._, p. 185.

-

-Footnote 239:

-

-  “Die Einteilung der Menschheit war nur geographisch-historisch

-  möglich. Denn der Mensch steht in fester Abhängigkeit, in engstem

-  Verbande zu der Natur, aus und an welcher er sich entwickelt hat, zur

-  Natur der Erde, welcher letzteren kleiner, aber integrierender Teil er

-  ist. Auch seine Entwicklung ist noch im Steigen, aber nur im Bereiche

-  seines inneren, geistigen Lebens ... je höher der Mensch steigt, um so

-  mehr macht er sich von dem zwingenden Einfluß der Erde frei; und wenn

-  er demselben auch nie ganz entgehen wird, da er Nahrung braucht, von

-  der Schwere sich nicht loslösen kann, so ist dennoch diese immer

-  wachsende Freiheit ... eine stärkende ... Aussicht für die Zukunft

-  ...”—_Anthropologische Beiträge_, 1. Bd. (Halle, 1875), p. 423; see

-  Achelis, _op. cit._, p. 227.

-

-Footnote 240:

-

-  _Principles of Sociology_, I, sec. 21.

-

-Footnote 241:

-

-  Vide Ripley, “Geography and Sociology,” p. 649.

-

-Footnote 242:

-

-  _Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection_, p. 319; cited by

-  E. B. Tylor in the article “Anthropology,” _Ency. Brit._ (11th ed.),

-  vol. 2, p. 114.

-

-Footnote 243:

-

-  Réclus, _op. cit._, (1879); quoted by Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 86 f.

-

-Footnote 244:

-

-  “... je crois, que la civilisation dans son premier stade dépend bien

-  plus du milieu physique et tellurique, qu’aux époques suivantes.”—Aug.

-  Matteuzzi, _Les Facteurs de l’Évolution des Peuples_ (Paris, 1900), p.

-  29. “... Tout ceci nous amène à affirmer ce fait, que les premières

-  civilisations, dans des milieux favorables, eurent une relation

-  étroite avec la culture du sol; et que dans un développement

-  ultérieur, ce rapport se relâcha ...”—_Ibid._, p. 25. For best

-  summaries of immense material collected on the relation of primitive

-  human life to environment, see the five papers in the _Smithsonian

-  Report_ for 1895: “Relation of Primitive Peoples to Environment” by J.

-  W. Powell (pp. 625 ff.); “Influence of Environment upon Human

-  Industries or Arts” by O. T. Mason (pp. 639 ff.); “The Japanese

-  Nation—A Typical Product of Environment” by G. G. Hubbard (pp. 667

-  ff.); “The Tusayan Ritual: A Study of the Influence of Environment on

-  Aboriginal Cults” by J. W. Fewkes (pp. 683 ff.); and, probably the

-  best of the five, “The Relation of Institutions to Environment” by the

-  eminent ethnologist W. J. McGee (pp. 701 ff.).

-

-Footnote 245:

-

-  _Anthropogeogr._, I^2: “Der Mensch und die Umwelt” (pp. 41–65).

-

-Footnote 246:

-

-  “Geogr. and Sociol.,” p. 650.

-

-Footnote 247:

-

-  See his presidential address on the Origin of Man before the Section

-  of Anthropology (_Report of the British Association for the

-  Advancement of Science, 1912_; London, 1913), p. 576.

-

-Footnote 248:

-

-  _The Positive Philosophy of Aug. Comte, Freely Translated and

-  Condensed by Harriet Martineau_ (In 2 vols., 3rd ed., London, 1893—the

-  original appeared from 1830–42), vol. 2, p. 96.

-

-Footnote 249:

-

-  _Aug. Comte’s Positive Philosophie im Außug von I. Rig, Übersetzt von

-  Kirchmann_ (2 Bde, Heidelberg, 1883), S. 94 ff.; Achelis, _op. cit._,

-  p. 130.

-

-Footnote 250:

-

-  _A System of Logic_ (New Impression; London: Longmans, Green & Co.,

-  1911—first published in 1843), p. 572.

-

-Footnote 251:

-

-  A. Schäffle, _Bau und Leben des sozialen Körpers_, Tübingen, 1875, 2.

-  Aufl., 1881; Achelis, _op. cit._, p. 161.

-

-Footnote 252:

-

-  “Post’s general attitude is best seen in his ‘Introduction to the

-  Study of Ethnological Jurisprudence,’ which was published in 1886, and

-  in his ‘African Jurisprudence’ of 1887.”—John L. Myres, “The Influence

-  of Anthropology on the Course of Political Science” (Presidential

-  address to the Anthropological Section of the British Assoc. for the

-  Advancement of Science), _Report Brit. Assoc., 1909_ (London, 1910),

-  p. 613.

-

-Footnote 253:

-

-  Myres, _ibid._, pp. 613 f.

-

-Footnote 254:

-

-  See Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, p. 231.

-

-Footnote 255:

-

-  See the 4th ch. of his _Géographie Sociale_ (Paris, 1911): “Agents et

-  Caractères Physiques Considérés Isolément” (pp. 92–144).

-

-Footnote 256:

-

-  “... as political and legal institutions are indissolubly bound up

-  with social and religious, it follows inevitably that the political

-  and legal institutions of a race cradled in Northern Europe are

-  exceedingly ill adapted for the children of the equator. Accordingly

-  in any wise administration of these regions it must be a primary

-  object to study the native institutions, to modify ... them ..., but

-  never to seek to eradicate and supplant them. Any attempt to do so

-  will be but vain, for these institutions are as much part of the land

-  as are its climate, its soil, its fauna, and its flora. ‘Naturam

-  expellas furca, tamen usque recurret.’”—The Application of Zoological

-  Laws to Man, in _Rep. Brit. Assoc, f. the Adv. of Sci., 1908_ (London,

-  1909), p. 843.

-

-Footnote 257:

-

-  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, pp. 310 _et seq._

-

-Footnote 258:

-

-  _Vide_ pp. 141–75 in _Der Weltkrieg im Unterricht, Vorschläge u.

-  Anregungen_, etc. (Gotha: F. A. Perthes), esp. pp 163–5; he also

-  discusses other phases of the relation between physical environment

-  and the present war.

-

-Footnote 259:

-

-  I: _Deutsche Rundschau_, April, 1915, pp. 78–91, and II (Schluß):

-  _ibid._, May, 1915, pp. 207–17.

-

-Footnote 260:

-

-  In _Monatshefte für den Naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht_, 1.

-  Kriegsheft von Bastian Schmid (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1915).

-

-Footnote 261:

-

-  Cf. Gooch, _op. cit._, pp. 585 _et seq._

-

-Footnote 262:

-

-  See his Introduction to Dexter’s _Weather Influences_ (N. Y., 1904),

-  p. XXIV.

-

-Footnote 263:

-

-  _Les Facteurs de L’Évolution des Peuples_ (Paris, 1900), p. 25, 29,

-  27.—“C’est dans l’intensité de l’effort dirigé par les groupes sociaux

-  contre les résistances du milieu, que réside la première impulsion

-  vers la civilisation.”—_Ibid._, p. 27.

-

-Footnote 264:

-

-  But he adds, “... no disturbing causes, acting on social development,

-  could do more than to affect its rate of progress. This is true of the

-  operation of influences from the inorganic world, as of all others. In

-  our view of biology we saw that the human being cannot be modified

-  indefinitely by exterior circumstances; that such modifications can

-  affect only the degrees of phenomena, without at all changing their

-  nature; and again, that when the disturbing influences exceed their

-  general limits, the organism is no longer modified, but

-  destroyed.”—_The Positive Philosophy of Aug. Comte, tr. by Harriet

-  Martineau_, vol. 2, p. 98; 97.

-

-Footnote 265:

-

-  See Ripley, _Races of Europe_ (1899), p. 11; cf. the references given

-  there, and in the note on the same page.—Cf. also Ellsworth

-  Huntington’s _Palestine and its Transformation_ (1910), and his

-  suggestive articles on “Changes of Climate and History” (in _The

-  American Historical Review_ for January, 1913, vol. 18, pp. 213–32)

-  [for references to other writings on the subject by the same

-  author,—and by A. T. Olmstead—cf. p. 214 n.]; on “Climate and

-  Civilization” (in _Harper’s Magazine_ for February, 1915, vol. 130,

-  pp. 367–73); on “Is Civilization Determined by Climate?” (_ibid._ May,

-  1915, pp. 943–51); a new book of his, entitled _Civilization and

-  Climate_ (333 pp.), is announced for publication by the Yale Univ.

-  Press.

-

-Footnote 266:

-

-  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, pp. 280 _et seq._

-

-Footnote 267:

-

-  “... cetera [Mattiaci] similes Batavis, nisi quod ipso adhuc terrae

-  suae solo et caelo acrius animantur.”—F. Ritter, _P. C. Taciti Opera_

-  (1864), p. 643. In _Römische Prosaiker in neuen Übersetzungen_ (hg. v.

-  C. N. von Osiander und G. Schwab, 51. Bändchen, Stuttg., 1852, S. 123)

-  this is rendered as follows: “Im ganzen gleichen sie [die Mattiaker]

-  den Batavern, nur daß Boden und Klima ihres Landes sie noch

-  kriegerischer macht.”

-

-Footnote 268:

-

-  Cesare Lombroso, _Crime, Its Causes and Remedies_ (Boston, 1911), pp.

-  3 f.

-

-Footnote 269:

-

-  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, p. 282.

-

-Footnote 270:

-

-  _Vide_ Flint, _l.c._, pp. 582 _et seq._

-

-Footnote 271:

-

-  Haddon & Quiggin, _Hist. of Anthropology_ (London, 1910), pp. 84 _et

-  seq._

-

-Footnote 272:

-

-  Cesare Lombroso, _Crime_, etc., p. 2.

-

-Footnote 273:

-

-  N. S. Shaler, Nature and Man in America (N. Y., 1893), p. 288.

-

-Footnote 274:

-

-  In _Abhandlungen der Königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften,

-  Phil.-hist. Classe_, 1912, p. 13: “In einer Wendung, die an

-  Distinktionen Schleiermachers erinnert, hat er [Dilthey] in seiner

-  letzten größeren Arbeit erklärt, daß unser wissenschaftliches Denken

-  von zwei großen Tendenzen beherrscht sei. Der Mensch finde sich auf

-  der einen Seite bestimmt von der physischen Welt, in der die

-  seelischen Vorgänge nur wie Interpolationen erscheinen. [The other is:

-  das Leben (life), das Erlebnis (experience).]”

-

-Footnote 275:

-

-  Ridgeway, _l.c._, p. 843.

-

-Footnote 276:

-

-  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, pp. 258 _et seq._—For the effect of

-  physical environment on the Jews in Palestine, cf. Friedrich Otto

-  Hertz, _Rasse und Kultur_ (Leipzig, 1915, 421 pp.), pp. 162 ff.; and

-  “Soziale Grundlagen des Monotheismus u. Polytheismus” (pp. 170 ff.)

-  and the literature there cited. Cf. also _ibid._, “Natürliche u.

-  Soziale Grundlagen der indischen Entwicklung” (pp. 198 ff.).

-

-Footnote 277:

-

-  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, pp. 309 _et seq._

-

-Footnote 278:

-

-  _Vide_ his _Weather Influences, An Empirical Study of the Mental and

-  Physiological Effects of Definite Meteorological Conditions_, with

-  Introduction by Cleveland Abbe (N. Y.: Macmillan, 1904, 277 pp.).

-

-Footnote 279:

-

-  I saw somewhere that exception had been taken to his results, but I

-  failed at the time to make a note thereof and have been unable to find

-  the passage again.

-

-Footnote 280:

-

-  _Ibid._, p. 266; 269; 272 f.—The fifth and last is not cited here.

-

-Footnote 281:

-

-  Ward, _op. cit._, p. 310; 335, where ref. is also made to F. A. Cook’s

-  article on “Some Physiological Effects of Arctic Cold, Darkness and

-  Light” (_MED. REC._, June 12, 1897, pp. 833–36).

-

-Footnote 282:

-

-  London and N. Y., 1892.

-

-Footnote 283:

-

-  _Ibid._, p. 90.

-

-Footnote 284:

-

-  _Ibid._, pp. 113–5.

-

-Footnote 285:

-

-  “Diese Priorität (der erste Versuch überhaupt, die Einflüsse des

-  naturalen Milieus auf die Psyche darzustellen) gebührt, nach

-  mancherlei Vorläufern minder geschlossenen Charakters (z. B.

-  _Quételet_, Sur l’homme etc. 1835, Bd. 2, Kap. 3, Abschn. 2–3,

-  Influence du climat et des saisons sur le penchant au crime) ohne

-  Zweifel _Lombroso_, aus dessen 1878 erschienenem Buche ‘Pensiero e

-  meteore’ Extracte auch in seine andern Publikationen, namentlich in

-  ‘Genio e follia,’ übergegangen sind.”—Hellpach, _Die Geopsychischen

-  Erscheinungen_ (Leipzig, 1911), p. 336.

-

-Footnote 286:

-

-  _Criminal Man, According to the Classification of Cesare Lombroso

-  Briefly Summarized by his Daughter Gina Lombroso Ferrero_ (“The

-  Science Series”; N. Y. and London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1911, 322

-  pp.), p. 145.—Lombroso’s _L’Uomo di genio_ appeared in 1888, _L’Uomo

-  delinquente_ in 1889, and _La Donna delinquente_ in 1893.

-

-Footnote 287:

-

-  _Criminal Man_, p. 145.

-

-Footnote 288:

-

-  Tr. by H. P. Horton, “The Modern Criminal Science Series,” Boston:

-  Little, Brown and Co., 1911, 471 pp.

-

-Footnote 289:

-

-  “It is brought out in Guerry’s statistics that the crime of rape

-  occurs in England and France oftenest in the hot months; and Curcio

-  has observed the same thing in Italy....

-

-  “In England, according to Guerry, and in Italy, according to Curcio,

-  the maximum number of murders falls in the hottest months....

-

-  “Poisoning also, according to Guerry, occurs oftenest in May. The same

-  phenomenon is to be observed in the case of Rebellions. In studying

-  (as I have in my ‘Political Crime’) the 836 uprisings that took place

-  in the whole world in the period between 1791 and 1880, one finds that

-  in Asia and Africa the greatest number falls in July. In Europe and

-  America the greater prevalence of rebellions in the hot months could

-  not be more clearly marked. In Europe the maximum proved to be in July

-  [in this connection one might also point to the beginning of the

-  present European war which falls in the midsummer of 1914], and in

-  South America in January, which are respectively the two hottest

-  months. The minimum falls in Europe in December and January, and in

-  South America in May and June, which again correspond in temperature.

-

-  “If now we pass from the whole of Europe to the particular countries,

-  we still find the greatest number of uprisings in the hot months....

-

-  “Benoiston de Chateauneuf points out that duels in the army are more

-  frequent in the summer.

-

-  “I have proved that the same influence manifests itself in the case of

-  men of genius (‘Man of Genius,’ Part I.).

-

-  “Ferri, in his ‘Crime in its Relation to Temperature,’ has proved from

-  a study of the French criminal statistics from 1825 to 1878 that one

-  can deduce an almost complete parallelism between heat and

-  criminality, not only for the different months, but also for years of

-  different degrees of heat. The influence of the temperature on crime

-  from 1825 to 1848 appears to be very pronounced and constant, and is

-  often even greater than that exercised by agricultural production.

-  Since 1848, notwithstanding the more serious agricultural and

-  political disturbances, the coincidence between temperature and

-  criminality becomes from time to time plainly apparent, especially in

-  the case of homicide and murder....

-

-  “The connection comes out much more plainly, however, in the

-  statistics of rape and offenses against chastity, which follow to an

-  even greater degree the annual variations in temperature....

-

-  “As regards crimes against property there is a marked increase in the

-  winter (theft and forgery being the most abundant in January), while

-  the other seasons differ little from one another....”—Lombroso,

-  _Crime, Its Causes and Remedies_, pp. 4–8. “Superintendents of prisons

-  have generally observed that the inmates are more excited when storms

-  are approaching and during the first quarter of the moon....”—_Ibid._,

-  p. 12.

-

-Footnote 290:

-

-  _Ibid._, p. 13.—“In studying the distribution of simple and aggravated

-  homicides in Europe, we find the highest figures in Italy and the

-  other southern countries, and the lowest in the more northerly

-  regions, England, Denmark, Germany. The same can be said of political

-  uprisings in all Europe. We see, in fact, that the number of crimes

-  increases as we go from north to south, and in the same measure as the

-  heat increases.”—_Ibid._, p. 14.

-

-Footnote 291:

-

-  This follows Laing. See Robertson, _Buckle and his Critics_ (London,

-  1895), p. 553.—Cf. also C. M. Gießler’s article, “Über den Einfluß von

-  Wärme und Kälte auf das seelische Funktionieren des Menschen,” in

-  _Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie u. Soziologie_,

-  1902, pp. 319–38. Gießler refers (p. 334) to Oppenheimer “Über den

-  Einfluß des Klimas auf den Menschen” (Berlin, 1867). _Vide_ also E.

-  Huntington’s article on “Work and Weather,” _Harper’s Magazine_, vol.

-  130 (January, 1915), pp. 233–44.

-

-Footnote 292:

-

-  _Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1908_ (London, 1909), p. 844.

-

-Footnote 293:

-

-  On the use of alcohol in its relation to the northern climate, cf.

-  also Auguste Matteuzzi, _Les Facteurs de L’Évolution des Peuples_

-  (Paris, 1900), pp. 329 _et seq._

-

-

-

-

-                                SUMMARY

-

-

-The Introductory Remark traces the semasiology and use of the word

-_milieu_ and discusses its English and German equivalents “environment”

-and “Umwelt.”

-

-An historical sketch of the milieu idea is then taken up from the very

-beginnings to the nineteenth century. The earlier notions of

-environmental influence are general and undifferentiated.

-

-The Hebrew Prophets see the hand of Providence in the harmony of

-national fate with the configuration of the globe. Hippocrates dwells

-upon the regularity of climatic effect on man. Aristotle notes the

-action of physical environment on government and national character.

-Eratosthenes, Strabo, and other Greek thinkers, relate man causally to

-surrounding nature. Villani says that the fine air of Arezzo produces

-great minds. Ibn Khaldūn explains, especially Arabic history, by the

-circumambient physical and social medium. Michelangelo credits Arezzo’s

-fine air with his mentality. Man is subject to the “skyey influences”

-hourly (Shakespeare).

-

-Jean Bodin plants the study of environment in French soil so firmly and

-so successfully that it has since become, in a very real sense,

-indigenous to France and that Bertillon could justly claim it to be a

-study “_très-française_,” a claim which is true to this very day.

-Bodin’s second contribution is that he undertook, for the first time in

-the modern period (on the basis of sixteenth century knowledge and

-experience), a scientific and detailed examination, far-reaching and

-extensive in scope, of the manifold influences of climatic and

-geographical conditions upon States, laws, national character, religion,

-language, temperament, talents and aptitudes,—in brief, upon man’s mind,

-manners, and morals.

-

-The study of milieu thus inaugurated in France by Bodin is set up as a

-French tradition by Lenglet du Fresnoy, Montesquieu, Turgot, Cuvier, and

-others,[294] and has been continued by French writers to our day.

-

-A number of philosophers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

-take up this idea. The doctrine of environment spreads to England and

-Germany.

-

-In Germany, Herder becomes the fulcrum of all previous thought (Hebrew,

-Greek, French, English, and German) on this theory. Herder, in turn, in

-addition to his other and principal contributions to the theory, affects

-it by giving a quickened impetus not only to the contemporary

-development thereof, but also to the later course of that development.

-Goethe reflects some of Herder’s conceptions. Wolf, Niebuhr, the German

-romanticists—August Wilhelm Schlegel in especial—and Hegel apply

-Herder’s idea to history and continue it therein. Hegel combats the

-notion that climate can be the be-all and end-all of historical

-explanation; he implies that climate was held to be a _vera causa_.

-

-The theory of social environment evolves, particularly since Ibn

-Khaldūn, parallel with that of the physical milieu.

-

-The nineteenth century brings differentiation carried out in human

-geography including history, in biology, in jurisprudence and economics,

-in anthropology, in sociology, in literature, and latterly in physics.

-These disciplines determine our divisions for discussions shortly to

-follow the present one.

-

-The major portion of this study is then given over to following the

-milieu idea in some of the more important French, English, and German

-writers of the past century on what for want of a better name has been

-called anthropo-geography inclusive of certain aspects of history.

-

-On the whole, their method has been the comparative method. Principles

-laid down _a priori_ would be illustrated by typical cases selected

-mostly from the past. Or, the process would be reversed to an _a

-posteriori_ reasoning: history restudied to find out its possible

-connections with the environment. Again: some would pick out a phase of

-the encompassing medium and follow out its effects in a particular

-country, while others would try to arrive at a more general conclusion.

-

-With reference to climate in particular, the statistical method was

-employed by Quételet, Bertillon, Leffingwell, Ferri, Holzendorf, Guerry,

-Curcio, Lombroso, and others, who established a parallelism, or

-coincidence, between certain climatic features and the criminal conduct

-of man.

-

-Delimited aspects of environment, relating again more to climate than

-any other phase of the milieu, were made the objects of observational or

-experimentally observational studies by Dexter, Brunhes, and Hellpach,

-the last two giving the most recent comprehensive summaries of our

-knowledge in this field. And they are among the best we have.

-

-The next part of this study will continue the survey of the history of

-this theory in the above mentioned sciences as well as in literature.

-

------

-

-Footnote 294:

-

-  Some of these are to be discussed in a subsequent paper.

-

-

-

-

-                                APPENDIX

-

-

-Since the foregoing study was completed, E. Huntington’s stimulating

-book—_vide supra_, p. 79, n.—on _Civilization and Climate_ has appeared.

-He continues what Dexter began. Lack of definiteness in observation,

-argumentative conviction, reasoned out opinion, are superseded by

-scientific exactness in ascertaining the action of climate. Chapters 4–7

-(pp. 49–147) concern us here. In these chapters he investigates “the

-exact effect of various climatic factors upon selected groups of people”

-(p. 49).

-

-Huntington subjects to statistical analysis the daily records of about

-550 factory operatives, pieceworkers, employed in three factories in

-three New England cities. The records, most of them for a complete year,

-are distributed over the four years from 1910 to 1913 (p. 53).

-

-He computes wage averages. He finds for each working day the average

-hourly wage for each group of operatives. When the daily averages had

-been found, they were averaged together by weeks. To give each

-individual an equal importance, the figures of each group have been

-reduced to percentages. Finally, the different groups were combined (p.

-57). His final computations are represented in curves. A curve,

-graduated in twelve parts (one for each month), for a given year shows

-the earnings in percentages at any point and thus reveals the _time_ of

-the weakness or efficiency of the worker; it shows the time of his wages

-from least to most, thereby indicating the time of his work and energy

-from poorest to best.

-

-Huntington worked up similarly the records of 65 operatives in a North

-Carolina factory, of 240 operatives in four cotton mills in South

-Carolina and Georgia, of 57 carpenters at Jacksonville, Fla., and on a

-different basis the work of 2700 cigar makers in two cigar factories in

-Florida. On the first basis he also computed a series of data from a

-large factory at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, based on the work of about

-950 operatives in 1910, of about 750 in 1911, of 69 in 1912, of about

-7000 in 1913. He figured the monthly or bi-weekly averages of hourly

-earnings of these pieceworkers in Pittsburgh.

-

-Discussing the curves in Figure 1 (p. 59), he mentions (p. 61) five

-features revealed by the curves that show no sign of disappearing. They

-are: “an extremely low place in midwinter, and a less pronounced low

-place in midsummer; a high point in June, a still higher point at the

-end of October, and a hump in mid-December....

-

-“Before we discuss the causes of the variability of the summers let us

-consider the meaning of the curves as a whole. In the first place, it is

-evident that, although details may vary from year to year, the general

-course of events is uniformly from low in the winter to high in the fall

-with a drop of more or less magnitude in summer. To what can this be

-due?...

-

-“We seem forced to search outside of the factories for the reasons for

-our seasonal fluctuations of wages.... There seems to be no recourse

-except to ascribe the fluctuations of the curves to climate [pp. 64–5].

-

-“The verity of the conclusion just reached is strongly confirmed by

-comparison with other regions and other types of human activity.... The

-curves [in Figure 2, pp. 66–7] range from the Adirondacks in northern

-New York to Tampa in southern Florida and include one from Denmark. With

-them I have repeated some of the curves of Figure 1 for the sake of

-comparison. The most remarkable feature of this series is that although

-there is great diversity of place and of activity, all the curves

-harmonize with what would be expected on the basis of Figure 1 [p. 65].

-

-“The general form of the curves for Pittsburgh and Connecticut is

-obviously the same....

-

-“The agreement between the curves for Connecticut and Pennsylvania is

-far too close to be accidental [p. 76].

-

-“We have now seen that from New England to Florida physical strength and

-health vary in accordance with the seasons. Extremes seem to produce the

-same effect everywhere. The next question is whether mental activity

-varies the same way” (p. 77).

-

-Huntington uses the marks of “about 1900 students for a single year” in

-mathematics (weekly averages at Annapolis and daily averages at West

-Point) and in English (at Annapolis). From these data he compiles the

-curves in Figure 3 (p. 80). He says (p. 81), “The curves of mental

-activity all resemble it [the average curve of physical work] in having

-two main maxima, in fall and spring.... At Annapolis, just as at West

-Point, the time of best work is when the mean temperature is not far

-from forty degrees [Fahrenheit].

-

-“Summing up the matter, we find that the results of investigations in

-Denmark, Japan, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland, the

-Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida are in harmony. They all show that

-except in Florida neither the winter nor the summer is the most

-favorable season. Both physical and mental activity reach pronounced

-maxima in the spring and fall, with minima in midwinter and midsummer.

-The consistency of our results is of great importance. It leads to the

-belief that in all parts of the world the climate is exercising an

-influence which can readily be measured, and can be subjected to

-statistical analysis” (p. 82).

-

-This is his conclusion in Chapter IV (pp. 49–82), “The Effect of the

-Seasons.”

-

-Having seen in the fourth chapter “that both physical and mental energy

-vary from season to season according to well-defined laws,” Huntington

-investigates in the fifth chapter (“The Effect of Humidity and

-Temperature,” pp. 83–110) “the special features of seasonal change which

-are most effective” (p. 83). Explaining the curves of Human Activity and

-Mean Temperature (p. 99), he says (p. 98), “With the exception of the

-last two, which are distinctly the least reliable, the physical group

-all reach maxima at a temperature between 59° and 65°. Even the two less

-reliable curves reach their maxima within the next four degrees. All the

-curves decline at low temperatures, ..., and also at high.

-

-“Another point brought out by the curves [on p. 99] is that as we go to

-more southerly climes the optimum temperature of the human race becomes

-higher. It is important to note, however, that the variation in the

-optimum is slight compared with the variation in the mean temperature of

-the places in question. For instance, in Connecticut the optimum seems

-to be about 60° for people of north European stock. This is about ten

-degrees higher than the mean temperature for the year as a whole. In

-Florida, on the other hand, the optimum for Cubans is about 65°, which

-is five degrees _lower_ than the mean temperature for the year at Tampa.

-In other words, with a difference of twenty degrees in the mean annual

-temperature, and with a distinctly northern race compared with a

-southern, we find that the optimum differs only about 5° F. This seems

-to mean that for the entire human race the optimum temperature probably

-does not vary more than ten or fifteen degrees [pp. 100–101].

-

-“The last thing to be considered in Figure 8 [p. 99] is the mental curve

-[showing optimum mental work at 38° F.] at the bottom. It is based on so

-large a number of people, and is so regular, that its general

-reliability seems great, although I think that future studies may show

-the optimum to be a few degrees higher than is here indicated. It agrees

-with the results of Lehmann and Pedersen. Furthermore, from general

-observation we are most of us aware that we are mentally more active in

-comparatively cool weather. Perhaps ‘spring fever’ is a mental state far

-more than a physical. Apparently people do the best mental work on days

-when the thermometer ranges from freezing to about 50°—that is, when the

-mean temperature is not far from 40°. Inasmuch as human progress depends

-upon a coördination of mental and physical activity, we seem to be

-justified in the conclusion that the greatest total efficiency occurs

-halfway between the mental and physical optima, that is, with a mean

-temperature of about 50°” (pp. 102–103).

-

-The curves (p. 105) on Mean Temperature and Vital Processes in Plants,

-Animals and Man show physical energy to be at the optimum at the mean

-temperature of 60° F., mental energy at 38°, mental and physical energy

-combined at from 40° to 60°. Of this last mentioned curve he says: “It

-may be taken as representing man’s actual productive activity in the

-things that make for a high civilization. The resemblance of the human

-curves to those of the lower organisms is obvious. In general, the lower

-types of life, or the lower forms of activity, seem to reach their

-optima at higher temperatures than do the more advanced types and the

-more lofty functions such as mentality. The whole trend of biological

-thought is toward the conclusion that the same laws apply to all forms

-of life. They differ in application, but not in principle. The law of

-optimum temperature apparently controls the phenomena of life from the

-lowest activities of protoplasm to the highest activities of the human

-intellect” (pp. 109–110).

-

-In Chapter VI (“Work and Weather,” pp. 111–128), he interprets the

-curves he plotted showing especially the influence of changes of

-temperature from day to day, and of the character of each day and its

-relation to storms. In the very interesting Chapter VII (pp. 129–147) he

-discusses “The Ideal Climate.”

-

-In the closing paragraph of his book, he says, “If our hypothesis is

-true, man is more closely dependent upon nature than he has realized. A

-realization of his limitations, however, is the first step toward

-freedom [p. 293].

-

-“The hypothesis, briefly stated, is this: Today a certain peculiar type

-of climate prevails wherever civilization is high. In the past the same

-type seems to have prevailed wherever a great civilization arose.

-Therefore, such a climate seems to be a necessary condition of great

-progress. It is not the cause of civilization, for that lies infinitely

-deeper. Nor is it the only, or the most important condition. It is

-merely one of several, ...” (p. 9.)

-

-Huntington mentions (p. 7) Lehmann and Pedersen’s “Das Wetter und unsere

-Arbeit” and Berliner’s “Einfluß von Klima, Wetter und Jahreßeit auf das

-Nerven- und Seelenleben,” without the date or place of publication.

-

-

-

-

-    NOTE: Since the foregoing pages went to press, the following

-    publications have appeared; being too late for inclusion or

-    comment in the text, they are added here for reference:

-

-    Douglas W. Johnson, _Topography and Strategy in the War_, N. Y.,

-    Henry Holt & Co., 1917, 221 pp. (Thorough and very illuminating;

-    points out how the surface features of the country influenced

-    military operations in the most important theaters of the war.)

-

-    James Fairgrieve, _Geography and World Power_, N. Y., E. P.

-    Dutton & Co., 1917, 356 pp. (Shows how History has been

-    controlled by Geography.)

-

-    Robert De C. Ward, “Weather Controls Over the Fighting in the

-    Italian War Zone,” _The Scientific Monthly_, Vol. 6, No. 2

-    (February, 1918), pp. 97–105. And “Weather Controls Over the

-    Fighting in Mesopotamia, in Palestine, and near the Suez Canal,”

-    _ibidem_, Vol. 6, No. 4 (April, 1918), pp. 289–304.

-

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-

-

-

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-                          TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 55619 ***
+
+                       THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT
+
+                                 Part I
+
+
+                       The University of Chicago
+
+
+
+
+                       THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT
+   _An Outline of the History of the Idea of Milieu, and its Present
+                                Status_
+                                 PART I
+                             A DISSERTATION
+ SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE
+          IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
+            DEPARTMENT OF GERMANIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES
+
+
+                                   BY
+
+                          ARMIN HAJMAN KOLLER
+
+
+                          The Collegiate Press
+
+                    GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY
+                           MENASHA, WISCONSIN
+                                  1918
+
+
+
+
+                       THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT
+
+                                 PART I
+
+   _An Outline of the History of the Idea of Milieu, and its Present
+                                Status_
+
+                                   BY
+                       ARMIN HAJMAN KOLLER, PH.D.
+                          Instructor in German
+                       The University of Illinois
+
+            “.............................
+            _He fixed thee ’mid this dance
+            Of plastic circumstance_.”
+
+                        Robert Browning, “_Rabbi Ben Ezra_.”
+
+                          The Collegiate Press
+                    GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY
+                           MENASHA, WISCONSIN
+                                  1918
+
+
+
+
+                            _Copyright, 1918
+                          By Armin H. Koller_
+
+
+
+
+                                   TO
+                               MY PARENTS
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+ Introductory Remark. Meanings of the Word _Milieu_                    1
+
+   I. A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Down to the
+        Nineteenth Century                                             7
+
+  II. A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Since the
+        Beginning of the Nineteenth Century                           27
+
+      Anthropo-geography, Geography and History                       27
+
+      Geography and History                                           42
+
+      More Recent Anthropo-geographical Treatises                     65
+
+      Primitive Peoples and Environment                               69
+
+      Society and Physical Milieu                                     74
+
+      Government, War, Progress, and Climate                          76
+
+      Climate and Man’s Characteristics                               80
+
+      Man’s Intellect and Physical Environment                        81
+
+      Religion and Physical Milieu                                    83
+
+      Climate and Conduct                                             84
+
+      Climatic Control of Food and Drink                              91
+
+ Summary                                                              93
+
+ Appendix                                                             97
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+In 1912 (see _Publications of the Modern Language Association of
+America_, Vol. 28, N. S., Vol. 21, 1913, Proceedings for 1912, p.
+xxxix), I called attention to the Herder-Taine problem on milieu. The
+paper discussing that problem awaits the completion of another paper
+entitled “Herder’s Conception of Milieu.” The latter was my starting
+point. Setting about to inform myself on the history of the theory, I
+determined to obtain for myself, if possible, a tolerably complete idea,
+at least in its essentials, of the theory of milieu, to see where the
+theory led to, where it started from, what changes it has undergone, and
+what were its ramifications. My plan was to state briefly my findings in
+a chapter preparatory to stating Herder’s idea of milieu. As guide-posts
+were lacking, at least I knew of none, I was bound to seek by accident
+and for a number of years. In stumbling along, I first chanced upon the
+Herder-Taine problem. When my material swelled to proportions that could
+not be controlled in part of a chapter or in a chapter, I had to
+separate it, by its main divisions, into parts. The question arose,
+should it be a _concrete_ treatise on environment. I soon found that to
+be, at least for the time being, beyond my province and also beyond my
+present purpose; besides, it would have swerved me too far afield;
+moreover, it would have had to be limited to a small portion of the
+subject. My present concern in this theory being genetic and historical,
+it seemed best to assemble all the sources one could find bearing on the
+history of the theory and to indicate the trend of its development in a
+rough preliminary sketch. Such a sketch is a requisite first step and
+perhaps a modest contribution to a history of the theory under
+consideration. The first part of this sketch is herein given. The
+original plan, mentioned above, of a prefatory chapter to Herder
+accounts for the retention of untranslated passages in the text of this
+part, a practice to be eschewed in the subsequent parts of this study
+which are to appear shortly.
+
+Nearly all the material was collected by October, 1915, and this
+manuscript was finished early in January, 1917.
+
+I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to Professor Martin Schütze of
+the University of Chicago for the suggestion, made in 1907, to find out
+what Herder’s idea of milieu is; to my friend and former colleague at
+the University of Illinois, Dr. Charles C. Adams (now Assistant
+Professor of Ecology at Syracuse University) for references given me at
+my request (but he is in no wise to be held responsible for the bringing
+in of these references); and to my good friend and colleague, Professor
+John Driscoll Fitz-Gerald of the University of Illinois for a number of
+helpful suggestions given when reading the manuscript and for assisting
+with the reading of the galley proof.
+
+                                                        ARMIN H. KOLLER.
+
+ _Champaign, Illinois,
+     April, 1918._
+
+
+
+
+                          INTRODUCTORY REMARK
+                     MEANINGS OF THE WORD “MILIEU”
+
+
+Before entering upon the discussion of the principal theme of this
+study,[1] it is necessary to cast a brief glance over the origin and
+development of the meaning and use of the word milieu.
+
+“Milieu” (_mi-lieu=medius locus_), originally signifying middle point or
+part, central place or portion, mid-point, center, had been employed in
+France as a term in physics at least as early as the seventeenth century
+(Pascal). The fourth edition of the dictionary of the French Academy[2]
+defines it as follows: “En termes de Physique, on appelle _Milieu_, Tout
+corps, soit solide, soit fluide, traversé par la lumière ou par un autre
+corps.” [In the fifth edition—1813—the following illustration in italics
+is added to the foregoing: “La lumière se rompt différemment en
+traversant différens milieux.”]
+
+“On appelle aussi _milieu_, Le fluide qui environne les corps. _L’air
+est le milieu dans lequel nous vivons. L’eau est le milieu qu’habitent
+les poissons._”
+
+Diderot’s Encyclopedia[3] testifies to this same sense of “medium”:
+“_Milieu_, dans la Philosophie mêchanique, signifie un espace matériel à
+travers lequel passe un corps dans son mouvement, ou en général, un
+espace matériel dans lequel un corps est placé, soit qu’il se meuve ou
+non.
+
+“Ainsi on imagine l’éther comme un _milieu_ dans lequel les corps
+célestes se meuvent.—L’air est un _milieu_ dans lequel les corps se
+meuvent près de la surface de la terre.—L’eau est le _milieu_ dans
+lequel les poissons vivent & se meuvent.—Le verre enfin est un _milieu_,
+en égard à la lumière, parce qu’il lui permet un passage à travers ses
+pores.”
+
+Auguste Comte[4] extended its signification as a term in biology to
+include “the totality of external conditions of any kind whatsoever”:
+“_Milieu_ ..., non-seulement le fluide où l’organisme est plongé, mais,
+en général, _l’ensemble total des circonstances extérieurs d’un genre
+quelconque_ [the italics are ours], nécessaires à l’existence de chaque
+organisme déterminé. Ceux qui auront suffisamment médité sur le rôle
+capital que doit remplir, dans toute biologie positive, l’idée
+correspondante, ne me reprocheront pas, sans doute, l’introduction de
+cette expression nouvelle.”
+
+Hippolyte Taine who generalized it still further, broadened its
+connotation to comprehend the whole social surroundings.[5] Milieu as a
+_terminus technicus_ is ordinarily considered as having been coined by
+Taine, but whether that be so or not, one may safely say that its wide
+acceptance is due, primarily, to him and to his renowned disciple
+Zola.[6]
+
+In the course of the last century, the designation milieu became not
+only more generalized and more frequent in use, but also more extensive,
+and more specific and distinctive in meaning: “Depuis BALZAC [who in
+1841 in his _Comédie humaine, La maison du chat-qui-pelote_, préface, p.
+2, used the term loosely, in the “vulgar” sense], le sens vulgaire du
+milieu social n’a fait que s’affirmer davantage par un emploi toujours
+plus généralisé: c’est devenu un cliché de la conversation de parler
+aujourd’hui d’un ‘bon milieu,’ d’un ‘milieu intéressant,’ etc.”[7]
+
+Littré[8] registers eighteen different definitions for the word milieu.
+
+Friedrich Düsel[9] renders milieu by eighteen (18) German words.
+
+In _Unsere Umgangssprache_,[10] milieu is translated into German by
+forty-six (46) words and phrases.
+
+Claude Bernard, the celebrated French physiologist, differentiates
+between inner and outer milieu:[11] “Je crois ..., avoir le premier
+insisté sur cette idée qu’il y a pour l’animal réellement deux milieux:
+un milieu extérieur dans lequel est placé l’organisme et un milieu
+intérieur dans lequel vivent les éléments des tissus....” Probably as a
+result, we have today “micro-milieu” in micro-biology.
+
+According to Jean Finot,[12] milieu “includes the sum total of the
+conditions which accompany the conception and earthly existence of a
+being, and which end only with its death.”
+
+The term milieu was introduced by Herbert Spencer into English
+literature as “environment,” says Martin Schütze.[13] Although Carlyle
+employed the term “environment” as early as 1827,[14] nevertheless, the
+fact that the term is generally current, is undoubtedly attributable in
+the first place to Spencer.
+
+The word “Umwelt” is quoted by J. H. Campe,[15] who believed himself to
+have been the coiner of the term; five years later (1816) Goethe used it
+at the beginning of his “Italienische Reise.”[16]
+
+The painstaking and scholarly German lexicographer, Daniel Sanders, who
+seldom fails to give his reader some reliable suggestion, refers in his
+_Wörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache_[17] (which despite the contributions
+of recent scholarship still remains a great work) to a passage in the
+poetical works of the Danish writer Baggesen (2, 102) in which the word
+“Umwelt” is employed. This passage occurs in the elegy entitled
+“Napoleon” addressed to Voß and written in 1800.[18] Baggesen, then,
+made use of “Umwelt” a decade before Campe.
+
+Its Italian equivalent is “ambiente,” which is noted here only because
+of the French “l’ambiance” and the English “ambient” and
+“circumambiency.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1:
+
+  For brief but valuable sketches of one phase or another of the
+  history of the theory of milieu, cf. Friedrich Ratzel,
+  _Anthropogeographie_. 1. _Teil: Grundzüge der Anwendung der Erdkunde
+  auf die Geschichte_ (2. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1899, 604 pp.), pp. 13–23,
+  25–30, 31–40; Gustav Schmoller, _Grundriß der Allgemeinen
+  Volkswirtschaftslehre_. Erster Teil (Vierte bis sechste Aufl.,
+  Leipzig, 1901), p. 127, pp. 137 f., 144 ff., Zweiter Teil (Erste bis
+  sechste Aufl., Leipzig, 1904), pp. 656 ff.; _Ferdinand v.
+  Richthofen’s Vorlesungen über Allgemeine Siedlungs- und
+  Verkehrsgeographie_, bearb. und herausgegeben von O. Schlüter
+  (Berlin, 1908, 351 pp.—A course of lectures delivered in the summer
+  semester of 1891 in Berlin, repeated in the winter semester in
+  1897/8), pp. 6–13; Jean Brunhes, _La Géographie Humaine_ (Deuxième
+  édition, Paris: Alcan, 1912, 801 pp.), pp. 36 ff.; A. C. Haddon and
+  A. H. Quiggin, _History of Anthropology_ (London, 1910, 158 pp.),
+  pp. 131 f., 150–52; William Z. Ripley, “Geography and Sociology,”
+  _Political Science Quarterly_, X (1895), pp. 636–54; also the same
+  author’s _The Races of Europe_ (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1899),
+  pp. 2–5. Cf. also O. Schlüter, “Die leitenden Gesichtspunkte der
+  Anthropogeographie, insbesondere der Lehre Friedrich Ratzels,”
+  _Arch. f. Sozialwissenschaft_, Bd. IV (1906), S. 581–630, and Rudolf
+  Goldscheid, _Höherentwicklung und Menschenökonomie_, I
+  [Philosophisch-soziologische Bücherei, Band VIII], (Leipzig: W.
+  Klinkhardt, 1911, 664 pp.), p. 52. For bibliographies, in addition
+  to those yet to be mentioned, see also Ratzel, _l.c._, pp. 579–85;
+  Brunhes, _l.c._, nn.; Ellen C. Semple, _Influences of Geographic
+  Environment, On the Basis of Ratzel’s System of Anthropo-geography_
+  (New York: H. Holt & Co., 1911, 637 pp.), to each chapter of which
+  an extensive bibliography is added; William J. Thomas, _Source Book
+  for Social Origins_ (Chicago and London, 1909) pp. 134–39:
+  Bibliography to Part I: The Relation of Society to Geographic and
+  Economic Environment (pp. 29–129, Comment on Part I, pp. 130–33);
+  Ripley, “Geography and Sociology,” _Pol. Sc. Quar._, X (1895), pp.
+  654–5.
+
+Footnote 2:
+
+  _Dictionnaire de l’Académie Françoise._ Quatrième Édition. Tome Second
+  (Paris, 1762), p. 143.
+
+Footnote 3:
+
+  _Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences_, etc. Nouvelle
+  Éd. 1778, ed. by Diderot and D’Alembert, 21st vol., p. 853.
+
+Footnote 4:
+
+  _Cours de Philosophie Positive_ (6 vols., 1830–42, 5^e édition, Paris,
+  1892–94), see vol. 3, p. 235 n.
+
+Footnote 5:
+
+  Cp. esp. the Introduction to his _Histoire de la Littérature
+  Anglaise_, 5 Tomes (8^e Édition, Paris: Hachette, 1892); the first
+  edition appeared in 1863, after Taine had been at work on it for
+  well-nigh a decade.
+
+Footnote 6:
+
+  For Zola as the disciple of Taine, cf. H. Wiegler, _Geschichte und
+  Kritik der Theorie des Milieus bei Émile Zola_ (Diss., Rostock, 1905),
+  esp. pp. 19–36.
+
+Footnote 7:
+
+  _Vide_ Émile Waxweiler, _Esquisse d’une Sociologie_ (Bruxelles, 1906),
+  p. 65.
+
+Footnote 8:
+
+  _Dictionnaire de la Langue Française_, vol. 3 (1885), pp. 559 f.
+
+Footnote 9:
+
+  _Verdeutschungen, Wörterbuch fürs tägliche Leben_ (Braunschweig,
+  Verlag von George Westermann, 1915, 176 pp.), p. 93.
+
+Footnote 10:
+
+  _Verdeutschungsbücher des Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins, III_
+  (Zweite Aufl., neu bearb. v. Edward Lohmeyer, Berlin, Verlag des
+  Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins, 1915, 182 pp.), pp. 91 f.
+
+Footnote 11:
+
+  _Phénomènes de la vie_ (2^e éd., Paris, 1885), t. I, p. 112. See
+  Waxweiler, _l.c._, p. 36.
+
+Footnote 12:
+
+  _Race Prejudice_, transl. by Florence Wade-Evans (London, 1906), p.
+  130.
+
+Footnote 13:
+
+  “The Services of Naturalism to Life and Literature. Reprinted, with
+  Additions, from _The Sewanee Review_, October, 1903,” p. 2.
+
+Footnote 14:
+
+  See Murray’s NED., vol. III, Part II, (1897), p. 231.
+
+Footnote 15:
+
+  _Wörterbuch d. d. Sprache_ (1811), Bd. 5, S. 113.
+
+Footnote 16:
+
+  See the article by I. Stosch on “Umwelt-_milieu_,” _Zeitschrift für
+  Deutsche Wortforschung_, g. v. Fr. Kluge, 7. Bd. (1905), pp. 58–9.
+
+Footnote 17:
+
+  2. Bd., 2. Hälfte (Leipzig: Otto Wigand, 1865), p. 1556^b.
+
+Footnote 18:
+
+  A. Gombert cites the passage in question in his article “Umwelt,” _Z.
+  f. D. Wf._, 7. Bd. (1905), pp. 150–52.
+
+
+
+
+                                   I
+  A SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE IDEA OF MILIEU DOWN TO THE NINETEENTH
+                                CENTURY
+
+
+Recorded mesologic[19] thinking begins with the ancient Jewish Prophets
+whose striking _aperçus_ concerning the providential correspondence
+between the configuration of the surface of the earth and the destiny of
+nations, concerning the connection between “Landesnatur” and
+“Volkscharakter,” etc., anticipated[20] a number of great thoughts of
+later anthropo-geographers.
+
+Hippocrates (if he really is the author of the essay commonly ascribed
+to him and entitled περὶ αέρων ὑδάτων τόπων) investigates the effect of
+climate on man’s nature, character, temperament, and life, with the
+emphasis on the regularity of the effect.[21] Owing to the imperfection
+of knowledge in his day, his observations are necessarily vague.[22] He
+limited himself to the problem of the relation between land and
+people.[23] He is said to be the founder of anthropo-geography.[24] His
+treatise is admirable and unequalled in the eyes of Auguste Comte.[25]
+Hippocrates, “in his work, _About Air, Water, and Places_, first
+discusses the influence of environment on man, physical, moral, and
+pathological. He divided mankind into groups, impressed with homogeneous
+characters by homogeneous surroundings, demonstrating that mountains,
+plains, damp, aridity, and so on, produced definite and varying
+types.”[26]
+
+Aristotle, in his _Politics_, enquires into the influence especially of
+geographical position on laws and the form of government,[27] while in
+his _Problems_ he shows the far-reaching dependence of national
+character on the physical environment: “Zeigt ja doch Aristoteles selbst
+in einem andern Werke das entschiedenste Bestreben, eine sehr
+weitgehende Abhängigkeit des Volkscharakters von geographischen
+Verhältnissen zu erweisen. Während die Politik [especially parts of the
+seventh book] nicht über Andeutungen [on the effect of the milieu]
+hinausgeht [discussed by Poehlmann, _l.c._, on pp. 64–8], läßt der
+vierzehnte Abschnitt der ‘Probleme,’ welcher sich mit den Einwirkungen
+der Landesnatur auf Physik und Ethik des Menschen beschäftigt, deutlich
+einen Standpunkt erkennen, welcher auf das Lebhafteste an die
+physiologische Betrachtungsweise der neueren französisch-englischen
+Geschichtsphilosophie erinnert ...”[28]
+
+Eratosthenes, in a work cited by Varro, sought to prove, in the opinion
+of the Italian scholar Matteuzzi prematurely, that man’s character and
+the form of his government are subordinated to proximity or remoteness
+from the sun.[29] The greatest geographer of antiquity, Strabo, in his
+Geography, connected man with nature in a causal relation.[30]
+
+John M. Robertson, noting that “theories of the influence of climate on
+character were common in antiquity,” refers[31] to Vitruvius (VI, 1),
+Vegetius (“De re militari,” 1, 2), and Servius (on Vergil, _Aeneid_, VI,
+724). Ritter does not mention the effort of the ancients in this line of
+ideas.[32]
+
+Giovanni Villani, the noted Florentine historian of the fourteenth
+century, observes with a deal of finesse that Arezzo by reason of its
+air and position produces men of great subtilty of mind.[33]
+
+The Arabic statesman and philosopher of history, Ibn Khaldūn, little
+mentioned, yet known by his great work, the _Universal History_,
+attempted in the _Muqaddama_[34] (the preface, comprising the first
+volume of his _History_), which he composed between 1374 and 1378,[35]
+to explain the history and civilization of man, more especially of
+some of the Arabic peoples, by the encompassing physical and social
+conditions. The “First Section of the ‘Prolegomena’ treats of society
+in general, and of the varieties of the human race, and of the regions
+of the earth which they inhabit, as related thereto. It starts from
+the position that man is by nature a social being. His body and mind,
+wants and affections, for their exercise, satisfaction, and
+development, all imply and demand co-operation and communion with his
+fellows,—participation in a collective and common life....
+
+“There follows a lengthened description of the physical basis and
+conditions of history and civilisation. The chief features of the
+inhabited portions of the earth, its regions, principal seas, great
+rivers, climates, &c., are made the subjects of exposition. The seven
+climatic zones, and the ten sections of each, are delineated, and their
+inhabitants specified. The three climatic zones of moderate temperature
+are described in detail, and the distinctive features of the social
+condition and civilisation of their inhabitants dwelt upon. The
+influence of the atmosphere, heat, &c., on the physical and even mental
+and moral peculiarities of peoples is maintained to be great. Not only
+the darkness of skin of the negroes, but their characteristics of
+disposition and of mode of life, are traced to the influence of climate.
+A careful attempt is also made to show how differences of fertility of
+soil—how dearth and abundance—modify the bodily constitution and affect
+the minds of men, and so operate on society....
+
+“The Second Section of the ‘Prolegomena’ treats of the civilisation of
+nomadic and half-savage peoples.
+
+“In it Ibn Khaldūn appears at his best, ... He begins by indicating how
+the different usages and institutions of peoples depend to a large
+extent on the ways in which they provide for their subsistence. He
+describes how peoples have at first contented themselves with simple
+necessities, and then gradually risen to refinement and luxury through a
+series of states or stages all of which are alike conformed to nature,
+in the sense of being adapted to its circumstances or environment.”[36]
+
+Ibn Khaldūn seems also to have had a clear idea of some aspects of the
+principle of relativity,[37] an integral part and inevitable concomitant
+of the theory of milieu, since “As causes of historians erring as they
+have done, there are mentioned [by Khaldūn in the introduction] the
+overlooking of the differences of times and epochs, ...”[38]
+
+About the middle of the sixteenth century we find Michelangelo avowing
+to Vasari (who hailed from Arezzo): “Any mental excellence I may
+possess, I have because I was born in the fine air of your Aretine
+district.”[39]
+
+In “Measure for Measure” (Act III, Sc. I, v. 8–11), a play first
+produced in 1604, Shakespeare affirms of man:
+
+              “... a breath thou art,
+              Servile to all the skyey influences
+              That do this habitation where thou keep’st,
+              Hourly afflict.”
+
+During the Renaissance, Greek thought on milieu is resurrected in
+France. Thence it spreads later, particularly in the eighteenth century,
+to England and Germany. Jean Bodin bridges the gap existent since the
+close of classical antiquity. He is the first among modern writers not
+only to revive the idea in Western Europe,[40] but also to make it a
+subject for detailed investigation. Bodin thus first in French letters
+introduces and firmly establishes a line of study destined to be
+followed by a long list of authors among whom are to be found many
+illustrious French names.
+
+Bodin “treats of physical causes with considerable fulness in the fifth
+chapter of the ‘Method,’[41] and in a still more detailed and developed
+form in the first chapter of the fifth book of the ‘Republic.’”[42] He
+traces the relation between climate and the ever changing fate of
+States, and elaborates the manifold effects of climate on States, laws,
+religion, language, and temperament.[43] In Bodin’s view, man’s physical
+constitution is closely and directly connected with climate and
+surrounding nature; it is in harmony with the behavior of the earth in
+the respective zones of his abode.[44] From this assumption of
+dependence of the human body on climate, there follow a number of
+inferences concerning the physical properties of man’s constitution.[45]
+Temperament varies according to climate. Language, the generative power,
+diseases likewise depend indirectly on climate.[46] Man’s talents and
+capacities do so no less.[47] The climate in each region always favors
+the development of some special aptitude; on this basis he groups the
+peoples of the earth.[48] Although the nexus between human abilities and
+the physical milieu is thus intimate, yet reason, common to all men and
+invariable, is _per se_ independent of physical environment.[49] He
+postulates, then, reason as the absolute part of the mind, not subject
+to surrounding influences, whereas the unfolding of the human faculties
+is relative to the environment. By taking this middle course concerning
+the effect of nature on man, Bodin escapes the extreme views of nature’s
+compelling influence over man, on the one hand, and of man’s total
+independence of nature, on the other.[50]
+
+Bodin also investigates the influence upon national character of
+geographical situation, of elevation, of the quality of the native soil,
+and of an east-west position.[51] Nations and their civilizations differ
+according to the particular conditions of a given national
+existence.[52]
+
+He holds fast to the doctrine of the freedom of the will. Man is morally
+free from environmental control. The circumambient medium determines
+only the _development_ of man’s capabilities.[53] Man can counteract,
+and may, even though with difficulty, overcome the injurious action of
+climate and nature.[54]
+
+“... It is altogether unfair,” concludes Flint,[55] “to put their
+general enunciations [_i.e._, those made by Hippocrates, Plato,
+Aristotle, Polybius, and Galen] of the principle that physical
+circumstances originate and modify national characteristics, on a level
+with Bodin’s serious, sustained, and elaborate attempt to apply it over
+a wide area and to a vast number of cases. Dividing nations into
+northern, middle, and southern,[56] he investigates with wonderful
+fulness of knowledge how climatic and geographical conditions have
+affected the bodily strength, the courage, the intelligence, the
+humanity, the chastity, and, in short, the mind, morals, and manners of
+their inhabitants; what influence mountains, winds, diversities of soil,
+&c., have exerted on individuals and societies; and he elicits a vast
+number of general views....”
+
+Bodin, “der größte theoretische Politiker Frankreichs im 16.
+Jahrhundert,” declares Renz,[57] “besitzt ... das unbestreitbare
+Verdienst, wenn nicht die Grundgedanken und nicht ausschließlich
+originale Gedanken, so doch die erste weitgehende wissenschaftliche
+Untersuchung über den Zusammenhang zwischen umgebender Natur und
+Menschenwelt in neuerer Zeit auf dem Boden der Erfahrung und
+Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts angestellt zu haben.”
+
+Bodin, “writing in 1577 OF THE LAWES AND CUSTOMES OF A COMMON
+WEALTH (English edition [translated by Richard Knowlles] 1605),
+contains, as Professor J. L. Myres has pointed out (Rept. Brit.
+Assoc., 1909 [1910], p. 593), ‘the whole pith and kernel of modern
+anthropo-geography....’”[58] And Renz believes that “In der
+Bodinschen Behandlung der Theorie des Klimas finden sich die
+Anfänge der Anthropogeographie und der Ethnographie...”[59]
+
+Writing in 1713, Lenglet du Fresnoy, toward the end of the sixth chapter
+of the first volume of his _Méthode pour étudier l’histoire_, expresses,
+decades before Montesquieu, the latter’s basic idea of the effect of
+social and political milieu on laws.[60]
+
+In any discussion of milieu, Montesquieu is the writer most frequently
+mentioned, although not the most often read and quoted. He devotes the
+well-known five “Books,” from the fourteenth to the eighteenth, of his
+magnum opus, _L’Esprit des Lois_ (1748),[61] to a consideration of this
+idea which, as has already been seen, was anything but original with
+him.[62] In Books fourteen to seventeen he treats of the relation of
+laws to climate, and in Book eighteen of their relation to soil. In the
+fourteenth[63] he discusses the effect of climate on the body (and mind)
+of individual man, in the fifteenth[64] on civil slavery, in the
+sixteenth[65] on domestic slavery, in the seventeenth[66] on political
+servitude, and lastly in the eighteenth[67] he delineates the influence
+of the fertility and barrenness of the soil. By climate he means little
+more than heat and cold. In the light of the continued high praise
+bestowed on him for much longer than a century, the altogether too
+general and dogmatic statements of these short seventy-odd pages would
+seem somewhat meager, so that upon their perusal one is very likely to
+suffer an outright disenchantment. Therefore, Flint’s judgment appears
+overdrawn, when he says that Montesquieu “showed on a grand scale and in
+the most effective way ... that, like all things properly historical,
+they [laws, customs, institutions] must be estimated not according to an
+abstract or absolute standard, but as concrete realities related to
+given times and places, to their determining causes and condition, and
+to the whole social organism to which they belong, and the whole social
+medium in which they subsist. Plato and Aristotle, Machiavelli and
+Bodin, had already, indeed, inculcated this historical and political
+relativism; but it was Montesquieu who gained educated Europe over to
+the acceptance of it.”[68]
+
+Turgot’s sketch of a ‘Political Geography’ shows “that he had attained
+to a broader view of the relationship of human development to the
+features of the earth and to physical agencies in general than even
+Montesquieu. And he saw with perfect clearness not only that many of
+Montesquieu’s inductions were premature and inadequate, but that there
+was a defect in the method by which he arrived at them.... The excellent
+criticism of Comte, in the fifth volume of the ‘Philosophie Positive,’
+and in the fourth volume of the ‘Politique Positive,’ on this portion of
+Montesquieu’s speculations, is only a more elaborate reproduction of
+that of Turgot, and is expressed in terms which show that it was
+directly suggested by that of Turgot.”[69]
+
+Cuvier “had not hesitated to trace the close relation borne by
+philosophy and art to the underlying geological formations.”[70]
+
+In the teaching of a number of great thinkers of the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries, man is “the product of environment and education”
+and, in their opinion, “all men were born equal and later became unequal
+through unequal opportunities.”[71]
+
+Goethe echoed Herder’s thought when he remarked to Eckermann on the
+flora of a country and the disposition of its residents: “Sie haben
+nicht Unrecht, sagte Goethe (d. 2. April 1829), und daher kommt es denn
+auch, daß man der Pflanzenwelt eines Landes einen Einfluß auf die
+Gemütsart seiner Bewohner zugestanden hat. Und gewiß! wer sein Leben
+lang von hohen ernsten Eichen umgeben wäre, müßte ein anderer Mensch
+werden, als wer täglich unter luftigen Birken sich erginge...”[72] And
+again, when he said of environment and national character: “... so viel
+ist gewiß, daß außer dem Angeborenen der Rasse, sowohl Boden und Klima
+als Nahrung und Beschäftigung einwirkt, um den Charakter eines Volkes zu
+vollenden ...”[73] And in the following, Goethe but reiterates Herder’s
+oft uttered admiration for islanders and coast dwellers: “Auch von den
+Kräften des _Meeres_ und der _Seeluft_ war die Rede gewesen (d. 12. März
+1828), wo denn Goethe die Meinung äußerte, daß er alle Insulaner und
+Meer-Anwohner des gemäßigten Klimas bei weitem für produktiver und
+tatkräftiger halte als die Völker im Innern großer Kontinente.”[74] And:
+“Es ist ein eigenes Ding, erwiederte Goethe (d. 12. März 1828),—liegt es
+in der Abstammung, liegt es im Boden, liegt es in der freien Verfassung,
+liegt es in der gesunden Erziehung,—genug! die Engländer überhaupt
+scheinen vor vielen anderen etwas voraus zu haben ...”[75]
+
+Wolf and Niebuhr began to examine historical _sources_ “nach neuen
+Prinzipien des Eingetauchtseins in eine bestimmte seelische Umwelt, in
+ein klargezeichnetes zeitgenössisches Milieu.”[76]
+
+One of the principal offices of an historian, according to August
+Wilhelm Schlegel, is “Die zeit- und kulturgeschichtliche Bedingtheit
+aller Erscheinungen aufzuzeigen.”[77] But the effect of physical milieu
+on history is not rated high in the philosophy of the romanticists.[78]
+
+Ingeniously, albeit not with his wonted acuteness, Hegel penned the
+concept “Volksgeist.”[79] The saying, which now seems trivial, that
+every nation and every man in the nation is “ein Kind seiner Zeit,” is
+said to be Hegel’s.[80] Hegel, however, distinctly rejected the idea of
+explaining “die Geschichte und den Geist der verschiedenen Völker aus
+dem Klima ihrer Länder.”[81] The implication would be that one single
+factor might satisfactorily be held responsible for all progress in
+human history. As climate can not explain everything to Hegel, it seems
+not to explain anything at all to him. Hegel, then, is excessive in his
+denial of the power of environment. This is markedly shown by his
+thinking his position substantiated by the fact that the climate of
+Greece, although the same since classical antiquity, has not changed the
+Turks who now [_i.e._, early in the nineteenth century] dwell in Greece
+into ancient Greeks.[82]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 19:
+
+  The Belgian sociologist De Greef, in his _Introduction à la
+  Sociologie_ (1886–89), raised “Mésologie” (denoting “Erkenntnis der
+  milieux”) to a special introductory branch of sociology for the
+  purpose of discussing, according to Ratzel superficially, the external
+  factors of history; cf. Paul Barth, _Die Philosophie der Geschichte
+  als Soziologie_, I (Leipzig: Reisland, 1897), p. 70 and Ratzel, _l.c._
+  p. 29. The term “Mésologie” was in use in France at an earlier date
+  than that. See for example the title of an article written at the
+  close of the Franco-German war by Dr. Bertillon, “De l´Influence du
+  milieu ou Mésologie,” _La Philosophie Positive_, Revue dirigée par É.
+  Littré & G. Wyrouboff, Tome IX (Paris, 1872), pp. 309–20. Or see M. E.
+  Jourdy, “De l´Influence du milieu ou Mésologie,” _ibid._, Tome X
+  (1873), pp. 154–60.
+
+Footnote 20:
+
+  Fr. de Rougemont, in his important work _Les deux cités; la
+  philosophie de l´histoire aux différents âges de l´humanité_ (1874)
+  treats this question exhaustively. See Robert Poehlmann, _Hellenische
+  Anschauungen über den Zusammenhang zwischen Natur und Geschichte_
+  (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1879, 93 pp.), pp. 8 f.
+
+Footnote 21:
+
+  _Vide_ Eugénie Dutoit, _Die Theorie des Milieu_ (Diss., Bern, 1899,
+  136 pp.), pp. 52–5.
+
+Footnote 22:
+
+  “Hippocrate fut le premier à observer quelques-uns des effets du
+  milieu sur l’individu. Ses observations sont nécessairement nébuleuses
+  et chaotiques, plutôt descriptives et qualitatives, étant donnée
+  l’imperfection des connaissances de son temps.”—Auguste Matteuzzi,
+  _Les Facteurs de l’Évolution des Peuples_ (Paris, 1900), p. 6
+  (Avant-Propos).
+
+Footnote 23:
+
+  “Wir sahen, daß sich das Buch des Hippokrates durchaus darauf
+  beschränkte, die Wechselbeziehungen zwischen Landesnatur und
+  Volkscharakter zu erörtern.”—Poehlmann, _l.c._, p. 51.
+
+Footnote 24:
+
+  “Hippokrates von Kos, ‘der Vater der Heilkunde’ (ca. 460 bis ca. 370),
+  ist der _Begründer der Anthropogeographie_. Er schrieb ein Buch über
+  Klima, Wasser und Bodenbeschaffenheit und ihren Einfluß auf die
+  Bewohner eines Landes in physischer und geistiger Beziehung. Der
+  philosophische Gedanke war damit angeregt, fand aber keine weitere
+  Entwicklung.”—_F. v. Richthofen’s Vorlesungen_, etc. (Berlin, 1908),
+  p. 7.
+
+Footnote 25:
+
+  _System of Positive Polity_ (4 vols., London: Longmans, Green & Co.,
+  1875–77—the original was published in 1851–54), vol. II, p. 364: “...
+  a study [of the aggregate of material influences: Astronomical,
+  Physical, Chemical] which was commenced by the great Hippocrates in
+  his admirable and unequalled Treatise upon Climate.”
+
+Footnote 26:
+
+  Haddon and Quiggin, _Hist. of Anthropology_ (1910), p. 150.—Poehlmann
+  discusses Hippocrates in _Hellenische Anschauungen_, etc., pp.
+  12–37.—Ludwig Stein, in his book _Die soziale Frage im Lichte der
+  Philosophie_ (2. verb. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1903), p. 403, n., says that
+  “Aless. Chiapelli, _Le promesse filosofiche del Socialismo_ (Napoli,
+  1897), p. 41, hebt die interessante Tatsache hervor, daß die Lehre vom
+  ‘Milieu’ ihrem Keime nach auf Hippokrates zurückgeht.” But a little
+  over three decades earlier, Peschel in his _Geschichte der Erdkunde_
+  (1. Aufl., 1865) surveyed on two pages some important phases of
+  Hippocrates and Strabo on milieu. And earlier still, a half century
+  before Peschel, Ukert in his _Geographie der Griechen und Römer_
+  (1816), I, 1, 79, noted Hippocrates as carefully observing the effect
+  of climate on the body and mind of man. (_Vide_ Poehlmann, l.c., pp. 7
+  f.)—And to Herder, Hippocrates was the principal author on climate:
+  “... _Hippocrat. de aere, locis et aquis_, ... Für mich der
+  Hauptschriftsteller über das Klima.”—_Herders Sämmtliche Werke_, hg.
+  v. B. Suphan, 13, 269 n.
+
+Footnote 27:
+
+  See Dutoit, _Die Theorie des Milieu_, pp. 55–8.
+
+Footnote 28:
+
+  Poehlmann, _l.c._, p. 68.—Aristotle neglects to give credit to
+  Hippocrates in connection with his ideas on environment, although
+  indebted to Hippocrates whom he mentions elsewhere. See Dutoit,
+  _l.c._, p. 57.
+
+Footnote 29:
+
+  “Varron, _De re rustica_, 1, cite une oeuvre d’Eratosthènes où
+  celui-ci cherchait à démontrer que le caractère de l’homme et la forme
+  du gouvernement sont subordonnés au voisinage ou à l’éloignement du
+  soleil. Tentative sublime mais prématurée, pour ramener les phénomènes
+  sociaux à des lois uniques et générales.”—Auguste Matteuzzi, _Les
+  Facteurs de l’Évolution des Peuples_ (Paris, 1900), p. 6.
+
+Footnote 30:
+
+  “Die vollständigste Beschreibung [of the earth] gab erst Strabo in
+  seinem Werk γεογραφικά. Hier begegnen wir zum zweitenmal der
+  philosophischen Idee, _Mensch und Natur in Kausalzusammenhang_
+  miteinander zu bringen. Strabos Geographie ist als ‘Länder- und
+  Völkerkunde’ das größte Werk des Altertums. Die Anschauung eines
+  kausalen Zusammenhanges des Menschen mit der Natur ging darauf unter
+  [according to him, until the middle of the eighteenth century, until
+  Montesquieu].”—_Richthofen’s Vorlesungen_, etc. (1908), p. 8.
+
+Footnote 31:
+
+  _Buckle and his Critics_ (London, 1895, 548 pp.), p. 7 n.
+
+Footnote 32:
+
+  See Poehlmann, _l.c._, p. 7.—For a brief statement of the theory of
+  milieu in Greek writers (Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato, Aristotle,
+  Theophrastus), cf. Curtius, _Boden und Clima von Athen_ (1877), p. 4
+  f. For Aristotle, compare also Dondorff, _Das hellenische Land als
+  Schauplatz der althellenischen Geschichte_ (Hamburg, 1899, 42 pp.),
+  pp. 11 f. Poehlmann, _l.c._, discusses the views on environment of
+  Herodotus (pp. 37–47), of Thucydides (pp. 52–4), of Xenophon (pp. 55
+  f.), of Ephoros [only fragments of his great work, A Universal
+  History, are extant; cited by Strabo] (pp. 56–9), of Plato (pp.
+  59–64), of Aristotle (pp. 64–74), of Polybios (pp. 75–7), of
+  Posidonios [in Strabo and in Galen] (pp. 78–80), of Strabo (pp.
+  80–90), of Galen (pp. 91 f.).
+
+Footnote 33:
+
+  _Vide_ Élisàr v. Kupffer, _Klima und Dichtung, Ein Beitrag zur
+  Psychophysik_ [in _Grenzfragen der Literatur und Medizin_ in
+  Einzeldarstellungen hg. v. S. Rahmer, Berlin, 4. Heft] (München,
+  1907), p. 63.
+
+Footnote 34:
+
+  Translated into French by Baron Meg. F. de Slane (3 vols., Paris,
+  1862–8).
+
+Footnote 35:
+
+  See R. Flint, _History of the Philosophy of History, Historical
+  Philosophy in France and French Belgium and Switzerland_ (New York:
+  Scribner, 1894, 706 pp.), pp. 159 f.—“His [Mohammed Ibn Khaldūn’s]
+  fame rests securely ... on his _magnum opus_, the ‘Universal History,’
+  and especially on the first part of it, the ‘Prolegomena’ (p. 162)....
+  They [the Prolegomena] may fairly be regarded as forming a distinct
+  and complete work.... It consists of a preface, an introduction, and
+  six sections or divisions (p. 163).”
+
+Footnote 36:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, pp. 164 f.
+
+Footnote 37:
+
+  _Vide infra_, p. 27.
+
+Footnote 38:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, p. 164.—Cf. also pp. 158–72, for Ibn Khaldūn in
+  general.
+
+Footnote 39:
+
+  Cf. Kupffer, _Klima and Dichtung_, p. 63.
+
+Footnote 40:
+
+  “Da Bodin hauptsächlich an die Anschauungen des Aristoteles anknüpft,
+  ...—Auch an Strabo, der dem Einfluß des Klimas und der Landesnatur
+  schon die schöpferischen Kräfte des Volksgeistes gegenübergestellt
+  hat, lehnt sich Bodin an.”—Fritz Renz, _Jean Bodin, Ein Beitrag z.
+  Geschichte d. hist. Methode im 16. Jahrhundert_ [Geschichtliche
+  Untersuchungen hg. v. Karl Lamprecht, III. Bd., I. Heft], (Gotha,
+  1905, 84 pp.), p. 48 n.
+
+Footnote 41:
+
+  _Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem_, published in 1566.
+
+Footnote 42:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, 198.—The ‘Republic’ was first published in 1576 in
+  French under the title _De la République_. Eight years later (1584)
+  Bodin himself translated it into Latin as _De Republica Libri Sex_.
+  See Ludwig Stein, _Die soziale Frage im Lichte der Philosophie_ (2.
+  verb. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1902), p. 217 n.
+
+Footnote 43:
+
+  Compare Dutoit, _Die Theorie des Milieu_, pp. 58–62.
+
+Footnote 44:
+
+  “Die physische Konstitution des Menschen hängt nach Bodin eng mit den
+  klimatischen Verhältnissen seiner Heimat zusammen und entspricht dem
+  Verhalten der Erde, die er bewohnt ...”—Renz, _Jean Bodin_ (1905), p.
+  50.—“... Da der animalische Körper wie alle Körper aus einer Mischung
+  der Elemente besteht, so ergibt sich eine direkte Abhängigkeit der
+  physischen Konstitution von der umgebenden Natur, ja sogar eine
+  Übereinstimmung mit dem Verhalten der Erde in dem betreffenden
+  Himmelsstrich. Der menschliche Körper reagiert auf die klimatischen
+  Einflüsse genau so wie die Erde, die er bewohnt, ...”—_Ibidem_, p. 44.
+
+Footnote 45:
+
+  Discussed by Renz, _l.c._, pp. 47–61, in the chapter “Die Theorie des
+  Klimas.”—“Behandelt wird die Theorie des Klimas nach dem 5. Kapitel
+  des ‘Methodus,’ in dem sich Bodin zum ersten Male mit dieser Doktrin
+  befaßte; zur Erläuterung wird auch das 1. Kapitel des V. Buches der
+  ‘République’ herangezogen, in dem die Theorie des Klimas, aber in
+  gedrängterer Form, wiederholt wird.”—_Ibid._, p. 47 n. Cf. also p. 45.
+
+Footnote 46:
+
+  “Sogar das Temperament variiert nach dem Klima ...
+
+  “Wie das Temperament wird die Sprache von dem inneren physischen Bau
+  abhängig gedacht ...
+
+  “Ebenso wird die Fortpflanzungsfähigkeit in direkte Abhängigkeit von
+  der physischen Konstitution gebracht ...”—_Ibid._, pp. 52 f.
+
+Footnote 47:
+
+  “Wie das Äußere und die physische Konstitution hängen auch die Anlagen
+  und Fähigkeiten der Völker mit den klimatischen Verschiedenheiten
+  zusammen ...”—_Ibid._, p. 54.
+
+Footnote 48:
+
+  “... Nach der Dreiteilung der seelischen Fähigkeiten bei dem
+  Einzelmenschen und den Bewohnern jedes Staates werden die Völker auf
+  der ganzen Erde gruppiert, indem durch das Klima immer eine Anlage
+  besonders zur Ausbildung kommt ...”—_Ibid._, p. 46.
+
+Footnote 49:
+
+  “... Bodin nimmt zwei Teile des menschlichen Seelenlebens an, erstens
+  eine allen Menschen gemeinsame, unveränderliche geistige Befähigung,
+  die Vernunft, und zweitens Anlagen, die von dem Klima und der
+  physischen Natur des Menschen abhängen. In der ‘République’ wird
+  ausgeführt, daß diese abhängigen Anlagen nur verschiedene von dem
+  geographischen Milieu abhängige Entwicklungsstufen des Verstandes
+  sind, während dieser an sich von den einzelnen Gegenden unabhängig ist
+  ...”—_Ibid._, p. 45.
+
+Footnote 50:
+
+  “... Indem er [Bodin] als erster in der Neuzeit auf streng
+  wissenschaftlicher Grundlage versucht, die Wechselwirkung, die
+  zwischen dem historischen Verlauf und der Natur stattfindet,
+  festzustellen, gelangt er zu der Annahme von zwei Teilen des
+  geistig-seelischen Innenlebens, eines von den umgebenden Verhältnissen
+  abhängigen und eines absoluten, gegen äußere Einflüsse sich passiv
+  verhaltenden Teils. Willensfreiheit neben der durch das Milieu
+  bedingten Ausbildung bestimmter Anlagen und Fähigkeiten ist der
+  mittlere Weg, den er zwischen der Annahme des zwingenden Einflusses
+  der äußeren Natur und der gänzlichen Unabhängigkeit von ihr einschlägt
+  ...”—_Ibid._, p. 77.
+
+Footnote 51:
+
+  “Neben dem Horizontal- wendet Bodin den Vertikalmaßstab zur
+  Beurteilung der Völker an, indem er untersucht, wie die verschiedene
+  Erhebung des Bodens auf die Gestaltung des Volkscharakters einwirkt
+  ...
+
+  “Ebenso wird die Natur der Völker von der Qualität des heimatlichen
+  Bodens beeinflußt, ...”—_Ibid._, p. 58.—“Der Einfluß, der sich aus der
+  östlicheren oder westlicheren Wohnlage auf den Volkscharakter geltend
+  macht, ist, wo nicht in der Richtung Süd-Nord sich erstreckende
+  Gebirge eine deutlichere Scheidelinie bilden, nach Bodin schwer zu
+  bestimmen ...”—_Ibid._ p. 57.
+
+Footnote 52:
+
+  “Neben der Vorstellung von der geistig-sittlichen Einheit der Menschen
+  geht die Erkenntnis der Verschiedenartigkeit der Nationen und ihres
+  Bildungsgrades her, die aus den partikularen Bedingungen des
+  nationalen Einzeldaseins resultiert. Zur Erklärung des Volkscharakters
+  wird, wie schon dargelegt, die Theorie des Klimas herangezogen
+  ...”—_Ibid._, p. 62.
+
+Footnote 53:
+
+  “Bodin hat sich deswegen mit der Theorie des Klimas beschäftigt, weil
+  er in der Geschichte und im Völkerleben bestimmte regelmäßige
+  Erscheinungen wahrnahm, die er sich nur aus dem Einfluß des
+  geographischen Milieus erklären konnte. Bei dem strengen Festhalten an
+  der menschlichen Willensfreiheit konnte er sich diesen Einfluß nur
+  durch die Annahme einer von äußeren Verhältnissen abhängigen
+  Entwicklungsfähigkeit der geistigen Anlagen in bestimmter Richtung
+  erklären...”—_Ibid._, p. 60 f.—“Das unbedingte Festhalten an der
+  menschlichen Willensfreiheit mußte Bodin vor der Annahme bewahren, daß
+  der Einfluß des geographischen Milieus auf die Menschen ein zwingender
+  sei. Nur die Entwicklung der Anlagen wird von der Umwelt bestimmt,
+  nicht aber das sittliche Wollen ...”—_Ibid._, p. 59.
+
+Footnote 54:
+
+  “Wo die äußere Natur zur Entwicklung schlechter Anlagen führt, besitzt
+  nach Bodin die Menschheit in der Erziehung ein Mittel, diesem
+  Übelstand zu begegnen.”—_Ibid._, p. 77.—“... den Menschen [wird] die
+  Fähigkeit zugesprochen ..., die schädlichen Einwirkungen des Klimas
+  wenn auch schwer, zu überwinden ...”—_Ibid._, p. 60.
+
+Footnote 55:
+
+  _L.c._, p. 198.
+
+Footnote 56:
+
+  “... Den Vergleich der drei Völkergruppen [südliche, mittlere,
+  nördliche] mit den menschlichen Lebensaltern hat Bodin von Aristoteles
+  entlehnt, was er Meth. V 140, 141 selbst zugibt.”—Renz, _l.c._, p. 57.
+
+Footnote 57:
+
+  _L.c._, p. 48.
+
+Footnote 58:
+
+  Haddon and Quiggin, _Hist. of Anthropology_ (London, 1910), p. 150.
+
+Footnote 59:
+
+  _L.c._, p. 77.—For Bodin in general, cf. Renz, _Jean Bodin_; Flint,
+  _l.c._, pp. 190–200; Ludwig Stein, _Die soziale Frage im Lichte der
+  Philosophie_, pp. 217–19. H. Morf, _Französische Literatur im
+  Zeitalter der Renaissance_ (2. verb. Aufl., Straßburg: Trübner, 1914),
+  is brief on Bodin, _vide_ esp. pp. 131 f.; cf. also p. 125.
+
+Footnote 60:
+
+  _Vide_ E. Bernheim, _Lehrbuch der historischen Methode_ (5. u. 6.
+  Aufl, Leipzig, 1908), p. 230.
+
+Footnote 61:
+
+  Montesquieu, _The Spirit of Laws_ (translated from the French by Th.
+  Nugent, new ed., revised by J. V. Prichard, 2 vols., London: Geo. Bell
+  and Sons, 1906), I, 238–314.
+
+Footnote 62:
+
+  “Seine [Montesquieu’s] Hervorkehrung des Einflusses, den Klima und
+  Bodenbeschaffenheit auf die Soziabilität der Menschennatur ausüben,
+  geht ebenfalls auf Locke, weiterhin auf Bodin zurück.”—L. Stein, _Die
+  soziale Frage_, etc., p. 364.—According to Dutoit (_Die Theorie des
+  Milieu_, p. 62), Montesquieu concealed his obligation to Bodin.
+
+Footnote 63:
+
+  _L.c._, pp. 238–53.
+
+Footnote 64:
+
+  _L.c._, pp. 253–69.
+
+Footnote 65:
+
+  _L.c._, pp. 270–83.
+
+Footnote 66:
+
+  _L.c._, pp. 284–91.
+
+Footnote 67:
+
+  _L.c._, pp. 291–314.
+
+Footnote 68:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, pp. 279 f.
+
+Footnote 69:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, p. 286.—(Turgot died in 1781.)
+
+Footnote 70:
+
+  Ripley, _The Races of Europe_ (1899), p. 4.—Cuvier was twenty years
+  younger than Goethe; both died in the same year.
+
+Footnote 71:
+
+  E. G. Conklin, _Heredity and Environment in the Development of Men_
+  (Princeton Univ. Press, 1915, 533 pp.), p. 303.
+
+Footnote 72:
+
+  _Eckermanns Gespräche mit Goethe_, neu herausgegeben v. H. H. Houben
+  (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1909), p. 264.
+
+Footnote 73:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 265.—These two passages are also cited by Kupffer, _Klima
+  and Dichtung_, p. 64.
+
+Footnote 74:
+
+  _Eckermanns Gespräche mit Goethe_, p. 542.
+
+Footnote 75:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 546.
+
+Footnote 76:
+
+  Karl Lamprecht, “Neue Kulturgeschichte” (pp. 449–64 in Das Jahr 1913,
+  _Ein Gesamtbild der Kulturentwicklung_, hg. v. D. Sarason,
+  Leipzig-Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1913), p. 453.
+
+Footnote 77:
+
+  Albert Poetzsch, _Studien zur frühromantischen Politik und
+  Geschichtsauffassung_ (Leipzig: Voigtländer, 1907, 111 pp.), p. 89.
+
+Footnote 78:
+
+  “Die Einwirkung der äußeren Natur auf die Geschichte tritt zurück [in
+  der romantischen Geschichtsphilosophie]”; and in a note is added:
+  “Wenn auch der Zusammenhang von Boden und Geschichte, namentlich von
+  natürl. Grenzen u. Staat, der Betrachtung nicht verloren geht. Vgl. A.
+  W. Schlegel, Enz. 216. 697.”—_Ibid._, p. 94.
+
+Footnote 79:
+
+  Bernheim, _Lehrb. d. hist. Methode_, p. 650.
+
+Footnote 80:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 515.
+
+Footnote 81:
+
+  See Ludwig Gumplowicz, _Der Rassenkampf_ (2.... Aufl., Innsbruck,
+  1909), p. 9 n.
+
+Footnote 82:
+
+  _Vide_ the quotation from Hegel by Gumplowicz, _l.c._, p. 13 n.
+
+
+
+
+                                   II
+A SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE IDEA OF MILIEU SINCE THE BEGINNING OF THE
+                           NINETEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+              _Anthropo-geography, Geography and History_
+
+The theory of social environment, as we have seen, gradually rises,
+especially since the renaissance, parallel with the theory of physical
+milieu. The stream of thought commences to broaden on both sides as we
+approach the eighteenth century, and broadens still further, and
+deepens, in the nineteenth, when specialization occurs or continues in
+anthropo-geography, biology, jurisprudence and economics, anthropology,
+sociology, and literature, and latterly in physics. These furnish us the
+divisions for subsequent discussions.[83]
+
+All antecedent thought on the subject converges in Herder and from this
+focal point, as a collecting and fructifying center, it emerges,
+branches out and radiates in a definite number of directions. This can
+only be indicated here.[84] One main ramification leads us to
+anthropo-geography. Consequently, we must now turn to a detailed
+consideration of the idea of milieu in anthropo-geography.[85]
+
+Karl Ritter first in anthropo-geography elucidated Herder’s ideas on
+environment. “... KARL RITTER steht auf HERDERS Schultern, wenn er in
+seiner ‘Allgemeinen Erdkunde’ den Gedanken der tiefgehenden
+Beeinflussung der Völkergeschichte durch die äußeren Umgebungen
+entwickelt ...”[86] Ritter is said to be given too much credit for
+connecting scientifically geography and history: “C. Ritter führte, ...
+die Herder’schen Anschauungen deutlicher aus. Die wissenschaftliche,
+nicht bloß äußerliche Verbindung von Geographie und Geschichte kettet
+sich an seinen Namen. Nicht ganz mit Recht; ...”[87] Richthofen thinks
+that Ritter’s basic idea was almost without influence on geography; only
+the historians profited by it.[88] Alexander von Humboldt, on the other
+hand, declares in the first volume of his _Cosmos_ that “The views of
+comparative geography have been specially enlarged by that admirable
+work, Erdkunde im Verhältnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte, in which Carl
+Ritter so ably delineates the physiognomy of our globe and shows the
+influence of its external configuration on the physical phenomena on its
+surface, on the migrations, laws, and manners of nations, and on all the
+principal historical events enacted upon the face of the earth.”[89]
+
+In the _Erdkunde_,[90] Ritter propounds a program for
+anthropo-geographical investigation, i.e., for the investigation of the
+mutual relation between man and his environment. As every moral man
+should, so should also “jeder menschliche Verein, jedes Volk seiner
+eigenen inneren und äußeren Kräfte, wie derjenigen der Nachbarn und
+seiner Stellung zu allen von außen herein wirkenden Verhältnissen inne
+werden.”[91] Nature exercises greater influence over peoples than over
+individual men: “Die Eigentümlichkeit des Volkes kann nur aus seinem
+Wesen erkannt werden, aus seinem Verhältnis zu sich selbst, zu seinen
+Gliedern, zu seinen Umgebungen, und weil kein Volk ohne Staat und
+Vaterland gedacht werden kann, aus seinem Verhältnis zu beiden und aus
+dem Verhältnis von beiden zu Nachbarländern und Nachbarstaaten. Hier
+zeigt sich der Einfluß, den die Natur auf die Völker, und zwar in einem
+noch weit höheren Grade, als auf den einzelnen Menschen ausüben muß ...
+
+“Denn durch eine höhere Ordnung bestimmt, treten die Völker wie die
+Menschen zugleich unter dem Einfluß einer Tätigkeit der Natur und der
+Vernunft hervor aus dem geistigen wie aus dem physischen Elemente in den
+Alles verschlingenden Kreis des Weltlebens. Gestaltet sich doch jeder
+Organismus dem inneren Zusammenhange und dem äußeren Umfange nach ...
+Sie (Völker und Staaten) stehen alle unter demselben Einflusse der Natur
+...”[92] To the problem of the reciprocal relation between external and
+internal factors, Ritter devoted a special essay, entitled “Über das
+historische Element in der geographischen Wissenschaft,” which he read
+before the Academy of Sciences at Berlin in 1833.[93]
+
+In Alexander von Humboldt’s _Ansichten der Natur_,[94] “Everywhere the
+reader’s attention is directed to the perpetual influence which physical
+nature exercises on the moral condition and on the destiny of man.”[95]
+In passing, Humboldt also touches on environment in the first volume of
+his chef-d’oeuvre, _Kosmos_, assigning it, however, but a modest rôle:
+“Es würde das allgemeine Naturbild, das ich zu entwerfen strebe,
+unvollständig bleiben, wenn ich hier nicht auch den Mut hätte, das
+Menschengeschlecht in seinen physischen Abstufungen, in der
+geographischen Verbreitung seiner gleichzeitig vorhandenen Typen, in dem
+Einfluß, welchen es von den Kräften der Erde empfangen und
+wechselseitig, wenn auch schwächer, auf sie ausgeübt hat, mit wenigen
+Zügen zu schildern. Abhängig, wenn gleich in minderem Grade als Pflanzen
+und Tiere, von dem Boden und den meteorologischen Prozessen des
+Luftkreises, den Naturgewalten durch Geistestätigkeit und stufenweise
+erhöhte Intelligenz, wie durch eine wunderbare sich allen Klimaten
+aneignende Biegsamkeit des Organismus leichter entgehend, nimmt das
+Geschlecht wesentlich Teil an dem ganzen Erdenleben.”[96]
+
+J. G. Kohl’s book, _Der Verkehr und die Ansiedlungen der Menschheit in
+ihrer Abhängigkeit von der Gestaltung der Erdoberfläche_,[97] occupies
+itself with the question of the dependence of human progress in general,
+and of density and concentration of population in particular, upon
+natural conditions. The causes of these phenomena are, to Kohl, partly
+moral or political, and partly physical. The physical causes of
+concentration are twofold: “Teils sind es solche, die von dem mehr oder
+minder großen Produktenreichtum des Bodens, teils solche, die von der
+Gestaltung der Erdoberfläche abhängen ... so zeigt sich dann, daß von
+allen verschiedenen Ursachen der Kondensierung der Bevölkerung die
+Bodengestaltung die allerwichtigste ist.”[98] Opposed to these natural
+conditions is a series of what Kohl styles political influences, such as
+national character, institutions created by the State, laws, etc.—“Die
+moralischen oder politischen Ursachen der verschiedenen Dichtigkeit der
+Bevölkerung sind in dem Kulturzustande und besonders in der politischen
+Verfassung der Bewohner der verschiedenen Erdstriche begründet ... Auch
+sind viele verschiedene Sitten der Völker als einflußreiche Ursachen der
+mehr oder minder großen Dichtigkeit der Bevölkerung zu betrachten.”[99]
+Not only national character, but also education is to be counted among
+the political influences: “Unter politischen und moralischen Einflüssen,
+die nicht von der Natur bedingt werden, verstehen wir solche Kräfte,
+solche Volkstalente und Eigentümlichkeiten des Charakters, die nicht der
+Boden, die Luft und das Klima dem Volke geben. So groß nämlich auch die
+Gewalt des Bodens, des Klimas und der Natur ist, so sehr die Zonen, die
+Gebirge, die Sümpfe, die Wälder, die Wüsten u.s.w. alle Bevölkerung, die
+in ihre Gebiete fällt, auf einerlei Weise zu bilden und zu modeln
+streben, so sehr behauptet doch immer noch nebenher der ursprüngliche
+Charakter des Stammes und die Erziehung, welche das Volk sich gibt, ihre
+eigenen Rechte. Es existieren beide Einflüsse neben einander,
+beschränken sich gegenseitig, aber sie heben sich nicht auf ... Das, was
+nun nicht vom Boden abhängt und was ein Volk auf jeden Boden, den es
+bezieht, mit hin bringt, ist wiederum Zweierlei, entweder etwas
+Angeborenes oder etwas Angenommenes.”[100] It is difficult to
+differentiate between what is due to original endowment and what to the
+milieu, yet natural influences can not be ignored: “Welcher Geist ...
+möchte den Versuch wagen, zu entscheiden, was im Charakter des Volkes
+... Angenommenes und was Selbstgegebenes sei, was endlich in ihren
+Handlungen und Bewegungen von Klima und Landesbeschaffenheit bedingt
+werde. Die Charaktergepräge der Nationen, wie wir sie jetzt in diesen
+neuesten Momenten der weltgeschichtlichen Entwicklung sehen, sind
+Gebilde, welche unter der Einwirkung unerforschbar vielfacher Einflüsse
+entstanden sind.... Und doch stehen sie (die Natureinflüsse, die von den
+Historikern gewöhnlich unberücksichtigt geblieben sind) vielleicht auch
+bei allen jenen Dingen, die wir im Vordergrunde agieren sehen, im
+Hintergrunde und wirken als die Quellen der Erscheinungen mittelbar
+selbst da, wo wir dieselben anderen Ursachen zuschreiben. So mag jede
+Art der Staatsverfassung, der Gewerbzweige geschöpft und hervorgeblüht
+sein aus der Tiefe des Nationalgeistes, des Boden- und des Luftgeistes,
+während wir sie als Willkürliches und Selbstgegebenes auffassen.”[101]
+
+The naturalist Karl Ernst von Baer discusses the influence of external
+nature upon the social relations of individual nations and upon the
+history of mankind in general,[102] while the geologist Bernhard Cotta
+attempts to show the effect of soil and geological structure on German
+life.[103] Accepting, in the main, Cotta as a basis, J. Kutzen, in _Das
+deutsche Land, Seine Natur in ihren charakteristischen Zügen und sein
+Einfluß auf Geschichte und Leben der Menschen, Skizzen und Bilder_,[104]
+the bulk of which book is physical geography, intersperses therewith
+anthropo-geographical statements that are in some cases interwoven in,
+and in others added to, the descriptive parts, pointing out the relation
+of environment to the life and history of the Germans.[105] Kutzen
+claims his work to be the first that treats the _whole_ of Germany in
+the way just indicated.
+
+In The Natural History of the German People,[106] W. H. Riehl studies
+the action of natural conditions on man. He is concerned with the
+connections between land and people: “Will man die naturgeschichtliche
+Methode der Wissenschaft vom Volke in ihrer ganzen Breite und Tiefe
+nachweisen, dann muß man auch in das Wesen dieser örtlichen
+Besonderungen des Volkstumes eindringen. In der Lehre von der
+bürgerlichen Gesellschaft ist das Verhältnis der großen natürlichen
+Volksgruppen zueinander nachgewiesen: hier sollen diese Gruppen nach den
+örtlichen Bedingungen des Landes, in welchem das Volksleben wurzelt,
+dargestellt werden. Erst aus den individuellen Bezügen von LAND UND
+LEUTEN entwickelt sich die kulturgeschichtliche Abstraktion der
+bürgerlichen Gesellschaft.”[107] And “Das vorliegende Buch hat sich das
+bescheidenere Ziel gesteckt, zusammenhängende Skizzen zu liefern zur
+Naturgeschichte des Volkes _in seinem Zusammenhang mit dem Lande_.”[108]
+His chief aim is to prove that the connection between land and people is
+the basis of all social development and of all social research: “Ich
+hatte mir von Anbeginn das Ziel gesteckt, den Zusammenhang von Land und
+Volk als Fundament aller sozialen und politischen Entwicklung, als
+Ausgangspunkt aller sozialen Forschung nachzuweisen, und dieses
+Hauptziel, die eigentliche Tendenz des Buches, hat heute noch denselben
+Wert, dieselbe fördernde Kraft wie vor einem Menschenalter.”[109] He
+wants to show how “Volksart” and “Landesart” hang together, how
+nationality grows organically out of the soil: “Ich nenne dieses
+Wanderbuch einen zweiten Band zu ‘Land und Leuten.’ In jener Schrift
+verarbeite ich zahlreiche Wanderskizzen, um den Zusammenhang von
+Volksart und Landesart, das organische Erwachsen des Volkstumes aus dem
+Boden nachzuweisen.”[110] Everywhere Riehl finds “an organic relation
+between nature and man,” according to Gooch.[111] Riehl recognizes “that
+man could only develop within the limits imposed by nature.”[112] The
+problem of how locality affects social groups has, of course, not
+originated with Riehl, but it received a reformulation at his hands. It
+must be added, however, that his bombastic assertions far outrun his
+data. His claims are disproportionate to his facts.[113]
+
+Alfred Kirchhoff brilliantly sketches the reciprocal relations between
+land and people in Germany, in an essay entitled _Die deutschen
+Landschaften und Stämme_.[114]
+
+Achelis[115] refers to Bastian’s doctrine of geographical provinces, “wo
+eine Reihe rein physikalischer Agentien: Temperatur, Boden, Flora,
+Fauna, etc. sich mit entsprechenden psychischen kombinieren, so daß man
+in konzentrischer Reihenfolge von botanischen, zoologischen und
+anthropologischen Kreisen reden könnte. Der leitende Grundsatz, sagt
+Bastian, für geographisch-typische Provinzen fällt in die Abhängigkeit
+des Organismus von seiner geographischen Umgebung (_le Milieu_ oder
+_Monde ambiant_), in eine gegenseitig festgeschlossene Wechselwirkung
+und also in Naturgesetze, mit denen sich rechnen läßt (_Zur Lehre von
+den geographischen Provinzen_ [Berlin, 1886], S. 6).”
+
+The reciprocal influences of man and his environment are illustrated by
+Alfred Kirchhoff in _Mensch und Erde, Skizzen von den Wechselbeziehungen
+zwischen beiden_.[116]
+
+Ferdinand von Richthofen[117] traces the gradual evolution of “Siedlung
+und Verkehr,” under which two concepts he subsumes all relations of man
+to the soil.[118]
+
+It was Friedrich Ratzel, however, who “performed the great service of
+placing anthropo-geography on a secure scientific basis. He had his
+forerunners in Montesquieu,[119] Alexander von Humboldt, Buckle,
+Ritter, Kohl, Peschel and others; but he first investigated the
+subject from the modern scientific point of view, ... and based his
+conclusions on world-wide inductions, for which his predecessors did
+not command the data.”[120] He “has written the standard work on
+_Anthropogeographie_.”[121] Employing the analytical method, Ratzel
+was the first to divide the subject-matter into categories: “Ratzel
+hat das Verdienst, daß er zuerst den Stoff in Kategorien teilte. Er
+wendet die analytische Methode der allgemeinen Geographie an und
+betrachtet den Einfluß einzelner Naturgegebenheiten auf den Menschen,
+z.B. der Inseln, Halbinseln, Gebirge, Ebenen, Steppen, Wüsten, Küsten,
+Flußmündungen[122] usw. Die analytische Methode allein kann zum Ziele
+führen.”[123] The great and permanent merit of Ratzel’s _Politische
+Geographie_[124] is its setting forth how closely the State is bound
+to the physical milieu.[125] It treats partly of the effect of nature
+and soil on the formation of the State and on political
+boundaries.[126] Ratzel expounds environmental action also in his
+books _Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika_,[127] _The History of
+Mankind_,[128] and in his article on “The Principles of
+Anthropo-geography.”[129] Among his followers is to be counted Andrew
+R. Cowan, whose _Master-Clues in World-History_[130] is “deeply
+impregnated with Ratzel’s teachings.”[131] Camille Vallaux devotes the
+fifth chapter (pp. 145–73) of his _Géographie Sociale, Le Sol et
+L’État_,[132] to a criticism of the theories of _Raum_ (space) and of
+Lage (situation) as developed by Ratzel in his _Politische
+Geographie_. And, in general, Ratzel’s “published work had been open
+to the just criticism of inadequate citation of authorities.”[133] O.
+Schlüter in “Die leitenden Gesichtspunkte der Anthropogeographie,
+insbesondere der Lehre Friedrich Ratzels”[134] gives us the best
+single estimate of Ratzel, the best orientation—within the compass of
+an article well written, well poised, and illuminating—on Ratzel’s
+work, thought, method, and application.[135]
+
+
+                        _Geography and History_
+
+We shall now see, first, the stand taken by some French writers, and
+then that taken by German and English writers, on the question of how
+physical environment affects history.
+
+One of the “three most philosophical writers on climate,”[136] Charles
+Comte, not related by birth to the founder of Positivism, is, likewise,
+one of the earliest disciples of Herder in France. Herder “seems to have
+helped to inspire”[137] Charles Comte’s _Traité de Législation_.[138]
+Charles Comte’s “discussion of the questions which relate to the
+influence of physical nature on human development must have been the
+fruit of long and careful study. It was as great an advance on
+Montesquieu’s treatment of the subject as Montesquieu’s had been on that
+of Bodin. It disproved, corrected, or confirmed a host of Montesquieu’s
+observations and conclusions. It showed that he had ascribed too much to
+climate, and too little to the configuration of the earth’s surface, the
+distribution of mountains and rivers, &c.; and that he had conceived
+vaguely, and even to a large extent erroneously, of the modes in which
+climate and the fertility or sterility of soil affect human development.
+But while Comte thus justly criticised Montesquieu, he himself
+exaggerated the efficiency of physical agencies. Indeed, he virtually
+traced to their operation the whole development of history ... he has
+assumed that physical agencies ultimately account for historical change
+and movement, for public institutions and laws....
+
+“Charles Comte fully recognises that the same physical medium has a very
+different influence on different generations; and that institutions and
+laws, education and manners, and, in a word, all the constituents of the
+social medium, have as real an influence on the development of history
+as those of the physical medium. Yet he assumes the latter to be the
+first, although to a large extent only indirect, causes of the whole
+amount of change effected.”[139]
+
+Victor Cousin, another Frenchman, reconnects with Herder. Cousin had
+direct acquaintance with at least the principal work of Herder, for the
+rendering of whose “Ideen” into French by Quinet he seems
+responsible.[140] In the eighth lecture of his “admired”[141] _Cours de
+1828 sur la Philosophie de l’Histoire_, he discourses on the rôle that
+geography plays in history.
+
+F. Guizot, in the fifth lecture of _The History of Civilization_,[142]
+comments briefly on the influence of external circumstances upon
+liberty.
+
+The romantic French historiographer, Jules Michelet, in his _Histoire de
+France_ (second volume, 1833), and in his _Histoire Romaine_ (1839),
+interlinks geography with history, and brilliantly describes the
+countries whose histories he is writing. Like some before him (such as
+Montesquieu), and many after him (such as Riehl, Curtius, and
+Gothein),[143] who traveled in the respective countries before
+describing them or composing their history, Michelet, as one preliminary
+measure toward equipping himself for such a task, visited Italy[144] and
+various parts of France, the latter repeatedly, in order to gain a first
+hand impression of the physical milieu and the people of those lands. He
+is said to be the first [_sic!_] in France who, under the influence of
+Herder, had the idea that geography was the foundation of history: “Sous
+l’influence de Herder, il [Michelet] eut, le premier en France, l’idée
+que la géographie était le fondement de l’histoire: ‘Le matériel, la
+race, le peuple qui la continue me paraissaient avoir besoin qu’on mît
+dessous une bonne et forte base, la terre, qui les portât et qui les
+nourrît. Et notez que ce sol n’est pas seulement le théâtre de l’action.
+Par la nourriture, le climat, etc., il y influe de cent manières. Tel le
+nid, tel l’oiseau. Telle la patrie, tel l’homme.’”[145] Without this
+basis, the actor in history, the people, would be treading on air like
+figures in some Chinese paintings. Says Jules Simon of the celebrated
+tableau in the second volume of the _Histoire de France_: “Son héros
+[Michelet’s] ... c’est la France. Il en fait une description qui remplit
+tout le troisième livre et qui est un chef-d’oeuvre. Chose nouvelle,
+cette géographie a autant de mouvement que l’histoire. Elle est animée,
+vivante, agissante. Il en montre à merveille l’utilité, la nécessité.
+Sans cette base géographique, le peuple, l’acteur historique, semblerait
+marcher en l’air, comme dans les peintures chinoises, où le sol
+manque.”[146] In the _Introduction to Universal History_ (1831),
+Michelet says, “In Germany and Italy, fatality is still strong; moral
+freedom is still borne down by powerful influences of race, locality,
+and climate.”[147]
+
+Ernst Kapp, in the _Philosophische Erdkunde_,[148] criticizes writers on
+the philosophy of history for their failure to give due attention to the
+geographical existence of the nations. Nor are geographical intermezzos
+alone sufficient: “Man [these writers] hat zwar eine Ahnung von dem
+geographischen Element in der Geschichte, nicht aber das deutliche
+Bewußtsein, daß die Menschheit an dem Planeten ihre physische
+Individualität besitzt, daß sie zu ihm sich verhält, wie die Seele zum
+Leib. Anstatt die geographische Betrachtung durch und durch mit der
+historischen verwachsen zu lassen [which he proposes to do], hat man
+teils geographische Intermezzos nach subjektivem Gutdünken ...
+eingestreut, teils auch sich mit einer dem Ganzen voraufgeschickten
+geographischen Grundlage ein für allemal begnügt. Man hat hierbei nicht
+bedacht, daß man die Geschichte, wenn man ihr den planetarischen Grund
+und Boden, auf den man sie von vornherein stellt, wegrückt, zwischen
+Himmel und Erde schweben läßt und ihre Behandlung dem veränderlichen
+Luftzuge des subjektiven Beliebens mehr oder minder preisgibt ... Darin
+ruht die Selbständigkeit der geographischen Wissenschaft, ..., daß ihr
+Objekt die Erde ist, ... die Erde, wie sie bestimmend auf die
+Entwicklung des Geistes einwirkt und hinwiederum vom Geist bestimmt und
+verändert wird. Dies Verhältnis des Planeten zum Geist ist ein
+wesentliches.”[149]
+
+Arnold H. Guyot, “ce Suisse transplanté en Amérique,”[150] treats the
+same topic in the _Géographie physique comparée, considérée dans ses
+rapports avec l’histoire de l’humanité_.[151]
+
+The frequently misquoted Henry Thomas Buckle, in the celebrated second
+chapter of the _History of Civilization in England_,[152] shows the
+largely indirect effects of climate, food, and soil, chiefly upon the
+civilizations—of India, Egypt, Mexico, Peru, etc.—anterior to those of
+Europe, and of a fourth class of physical agents, namely, of what he
+terms the general aspect of nature upon the imagination—religion,
+literature, art—of those peoples. Buckle does not maintain that these
+four classes of the Environment were the _sole_ factors in producing
+civilization; in fact he makes it quite clear that they were _not_ the
+only factors, that they affected the civilizations mentioned in an
+indirect way and he indicates how this has taken place. Buckle’s
+statements of his ideas had been misrepresented, twisted, and distorted
+to such a degree that John M. Robertson felt impelled to write a whole
+book[153] in rebuttal, in order to set Buckle’s detractors and
+controversial critics right and to refute their unfair imputations to
+Buckle’s intended meaning.
+
+The romanticist Ernst Curtius is sometimes referred to as one of those
+historians who give adequate expression to the action of the physical
+milieu upon the course of history. But Vallaux declares that Curtius,
+like Michelet, has made of human geography and of political geography
+_merely_ a preliminary and introductory science to history: “une science
+auxiliaire ou plutôt liminaire, sorte de _portique d’entrée_ [the
+italics are ours] pour leurs brillantes constructions,”[154] lending
+thus support to Kapp’s contention.[155] Nor would Ratzel be content with
+a portrayal of the land as an introduction to the history of a country,
+even though it be as richly colored as that drawn by Curtius.[156] A
+description, in itself, fails to penetrate to the core of the relation.
+If we now turn to Curtius’ _The History of Greece_,[157] we find that
+the first chapter in the first book[158] considers Land and People, a
+part of which (pp. 9–18) gives a geographical description of Hellas, and
+another part of which (pp. 19–25, seven pages scant) points out the
+connection between the land and the people. Elsewhere,[159] Curtius
+shows the interaction between the physical environment of Athens and the
+Athenians.[160]
+
+George Grote, whose account of the relation between the Greek land and
+the Greek people is held by some[161] to be excellent, in _A History of
+Greece_,[162] devotes four pages (227–30) of the chapter on General
+Geography and Limits of Greece to show the effects of the configuration
+of Greece upon the political relation of the inhabitants[163] and the
+effects upon their intellectual development,[164] the rest of the
+chapter being given over to a description of the geography of Greece.
+
+Alfred E. Zimmern, in _The Greek Commonwealth, Politics and Economics in
+Fifth-Century Athens_,[165] deals very cleverly with the main features
+of the material environment of Greek civilization: The Mediterranean
+Area; The Sea; The Climate; The Soil; Fellowship, or the Rule of Public
+Opinion, under which headings he discusses the influence of environment
+upon Greek institutions.[166]
+
+As early as 1864, G. P. Marsh investigates the subject of man’s reaction
+on his milieu in _Man and Nature, or Physical Geography as Modified by
+Human Action_ (London).
+
+John William Draper, in his _History of the Intellectual Development of
+Europe_,[167] in the composition of which Herderian ideas were the
+guides,[168] first attempts to show (vol. I, pp. 6–17) that individual
+man, as well as communities, nations, and universal humanity, are under
+the control of physical conditions; then (pp. 23–35) he points out how
+the topography, meteorology, and secular geological movements of Europe
+affected its inhabitants. On the whole, he overstates the force of
+environment and neglects the human factor; nevertheless his
+uncompromising affirmations bring out strikingly some of the
+environmental effects on man.
+
+The uncritical Max Duncker, in the nine volume _Geschichte des
+Altertums_,[169] not only has chapters on _Land und Volk_, or _Land und
+Stämme_ at the beginning of the history of a given nation, but he also
+dwells elsewhere in his text on the sway of geography in history.
+
+Élisée Réclus, in the magistral _Nouvelle Géographie Universelle_ (1879
+ff.), speaking of the difficulties encountered by research, queries:
+“... Was verdanken die Nationen dem Einfluß der Natur, die sie umgibt?
+Was verdanken sie dem Milieu, das ihre Vorfahren bewohnten, ihren
+Rasseinstinkten, ihren verschiedenartigen Mischungen, den von Außen
+eingeführten Überlieferungen? Man weiß es nicht, kaum daß einige
+Lichtstrahlen in jene Finsternis dringen.”[170] The preponderance of
+European nations is by no means attributable, as some arrogantly and
+self-conceitedly fancied, to any racial endowment; on the contrary, it
+is due to the favoring conditions of the physical environment prevailing
+in Europe: “Man weiß, wie mächtig der Einfluß des geographischen Milieu
+auf die Fortschritte der europäischen Nationen gewesen ist. Ihre
+Überlegenheit ist keineswegs, wie einige sich dünkelhafter Weise
+eingebildet haben, der eigentümlichen Anlage der Rassen zuzuschreiben,
+denn in anderen Gegenden der alten Welt haben sich eben dieselben Rassen
+weniger schöpferisch erwiesen. Es sind die glücklichen Bedingungen der
+Wärme, des Klimas, der Gestalt und Lage des Festlandes, welche den
+Europäern die Ehre verschafft haben, die ersten gewesen zu sein in der
+Kenntnis der Erde in ihrem ganzen Umfange und lange Zeit an der Spitze
+der Zivilisation geblieben zu sein.”[171] These conditions help to
+explain, in part, the character of the nations: “Mit vollem Recht lieben
+es also die historischen Geographen bei der Gestalt der verschiedenen
+Erdteile und bei den Folgen zu verweilen, welche sich daraus für die
+Bestimmung der Völker ergeben. Die Gestalt der Hochebenen, die Höhe der
+Berge, der Lauf und der Reichtum der Flüsse, die Nachbarschaft des
+Ozeans, die Gliederung der Küsten, die Temperatur der Atmosphäre, die
+Häufigkeit oder Seltenheit des Regens, die unzähligen wechselseitigen
+Einflüsse der Sonne, der Luft und der Gewässer, alle Erscheinungen des
+Pflanzenlebens habe eine Bedeutung in ihren Augen und dienen ihnen
+(wenigstens zum Teil), den Charakter und das erste Leben der Nationen zu
+erklären ...”[172] Continental and oceanic forms and other features of
+the globe vary in their value for man in accordance with the stage of
+civilization to which he attained.[173] Notwithstanding this separation,
+in principle, of natural and national influences upon social evolution,
+its application to concrete cases Réclus finds arduous: “Durch das
+Studium der Sonne und durch die unablässige Beobachtung der klimatischen
+Erscheinungen können wir ganz allgemein verstehen, welches der Einfluß
+der Natur auf die Entwicklung der Völker gewesen ist; aber es ist
+schwieriger, das auf jede Rasse, auf jede Nation zu verteilen....”[174]
+
+P. Mougeoulle’s theory in _Les problèmes de l’histoire_,[175] is an
+altogether one-sided geographical theory of history.[176] The sole cause
+of the external as well as the internal history of peoples, is, in his
+opinion, the geographical Milieu.[177] To Mougeoulle, the Milieu is the
+author, whereas man is the actor of the Drama of history.[178]
+
+Léon Metchnikoff, in _La Civilisation et Les Grands Fleuves
+Historiques_,[179] pays some attention to the influences (astronomic,
+physical—the geosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere—, vegetal,
+animal, anthropological) of the milieu on man and society; yet his main
+care is with the action of parts of the hydrosphere on human progress.
+Following C. Böttiger (_Das Mittelmeer_, Leipzig, 1859), Metchnikoff
+distinguishes the three milieus: fluvial or potamic, mediterranean or
+thalassic, and oceanic or universal.[180] On this basis he divides
+universal history into three periods: 1) the period of the fluvial
+civilizations (temps anciens), furnishing the principal theme of his
+argument (discussed in the last four chapters of his book); 2) that of
+the mediterranean civilizations (temps moyens); 3) and that of the
+oceanic civilizations. The fluvial or ancient period, from the
+beginnings to _circa_ 800 B.C., comprises the history of the four great
+civilizations of antiquity, in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, “qui
+ont eu pour milieu géographique des régions arrosées par certains
+fleuves ou couples de fleuves célèbres.” The mediterranean or middle
+period extends from the seventh century B.C.—the foundation of
+Carthage—to Charles the Fifth. The modern or oceanic period has two
+epochs: a) the _atlantic_ epoch, from the discovery of America to about
+the middle of the nineteenth century; and b) the _universal_ epoch, just
+beginning.[181] In the main, Metchnikoff limits the scope of his work to
+the compass of fluvial civilizations. He studies in detail the four
+great historical rivers or pairs of rivers (the Nile, the Tigris and the
+Euphrates, the Indus and the Ganges, and the Hoangho and the
+Yangtze-Kiang, those great educators of mankind) in their bearing upon
+the four grand civilizations—Chinese, Hindu, Assyro-Babylonian, and
+Egyptian—of remote antiquity, all of which expanded in fluvial
+regions.[182] The River, in all countries, presents itself to
+Metchnikoff as the living synthesis of all the complex conditions of the
+climate, of the soil, of the configuration of the earth, and of the
+geologic formation. In Egypt and in China, in India and in Mesopotamia,
+the River has been “comme une synthèse vivante des conditions
+géographiques les plus multiples.”[183] He finds that each of the four
+great monarchies of antiquity had been a natural consequence or result
+of the hydrological system of the country that served as its cradle, and
+that history, in the entire ancient world, had been a toil, a forced
+labor (“une corvée”), imposed on a part of mankind by certain orographic
+peculiarities of the Milieu. Metchnikoff concludes that in these empires
+“le Milieu s’est trouvé être invariablement le vrai créateur de
+l’histoire.” The eloquent example of these four grand ancient
+civilizations sufficiently proves to him that no important historical
+expansion could ever occur in any country of the world, unless the
+milieu condemned its inhabitants to that excessive solidarity which he
+shows to have been brutally imposed everywhere at the shores of these
+great historical rivers; a milieu is conceivable, however, where this
+condition, rigorously required by history, may be fulfilled by an
+environmental factor other than a river or a system of rivers.[184]
+Metchnikoff protests that he is far from advocating potamic[185] or
+geographical[186] fatalism.[187]
+
+Babington’s study of the power of environment over history points out
+the fallacy of the race theory in the history of the Roman empire, of
+Germany, and of China.[188]
+
+N. S. Shaler, in _Nature and Man in America_,[189] traces, on the one
+hand, the action of environment on organic life, and, on the other, the
+effect of geographic conditions on the development of peoples, more
+especially on that of man in North America.[190]
+
+Since about the middle of the eighties, under the leadership of the late
+historian E. A. Freeman and of the illustrious statesman and scholar,
+Lord James Bryce, “a marked revival of interest” has been exhibited in
+England in studying the physical milieu as it relates to man and human
+society, institutions and history.[191]
+
+The leading point of view in H. F. Helmolt’s _The History of the World,
+a Survey of Man’s Record_,[192] is the treatment of man’s relation to
+his physical environment, the relation of geography to history, the
+dependence of man on his geographical surroundings. “It [Helmolt’s
+_History_] deals with history in the light of physical environment....
+Its ground plan, so to speak, is primarily geographical....”[193] It was
+conceived in the spirit of Ratzel;[194] it is said to have brought for
+the first time “die Länder- und Völkerkunde in den Dienst der
+Weltgeschichtsdarstellung.”[195] Helmolt’s “great co-operative _History
+of Mankind_ ... emphasizes the sovereign influences of nature and
+geography,” says Gooch.[196]
+
+Rev. H. B. George, in _The Relations of Geography and History_,[197]
+attempts to “point out systematically how these [geographical] causes
+work [all history through], first in general, and then in reference to
+the various countries of Europe,”[198] although “This work does not
+pretend to attempt the impossible task of describing all the influence
+exerted by geographical conditions on human history. All that it
+professes to do is to indicate the modes in which that influence works,
+with sufficient illustrations from actual history.”[199]
+
+Professor Geddes, of Edinburgh, is the most energetic expounder of this
+idea—the anthropo-geographical conception of history—in the
+English-speaking world, says Small.[200]
+
+Throughout the entire treatment of Guglielmo Ferrero’s[201] _History of
+Rome_ (one of the most original and important historical works of recent
+years), geography thoroughly permeates history.[202]
+
+Robert Sieger[203] attempts to explain the history and policies of the
+Austro-Hungarian monarchy “aus ihren geographischen Grundlagen.”[204]
+
+Ellsworth Huntington, in _The Pulse of Asia_,[205] illustrates the
+geographic basis of history.[206]
+
+The Columbia School of sociological historians, and others, interpret
+history partly in terms of the milieu: physical (economic and
+geographic) and social.[207]
+
+Human geography, and political geography, have long been divided into
+fragmentary parts, contended for by economics, history, and
+sociology.[208] Yet the discipline of anthropo-geography has now become
+“eine mächtige Hilfswissenschaft der geschichtlichen Auffassung.”[209]
+So that, today, it has become a custom to include in textbooks of
+history one or more chapters on the relation of geography to history, to
+show the dependence of history on environment.[210] The study of the
+latter is a part of Kulturgeschichte or History of Civilization which is
+defined as embracing the non-political aspects of civilization such as
+the influence of nature, the pressure of economic factors, the origin
+and transformation of ideas, the contribution of science and art,
+religion and philosophy, literature and law, the material conditions of
+life, the fortunes of the masses.[211] Likewise, only on a broader
+scale, the milieu is being examined in a new branch of study, which is
+one resultant of anthropo-geographical research. This new branch of
+study is economic geography, which, according to John McFarlane,[212]
+“may be defined as the study of the influence exerted upon the economic
+activities of man by his physical environment, and more especially by
+the form and structure of the surface of the land, the climatic
+conditions which prevail upon it, and the place relations in which its
+different regions stand to one another.” Seligman says that the modern
+study of economic geography is but an expansion of the study of the
+influence of milieu.[213]
+
+Indeed, geography itself, _i.e._, the new geography, is conceived of as
+the science or study of the responses of organisms to inorganic, and to
+a certain extent organic, environmental control.[214] Professor William
+Morris Davis, of Harvard University, is one of the chief exponents of
+this theory in the United States. Very recently, Rollin D. Salisbury
+said:[215] “By common consent, Geography (as distinct from physical
+geography) is the science which deals with the relations of physical
+environment to life and its activities. In this sense, geography is a
+connecting link between geology, physiography, and climatology, on the
+one hand, and zoölogy, botany, sociology, economics, and history on the
+other. Its subject-matter is in process of formulation....”[216]
+
+
+             _More Recent Anthropo-geographical Treatises_
+
+James Bryce offers the most excellent general survey of man’s relation
+to his physical environment.[217]
+
+Herbertson’s very useful and readable introductory book gives “concrete
+pictures of human life under these very different conditions [typical
+environments]. They show, in the first place, how the occupation of
+different groups of mankind depends on their geographical surroundings,
+and how these occupations in turn affect not only the material life, the
+houses, food, clothing, etc., but also family life, notions of property,
+progress in trade and manufactures, power of expansion, and ideals of
+government. All these are classified, not according to race, which is
+often an accident, but according to those permanent influences by which
+all races are affected.”[218]
+
+Robert DeCourcy Ward, in his standard work on _Climate Considered
+Especially in Relation to Man_,[219] presents “typical illustrations” of
+environmental action on the life of man in the tropics (Ch. 8, pp.
+220–71), in the temperate zones (Ch. 9 pp. 272–321), and in the polar
+zones (Ch. 10, pp. 322–37).[220] In a chapter on the hygiene of the
+zones (Ch. 7, pp. 178–219), Ward also surveys “some of the relations
+between weather and climate and a few of the more important
+diseases.”[221]
+
+R. R. Marett’s chapter on “Environment” in his _Anthropology_[222]
+presents, beside a number of valuable general and critical remarks,
+chiefly a regional survey of the world showing the general effect of
+geographical environment on man.
+
+Camille Vallaux, in _Géographie Sociale, Le Sol et L’État_,[223]
+beginning with the sixth chapter, also discusses some phases of what
+would in E. C. Hayes’ classification[224] be called the technical
+milieu.
+
+The most recent German essay, Willy Hellpach’s[225] _Die
+Geopsychischen Erscheinungen: Wetter, Klima und Landschaft in ihrem
+Einfluß auf das Seelenleben_,[226] deals with the _direct_ effects of
+the surrounding _atmosphere_ and soil on the human psyche.[227]
+Hellpach seems primarily interested in “Psycho-Pathologie”;[228] he
+lays most stress on _das Pathologische_, particularly in the
+main—first two—parts of his essay: “Wetter und Seelenleben,” and
+“Klima und Seelenleben,” where the pathological effect is strongly
+emphasized. Hellpach’s valuable summary of what we know today of this
+phase of the milieu,[229] revealing as it does by the meager number of
+the facts assembled the crying need for many more such facts, may be,
+in its results, somewhat disappointing[230] for the present day, but
+it augurs well for future investigation.
+
+The latest extensive presentation of general anthropo-geography,[231]
+Jean Brunhes’ _La géographie humaine_,[232] pays more attention to
+present than to historical conditions,[233] and thus fittingly
+complements Ellen C. Semple’s _Influences of Geographic
+Environment_,[234] which “may be regarded as superseding Ratzel’s great
+work on Anthropo-geography.”[235]
+
+
+                  _Primitive Peoples and Environment_
+
+Karl Ritter, in the essay “Über das historische Element in der
+geographischen Wissenschaft” (1833), declares that the forces of nature
+which at the commencement of human history exerted a very decisive
+influence were bound to recede more and more, and their action had to
+diminish, in proportion to man’s progress. Civilized mankind extricates
+itself gradually, like single man, from the immediately conditioning
+fetters of nature and of its place of abode.[236] This opinion of
+Ritter’s was adopted by many.[237]
+
+Theodor Waitz regards primitive man both as purely a product of, and as
+being completely at the mercy of, circumambient nature: “Denken wir uns
+vom Menschen Alles hinweg, was an ihm Wirkung der Kultur ist, so steht
+er da als bloßes Produkt der Macht, die ihn in’s Leben rief, ... Das
+Erste, was an ihm charakteristisch für uns hervorträte, würde die sehr
+vollständige Abhängigkeit sein, in der er sich von seiner Naturumgebung
+befände: der gesammte Inhalt, den sein inneres Leben zunächst gewönne,
+würde ein ziemlich reines Produkt dieser letzteren sein. Der Naturmensch
+wird zunächst nur das, wozu die Naturverhältnisse ihn machen, unter die
+er sich gestellt findet; wovon er sich nährt, das werden diese ihm
+darbieten, auf welche Weise und durch welche Mittel er seine Nahrung
+gewinnt, dazu werden diese ihm Anleitung geben müssen; ob er Kleidung
+und sonstigen Schutz gegen äußere Schädlichkeiten bedarf, und wie er
+diesem Bedürfnis abzuhelfen strebt, werden sie ihn lehren und die
+Erfindungen, die hierzu nötig sind, ihm an die Hand geben müssen; sie
+werden mit einem Wort seine ganze Lebenseinrichtung bestimmen ...”[238]
+
+G. Gerland holds that man developed from and upon nature, on which he is
+very closely dependent and of which he is a small part, and that the
+higher he rises the more he frees himself from the compelling influence
+of the earth, which, however, he can never wholly escape.[239]
+
+In the opinion of Herbert Spencer, the earlier stages of social
+evolution are far more dependent on local conditions than the later
+stages. They are more at the mercy of their surroundings.[240] Both
+Spencer and Benjamin Kidd believe that primitive man is at the mercy of
+the milieu.[241] The “remotely ancient representatives of the human
+species ... were in their then wild state much more plastic than now to
+external nature,” according to Wallace.[242] Historical and statistical
+geography show us “die Menschen, wie sie in ihre aktive Rolle
+eingetreten sind und durch Arbeit die Überlegenheit über das Milieu
+gewinnen, das sie umgibt ... Nachdem der Mensch ganz den Einfluß des
+Milieu über sich ergehen ließ, hat er denselben zu seinem Nutzen
+umgestaltet ...”[243] The intimate connection of first civilizations
+with physical environment slackens with subsequent advance.[244] This
+apparently deep-rooted view is controverted by Ratzel who flatly
+contradicts it. Distinguishing between the direct and the indirect
+effects of milieu, he argues in straight opposition that with
+progressing civilization we are increasingly dependent on environment,
+that the degree of such dependence has not lessened with advancement in
+civilization, and that only the manner of the relation has changed.[245]
+Environment affects even the highest civilization, says Ripley.[246] G.
+Elliot Smith maintains that “Environment, however it may act, whether
+directly or indirectly, is still helping to shape the human form, and is
+affecting the development of Man’s customs and achievements at least as
+powerfully as, if not more so than, ever before.”[247]
+
+
+                     _Society and Physical Milieu_
+
+The social evolution proceeds amidst the entire system of exterior
+conditions (chemical, physical, astronomical), by which its rate of
+progress is determined. Social phenomena can no more be understood apart
+from their environment than those of individual life.[248] The study of
+social evolution presupposes a relation to the physical milieu: “Das
+Studium der sozialen Entwicklung setzt eine Beziehung zwischen der
+Menschheit, welche den Vorgang vollführt, und der Gesamtheit der äußeren
+Einflüsse voraus, welche letztere man auch die sogenannte Umgebung
+heißen könnte.”[249]
+
+John Stuart Mill asserts that “All phenomena of society are phenomena of
+human nature, generated by the action of outward circumstances upon
+masses of human beings.”[250]
+
+To Schäffle, in the analysis of the structure and functions of human
+society there exist as influential factors the external surroundings, on
+the one hand, and the active elements of the social body (the individual
+and the population), on the other; for, as Schäffle emphasizes, not only
+economics, but all social science must take into consideration not only
+Society, but also Nature, _i.e._, the natural fund or stock, designated
+by soil and climate, of the immediate world-surroundings of the social
+body as the external sphere embracing societary life, and that, not only
+as a sum total of free possessions, but also as a multiplicity of free,
+_i.e._, unsubjugated resistances.[251]
+
+As “the result of a survey of social organizations, considered as
+machinery in motion, [Hermann] Post[252] points out very justly that it
+is useless to attempt to explain social phenomena on the basis of the
+psychological activities of individuals, as is too commonly assumed,
+because all individuals whose conduct we can possibly observe have
+themselves been educated in some society or other, and presume in all
+their social acts the assumptions on which that society itself
+proceeds.... It [Post’s method] is the same method, of course, which had
+already yielded such remarkable results to Montesquieu, and even to
+Locke. The point of view is no longer that of a Maine or a McLennan....
+It is that of a spectator of human society as a whole.... And its
+immediate outcome has been to throw into the strongest possible relief
+the dependence of the form and, still more, of the actual content of all
+human societies on something which is not in the human mind at all, but
+is the infinite variety of that external Nature which Society exists to
+fend off from Man, and also to let Man dominate if he can.”[253]
+
+
+                _Government, War, Progress, and Climate_
+
+James Bryce “has recently clearly set forth the climatic control of
+government in an essay on ‘British Experience in the Government of
+Colonies’ (_Century_, March, 1899, 718–729).”[254] Vallaux, however, is
+sceptical as to the influence of physical environment upon the
+State.[255] William Ridgeway avers that political and legal institutions
+are the result of environment.[256]
+
+Far-reaching and weighty historical consequences “have followed from
+special conditions of climate or weather. Maguire’s ‘Outlines of
+Military Geography’ (Cambridge, 1899) contains a chapter on the
+influence of climate on military operations, but this subject has
+hitherto received little attention. More recently, Bentley, in a
+presidential address before the Royal Meteorological Society, London,
+considered the matter.”[257] Still more recently, the relation of
+climate or weather to war has been scrutinized, among others, by F.
+Lampe in “Der erdkundliche Unterricht,”[258] by Otto Baschin in “Der
+Krieg und das Wetter,”[259] and by E. Alt in “Krieg und Witterung.”[260]
+
+Hellwald, “the well-known traveller and geographer,” compiled his
+“History of Civilization in its Natural Development” in 1874, according
+to the findings of which, cultural development is “a natural process,
+conditioned by race, geography, and climate. Civilisation means the
+mastering of nature and the taming of man.... Hellwald’s standpoint is
+shared, though less aggressively displayed by Henne-am-Rhyn.”[261]
+
+To the late meteorologist Cleveland Abbe, “Everything seems to combine
+to prove that the existing order of events both material and
+intellectual has been brought about by a slow process of change, due to
+the interaction of the atoms and masses that constitute the material
+world around us.”[262]
+
+The great diversity of existent civilizations, declares Auguste
+Matteuzzi, is due to the diversity of the milieus where they developed.
+In order to discover why any civilization becomes more heterogeneous and
+more perfect, one must study the geographic milieu where it evolved. The
+organic and inorganic milieu of evolving ethnic groups constrains human
+societies to an incessant process of adaptation, and these societies in
+their turn react upon the milieu and modify it.[263]
+
+In short, says Auguste Comte, “all human progress, political, moral, or
+intellectual, is inseparable from material progression, in virtue of the
+close interconnection which, as we have seen, characterizes the natural
+course of social phenomena.”[264]
+
+That civilization is a result of adaptation to environment, physical as
+well as political, is the view entertained by Bryce, Strachey, and
+Geikie.[265]
+
+
+                  _Climate and Man’s Characteristics_
+
+There are “certain broad, distinguishing characteristics of man in the
+temperate and tropical zones, in determining which it is reasonable to
+believe that climate has played a part. Similarly, there has been a
+natural tendency to attribute certain differences between northerners
+and southerners in the temperate zones to a difference in climate....
+These national differences are proverbial between northern and southern
+Germans, French, Spanish, Russians, Italians, Arabs, and other peoples.
+The influence of climate has likewise been traced in the sad, even
+pessimistic tone of much of the northern literature, and in the gravity
+and melancholy of modern northern music, as well as of the older
+northern folk-songs ... even racial distinctions are more or less
+directly traceable, in many instances, to climate.... Sir Archibald
+Geikie, in his _Scottish Reminiscences_, has emphasized the climatic
+influence in producing the grim character of the Scot....”[266]
+
+Tacitus, in the 29th chapter of the _Germania_, assures us that the soil
+and climate of the land of the Mattiaci caused them to be more bellicose
+than their neighbors.[267]
+
+Daudet, “who has written an entire novel (‘Numa Roumestan’) to depict
+the great influence of the climate of southern Europe upon conduct,
+says: ‘The Southerner does not love strong drinks; he is intoxicated by
+nature. Sun and wind distil in him a terrible natural alcohol to whose
+influence every one born under this sky is subject. Some have only the
+mild fever which sets their speech and gesture free, redoubles their
+audacity, makes everything seem rosy-hued, and drives them on to
+boasting; others live in a blind delirium. And what Southerner has not
+felt the sudden giving way, the exhaustion of his whole being, that
+follows an outburst of rage or enthusiasm?’”[268]
+
+Draper “emphasized the important historical consequences of the
+difference in the characteristics of northerners and southerners in the
+United States, which he attributed largely to climate, and which found
+expression in the Civil War.... The Boers in Africa have developed along
+lines different from those of the Dutch in the United States.”[269]
+
+
+               _Man’s Intellect and Physical Environment_
+
+Auguste Comte, who “was very slightly affected by German thought,” and
+who, in early youth, came under the influence of the philosophy that had
+become prevalent in France before the Revolution, “read the works of
+most of its leading representatives. He accepted its cardinal principle
+that ‘thought depends on sense, or, more broadly, on the
+environment.’”[270]
+
+Adolf Bastian worked unceasingly “among the conceptions of the
+Naturvölker—the ‘cryptograms of mankind,’ as he called them—...,
+demonstrating first the surprising uniformity of outlook on the part of
+the more primitive peoples, and secondly the correlation of differences
+of conceptions with differences in material surroundings, varying with
+geographical conditions. This second doctrine he elaborated in his _Zur
+Lehre von den geographischen Provinzen_, in 1886.”[271]
+
+Physiology and statistics “show that most human functions are subject to
+the influence of heat (Lombroso, ‘Pensiero e Meteore,’ Milan, 1878). It
+is to be expected, then, that excessive heat will have its effect upon
+the human mind.”[272]
+
+The physiographer, “... looking back over the history of life upon the
+earth’s surface, ... is forced to the conclusion that its highest estate
+embodied in the moral and intellectual qualities of man has been, in the
+main, secured by the geographic variations which have slowly developed
+through the geological ages.”[273]
+
+Benno Erdmann, in his “Gedächtnisrede auf Wilhelm Dilthey,” observes
+that in ripe old age Dilthey in the last of his larger works declared
+that man finds himself determined by the physical world in which mental
+occurrences appear only as interpolations.[274]
+
+
+                     _Religion and Physical Milieu_
+
+As physical characteristics “are in the main the result of environment,
+social institutions and religious ideas are no less the product of that
+environment.... We might just as well ask the Ethiopian to change his
+skin as to change radically his social and religious ideas. It has been
+shown by experience that Christianity can make but little headway
+amongst many peoples in Africa or Asia, where on the other hand
+Muhammadanism has made and is steadily making progress, ... This is
+probably due to the fact that Muhammadanism is a religion evolved ... in
+latitudes bordering on the aboriginal races of Africa and Asia, and that
+it is far more akin in its social ideas to those of the Negro or Malay
+than are those of Christianity, ...”[275]
+
+Ernest Renan “points out that the desert is monotheistic, its uniformity
+suggesting a belief in the unity of God.... In his _Seas and Skies in
+Many Latitudes_ (London, 1888, pp. 42–43), Abercromby gives two maps,
+showing respectively the areas of Mohammedanism and the districts in
+Asia and Africa with a mean annual rainfall of less than ten inches. The
+maps are strikingly similar. The author adds: ‘Whether this distribution
+of a great creed is the result of chance, or of some deep connection
+between the tenets of that religion and climatic influences, I can not
+say;—but still the relation is so remarkable that I have thought it well
+to bring the matter forward.’”[276]
+
+
+                         _Climate and Conduct_
+
+The “frequent and sudden weather changes of the temperate zones affect
+man in many ways, as do the larger seasonal changes. The relations
+between weather and conduct have frequently been investigated. Professor
+E. G. Dexter has made an extended empirical study of the effects of the
+weather ... Bertillon has collected data on suicides and seasons in
+France, ...”[277] Dexter studies empirically by means of
+statistics—plotting certain curves—the relation between temperature,
+barometric pressure, humidity, wind, character of the day,
+precipitation, on the one hand, and the child in school—work,
+deportment, attendance—, crime, insanity, health—sickness and death—,
+suicide, drunkenness, attention—errors in calculation made by clerks in
+banks—, on the other.[278] Of his general conclusions[279] the first is:
+“Varying meteorological conditions affect directly, though in different
+ways, the metabolism of life”; the second: “The ‘reserve energy’ capable
+of being utilized for intellectual processes and activities other than
+those of the vital organs is affected [_effected_, in the original] most
+by meteorological changes”; the third: “The quality of the emotional
+state is plainly influenced by the weather states”; the fourth:
+“Although meteorological conditions affect the emotional states, which
+without doubt have weight in the determination of conduct in its
+broadest sense, it would seem that their effects upon that portion of
+the reserve energy which is available for action are of the greatest
+import.”[280]
+
+The nervous effects of the weather including cyclonic winds have also
+been noted. Among the Eskimos, “Marriages take place at an early age,
+especially among the women, and the return of the sun after the long
+winter has a stimulating effect on the animal passions which leads to
+sexual excesses of all kinds.”[281]
+
+Albert Leffingwell investigates _The Influence of Seasons Upon
+Conduct_[282] in Great Britain and elsewhere. He formulates the
+underlying assumption of his inquiry in the following manner: “It is not
+a new theory, though I propose to carry it somewhat further than it has
+been pushed hitherto. Over half a century ago, Quetelet in his great
+work “On Man,” suggested the hypothesis.... The hypothesis toward which
+all the facts point is simply this: that upon the nervous organization
+of human bodies (perhaps specially upon dwellers in the temperate zones)
+there is exerted during the procession of the seasons, from winter’s
+close till midsummer, some undefined, specific influence, which in some
+manner tends to increase the excitability of emotion and passion, and
+thus also to increase all actions arising therefrom.”[283] To mention
+only one of Leffingwell’s illustrations, he brings together in a
+statistical table the total number of all crimes against persons in
+England for ten years (1878–87), the same facts for Ireland during the
+same decade, and for France during forty years (1830–69), and in
+conjunction therewith says: “Here, again, we find that all crimes, even
+those arising from personal antipathy or hatred, seem specially
+prevalent in the warmer half of the year. In England, 55 per cent of all
+such acts of violence during the ten years 1878–1887 happened in spring
+and summer, and in France during a period of forty years the average was
+the same. Ireland, indeed, shows a more even distribution of such
+crimes; but the tendency is seen even there.”[284]
+
+Cesare Lombroso, who is claimed to be the first to have essayed to
+portray the effect of physical environment on the human psyche,[285]
+states in his _Criminal Man_,[286] referring to Ferri and Holzendorf,
+that with high temperature there is an increase in crimes of violence,
+while low temperature has the effect of increasing the number of crimes
+against property. In “comparing statistics of criminality in France with
+those of the variations in temperature, Ferri noted an increase in
+crimes of violence during the warmer years.”[287]
+
+Lombroso, in his _Crime, Its Causes and Remedies_,[288] citing the
+conclusions of the relevant statistical evidence, establishes that in
+England and France and Italy the crimes of rape and of murder occur in
+greatest number in the hottest months; that the maximum number of all
+rebellions in the whole world between 1791 and 1880 falls everywhere in
+the hottest month, while its minimum number comes in the coldest months;
+and that crimes against property markedly increase in the winter.[289]
+
+In the southern parts of Italy and France “there occur many more crimes
+against persons than in the central and northern portions.... Guerry has
+shown that crimes against persons are twice as numerous in southern
+France (4.9) as in central and northern France (2.7 and 2.9). _Vice
+versa_, crimes against property are more frequent in the north (4.9),
+than in the central and southern regions (2.3).”[290] According to
+Buckle,[291] climate makes men’s habits regular or irregular.
+
+
+                  _Climatic Control of Food and Drink_
+
+William Ridgeway, summarizing his argument in “The Application of
+Zoölogical Laws to Man,”[292] says: “We have seen that environment is a
+powerful factor in the differentiation of the various races of man,
+alike in physique, institutions, and religion. It is probable that the
+food supply at hand in each region may be an important element in these
+variations, whilst the nature of the food and drink preferred there may
+itself be due in no small degree to climatic conditions.... The
+aboriginal of the tropics is distinctly a vegetarian, whilst the Eskimo
+within the arctic circle is practically wholly carnivorous. In each case
+the taste is almost certainly due to the necessities of their
+environment.... It is probable that the more northward man advanced the
+more carnivorous he became in order to support the rigours of the
+northern climate. The same holds equally true in the case of drink....
+All across Northern Europe and Asia there is a universal love of strong
+drink, which is not the mere outcome of vicious desires, but of climatic
+law.... This view derives additional support from the well-authenticated
+fact that one of the chief characteristics of the descendants of British
+settlers in Australia is their strong teetotalism. This cannot be set
+down to their having a higher moral standard than their ancestors, but
+rather, as in the case of Spaniards and Italians (temperance reformers
+point to the sobriety of the Spaniards, Italians, and other South
+Europeans), to the circumstance that they live in a country much warmer
+and drier than the British Isles. We must therefore, no matter how
+reluctantly, come to the conclusion that no attempt to eradicate this
+tendency to alcohol in these latitudes can be successful....”[293]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 83:
+
+  This paper will carry the discussion through anthropo-geography.
+
+Footnote 84:
+
+  The whole question, including Herder’s own idea thereof and his
+  indebtedness to preceding authors, both German and foreign, as well as
+  his influence upon succeeding writers at home and abroad, his relation
+  to his contemporaries, etc., will be essayed more fully in a series of
+  papers, to be published soon, dealing with “Herder’s Conception of
+  Milieu,” “Herder’s Relations to France,” “Herder’s Relations to
+  England,” and “Herder in His Own Milieu.”
+
+Footnote 85:
+
+  The term “anthropo-geography” derives from the title of Fr. Ratzel’s
+  main work.—“... le domaine si intéressant, mais à peine défriché, de
+  l’_anthropogéographie_, semble avoir acquis à ce mot le droit de cité
+  dans le langage scientifique.”—L. Metchnikoff, _La Civilisation et Les
+  Grands Fleuves Historiques_ (Paris, 1889), p. 70 and n.—In England,
+  and in America, it is commonly called human geography, after the
+  French “la géographie humaine.” Various names have been proposed for
+  this subject. See also W. Z. Ripley, “Geography and Sociology.” The
+  Viennese Erwin Hanslick, I believe, denominates it “Kulturgeographie.”
+
+Footnote 86:
+
+  Walther May, “Herders Anschauung der organischen Natur,” _Archiv f. d.
+  Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften u. d. Technik_, etc., Leipzig, Bd.
+  4 (1913, S. 8–39, 89–113), p. 91.
+
+Footnote 87:
+
+  _Ferd. v. Richthofen’s Vorlesungen üb. Allgem. Siedlungs- u.
+  Verkehrsgeographie_, bearb. u. hg. v. O. Schlüter (Berlin, 1908), p.
+  11.
+
+Footnote 88:
+
+  “... Ritter selbst hat keine methodische Darstellung, kein Lehrgebäude
+  gegeben; sondern nur Andeutungen, die anregend sind. Daher blieb
+  Ritters Grundidee fast ohne Einfluß auf die Geographie; nur die
+  Historiker haben sie sich angeeignet und haben seitdem größeres
+  Gewicht auf die Landesnatur gelegt.”—_Ibid._, p. 11.
+
+Footnote 89:
+
+  _Cosmos, a Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe_,
+  translated by E. C. Otté (5 vols., New York: Harper, 1875–77), p. 48.
+
+Footnote 90:
+
+  _Die Erdkunde im Verhältnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte des Menschen
+  oder eine allgemeine, vergleichende Geographie_ was published in two
+  volumes at Berlin in 1817–18; the second edition, completely revised,
+  appeared in nineteen volumes from 1822 to 1859, the year of his death.
+  Neither edition is finished; the second deals only with Africa (vol.
+  1) and Asia (vols. 2–19).
+
+Footnote 91:
+
+  _Die Naturkunde_, etc.—See Th. Achelis, _Moderne Völkerkunde_
+  (Stuttgart, 1896), p. 71.
+
+Footnote 92:
+
+  _Ibid._, see Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 72 f.
+
+Footnote 93:
+
+  In Felix Lampe’s book, _Große Geographen, Bilder aus der Geschichte
+  der Erdkunde_ (Leipzig u. Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1915, 288 S. [Band 28
+  der v. B. Schmid in Zwickau herausgegebenen “Naturwissenschaftlichen
+  Bibliothek”]), neither the chapter on Ritter (pp. 227–33), nor that on
+  “Die wissenschaftliche Geographie der Gegenwart” (pp. 281–87) is very
+  full.
+
+Footnote 94:
+
+  Stuttgart & Tübingen, 1808.
+
+Footnote 95:
+
+  _Views of Nature_ (London, 1850), Author’s Preface, p. X.
+
+Footnote 96:
+
+  p. 382. See Achelis, _Moderne Völkerkunde_, pp. 88 f.—The relation of
+  man to environment is also referred to in _Cosmos_ (English
+  translation by Otté), I, pp. 351–9.—_Kosmos_ was originally published
+  as follows: vols. 1 and 2 in 1845–7; vols. 3 and 4 in 1850–8; vol. 5
+  in 1862.
+
+Footnote 97:
+
+  Leipzig, 1841.
+
+Footnote 98:
+
+  Kohl, _Der Verkehr_, etc., p. 111. See Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 80 f.
+
+Footnote 99:
+
+  Ibid.
+
+Footnote 100:
+
+  Kohl, _l.c._, p. 537. See Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 81 f.
+
+Footnote 101:
+
+  Kohl, _Ibid._,—See Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 82 f.—The manifold influences
+  of nature are also exemplified in Kohl’s _Die geographische Lage der
+  Hauptstädte Europas_, 1874, and _L. Felix, Der Einfluß der Natur auf
+  die Entwicklung des Eigentums_, 1893.
+
+Footnote 102:
+
+  _Über den Einfluß der äußeren Natur auf die sozialen Verhältnisse der
+  einzelnen Völker und die Geschichte der Menschheit überhaupt, 1848_;
+  later published in _Studien aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissenschaft_, I,
+  1876.
+
+Footnote 103:
+
+  _Deutschlands Boden, sein geologischer Bau und dessen Einwirkungen auf
+  das Leben der Menschen_, 2 Bde., Leipzig, 1854.
+
+Footnote 104:
+
+  501 pp., Breslau: F. Hirt, 1855.
+
+Footnote 105:
+
+  Kutzen himself says in the _Vorwort_ that he “leans on” Cotta; he
+  cites the latter, for instance, on p. 466.
+
+Footnote 106:
+
+  _Die Naturgeschichte des Volkes als Grundlage einer deutschen
+  Sozialpolitik_, vol. 1 (11th ed., Stuttgart: Cotta, 1908): Land und
+  Leute.
+
+Footnote 107:
+
+  _Vide_ the first Preface, written in 1853, to volume one, pp. VI-VII.
+
+Footnote 108:
+
+  _Die Naturgeschichte_, etc., I, p. 42.
+
+Footnote 109:
+
+  _Ibid._, Vorwort zur achten Auflage, 1883, p. X.
+
+Footnote 110:
+
+  _Die Naturgeschichte, etc., Vierter Band, “Wanderbuch,” als zweiter
+  Teil zu “Land und Leute.”_ Vierte Aufl., 1903, p. 32.
+
+Footnote 111:
+
+  G. P. Gooch, _History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century_
+  (London & N. Y.; Longmans, Green & Co., 1913), p. 576.
+
+Footnote 112:
+
+  Gooch, _ibid._, p. 575.
+
+Footnote 113:
+
+  For Riehl’s view of milieu in a scheme of sciences, cf. _Die
+  Naturgeschichte_, etc., I, pp. 40–2.
+
+Footnote 114:
+
+  164 pp., Meyers Volksbücher, Leipzig u. Wien: Bibliographisches
+  Institut, _s.a._—This essay forms the second chapter in Hans Meyer’s
+  _Das deutsche Volkstum_ (2. Aufl., 1903), pp. 41–122.
+
+Footnote 115:
+
+  _Moderne Völkerkunde_, p. 81, n.
+
+Footnote 116:
+
+  2. Aufl., 1905 (_Aus Natur und Geisteswelt_, 31. Bändchen, Leipzig: B.
+  G. Teubner), 127 pp.—It has been translated into English under the
+  title _Man and Earth_ (London & N. Y., 1906. Reprinted 1914, 223 pp.)
+  by A. S. “from the second amended German edition,” in which are
+  intercalated two chapters: Chapter V, on _The British Isles and
+  Britons_, by the author; and Chapter VI, on _America and the
+  Americans_, by the translator.—The first four chapters of a general
+  nature—features of the globe, sea, steppes and deserts, in their
+  influence on civilization, the influence of man on landscape—are
+  followed by four chapters on _The British Isles and Britons, America
+  and the Americans, Germany and the Germans, China and the Chinese_.
+
+Footnote 117:
+
+  _Vorlesungen_, etc., delivered at Berlin in 1891 and 1897/8.
+
+Footnote 118:
+
+  “... Es ist mehr unsere Aufgabe gewesen, in dem großen Getriebe der
+  Siedlung und des Verkehrs der _allmählichen Entwicklung_ nachzugehen,
+  das steigende Maß der Überwindung von Widerständen durch den Menschen
+  zu zeigen, die Kräfte zu untersuchen, welche in der Entwicklung
+  wirksam sind,—als bei der großen Fülle des Tatsächlichen der heutigen
+  Zeit zu verweilen.” _Vorlesungen_, p. 351.
+
+Footnote 119:
+
+  It will be noted that Herder is not mentioned here.
+
+Footnote 120:
+
+  Ellen C. Semple, _Influences of Geographic Environment_ (N. Y., 1911),
+  p. V.
+
+Footnote 121:
+
+  “In Germany the exponents of these theories [of environmental
+  influence] were Cotta and Kohl, and later Peschel, Kirchhof, Bastian,
+  and Gerland; but the greatest name of all is that of Fr. Ratzel, who
+  has written the standard work on _Anthropogeographie_.”—Haddon and
+  Quiggin, _Hist. of Anthropology_ (London, 1910), p. 152.—The first
+  vol. of Ratzel’s _Anthropogeographie_ was published in 1882, 2nd ed.
+  in 1899, the second vol. in 1897.
+
+Footnote 122:
+
+  As further illustration, it might be instructive to compare here the
+  chapter headings of Semple’s _Influences of Geographic Environment_,
+  which book was written “On the Basis of Ratzel’s System of
+  Anthropo-geography.” They are as follows: I—Operation of Geographic
+  Factors in History (1–31); II—Classes of Geographic Influences
+  (22–50); III—Society and State in Relation to the Land (51–73);
+  IV—Movements of Peoples in Their Geographical Significance (74–128);
+  V—Geographical Location (129–67); VI—Geographical Area (168–203);
+  VII—Geographical Boundaries (204–41); VIII—Coast Peoples (242–91);
+  IX—Oceans and Enclosed Seas (292–317); X—Man’s Relation to the Water
+  (318–35); XI—The Anthropo-geography of Rivers (336–80); XII—Continents
+  and Their Peninsulas (380–408); XIII—Island Peoples (409–72);
+  XIV—Plains, Steppes and Deserts (473–523); XV—Mountain Barriers and
+  Their Passes (524–56); XVI—Influences of a Mountain Environment
+  (557–606); XVII—The Influences of Climate upon Man (607–37).
+
+Footnote 123:
+
+  _Richthofen’s Vorlesungen_, p. 13.
+
+Footnote 124:
+
+  1897; 2. Aufl. 1903.
+
+Footnote 125:
+
+  “Diese [die enge Erdgebundenheit] in ihrer ganzen tiefgreifenden
+  Bedeutung für das staatliche Leben erkannt und dargelegt zu haben,
+  bleibt freilich für immer ein großes Verdienst der ‘Politischen
+  Geographie’ ...”—O. Schlüter, “Die leitenden Gesichtspunkte d.
+  Anthropogeogr.,” _Arch. f. Sozialwiss._, Bd. IV, p. 620.
+
+Footnote 126:
+
+  _Vide_ Richthofen, _l.c._, p. 12.
+
+Footnote 127:
+
+  2 vols., München, 1893; see vol. 2, 2nd ed.: _Politische Geographie
+  der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung
+  der natürlichen Bedingungen u. wirtschaftlichen Verhältnisse_ (763
+  pp.), esp. pp. 1–176.
+
+Footnote 128:
+
+  London, 1896 (this is a translation of his _Völkerkunde_, 1887/8), cf.
+  the opening pp. of vol. 1.
+
+Footnote 129:
+
+  In Helmolt, _The History of the World_ (N. Y., 1902), vol. 1, pp.
+  62–103, where Ratzel discusses in turn The Coherence of Countries, The
+  Relation of Man to the Collective Life of the Earth, Races and States
+  as Organisms, Historical Movement, Natural Regions, Climate and
+  Location, Geographical Situation, Area, Population, The Water-Oceans,
+  Seas, and Rivers, Conformation of the Earth’s Surface.
+
+Footnote 130:
+
+  London & N. Y.: Longmans, 1915.
+
+Footnote 131:
+
+  See _The Nation_, N. Y., March 18, 1915, p. 310.
+
+Footnote 132:
+
+  Paris, 1911, 420 pp.
+
+Footnote 133:
+
+  Semple, _l.c._, p. VI; cf. also Ratzel, _Anthropogeogr._, I,^2 p. XII.
+
+Footnote 134:
+
+  _Archiv f. Sozialwissenschaft_, Bd. IV (1906), pp. 581–630.
+
+Footnote 135:
+
+  For Ratzel, cf. also Paul Barth, _Die Philosophie der Geschichte als
+  Soziologie_, I (Leipzig: Reisland, 1897), pp. 227–30; Jean Brunhes,
+  _La Géographie Humaine_, 2^e éd. (Paris: Alcan, 1912), pp. 39–47.
+
+Footnote 136:
+
+  Buckle, History of Civilization (1867), p. 32 n.
+
+Footnote 137:
+
+  Robertson, _Buckle and his Critics_ (London, 1895), p. 8 n.
+
+Footnote 138:
+
+  4. vols., 1822–3.
+
+Footnote 139:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, pp. 577–9. See also p. 576.
+
+Footnote 140:
+
+  _Vide supra_ my note no. 84.
+
+Footnote 141:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, p. 467.
+
+Footnote 142:
+
+  _The History of Civilization from the Fall of the Roman Empire to the
+  French Revolution_ (4 vols., translated by Wm. Hazlitt, N. Y.: D.
+  Appleton & Co., 1867—the lectures were delivered in the years 1828,
+  1829, and 1830), vol. 2, pp. 109 f.
+
+Footnote 143:
+
+  “Gothein had attracted attention by a study of the civilisation of
+  Southern Italy, which he had traversed on foot as Riehl had traversed
+  the Palatinate.”—Gooch, _l.c._, p. 587.
+
+Footnote 144:
+
+  “Voila pourquoi il [Michelet] va en Italie avant d’écrire son
+  _Histoire Romaine_; il veut avoir l’impression, le contact du sol, du
+  climat, du paysage.”—Lanson, _Hist. de la Litt. Franç._ (1912), p.
+  1021 n.
+
+Footnote 145:
+
+  Abry-Audic-Crouzet, _Littérature Française_ (3^e éd., Paris, 1916), p.
+  580.
+
+Footnote 146:
+
+  Jules Simon, _Mignet, Michelet, Henri Martin_ (Paris, 1890), p. 191.
+
+Footnote 147:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, p. 540.
+
+Footnote 148:
+
+  _Philos. Erdk. als wissenschaftliche Darstellung der Erdverhältnisse
+  u. des Menschenlebens nach ihrem inneren Zusammenhange_, 2 vols.,
+  Braunschweig, 1845; the 2nd ed. appeared in 1868 under the title
+  _Allgemeine Vergleichende Erdkunde_.—This book holds a high place in
+  Ratzel’s estimation: “Kapp, dessen Philos. Erdk. eine tiefgedachte,
+  von überragendem philosophischem Standpunkte aus gewonnene Übersicht
+  der Naturbedingtheit des Geschichtsverlaufes in den größten Zügen
+  entrollt, ...”—Ratzel, _Anthropogeographie_, I^2, p. 34.
+
+Footnote 149:
+
+  See Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 76 f.
+
+Footnote 150:
+
+  Brunhes, _l.c._, p. 38 n.
+
+Footnote 151:
+
+  Boston, 1849—It has been translated into English under the title _The
+  Earth and man, or Physical geography in its relation to the history of
+  mankind, Slightly abridged, etc._ (London: Parker, 1852), and into
+  German as _Grundzüge der vergleichenden physikalischen Erdkunde in
+  ihrer Beziehung zur Geschichte des Menschen_ (1851).
+
+Footnote 152:
+
+  (N. Y.: D. Appleton & Co., 1867—first published in 1857–61), vol. I,
+  pp. 29–106: Influence exercised by physical laws over the organization
+  of society and over the character of individuals.
+
+Footnote 153:
+
+  _Buckle and his Critics_, London, 1895, 548 pp.
+
+Footnote 154:
+
+  Camille Vallaux, _Géographie Sociale_ (Paris, 1911), p. 23.
+
+Footnote 155:
+
+  _Vide supra_, p. 46 f.
+
+Footnote 156:
+
+  _Anthropogeographie_, I^2, p. 87.
+
+Footnote 157:
+
+  The German original appeared in 1857–67, and the English translation
+  by A. W. Ward in 1868–73.
+
+Footnote 158:
+
+  New York: Scribner, vol. I (1871), pp. 9–46; cf. esp. pp. 9–25, 34,
+  37.
+
+Footnote 159:
+
+  _Boden und Klima von Athen. Rede in der öffentlichen Sitzung_ [_der
+  Kgl. Akademie der Wissenschaften_] _am Leibniztage 5. Juli 1877_ (15
+  pp.).
+
+Footnote 160:
+
+  For the same, cf. also H. Koester “Über den Einfluß landschaftlicher
+  Verhältnisse auf die Entwicklung des attischen Volkscharakters”
+  (Progr., Saarbrücken, 1898).
+
+Footnote 161:
+
+  E.g. by Ratzel, jointly with Curtius’ account thereof. Cf.
+  _Anthropogeogr._, I^2, p. 37.
+
+Footnote 162:
+
+  In 12 vols., vol. II (London: John Murray, 1869), Part II, ch. I, pp.
+  213–37.
+
+Footnote 163:
+
+  Political effects of locality: strengthened defense; difficulty of
+  attack; politically disunited; indefinite multiplication of
+  self-governing cities.
+
+Footnote 164:
+
+  Intellectual effects of locality: the geographical position made them
+  mountaineers and mariners; variety of experience; each petty community
+  possessed an individual life, yet sympathized with the remainder;
+  commerce with a great diversity of half-country-men; Grecian
+  festivals; Homer dependent upon the conditions of his age.
+
+Footnote 165:
+
+  Oxford, Clarendon Press (1911, 454 pp.), pp. 13–64. “It is now
+  generally admitted that neither an individual nor a nation can be
+  properly understood without a knowledge of their surroundings and
+  means of support—in other words, of their geographical and economic
+  conditions.”—_Ibid._, Preface, p. 5.
+
+Footnote 166:
+
+  Zimmern refers in this book—_e.g._ p. 18, 41, 43, _et al._—to the
+  writings of Myres: “Greek Lands and the Greek People,” “Herodotus and
+  Anthropology” (in “Anthropology and the Classics”), and “The
+  Geographical Aspect of Greek Colonization” (in _Proceedings of the
+  Classical Association_, vol. VIII—1911).—Cf. also H. Dondorff, _Das
+  hellenische Land als Schauplatz der althellenischen Geschichte, in
+  Sammlung gemeinverständlicher wissenschaftlicher Vorträge, begründet
+  von Virchow u. Holtzendorf_, 1889, Neue Folge, Serie 3, Heft 72.
+
+Footnote 167:
+
+  Revised ed., in 2 vols. (N. Y.: Harper & Brothers, 1876). The Preface
+  of the first ed. is dated 1861.
+
+Footnote 168:
+
+  Heinrich Boehmer, _Geschichte der Entwicklung der
+  naturwissenschaftlichen Weltanschauung in Deutschland_ (Gotha, 1872,
+  232 pp.), p. 195: “... Herdersche Ideen waren leitend für den Aufbau
+  der Geschichte.”
+
+Footnote 169:
+
+  Leipzig, 1878–86.
+
+Footnote 170:
+
+  Cited by Achelis, _l.c._, p. 84.
+
+Footnote 171:
+
+  _Ibid._, pp. 85 f.
+
+Footnote 172:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 86.
+
+Footnote 173:
+
+  “... Indessen darf man nicht vergessen, daß die allgemeine Gestalt der
+  Kontinente und der Meere und aller besonderer Züge der Erde in der
+  Geschichte der Menschheit einen wesentlich wechselnden Wert besitzen,
+  je nach dem Stande der Kultur, auf welchem die Nationen angelangt sind
+  ...”—_Ibid._
+
+Footnote 174:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 87.
+
+Footnote 175:
+
+  Paris, 1886.
+
+Footnote 176:
+
+  _Vide_ P. Barth, _Die Philosophie der Geschichte als Soziologie_
+  (Leipzig, 1897), p. 230.
+
+Footnote 177:
+
+  See Barth, _l.c._, pp. 231 f.
+
+Footnote 178:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 233.—Mougeoulle makes the milieu account for the great men
+  in history, the great popular epics, social and historical life in
+  general; the tendencies of the three historical schools—German,
+  French, and English—are connected with the differences in the milieus
+  of their respective countries.—Cf. _ibid._, pp. 230–2.
+
+Footnote 179:
+
+  _Avec une Préface de M. Élisée Réclus_ (Paris: Hachette, 1889, 369
+  pp.), pp. 53–71.
+
+Footnote 180:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 156; 130.
+
+Footnote 181:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 154; 157 f.
+
+Footnote 182:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 278; 190 ff.; 188; 135.—But why does he confine himself to
+  these four countries?
+
+Footnote 183:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 185; 364. For a general statement on the significance of
+  rivers, cf. _ibid._, pp. 188–90. The particular nature of the rivers
+  of the “territoire des civilisations fluviales” imposed on the
+  inhabitants the yoke of despotism.—_Ibid._, p. 161.
+
+Footnote 184:
+
+  _Ibid._, pp. 364 f.
+
+Footnote 185:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 364.
+
+Footnote 186:
+
+  _Ibid._, _e.g._, p. 128; 224–27.
+
+Footnote 187:
+
+  His general theory is stated on pp. 39–42, 53–71, 79 f., 89, 99 f.,
+  102–60. Chapter 7, pp. 161–90, is a general discussion of the
+  geographical environment of the “Civilisations Fluviales,” followed
+  successively by a detailed treatment of “Le Nil” (ch. 8, pp. 191–234),
+  of “Le Tigre et L’Euphrate” (ch. 9, pp. 235–78), of “L’Indus et Le
+  Gange” (ch. 10, pp. 279–319), of “Le Hoang-Ho et Le Yangtse-Kiang”
+  (ch. 11, pp. 320–66).
+
+Footnote 188:
+
+  W. D. Babington, _Fallacies of Race Theories as Applied to National
+  Characteristics_ (Longmans, Green & Co., 1895).
+
+Footnote 189:
+
+  N. Y., Scribner, 1893, 290 pp.
+
+Footnote 190:
+
+  For the rôle of the physical milieu in American history, cf. also:
+  Justin Winsor, _The Mississippi Basin, The Struggle in America between
+  England and France: 1697–1763_ (Boston & N. Y., 1898) [influence of
+  geography over history during colonization and settlement]; Frederick
+  Jackson Turner, _Rise of the New West_: 1819–1829 (N. Y. & London:
+  Harper & Brothers, 1906) [vol. 14 of _The American Nation, A History_,
+  ed. by A. B. Hart, in 27 vols. In the Author’s Preface, p. XVII,
+  Turner remarks: “In the present volume I have kept before myself the
+  importance of regarding American development as the outcome of
+  economic and social as well as political forces.” And, he should have
+  added, of geographical environment. _Vide_ especially the first half
+  of his book for the working out of his milieu idea]; James Bryce, _The
+  American Commonwealth_, (2 vols., new ed., completely revised, N. Y.:
+  Macmillan, 1910–11) [see vol. 2, ch. 91 (pp. 449–68), “The home of the
+  nation,” for a statement of the influence of physical conditions on
+  American history]; E. C. Semple, _American History and Its Geographic
+  Conditions_ (Boston & N. Y.: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1903, 435 pp.)
+  [regarded, I believe, as one of the best treatises on the subject]; A.
+  P. Brigham, _Geographic Influences in American History_ (Boston: Ginn,
+  1903, 355 pp.) [a concrete essay; has much physiography; includes
+  present conditions]; A. M. Simons, _Social Forces in American History_
+  (N. Y.: Macmillan, 1914, 325 pp.) [a discussion of the effect of the
+  industrial and economic environment on social institutions in
+  America]; perhaps it may be added here that some American universities
+  offer a course on the relation of geography to American history.
+
+Footnote 191:
+
+  See Ripley, “Geography and Sociology” (1895), p. 637; and Ripley, _The
+  Races of Europe_ (1899), pp. 4 ff.; for titles of their writings on
+  this subject, cf. _ibid._, pp. 4–6 nn., and “Geogr. and Soc.,” pp. 654
+  f.
+
+Footnote 192:
+
+  8 vols., N. Y., Dodd, Mead & Co., 1902–7.
+
+Footnote 193:
+
+  See Bryce’s article in Helmolt’s _Hist. of the World_, vol. 1, p. XL.
+
+Footnote 194:
+
+  “Anderseits wieder hat ja Helmolt in seinem geschichtlichen
+  Sammelwerke im Geiste Ratzels den Versuch gemacht, ein
+  Gesamtgeschichtsbild auf geographischer Grundlage aufzubauen, so daß
+  kein Teil der Ökumene aus der Weltgeschichte ausgeschlossen
+  bleibt.”—L. Gumplowicz, Der _Rassenkampf_ (2 .... Aufl., 1909), p. 403
+  (Anhang).
+
+Footnote 195:
+
+  “... die bisherigen Weltgeschichten waren gar keine Geschichte der
+  Welt oder auch nur unserer Welt, sondern einzig eine solche der
+  Kulturnationen. Mit dieser Gepflogenheit hat Helmolts Werk in
+  ebenso glücklicher wie origineller Weise gebrochen, indem es zum
+  ersten Male die Länder- und Völkerkunde in den Dienst der
+  Weltgeschichtsdarstellung hineinzog.”—From a review of the first
+  ed. of _Helmolts Weltgeschichte_ (1899) in the “Braunschweigische
+  Landeßeitung” (February 4, 1908), quoted in the prospectus of the
+  second German edition.
+
+Footnote 196:
+
+  _History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century_ (London, 1913).
+
+Footnote 197:
+
+  Second ed., Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1903, 288 pp.
+
+Footnote 198:
+
+  George, _l.c._, p. V (Preface).
+
+Footnote 199:
+
+  _Ibid._, pp. 111 f.—George cites no authorities or sources; he has no
+  bibliography; he does not quote a single book in his discussion; he
+  has no _Auseinandersetzung_ with his predecessors in the field; and
+  finally, he gives no clue as to the origin of his data.—Chaps. 1–8
+  (pp. 1–110) are the general part of the book; chaps. 9–20 (pp.
+  111–282) deal with: The Outlines of Europe, The British Islands,
+  France, The Spanish Peninsula, Italy, The Alpine Passes, Switzerland,
+  The Rhineland, The Baltic Region, The Danube Basin, Theatres of
+  European War, The Mediterranean Basin.
+
+Footnote 200:
+
+  A. W. Small, _General Sociology_ (Chicago, 1905), p. 53.
+
+Footnote 201:
+
+  The distinguished Italian historian is the son-in-law of the late
+  eminent Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso.
+
+Footnote 202:
+
+  _Vide_ Jean Brunhes, _La Géographie Humaine_ (2^e éd., Paris, 1912),
+  p. 721.—For references to historical works dealing with history on a
+  geographical basis, cf. _ibid._ (1^e éd., Paris, 1910), ch. X, 1:
+  L’esprit géographique dans les sciences économiques, sociales et
+  historiques (pp. 739 ff., esp. 774 ff. [Michelet, Vidal de la Blache,
+  Th. Reinach, A. Leroy-Beaulieu, C. Jullian, A. Harnack, H. F. Helmolt,
+  G. Ferrero, E. C. Semple, Erwin Hanslick, & o.]).
+
+Footnote 203:
+
+  _Die geographischen Grundlagen der österreichisch-ungarischen
+  Monarchie u. ihrer Außenpolitik_ (Leipzig u. Berlin: B. G. Teubner,
+  1915).
+
+Footnote 204:
+
+  See the review of Sieger’s book by Edwin Rollett in the
+  _Österreichische Rundschau_, Bd. 43, H. 4 (15. Mai 1915), pp. 188 f.
+
+Footnote 205:
+
+  Boston & N. Y., Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1907.
+
+Footnote 206:
+
+  Cf. esp. ch. 18 (pp. 359–85) for a summary of conclusions.
+
+Footnote 207:
+
+  _Vide_ _e.g._ James Harvey Robinson’s _The New History, Essays
+  Illustrating the Modern Historical Outlook_ (N. Y.: Macmillan, 1912),
+  for references to the theory of milieu, cf. esp. p. 64, 73, 76 f., 92
+  f., 97 f., 124–6, 144, 145 f., 247, 253–7, and ch. 3 (pp. 70 ff.): The
+  new allies of history. Or take for choice the title of a recent book
+  by Charles A. Beard: _An Economic Interpretation of American Politics_
+  (Macmillan, 1916), to be further persuaded of the attention bestowed
+  by historians on the milieu. Or, see works by Seligman and J. T.
+  Shotwell.
+
+Footnote 208:
+
+  _Vide_ C. Vallaux, _Géographie Sociale, Le Sol et L’État_ (Paris,
+  1911), p. 23.—Such economists as Blanqui, Bastiat, and J.—B. Say,
+  brought to light the geographical bases of the material life of
+  societies. The sociologists themselves, “bien que leur science soit
+  jeune, n’ont pas toujours oublié le cadre naturel et la position
+  terrestre des agrégats qu’ils étudient. Par tous ces chercheurs de
+  tendances diverses, la géographie humaine et la géographie politique
+  ont progressé tout autant que par les efforts des géographes
+  proprement dits.”—_Ibid._
+
+Footnote 209:
+
+  E. Bernheim, _Lehrbuch der historischen Methode_ (5. u. 6. Aufl.,
+  Leipzig, 1908), p. 316; 636.—Cf. also E. Fr. Th. Lindner,
+  _Geschichtsphilosophie, das Wesen der geschichtlichen Entwicklung_ (2.
+  erweiterte u. umgearb. Aufl., Stuttg. u. Berlin: Cotta, 1904, 241
+  pp.), 2. Abschnitt (pp. 23–34): Die Veränderung, but more esp. 10.
+  Abschnitt (pp. 217–41): Die Ursachen u. die Weise der Entwicklung.
+
+Footnote 210:
+
+  For orientation and literature on views opposing the naturalistic
+  interpretation of history, cf. L. Stein, _Philosophische Strömungen
+  der Gegenwart_ (Stuttgart, Verl. v. F. Enke, 1908), pp. 430 ff.
+
+Footnote 211:
+
+  See G. P. Gooch, _History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century_
+  (London & N. Y.: Longmans, Green & Co., 1913), p. 573; see ch. 28 (pp.
+  573–94): “The History of Civilisation;” also _The Cambridge Modern
+  History_ [ed. by A. W. Ward and others, Cambridge: The Univ. Press,
+  1910], vol. 12: _The Latest Age_, ch. 26 (pp. 816 ff.: “The Growth of
+  Historical Science” by G. P. Gooch).
+
+Footnote 212:
+
+  _Economic Geography_ (N. Y.: Macmillan, _s.a._—1915?—; not earlier
+  than 1910, for statistics for that year are given in the text; 560
+  pp.), p. 1.
+
+Footnote 213:
+
+  “Since his [Buckle’s] time much more has been done, not only in
+  studying, as Buckle himself did, the immediate influence of climate
+  and soil, but also in explaining the allied field of the effect of the
+  fauna and the flora on social development. The subject of the
+  domestication of animals, for instance, and its profound effect on
+  human progress has not only been investigated by a number of recent
+  students [especially E. Hahn, _Die Haustiere u. ihre Beziehung zur
+  Wirtschaft des Menschen_, 1896], but has been made the very basis of
+  the explanation of early American civilization by one of the most
+  brilliant and most learned of recent historians [Payne, _History of
+  the New World called America_; esp. vol. 1, bk. II]. A Russian scholar
+  has shown in detail the connection between the great rivers and the
+  progress of humanity, and the whole modern study of economic geography
+  is but an expansion on broader lines of the same idea.”—Edwin R. A.
+  Seligman, _The Economic Interpretation of History_ (N. Y.: The
+  Columbia Univ. Press, 1902, 166 pp.), pp. 13 f.
+
+Footnote 214:
+
+  See Wm. Morris Davis, _Geographical Essays_, ed. by D. W. Johnson
+  (Ginn & Co.: Boston, _s.a._, copyright 1909), esp. the first two
+  essays: “An inductive study of the content of geography” (1906), pp.
+  3–22, and “The progress of geography in the schools” (1902), pp.
+  23–69.
+
+Footnote 215:
+
+  In an address delivered at the dedication of Julius Rosenwald Hall,
+  printed in _The University of Chicago Magazine_ (vol. VII, No.
+  6—April, 1915—, pp. 175–8) under the title “Some Matters of History.”
+  See p. 177.
+
+Footnote 216:
+
+  Felix Lampe, in _Große Geographen_ (Leipzig, 1915), has a rather brief
+  chapter (pp. 281–7) on “Die wissenschaftliche Geographie der
+  Gegenwart.”
+
+Footnote 217:
+
+  See the Introductory Essay by the Right Hon. [now Viscount] James
+  Bryce in Helmolt’s _Hist. of the World_, vol. 1, pp. I-LX, esp. pp.
+  XXV-XLI.
+
+Footnote 218:
+
+  A. J. Herbertson and F. D. Herbertson, _Man and his Work, an
+  Introduction to Human Geography_ (London: Black, 1909, 132 pp.), p. 6.
+
+Footnote 219:
+
+  N. Y., G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908, 363 pp.
+
+Footnote 220:
+
+  “In the chapters on the life of man in the different zones, I have
+  made liberal use of Ratzel’s _Anthropogeographie_ (2d ed., Stuttgart,
+  1899).”—Ward, _op. cit._, p. VI.
+
+Footnote 221:
+
+  Ward, _op. cit._, p. V.
+
+Footnote 222:
+
+  N. Y. and London, 1911. See ch. 4, pp. 94–129.
+
+Footnote 223:
+
+  Paris, 1911, 420 pp.
+
+Footnote 224:
+
+  _Vide supra_, p. 27.
+
+Footnote 225:
+
+  “Die soziale Geographie, hauptsächlich von Bastian und Ratzel tiefer
+  begründet, wird gegenwärtig immer sorgsamer ausgebaut und hat
+  namentlich in dem Wiener Erwin Hanslick einen eifrigen Förderer, der
+  auf die Ermittlung von geographischen Kulturgrenzen ausgeht. In andrer
+  Weise nimmt von ihr Willy Hellpach seinen Ausgang, der Geographie,
+  Psychologie und Soziologie zu einem neuen Gebiet zu vereinigen
+  sucht.”—Rudolf Goldscheid, “Soziologie” in _Das Jahr 1913, Ein
+  Gesamtbild der Kulturentwicklung_, herausgegeben von D. Sarason
+  (Leipzig und Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1913), p. 432.
+
+Footnote 226:
+
+  Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1911, 368 pp.—“Hier [in Hellpach’s book] wird
+  alles zusammengefaßt, was über den Einfluß von ‘Wetter, Klima und
+  Landschaft’ auf das Seelenleben bekannt ist.”—Otto Schlüter,
+  “Anthropogeographie” in _Das Jahr 1913_, etc., p. 401.
+
+Footnote 227:
+
+  See Hellpach, _op. cit._, p. 4.—Chiefly with those of the atmosphere;
+  he devotes nine pages (98–107) to the telluric elements of the
+  weather, and 87 pages (230–317) to the third main part of the book:
+  “Landschaft und Seelenleben.” For soil as a co-factor, cf. also the
+  ch. “Klimawechsel” in Part II (pp. 118–38). Hellpach defines
+  Landschaft (p. 230) as follows: “Unter Landschaft verstehen wir den
+  _sinnlichen_ Gesamteindruck, der von einem Stück der Oberfläche und
+  dem dazu gehörigen Abschnitt des Himmelsgewölbes in uns erweckt wird.
+  ... das _sicht_bare Landschaftsbild bildet unter allen Umständen den
+  Kern dessen, was wir Landschaft nennen ... [And he adds that for an
+  investigation of the effect of Landscape upon the human soul] sind die
+  nicht-optischen sinnlichen Eigenschaften der Landschaft von
+  unentbehrlicher Bedeutung: Töne und Geräusche, Düfte und Gerüche und
+  eine höchst verwickelte Summe von Affizierungen der Berührungs-,
+  Temperatur-, ja zuweilen der Schmerzempfindlichkeit erst bilden mit
+  Farben und Formen zusammen das natürliche Ganze, das wir in seelischen
+  Wirkungen als _Landschaft_ erleben.”
+
+Footnote 228:
+
+  _Vide_, _e.g._, p. 8.
+
+Footnote 229:
+
+  Hellpach himself testifies (p. 318) that his book is a “Sammlung der
+  Tatsachen.” Cf. also Schlüter’s opinion cited above in note no. 226.
+
+Footnote 230:
+
+  Manifestly, this is to be understood as a virtue in Hellpach, and not
+  as a fault, since this conviction is gained only by dint of Hellpach’s
+  clear delimitation of the scope of his work; it constitutes one of the
+  results of his own labor.
+
+Footnote 231:
+
+  See Schlüter’s art. in _Das Jahr 1913_, p. 402.
+
+Footnote 232:
+
+  Paris, 1910; 2nd ed. 1912.
+
+Footnote 233:
+
+  For a statement of principles (theoretical exposition), cf. the first
+  two chaps. (pp. 1–92); for a summary, cf. ch. X, section 2 (pp.
+  780–9): “Le facteur psychologique dans les phénomènes naturels et
+  l’activité humaine,” and section 3 (pp. 790–807): “L’adaptation
+  humaine aux conditions géographiques.” In the preface to the second
+  ed., there are quoted seven pages from a review of the first ed. of
+  Brunhes’ work by Paul Mantoux, wherein the scope, content, and import
+  of the first ed. are succinctly summarized.
+
+Footnote 234:
+
+  N. Y., 1911, 637 pp.
+
+Footnote 235:
+
+  _Vide_ Wm. J. Thomas, _Source Book for Social Origins_ (Chicago and
+  London, 1909), p. 138 (Bibliogr. to Part I).—Without fear of
+  contradiction, it may be said that the best two recent treatises on
+  human geography are those by Brunhes and Semple.—For a brief concrete
+  anthropo-geographical sketch, besides the works previously cited, cf.
+  also W. Ule, _Grundriß der Allgemeinen Erdkunde_ (2. verm. Aufl.,
+  Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1915, 487 pp.), pp. 361 ff. See also the brief
+  résumé in G. Schmoller’s _Grundr. d. Allgem. Volkswirtschaftslehre_
+  (Leipzig, 1901), pp. 144 ff.
+
+Footnote 236:
+
+  “Unverkennbar ist es, daß die Naturgewalten in ihren bedingenden
+  Einflüssen auf das Persönliche der Völkerentwicklung immer mehr und
+  mehr zurückweichen mußten, in demselben Maße wie diese vorwärts
+  schritten. Sie übten im Anfange der Menschengeschichte als
+  Naturimpulse über die ersten Entwicklungen in der Wiege der Menschheit
+  einen sehr entscheidenden Einfluß aus, dessen Differenzen wir
+  vielleicht noch in dem Naturschlage der verschiedenen Menschenrassen
+  oder ihrer physisch verschiedenen Völkergruppen aus einer gänzlich
+  unbekannten Zeit wahrzunehmen vermochten. Aber dieser Einfluß mußte
+  abnehmen, ... Die zivilisierte Menschheit entwindet sich nach und
+  nach, ebenso wie der einzelne Mensch, den unmittelbar bedingenden
+  Fesseln der Natur und ihres Wohnortes. Die Einflüsse derselben
+  Naturverhältnisse und derselben tellurischen Weltstellungen der
+  erfüllten Räume bleiben sich also nicht durch alle Zeiten gleich.”
+  Ritter, _l.c._; see Achelis, _op. cit._, p. 74 _et seq._
+
+Footnote 237:
+
+  “Man ist in Nachfolge C. Ritters vielfach geneigt, anzunehmen, daß die
+  Natureinflüsse sich mit zunehmender Kultur immer weniger geltend
+  machen.”—E. Bernheim, _Lehrb. d. hist. Methode_ (Leipzig, 1908), p.
+  642.
+
+Footnote 238:
+
+  Theo. Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, I (Leipzig, 1859), p.
+  341; see Achelis, _op. cit._, p. 185.
+
+Footnote 239:
+
+  “Die Einteilung der Menschheit war nur geographisch-historisch
+  möglich. Denn der Mensch steht in fester Abhängigkeit, in engstem
+  Verbande zu der Natur, aus und an welcher er sich entwickelt hat, zur
+  Natur der Erde, welcher letzteren kleiner, aber integrierender Teil er
+  ist. Auch seine Entwicklung ist noch im Steigen, aber nur im Bereiche
+  seines inneren, geistigen Lebens ... je höher der Mensch steigt, um so
+  mehr macht er sich von dem zwingenden Einfluß der Erde frei; und wenn
+  er demselben auch nie ganz entgehen wird, da er Nahrung braucht, von
+  der Schwere sich nicht loslösen kann, so ist dennoch diese immer
+  wachsende Freiheit ... eine stärkende ... Aussicht für die Zukunft
+  ...”—_Anthropologische Beiträge_, 1. Bd. (Halle, 1875), p. 423; see
+  Achelis, _op. cit._, p. 227.
+
+Footnote 240:
+
+  _Principles of Sociology_, I, sec. 21.
+
+Footnote 241:
+
+  Vide Ripley, “Geography and Sociology,” p. 649.
+
+Footnote 242:
+
+  _Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection_, p. 319; cited by
+  E. B. Tylor in the article “Anthropology,” _Ency. Brit._ (11th ed.),
+  vol. 2, p. 114.
+
+Footnote 243:
+
+  Réclus, _op. cit._, (1879); quoted by Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 86 f.
+
+Footnote 244:
+
+  “... je crois, que la civilisation dans son premier stade dépend bien
+  plus du milieu physique et tellurique, qu’aux époques suivantes.”—Aug.
+  Matteuzzi, _Les Facteurs de l’Évolution des Peuples_ (Paris, 1900), p.
+  29. “... Tout ceci nous amène à affirmer ce fait, que les premières
+  civilisations, dans des milieux favorables, eurent une relation
+  étroite avec la culture du sol; et que dans un développement
+  ultérieur, ce rapport se relâcha ...”—_Ibid._, p. 25. For best
+  summaries of immense material collected on the relation of primitive
+  human life to environment, see the five papers in the _Smithsonian
+  Report_ for 1895: “Relation of Primitive Peoples to Environment” by J.
+  W. Powell (pp. 625 ff.); “Influence of Environment upon Human
+  Industries or Arts” by O. T. Mason (pp. 639 ff.); “The Japanese
+  Nation—A Typical Product of Environment” by G. G. Hubbard (pp. 667
+  ff.); “The Tusayan Ritual: A Study of the Influence of Environment on
+  Aboriginal Cults” by J. W. Fewkes (pp. 683 ff.); and, probably the
+  best of the five, “The Relation of Institutions to Environment” by the
+  eminent ethnologist W. J. McGee (pp. 701 ff.).
+
+Footnote 245:
+
+  _Anthropogeogr._, I^2: “Der Mensch und die Umwelt” (pp. 41–65).
+
+Footnote 246:
+
+  “Geogr. and Sociol.,” p. 650.
+
+Footnote 247:
+
+  See his presidential address on the Origin of Man before the Section
+  of Anthropology (_Report of the British Association for the
+  Advancement of Science, 1912_; London, 1913), p. 576.
+
+Footnote 248:
+
+  _The Positive Philosophy of Aug. Comte, Freely Translated and
+  Condensed by Harriet Martineau_ (In 2 vols., 3rd ed., London, 1893—the
+  original appeared from 1830–42), vol. 2, p. 96.
+
+Footnote 249:
+
+  _Aug. Comte’s Positive Philosophie im Außug von I. Rig, Übersetzt von
+  Kirchmann_ (2 Bde, Heidelberg, 1883), S. 94 ff.; Achelis, _op. cit._,
+  p. 130.
+
+Footnote 250:
+
+  _A System of Logic_ (New Impression; London: Longmans, Green & Co.,
+  1911—first published in 1843), p. 572.
+
+Footnote 251:
+
+  A. Schäffle, _Bau und Leben des sozialen Körpers_, Tübingen, 1875, 2.
+  Aufl., 1881; Achelis, _op. cit._, p. 161.
+
+Footnote 252:
+
+  “Post’s general attitude is best seen in his ‘Introduction to the
+  Study of Ethnological Jurisprudence,’ which was published in 1886, and
+  in his ‘African Jurisprudence’ of 1887.”—John L. Myres, “The Influence
+  of Anthropology on the Course of Political Science” (Presidential
+  address to the Anthropological Section of the British Assoc. for the
+  Advancement of Science), _Report Brit. Assoc., 1909_ (London, 1910),
+  p. 613.
+
+Footnote 253:
+
+  Myres, _ibid._, pp. 613 f.
+
+Footnote 254:
+
+  See Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, p. 231.
+
+Footnote 255:
+
+  See the 4th ch. of his _Géographie Sociale_ (Paris, 1911): “Agents et
+  Caractères Physiques Considérés Isolément” (pp. 92–144).
+
+Footnote 256:
+
+  “... as political and legal institutions are indissolubly bound up
+  with social and religious, it follows inevitably that the political
+  and legal institutions of a race cradled in Northern Europe are
+  exceedingly ill adapted for the children of the equator. Accordingly
+  in any wise administration of these regions it must be a primary
+  object to study the native institutions, to modify ... them ..., but
+  never to seek to eradicate and supplant them. Any attempt to do so
+  will be but vain, for these institutions are as much part of the land
+  as are its climate, its soil, its fauna, and its flora. ‘Naturam
+  expellas furca, tamen usque recurret.’”—The Application of Zoological
+  Laws to Man, in _Rep. Brit. Assoc, f. the Adv. of Sci., 1908_ (London,
+  1909), p. 843.
+
+Footnote 257:
+
+  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, pp. 310 _et seq._
+
+Footnote 258:
+
+  _Vide_ pp. 141–75 in _Der Weltkrieg im Unterricht, Vorschläge u.
+  Anregungen_, etc. (Gotha: F. A. Perthes), esp. pp 163–5; he also
+  discusses other phases of the relation between physical environment
+  and the present war.
+
+Footnote 259:
+
+  I: _Deutsche Rundschau_, April, 1915, pp. 78–91, and II (Schluß):
+  _ibid._, May, 1915, pp. 207–17.
+
+Footnote 260:
+
+  In _Monatshefte für den Naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht_, 1.
+  Kriegsheft von Bastian Schmid (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1915).
+
+Footnote 261:
+
+  Cf. Gooch, _op. cit._, pp. 585 _et seq._
+
+Footnote 262:
+
+  See his Introduction to Dexter’s _Weather Influences_ (N. Y., 1904),
+  p. XXIV.
+
+Footnote 263:
+
+  _Les Facteurs de L’Évolution des Peuples_ (Paris, 1900), p. 25, 29,
+  27.—“C’est dans l’intensité de l’effort dirigé par les groupes sociaux
+  contre les résistances du milieu, que réside la première impulsion
+  vers la civilisation.”—_Ibid._, p. 27.
+
+Footnote 264:
+
+  But he adds, “... no disturbing causes, acting on social development,
+  could do more than to affect its rate of progress. This is true of the
+  operation of influences from the inorganic world, as of all others. In
+  our view of biology we saw that the human being cannot be modified
+  indefinitely by exterior circumstances; that such modifications can
+  affect only the degrees of phenomena, without at all changing their
+  nature; and again, that when the disturbing influences exceed their
+  general limits, the organism is no longer modified, but
+  destroyed.”—_The Positive Philosophy of Aug. Comte, tr. by Harriet
+  Martineau_, vol. 2, p. 98; 97.
+
+Footnote 265:
+
+  See Ripley, _Races of Europe_ (1899), p. 11; cf. the references given
+  there, and in the note on the same page.—Cf. also Ellsworth
+  Huntington’s _Palestine and its Transformation_ (1910), and his
+  suggestive articles on “Changes of Climate and History” (in _The
+  American Historical Review_ for January, 1913, vol. 18, pp. 213–32)
+  [for references to other writings on the subject by the same
+  author,—and by A. T. Olmstead—cf. p. 214 n.]; on “Climate and
+  Civilization” (in _Harper’s Magazine_ for February, 1915, vol. 130,
+  pp. 367–73); on “Is Civilization Determined by Climate?” (_ibid._ May,
+  1915, pp. 943–51); a new book of his, entitled _Civilization and
+  Climate_ (333 pp.), is announced for publication by the Yale Univ.
+  Press.
+
+Footnote 266:
+
+  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, pp. 280 _et seq._
+
+Footnote 267:
+
+  “... cetera [Mattiaci] similes Batavis, nisi quod ipso adhuc terrae
+  suae solo et caelo acrius animantur.”—F. Ritter, _P. C. Taciti Opera_
+  (1864), p. 643. In _Römische Prosaiker in neuen Übersetzungen_ (hg. v.
+  C. N. von Osiander und G. Schwab, 51. Bändchen, Stuttg., 1852, S. 123)
+  this is rendered as follows: “Im ganzen gleichen sie [die Mattiaker]
+  den Batavern, nur daß Boden und Klima ihres Landes sie noch
+  kriegerischer macht.”
+
+Footnote 268:
+
+  Cesare Lombroso, _Crime, Its Causes and Remedies_ (Boston, 1911), pp.
+  3 f.
+
+Footnote 269:
+
+  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, p. 282.
+
+Footnote 270:
+
+  _Vide_ Flint, _l.c._, pp. 582 _et seq._
+
+Footnote 271:
+
+  Haddon & Quiggin, _Hist. of Anthropology_ (London, 1910), pp. 84 _et
+  seq._
+
+Footnote 272:
+
+  Cesare Lombroso, _Crime_, etc., p. 2.
+
+Footnote 273:
+
+  N. S. Shaler, Nature and Man in America (N. Y., 1893), p. 288.
+
+Footnote 274:
+
+  In _Abhandlungen der Königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften,
+  Phil.-hist. Classe_, 1912, p. 13: “In einer Wendung, die an
+  Distinktionen Schleiermachers erinnert, hat er [Dilthey] in seiner
+  letzten größeren Arbeit erklärt, daß unser wissenschaftliches Denken
+  von zwei großen Tendenzen beherrscht sei. Der Mensch finde sich auf
+  der einen Seite bestimmt von der physischen Welt, in der die
+  seelischen Vorgänge nur wie Interpolationen erscheinen. [The other is:
+  das Leben (life), das Erlebnis (experience).]”
+
+Footnote 275:
+
+  Ridgeway, _l.c._, p. 843.
+
+Footnote 276:
+
+  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, pp. 258 _et seq._—For the effect of
+  physical environment on the Jews in Palestine, cf. Friedrich Otto
+  Hertz, _Rasse und Kultur_ (Leipzig, 1915, 421 pp.), pp. 162 ff.; and
+  “Soziale Grundlagen des Monotheismus u. Polytheismus” (pp. 170 ff.)
+  and the literature there cited. Cf. also _ibid._, “Natürliche u.
+  Soziale Grundlagen der indischen Entwicklung” (pp. 198 ff.).
+
+Footnote 277:
+
+  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, pp. 309 _et seq._
+
+Footnote 278:
+
+  _Vide_ his _Weather Influences, An Empirical Study of the Mental and
+  Physiological Effects of Definite Meteorological Conditions_, with
+  Introduction by Cleveland Abbe (N. Y.: Macmillan, 1904, 277 pp.).
+
+Footnote 279:
+
+  I saw somewhere that exception had been taken to his results, but I
+  failed at the time to make a note thereof and have been unable to find
+  the passage again.
+
+Footnote 280:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 266; 269; 272 f.—The fifth and last is not cited here.
+
+Footnote 281:
+
+  Ward, _op. cit._, p. 310; 335, where ref. is also made to F. A. Cook’s
+  article on “Some Physiological Effects of Arctic Cold, Darkness and
+  Light” (_MED. REC._, June 12, 1897, pp. 833–36).
+
+Footnote 282:
+
+  London and N. Y., 1892.
+
+Footnote 283:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 90.
+
+Footnote 284:
+
+  _Ibid._, pp. 113–5.
+
+Footnote 285:
+
+  “Diese Priorität (der erste Versuch überhaupt, die Einflüsse des
+  naturalen Milieus auf die Psyche darzustellen) gebührt, nach
+  mancherlei Vorläufern minder geschlossenen Charakters (z. B.
+  _Quételet_, Sur l’homme etc. 1835, Bd. 2, Kap. 3, Abschn. 2–3,
+  Influence du climat et des saisons sur le penchant au crime) ohne
+  Zweifel _Lombroso_, aus dessen 1878 erschienenem Buche ‘Pensiero e
+  meteore’ Extracte auch in seine andern Publikationen, namentlich in
+  ‘Genio e follia,’ übergegangen sind.”—Hellpach, _Die Geopsychischen
+  Erscheinungen_ (Leipzig, 1911), p. 336.
+
+Footnote 286:
+
+  _Criminal Man, According to the Classification of Cesare Lombroso
+  Briefly Summarized by his Daughter Gina Lombroso Ferrero_ (“The
+  Science Series”; N. Y. and London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1911, 322
+  pp.), p. 145.—Lombroso’s _L’Uomo di genio_ appeared in 1888, _L’Uomo
+  delinquente_ in 1889, and _La Donna delinquente_ in 1893.
+
+Footnote 287:
+
+  _Criminal Man_, p. 145.
+
+Footnote 288:
+
+  Tr. by H. P. Horton, “The Modern Criminal Science Series,” Boston:
+  Little, Brown and Co., 1911, 471 pp.
+
+Footnote 289:
+
+  “It is brought out in Guerry’s statistics that the crime of rape
+  occurs in England and France oftenest in the hot months; and Curcio
+  has observed the same thing in Italy....
+
+  “In England, according to Guerry, and in Italy, according to Curcio,
+  the maximum number of murders falls in the hottest months....
+
+  “Poisoning also, according to Guerry, occurs oftenest in May. The same
+  phenomenon is to be observed in the case of Rebellions. In studying
+  (as I have in my ‘Political Crime’) the 836 uprisings that took place
+  in the whole world in the period between 1791 and 1880, one finds that
+  in Asia and Africa the greatest number falls in July. In Europe and
+  America the greater prevalence of rebellions in the hot months could
+  not be more clearly marked. In Europe the maximum proved to be in July
+  [in this connection one might also point to the beginning of the
+  present European war which falls in the midsummer of 1914], and in
+  South America in January, which are respectively the two hottest
+  months. The minimum falls in Europe in December and January, and in
+  South America in May and June, which again correspond in temperature.
+
+  “If now we pass from the whole of Europe to the particular countries,
+  we still find the greatest number of uprisings in the hot months....
+
+  “Benoiston de Chateauneuf points out that duels in the army are more
+  frequent in the summer.
+
+  “I have proved that the same influence manifests itself in the case of
+  men of genius (‘Man of Genius,’ Part I.).
+
+  “Ferri, in his ‘Crime in its Relation to Temperature,’ has proved from
+  a study of the French criminal statistics from 1825 to 1878 that one
+  can deduce an almost complete parallelism between heat and
+  criminality, not only for the different months, but also for years of
+  different degrees of heat. The influence of the temperature on crime
+  from 1825 to 1848 appears to be very pronounced and constant, and is
+  often even greater than that exercised by agricultural production.
+  Since 1848, notwithstanding the more serious agricultural and
+  political disturbances, the coincidence between temperature and
+  criminality becomes from time to time plainly apparent, especially in
+  the case of homicide and murder....
+
+  “The connection comes out much more plainly, however, in the
+  statistics of rape and offenses against chastity, which follow to an
+  even greater degree the annual variations in temperature....
+
+  “As regards crimes against property there is a marked increase in the
+  winter (theft and forgery being the most abundant in January), while
+  the other seasons differ little from one another....”—Lombroso,
+  _Crime, Its Causes and Remedies_, pp. 4–8. “Superintendents of prisons
+  have generally observed that the inmates are more excited when storms
+  are approaching and during the first quarter of the moon....”—_Ibid._,
+  p. 12.
+
+Footnote 290:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 13.—“In studying the distribution of simple and aggravated
+  homicides in Europe, we find the highest figures in Italy and the
+  other southern countries, and the lowest in the more northerly
+  regions, England, Denmark, Germany. The same can be said of political
+  uprisings in all Europe. We see, in fact, that the number of crimes
+  increases as we go from north to south, and in the same measure as the
+  heat increases.”—_Ibid._, p. 14.
+
+Footnote 291:
+
+  This follows Laing. See Robertson, _Buckle and his Critics_ (London,
+  1895), p. 553.—Cf. also C. M. Gießler’s article, “Über den Einfluß von
+  Wärme und Kälte auf das seelische Funktionieren des Menschen,” in
+  _Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie u. Soziologie_,
+  1902, pp. 319–38. Gießler refers (p. 334) to Oppenheimer “Über den
+  Einfluß des Klimas auf den Menschen” (Berlin, 1867). _Vide_ also E.
+  Huntington’s article on “Work and Weather,” _Harper’s Magazine_, vol.
+  130 (January, 1915), pp. 233–44.
+
+Footnote 292:
+
+  _Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1908_ (London, 1909), p. 844.
+
+Footnote 293:
+
+  On the use of alcohol in its relation to the northern climate, cf.
+  also Auguste Matteuzzi, _Les Facteurs de L’Évolution des Peuples_
+  (Paris, 1900), pp. 329 _et seq._
+
+
+
+
+                                SUMMARY
+
+
+The Introductory Remark traces the semasiology and use of the word
+_milieu_ and discusses its English and German equivalents “environment”
+and “Umwelt.”
+
+An historical sketch of the milieu idea is then taken up from the very
+beginnings to the nineteenth century. The earlier notions of
+environmental influence are general and undifferentiated.
+
+The Hebrew Prophets see the hand of Providence in the harmony of
+national fate with the configuration of the globe. Hippocrates dwells
+upon the regularity of climatic effect on man. Aristotle notes the
+action of physical environment on government and national character.
+Eratosthenes, Strabo, and other Greek thinkers, relate man causally to
+surrounding nature. Villani says that the fine air of Arezzo produces
+great minds. Ibn Khaldūn explains, especially Arabic history, by the
+circumambient physical and social medium. Michelangelo credits Arezzo’s
+fine air with his mentality. Man is subject to the “skyey influences”
+hourly (Shakespeare).
+
+Jean Bodin plants the study of environment in French soil so firmly and
+so successfully that it has since become, in a very real sense,
+indigenous to France and that Bertillon could justly claim it to be a
+study “_très-française_,” a claim which is true to this very day.
+Bodin’s second contribution is that he undertook, for the first time in
+the modern period (on the basis of sixteenth century knowledge and
+experience), a scientific and detailed examination, far-reaching and
+extensive in scope, of the manifold influences of climatic and
+geographical conditions upon States, laws, national character, religion,
+language, temperament, talents and aptitudes,—in brief, upon man’s mind,
+manners, and morals.
+
+The study of milieu thus inaugurated in France by Bodin is set up as a
+French tradition by Lenglet du Fresnoy, Montesquieu, Turgot, Cuvier, and
+others,[294] and has been continued by French writers to our day.
+
+A number of philosophers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
+take up this idea. The doctrine of environment spreads to England and
+Germany.
+
+In Germany, Herder becomes the fulcrum of all previous thought (Hebrew,
+Greek, French, English, and German) on this theory. Herder, in turn, in
+addition to his other and principal contributions to the theory, affects
+it by giving a quickened impetus not only to the contemporary
+development thereof, but also to the later course of that development.
+Goethe reflects some of Herder’s conceptions. Wolf, Niebuhr, the German
+romanticists—August Wilhelm Schlegel in especial—and Hegel apply
+Herder’s idea to history and continue it therein. Hegel combats the
+notion that climate can be the be-all and end-all of historical
+explanation; he implies that climate was held to be a _vera causa_.
+
+The theory of social environment evolves, particularly since Ibn
+Khaldūn, parallel with that of the physical milieu.
+
+The nineteenth century brings differentiation carried out in human
+geography including history, in biology, in jurisprudence and economics,
+in anthropology, in sociology, in literature, and latterly in physics.
+These disciplines determine our divisions for discussions shortly to
+follow the present one.
+
+The major portion of this study is then given over to following the
+milieu idea in some of the more important French, English, and German
+writers of the past century on what for want of a better name has been
+called anthropo-geography inclusive of certain aspects of history.
+
+On the whole, their method has been the comparative method. Principles
+laid down _a priori_ would be illustrated by typical cases selected
+mostly from the past. Or, the process would be reversed to an _a
+posteriori_ reasoning: history restudied to find out its possible
+connections with the environment. Again: some would pick out a phase of
+the encompassing medium and follow out its effects in a particular
+country, while others would try to arrive at a more general conclusion.
+
+With reference to climate in particular, the statistical method was
+employed by Quételet, Bertillon, Leffingwell, Ferri, Holzendorf, Guerry,
+Curcio, Lombroso, and others, who established a parallelism, or
+coincidence, between certain climatic features and the criminal conduct
+of man.
+
+Delimited aspects of environment, relating again more to climate than
+any other phase of the milieu, were made the objects of observational or
+experimentally observational studies by Dexter, Brunhes, and Hellpach,
+the last two giving the most recent comprehensive summaries of our
+knowledge in this field. And they are among the best we have.
+
+The next part of this study will continue the survey of the history of
+this theory in the above mentioned sciences as well as in literature.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 294:
+
+  Some of these are to be discussed in a subsequent paper.
+
+
+
+
+                                APPENDIX
+
+
+Since the foregoing study was completed, E. Huntington’s stimulating
+book—_vide supra_, p. 79, n.—on _Civilization and Climate_ has appeared.
+He continues what Dexter began. Lack of definiteness in observation,
+argumentative conviction, reasoned out opinion, are superseded by
+scientific exactness in ascertaining the action of climate. Chapters 4–7
+(pp. 49–147) concern us here. In these chapters he investigates “the
+exact effect of various climatic factors upon selected groups of people”
+(p. 49).
+
+Huntington subjects to statistical analysis the daily records of about
+550 factory operatives, pieceworkers, employed in three factories in
+three New England cities. The records, most of them for a complete year,
+are distributed over the four years from 1910 to 1913 (p. 53).
+
+He computes wage averages. He finds for each working day the average
+hourly wage for each group of operatives. When the daily averages had
+been found, they were averaged together by weeks. To give each
+individual an equal importance, the figures of each group have been
+reduced to percentages. Finally, the different groups were combined (p.
+57). His final computations are represented in curves. A curve,
+graduated in twelve parts (one for each month), for a given year shows
+the earnings in percentages at any point and thus reveals the _time_ of
+the weakness or efficiency of the worker; it shows the time of his wages
+from least to most, thereby indicating the time of his work and energy
+from poorest to best.
+
+Huntington worked up similarly the records of 65 operatives in a North
+Carolina factory, of 240 operatives in four cotton mills in South
+Carolina and Georgia, of 57 carpenters at Jacksonville, Fla., and on a
+different basis the work of 2700 cigar makers in two cigar factories in
+Florida. On the first basis he also computed a series of data from a
+large factory at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, based on the work of about
+950 operatives in 1910, of about 750 in 1911, of 69 in 1912, of about
+7000 in 1913. He figured the monthly or bi-weekly averages of hourly
+earnings of these pieceworkers in Pittsburgh.
+
+Discussing the curves in Figure 1 (p. 59), he mentions (p. 61) five
+features revealed by the curves that show no sign of disappearing. They
+are: “an extremely low place in midwinter, and a less pronounced low
+place in midsummer; a high point in June, a still higher point at the
+end of October, and a hump in mid-December....
+
+“Before we discuss the causes of the variability of the summers let us
+consider the meaning of the curves as a whole. In the first place, it is
+evident that, although details may vary from year to year, the general
+course of events is uniformly from low in the winter to high in the fall
+with a drop of more or less magnitude in summer. To what can this be
+due?...
+
+“We seem forced to search outside of the factories for the reasons for
+our seasonal fluctuations of wages.... There seems to be no recourse
+except to ascribe the fluctuations of the curves to climate [pp. 64–5].
+
+“The verity of the conclusion just reached is strongly confirmed by
+comparison with other regions and other types of human activity.... The
+curves [in Figure 2, pp. 66–7] range from the Adirondacks in northern
+New York to Tampa in southern Florida and include one from Denmark. With
+them I have repeated some of the curves of Figure 1 for the sake of
+comparison. The most remarkable feature of this series is that although
+there is great diversity of place and of activity, all the curves
+harmonize with what would be expected on the basis of Figure 1 [p. 65].
+
+“The general form of the curves for Pittsburgh and Connecticut is
+obviously the same....
+
+“The agreement between the curves for Connecticut and Pennsylvania is
+far too close to be accidental [p. 76].
+
+“We have now seen that from New England to Florida physical strength and
+health vary in accordance with the seasons. Extremes seem to produce the
+same effect everywhere. The next question is whether mental activity
+varies the same way” (p. 77).
+
+Huntington uses the marks of “about 1900 students for a single year” in
+mathematics (weekly averages at Annapolis and daily averages at West
+Point) and in English (at Annapolis). From these data he compiles the
+curves in Figure 3 (p. 80). He says (p. 81), “The curves of mental
+activity all resemble it [the average curve of physical work] in having
+two main maxima, in fall and spring.... At Annapolis, just as at West
+Point, the time of best work is when the mean temperature is not far
+from forty degrees [Fahrenheit].
+
+“Summing up the matter, we find that the results of investigations in
+Denmark, Japan, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland, the
+Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida are in harmony. They all show that
+except in Florida neither the winter nor the summer is the most
+favorable season. Both physical and mental activity reach pronounced
+maxima in the spring and fall, with minima in midwinter and midsummer.
+The consistency of our results is of great importance. It leads to the
+belief that in all parts of the world the climate is exercising an
+influence which can readily be measured, and can be subjected to
+statistical analysis” (p. 82).
+
+This is his conclusion in Chapter IV (pp. 49–82), “The Effect of the
+Seasons.”
+
+Having seen in the fourth chapter “that both physical and mental energy
+vary from season to season according to well-defined laws,” Huntington
+investigates in the fifth chapter (“The Effect of Humidity and
+Temperature,” pp. 83–110) “the special features of seasonal change which
+are most effective” (p. 83). Explaining the curves of Human Activity and
+Mean Temperature (p. 99), he says (p. 98), “With the exception of the
+last two, which are distinctly the least reliable, the physical group
+all reach maxima at a temperature between 59° and 65°. Even the two less
+reliable curves reach their maxima within the next four degrees. All the
+curves decline at low temperatures, ..., and also at high.
+
+“Another point brought out by the curves [on p. 99] is that as we go to
+more southerly climes the optimum temperature of the human race becomes
+higher. It is important to note, however, that the variation in the
+optimum is slight compared with the variation in the mean temperature of
+the places in question. For instance, in Connecticut the optimum seems
+to be about 60° for people of north European stock. This is about ten
+degrees higher than the mean temperature for the year as a whole. In
+Florida, on the other hand, the optimum for Cubans is about 65°, which
+is five degrees _lower_ than the mean temperature for the year at Tampa.
+In other words, with a difference of twenty degrees in the mean annual
+temperature, and with a distinctly northern race compared with a
+southern, we find that the optimum differs only about 5° F. This seems
+to mean that for the entire human race the optimum temperature probably
+does not vary more than ten or fifteen degrees [pp. 100–101].
+
+“The last thing to be considered in Figure 8 [p. 99] is the mental curve
+[showing optimum mental work at 38° F.] at the bottom. It is based on so
+large a number of people, and is so regular, that its general
+reliability seems great, although I think that future studies may show
+the optimum to be a few degrees higher than is here indicated. It agrees
+with the results of Lehmann and Pedersen. Furthermore, from general
+observation we are most of us aware that we are mentally more active in
+comparatively cool weather. Perhaps ‘spring fever’ is a mental state far
+more than a physical. Apparently people do the best mental work on days
+when the thermometer ranges from freezing to about 50°—that is, when the
+mean temperature is not far from 40°. Inasmuch as human progress depends
+upon a coördination of mental and physical activity, we seem to be
+justified in the conclusion that the greatest total efficiency occurs
+halfway between the mental and physical optima, that is, with a mean
+temperature of about 50°” (pp. 102–103).
+
+The curves (p. 105) on Mean Temperature and Vital Processes in Plants,
+Animals and Man show physical energy to be at the optimum at the mean
+temperature of 60° F., mental energy at 38°, mental and physical energy
+combined at from 40° to 60°. Of this last mentioned curve he says: “It
+may be taken as representing man’s actual productive activity in the
+things that make for a high civilization. The resemblance of the human
+curves to those of the lower organisms is obvious. In general, the lower
+types of life, or the lower forms of activity, seem to reach their
+optima at higher temperatures than do the more advanced types and the
+more lofty functions such as mentality. The whole trend of biological
+thought is toward the conclusion that the same laws apply to all forms
+of life. They differ in application, but not in principle. The law of
+optimum temperature apparently controls the phenomena of life from the
+lowest activities of protoplasm to the highest activities of the human
+intellect” (pp. 109–110).
+
+In Chapter VI (“Work and Weather,” pp. 111–128), he interprets the
+curves he plotted showing especially the influence of changes of
+temperature from day to day, and of the character of each day and its
+relation to storms. In the very interesting Chapter VII (pp. 129–147) he
+discusses “The Ideal Climate.”
+
+In the closing paragraph of his book, he says, “If our hypothesis is
+true, man is more closely dependent upon nature than he has realized. A
+realization of his limitations, however, is the first step toward
+freedom [p. 293].
+
+“The hypothesis, briefly stated, is this: Today a certain peculiar type
+of climate prevails wherever civilization is high. In the past the same
+type seems to have prevailed wherever a great civilization arose.
+Therefore, such a climate seems to be a necessary condition of great
+progress. It is not the cause of civilization, for that lies infinitely
+deeper. Nor is it the only, or the most important condition. It is
+merely one of several, ...” (p. 9.)
+
+Huntington mentions (p. 7) Lehmann and Pedersen’s “Das Wetter und unsere
+Arbeit” and Berliner’s “Einfluß von Klima, Wetter und Jahreßeit auf das
+Nerven- und Seelenleben,” without the date or place of publication.
+
+
+
+
+    NOTE: Since the foregoing pages went to press, the following
+    publications have appeared; being too late for inclusion or
+    comment in the text, they are added here for reference:
+
+    Douglas W. Johnson, _Topography and Strategy in the War_, N. Y.,
+    Henry Holt & Co., 1917, 221 pp. (Thorough and very illuminating;
+    points out how the surface features of the country influenced
+    military operations in the most important theaters of the war.)
+
+    James Fairgrieve, _Geography and World Power_, N. Y., E. P.
+    Dutton & Co., 1917, 356 pp. (Shows how History has been
+    controlled by Geography.)
+
+    Robert De C. Ward, “Weather Controls Over the Fighting in the
+    Italian War Zone,” _The Scientific Monthly_, Vol. 6, No. 2
+    (February, 1918), pp. 97–105. And “Weather Controls Over the
+    Fighting in Mesopotamia, in Palestine, and near the Suez Canal,”
+    _ibidem_, Vol. 6, No. 4 (April, 1918), pp. 289–304.
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+                          TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
+
+
+ 1. Replaced “sz” with “ß” in German words. The “ß” character was not
+      used in the original.
+ 2. Changed “Nachbaren” to “Nachbarn” on p. 30.
+ 3. Silently corrected typographical errors.
+ 4. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.
+ 5. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.
+ 6. Superscripts are denoted by a carat before a single superscript
+      character or a series of superscripted characters enclosed in
+      curly braces, e.g. M^r. or M^{ister}.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Theory of Environment, by Armin Hajman Koller
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 55619 ***
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-

-<pre>

-

-Project Gutenberg's The Theory of Environment, by Armin Hajman Koller

-

-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most

-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions

-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of

-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at

-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have

-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.

-

-Title: The Theory of Environment

-       An outline of the history of the idea of Milieu, and its present status

-

-Author: Armin Hajman Koller

-

-Release Date: September 24, 2017 [EBook #55619]

-

-Language: English

-

-Character set encoding: UTF-8

-

-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT ***

-

-

-

-

-Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed

-Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was

-produced from images generously made available by The

-Internet Archive)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-</pre>

-

-

-<div class='tnotes covernote'>

-

-<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber's Note:</strong></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p>

-

-</div>

-

-<div class='ph1'>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c1'>

-<div class='nf-center c001'>

-    <div>THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT</div>

-    <div class='c002'>Part I</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c1'>

-<div class='nf-center c003'>

-    <div><span class='large'>The University of Chicago</span></div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div>

-  <h1 class='c004'>THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT<br /> <span class='c005'><em>An Outline of the History of the Idea of Milieu, and its Present Status</em></span><br /> <span class='xlarge'>PART I</span><br /> <span class='large'>A DISSERTATION</span><br /> <span class='small'>SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY</span><br /> <span class='xsmall'>DEPARTMENT OF GERMANIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES</span></h1>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c1'>

-<div class='nf-center c003'>

-    <div><span class='small'>BY</span></div>

-    <div class='c002'><span class='large'>ARMIN HAJMAN KOLLER</span></div>

-    <div class='c003'><span class='small'>The Collegiate Press</span></div>

-    <div class='c002'><span class='sc'>George Banta Publishing Company</span></div>

-    <div><span class='sc'>Menasha, Wisconsin</span></div>

-    <div>1918</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c1'>

-<div class='nf-center c001'>

-    <div><span class='xxlarge'>THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT</span></div>

-    <div class='c002'><span class='xlarge'>PART I</span></div>

-    <div class='c002'><span class='large'><em>An Outline of the History of the Idea of Milieu, and its Present Status</em></span></div>

-    <div class='c002'>BY</div>

-    <div><span class='large'>ARMIN HAJMAN KOLLER, <span class='sc'>Ph.D.</span></span></div>

-    <div>Instructor in German</div>

-    <div>The University of Illinois</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='lg-container-b c006'>

-  <div class='linegroup'>

-    <div class='group'>

-      <div class='line'>“.............................</div>

-      <div class='line'><em>He fixed thee ’mid this dance</em></div>

-      <div class='line'><em>Of plastic circumstance</em>.”</div>

-    </div>

-    <div class='group'>

-      <div class='line in12'>Robert Browning, “<cite>Rabbi Ben Ezra</cite>.”</div>

-    </div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c1'>

-  <div class='nf-center'>

-    <div><span class='small'>The Collegiate Press</span></div>

-    <div>GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY</div>

-    <div>MENASHA, WISCONSIN</div>

-    <div>1918</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c1'>

-<div class='nf-center c001'>

-    <div><em>Copyright, 1918</em></div>

-    <div><em>By Armin H. Koller</em></div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='nf-center-c1'>

-<div class='nf-center c001'>

-    <div>TO</div>

-    <div>MY PARENTS</div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <h2 class='c007'>CONTENTS</h2>

-</div>

-

-<table class='table0' summary='CONTENTS'>

-  <tr>

-    <th class='c008'></th>

-    <th class='c009'>&nbsp;</th>

-    <th class='c010'>PAGE</th>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c008' colspan='2'>Introductory Remark. Meanings of the Word <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Milieu</span></i></td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c012'>I.</td>

-    <td class='c009'>A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Down to the Nineteenth Century</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c012'>II.</td>

-    <td class='c009'>A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Since the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>

-    <td class='c009'>Anthropo-geography, Geography and History</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>

-    <td class='c009'>Geography and History</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>

-    <td class='c009'>More Recent Anthropo-geographical Treatises</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>

-    <td class='c009'>Primitive Peoples and Environment</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>

-    <td class='c009'>Society and Physical Milieu</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_74'>74</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>

-    <td class='c009'>Government, War, Progress, and Climate</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_76'>76</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>

-    <td class='c009'>Climate and Man’s Characteristics</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>

-    <td class='c009'>Man’s Intellect and Physical Environment</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>

-    <td class='c009'>Religion and Physical Milieu</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>

-    <td class='c009'>Climate and Conduct</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_84'>84</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>

-    <td class='c009'>Climatic Control of Food and Drink</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_91'>91</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c008' colspan='2'>Summary</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td>

-  </tr>

-  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>

-  <tr>

-    <td class='c008' colspan='2'>Appendix</td>

-    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td>

-  </tr>

-</table>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <h2 class='c007'>PREFACE</h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c013'>In 1912 (see <cite>Publications of the Modern Language

-Association of America</cite>, Vol. 28, N. S., Vol. 21,

-1913, Proceedings for 1912, p. xxxix), I called

-attention to the Herder-Taine problem on milieu.

-The paper discussing that problem awaits the

-completion of another paper entitled “Herder’s

-Conception of Milieu.” The latter was my

-starting point. Setting about to inform myself

-on the history of the theory, I determined to obtain

-for myself, if possible, a tolerably complete idea,

-at least in its essentials, of the theory of milieu,

-to see where the theory led to, where it started

-from, what changes it has undergone, and what

-were its ramifications. My plan was to state

-briefly my findings in a chapter preparatory to

-stating Herder’s idea of milieu. As guide-posts

-were lacking, at least I knew of none, I was bound

-to seek by accident and for a number of years. In

-stumbling along, I first chanced upon the Herder-Taine

-problem. When my material swelled to

-proportions that could not be controlled in part

-of a chapter or in a chapter, I had to separate it,

-by its main divisions, into parts. The question

-arose, should it be a <em>concrete</em> treatise on environment.

-I soon found that to be, at least for the time

-being, beyond my province and also beyond my

-present purpose; besides, it would have swerved

-me too far afield; moreover, it would have had to

-be limited to a small portion of the subject. My

-present concern in this theory being genetic and

-historical, it seemed best to assemble all the sources

-one could find bearing on the history of the theory

-and to indicate the trend of its development in a

-rough preliminary sketch. Such a sketch is a

-requisite first step and perhaps a modest contribution

-to a history of the theory under consideration.

-The first part of this sketch is herein given. The

-original plan, mentioned above, of a prefatory

-chapter to Herder accounts for the retention of

-untranslated passages in the text of this part, a

-practice to be eschewed in the subsequent parts

-of this study which are to appear shortly.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Nearly all the material was collected by October,

-1915, and this manuscript was finished early

-in January, 1917.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to

-Professor Martin Schütze of the University of

-Chicago for the suggestion, made in 1907, to find

-out what Herder’s idea of milieu is; to my friend

-and former colleague at the University of Illinois,

-Dr. Charles C. Adams (now Assistant Professor of

-Ecology at Syracuse University) for references

-given me at my request (but he is in no wise to be

-held responsible for the bringing in of these references);

-and to my good friend and colleague, Professor

-John Driscoll Fitz-Gerald of the University

-of Illinois for a number of helpful suggestions

-given when reading the manuscript and for assisting

-with the reading of the galley proof.</p>

-

-<div class='c014'><span class='sc'>Armin H. Koller.</span></div>

-

-<div class='lg-container-l'>

-  <div class='linegroup'>

-    <div class='group'>

-      <div class='line'><em>Champaign, Illinois,</em></div>

-      <div class='line in4'><em>April, 1918.</em></div>

-    </div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span>

-  <h2 class='c007'>INTRODUCTORY REMARK<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>Meanings of the Word “Milieu”</span></span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c013'>Before entering upon the discussion of the

-principal theme of this study,<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c015'><sup>[1]</sup></a> it is necessary to

-cast a brief glance over the origin and development

-of the meaning and use of the word milieu.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“Milieu” (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mi-lieu=medius locus</span></i>), originally

-signifying middle point or part, central place or

-portion, mid-point, center, had been employed in

-France as a term in physics at least as early as the

-seventeenth century (Pascal). The fourth edition

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>of the dictionary of the French Academy<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c015'><sup>[2]</sup></a> defines

-it as follows: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">En termes de Physique, on appelle

-<em>Milieu</em>, Tout corps, soit solide, soit fluide, traversé

-par la lumière ou par un autre corps.</span>” [In the

-fifth edition—1813—the following illustration in

-italics is added to the foregoing: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La lumière se

-rompt différemment en traversant différens

-milieux.</span>”]</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">On appelle aussi <em>milieu</em>, Le fluide qui environne

-les corps. <em>L’air est le milieu dans lequel nous

-vivons. L’eau est le milieu qu’habitent les poissons.</em></span>”</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Diderot’s Encyclopedia<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c015'><sup>[3]</sup></a> testifies to this same

-sense of “medium”: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>Milieu</em>, dans la Philosophie

-mêchanique, signifie un espace matériel à travers

-lequel passe un corps dans son mouvement, ou en

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>général, un espace matériel dans lequel un corps

-est placé, soit qu’il se meuve ou non.</span></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Ainsi on imagine l’éther comme un <em>milieu</em>

-dans lequel les corps célestes se meuvent.—L’air

-est un <em>milieu</em> dans lequel les corps se meuvent près

-de la surface de la terre.—L’eau est le <em>milieu</em> dans

-lequel les poissons vivent &amp; se meuvent.—Le verre

-enfin est un <em>milieu</em>, en égard à la lumière, parce

-qu’il lui permet un passage à travers ses pores.</span>”</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Auguste Comte<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c015'><sup>[4]</sup></a> extended its signification as

-a term in biology to include “the totality of external

-conditions of any kind whatsoever”: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>Milieu</em>

-..., non-seulement le fluide où l’organisme est

-plongé, mais, en général, <em>l’ensemble total des circonstances

-extérieurs d’un genre quelconque</em></span> [the

-italics are ours], <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">nécessaires à l’existence de chaque

-organisme déterminé. Ceux qui auront suffisamment

-médité sur le rôle capital que doit remplir,

-dans toute biologie positive, l’idée correspondante,

-ne me reprocheront pas, sans doute, l’introduction

-de cette expression nouvelle.</span>”</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Hippolyte Taine who generalized it still further,

-broadened its connotation to comprehend

-the whole social surroundings.<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c015'><sup>[5]</sup></a> Milieu as a

-<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">terminus technicus</span></i> is ordinarily considered as

-having been coined by Taine, but whether that

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>be so or not, one may safely say that its wide

-acceptance is due, primarily, to him and to his

-renowned disciple Zola.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c015'><sup>[6]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>In the course of the last century, the designation

-milieu became not only more generalized and

-more frequent in use, but also more extensive, and

-more specific and distinctive in meaning: “Depuis

-BALZAC [who in 1841 in his <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Comédie humaine, La

-maison du chat-qui-pelote</cite>, préface, p. 2</span>, used the

-term loosely, in the “vulgar” sense], <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">le sens vulgaire

-du milieu social n’a fait que s’affirmer davantage

-par un emploi toujours plus généralisé: c’est

-devenu un cliché de la conversation de parler

-aujourd’hui d’un ‘bon milieu,’ d’un ‘milieu intéressant,’</span> etc.”<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c015'><sup>[7]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Littré<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c015'><sup>[8]</sup></a> registers eighteen different definitions

-for the word milieu.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Friedrich Düsel<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c015'><sup>[9]</sup></a> renders milieu by eighteen

-(18) German words.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>In <cite>Unsere Umgangssprache</cite>,<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c015'><sup>[10]</sup></a> milieu is translated

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>into German by forty-six (46) words and

-phrases.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Claude Bernard, the celebrated French physiologist,

-differentiates between inner and outer

-milieu:<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c015'><sup>[11]</sup></a> “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Je crois ..., avoir le premier insisté

-sur cette idée qu’il y a pour l’animal réellement

-deux milieux: un milieu extérieur dans lequel est

-placé l’organisme et un milieu intérieur dans lequel

-vivent les éléments des tissus....</span>” Probably

-as a result, we have today “micro-milieu” in

-micro-biology.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>According to Jean Finot,<a id='r12' /><a href='#f12' class='c015'><sup>[12]</sup></a> milieu “includes

-the sum total of the conditions which accompany

-the conception and earthly existence of a being,

-and which end only with its death.”</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The term milieu was introduced by Herbert

-Spencer into English literature as “environment,”

-says Martin Schütze.<a id='r13' /><a href='#f13' class='c015'><sup>[13]</sup></a> Although Carlyle employed

-the term “environment” as early as 1827,<a id='r14' /><a href='#f14' class='c015'><sup>[14]</sup></a>

-nevertheless, the fact that the term is generally

-current, is undoubtedly attributable in the first

-place to Spencer.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The word “Umwelt” is quoted by J. H.

-Campe,<a id='r15' /><a href='#f15' class='c015'><sup>[15]</sup></a> who believed himself to have been the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>coiner of the term; five years later (1816) Goethe

-used it at the beginning of his “Italienische

-Reise.”<a id='r16' /><a href='#f16' class='c015'><sup>[16]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The painstaking and scholarly German lexicographer,

-Daniel Sanders, who seldom fails to

-give his reader some reliable suggestion, refers

-in his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache</span></cite><a id='r17' /><a href='#f17' class='c015'><sup>[17]</sup></a> (which

-despite the contributions of recent scholarship

-still remains a great work) to a passage in the

-poetical works of the Danish writer Baggesen

-(2, 102) in which the word “Umwelt” is employed.

-This passage occurs in the elegy entitled

-“Napoleon” addressed to Voß and written in

-1800.<a id='r18' /><a href='#f18' class='c015'><sup>[18]</sup></a> Baggesen, then, made use of “Umwelt”

-a decade before Campe.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Its Italian equivalent is “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambiente</span>,” which is

-noted here only because of the French “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">l’ambiance</span>”

-and the English “ambient” and “circumambiency.”</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>

-  <h2 class='c007'>I<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Down to the Nineteenth Century</span></span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c013'>Recorded mesologic<a id='r19' /><a href='#f19' class='c015'><sup>[19]</sup></a> thinking begins with the

-ancient Jewish Prophets whose striking <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">aperçus</span></i>

-concerning the providential correspondence between

-the configuration of the surface of the earth

-and the destiny of nations, concerning the connection

-between “Landesnatur” and “Volkscharakter,”

-etc., anticipated<a id='r20' /><a href='#f20' class='c015'><sup>[20]</sup></a> a number of great

-thoughts of later anthropo-geographers.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>Hippocrates (if he really is the author of the

-essay commonly ascribed to him and entitled

-<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">περὶ αέρων ὑδάτων τόπων</span>) investigates the effect of

-climate on man’s nature, character, temperament,

-and life, with the emphasis on the regularity of

-the effect.<a id='r21' /><a href='#f21' class='c015'><sup>[21]</sup></a> Owing to the imperfection of knowledge

-in his day, his observations are necessarily

-vague.<a id='r22' /><a href='#f22' class='c015'><sup>[22]</sup></a> He limited himself to the problem of the

-relation between land and people.<a id='r23' /><a href='#f23' class='c015'><sup>[23]</sup></a> He is said

-to be the founder of anthropo-geography.<a id='r24' /><a href='#f24' class='c015'><sup>[24]</sup></a> His

-treatise is admirable and unequalled in the eyes

-of Auguste Comte.<a id='r25' /><a href='#f25' class='c015'><sup>[25]</sup></a> Hippocrates, “in his work,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span><cite>About Air, Water, and Places</cite>, first discusses the

-influence of environment on man, physical, moral,

-and pathological. He divided mankind into groups,

-impressed with homogeneous characters by homogeneous

-surroundings, demonstrating that mountains,

-plains, damp, aridity, and so on, produced

-definite and varying types.”<a id='r26' /><a href='#f26' class='c015'><sup>[26]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Aristotle, in his <cite>Politics</cite>, enquires into the

-influence especially of geographical position on

-laws and the form of government,<a id='r27' /><a href='#f27' class='c015'><sup>[27]</sup></a> while in his

-<cite>Problems</cite> he shows the far-reaching dependence of

-national character on the physical environment:

-“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zeigt ja doch Aristoteles selbst in einem andern

-Werke das entschiedenste Bestreben, eine sehr

-weitgehende Abhängigkeit des Volkscharakters

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>von geographischen Verhältnissen zu erweisen.

-Während die Politik [especially parts of the

-seventh book] nicht über Andeutungen</span> [on the

-effect of the milieu] hinausgeht [discussed by

-Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, on pp. 64–8], <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">läßt der vierzehnte

-Abschnitt der ‘Probleme,’ welcher sich mit den

-Einwirkungen der Landesnatur auf Physik und

-Ethik des Menschen beschäftigt, deutlich einen

-Standpunkt erkennen, welcher auf das Lebhafteste

-an die physiologische Betrachtungsweise der

-neueren französisch-englischen Geschichtsphilosophie

-erinnert ...</span>”<a id='r28' /><a href='#f28' class='c015'><sup>[28]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Eratosthenes, in a work cited by Varro, sought

-to prove, in the opinion of the Italian scholar

-Matteuzzi prematurely, that man’s character

-and the form of his government are subordinated

-to proximity or remoteness from the sun.<a id='r29' /><a href='#f29' class='c015'><sup>[29]</sup></a> The

-greatest geographer of antiquity, Strabo, in his

-Geography, connected man with nature in a

-causal relation.<a id='r30' /><a href='#f30' class='c015'><sup>[30]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>John M. Robertson, noting that “theories of

-the influence of climate on character were common

-in antiquity,” refers<a id='r31' /><a href='#f31' class='c015'><sup>[31]</sup></a> to Vitruvius (VI, 1), Vegetius

-(“<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">De re militari</span>,” 1, 2), and Servius (on Vergil,

-<cite>Aeneid</cite>, VI, 724). Ritter does not mention the

-effort of the ancients in this line of ideas.<a id='r32' /><a href='#f32' class='c015'><sup>[32]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Giovanni Villani, the noted Florentine historian

-of the fourteenth century, observes with a

-deal of finesse that Arezzo by reason of its air and

-position produces men of great subtilty of mind.<a id='r33' /><a href='#f33' class='c015'><sup>[33]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>The Arabic statesman and philosopher of

-history, Ibn Khaldūn, little mentioned, yet known

-by his great work, the <cite>Universal History</cite>, attempted

-in the <cite>Muqaddama</cite><a id='r34' /><a href='#f34' class='c015'><sup>[34]</sup></a> (the preface, comprising the

-first volume of his <cite>History</cite>), which he composed

-between 1374 and 1378,<a id='r35' /><a href='#f35' class='c015'><sup>[35]</sup></a> to explain the history

-and civilization of man, more especially of some

-of the Arabic peoples, by the encompassing physical

-and social conditions. The “First Section of the

-‘Prolegomena’ treats of society in general, and

-of the varieties of the human race, and of the

-regions of the earth which they inhabit, as related

-thereto. It starts from the position that man is

-by nature a social being. His body and mind,

-wants and affections, for their exercise, satisfaction,

-and development, all imply and demand co-operation

-and communion with his fellows,—participation

-in a collective and common life....</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“There follows a lengthened description of the

-physical basis and conditions of history and civilisation.

-The chief features of the inhabited portions

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>of the earth, its regions, principal seas, great

-rivers, climates, &amp;c., are made the subjects of

-exposition. The seven climatic zones, and the

-ten sections of each, are delineated, and their

-inhabitants specified. The three climatic zones of

-moderate temperature are described in detail,

-and the distinctive features of the social condition

-and civilisation of their inhabitants dwelt upon.

-The influence of the atmosphere, heat, &amp;c., on

-the physical and even mental and moral peculiarities

-of peoples is maintained to be great. Not

-only the darkness of skin of the negroes, but their

-characteristics of disposition and of mode of life,

-are traced to the influence of climate. A careful

-attempt is also made to show how differences of

-fertility of soil—how dearth and abundance—modify

-the bodily constitution and affect the minds

-of men, and so operate on society....</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“The Second Section of the ‘Prolegomena’

-treats of the civilisation of nomadic and half-savage

-peoples.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“In it Ibn Khaldūn appears at his best, ...

-He begins by indicating how the different usages

-and institutions of peoples depend to a large extent

-on the ways in which they provide for their subsistence.

-He describes how peoples have at first

-contented themselves with simple necessities, and

-then gradually risen to refinement and luxury

-through a series of states or stages all of which

-are alike conformed to nature, in the sense of

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>being adapted to its circumstances or environment.”<a id='r36' /><a href='#f36' class='c015'><sup>[36]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Ibn Khaldūn seems also to have had a clear

-idea of some aspects of the principle of relativity,<a id='r37' /><a href='#f37' class='c015'><sup>[37]</sup></a>

-an integral part and inevitable concomitant of

-the theory of milieu, since “As causes of historians

-erring as they have done, there are mentioned

-[by Khaldūn in the introduction] the overlooking

-of the differences of times and epochs, ...”<a id='r38' /><a href='#f38' class='c015'><sup>[38]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>About the middle of the sixteenth century we

-find Michelangelo avowing to Vasari (who hailed

-from Arezzo): “Any mental excellence I may

-possess, I have because I was born in the fine air

-of your Aretine district.”<a id='r39' /><a href='#f39' class='c015'><sup>[39]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>In “Measure for Measure” (Act III, Sc. I,

-v. 8–11), a play first produced in 1604, Shakespeare

-affirms of man:</p>

-

-<div class='lg-container-b c006'>

-  <div class='linegroup'>

-    <div class='group'>

-      <div class='line'>“... a breath thou art,</div>

-      <div class='line'>Servile to all the skyey influences</div>

-      <div class='line'>That do this habitation where thou keep’st,</div>

-      <div class='line'>Hourly afflict.”</div>

-    </div>

-  </div>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c000'>During the Renaissance, Greek thought on

-milieu is resurrected in France. Thence it spreads

-later, particularly in the eighteenth century, to

-England and Germany. Jean Bodin bridges the

-gap existent since the close of classical antiquity.

-He is the first among modern writers not only to

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>revive the idea in Western Europe,<a id='r40' /><a href='#f40' class='c015'><sup>[40]</sup></a> but also to

-make it a subject for detailed investigation.

-Bodin thus first in French letters introduces and

-firmly establishes a line of study destined to be

-followed by a long list of authors among whom are

-to be found many illustrious French names.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Bodin “treats of physical causes with considerable

-fulness in the fifth chapter of the

-‘Method,’<a id='r41' /><a href='#f41' class='c015'><sup>[41]</sup></a> and in a still more detailed and developed

-form in the first chapter of the fifth book of

-the ‘Republic.’”<a id='r42' /><a href='#f42' class='c015'><sup>[42]</sup></a> He traces the relation between

-climate and the ever changing fate of States, and

-elaborates the manifold effects of climate on

-States, laws, religion, language, and temperament.<a id='r43' /><a href='#f43' class='c015'><sup>[43]</sup></a>

-In Bodin’s view, man’s physical constitution

-is closely and directly connected with

-climate and surrounding nature; it is in harmony

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>with the behavior of the earth in the respective

-zones of his abode.<a id='r44' /><a href='#f44' class='c015'><sup>[44]</sup></a> From this assumption of

-dependence of the human body on climate, there

-follow a number of inferences concerning the

-physical properties of man’s constitution.<a id='r45' /><a href='#f45' class='c015'><sup>[45]</sup></a> Temperament

-varies according to climate. Language,

-the generative power, diseases likewise depend

-indirectly on climate.<a id='r46' /><a href='#f46' class='c015'><sup>[46]</sup></a> Man’s talents and capacities

-do so no less.<a id='r47' /><a href='#f47' class='c015'><sup>[47]</sup></a> The climate in each region

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>always favors the development of some special

-aptitude; on this basis he groups the peoples of

-the earth.<a id='r48' /><a href='#f48' class='c015'><sup>[48]</sup></a> Although the nexus between human

-abilities and the physical milieu is thus intimate,

-yet reason, common to all men and invariable, is

-<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">per se</span></i> independent of physical environment.<a id='r49' /><a href='#f49' class='c015'><sup>[49]</sup></a>

-He postulates, then, reason as the absolute part

-of the mind, not subject to surrounding influences,

-whereas the unfolding of the human faculties is

-relative to the environment. By taking this

-middle course concerning the effect of nature on

-man, Bodin escapes the extreme views of nature’s

-compelling influence over man, on the one hand,

-and of man’s total independence of nature, on the

-other.<a id='r50' /><a href='#f50' class='c015'><sup>[50]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Bodin also investigates the influence upon

-national character of geographical situation, of

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>elevation, of the quality of the native soil, and of

-an east-west position.<a id='r51' /><a href='#f51' class='c015'><sup>[51]</sup></a> Nations and their civilizations

-differ according to the particular conditions

-of a given national existence.<a id='r52' /><a href='#f52' class='c015'><sup>[52]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>He holds fast to the doctrine of the freedom

-of the will. Man is morally free from environmental

-control. The circumambient medium

-determines only the <em>development</em> of man’s capabilities.<a id='r53' /><a href='#f53' class='c015'><sup>[53]</sup></a>

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>Man can counteract, and may, even

-though with difficulty, overcome the injurious

-action of climate and nature.<a id='r54' /><a href='#f54' class='c015'><sup>[54]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“... It is altogether unfair,” concludes

-Flint,<a id='r55' /><a href='#f55' class='c015'><sup>[55]</sup></a> “to put their general enunciations [<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>,

-those made by Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle,

-Polybius, and Galen] of the principle that physical

-circumstances originate and modify national characteristics,

-on a level with Bodin’s serious, sustained,

-and elaborate attempt to apply it over a

-wide area and to a vast number of cases. Dividing

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>nations into northern, middle, and southern,<a id='r56' /><a href='#f56' class='c015'><sup>[56]</sup></a>

-he investigates with wonderful fulness of knowledge

-how climatic and geographical conditions

-have affected the bodily strength, the courage, the

-intelligence, the humanity, the chastity, and, in

-short, the mind, morals, and manners of their

-inhabitants; what influence mountains, winds,

-diversities of soil, &amp;c., have exerted on individuals

-and societies; and he elicits a vast number of

-general views....”</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Bodin, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">der größte theoretische Politiker

-Frankreichs im 16. Jahrhundert</span>,” declares Renz,<a id='r57' /><a href='#f57' class='c015'><sup>[57]</sup></a>

-“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">besitzt ... das unbestreitbare Verdienst, wenn

-nicht die Grundgedanken und nicht ausschließlich

-originale Gedanken, so doch die erste weitgehende

-wissenschaftliche Untersuchung über den Zusammenhang

-zwischen umgebender Natur und Menschenwelt

-in neuerer Zeit auf dem Boden der

-Erfahrung und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts

-angestellt zu haben</span>.”</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Bodin, “writing in 1577 OF THE LAWES AND

-CUSTOMES OF A COMMON WEALTH (English

-edition [translated by Richard Knowlles]

-1605), contains, as Professor J. L. Myres has

-pointed out (Rept. Brit. Assoc., 1909 [1910], p. 593),

-‘the whole pith and kernel of modern anthropo-geography....’”<a id='r58' /><a href='#f58' class='c015'><sup>[58]</sup></a>

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>And Renz believes that

-“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">In der Bodinschen Behandlung der Theorie des

-Klimas finden sich die Anfänge der Anthropogeographie

-und der Ethnographie...</span>”<a id='r59' /><a href='#f59' class='c015'><sup>[59]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Writing in 1713, Lenglet du Fresnoy, toward

-the end of the sixth chapter of the first volume of

-his <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Méthode pour étudier l’histoire</span></cite>, expresses,

-decades before Montesquieu, the latter’s basic

-idea of the effect of social and political milieu on

-laws.<a id='r60' /><a href='#f60' class='c015'><sup>[60]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>In any discussion of milieu, Montesquieu is

-the writer most frequently mentioned, although

-not the most often read and quoted. He devotes

-the well-known five “Books,” from the fourteenth

-to the eighteenth, of his magnum opus, <cite>L’Esprit

-des Lois</cite> (1748),<a id='r61' /><a href='#f61' class='c015'><sup>[61]</sup></a> to a consideration of this idea

-which, as has already been seen, was anything but

-original with him.<a id='r62' /><a href='#f62' class='c015'><sup>[62]</sup></a> In Books fourteen to seventeen

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>he treats of the relation of laws to climate,

-and in Book eighteen of their relation to soil. In

-the fourteenth<a id='r63' /><a href='#f63' class='c015'><sup>[63]</sup></a> he discusses the effect of climate

-on the body (and mind) of individual man, in the

-fifteenth<a id='r64' /><a href='#f64' class='c015'><sup>[64]</sup></a> on civil slavery, in the sixteenth<a id='r65' /><a href='#f65' class='c015'><sup>[65]</sup></a> on

-domestic slavery, in the seventeenth<a id='r66' /><a href='#f66' class='c015'><sup>[66]</sup></a> on political

-servitude, and lastly in the eighteenth<a id='r67' /><a href='#f67' class='c015'><sup>[67]</sup></a> he delineates

-the influence of the fertility and barrenness

-of the soil. By climate he means little more than

-heat and cold. In the light of the continued high

-praise bestowed on him for much longer than a

-century, the altogether too general and dogmatic

-statements of these short seventy-odd pages would

-seem somewhat meager, so that upon their perusal

-one is very likely to suffer an outright disenchantment.

-Therefore, Flint’s judgment appears overdrawn,

-when he says that Montesquieu “showed on

-a grand scale and in the most effective way ...

-that, like all things properly historical, they [laws,

-customs, institutions] must be estimated not

-according to an abstract or absolute standard,

-but as concrete realities related to given times

-and places, to their determining causes and condition,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>and to the whole social organism to which

-they belong, and the whole social medium in which

-they subsist. Plato and Aristotle, Machiavelli

-and Bodin, had already, indeed, inculcated this

-historical and political relativism; but it was

-Montesquieu who gained educated Europe over

-to the acceptance of it.”<a id='r68' /><a href='#f68' class='c015'><sup>[68]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Turgot’s sketch of a ‘Political Geography’

-shows “that he had attained to a broader view

-of the relationship of human development to the

-features of the earth and to physical agencies in

-general than even Montesquieu. And he saw with

-perfect clearness not only that many of Montesquieu’s

-inductions were premature and inadequate,

-but that there was a defect in the method by which

-he arrived at them.... The excellent criticism

-of Comte, in the fifth volume of the ‘Philosophie

-Positive,’ and in the fourth volume of the ‘Politique

-Positive,’ on this portion of Montesquieu’s speculations,

-is only a more elaborate reproduction of

-that of Turgot, and is expressed in terms which

-show that it was directly suggested by that of

-Turgot.”<a id='r69' /><a href='#f69' class='c015'><sup>[69]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Cuvier “had not hesitated to trace the close

-relation borne by philosophy and art to the

-underlying geological formations.”<a id='r70' /><a href='#f70' class='c015'><sup>[70]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>In the teaching of a number of great thinkers

-of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, man

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>is “the product of environment and education”

-and, in their opinion, “all men were born equal

-and later became unequal through unequal opportunities.”<a id='r71' /><a href='#f71' class='c015'><sup>[71]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Goethe echoed Herder’s thought when he

-remarked to Eckermann on the flora of a country

-and the disposition of its residents: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Sie haben

-nicht Unrecht, sagte Goethe (d. 2. April 1829),

-und daher kommt es denn auch, daß man der

-Pflanzenwelt eines Landes einen Einfluß auf die

-Gemütsart seiner Bewohner zugestanden hat.

-Und gewiß! wer sein Leben lang von hohen

-ernsten Eichen umgeben wäre, müßte ein anderer

-Mensch werden, als wer täglich unter luftigen

-Birken sich erginge...</span>”<a id='r72' /><a href='#f72' class='c015'><sup>[72]</sup></a> And again, when

-he said of environment and national character:

-“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... so viel ist gewiß, daß außer dem Angeborenen

-der Rasse, sowohl Boden und Klima als

-Nahrung und Beschäftigung einwirkt, um den

-Charakter eines Volkes zu vollenden ...</span>”<a id='r73' /><a href='#f73' class='c015'><sup>[73]</sup></a>

-And in the following, Goethe but reiterates Herder’s

-oft uttered admiration for islanders and coast

-dwellers: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Auch von den Kräften des <cite>Meeres</cite>

-und der <cite>Seeluft</cite> war die Rede gewesen (d. 12. März

-1828), wo denn Goethe die Meinung äußerte,

-daß er alle Insulaner und Meer-Anwohner des

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>gemäßigten Klimas bei weitem für produktiver

-und tatkräftiger halte als die Völker im Innern

-großer Kontinente</span>.”<a id='r74' /><a href='#f74' class='c015'><sup>[74]</sup></a> And: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Es ist ein eigenes

-Ding, erwiederte Goethe (d. 12. März 1828),—liegt

-es in der Abstammung, liegt es im Boden,

-liegt es in der freien Verfassung, liegt es in der

-gesunden Erziehung,—genug! die Engländer überhaupt

-scheinen vor vielen anderen etwas voraus

-zu haben ...</span>”<a id='r75' /><a href='#f75' class='c015'><sup>[75]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Wolf and Niebuhr began to examine historical

-<em>sources</em> “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">nach neuen Prinzipien des Eingetauchtseins

-in eine bestimmte seelische Umwelt, in ein

-klargezeichnetes zeitgenössisches Milieu</span>.”<a id='r76' /><a href='#f76' class='c015'><sup>[76]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>One of the principal offices of an historian, according

-to August Wilhelm Schlegel, is “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die zeit- und

-kulturgeschichtliche Bedingtheit aller Erscheinungen

-aufzuzeigen</span>.”<a id='r77' /><a href='#f77' class='c015'><sup>[77]</sup></a> But the effect of

-physical milieu on history is not rated high in the

-philosophy of the romanticists.<a id='r78' /><a href='#f78' class='c015'><sup>[78]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>Ingeniously, albeit not with his wonted acuteness,

-Hegel penned the concept “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Volksgeist</span>.”<a id='r79' /><a href='#f79' class='c015'><sup>[79]</sup></a>

-The saying, which now seems trivial, that every

-nation and every man in the nation is “ein Kind

-seiner Zeit,” is said to be Hegel’s.<a id='r80' /><a href='#f80' class='c015'><sup>[80]</sup></a> Hegel, however,

-distinctly rejected the idea of explaining

-“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">die Geschichte und den Geist der verschiedenen

-Völker aus dem Klima ihrer Länder</span>.”<a id='r81' /><a href='#f81' class='c015'><sup>[81]</sup></a> The

-implication would be that one single factor might

-satisfactorily be held responsible for all progress

-in human history. As climate can not explain

-everything to Hegel, it seems not to explain anything

-at all to him. Hegel, then, is excessive in

-his denial of the power of environment. This is

-markedly shown by his thinking his position substantiated

-by the fact that the climate of Greece,

-although the same since classical antiquity, has

-not changed the Turks who now [<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, early in the

-nineteenth century] dwell in Greece into ancient

-Greeks.<a id='r82' /><a href='#f82' class='c015'><sup>[82]</sup></a></p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>

-  <h2 class='c007'>II<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Since the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century</span></span></h2>

-</div>

-

-<h3 class='c016'><em>Anthropo-geography, Geography and History</em></h3>

-

-<p class='c017'>The theory of social environment, as we have

-seen, gradually rises, especially since the renaissance,

-parallel with the theory of physical milieu.

-The stream of thought commences to broaden on

-both sides as we approach the eighteenth century,

-and broadens still further, and deepens, in the

-nineteenth, when specialization occurs or continues

-in anthropo-geography, biology, jurisprudence and

-economics, anthropology, sociology, and literature,

-and latterly in physics. These furnish us

-the divisions for subsequent discussions.<a id='r83' /><a href='#f83' class='c015'><sup>[83]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>All antecedent thought on the subject converges

-in Herder and from this focal point, as a collecting

-and fructifying center, it emerges, branches out

-and radiates in a definite number of directions.

-This can only be indicated here.<a id='r84' /><a href='#f84' class='c015'><sup>[84]</sup></a> One main

-ramification leads us to anthropo-geography. Consequently,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>we must now turn to a detailed consideration

-of the idea of milieu in anthropo-geography.<a id='r85' /><a href='#f85' class='c015'><sup>[85]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Karl Ritter first in anthropo-geography elucidated

-Herder’s ideas on environment. “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... KARL

-RITTER steht auf HERDERS Schultern, wenn

-er in seiner ‘Allgemeinen Erdkunde’ den Gedanken

-der tiefgehenden Beeinflussung der Völkergeschichte

-durch die äußeren Umgebungen

-entwickelt ...</span>”<a id='r86' /><a href='#f86' class='c015'><sup>[86]</sup></a> Ritter is said to be given

-too much credit for connecting scientifically geography

-and history: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">C. Ritter führte, ...

-die Herder’schen Anschauungen deutlicher aus.

-Die wissenschaftliche, nicht bloß äußerliche

-Verbindung von Geographie und Geschichte

-kettet sich an seinen Namen. Nicht ganz mit

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>Recht; ...</span>”<a id='r87' /><a href='#f87' class='c015'><sup>[87]</sup></a> Richthofen thinks that Ritter’s

-basic idea was almost without influence on geography;

-only the historians profited by it.<a id='r88' /><a href='#f88' class='c015'><sup>[88]</sup></a> Alexander

-von Humboldt, on the other hand, declares

-in the first volume of his <cite>Cosmos</cite> that “The views

-of comparative geography have been specially

-enlarged by that admirable work, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Erdkunde im

-Verhältnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte</span>, in which

-Carl Ritter so ably delineates the physiognomy

-of our globe and shows the influence of its external

-configuration on the physical phenomena on its

-surface, on the migrations, laws, and manners of

-nations, and on all the principal historical events

-enacted upon the face of the earth.”<a id='r89' /><a href='#f89' class='c015'><sup>[89]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>In the <cite>Erdkunde</cite>,<a id='r90' /><a href='#f90' class='c015'><sup>[90]</sup></a> Ritter propounds a program

-for anthropo-geographical investigation, i.e., for

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>the investigation of the mutual relation between

-man and his environment. As every moral man

-should, so should also “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">jeder menschliche Verein,

-jedes Volk seiner eigenen inneren und äußeren

-Kräfte, wie derjenigen der Nachbarn<a id='t30'></a> und seiner

-Stellung zu allen von außen herein wirkenden

-Verhältnissen inne werden.</span>”<a id='r91' /><a href='#f91' class='c015'><sup>[91]</sup></a> Nature exercises

-greater influence over peoples than over individual

-men: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Eigentümlichkeit des Volkes kann nur

-aus seinem Wesen erkannt werden, aus seinem

-Verhältnis zu sich selbst, zu seinen Gliedern, zu

-seinen Umgebungen, und weil kein Volk ohne

-Staat und Vaterland gedacht werden kann, aus

-seinem Verhältnis zu beiden und aus dem Verhältnis

-von beiden zu Nachbarländern und Nachbarstaaten.

-Hier zeigt sich der Einfluß, den die

-Natur auf die Völker, und zwar in einem noch weit

-höheren Grade, als auf den einzelnen Menschen

-ausüben muß ...</span></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Denn durch eine höhere Ordnung bestimmt,

-treten die Völker wie die Menschen zugleich unter

-dem Einfluß einer Tätigkeit der Natur und der

-Vernunft hervor aus dem geistigen wie aus dem

-physischen Elemente in den Alles verschlingenden

-Kreis des Weltlebens. Gestaltet sich doch jeder

-Organismus dem inneren Zusammenhange und dem

-äußeren Umfange nach ... Sie (Völker und

-Staaten) stehen alle unter demselben Einflusse der

-Natur ...</span>”<a id='r92' /><a href='#f92' class='c015'><sup>[92]</sup></a> To the problem of the reciprocal

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>relation between external and internal factors,

-Ritter devoted a special essay, entitled “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über

-das historische Element in der geographischen

-Wissenschaft</span>,” which he read before the Academy

-of Sciences at Berlin in 1833.<a id='r93' /><a href='#f93' class='c015'><sup>[93]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>In Alexander von Humboldt’s <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ansichten der

-Natur</span></cite>,<a id='r94' /><a href='#f94' class='c015'><sup>[94]</sup></a> “Everywhere the reader’s attention is

-directed to the perpetual influence which physical

-nature exercises on the moral condition and on the

-destiny of man.”<a id='r95' /><a href='#f95' class='c015'><sup>[95]</sup></a> In passing, Humboldt also

-touches on environment in the first volume of his

-chef-d’oeuvre, <cite>Kosmos</cite>, assigning it, however, but

-a modest rôle: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Es würde das allgemeine Naturbild,

-das ich zu entwerfen strebe, unvollständig

-bleiben, wenn ich hier nicht auch den Mut hätte,

-das Menschengeschlecht in seinen physischen

-Abstufungen, in der geographischen Verbreitung

-seiner gleichzeitig vorhandenen Typen, in dem Einfluß,

-welchen es von den Kräften der Erde empfangen

-und wechselseitig, wenn auch schwächer,

-auf sie ausgeübt hat, mit wenigen Zügen zu schildern.

-Abhängig, wenn gleich in minderem Grade

-als Pflanzen und Tiere, von dem Boden und den

-meteorologischen Prozessen des Luftkreises, den

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>Naturgewalten durch Geistestätigkeit und stufenweise

-erhöhte Intelligenz, wie durch eine wunderbare

-sich allen Klimaten aneignende Biegsamkeit

-des Organismus leichter entgehend, nimmt das

-Geschlecht wesentlich Teil an dem ganzen Erdenleben.</span>”<a id='r96' /><a href='#f96' class='c015'><sup>[96]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>J. G. Kohl’s book, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Verkehr und die Ansiedlungen

-der Menschheit in ihrer Abhängigkeit von der

-Gestaltung der Erdoberfläche</span></cite>,<a id='r97' /><a href='#f97' class='c015'><sup>[97]</sup></a> occupies itself with

-the question of the dependence of human progress

-in general, and of density and concentration of

-population in particular, upon natural conditions.

-The causes of these phenomena are, to Kohl, partly

-moral or political, and partly physical. The physical

-causes of concentration are twofold: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Teils

-sind es solche, die von dem mehr oder minder

-großen Produktenreichtum des Bodens, teils

-solche, die von der Gestaltung der Erdoberfläche

-abhängen ... so zeigt sich dann, daß von allen

-verschiedenen Ursachen der Kondensierung der

-Bevölkerung die Bodengestaltung die allerwichtigste

-ist.</span>”<a id='r98' /><a href='#f98' class='c015'><sup>[98]</sup></a> Opposed to these natural conditions

-is a series of what Kohl styles political influences,

-such as national character, institutions created

-by the State, laws, etc.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die moralischen oder

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>politischen Ursachen der verschiedenen Dichtigkeit

-der Bevölkerung sind in dem Kulturzustande

-und besonders in der politischen Verfassung der

-Bewohner der verschiedenen Erdstriche begründet ...

-Auch sind viele verschiedene Sitten

-der Völker als einflußreiche Ursachen der mehr oder

-minder großen Dichtigkeit der Bevölkerung zu

-betrachten.</span>”<a id='r99' /><a href='#f99' class='c015'><sup>[99]</sup></a> Not only national character, but

-also education is to be counted among the political

-influences: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Unter politischen und moralischen

-Einflüssen, die nicht von der Natur bedingt werden,

-verstehen wir solche Kräfte, solche Volkstalente

-und Eigentümlichkeiten des Charakters, die nicht

-der Boden, die Luft und das Klima dem Volke

-geben. So groß nämlich auch die Gewalt des

-Bodens, des Klimas und der Natur ist, so sehr

-die Zonen, die Gebirge, die Sümpfe, die Wälder,

-die Wüsten u.s.w. alle Bevölkerung, die in ihre

-Gebiete fällt, auf einerlei Weise zu bilden und zu

-modeln streben, so sehr behauptet doch immer noch

-nebenher der ursprüngliche Charakter des Stammes

-und die Erziehung, welche das Volk sich gibt,

-ihre eigenen Rechte. Es existieren beide Einflüsse

-neben einander, beschränken sich gegenseitig,

-aber sie heben sich nicht auf ... Das,

-was nun nicht vom Boden abhängt und was ein

-Volk auf jeden Boden, den es bezieht, mit hin

-bringt, ist wiederum Zweierlei, entweder etwas

-Angeborenes oder etwas Angenommenes.</span>”<a id='r100' /><a href='#f100' class='c015'><sup>[100]</sup></a> It

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>is difficult to differentiate between what is due to

-original endowment and what to the milieu, yet

-natural influences can not be ignored: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Welcher

-Geist ... möchte den Versuch wagen, zu entscheiden,

-was im Charakter des Volkes ...

-Angenommenes und was Selbstgegebenes sei, was

-endlich in ihren Handlungen und Bewegungen

-von Klima und Landesbeschaffenheit bedingt

-werde. Die Charaktergepräge der Nationen, wie

-wir sie jetzt in diesen neuesten Momenten der

-weltgeschichtlichen Entwicklung sehen, sind Gebilde,

-welche unter der Einwirkung unerforschbar

-vielfacher Einflüsse entstanden sind.... Und

-doch stehen sie (die Natureinflüsse, die von den

-Historikern gewöhnlich unberücksichtigt geblieben

-sind) vielleicht auch bei allen jenen Dingen, die

-wir im Vordergrunde agieren sehen, im Hintergrunde

-und wirken als die Quellen der Erscheinungen

-mittelbar selbst da, wo wir dieselben anderen

-Ursachen zuschreiben. So mag jede Art der

-Staatsverfassung, der Gewerbzweige geschöpft und

-hervorgeblüht sein aus der Tiefe des Nationalgeistes,

-des Boden- und des Luftgeistes, während

-wir sie als Willkürliches und Selbstgegebenes

-auffassen.</span>”<a id='r101' /><a href='#f101' class='c015'><sup>[101]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The naturalist Karl Ernst von Baer discusses

-the influence of external nature upon the social

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>relations of individual nations and upon the history

-of mankind in general,<a id='r102' /><a href='#f102' class='c015'><sup>[102]</sup></a> while the geologist Bernhard

-Cotta attempts to show the effect of soil and

-geological structure on German life.<a id='r103' /><a href='#f103' class='c015'><sup>[103]</sup></a> Accepting,

-in the main, Cotta as a basis, J. Kutzen, in <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das

-deutsche Land, Seine Natur in ihren charakteristischen

-Zügen und sein Einfluß auf Geschichte

-und Leben der Menschen, Skizzen und Bilder</span></i>,<a id='r104' /><a href='#f104' class='c015'><sup>[104]</sup></a>

-the bulk of which book is physical geography,

-intersperses therewith anthropo-geographical statements

-that are in some cases interwoven in, and in

-others added to, the descriptive parts, pointing out

-the relation of environment to the life and history

-of the Germans.<a id='r105' /><a href='#f105' class='c015'><sup>[105]</sup></a> Kutzen claims his work to be

-the first that treats the <em>whole</em> of Germany in the

-way just indicated.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>In The Natural History of the German People,<a id='r106' /><a href='#f106' class='c015'><sup>[106]</sup></a>

-W. H. Riehl studies the action of natural

-conditions on man. He is concerned with the

-connections between land and people: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Will man

-die naturgeschichtliche Methode der Wissenschaft

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>vom Volke in ihrer ganzen Breite und Tiefe nachweisen,

-dann muß man auch in das Wesen dieser

-örtlichen Besonderungen des Volkstumes eindringen.

-In der Lehre von der bürgerlichen

-Gesellschaft ist das Verhältnis der großen natürlichen

-Volksgruppen zueinander nachgewiesen:

-hier sollen diese Gruppen nach den örtlichen

-Bedingungen des Landes, in welchem das Volksleben

-wurzelt, dargestellt werden. Erst aus den

-individuellen Bezügen von LAND UND LEUTEN

-entwickelt sich die kulturgeschichtliche Abstraktion

-der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft.</span>”<a id='r107' /><a href='#f107' class='c015'><sup>[107]</sup></a> And “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das

-vorliegende Buch hat sich das bescheidenere Ziel

-gesteckt, zusammenhängende Skizzen zu liefern

-zur Naturgeschichte des Volkes <em>in seinem Zusammenhang

-mit dem Lande</em>.</span>”<a id='r108' /><a href='#f108' class='c015'><sup>[108]</sup></a> His chief aim is to

-prove that the connection between land and people

-is the basis of all social development and of all

-social research: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ich hatte mir von Anbeginn

-das Ziel gesteckt, den Zusammenhang von Land

-und Volk als Fundament aller sozialen und politischen

-Entwicklung, als Ausgangspunkt aller

-sozialen Forschung nachzuweisen, und dieses

-Hauptziel, die eigentliche Tendenz des Buches,

-hat heute noch denselben Wert, dieselbe fördernde

-Kraft wie vor einem Menschenalter.</span>”<a id='r109' /><a href='#f109' class='c015'><sup>[109]</sup></a> He wants

-to show how “Volksart” and “Landesart” hang

-together, how nationality grows organically out

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>of the soil: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ich nenne dieses Wanderbuch einen

-zweiten Band zu ‘Land und Leuten.’ In jener

-Schrift verarbeite ich zahlreiche Wanderskizzen,

-um den Zusammenhang von Volksart und Landesart,

-das organische Erwachsen des Volkstumes

-aus dem Boden nachzuweisen.</span>”<a id='r110' /><a href='#f110' class='c015'><sup>[110]</sup></a> Everywhere

-Riehl finds “an organic relation between nature

-and man,” according to Gooch.<a id='r111' /><a href='#f111' class='c015'><sup>[111]</sup></a> Riehl recognizes

-“that man could only develop within the

-limits imposed by nature.”<a id='r112' /><a href='#f112' class='c015'><sup>[112]</sup></a> The problem of

-how locality affects social groups has, of course,

-not originated with Riehl, but it received a reformulation

-at his hands. It must be added,

-however, that his bombastic assertions far outrun

-his data. His claims are disproportionate to his

-facts.<a id='r113' /><a href='#f113' class='c015'><sup>[113]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Alfred Kirchhoff brilliantly sketches the reciprocal

-relations between land and people in Germany,

-in an essay entitled <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die deutschen Landschaften

-und Stämme</span></cite>.<a id='r114' /><a href='#f114' class='c015'><sup>[114]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Achelis<a id='r115' /><a href='#f115' class='c015'><sup>[115]</sup></a> refers to Bastian’s doctrine of geographical

-provinces, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">wo eine Reihe rein physikalischer

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>Agentien: Temperatur, Boden, Flora,

-Fauna, etc. sich mit entsprechenden psychischen

-kombinieren, so daß man in konzentrischer

-Reihenfolge von botanischen, zoologischen und

-anthropologischen Kreisen reden könnte. Der

-leitende Grundsatz, sagt Bastian, für geographisch-typische

-Provinzen fällt in die Abhängigkeit des

-Organismus von seiner geographischen Umgebung</span>

-(<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">le Milieu</span></i> <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">oder</span> <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Monde ambiant</span></i>), <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">in eine gegenseitig

-festgeschlossene Wechselwirkung und also

-in Naturgesetze, mit denen sich rechnen läßt

-(<cite>Zur Lehre von den geographischen Provinzen</cite></span> [Berlin,

-1886], S. 6).”</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The reciprocal influences of man and his

-environment are illustrated by Alfred Kirchhoff

-in <cite>Mensch und Erde, Skizzen von den Wechselbeziehungen

-zwischen beiden</cite>.<a id='r116' /><a href='#f116' class='c015'><sup>[116]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Ferdinand von Richthofen<a id='r117' /><a href='#f117' class='c015'><sup>[117]</sup></a> traces the gradual

-evolution of “Siedlung und Verkehr,” under which

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>two concepts he subsumes all relations of man to

-the soil.<a id='r118' /><a href='#f118' class='c015'><sup>[118]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>It was Friedrich Ratzel, however, who “performed

-the great service of placing anthropo-geography

-on a secure scientific basis. He had

-his forerunners in Montesquieu,<a id='r119' /><a href='#f119' class='c015'><sup>[119]</sup></a> Alexander von

-Humboldt, Buckle, Ritter, Kohl, Peschel and

-others; but he first investigated the subject from

-the modern scientific point of view, ... and

-based his conclusions on world-wide inductions,

-for which his predecessors did not command the

-data.”<a id='r120' /><a href='#f120' class='c015'><sup>[120]</sup></a> He “has written the standard work on

-<cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>.”<a id='r121' /><a href='#f121' class='c015'><sup>[121]</sup></a> Employing the analytical

-method, Ratzel was the first to divide the subject-matter

-into categories: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ratzel hat das Verdienst,

-daß er zuerst den Stoff in Kategorien teilte. Er

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>wendet die analytische Methode der allgemeinen

-Geographie an und betrachtet den Einfluß einzelner

-Naturgegebenheiten auf den Menschen,

-z.B. der Inseln, Halbinseln, Gebirge, Ebenen,

-Steppen, Wüsten, Küsten, Flußmündungen<a id='r122' /><a href='#f122' class='c015'><sup>[122]</sup></a> usw.

-Die analytische Methode allein kann zum Ziele

-führen.</span>”<a id='r123' /><a href='#f123' class='c015'><sup>[123]</sup></a> The great and permanent merit of

-Ratzel’s <cite>Politische Geographie</cite><a id='r124' /><a href='#f124' class='c015'><sup>[124]</sup></a> is its setting forth

-how closely the State is bound to the physical

-milieu.<a id='r125' /><a href='#f125' class='c015'><sup>[125]</sup></a> It treats partly of the effect of nature

-and soil on the formation of the State and on

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>political boundaries.<a id='r126' /><a href='#f126' class='c015'><sup>[126]</sup></a> Ratzel expounds environmental

-action also in his books <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Vereinigten

-Staaten von Amerika</span></cite>,<a id='r127' /><a href='#f127' class='c015'><sup>[127]</sup></a> <cite>The History of Mankind</cite>,<a id='r128' /><a href='#f128' class='c015'><sup>[128]</sup></a>

-and in his article on “The Principles of Anthropo-geography.”<a id='r129' /><a href='#f129' class='c015'><sup>[129]</sup></a>

-Among his followers is to be

-counted Andrew R. Cowan, whose <cite>Master-Clues

-in World-History</cite><a id='r130' /><a href='#f130' class='c015'><sup>[130]</sup></a> is “deeply impregnated with

-Ratzel’s teachings.”<a id='r131' /><a href='#f131' class='c015'><sup>[131]</sup></a> Camille Vallaux devotes

-the fifth chapter (pp. 145–73) of his <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie

-Sociale, Le Sol et L’État</span></cite>,<a id='r132' /><a href='#f132' class='c015'><sup>[132]</sup></a> to a criticism of the

-theories of <em>Raum</em> (space) and of Lage (situation)

-as developed by Ratzel in his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Politische Geographie</span></cite>.

-And, in general, Ratzel’s “published work had been

-open to the just criticism of inadequate citation

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>of authorities.”<a id='r133' /><a href='#f133' class='c015'><sup>[133]</sup></a> O. Schlüter in “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die leitenden

-Gesichtspunkte der Anthropogeographie, insbesondere

-der Lehre Friedrich Ratzels</span>”<a id='r134' /><a href='#f134' class='c015'><sup>[134]</sup></a> gives us

-the best single estimate of Ratzel, the best orientation—within

-the compass of an article well written,

-well poised, and illuminating—on Ratzel’s work,

-thought, method, and application.<a id='r135' /><a href='#f135' class='c015'><sup>[135]</sup></a></p>

-

-<h3 class='c016'><em>Geography and History</em></h3>

-

-<p class='c017'>We shall now see, first, the stand taken by

-some French writers, and then that taken by German

-and English writers, on the question of how

-physical environment affects history.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>One of the “three most philosophical writers

-on climate,”<a id='r136' /><a href='#f136' class='c015'><sup>[136]</sup></a> Charles Comte, not related by

-birth to the founder of Positivism, is, likewise,

-one of the earliest disciples of Herder in France.

-Herder “seems to have helped to inspire”<a id='r137' /><a href='#f137' class='c015'><sup>[137]</sup></a>

-Charles Comte’s <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traité de Législation</span></cite>.<a id='r138' /><a href='#f138' class='c015'><sup>[138]</sup></a> Charles

-Comte’s “discussion of the questions which relate

-to the influence of physical nature on human development

-must have been the fruit of long and

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>careful study. It was as great an advance on

-Montesquieu’s treatment of the subject as Montesquieu’s

-had been on that of Bodin. It disproved,

-corrected, or confirmed a host of Montesquieu’s

-observations and conclusions. It showed that

-he had ascribed too much to climate, and too

-little to the configuration of the earth’s surface,

-the distribution of mountains and rivers, &amp;c.;

-and that he had conceived vaguely, and even to a

-large extent erroneously, of the modes in which

-climate and the fertility or sterility of soil affect

-human development. But while Comte thus

-justly criticised Montesquieu, he himself exaggerated

-the efficiency of physical agencies. Indeed,

-he virtually traced to their operation the whole

-development of history ... he has assumed that

-physical agencies ultimately account for historical

-change and movement, for public institutions and

-laws....</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“Charles Comte fully recognises that the same

-physical medium has a very different influence on

-different generations; and that institutions and

-laws, education and manners, and, in a word, all

-the constituents of the social medium, have as

-real an influence on the development of history

-as those of the physical medium. Yet he assumes

-the latter to be the first, although to a large extent

-only indirect, causes of the whole amount of change

-effected.”<a id='r139' /><a href='#f139' class='c015'><sup>[139]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Victor Cousin, another Frenchman, reconnects

-with Herder. Cousin had direct acquaintance

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>with at least the principal work of Herder, for the

-rendering of whose “Ideen” into French by

-Quinet he seems responsible.<a id='r140' /><a href='#f140' class='c015'><sup>[140]</sup></a> In the eighth

-lecture of his “admired”<a id='r141' /><a href='#f141' class='c015'><sup>[141]</sup></a> <cite>Cours de 1828 sur la

-Philosophie de l’Histoire</cite>, he discourses on the

-rôle that geography plays in history.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>F. Guizot, in the fifth lecture of <cite>The History

-of Civilization</cite>,<a id='r142' /><a href='#f142' class='c015'><sup>[142]</sup></a> comments briefly on the influence

-of external circumstances upon liberty.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The romantic French historiographer, Jules

-Michelet, in his <cite>Histoire de France</cite> (second volume,

-1833), and in his <cite>Histoire Romaine</cite> (1839), interlinks

-geography with history, and brilliantly describes

-the countries whose histories he is writing.

-Like some before him (such as Montesquieu), and

-many after him (such as Riehl, Curtius, and

-Gothein),<a id='r143' /><a href='#f143' class='c015'><sup>[143]</sup></a> who traveled in the respective countries

-before describing them or composing their

-history, Michelet, as one preliminary measure

-toward equipping himself for such a task, visited

-Italy<a id='r144' /><a href='#f144' class='c015'><sup>[144]</sup></a> and various parts of France, the latter

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>repeatedly, in order to gain a first hand impression

-of the physical milieu and the people of those lands.

-He is said to be the first [<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sic!</span></i>] in France who, under

-the influence of Herder, had the idea that geography

-was the foundation of history: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Sous

-l’influence de Herder, il [Michelet] eut, le premier

-en France, l’idée que la géographie était le fondement

-de l’histoire: ‘Le matériel, la race, le peuple

-qui la continue me paraissaient avoir besoin qu’on

-mît dessous une bonne et forte base, la terre, qui

-les portât et qui les nourrît. Et notez que ce sol

-n’est pas seulement le théâtre de l’action. Par la

-nourriture, le climat, etc., il y influe de cent

-manières. Tel le nid, tel l’oiseau. Telle la patrie,

-tel l’homme.’</span>”<a id='r145' /><a href='#f145' class='c015'><sup>[145]</sup></a> Without this basis, the actor

-in history, the people, would be treading on air

-like figures in some Chinese paintings. Says Jules

-Simon of the celebrated tableau in the second

-volume of the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Histoire de France</cite>: “Son héros

-[Michelet’s] ... c’est la France. Il en fait une

-description qui remplit tout le troisième livre et

-qui est un chef-d’oeuvre. Chose nouvelle, cette

-géographie a autant de mouvement que l’histoire.

-Elle est animée, vivante, agissante. Il en montre

-à merveille l’utilité, la nécessité. Sans cette base

-géographique, le peuple, l’acteur historique,

-semblerait marcher en l’air, comme dans les

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>peintures chinoises, où le sol manque.”</span><a id='r146' /><a href='#f146' class='c015'><sup>[146]</sup></a> In the

-<cite>Introduction to Universal History</cite> (1831), Michelet

-says, “In Germany and Italy, fatality is still

-strong; moral freedom is still borne down by powerful

-influences of race, locality, and climate.”<a id='r147' /><a href='#f147' class='c015'><sup>[147]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Ernst Kapp, in the <cite>Philosophische Erdkunde</cite>,<a id='r148' /><a href='#f148' class='c015'><sup>[148]</sup></a>

-criticizes writers on the philosophy of history for

-their failure to give due attention to the geographical

-existence of the nations. Nor are geographical

-intermezzos alone sufficient: “Man [these writers]

-<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">hat zwar eine Ahnung von dem geographischen

-Element in der Geschichte, nicht aber das deutliche

-Bewußtsein, daß die Menschheit an dem Planeten

-ihre physische Individualität besitzt, daß sie zu

-ihm sich verhält, wie die Seele zum Leib. Anstatt

-die geographische Betrachtung durch und durch

-mit der historischen verwachsen zu lassen</span> [which

-he proposes to do], <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">hat man teils geographische

-Intermezzos nach subjektivem Gutdünken ...

-eingestreut, teils auch sich mit einer dem Ganzen

-voraufgeschickten geographischen Grundlage ein

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>für allemal begnügt. Man hat hierbei nicht

-bedacht, daß man die Geschichte, wenn man ihr

-den planetarischen Grund und Boden, auf den man

-sie von vornherein stellt, wegrückt, zwischen

-Himmel und Erde schweben läßt und ihre Behandlung

-dem veränderlichen Luftzuge des subjektiven

-Beliebens mehr oder minder preisgibt ...

-Darin ruht die Selbständigkeit der geographischen

-Wissenschaft, ..., daß ihr Objekt

-die Erde ist, ... die Erde, wie sie bestimmend

-auf die Entwicklung des Geistes einwirkt und hinwiederum

-vom Geist bestimmt und verändert

-wird. Dies Verhältnis des Planeten zum Geist

-ist ein wesentliches.</span>”<a id='r149' /><a href='#f149' class='c015'><sup>[149]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Arnold H. Guyot, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ce Suisse transplanté en

-Amérique</span>,”<a id='r150' /><a href='#f150' class='c015'><sup>[150]</sup></a> treats the same topic in the <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie

-physique comparée, considérée dans ses

-rapports avec l’histoire de l’humanité</span></cite>.<a id='r151' /><a href='#f151' class='c015'><sup>[151]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The frequently misquoted Henry Thomas

-Buckle, in the celebrated second chapter of the

-<cite>History of Civilization in England</cite>,<a id='r152' /><a href='#f152' class='c015'><sup>[152]</sup></a> shows the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>largely indirect effects of climate, food, and soil,

-chiefly upon the civilizations—of India, Egypt,

-Mexico, Peru, etc.—anterior to those of Europe,

-and of a fourth class of physical agents, namely,

-of what he terms the general aspect of nature upon

-the imagination—religion, literature, art—of those

-peoples. Buckle does not maintain that these

-four classes of the Environment were the <em>sole</em>

-factors in producing civilization; in fact he makes

-it quite clear that they were <em>not</em> the only factors,

-that they affected the civilizations mentioned in

-an indirect way and he indicates how this has

-taken place. Buckle’s statements of his ideas had

-been misrepresented, twisted, and distorted to

-such a degree that John M. Robertson felt impelled

-to write a whole book<a id='r153' /><a href='#f153' class='c015'><sup>[153]</sup></a> in rebuttal, in order

-to set Buckle’s detractors and controversial critics

-right and to refute their unfair imputations to

-Buckle’s intended meaning.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The romanticist Ernst Curtius is sometimes

-referred to as one of those historians who give

-adequate expression to the action of the physical

-milieu upon the course of history. But Vallaux

-declares that Curtius, like Michelet, has made of

-human geography and of political geography

-<em>merely</em> a preliminary and introductory science to

-history: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">une science auxiliaire ou plutôt liminaire,

-sorte de <em>portique d’entrée</em></span> [the italics are ours] <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pour

-leurs brillantes constructions</span>,”<a id='r154' /><a href='#f154' class='c015'><sup>[154]</sup></a> lending thus

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>support to Kapp’s contention.<a id='r155' /><a href='#f155' class='c015'><sup>[155]</sup></a> Nor would Ratzel

-be content with a portrayal of the land as an

-introduction to the history of a country, even

-though it be as richly colored as that drawn by

-Curtius.<a id='r156' /><a href='#f156' class='c015'><sup>[156]</sup></a> A description, in itself, fails to penetrate

-to the core of the relation. If we now turn

-to Curtius’ <cite>The History of Greece</cite>,<a id='r157' /><a href='#f157' class='c015'><sup>[157]</sup></a> we find that

-the first chapter in the first book<a id='r158' /><a href='#f158' class='c015'><sup>[158]</sup></a> considers Land

-and People, a part of which (pp. 9–18) gives a

-geographical description of Hellas, and another part

-of which (pp. 19–25, seven pages scant) points

-out the connection between the land and the

-people. Elsewhere,<a id='r159' /><a href='#f159' class='c015'><sup>[159]</sup></a> Curtius shows the interaction

-between the physical environment of

-Athens and the Athenians.<a id='r160' /><a href='#f160' class='c015'><sup>[160]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>George Grote, whose account of the relation

-between the Greek land and the Greek people is

-held by some<a id='r161' /><a href='#f161' class='c015'><sup>[161]</sup></a> to be excellent, in <cite>A History of

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>Greece</cite>,<a id='r162' /><a href='#f162' class='c015'><sup>[162]</sup></a> devotes four pages (227–30) of the chapter

-on General Geography and Limits of Greece to

-show the effects of the configuration of Greece

-upon the political relation of the inhabitants<a id='r163' /><a href='#f163' class='c015'><sup>[163]</sup></a>

-and the effects upon their intellectual development,<a id='r164' /><a href='#f164' class='c015'><sup>[164]</sup></a>

-the rest of the chapter being given over

-to a description of the geography of Greece.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Alfred E. Zimmern, in <cite>The Greek Commonwealth,

-Politics and Economics in Fifth-Century

-Athens</cite>,<a id='r165' /><a href='#f165' class='c015'><sup>[165]</sup></a> deals very cleverly with the main features

-of the material environment of Greek civilization:

-The Mediterranean Area; The Sea; The

-Climate; The Soil; Fellowship, or the Rule of

-Public Opinion, under which headings he discusses

-the influence of environment upon Greek institutions.<a id='r166' /><a href='#f166' class='c015'><sup>[166]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>As early as 1864, G. P. Marsh investigates the

-subject of man’s reaction on his milieu in <cite>Man and

-Nature, or Physical Geography as Modified by

-Human Action</cite> (London).</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>John William Draper, in his <cite>History of the Intellectual

-Development of Europe</cite>,<a id='r167' /><a href='#f167' class='c015'><sup>[167]</sup></a> in the composition

-of which Herderian ideas were the guides,<a id='r168' /><a href='#f168' class='c015'><sup>[168]</sup></a>

-first attempts to show (vol. I, pp. 6–17) that

-individual man, as well as communities, nations,

-and universal humanity, are under the control

-of physical conditions; then (pp. 23–35) he points

-out how the topography, meteorology, and secular

-geological movements of Europe affected its

-inhabitants. On the whole, he overstates the

-force of environment and neglects the human

-factor; nevertheless his uncompromising affirmations

-bring out strikingly some of the environmental

-effects on man.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>The uncritical Max Duncker, in the nine

-volume <cite>Geschichte des Altertums</cite>,<a id='r169' /><a href='#f169' class='c015'><sup>[169]</sup></a> not only has

-chapters on <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Land und Volk</span></i>, or <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Land und Stämme</span></i>

-at the beginning of the history of a given nation,

-but he also dwells elsewhere in his text on the

-sway of geography in history.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Élisée Réclus, in the magistral <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Nouvelle Géographie

-Universelle</span></cite> (1879 ff.), speaking of the

-difficulties encountered by research, queries: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">...

-Was verdanken die Nationen dem Einfluß der

-Natur, die sie umgibt? Was verdanken sie dem

-Milieu, das ihre Vorfahren bewohnten, ihren

-Rasseinstinkten, ihren verschiedenartigen Mischungen,

-den von Außen eingeführten Überlieferungen?

-Man weiß es nicht, kaum daß einige

-Lichtstrahlen in jene Finsternis dringen.</span>”<a id='r170' /><a href='#f170' class='c015'><sup>[170]</sup></a> The

-preponderance of European nations is by no means

-attributable, as some arrogantly and self-conceitedly

-fancied, to any racial endowment; on

-the contrary, it is due to the favoring conditions

-of the physical environment prevailing in Europe:

-“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Man weiß, wie mächtig der Einfluß des geographischen

-Milieu auf die Fortschritte der

-europäischen Nationen gewesen ist. Ihre Überlegenheit

-ist keineswegs, wie einige sich dünkelhafter

-Weise eingebildet haben, der eigentümlichen

-Anlage der Rassen zuzuschreiben, denn in

-anderen Gegenden der alten Welt haben sich eben

-dieselben Rassen weniger schöpferisch erwiesen.

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>Es sind die glücklichen Bedingungen der Wärme,

-des Klimas, der Gestalt und Lage des Festlandes,

-welche den Europäern die Ehre verschafft haben,

-die ersten gewesen zu sein in der Kenntnis der Erde

-in ihrem ganzen Umfange und lange Zeit an der

-Spitze der Zivilisation geblieben zu sein.</span>”<a id='r171' /><a href='#f171' class='c015'><sup>[171]</sup></a>

-These conditions help to explain, in part, the character

-of the nations: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Mit vollem Recht lieben es

-also die historischen Geographen bei der Gestalt

-der verschiedenen Erdteile und bei den Folgen zu

-verweilen, welche sich daraus für die Bestimmung

-der Völker ergeben. Die Gestalt der Hochebenen,

-die Höhe der Berge, der Lauf und der Reichtum

-der Flüsse, die Nachbarschaft des Ozeans, die

-Gliederung der Küsten, die Temperatur der Atmosphäre,

-die Häufigkeit oder Seltenheit des Regens,

-die unzähligen wechselseitigen Einflüsse der Sonne,

-der Luft und der Gewässer, alle Erscheinungen

-des Pflanzenlebens habe eine Bedeutung in ihren

-Augen und dienen ihnen (wenigstens zum Teil),

-den Charakter und das erste Leben der Nationen

-zu erklären ...</span>”<a id='r172' /><a href='#f172' class='c015'><sup>[172]</sup></a> Continental and oceanic

-forms and other features of the globe vary in their

-value for man in accordance with the stage of

-civilization to which he attained.<a id='r173' /><a href='#f173' class='c015'><sup>[173]</sup></a> Notwithstanding

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>this separation, in principle, of natural

-and national influences upon social evolution, its

-application to concrete cases Réclus finds arduous:

-“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Durch das Studium der Sonne und durch die

-unablässige Beobachtung der klimatischen Erscheinungen

-können wir ganz allgemein verstehen,

-welches der Einfluß der Natur auf die Entwicklung

-der Völker gewesen ist; aber es ist schwieriger,

-das auf jede Rasse, auf jede Nation zu verteilen....</span>”<a id='r174' /><a href='#f174' class='c015'><sup>[174]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>P. Mougeoulle’s theory in <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les problèmes de

-l’histoire</span></cite>,<a id='r175' /><a href='#f175' class='c015'><sup>[175]</sup></a> is an altogether one-sided geographical

-theory of history.<a id='r176' /><a href='#f176' class='c015'><sup>[176]</sup></a> The sole cause of the external

-as well as the internal history of peoples, is, in

-his opinion, the geographical Milieu.<a id='r177' /><a href='#f177' class='c015'><sup>[177]</sup></a> To Mougeoulle,

-the Milieu is the author, whereas man is

-the actor of the Drama of history.<a id='r178' /><a href='#f178' class='c015'><sup>[178]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Léon Metchnikoff, in <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Civilisation et Les

-Grands Fleuves Historiques</span></cite>,<a id='r179' /><a href='#f179' class='c015'><sup>[179]</sup></a> pays some attention

-to the influences (astronomic, physical—the geosphere,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere—,

-vegetal, animal, anthropological) of the milieu

-on man and society; yet his main care is with the

-action of parts of the hydrosphere on human progress.

-Following C. Böttiger (<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Mittelmeer</span></cite>,

-Leipzig, 1859), Metchnikoff distinguishes the

-three milieus: fluvial or potamic, mediterranean

-or thalassic, and oceanic or universal.<a id='r180' /><a href='#f180' class='c015'><sup>[180]</sup></a> On this

-basis he divides universal history into three periods:

-1) the period of the fluvial civilizations (temps

-anciens), furnishing the principal theme of his

-argument (discussed in the last four chapters of his

-book); 2) that of the mediterranean civilizations

-(temps moyens); 3) and that of the oceanic civilizations.

-The fluvial or ancient period, from the

-beginnings to <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circa</span></i> 800 B.C., comprises the history

-of the four great civilizations of antiquity, in

-Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">qui ont eu

-pour milieu géographique des régions arrosées par

-certains fleuves ou couples de fleuves célèbres</span>.”

-The mediterranean or middle period extends from

-the seventh century B.C.—the foundation of

-Carthage—to Charles the Fifth. The modern or

-oceanic period has two epochs: a) the <em>atlantic</em>

-epoch, from the discovery of America to about the

-middle of the nineteenth century; and b) the

-<em>universal</em> epoch, just beginning.<a id='r181' /><a href='#f181' class='c015'><sup>[181]</sup></a> In the main,

-Metchnikoff limits the scope of his work to the

-compass of fluvial civilizations. He studies in

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>detail the four great historical rivers or pairs of

-rivers (the Nile, the Tigris and the Euphrates,

-the Indus and the Ganges, and the Hoangho and

-the Yangtze-Kiang, those great educators of mankind)

-in their bearing upon the four grand civilizations—Chinese,

-Hindu, Assyro-Babylonian, and

-Egyptian—of remote antiquity, all of which

-expanded in fluvial regions.<a id='r182' /><a href='#f182' class='c015'><sup>[182]</sup></a> The River, in all

-countries, presents itself to Metchnikoff as the

-living synthesis of all the complex conditions of

-the climate, of the soil, of the configuration of the

-earth, and of the geologic formation. In Egypt

-and in China, in India and in Mesopotamia, the

-River has been “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">comme une synthèse vivante des

-conditions géographiques les plus multiples</span>.”<a id='r183' /><a href='#f183' class='c015'><sup>[183]</sup></a>

-He finds that each of the four great monarchies of

-antiquity had been a natural consequence or result

-of the hydrological system of the country that

-served as its cradle, and that history, in the entire

-ancient world, had been a toil, a forced labor

-(“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">une corvée</span>”), imposed on a part of mankind by

-certain orographic peculiarities of the Milieu.

-Metchnikoff concludes that in these empires “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">le

-Milieu s’est trouvé être invariablement le vrai

-créateur de l’histoire</span>.” The eloquent example

-of these four grand ancient civilizations sufficiently

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>proves to him that no important historical expansion

-could ever occur in any country of the world,

-unless the milieu condemned its inhabitants to

-that excessive solidarity which he shows to have

-been brutally imposed everywhere at the shores

-of these great historical rivers; a milieu is conceivable,

-however, where this condition, rigorously

-required by history, may be fulfilled by an environmental

-factor other than a river or a system of

-rivers.<a id='r184' /><a href='#f184' class='c015'><sup>[184]</sup></a> Metchnikoff protests that he is far from

-advocating potamic<a id='r185' /><a href='#f185' class='c015'><sup>[185]</sup></a> or geographical<a id='r186' /><a href='#f186' class='c015'><sup>[186]</sup></a> fatalism.<a id='r187' /><a href='#f187' class='c015'><sup>[187]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Babington’s study of the power of environment

-over history points out the fallacy of the race

-theory in the history of the Roman empire, of

-Germany, and of China.<a id='r188' /><a href='#f188' class='c015'><sup>[188]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>N. S. Shaler, in <cite>Nature and Man in America</cite>,<a id='r189' /><a href='#f189' class='c015'><sup>[189]</sup></a>

-traces, on the one hand, the action of environment

-on organic life, and, on the other, the effect of

-geographic conditions on the development of

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>peoples, more especially on that of man in North

-America.<a id='r190' /><a href='#f190' class='c015'><sup>[190]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Since about the middle of the eighties, under

-the leadership of the late historian E. A. Freeman

-and of the illustrious statesman and scholar, Lord

-James Bryce, “a marked revival of interest” has

-been exhibited in England in studying the physical

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>milieu as it relates to man and human society,

-institutions and history.<a id='r191' /><a href='#f191' class='c015'><sup>[191]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The leading point of view in H. F. Helmolt’s

-<cite>The History of the World, a Survey of Man’s

-Record</cite>,<a id='r192' /><a href='#f192' class='c015'><sup>[192]</sup></a> is the treatment of man’s relation to his

-physical environment, the relation of geography

-to history, the dependence of man on his geographical

-surroundings. “It [Helmolt’s <cite>History</cite>] deals

-with history in the light of physical environment....

-Its ground plan, so to speak, is primarily

-geographical....”<a id='r193' /><a href='#f193' class='c015'><sup>[193]</sup></a> It was conceived in the

-spirit of Ratzel;<a id='r194' /><a href='#f194' class='c015'><sup>[194]</sup></a> it is said to have brought for

-the first time “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">die Länder- und Völkerkunde in

-den Dienst der Weltgeschichtsdarstellung</span>.”<a id='r195' /><a href='#f195' class='c015'><sup>[195]</sup></a> Helmolt’s

-“great co-operative <cite>History of Mankind</cite>

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>... emphasizes the sovereign influences of nature

-and geography,” says Gooch.<a id='r196' /><a href='#f196' class='c015'><sup>[196]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Rev. H. B. George, in <cite>The Relations of Geography

-and History</cite>,<a id='r197' /><a href='#f197' class='c015'><sup>[197]</sup></a> attempts to “point out systematically

-how these [geographical] causes work [all history

-through], first in general, and then in reference

-to the various countries of Europe,”<a id='r198' /><a href='#f198' class='c015'><sup>[198]</sup></a> although

-“This work does not pretend to attempt the

-impossible task of describing all the influence

-exerted by geographical conditions on human

-history. All that it professes to do is to indicate

-the modes in which that influence works, with

-sufficient illustrations from actual history.”<a id='r199' /><a href='#f199' class='c015'><sup>[199]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Professor Geddes, of Edinburgh, is the most

-energetic expounder of this idea—the anthropo-geographical

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>conception of history—in the English-speaking

-world, says Small.<a id='r200' /><a href='#f200' class='c015'><sup>[200]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Throughout the entire treatment of Guglielmo

-Ferrero’s<a id='r201' /><a href='#f201' class='c015'><sup>[201]</sup></a> <cite>History of Rome</cite> (one of the most original

-and important historical works of recent

-years), geography thoroughly permeates history.<a id='r202' /><a href='#f202' class='c015'><sup>[202]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Robert Sieger<a id='r203' /><a href='#f203' class='c015'><sup>[203]</sup></a> attempts to explain the history

-and policies of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy

-“aus ihren geographischen Grundlagen.”<a id='r204' /><a href='#f204' class='c015'><sup>[204]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Ellsworth Huntington, in <cite>The Pulse of Asia</cite>,<a id='r205' /><a href='#f205' class='c015'><sup>[205]</sup></a>

-illustrates the geographic basis of history.<a id='r206' /><a href='#f206' class='c015'><sup>[206]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The Columbia School of sociological historians,

-and others, interpret history partly in terms of

-the milieu: physical (economic and geographic)

-and social.<a id='r207' /><a href='#f207' class='c015'><sup>[207]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>Human geography, and political geography,

-have long been divided into fragmentary parts,

-contended for by economics, history, and sociology.<a id='r208' /><a href='#f208' class='c015'><sup>[208]</sup></a>

-Yet the discipline of anthropo-geography

-has now become “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">eine mächtige Hilfswissenschaft

-der geschichtlichen Auffassung</span>.”<a id='r209' /><a href='#f209' class='c015'><sup>[209]</sup></a> So that, today,

-it has become a custom to include in textbooks

-of history one or more chapters on the relation

-of geography to history, to show the dependence

-of history on environment.<a id='r210' /><a href='#f210' class='c015'><sup>[210]</sup></a> The study

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>of the latter is a part of Kulturgeschichte or

-History of Civilization which is defined as embracing

-the non-political aspects of civilization such

-as the influence of nature, the pressure of economic

-factors, the origin and transformation of ideas,

-the contribution of science and art, religion and

-philosophy, literature and law, the material conditions

-of life, the fortunes of the masses.<a id='r211' /><a href='#f211' class='c015'><sup>[211]</sup></a> Likewise,

-only on a broader scale, the milieu is being

-examined in a new branch of study, which is one

-resultant of anthropo-geographical research. This

-new branch of study is economic geography, which,

-according to John McFarlane,<a id='r212' /><a href='#f212' class='c015'><sup>[212]</sup></a> “may be defined

-as the study of the influence exerted upon the

-economic activities of man by his physical environment,

-and more especially by the form and structure

-of the surface of the land, the climatic conditions

-which prevail upon it, and the place relations in

-which its different regions stand to one another.”

-Seligman says that the modern study of economic

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>geography is but an expansion of the study of the

-influence of milieu.<a id='r213' /><a href='#f213' class='c015'><sup>[213]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Indeed, geography itself, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, the new geography,

-is conceived of as the science or study of

-the responses of organisms to inorganic, and to a

-certain extent organic, environmental control.<a id='r214' /><a href='#f214' class='c015'><sup>[214]</sup></a>

-Professor William Morris Davis, of Harvard University,

-is one of the chief exponents of this theory

-in the United States. Very recently, Rollin D.

-Salisbury said:<a id='r215' /><a href='#f215' class='c015'><sup>[215]</sup></a> “By common consent, Geography

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>(as distinct from physical geography) is

-the science which deals with the relations of physical

-environment to life and its activities. In this

-sense, geography is a connecting link between

-geology, physiography, and climatology, on the

-one hand, and zoölogy, botany, sociology, economics,

-and history on the other. Its subject-matter

-is in process of formulation....”<a id='r216' /><a href='#f216' class='c015'><sup>[216]</sup></a></p>

-

-<h3 class='c016'><em>More Recent Anthropo-geographical Treatises</em></h3>

-

-<p class='c017'>James Bryce offers the most excellent general

-survey of man’s relation to his physical environment.<a id='r217' /><a href='#f217' class='c015'><sup>[217]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Herbertson’s very useful and readable introductory

-book gives “concrete pictures of human

-life under these very different conditions [typical

-environments]. They show, in the first place,

-how the occupation of different groups of mankind

-depends on their geographical surroundings,

-and how these occupations in turn affect not only

-the material life, the houses, food, clothing, etc.,

-but also family life, notions of property, progress

-in trade and manufactures, power of expansion,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>and ideals of government. All these are classified,

-not according to race, which is often an accident,

-but according to those permanent influences

-by which all races are affected.”<a id='r218' /><a href='#f218' class='c015'><sup>[218]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Robert DeCourcy Ward, in his standard work

-on <cite>Climate Considered Especially in Relation to

-Man</cite>,<a id='r219' /><a href='#f219' class='c015'><sup>[219]</sup></a> presents “typical illustrations” of environmental

-action on the life of man in the tropics

-(Ch. 8, pp. 220–71), in the temperate zones (Ch. 9

-pp. 272–321), and in the polar zones (Ch. 10, pp.

-322–37).<a id='r220' /><a href='#f220' class='c015'><sup>[220]</sup></a> In a chapter on the hygiene of the

-zones (Ch. 7, pp. 178–219), Ward also surveys

-“some of the relations between weather and climate

-and a few of the more important diseases.”<a id='r221' /><a href='#f221' class='c015'><sup>[221]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>R. R. Marett’s chapter on “Environment”

-in his <cite>Anthropology</cite><a id='r222' /><a href='#f222' class='c015'><sup>[222]</sup></a> presents, beside a number of

-valuable general and critical remarks, chiefly a

-regional survey of the world showing the general

-effect of geographical environment on man.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Camille Vallaux, in <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie Sociale, Le Sol

-et L’État</span></cite>,<a id='r223' /><a href='#f223' class='c015'><sup>[223]</sup></a> beginning with the sixth chapter, also

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>discusses some phases of what would in E. C. Hayes’

-classification<a id='r224' /><a href='#f224' class='c015'><sup>[224]</sup></a> be called the technical milieu.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The most recent German essay, Willy Hellpach’s<a id='r225' /><a href='#f225' class='c015'><sup>[225]</sup></a>

-<cite>Die Geopsychischen Erscheinungen: Wetter,

-Klima und Landschaft in ihrem Einfluß auf das

-Seelenleben</cite>,<a id='r226' /><a href='#f226' class='c015'><sup>[226]</sup></a> deals with the <em>direct</em> effects of the

-surrounding <em>atmosphere</em> and soil on the human

-psyche.<a id='r227' /><a href='#f227' class='c015'><sup>[227]</sup></a> Hellpach seems primarily interested in

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>“Psycho-Pathologie”;<a id='r228' /><a href='#f228' class='c015'><sup>[228]</sup></a> he lays most stress on

-<i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">das Pathologische</span></i>, particularly in the main—first

-two—parts of his essay: “Wetter und Seelenleben,”

-and “Klima und Seelenleben,” where

-the pathological effect is strongly emphasized.

-Hellpach’s valuable summary of what we know

-today of this phase of the milieu,<a id='r229' /><a href='#f229' class='c015'><sup>[229]</sup></a> revealing as

-it does by the meager number of the facts assembled

-the crying need for many more such facts, may be,

-in its results, somewhat disappointing<a id='r230' /><a href='#f230' class='c015'><sup>[230]</sup></a> for the

-present day, but it augurs well for future investigation.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The latest extensive presentation of general

-anthropo-geography,<a id='r231' /><a href='#f231' class='c015'><sup>[231]</sup></a> Jean Brunhes’ <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La géographie

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>humaine</span></cite>,<a id='r232' /><a href='#f232' class='c015'><sup>[232]</sup></a> pays more attention to present

-than to historical conditions,<a id='r233' /><a href='#f233' class='c015'><sup>[233]</sup></a> and thus fittingly

-complements Ellen C. Semple’s <cite>Influences of

-Geographic Environment</cite>,<a id='r234' /><a href='#f234' class='c015'><sup>[234]</sup></a> which “may be regarded

-as superseding Ratzel’s great work on

-Anthropo-geography.”<a id='r235' /><a href='#f235' class='c015'><sup>[235]</sup></a></p>

-

-<h3 class='c016'><em>Primitive Peoples and Environment</em></h3>

-

-<p class='c017'>Karl Ritter, in the essay “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über das historische

-Element in der geographischen Wissenschaft</span>”

-(1833), declares that the forces of nature which

-at the commencement of human history exerted

-a very decisive influence were bound to recede

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>more and more, and their action had to diminish,

-in proportion to man’s progress. Civilized mankind

-extricates itself gradually, like single man,

-from the immediately conditioning fetters of

-nature and of its place of abode.<a id='r236' /><a href='#f236' class='c015'><sup>[236]</sup></a> This opinion

-of Ritter’s was adopted by many.<a id='r237' /><a href='#f237' class='c015'><sup>[237]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Theodor Waitz regards primitive man both as

-purely a product of, and as being completely at

-the mercy of, circumambient nature: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Denken wir

-uns vom Menschen Alles hinweg, was an ihm

-Wirkung der Kultur ist, so steht er da als bloßes

-Produkt der Macht, die ihn in’s Leben rief, ...

-Das Erste, was an ihm charakteristisch für uns

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>hervorträte, würde die sehr vollständige Abhängigkeit

-sein, in der er sich von seiner Naturumgebung

-befände: der gesammte Inhalt, den sein inneres

-Leben zunächst gewönne, würde ein ziemlich reines

-Produkt dieser letzteren sein. Der Naturmensch

-wird zunächst nur das, wozu die Naturverhältnisse

-ihn machen, unter die er sich gestellt findet; wovon

-er sich nährt, das werden diese ihm darbieten, auf

-welche Weise und durch welche Mittel er seine

-Nahrung gewinnt, dazu werden diese ihm Anleitung

-geben müssen; ob er Kleidung und sonstigen

-Schutz gegen äußere Schädlichkeiten bedarf,

-und wie er diesem Bedürfnis abzuhelfen strebt,

-werden sie ihn lehren und die Erfindungen, die

-hierzu nötig sind, ihm an die Hand geben müssen;

-sie werden mit einem Wort seine ganze Lebenseinrichtung

-bestimmen ...</span>”<a id='r238' /><a href='#f238' class='c015'><sup>[238]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>G. Gerland holds that man developed from

-and upon nature, on which he is very closely dependent

-and of which he is a small part, and that the

-higher he rises the more he frees himself from the

-compelling influence of the earth, which, however,

-he can never wholly escape.<a id='r239' /><a href='#f239' class='c015'><sup>[239]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>In the opinion of Herbert Spencer, the earlier

-stages of social evolution are far more dependent

-on local conditions than the later stages. They

-are more at the mercy of their surroundings.<a id='r240' /><a href='#f240' class='c015'><sup>[240]</sup></a>

-Both Spencer and Benjamin Kidd believe that

-primitive man is at the mercy of the milieu.<a id='r241' /><a href='#f241' class='c015'><sup>[241]</sup></a>

-The “remotely ancient representatives of the

-human species ... were in their then wild state

-much more plastic than now to external nature,”

-according to Wallace.<a id='r242' /><a href='#f242' class='c015'><sup>[242]</sup></a> Historical and statistical

-geography show us “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">die Menschen, wie sie in

-ihre aktive Rolle eingetreten sind und durch

-Arbeit die Überlegenheit über das Milieu gewinnen,

-das sie umgibt ... Nachdem der Mensch ganz

-den Einfluß des Milieu über sich ergehen ließ,

-hat er denselben zu seinem Nutzen umgestaltet ...</span>”<a id='r243' /><a href='#f243' class='c015'><sup>[243]</sup></a>

-The intimate connection of first civilizations

-with physical environment slackens with subsequent

-advance.<a id='r244' /><a href='#f244' class='c015'><sup>[244]</sup></a> This apparently deep-rooted

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>view is controverted by Ratzel who flatly contradicts

-it. Distinguishing between the direct and

-the indirect effects of milieu, he argues in straight

-opposition that with progressing civilization we

-are increasingly dependent on environment, that

-the degree of such dependence has not lessened

-with advancement in civilization, and that only

-the manner of the relation has changed.<a id='r245' /><a href='#f245' class='c015'><sup>[245]</sup></a> Environment

-affects even the highest civilization, says

-Ripley.<a id='r246' /><a href='#f246' class='c015'><sup>[246]</sup></a> G. Elliot Smith maintains that “Environment,

-however it may act, whether directly

-or indirectly, is still helping to shape the human

-form, and is affecting the development of Man’s

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>customs and achievements at least as powerfully

-as, if not more so than, ever before.”<a id='r247' /><a href='#f247' class='c015'><sup>[247]</sup></a></p>

-

-<h3 class='c016'><em>Society and Physical Milieu</em></h3>

-

-<p class='c017'>The social evolution proceeds amidst the entire

-system of exterior conditions (chemical, physical,

-astronomical), by which its rate of progress is

-determined. Social phenomena can no more be

-understood apart from their environment than

-those of individual life.<a id='r248' /><a href='#f248' class='c015'><sup>[248]</sup></a> The study of social

-evolution presupposes a relation to the physical

-milieu: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Studium der sozialen Entwicklung

-setzt eine Beziehung zwischen der Menschheit,

-welche den Vorgang vollführt, und der Gesamtheit

-der äußeren Einflüsse voraus, welche letztere

-man auch die sogenannte Umgebung heißen

-könnte.</span>”<a id='r249' /><a href='#f249' class='c015'><sup>[249]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>John Stuart Mill asserts that “All phenomena

-of society are phenomena of human nature, generated

-by the action of outward circumstances

-upon masses of human beings.”<a id='r250' /><a href='#f250' class='c015'><sup>[250]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>To Schäffle, in the analysis of the structure and

-functions of human society there exist as influential

-factors the external surroundings, on the one hand,

-and the active elements of the social body (the

-individual and the population), on the other; for,

-as Schäffle emphasizes, not only economics, but

-all social science must take into consideration

-not only Society, but also Nature, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, the natural

-fund or stock, designated by soil and climate,

-of the immediate world-surroundings of the social

-body as the external sphere embracing societary

-life, and that, not only as a sum total of free possessions,

-but also as a multiplicity of free, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, unsubjugated

-resistances.<a id='r251' /><a href='#f251' class='c015'><sup>[251]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>As “the result of a survey of social organizations,

-considered as machinery in motion, [Hermann]

-Post<a id='r252' /><a href='#f252' class='c015'><sup>[252]</sup></a> points out very justly that it is

-useless to attempt to explain social phenomena

-on the basis of the psychological activities of individuals,

-as is too commonly assumed, because all

-individuals whose conduct we can possibly observe

-have themselves been educated in some society

-or other, and presume in all their social acts the

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>assumptions on which that society itself proceeds....

-It [Post’s method] is the same method, of

-course, which had already yielded such remarkable

-results to Montesquieu, and even to Locke. The

-point of view is no longer that of a Maine or a

-McLennan.... It is that of a spectator of

-human society as a whole.... And its immediate

-outcome has been to throw into the

-strongest possible relief the dependence of the

-form and, still more, of the actual content of all

-human societies on something which is not in the

-human mind at all, but is the infinite variety of

-that external Nature which Society exists to fend

-off from Man, and also to let Man dominate if

-he can.”<a id='r253' /><a href='#f253' class='c015'><sup>[253]</sup></a></p>

-

-<h3 class='c016'><em>Government, War, Progress, and Climate</em></h3>

-

-<p class='c017'>James Bryce “has recently clearly set forth

-the climatic control of government in an essay on

-‘British Experience in the Government of Colonies’

-(<cite>Century</cite>, March, 1899, 718–729).”<a id='r254' /><a href='#f254' class='c015'><sup>[254]</sup></a> Vallaux,

-however, is sceptical as to the influence of

-physical environment upon the State.<a id='r255' /><a href='#f255' class='c015'><sup>[255]</sup></a> William

-Ridgeway avers that political and legal institutions

-are the result of environment.<a id='r256' /><a href='#f256' class='c015'><sup>[256]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>Far-reaching and weighty historical consequences

-“have followed from special conditions of

-climate or weather. Maguire’s ‘Outlines of Military

-Geography’ (Cambridge, 1899) contains a

-chapter on the influence of climate on military

-operations, but this subject has hitherto received

-little attention. More recently, Bentley, in a

-presidential address before the Royal Meteorological

-Society, London, considered the matter.”<a id='r257' /><a href='#f257' class='c015'><sup>[257]</sup></a>

-Still more recently, the relation of climate or

-weather to war has been scrutinized, among others,

-by F. Lampe in “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der erdkundliche Unterricht</span>,”<a id='r258' /><a href='#f258' class='c015'><sup>[258]</sup></a>

-by Otto Baschin in “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Krieg und das Wetter</span>,”<a id='r259' /><a href='#f259' class='c015'><sup>[259]</sup></a>

-and by E. Alt in “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Krieg und Witterung</span>.”<a id='r260' /><a href='#f260' class='c015'><sup>[260]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>Hellwald, “the well-known traveller and geographer,”

-compiled his “History of Civilization

-in its Natural Development” in 1874, according

-to the findings of which, cultural development is

-“a natural process, conditioned by race, geography,

-and climate. Civilisation means the

-mastering of nature and the taming of man....

-Hellwald’s standpoint is shared, though less

-aggressively displayed by Henne-am-Rhyn.”<a id='r261' /><a href='#f261' class='c015'><sup>[261]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>To the late meteorologist Cleveland Abbe,

-“Everything seems to combine to prove that the

-existing order of events both material and intellectual

-has been brought about by a slow process

-of change, due to the interaction of the atoms and

-masses that constitute the material world around

-us.”<a id='r262' /><a href='#f262' class='c015'><sup>[262]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The great diversity of existent civilizations,

-declares Auguste Matteuzzi, is due to the diversity

-of the milieus where they developed. In order

-to discover why any civilization becomes more

-heterogeneous and more perfect, one must study

-the geographic milieu where it evolved. The

-organic and inorganic milieu of evolving ethnic

-groups constrains human societies to an incessant

-process of adaptation, and these societies in their

-turn react upon the milieu and modify it.<a id='r263' /><a href='#f263' class='c015'><sup>[263]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>In short, says Auguste Comte, “all human

-progress, political, moral, or intellectual, is inseparable

-from material progression, in virtue of the

-close interconnection which, as we have seen,

-characterizes the natural course of social phenomena.”<a id='r264' /><a href='#f264' class='c015'><sup>[264]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>That civilization is a result of adaptation to

-environment, physical as well as political, is the

-view entertained by Bryce, Strachey, and Geikie.<a id='r265' /><a href='#f265' class='c015'><sup>[265]</sup></a></p>

-

-<div>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>

-  <h3 class='c016'><em>Climate and Man’s Characteristics</em></h3>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c017'>There are “certain broad, distinguishing characteristics

-of man in the temperate and tropical

-zones, in determining which it is reasonable to

-believe that climate has played a part. Similarly,

-there has been a natural tendency to attribute

-certain differences between northerners and southerners

-in the temperate zones to a difference in

-climate.... These national differences are proverbial

-between northern and southern Germans,

-French, Spanish, Russians, Italians, Arabs, and

-other peoples. The influence of climate has likewise

-been traced in the sad, even pessimistic tone

-of much of the northern literature, and in the

-gravity and melancholy of modern northern music,

-as well as of the older northern folk-songs ...

-even racial distinctions are more or less directly

-traceable, in many instances, to climate.... Sir

-Archibald Geikie, in his <cite>Scottish Reminiscences</cite>,

-has emphasized the climatic influence in producing

-the grim character of the Scot....”<a id='r266' /><a href='#f266' class='c015'><sup>[266]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Tacitus, in the 29th chapter of the <cite>Germania</cite>,

-assures us that the soil and climate of the land

-of the Mattiaci caused them to be more bellicose

-than their neighbors.<a id='r267' /><a href='#f267' class='c015'><sup>[267]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>Daudet, “who has written an entire novel

-(‘Numa Roumestan’) to depict the great influence

-of the climate of southern Europe upon conduct,

-says: ‘The Southerner does not love strong drinks;

-he is intoxicated by nature. Sun and wind distil

-in him a terrible natural alcohol to whose influence

-every one born under this sky is subject. Some

-have only the mild fever which sets their speech

-and gesture free, redoubles their audacity, makes

-everything seem rosy-hued, and drives them on to

-boasting; others live in a blind delirium. And

-what Southerner has not felt the sudden giving

-way, the exhaustion of his whole being, that follows

-an outburst of rage or enthusiasm?’”<a id='r268' /><a href='#f268' class='c015'><sup>[268]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Draper “emphasized the important historical

-consequences of the difference in the characteristics

-of northerners and southerners in the United States,

-which he attributed largely to climate, and which

-found expression in the Civil War.... The

-Boers in Africa have developed along lines different

-from those of the Dutch in the United

-States.”<a id='r269' /><a href='#f269' class='c015'><sup>[269]</sup></a></p>

-

-<h3 class='c016'><em>Man’s Intellect and Physical Environment</em></h3>

-

-<p class='c017'>Auguste Comte, who “was very slightly affected

-by German thought,” and who, in early youth,

-came under the influence of the philosophy that

-had become prevalent in France before the Revolution,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>“read the works of most of its leading representatives.

-He accepted its cardinal principle

-that ‘thought depends on sense, or, more broadly,

-on the environment.’”<a id='r270' /><a href='#f270' class='c015'><sup>[270]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Adolf Bastian worked unceasingly “among the

-conceptions of the <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Naturvölker</span>—the ‘cryptograms

-of mankind,’ as he called them—..., demonstrating

-first the surprising uniformity of outlook

-on the part of the more primitive peoples, and

-secondly the correlation of differences of conceptions

-with differences in material surroundings,

-varying with geographical conditions. This second

-doctrine he elaborated in his <cite>Zur Lehre von den

-geographischen Provinzen</cite>, in 1886.”<a id='r271' /><a href='#f271' class='c015'><sup>[271]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Physiology and statistics “show that most

-human functions are subject to the influence of

-heat (Lombroso, ‘Pensiero e Meteore,’ Milan,

-1878). It is to be expected, then, that excessive

-heat will have its effect upon the human mind.”<a id='r272' /><a href='#f272' class='c015'><sup>[272]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The physiographer, “... looking back over

-the history of life upon the earth’s surface, ...

-is forced to the conclusion that its highest estate

-embodied in the moral and intellectual qualities

-of man has been, in the main, secured by the geographic

-variations which have slowly developed

-through the geological ages.”<a id='r273' /><a href='#f273' class='c015'><sup>[273]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>Benno Erdmann, in his “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Gedächtnisrede auf

-Wilhelm Dilthey</span>,” observes that in ripe old age

-Dilthey in the last of his larger works declared

-that man finds himself determined by the physical

-world in which mental occurrences appear only as

-interpolations.<a id='r274' /><a href='#f274' class='c015'><sup>[274]</sup></a></p>

-

-<h3 class='c016'><em>Religion and Physical Milieu</em></h3>

-

-<p class='c017'>As physical characteristics “are in the main

-the result of environment, social institutions and

-religious ideas are no less the product of that environment....

-We might just as well ask the

-Ethiopian to change his skin as to change radically

-his social and religious ideas. It has been shown

-by experience that Christianity can make but little

-headway amongst many peoples in Africa or Asia,

-where on the other hand Muhammadanism has

-made and is steadily making progress, ... This

-is probably due to the fact that Muhammadanism

-is a religion evolved ... in latitudes bordering

-on the aboriginal races of Africa and Asia, and that

-it is far more akin in its social ideas to those of

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>the Negro or Malay than are those of Christianity,

-...”<a id='r275' /><a href='#f275' class='c015'><sup>[275]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Ernest Renan “points out that the desert is

-monotheistic, its uniformity suggesting a belief

-in the unity of God.... In his <cite>Seas and Skies

-in Many Latitudes</cite> (London, 1888, pp. 42–43),

-Abercromby gives two maps, showing respectively

-the areas of Mohammedanism and the districts in

-Asia and Africa with a mean annual rainfall of less

-than ten inches. The maps are strikingly similar.

-The author adds: ‘Whether this distribution of a

-great creed is the result of chance, or of some deep

-connection between the tenets of that religion and

-climatic influences, I can not say;—but still the

-relation is so remarkable that I have thought it

-well to bring the matter forward.’”<a id='r276' /><a href='#f276' class='c015'><sup>[276]</sup></a></p>

-

-<h3 class='c016'><em>Climate and Conduct</em></h3>

-

-<p class='c017'>The “frequent and sudden weather changes

-of the temperate zones affect man in many ways,

-as do the larger seasonal changes. The relations

-between weather and conduct have frequently been

-investigated. Professor E. G. Dexter has made an

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>extended empirical study of the effects of the

-weather ... Bertillon has collected data on

-suicides and seasons in France, ...”<a id='r277' /><a href='#f277' class='c015'><sup>[277]</sup></a> Dexter

-studies empirically by means of statistics—plotting

-certain curves—the relation between temperature,

-barometric pressure, humidity, wind, character

-of the day, precipitation, on the one hand, and

-the child in school—work, deportment, attendance—, crime,

-insanity, health—sickness and

-death—, suicide, drunkenness, attention—errors

-in calculation made by clerks in banks—, on

-the other.<a id='r278' /><a href='#f278' class='c015'><sup>[278]</sup></a> Of his general conclusions<a id='r279' /><a href='#f279' class='c015'><sup>[279]</sup></a> the first

-is: “Varying meteorological conditions affect

-directly, though in different ways, the metabolism

-of life”; the second: “The ‘reserve energy’ capable

-of being utilized for intellectual processes and

-activities other than those of the vital organs is

-affected [<em>effected</em>, in the original] most by meteorological

-changes”; the third: “The quality of the

-emotional state is plainly influenced by the weather

-states”; the fourth: “Although meteorological

-conditions affect the emotional states, which without

-doubt have weight in the determination of

-conduct in its broadest sense, it would seem that

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>their effects upon that portion of the reserve energy

-which is available for action are of the greatest

-import.”<a id='r280' /><a href='#f280' class='c015'><sup>[280]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The nervous effects of the weather including

-cyclonic winds have also been noted. Among the

-Eskimos, “Marriages take place at an early age,

-especially among the women, and the return of

-the sun after the long winter has a stimulating

-effect on the animal passions which leads to sexual

-excesses of all kinds.”<a id='r281' /><a href='#f281' class='c015'><sup>[281]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Albert Leffingwell investigates <cite>The Influence

-of Seasons Upon Conduct</cite><a id='r282' /><a href='#f282' class='c015'><sup>[282]</sup></a> in Great Britain and

-elsewhere. He formulates the underlying assumption

-of his inquiry in the following manner: “It

-is not a new theory, though I propose to carry it

-somewhat further than it has been pushed hitherto.

-Over half a century ago, Quetelet in his great work

-“On Man,” suggested the hypothesis.... The

-hypothesis toward which all the facts point is

-simply this: that upon the nervous organization

-of human bodies (perhaps specially upon dwellers

-in the temperate zones) there is exerted during the

-procession of the seasons, from winter’s close till

-midsummer, some undefined, specific influence,

-which in some manner tends to increase the excitability

-of emotion and passion, and thus also to

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>increase all actions arising therefrom.”<a id='r283' /><a href='#f283' class='c015'><sup>[283]</sup></a> To

-mention only one of Leffingwell’s illustrations, he

-brings together in a statistical table the total number

-of all crimes against persons in England for

-ten years (1878–87), the same facts for Ireland

-during the same decade, and for France during

-forty years (1830–69), and in conjunction therewith

-says: “Here, again, we find that all crimes, even

-those arising from personal antipathy or hatred,

-seem specially prevalent in the warmer half of

-the year. In England, 55 per cent of all such acts

-of violence during the ten years 1878–1887 happened

-in spring and summer, and in France during

-a period of forty years the average was the same.

-Ireland, indeed, shows a more even distribution of

-such crimes; but the tendency is seen even there.”<a id='r284' /><a href='#f284' class='c015'><sup>[284]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Cesare Lombroso, who is claimed to be the first

-to have essayed to portray the effect of physical

-environment on the human psyche,<a id='r285' /><a href='#f285' class='c015'><sup>[285]</sup></a> states in his

-<cite>Criminal Man</cite>,<a id='r286' /><a href='#f286' class='c015'><sup>[286]</sup></a> referring to Ferri and Holzendorf,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>that with high temperature there is an increase in

-crimes of violence, while low temperature has the

-effect of increasing the number of crimes against

-property. In “comparing statistics of criminality

-in France with those of the variations in temperature,

-Ferri noted an increase in crimes of violence

-during the warmer years.”<a id='r287' /><a href='#f287' class='c015'><sup>[287]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Lombroso, in his <cite>Crime, Its Causes and Remedies</cite>,<a id='r288' /><a href='#f288' class='c015'><sup>[288]</sup></a>

-citing the conclusions of the relevant

-statistical evidence, establishes that in England

-and France and Italy the crimes of rape and of

-murder occur in greatest number in the hottest

-months; that the maximum number of all rebellions

-in the whole world between 1791 and 1880 falls

-everywhere in the hottest month, while its minimum

-number comes in the coldest months; and that

-crimes against property markedly increase in the

-winter.<a id='r289' /><a href='#f289' class='c015'><sup>[289]</sup></a></p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>In the southern parts of Italy and France

-“there occur many more crimes against persons

-than in the central and northern portions....

-Guerry has shown that crimes against persons are

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>twice as numerous in southern France (4.9) as in

-central and northern France (2.7 and 2.9). <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vice

-versa</span></i>, crimes against property are more frequent

-in the north (4.9), than in the central and southern

-regions (2.3).”<a id='r290' /><a href='#f290' class='c015'><sup>[290]</sup></a> According to Buckle,<a id='r291' /><a href='#f291' class='c015'><sup>[291]</sup></a> climate

-makes men’s habits regular or irregular.</p>

-

-<div>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>

-  <h3 class='c016'><em>Climatic Control of Food and Drink</em></h3>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c017'>William Ridgeway, summarizing his argument

-in “The Application of Zoölogical Laws to Man,”<a id='r292' /><a href='#f292' class='c015'><sup>[292]</sup></a>

-says: “We have seen that environment is a powerful

-factor in the differentiation of the various races

-of man, alike in physique, institutions, and religion.

-It is probable that the food supply at hand in each

-region may be an important element in these variations,

-whilst the nature of the food and drink preferred

-there may itself be due in no small degree

-to climatic conditions.... The aboriginal of

-the tropics is distinctly a vegetarian, whilst the

-Eskimo within the arctic circle is practically wholly

-carnivorous. In each case the taste is almost certainly

-due to the necessities of their environment....

-It is probable that the more northward man

-advanced the more carnivorous he became in

-order to support the rigours of the northern climate.

-The same holds equally true in the case of drink....

-All across Northern Europe and Asia there

-is a universal love of strong drink, which is not the

-mere outcome of vicious desires, but of climatic

-law.... This view derives additional support

-from the well-authenticated fact that one of the

-chief characteristics of the descendants of British

-settlers in Australia is their strong teetotalism.

-This cannot be set down to their having a higher

-moral standard than their ancestors, but rather,

-as in the case of Spaniards and Italians (temperance

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>reformers point to the sobriety of the

-Spaniards, Italians, and other South Europeans),

-to the circumstance that they live in a country

-much warmer and drier than the British Isles.

-We must therefore, no matter how reluctantly,

-come to the conclusion that no attempt to eradicate

-this tendency to alcohol in these latitudes can be

-successful....”<a id='r293' /><a href='#f293' class='c015'><sup>[293]</sup></a></p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>

-  <h2 class='c007'>SUMMARY</h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c013'>The Introductory Remark traces the semasiology

-and use of the word <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">milieu</span></i> and discusses its

-English and German equivalents “environment”

-and “Umwelt.”</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>An historical sketch of the milieu idea is then

-taken up from the very beginnings to the nineteenth

-century. The earlier notions of environmental

-influence are general and undifferentiated.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The Hebrew Prophets see the hand of Providence

-in the harmony of national fate with the

-configuration of the globe. Hippocrates dwells

-upon the regularity of climatic effect on man.

-Aristotle notes the action of physical environment

-on government and national character. Eratosthenes,

-Strabo, and other Greek thinkers, relate

-man causally to surrounding nature. Villani

-says that the fine air of Arezzo produces great

-minds. Ibn Khaldūn explains, especially Arabic

-history, by the circumambient physical and social

-medium. Michelangelo credits Arezzo’s fine air

-with his mentality. Man is subject to the “skyey

-influences” hourly (Shakespeare).</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Jean Bodin plants the study of environment

-in French soil so firmly and so successfully that it

-has since become, in a very real sense, indigenous

-to France and that Bertillon could justly claim

-it to be a study “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">très-française</span></i>,” a claim which

-is true to this very day. Bodin’s second contribution

-is that he undertook, for the first time in

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>the modern period (on the basis of sixteenth century

-knowledge and experience), a scientific and

-detailed examination, far-reaching and extensive

-in scope, of the manifold influences of climatic and

-geographical conditions upon States, laws, national

-character, religion, language, temperament, talents

-and aptitudes,—in brief, upon man’s mind, manners,

-and morals.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The study of milieu thus inaugurated in France

-by Bodin is set up as a French tradition by Lenglet

-du Fresnoy, Montesquieu, Turgot, Cuvier, and

-others,<a id='r294' /><a href='#f294' class='c015'><sup>[294]</sup></a> and has been continued by French writers

-to our day.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>A number of philosophers in the seventeenth

-and eighteenth centuries take up this idea. The

-doctrine of environment spreads to England and

-Germany.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>In Germany, Herder becomes the fulcrum of all

-previous thought (Hebrew, Greek, French, English,

-and German) on this theory. Herder, in

-turn, in addition to his other and principal contributions

-to the theory, affects it by giving a

-quickened impetus not only to the contemporary

-development thereof, but also to the later course

-of that development. Goethe reflects some of

-Herder’s conceptions. Wolf, Niebuhr, the German

-romanticists—August Wilhelm Schlegel in

-especial—and Hegel apply Herder’s idea to history

-and continue it therein. Hegel combats the

-notion that climate can be the be-all and end-all

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>of historical explanation; he implies that climate

-was held to be a <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vera causa</span></i>.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The theory of social environment evolves,

-particularly since Ibn Khaldūn, parallel with that

-of the physical milieu.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The nineteenth century brings differentiation

-carried out in human geography including history,

-in biology, in jurisprudence and economics, in

-anthropology, in sociology, in literature, and latterly

-in physics. These disciplines determine our

-divisions for discussions shortly to follow the

-present one.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The major portion of this study is then given

-over to following the milieu idea in some of the

-more important French, English, and German

-writers of the past century on what for want of a

-better name has been called anthropo-geography

-inclusive of certain aspects of history.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>On the whole, their method has been the comparative

-method. Principles laid down <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">a priori</span></i>

-would be illustrated by typical cases selected

-mostly from the past. Or, the process would be

-reversed to an <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">a posteriori</span></i> reasoning: history restudied

-to find out its possible connections with

-the environment. Again: some would pick out

-a phase of the encompassing medium and follow

-out its effects in a particular country, while others

-would try to arrive at a more general conclusion.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>With reference to climate in particular, the

-statistical method was employed by Quételet,

-Bertillon, Leffingwell, Ferri, Holzendorf, Guerry,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>Curcio, Lombroso, and others, who established a

-parallelism, or coincidence, between certain climatic

-features and the criminal conduct of man.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Delimited aspects of environment, relating

-again more to climate than any other phase of the

-milieu, were made the objects of observational or

-experimentally observational studies by Dexter,

-Brunhes, and Hellpach, the last two giving the

-most recent comprehensive summaries of our

-knowledge in this field. And they are among the

-best we have.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The next part of this study will continue the

-survey of the history of this theory in the above

-mentioned sciences as well as in literature.</p>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>

-  <h2 class='c007'>APPENDIX</h2>

-</div>

-

-<p class='c013'>Since the foregoing study was completed, E.

-Huntington’s stimulating book—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide supra</span></i>, p. 79,

-n.—on <cite>Civilization and Climate</cite> has appeared. He

-continues what Dexter began. Lack of definiteness

-in observation, argumentative conviction, reasoned

-out opinion, are superseded by scientific exactness in

-ascertaining the action of climate. Chapters 4–7

-(pp. 49–147) concern us here. In these chapters he

-investigates “the exact effect of various climatic factors

-upon selected groups of people” (p. 49).</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Huntington subjects to statistical analysis the

-daily records of about 550 factory operatives, pieceworkers,

-employed in three factories in three New

-England cities. The records, most of them for a

-complete year, are distributed over the four years

-from 1910 to 1913 (p. 53).</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>He computes wage averages. He finds for each

-working day the average hourly wage for each group

-of operatives. When the daily averages had been

-found, they were averaged together by weeks. To

-give each individual an equal importance, the figures

-of each group have been reduced to percentages.

-Finally, the different groups were combined (p. 57).

-His final computations are represented in curves. A

-curve, graduated in twelve parts (one for each month),

-for a given year shows the earnings in percentages at

-any point and thus reveals the <em>time</em> of the weakness

-or efficiency of the worker; it shows the time of his

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>wages from least to most, thereby indicating the time

-of his work and energy from poorest to best.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Huntington worked up similarly the records of 65

-operatives in a North Carolina factory, of 240 operatives

-in four cotton mills in South Carolina and Georgia, of

-57 carpenters at Jacksonville, Fla., and on a different

-basis the work of 2700 cigar makers in two cigar

-factories in Florida. On the first basis he also computed

-a series of data from a large factory at Pittsburgh,

-Pennsylvania, based on the work of about 950

-operatives in 1910, of about 750 in 1911, of 69 in 1912,

-of about 7000 in 1913. He figured the monthly or

-bi-weekly averages of hourly earnings of these pieceworkers

-in Pittsburgh.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Discussing the curves in Figure 1 (p. 59), he mentions

-(p. 61) five features revealed by the curves that

-show no sign of disappearing. They are: “an extremely

-low place in midwinter, and a less pronounced

-low place in midsummer; a high point in June, a still

-higher point at the end of October, and a hump in

-mid-December....</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“Before we discuss the causes of the variability

-of the summers let us consider the meaning of the

-curves as a whole. In the first place, it is evident that,

-although details may vary from year to year, the

-general course of events is uniformly from low in the

-winter to high in the fall with a drop of more or less

-magnitude in summer. To what can this be due?...</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“We seem forced to search outside of the factories

-for the reasons for our seasonal fluctuations of wages....

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>There seems to be no recourse except to ascribe

-the fluctuations of the curves to climate [pp. 64–5].</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“The verity of the conclusion just reached is

-strongly confirmed by comparison with other regions

-and other types of human activity.... The curves

-[in Figure 2, pp. 66–7] range from the Adirondacks in

-northern New York to Tampa in southern Florida

-and include one from Denmark. With them I have

-repeated some of the curves of Figure 1 for the sake

-of comparison. The most remarkable feature of this

-series is that although there is great diversity of place

-and of activity, all the curves harmonize with what

-would be expected on the basis of Figure 1 [p. 65].</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“The general form of the curves for Pittsburgh and

-Connecticut is obviously the same....</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“The agreement between the curves for Connecticut

-and Pennsylvania is far too close to be accidental

-[p. 76].</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“We have now seen that from New England to

-Florida physical strength and health vary in accordance

-with the seasons. Extremes seem to produce the

-same effect everywhere. The next question is whether

-mental activity varies the same way” (p. 77).</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Huntington uses the marks of “about 1900 students

-for a single year” in mathematics (weekly averages at

-Annapolis and daily averages at West Point) and in

-English (at Annapolis). From these data he compiles

-the curves in Figure 3 (p. 80). He says (p. 81), “The

-curves of mental activity all resemble it [the average

-curve of physical work] in having two main maxima,

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>in fall and spring.... At Annapolis, just as at

-West Point, the time of best work is when the mean

-temperature is not far from forty degrees [Fahrenheit].</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“Summing up the matter, we find that the results

-of investigations in Denmark, Japan, Connecticut,

-Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland, the Carolinas,

-Georgia, and Florida are in harmony. They all show

-that except in Florida neither the winter nor the summer

-is the most favorable season. Both physical and

-mental activity reach pronounced maxima in the

-spring and fall, with minima in midwinter and midsummer.

-The consistency of our results is of great

-importance. It leads to the belief that in all parts

-of the world the climate is exercising an influence

-which can readily be measured, and can be subjected

-to statistical analysis” (p. 82).</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>This is his conclusion in Chapter IV (pp. 49–82),

-“The Effect of the Seasons.”</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Having seen in the fourth chapter “that both

-physical and mental energy vary from season to season

-according to well-defined laws,” Huntington investigates

-in the fifth chapter (“The Effect of Humidity

-and Temperature,” pp. 83–110) “the special features

-of seasonal change which are most effective” (p. 83).

-Explaining the curves of Human Activity and Mean

-Temperature (p. 99), he says (p. 98), “With the

-exception of the last two, which are distinctly the

-least reliable, the physical group all reach maxima at a

-temperature between 59° and 65°. Even the two less

-reliable curves reach their maxima within the next

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>four degrees. All the curves decline at low temperatures,

-..., and also at high.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“Another point brought out by the curves [on p.

-99] is that as we go to more southerly climes the optimum

-temperature of the human race becomes higher.

-It is important to note, however, that the variation

-in the optimum is slight compared with the variation

-in the mean temperature of the places in question.

-For instance, in Connecticut the optimum seems to

-be about 60° for people of north European stock. This

-is about ten degrees higher than the mean temperature

-for the year as a whole. In Florida, on the other hand,

-the optimum for Cubans is about 65°, which is five

-degrees <em>lower</em> than the mean temperature for the

-year at Tampa. In other words, with a difference of

-twenty degrees in the mean annual temperature, and

-with a distinctly northern race compared with a

-southern, we find that the optimum differs only about

-5° F. This seems to mean that for the entire human

-race the optimum temperature probably does not vary

-more than ten or fifteen degrees [pp. 100–101].</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“The last thing to be considered in Figure 8 [p. 99]

-is the mental curve [showing optimum mental work at

-38° F.] at the bottom. It is based on so large a number

-of people, and is so regular, that its general reliability

-seems great, although I think that future studies

-may show the optimum to be a few degrees higher than

-is here indicated. It agrees with the results of Lehmann

-and Pedersen. Furthermore, from general

-observation we are most of us aware that we are mentally

-more active in comparatively cool weather.

-<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>Perhaps ‘spring fever’ is a mental state far more than

-a physical. Apparently people do the best mental

-work on days when the thermometer ranges from

-freezing to about 50°—that is, when the mean temperature

-is not far from 40°. Inasmuch as human

-progress depends upon a coördination of mental and

-physical activity, we seem to be justified in the conclusion

-that the greatest total efficiency occurs halfway

-between the mental and physical optima, that is, with

-a mean temperature of about 50°” (pp. 102–103).</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>The curves (p. 105) on Mean Temperature and

-Vital Processes in Plants, Animals and Man show

-physical energy to be at the optimum at the mean

-temperature of 60° F., mental energy at 38°, mental

-and physical energy combined at from 40° to 60°. Of

-this last mentioned curve he says: “It may be taken

-as representing man’s actual productive activity in

-the things that make for a high civilization. The

-resemblance of the human curves to those of the lower

-organisms is obvious. In general, the lower types

-of life, or the lower forms of activity, seem to reach

-their optima at higher temperatures than do the more

-advanced types and the more lofty functions such as

-mentality. The whole trend of biological thought is

-toward the conclusion that the same laws apply to all

-forms of life. They differ in application, but not in

-principle. The law of optimum temperature apparently

-controls the phenomena of life from the lowest

-activities of protoplasm to the highest activities of

-the human intellect” (pp. 109–110).</p>

-

-<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>In Chapter VI (“Work and Weather,” pp. 111–128),

-he interprets the curves he plotted showing especially

-the influence of changes of temperature from day to day,

-and of the character of each day and its relation to

-storms. In the very interesting Chapter VII (pp.

-129–147) he discusses “The Ideal Climate.”</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>In the closing paragraph of his book, he says, “If

-our hypothesis is true, man is more closely dependent

-upon nature than he has realized. A realization of

-his limitations, however, is the first step toward freedom

-[p. 293].</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“The hypothesis, briefly stated, is this: Today a

-certain peculiar type of climate prevails wherever

-civilization is high. In the past the same type seems

-to have prevailed wherever a great civilization arose.

-Therefore, such a climate seems to be a necessary

-condition of great progress. It is not the cause of

-civilization, for that lies infinitely deeper. Nor is it

-the only, or the most important condition. It is

-merely one of several, ...” (p. 9.)</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>Huntington mentions (p. 7) Lehmann and Pedersen’s

-“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Wetter und unsere Arbeit</span>” and Berliner’s

-“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Einfluß von Klima, Wetter und Jahreßeit auf das

-Nerven- und Seelenleben</span>,” without the date or place

-of publication.</p>

-

-<p class='c018'><span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span><span class='sc'>Note</span>: Since the foregoing pages went to press, the following

-publications have appeared; being too late for inclusion or comment

-in the text, they are added here for reference:</p>

-

-<p class='c019'>Douglas W. Johnson, <cite>Topography and Strategy in the War</cite>,

-N. Y., Henry Holt &amp; Co., 1917, 221 pp. (Thorough and very

-illuminating; points out how the surface features of the country

-influenced military operations in the most important theaters of

-the war.)</p>

-

-<p class='c019'>James Fairgrieve, <cite>Geography and World Power</cite>, N. Y., E. P.

-Dutton &amp; Co., 1917, 356 pp. (Shows how History has been

-controlled by Geography.)</p>

-

-<p class='c019'>Robert De C. Ward, “Weather Controls Over the Fighting

-in the Italian War Zone,” <cite>The Scientific Monthly</cite>, Vol. 6, No. 2

-(February, 1918), pp. 97–105. And “Weather Controls Over

-the Fighting in Mesopotamia, in Palestine, and near the Suez

-Canal,” <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibidem</span></i>, Vol. 6, No. 4 (April, 1918), pp. 289–304.</p>

-

-<hr class='c020' />

-<div class='footnote' id='f1'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For brief but valuable sketches of one phase or another

-of the history of the theory of milieu, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Friedrich Ratzel, <cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>.

-1. <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Teil: Grundzüge der Anwendung der Erdkunde

-auf die Geschichte</span></cite> (2. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1899, 604 pp.),

-pp. 13–23, 25–30, 31–40; Gustav Schmoller, <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Grundriß der Allgemeinen

-Volkswirtschaftslehre</span></i>. Erster Teil (<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Vierte bis sechste

-Aufl.</span>, Leipzig, 1901), p. 127, pp. 137 f., 144 ff., Zweiter Teil

-(<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Erste bis sechste Aufl.</span>, Leipzig, 1904), pp. 656 ff.; <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ferdinand v.

-Richthofen’s Vorlesungen über Allgemeine Siedlungs- und Verkehrsgeographie</span></cite>,

-bearb. und herausgegeben von O. Schlüter (Berlin,

-1908, 351 pp.—A course of lectures delivered in the summer semester

-of 1891 in Berlin, repeated in the winter semester in 1897/8),

-pp. 6–13; Jean Brunhes, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Géographie Humaine</span></cite> (<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Deuxième

-édition</span>, Paris: Alcan, 1912, 801 pp.), pp. 36 ff.; A. C. Haddon

-and A. H. Quiggin, <cite>History of Anthropology</cite> (London, 1910,

-158 pp.), pp. 131 f., 150–52; William Z. Ripley, “Geography and

-Sociology,” <cite>Political Science Quarterly</cite>, X (1895), pp. 636–54;

-also the same author’s <cite>The Races of Europe</cite> (New York: D.

-Appleton &amp; Co., 1899), pp. 2–5. Cf. also O. Schlüter, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die

-leitenden Gesichtspunkte der Anthropogeographie, insbesondere

-der Lehre Friedrich Ratzels,” <em>Arch. f. Sozialwissenschaft</em>, Bd.

-IV (1906), S. 581–630, and Rudolf Goldscheid, <cite>Höherentwicklung

-und Menschenökonomie</cite>, I [Philosophisch-soziologische Bücherei,

-Band VIII], (Leipzig: W. Klinkhardt, 1911, 664 pp.), p. 52.</span>

-For bibliographies, in addition to those yet to be mentioned,

-see also Ratzel, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 579–85; Brunhes, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, nn.; Ellen C. Semple,

-<cite>Influences of Geographic Environment, On the Basis of Ratzel’s

-System of Anthropo-geography</cite> (New York: H. Holt &amp; Co., 1911,

-637 pp.), to each chapter of which an extensive bibliography is

-added; William J. Thomas, <cite>Source Book for Social Origins</cite> (Chicago

-and London, 1909) pp. 134–39: Bibliography to Part I: The

-Relation of Society to Geographic and Economic Environment

-(pp. 29–129, Comment on Part I, pp. 130–33); Ripley, “Geography

-and Sociology,” <cite>Pol. Sc. Quar.</cite>, X (1895), pp. 654–5.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f2'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Dictionnaire de l’Académie Françoise.</cite> Quatrième Édition.

-Tome Second (Paris, 1762), p. 143.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f3'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r3'>3</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences</span></i>, etc.

-<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Nouvelle Éd. 1778</span>, ed. by Diderot and D’Alembert, 21st vol.,

-p. 853.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f4'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r4'>4</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cours de Philosophie Positive</span></cite> (6 vols., 1830–42, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">5<sup>e</sup> édition</span>,

-Paris, 1892–94), see vol. 3, p. 235 n.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f5'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r5'>5</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cp. esp. the Introduction to his <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Histoire de la Littérature

-Anglaise</cite>, 5 Tomes (8<sup>e</sup> Édition, Paris: Hachette, 1892)</span>; the first

-edition appeared in 1863, after Taine had been at work on it for

-well-nigh a decade.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f6'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r6'>6</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For Zola as the disciple of Taine, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> H. Wiegler, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Geschichte

-und Kritik der Theorie des Milieus bei Émile Zola</span></cite> (Diss., Rostock,

-1905), esp. pp. 19–36.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f7'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r7'>7</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Émile Waxweiler, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Esquisse d’une Sociologie</span></cite> (Bruxelles,

-1906), p. 65.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f8'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r8'>8</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire de la Langue Française</span></cite>, vol. 3 (1885), pp.

-559 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f9'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r9'>9</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verdeutschungen, Wörterbuch fürs tägliche Leben</span></cite> (Braunschweig,

-Verlag von George Westermann, 1915, 176 pp.), p. 93.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f10'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r10'>10</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Verdeutschungsbücher des Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins,

-III</cite> (Zweite Aufl., neu bearb. v. Edward Lohmeyer,

-Berlin, Verlag des Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins, 1915,

-182 pp.), pp. 91 f.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f11'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r11'>11</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Phénomènes de la vie</span></cite> (<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">2<sup>e</sup> éd.</span>, Paris, 1885), t. I, p. 112. See

-Waxweiler, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 36.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f12'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r12'>12</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Race Prejudice</cite>, transl. by Florence Wade-Evans (London,

-1906), p. 130.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f13'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r13'>13</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“The Services of Naturalism to Life and Literature. Reprinted,

-with Additions, from <cite>The Sewanee Review</cite>, October,

-1903,” p. 2.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f14'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r14'>14</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Murray’s NED., vol. III, Part II, (1897), p. 231.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f15'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r15'>15</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wörterbuch d. d. Sprache</span></i> (1811), Bd. 5, S. 113.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f16'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r16'>16</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See the article by I. Stosch on “Umwelt-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">milieu</span></i>,” <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Zeitschrift

-für Deutsche Wortforschung</cite>, g. v. Fr. Kluge, 7. Bd. (1905), pp.

-58–9</span>.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f17'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r17'>17</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">2. Bd., 2. Hälfte (Leipzig: Otto Wigand, 1865), p. 1556<sup>b</sup>.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f18'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r18'>18</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A. Gombert cites the passage in question in his article

-<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Umwelt,” <cite>Z. f. D. Wf.</cite>, 7. Bd. (1905), pp. 150–52.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f19'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r19'>19</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The Belgian sociologist De Greef, in his <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Introduction

-à la Sociologie</span></cite> (1886–89), raised “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mésologie</span>” (denoting “Erkenntnis

-der milieux”) to a special introductory branch of sociology

-for the purpose of discussing, according to Ratzel superficially,

-the external factors of history; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Paul Barth, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Philosophie

-der Geschichte als Soziologie</span></cite>, I (Leipzig: Reisland, 1897), p. 70

-and Ratzel, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i> p. 29. The term “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mésologie</span>” was in use in

-France at an earlier date than that. See for example the title

-of an article written at the close of the Franco-German war by

-Dr. Bertillon, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“De l´Influence du milieu ou Mésologie,” <cite>La Philosophie

-Positive</cite>, Revue dirigée par É. Littré &amp; G. Wyrouboff,

-Tome IX</span> (Paris, 1872), pp. 309–20. Or see M. E. Jourdy, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De

-l´Influence du milieu ou Mésologie</span>,” <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, Tome X (1873), pp.

-154–60.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f20'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r20'>20</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Fr. de Rougemont, in his important work <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les deux cités;

-la philosophie de l´histoire aux différents âges de l´humanité</span></cite> (1874)

-treats this question exhaustively. See Robert Poehlmann,

-<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Hellenische Anschauungen über den Zusammenhang zwischen

-Natur und Geschichte</span></cite> (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1879, 93 pp.), pp. 8 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f21'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r21'>21</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Eugénie Dutoit, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Theorie des Milieu</span></cite> (Diss., Bern,

-1899, 136 pp.), pp. 52–5.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f22'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r22'>22</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Hippocrate fut le premier à observer quelques-uns des

-effets du milieu sur l’individu. Ses observations sont nécessairement

-nébuleuses et chaotiques, plutôt descriptives et qualitatives,

-étant donnée l’imperfection des connaissances de son temps.”—Auguste

-Matteuzzi, <cite>Les Facteurs de l’Évolution des Peuples</cite> (Paris,

-1900), p. 6 (Avant-Propos).</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f23'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r23'>23</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wir sahen, daß sich das Buch des Hippokrates durchaus

-darauf beschränkte, die Wechselbeziehungen zwischen Landesnatur

-und Volkscharakter zu erörtern.</span>”—Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 51.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f24'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r24'>24</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Hippokrates von Kos, ‘der Vater der Heilkunde’ (ca.

-460 bis ca. 370), ist der <em>Begründer der Anthropogeographie</em>. Er

-schrieb ein Buch über Klima, Wasser und Bodenbeschaffenheit

-und ihren Einfluß auf die Bewohner eines Landes in physischer

-und geistiger Beziehung. Der philosophische Gedanke war damit

-angeregt, fand aber keine weitere Entwicklung.</span>”—<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">F. v. Richthofen’s

-Vorlesungen</span></cite>, etc. (Berlin, 1908), p. 7.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f25'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r25'>25</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>System of Positive Polity</cite> (4 vols., London: Longmans,

-Green &amp; Co., 1875–77—the original was published in 1851–54),

-vol. II, p. 364: “... a study [of the aggregate of material

-influences: Astronomical, Physical, Chemical] which was commenced

-by the great Hippocrates in his admirable and unequalled

-Treatise upon Climate.”</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f26'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r26'>26</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Haddon and Quiggin, <cite>Hist. of Anthropology</cite> (1910), p.

-150.—Poehlmann discusses Hippocrates in <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Hellenische Anschauungen</span></cite>,

-etc., pp. 12–37.—Ludwig Stein, in his book <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die soziale

-Frage im Lichte der Philosophie</span></cite> (2. verb. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1903),

-p. 403, n., says that “Aless. Chiapelli, <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Le promesse filosofiche

-del Socialismo</span></i> (Napoli, 1897), p. 41, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">hebt die interessante Tatsache

-hervor, daß die Lehre vom ‘Milieu’ ihrem Keime nach

-auf Hippokrates zurückgeht</span>.” But a little over three decades

-earlier, Peschel in his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Geschichte der Erdkunde</span></cite> (1. Aufl., 1865)

-surveyed on two pages some important phases of Hippocrates

-and Strabo on milieu. And earlier still, a half century before

-Peschel, Ukert in his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Geographie der Griechen und Römer</span></cite> (1816),

-I, 1, 79, noted Hippocrates as carefully observing the effect of

-climate on the body and mind of man. (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Poehlmann, l.c.,

-pp. 7 f.)—And to Herder, Hippocrates was the principal author

-on climate: “... <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hippocrat. de aere, locis et aquis</span></i>, ... <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Für

-mich der Hauptschriftsteller über das Klima.”—<cite>Herders Sämmtliche

-Werke</cite>, hg. v. B. Suphan, 13, 269 n.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f27'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r27'>27</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Dutoit, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Theorie des Milieu</span></cite>, pp. 55–8.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f28'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r28'>28</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 68.—Aristotle neglects to give credit

-to Hippocrates in connection with his ideas on environment,

-although indebted to Hippocrates whom he mentions elsewhere.

-See Dutoit, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 57.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f29'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r29'>29</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Varron, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De re rustica</span></i>, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">1, cite une oeuvre d’Eratosthènes

-où celui-ci cherchait à démontrer que le caractère de l’homme

-et la forme du gouvernement sont subordonnés au voisinage ou

-à l’éloignement du soleil. Tentative sublime mais prématurée,

-pour ramener les phénomènes sociaux à des lois uniques et générales.”—Auguste

-Matteuzzi, <cite>Les Facteurs de l’Évolution des

-Peuples</cite> (Paris, 1900), p. 6.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f30'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r30'>30</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die vollständigste Beschreibung [of the earth] gab erst

-Strabo in seinem Werk</span> <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">γεογραφικά</span>. <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Hier begegnen wir zum

-zweitenmal der philosophischen Idee, <em>Mensch und Natur in

-Kausalzusammenhang</em> miteinander zu bringen. Strabos Geographie

-ist als ‘Länder- und Völkerkunde’ das größte Werk des

-Altertums. Die Anschauung eines kausalen Zusammenhanges

-des Menschen mit der Natur ging darauf unter</span> [according to

-him, until the middle of the eighteenth century, until Montesquieu].”—<cite>Richthofen’s

-Vorlesungen</cite>, etc. (1908), p. 8.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f31'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r31'>31</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Buckle and his Critics</cite> (London, 1895, 548 pp.), p. 7 n.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f32'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r32'>32</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 7.—For a brief statement of the

-theory of milieu in Greek writers (Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato,

-Aristotle, Theophrastus), <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Curtius, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Boden und Clima von Athen</span></cite>

-(1877), p. 4 f. For Aristotle, compare also Dondorff, <cite>Das hellenische

-Land als Schauplatz der althellenischen Geschichte</cite> (Hamburg,

-1899, 42 pp.), pp. 11 f. Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, discusses the views on

-environment of Herodotus (pp. 37–47), of Thucydides (pp. 52–4),

-of Xenophon (pp. 55 f.), of Ephoros [only fragments of his

-great work, A Universal History, are extant; cited by Strabo]

-(pp. 56–9), of Plato (pp. 59–64), of Aristotle (pp. 64–74), of Polybios

-(pp. 75–7), of Posidonios [in Strabo and in Galen] (pp. 78–80),

-of Strabo (pp. 80–90), of Galen (pp. 91 f.).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f33'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r33'>33</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Élisàr v. Kupffer, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Klima und Dichtung, Ein Beitrag

-zur Psychophysik</cite> [in <cite>Grenzfragen der Literatur und Medizin</cite> in

-Einzeldarstellungen hg. v. S. Rahmer, Berlin, 4. Heft] (München,

-1907), p. 63.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f34'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r34'>34</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Translated into French by Baron Meg. F. de Slane (3

-vols., Paris, 1862–8).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f35'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r35'>35</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See R. Flint, <cite>History of the Philosophy of History, Historical

-Philosophy in France and French Belgium and Switzerland</cite> (New

-York: Scribner, 1894, 706 pp.), pp. 159 f.—“His [Mohammed

-Ibn Khaldūn’s] fame rests securely ... on his <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">magnum opus</span></i>,

-the ‘Universal History,’ and especially on the first part of it,

-the ‘Prolegomena’ (p. 162).... They [the Prolegomena]

-may fairly be regarded as forming a distinct and complete work....

-It consists of a preface, an introduction, and six sections

-or divisions (p. 163).”</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f36'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r36'>36</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 164 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f37'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r37'>37</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide infra</span></i>, p. 27.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f38'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r38'>38</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 164.—Cf. also pp. 158–72, for Ibn Khaldūn

-in general.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f39'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r39'>39</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cf. Kupffer, <cite>Klima and Dichtung</cite>, p. 63.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f40'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r40'>40</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Da Bodin hauptsächlich an die Anschauungen des

-Aristoteles anknüpft, ...—Auch an Strabo, der dem Einfluß

-des Klimas und der Landesnatur schon die schöpferischen

-Kräfte des Volksgeistes gegenübergestellt hat, lehnt sich Bodin

-an.”—Fritz Renz, <cite>Jean Bodin, Ein Beitrag z. Geschichte d. hist.

-Methode im 16. Jahrhundert</cite> [Geschichtliche Untersuchungen hg.

-v. Karl Lamprecht, III. Bd., I. Heft], (Gotha, 1905, 84 pp.),

-p. 48 n.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f41'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r41'>41</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem</span></cite>, published

-in 1566.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f42'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r42'>42</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, 198.—The ‘Republic’ was first published in

-1576 in French under the title <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De la République</span></cite>. Eight years

-later (1584) Bodin himself translated it into Latin as <cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Republica

-Libri Sex</span></cite>. See Ludwig Stein, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Die soziale Frage im Lichte der

-Philosophie</cite> (2. verb. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1902), p. 217 n.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f43'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r43'>43</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Compare Dutoit, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Theorie des Milieu</span></cite>, pp. 58–62.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f44'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r44'>44</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die physische Konstitution des Menschen hängt nach

-Bodin eng mit den klimatischen Verhältnissen seiner Heimat

-zusammen und entspricht dem Verhalten der Erde, die er bewohnt ...</span>”—Renz,

-<cite>Jean Bodin</cite> (1905), p. 50.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Da

-der animalische Körper wie alle Körper aus einer Mischung der

-Elemente besteht, so ergibt sich eine direkte Abhängigkeit der

-physischen Konstitution von der umgebenden Natur, ja sogar

-eine Übereinstimmung mit dem Verhalten der Erde in dem betreffenden

-Himmelsstrich. Der menschliche Körper reagiert auf

-die klimatischen Einflüsse genau so wie die Erde, die er bewohnt,

-...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibidem</span></i>, p. 44.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f45'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r45'>45</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Discussed by Renz, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 47–61, in the chapter <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Die

-Theorie des Klimas.”—“Behandelt wird die Theorie des Klimas

-nach dem 5. Kapitel des ‘Methodus,’ in dem sich Bodin zum

-ersten Male mit dieser Doktrin befaßte; zur Erläuterung wird

-auch das 1. Kapitel des V. Buches der ‘République’ herangezogen,

-in dem die Theorie des Klimas, aber in gedrängterer

-Form, wiederholt wird.</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 47 n. Cf. also p. 45.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f46'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r46'>46</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Sogar das Temperament variiert nach dem Klima ...</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wie das Temperament wird die Sprache von dem inneren

-physischen Bau abhängig gedacht ...</span></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ebenso wird die Fortpflanzungsfähigkeit in direkte Abhängigkeit

-von der physischen Konstitution gebracht ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,

-pp. 52 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f47'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r47'>47</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wie das Äußere und die physische Konstitution hängen

-auch die Anlagen und Fähigkeiten der Völker mit den klimatischen

-Verschiedenheiten zusammen ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 54.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f48'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r48'>48</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Nach der Dreiteilung der seelischen Fähigkeiten

-bei dem Einzelmenschen und den Bewohnern jedes Staates werden

-die Völker auf der ganzen Erde gruppiert, indem durch das

-Klima immer eine Anlage besonders zur Ausbildung kommt ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,

-p. 46.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f49'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r49'>49</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Bodin nimmt zwei Teile des menschlichen Seelenlebens

-an, erstens eine allen Menschen gemeinsame, unveränderliche

-geistige Befähigung, die Vernunft, und zweitens Anlagen,

-die von dem Klima und der physischen Natur des Menschen

-abhängen. In der</span> ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">République</span>’ <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">wird ausgeführt, daß diese

-abhängigen Anlagen nur verschiedene von dem geographischen

-Milieu abhängige Entwicklungsstufen des Verstandes sind,

-während dieser an sich von den einzelnen Gegenden unabhängig

-ist ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 45.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f50'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r50'>50</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Indem er [Bodin] als erster in der Neuzeit auf

-streng wissenschaftlicher Grundlage versucht, die Wechselwirkung,

-die zwischen dem historischen Verlauf und der Natur

-stattfindet, festzustellen, gelangt er zu der Annahme von zwei

-Teilen des geistig-seelischen Innenlebens, eines von den umgebenden

-Verhältnissen abhängigen und eines absoluten, gegen äußere

-Einflüsse sich passiv verhaltenden Teils. Willensfreiheit

-neben der durch das Milieu bedingten Ausbildung bestimmter

-Anlagen und Fähigkeiten ist der mittlere Weg, den er zwischen

-der Annahme des zwingenden Einflusses der äußeren Natur und

-der gänzlichen Unabhängigkeit von ihr einschlägt ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,

-p. 77.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f51'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r51'>51</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Neben dem Horizontal- wendet Bodin den Vertikalmaßstab

-zur Beurteilung der Völker an, indem er untersucht, wie die

-verschiedene Erhebung des Bodens auf die Gestaltung des Volkscharakters

-einwirkt ...</span></p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ebenso wird die Natur der Völker von der Qualität des

-heimatlichen Bodens beeinflußt, ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 58.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Einfluß,

-der sich aus der östlicheren oder westlicheren Wohnlage

-auf den Volkscharakter geltend macht, ist, wo nicht in der Richtung

-Süd-Nord sich erstreckende Gebirge eine deutlichere Scheidelinie

-bilden, nach Bodin schwer zu bestimmen ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i> p. 57.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f52'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r52'>52</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Neben der Vorstellung von der geistig-sittlichen Einheit

-der Menschen geht die Erkenntnis der Verschiedenartigkeit

-der Nationen und ihres Bildungsgrades her, die aus den partikularen

-Bedingungen des nationalen Einzeldaseins resultiert. Zur

-Erklärung des Volkscharakters wird, wie schon dargelegt, die

-Theorie des Klimas herangezogen ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 62.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f53'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r53'>53</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Bodin hat sich deswegen mit der Theorie des Klimas

-beschäftigt, weil er in der Geschichte und im Völkerleben bestimmte

-regelmäßige Erscheinungen wahrnahm, die er sich nur

-aus dem Einfluß des geographischen Milieus erklären konnte.

-Bei dem strengen Festhalten an der menschlichen Willensfreiheit

-konnte er sich diesen Einfluß nur durch die Annahme einer von

-äußeren Verhältnissen abhängigen Entwicklungsfähigkeit der

-geistigen Anlagen in bestimmter Richtung erklären...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,

-p. 60 f.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das unbedingte Festhalten an der menschlichen

-Willensfreiheit mußte Bodin vor der Annahme bewahren, daß

-der Einfluß des geographischen Milieus auf die Menschen ein

-zwingender sei. Nur die Entwicklung der Anlagen wird von

-der Umwelt bestimmt, nicht aber das sittliche Wollen ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,

-p. 59.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f54'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r54'>54</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wo die äußere Natur zur Entwicklung schlechter Anlagen

-führt, besitzt nach Bodin die Menschheit in der Erziehung

-ein Mittel, diesem Übelstand zu begegnen.</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 77.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">...

-den Menschen [wird] die Fähigkeit zugesprochen ...,

-die schädlichen Einwirkungen des Klimas wenn auch schwer,

-zu überwinden ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 60.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f55'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r55'>55</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, p. 198.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f56'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r56'>56</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Den Vergleich der drei Völkergruppen [südliche,

-mittlere, nördliche] mit den menschlichen Lebensaltern hat

-Bodin von Aristoteles entlehnt, was er Meth. V 140, 141 selbst

-zugibt.</span>”—Renz, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 57.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f57'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r57'>57</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, p. 48.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f58'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r58'>58</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Haddon and Quiggin, <cite>Hist. of Anthropology</cite> (London,

-1910), p. 150.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f59'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r59'>59</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, p. 77.—For Bodin in general, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Renz, <cite>Jean Bodin</cite>;

-Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 190–200; Ludwig Stein, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Die soziale Frage im Lichte

-der Philosophie</cite>, pp. 217–19. H. Morf, <cite>Französische Literatur im

-Zeitalter der Renaissance</cite> (2. verb. Aufl., Straßburg: Trübner,

-1914)</span>, is brief on Bodin, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> esp. pp. 131 f.; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also p. 125.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f60'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r60'>60</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">E. Bernheim, <cite>Lehrbuch der historischen Methode</cite> (5.

-u. 6. Aufl, Leipzig, 1908), p. 230.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f61'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r61'>61</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Montesquieu, <cite>The Spirit of Laws</cite> (translated from the

-French by Th. Nugent, new ed., revised by J. V. Prichard, 2

-vols., London: Geo. Bell and Sons, 1906), I, 238–314.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f62'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r62'>62</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Seine [Montesquieu’s] Hervorkehrung des Einflusses,

-den Klima und Bodenbeschaffenheit auf die Soziabilität der

-Menschennatur ausüben, geht ebenfalls auf Locke, weiterhin

-auf Bodin zurück.”—L. Stein, <cite>Die soziale Frage</cite></span>, etc., p. 364.—According

-to Dutoit (<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Theorie des Milieu</span></cite>, p. 62), Montesquieu

-concealed his obligation to Bodin.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f63'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r63'>63</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 238–53.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f64'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r64'>64</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 253–69.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f65'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r65'>65</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 270–83.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f66'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r66'>66</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 284–91.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f67'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r67'>67</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 291–314.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f68'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r68'>68</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 279 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f69'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r69'>69</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 286.—(Turgot died in 1781.)</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f70'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r70'>70</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ripley, <cite>The Races of Europe</cite> (1899), p. 4.—Cuvier was

-twenty years younger than Goethe; both died in the same year.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f71'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r71'>71</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>E. G. Conklin, <cite>Heredity and Environment in the Development

-of Men</cite> (Princeton Univ. Press, 1915, 533 pp.), p. 303.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f72'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r72'>72</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Eckermanns Gespräche mit Goethe</cite>, neu herausgegeben v.

-H. H. Houben (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1909), p. 264.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f73'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r73'>73</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 265.—These two passages are also cited by Kupffer,

-<cite>Klima and Dichtung</cite>, p. 64.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f74'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r74'>74</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Eckermanns Gespräche mit Goethe</span></cite>, p. 542.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f75'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r75'>75</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 546.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f76'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r76'>76</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Karl Lamprecht, “Neue Kulturgeschichte” (pp. 449–64

-in Das Jahr 1913, <cite>Ein Gesamtbild der Kulturentwicklung</cite>, hg. v.

-D. Sarason, Leipzig-Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1913), p. 453.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f77'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r77'>77</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Albert Poetzsch, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Studien zur frühromantischen Politik und

-Geschichtsauffassung</span></cite> (Leipzig: Voigtländer, 1907, 111 pp.), p. 89.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f78'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r78'>78</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Einwirkung der äußeren Natur auf die Geschichte

-tritt zurück [in der romantischen Geschichtsphilosophie]</span>”; and

-in a note is added: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wenn auch der Zusammenhang von Boden

-und Geschichte, namentlich von natürl. Grenzen u. Staat,

-der Betrachtung nicht verloren geht. Vgl. A. W. Schlegel, Enz.

-216. 697.</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 94.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f79'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r79'>79</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Bernheim, <cite>Lehrb. d. hist. Methode</cite>, p. 650.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f80'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r80'>80</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 515.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f81'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r81'>81</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Ludwig Gumplowicz, <cite>Der Rassenkampf</cite> (2....

-Aufl., Innsbruck, 1909), p. 9 n.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f82'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r82'>82</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> the quotation from Hegel by Gumplowicz, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p.

-13 n.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f83'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r83'>83</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>This paper will carry the discussion through anthropo-geography.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f84'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r84'>84</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The whole question, including Herder’s own idea thereof

-and his indebtedness to preceding authors, both German and

-foreign, as well as his influence upon succeeding writers at home

-and abroad, his relation to his contemporaries, etc., will be

-essayed more fully in a series of papers, to be published soon,

-dealing with “Herder’s Conception of Milieu,” “Herder’s Relations

-to France,” “Herder’s Relations to England,” and “Herder

-in His Own Milieu.”</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f85'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r85'>85</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The term “anthropo-geography” derives from the title

-of Fr. Ratzel’s main work.—“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">... le domaine si intéressant,

-mais à peine défriché, de l’<em>anthropogéographie</em>, semble avoir acquis à

-ce mot le droit de cité dans le langage scientifique.</span>”—L. Metchnikoff,

-<cite>La Civilisation et Les Grands Fleuves Historiques</cite> (Paris,

-1889), p. 70 and n.—In England, and in America, it is commonly

-called human geography, after the French “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">la géographie humaine</span>.”

-Various names have been proposed for this subject.

-See also W. Z. Ripley, “Geography and Sociology.” The Viennese

-Erwin Hanslick, I believe, denominates it “Kulturgeographie.”</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f86'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r86'>86</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Walther May, “Herders Anschauung der organischen

-Natur,” <cite>Archiv f. d. Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften u. d.

-Technik</cite>, etc., Leipzig, Bd. 4 (1913, S. 8–39, 89–113), p. 91.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f87'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r87'>87</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Ferd. v. Richthofen’s Vorlesungen üb. Allgem. Siedlungs- u.

-Verkehrsgeographie</cite>, bearb. u. hg. v. O. Schlüter (Berlin, 1908),

-p. 11.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f88'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r88'>88</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Ritter selbst hat keine methodische Darstellung,

-kein Lehrgebäude gegeben; sondern nur Andeutungen, die anregend

-sind. Daher blieb Ritters Grundidee fast ohne Einfluß

-auf die Geographie; nur die Historiker haben sie sich angeeignet

-und haben seitdem größeres Gewicht auf die Landesnatur gelegt.</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,

-p. 11.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f89'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r89'>89</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Cosmos, a Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe</cite>,

-translated by E. C. Otté (5 vols., New York: Harper, 1875–77),

-p. 48.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f90'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r90'>90</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Erdkunde im Verhältnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte

-des Menschen oder eine allgemeine, vergleichende Geographie</span></cite> was

-published in two volumes at Berlin in 1817–18; the second edition,

-completely revised, appeared in nineteen volumes from 1822 to

-1859, the year of his death. Neither edition is finished; the second

-deals only with Africa (vol. 1) and Asia (vols. 2–19).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f91'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r91'>91</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Naturkunde</span></cite>, etc.—See Th. Achelis, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Moderne Völkerkunde</span></cite>

-(Stuttgart, 1896), p. 71.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f92'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r92'>92</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, see Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 72 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f93'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r93'>93</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>In Felix Lampe’s book, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Große Geographen, Bilder aus der

-Geschichte der Erdkunde</cite> (Leipzig u. Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1915,

-288 S. [Band 28 der v. B. Schmid in Zwickau herausgegebenen

-“Naturwissenschaftlichen Bibliothek”])</span>, neither the chapter

-on Ritter (pp. 227–33), nor that on “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die wissenschaftliche Geographie

-der Gegenwart</span>” (pp. 281–87) is very full.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f94'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r94'>94</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Stuttgart &amp; Tübingen, 1808.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f95'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r95'>95</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Views of Nature</cite> (London, 1850), Author’s Preface, p. X.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f96'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r96'>96</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>p. 382. See Achelis, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Moderne Völkerkunde</span></cite>, pp. 88 f.—The

-relation of man to environment is also referred to in <cite>Cosmos</cite>

-(English translation by Otté), I, pp. 351–9.—<cite>Kosmos</cite> was originally

-published as follows: vols. 1 and 2 in 1845–7; vols. 3 and 4 in

-1850–8; vol. 5 in 1862.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f97'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r97'>97</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Leipzig, 1841.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f98'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r98'>98</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Kohl, <cite>Der Verkehr</cite>, etc., p. 111. See Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 80 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f99'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r99'>99</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ibid.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f100'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r100'>100</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Kohl, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 537. See Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 81 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f101'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r101'>101</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Kohl, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,—See Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 82 f.—The manifold

-influences of nature are also exemplified in Kohl’s <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die geographische

-Lage der Hauptstädte Europas</span></cite>, 1874, and <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">L. Felix, Der Einfluß

-der Natur auf die Entwicklung des Eigentums</span></cite>, 1893.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f102'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r102'>102</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über den Einfluß der äußeren Natur auf die sozialen

-Verhältnisse der einzelnen Völker und die Geschichte der Menschheit

-überhaupt, 1848</span></cite>; later published in <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Studien aus dem Gebiete

-der Naturwissenschaft</span></cite>, I, 1876.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f103'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r103'>103</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Deutschlands Boden, sein geologischer Bau und dessen

-Einwirkungen auf das Leben der Menschen</cite>, 2 Bde., Leipzig, 1854.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f104'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r104'>104</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>501 pp., Breslau: F. Hirt, 1855.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f105'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r105'>105</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Kutzen himself says in the <cite>Vorwort</cite> that he “leans on”

-Cotta; he cites the latter, for instance, on p. 466.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f106'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r106'>106</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Die Naturgeschichte des Volkes als Grundlage einer deutschen

-Sozialpolitik</cite>, vol. 1 (11th ed., Stuttgart: Cotta, 1908):

-Land und Leute.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f107'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r107'>107</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> the first Preface, written in 1853, to volume one,

-pp. VI-VII.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f108'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r108'>108</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Die Naturgeschichte</cite>, etc., I, p. 42.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f109'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r109'>109</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, Vorwort zur achten Auflage, 1883, p. X.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f110'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r110'>110</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Die Naturgeschichte, etc., Vierter Band, “Wanderbuch,”

-als zweiter Teil zu “Land und Leute.”</cite> Vierte Aufl., 1903, p. 32.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f111'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r111'>111</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>G. P. Gooch, <cite>History and Historians in the Nineteenth

-Century</cite> (London &amp; N. Y.; Longmans, Green &amp; Co., 1913), p. 576.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f112'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r112'>112</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Gooch, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, p. 575.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f113'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r113'>113</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For Riehl’s view of milieu in a scheme of sciences, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span>

-<cite>Die Naturgeschichte</cite>, etc., I, pp. 40–2.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f114'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r114'>114</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">164 pp., Meyers Volksbücher, Leipzig u. Wien: Bibliographisches

-Institut</span>, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.a.</span></i>—This essay forms the second chapter

-in Hans Meyer’s <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das deutsche Volkstum</span></cite> (2. Aufl., 1903), pp.

-41–122.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f115'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r115'>115</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Moderne Völkerkunde</span></cite>, p. 81, n.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f116'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r116'>116</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>2. Aufl., 1905 (<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Aus Natur und Geisteswelt</span></cite>, 31. Bändchen,

-Leipzig: B. G. Teubner), 127 pp.—It has been translated into

-English under the title <cite>Man and Earth</cite> (London &amp; N. Y., 1906.

-Reprinted 1914, 223 pp.) by A. S. “from the second amended

-German edition,” in which are intercalated two chapters: Chapter

-V, on <cite>The British Isles and Britons</cite>, by the author; and Chapter

-VI, on <cite>America and the Americans</cite>, by the translator.—The

-first four chapters of a general nature—features of the globe, sea,

-steppes and deserts, in their influence on civilization, the influence

-of man on landscape—are followed by four chapters on

-<cite>The British Isles and Britons, America and the Americans, Germany

-and the Germans, China and the Chinese</cite>.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f117'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r117'>117</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Vorlesungen</cite>, etc., delivered at Berlin in 1891 and 1897/8.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f118'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r118'>118</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Es ist mehr unsere Aufgabe gewesen, in dem großen

-Getriebe der Siedlung und des Verkehrs der <em>allmählichen

-Entwicklung</em> nachzugehen, das steigende Maß der Überwindung

-von Widerständen durch den Menschen zu zeigen, die Kräfte

-zu untersuchen, welche in der Entwicklung wirksam sind,—als

-bei der großen Fülle des Tatsächlichen der heutigen Zeit zu

-verweilen.</span>” <cite>Vorlesungen</cite>, p. 351.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f119'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r119'>119</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>It will be noted that Herder is not mentioned here.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f120'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r120'>120</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ellen C. Semple, <cite>Influences of Geographic Environment</cite>

-(N. Y., 1911), p. V.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f121'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r121'>121</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“In Germany the exponents of these theories [of environmental

-influence] were Cotta and Kohl, and later Peschel, Kirchhof,

-Bastian, and Gerland; but the greatest name of all is that of

-Fr. Ratzel, who has written the standard work on <cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>.”—Haddon

-and Quiggin, <cite>Hist. of Anthropology</cite> (London,

-1910), p. 152.—The first vol. of Ratzel’s <cite>Anthropogeographie</cite> was

-published in 1882, 2nd ed. in 1899, the second vol. in 1897.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f122'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r122'>122</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>As further illustration, it might be instructive to compare

-here the chapter headings of Semple’s <cite>Influences of Geographic

-Environment</cite>, which book was written “On the Basis of Ratzel’s

-System of Anthropo-geography.” They are as follows: I—Operation

-of Geographic Factors in History (1–31); II—Classes

-of Geographic Influences (22–50); III—Society and State in

-Relation to the Land (51–73); IV—Movements of Peoples in

-Their Geographical Significance (74–128); V—Geographical

-Location (129–67); VI—Geographical Area (168–203); VII—Geographical

-Boundaries (204–41); VIII—Coast Peoples (242–91);

-IX—Oceans and Enclosed Seas (292–317); X—Man’s Relation

-to the Water (318–35); XI—The Anthropo-geography of

-Rivers (336–80); XII—Continents and Their Peninsulas (380–408);

-XIII—Island Peoples (409–72); XIV—Plains, Steppes and

-Deserts (473–523); XV—Mountain Barriers and Their Passes

-(524–56); XVI—Influences of a Mountain Environment (557–606);

-XVII—The Influences of Climate upon Man (607–37).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f123'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r123'>123</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Richthofen’s Vorlesungen</cite>, p. 13.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f124'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r124'>124</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>1897; 2. Aufl. 1903.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f125'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r125'>125</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Diese [die enge Erdgebundenheit] in ihrer ganzen tiefgreifenden

-Bedeutung für das staatliche Leben erkannt und

-dargelegt zu haben, bleibt freilich für immer ein großes Verdienst

-der ‘Politischen Geographie’ ...”—O. Schlüter, “Die

-leitenden Gesichtspunkte d. Anthropogeogr.,” <em>Arch. f. Sozialwiss.</em>,

-Bd. IV, p. 620.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f126'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r126'>126</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Richthofen, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 12.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f127'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r127'>127</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>2 vols., München, 1893; see vol. 2, 2nd ed.: <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Politische

-Geographie der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, unter besonderer

-Berücksichtigung der natürlichen Bedingungen u. wirtschaftlichen

-Verhältnisse</span></cite> (763 pp.), esp. pp. 1–176.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f128'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r128'>128</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>London, 1896 (this is a translation of his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Völkerkunde</span></cite>,

-1887/8), <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> the opening pp. of vol. 1.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f129'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r129'>129</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>In Helmolt, <cite>The History of the World</cite> (N. Y., 1902), vol.

-1, pp. 62–103, where Ratzel discusses in turn The Coherence of

-Countries, The Relation of Man to the Collective Life of the Earth,

-Races and States as Organisms, Historical Movement, Natural

-Regions, Climate and Location, Geographical Situation, Area,

-Population, The Water-Oceans, Seas, and Rivers, Conformation

-of the Earth’s Surface.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f130'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r130'>130</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>London &amp; N. Y.: Longmans, 1915.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f131'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r131'>131</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See <cite>The Nation</cite>, N. Y., March 18, 1915, p. 310.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f132'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r132'>132</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Paris, 1911, 420 pp.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f133'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r133'>133</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Semple, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. VI; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also Ratzel, <cite>Anthropogeogr.</cite>, I,<sup>2</sup> p.

-XII.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f134'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r134'>134</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Archiv f. Sozialwissenschaft</cite>, Bd. IV (1906), pp. 581–630.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f135'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r135'>135</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For Ratzel, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Paul Barth, <cite>Die Philosophie der Geschichte

-als Soziologie</cite>, I (Leipzig: Reisland, 1897), pp. 227–30</span>;

-<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Jean Brunhes, <cite>La Géographie Humaine</cite>, 2<sup>e</sup> éd. (Paris: Alcan,

-1912), pp. 39–47.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f136'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r136'>136</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Buckle, History of Civilization (1867), p. 32 n.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f137'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r137'>137</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Robertson, <cite>Buckle and his Critics</cite> (London, 1895), p. 8 n.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f138'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r138'>138</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>4. vols., 1822–3.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f139'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r139'>139</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 577–9. See also p. 576.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f140'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r140'>140</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide supra</span></i> my note no. 84.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f141'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r141'>141</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 467.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f142'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r142'>142</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>The History of Civilization from the Fall of the Roman Empire

-to the French Revolution</cite> (4 vols., translated by Wm. Hazlitt,

-N. Y.: D. Appleton &amp; Co., 1867—the lectures were delivered in

-the years 1828, 1829, and 1830), vol. 2, pp. 109 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f143'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r143'>143</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Gothein had attracted attention by a study of the civilisation

-of Southern Italy, which he had traversed on foot as Riehl

-had traversed the Palatinate.”—Gooch, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 587.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f144'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r144'>144</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Voila pourquoi il [Michelet] va en Italie avant d’écrire

-son <cite>Histoire Romaine</cite>; il veut avoir l’impression, le contact du

-sol, du climat, du paysage.”—Lanson, <cite>Hist. de la Litt. Franç.</cite>

-(1912), p. 1021 n.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f145'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r145'>145</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Abry-Audic-Crouzet, <cite>Littérature Française</cite> (3<sup>e</sup> éd., Paris,

-1916), p. 580.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f146'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r146'>146</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Jules Simon, <cite>Mignet, Michelet, Henri Martin</cite> (Paris, 1890),

-p. 191.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f147'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r147'>147</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 540.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f148'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r148'>148</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Philos. Erdk. als wissenschaftliche Darstellung der Erdverhältnisse

-u. des Menschenlebens nach ihrem inneren Zusammenhange</span></cite>,

-2 vols., Braunschweig, 1845; the 2nd ed. appeared in 1868

-under the title <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Allgemeine Vergleichende Erdkunde</span></cite>.—This book

-holds a high place in Ratzel’s estimation: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Kapp, dessen Philos.

-Erdk. eine tiefgedachte, von überragendem philosophischem

-Standpunkte aus gewonnene Übersicht der Naturbedingtheit

-des Geschichtsverlaufes in den größten Zügen entrollt, ...”—Ratzel,

-<cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>, I<sup>2</sup>, p. 34.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f149'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r149'>149</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 76 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f150'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r150'>150</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Brunhes, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 38 n.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f151'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r151'>151</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Boston, 1849—It has been translated into English under

-the title <cite>The Earth and man, or Physical geography in its relation

-to the history of mankind, Slightly abridged, etc.</cite> (London: Parker,

-1852), and into German as <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Grundzüge der vergleichenden physikalischen

-Erdkunde in ihrer Beziehung zur Geschichte des Menschen</span></cite>

-(1851).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f152'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r152'>152</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>(N. Y.: D. Appleton &amp; Co., 1867—first published in

-1857–61), vol. I, pp. 29–106: Influence exercised by physical

-laws over the organization of society and over the character of

-individuals.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f153'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r153'>153</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Buckle and his Critics</cite>, London, 1895, 548 pp.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f154'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r154'>154</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Camille Vallaux, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie Sociale</span></cite> (Paris, 1911), p. 23.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f155'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r155'>155</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide supra</span></i>, p. 46 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f156'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r156'>156</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>, I<sup>2</sup>, p. 87.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f157'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r157'>157</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The German original appeared in 1857–67, and the English

-translation by A. W. Ward in 1868–73.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f158'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r158'>158</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>New York: Scribner, vol. I (1871), pp. 9–46; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> esp. pp.

-9–25, 34, 37.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f159'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r159'>159</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Boden und Klima von Athen. Rede in der öffentlichen

-Sitzung</cite> [<em>der Kgl. Akademie der Wissenschaften</em>] <em>am Leibniztage

-5. Juli 1877</em> (15 pp.).</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f160'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r160'>160</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For the same, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">H. Koester “Über den Einfluß

-landschaftlicher Verhältnisse auf die Entwicklung des attischen

-Volkscharakters” (Progr., Saarbrücken, 1898).</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f161'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r161'>161</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>E.g. by Ratzel, jointly with Curtius’ account thereof.

-Cf. <cite>Anthropogeogr.</cite>, I<sup>2</sup>, p. 37.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f162'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r162'>162</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>In 12 vols., vol. II (London: John Murray, 1869), Part

-II, ch. I, pp. 213–37.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f163'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r163'>163</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Political effects of locality: strengthened defense; difficulty

-of attack; politically disunited; indefinite multiplication of self-governing

-cities.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f164'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r164'>164</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Intellectual effects of locality: the geographical position

-made them mountaineers and mariners; variety of experience;

-each petty community possessed an individual life, yet sympathized

-with the remainder; commerce with a great diversity of half-country-men;

-Grecian festivals; Homer dependent upon the conditions

-of his age.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f165'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r165'>165</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Oxford, Clarendon Press (1911, 454 pp.), pp. 13–64. “It

-is now generally admitted that neither an individual nor a nation

-can be properly understood without a knowledge of their surroundings

-and means of support—in other words, of their geographical

-and economic conditions.”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, Preface, p. 5.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f166'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r166'>166</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Zimmern refers in this book—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">e.g.</span></i> p. 18, 41, 43, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et al.</span></i>—to

-the writings of Myres: “Greek Lands and the Greek People,”

-“Herodotus and Anthropology” (in “Anthropology and the Classics”),

-and “The Geographical Aspect of Greek Colonization”

-(in <cite>Proceedings of the Classical Association</cite>, vol. VIII—1911).—Cf.

-also H. Dondorff, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Das hellenische Land als Schauplatz der

-althellenischen Geschichte, in Sammlung gemeinverständlicher

-wissenschaftlicher Vorträge, begründet von Virchow u. Holtzendorf</cite>,

-1889, Neue Folge, Serie 3, Heft 72.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f167'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r167'>167</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Revised ed., in 2 vols. (N. Y.: Harper &amp; Brothers, 1876).

-The Preface of the first ed. is dated 1861.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f168'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r168'>168</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Heinrich Boehmer, <cite>Geschichte der Entwicklung der naturwissenschaftlichen

-Weltanschauung in Deutschland</cite> (Gotha, 1872,

-232 pp.), p. 195: “... Herdersche Ideen waren leitend für

-den Aufbau der Geschichte.”</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f169'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r169'>169</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Leipzig, 1878–86.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f170'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r170'>170</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cited by Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 84.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f171'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r171'>171</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, pp. 85 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f172'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r172'>172</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 86.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f173'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r173'>173</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Indessen darf man nicht vergessen, daß die allgemeine

-Gestalt der Kontinente und der Meere und aller besonderer

-Züge der Erde in der Geschichte der Menschheit einen

-wesentlich wechselnden Wert besitzen, je nach dem Stande der

-Kultur, auf welchem die Nationen angelangt sind ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f174'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r174'>174</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 87.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f175'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r175'>175</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Paris, 1886.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f176'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r176'>176</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> P. Barth, <cite>Die Philosophie der Geschichte als Soziologie</cite>

-(Leipzig, 1897), p. 230.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f177'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r177'>177</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Barth, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 231 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f178'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r178'>178</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 233.—Mougeoulle makes the milieu account for

-the great men in history, the great popular epics, social and

-historical life in general; the tendencies of the three historical

-schools—German, French, and English—are connected with the

-differences in the milieus of their respective countries.—Cf.

-<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, pp. 230–2.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f179'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r179'>179</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>Avec une Préface de M. Élisée Réclus</em> (Paris: Hachette,

-1889, 369 pp.), pp. 53–71.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f180'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r180'>180</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 156; 130.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f181'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r181'>181</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 154; 157 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f182'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r182'>182</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 278; 190 ff.; 188; 135.—But why does he confine

-himself to these four countries?</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f183'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r183'>183</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 185; 364. For a general statement on the significance

-of rivers, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, pp. 188–90. The particular nature of

-the rivers of the “territoire des civilisations fluviales” imposed

-on the inhabitants the yoke of despotism.—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 161.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f184'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r184'>184</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, pp. 364 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f185'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r185'>185</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 364.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f186'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r186'>186</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">e.g.</span></i>, p. 128; 224–27.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f187'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r187'>187</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>His general theory is stated on pp. 39–42, 53–71, 79 f.,

-89, 99 f., 102–60. Chapter 7, pp. 161–90, is a general discussion

-of the geographical environment of the “Civilisations Fluviales,”

-followed successively by a detailed treatment of “Le Nil” (ch.

-8, pp. 191–234), of “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Tigre et L’Euphrate</span>” (ch. 9, pp. 235–78),

-of “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Indus et Le Gange</span>” (ch. 10, pp. 279–319), of “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Hoang-Ho

-et Le Yangtse-Kiang</span>” (ch. 11, pp. 320–66).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f188'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r188'>188</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>W. D. Babington, <cite>Fallacies of Race Theories as Applied

-to National Characteristics</cite> (Longmans, Green &amp; Co., 1895).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f189'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r189'>189</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. Y., Scribner, 1893, 290 pp.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f190'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r190'>190</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For the rôle of the physical milieu in American history,

-<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also: Justin Winsor, <cite>The Mississippi Basin, The Struggle in

-America between England and France: 1697–1763</cite> (Boston &amp; N.

-Y., 1898) [influence of geography over history during colonization

-and settlement]; Frederick Jackson Turner, <cite>Rise of the New

-West</cite>: 1819–1829 (N. Y. &amp; London: Harper &amp; Brothers, 1906)

-[vol. 14 of <cite>The American Nation, A History</cite>, ed. by A. B. Hart, in

-27 vols. In the Author’s Preface, p. XVII, Turner remarks:

-“In the present volume I have kept before myself the importance

-of regarding American development as the outcome of economic

-and social as well as political forces.” And, he should have added,

-of geographical environment. <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> especially the first half of

-his book for the working out of his milieu idea]; James Bryce,

-<cite>The American Commonwealth</cite>, (2 vols., new ed., completely revised,

-N. Y.: Macmillan, 1910–11) [see vol. 2, ch. 91 (pp. 449–68),

-“The home of the nation,” for a statement of the influence of

-physical conditions on American history]; E. C. Semple, <cite>American

-History and Its Geographic Conditions</cite> (Boston &amp; N. Y.: Houghton,

-Mifflin &amp; Co., 1903, 435 pp.) [regarded, I believe, as one of the

-best treatises on the subject]; A. P. Brigham, <cite>Geographic Influences

-in American History</cite> (Boston: Ginn, 1903, 355 pp.) [a concrete

-essay; has much physiography; includes present conditions];

-A. M. Simons, <cite>Social Forces in American History</cite> (N. Y.: Macmillan,

-1914, 325 pp.) [a discussion of the effect of the industrial

-and economic environment on social institutions in America];

-perhaps it may be added here that some American universities

-offer a course on the relation of geography to American history.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f191'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r191'>191</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Ripley, “Geography and Sociology” (1895), p. 637;

-and Ripley, <cite>The Races of Europe</cite> (1899), pp. 4 ff.; for titles of

-their writings on this subject, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, pp. 4–6 nn., and “Geogr.

-and Soc.,” pp. 654 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f192'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r192'>192</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>8 vols., N. Y., Dodd, Mead &amp; Co., 1902–7.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f193'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r193'>193</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Bryce’s article in Helmolt’s <cite>Hist. of the World</cite>, vol.

-1, p. XL.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f194'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r194'>194</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Anderseits wieder hat ja Helmolt in seinem geschichtlichen

-Sammelwerke im Geiste Ratzels den Versuch gemacht, ein

-Gesamtgeschichtsbild auf geographischer Grundlage aufzubauen,

-so daß kein Teil der Ökumene aus der Weltgeschichte ausgeschlossen

-bleibt.”—L. Gumplowicz, Der <cite>Rassenkampf</cite> (2 ....

-Aufl., 1909), p. 403 (Anhang).</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f195'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r195'>195</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... die bisherigen Weltgeschichten waren gar keine

-Geschichte der Welt oder auch nur unserer Welt, sondern einzig

-eine solche der Kulturnationen. Mit dieser Gepflogenheit hat

-Helmolts Werk in ebenso glücklicher wie origineller Weise gebrochen,

-indem es zum ersten Male die Länder- und Völkerkunde

-in den Dienst der Weltgeschichtsdarstellung hineinzog.</span>”—From

-a review of the first ed. of <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Helmolts Weltgeschichte</span></cite> (1899) in the

-“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Braunschweigische Landeßeitung</span>” (February 4, 1908), quoted

-in the prospectus of the second German edition.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f196'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r196'>196</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century</cite> (London,

-1913).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f197'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r197'>197</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Second ed., Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1903, 288 pp.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f198'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r198'>198</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>George, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. V (Preface).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f199'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r199'>199</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, pp. 111 f.—George cites no authorities or sources;

-he has no bibliography; he does not quote a single book in his

-discussion; he has no <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Auseinandersetzung</span></i> with his predecessors

-in the field; and finally, he gives no clue as to the origin of his

-data.—Chaps. 1–8 (pp. 1–110) are the general part of the book;

-chaps. 9–20 (pp. 111–282) deal with: The Outlines of Europe,

-The British Islands, France, The Spanish Peninsula, Italy, The

-Alpine Passes, Switzerland, The Rhineland, The Baltic Region,

-The Danube Basin, Theatres of European War, The Mediterranean

-Basin.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f200'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r200'>200</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A. W. Small, <cite>General Sociology</cite> (Chicago, 1905), p. 53.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f201'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r201'>201</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The distinguished Italian historian is the son-in-law of

-the late eminent Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f202'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r202'>202</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Jean Brunhes, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Géographie Humaine</span></cite> (<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">2<sup>e</sup> éd.</span>, Paris,

-1912), p. 721.—For references to historical works dealing with

-history on a geographical basis, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">(1<sup>e</sup> éd., Paris, 1910), ch.

-X, 1: L’esprit géographique dans les sciences économiques, sociales

-et historiques</span> (pp. 739 ff., esp. 774 ff. [Michelet, Vidal de la

-Blache, Th. Reinach, A. Leroy-Beaulieu, C. Jullian, A. Harnack,

-H. F. Helmolt, G. Ferrero, E. C. Semple, Erwin Hanslick, &amp; o.]).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f203'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r203'>203</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Die geographischen Grundlagen der österreichisch-ungarischen

-Monarchie u. ihrer Außenpolitik</cite> (Leipzig u. Berlin: B. G.

-Teubner, 1915).</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f204'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r204'>204</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See the review of Sieger’s book by Edwin Rollett in the

-<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Österreichische Rundschau</span></cite>, Bd. 43, H. 4 (15. Mai 1915), pp. 188 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f205'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r205'>205</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Boston &amp; N. Y., Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co., 1907.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f206'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r206'>206</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cf. esp. ch. 18 (pp. 359–85) for a summary of conclusions.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f207'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r207'>207</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">e.g.</span></i> James Harvey Robinson’s <cite>The New History,

-Essays Illustrating the Modern Historical Outlook</cite> (N. Y.: Macmillan,

-1912), for references to the theory of milieu, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> esp. p.

-64, 73, 76 f., 92 f., 97 f., 124–6, 144, 145 f., 247, 253–7, and ch. 3

-(pp. 70 ff.): The new allies of history. Or take for choice the

-title of a recent book by Charles A. Beard: <cite>An Economic Interpretation

-of American Politics</cite> (Macmillan, 1916), to be further

-persuaded of the attention bestowed by historians on the

-milieu. Or, see works by Seligman and J. T. Shotwell.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f208'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r208'>208</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> C. Vallaux, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie Sociale, Le Sol et L’État</span></cite>

-(Paris, 1911), p. 23.—Such economists as Blanqui, Bastiat, and

-J.—B. Say, brought to light the geographical bases of the material

-life of societies. The sociologists themselves, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bien que leur

-science soit jeune, n’ont pas toujours oublié le cadre naturel et

-la position terrestre des agrégats qu’ils étudient. Par tous ces

-chercheurs de tendances diverses, la géographie humaine et la

-géographie politique ont progressé tout autant que par les efforts

-des géographes proprement dits</span>.”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f209'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r209'>209</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">E. Bernheim, <cite>Lehrbuch der historischen Methode</cite> (5. u.

-6. Aufl., Leipzig, 1908), p. 316; 636.—Cf. also E. Fr. Th. Lindner,

-<cite>Geschichtsphilosophie, das Wesen der geschichtlichen Entwicklung</cite>

-(2. erweiterte u. umgearb. Aufl., Stuttg. u. Berlin: Cotta, 1904,

-241 pp.), 2. Abschnitt (pp. 23–34): Die Veränderung, but more

-esp. 10. Abschnitt (pp. 217–41): Die Ursachen u. die Weise der

-Entwicklung.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f210'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r210'>210</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For orientation and literature on views opposing the naturalistic

-interpretation of history, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> L. Stein, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Philosophische

-Strömungen der Gegenwart</span></cite> (Stuttgart, Verl. v. F. Enke, 1908),

-pp. 430 ff.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f211'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r211'>211</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See G. P. Gooch, <cite>History and Historians in the Nineteenth

-Century</cite> (London &amp; N. Y.: Longmans, Green &amp; Co., 1913), p.

-573; see ch. 28 (pp. 573–94): “The History of Civilisation;”

-also <cite>The Cambridge Modern History</cite> [ed. by A. W. Ward and others,

-Cambridge: The Univ. Press, 1910], vol. 12: <cite>The Latest Age</cite>,

-ch. 26 (pp. 816 ff.: “The Growth of Historical Science” by G.

-P. Gooch).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f212'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r212'>212</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Economic Geography</cite> (N. Y.: Macmillan, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.a.</span></i>—1915?—;

-not earlier than 1910, for statistics for that year are given in

-the text; 560 pp.), p. 1.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f213'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r213'>213</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Since his [Buckle’s] time much more has been done, not

-only in studying, as Buckle himself did, the immediate influence

-of climate and soil, but also in explaining the allied field of the

-effect of the fauna and the flora on social development. The

-subject of the domestication of animals, for instance, and its

-profound effect on human progress has not only been investigated

-by a number of recent students [especially E. Hahn, <cite>Die Haustiere

-u. ihre Beziehung zur Wirtschaft des Menschen</cite>, 1896], but

-has been made the very basis of the explanation of early American

-civilization by one of the most brilliant and most learned of

-recent historians [Payne, <cite>History of the New World called America</cite>;

-esp. vol. 1, bk. II]. A Russian scholar has shown in detail the

-connection between the great rivers and the progress of humanity,

-and the whole modern study of economic geography is but an

-expansion on broader lines of the same idea.”—Edwin R. A.

-Seligman, <cite>The Economic Interpretation of History</cite> (N. Y.: The

-Columbia Univ. Press, 1902, 166 pp.), pp. 13 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f214'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r214'>214</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Wm. Morris Davis, <cite>Geographical Essays</cite>, ed. by D. W.

-Johnson (Ginn &amp; Co.: Boston, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.a.</span></i>, copyright 1909), esp. the

-first two essays: “An inductive study of the content of geography”

-(1906), pp. 3–22, and “The progress of geography in the

-schools” (1902), pp. 23–69.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f215'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r215'>215</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>In an address delivered at the dedication of Julius Rosenwald

-Hall, printed in <cite>The University of Chicago Magazine</cite> (vol.

-VII, No. 6—April, 1915—, pp. 175–8) under the title “Some

-Matters of History.” See p. 177.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f216'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r216'>216</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Felix Lampe, in <cite>Große Geographen</cite> (Leipzig, 1915), has

-a rather brief chapter (pp. 281–7) on “Die wissenschaftliche

-Geographie der Gegenwart.”</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f217'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r217'>217</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See the Introductory Essay by the Right Hon. [now

-Viscount] James Bryce in Helmolt’s <cite>Hist. of the World</cite>, vol. 1,

-pp. I-LX, esp. pp. XXV-XLI.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f218'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r218'>218</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A. J. Herbertson and F. D. Herbertson, <cite>Man and his

-Work, an Introduction to Human Geography</cite> (London: Black,

-1909, 132 pp.), p. 6.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f219'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r219'>219</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. Y., G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908, 363 pp.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f220'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r220'>220</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“In the chapters on the life of man in the different zones,

-I have made liberal use of Ratzel’s <cite>Anthropogeographie</cite> (2d ed.,

-Stuttgart, 1899).”—Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. VI.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f221'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r221'>221</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. V.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f222'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r222'>222</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. Y. and London, 1911. See ch. 4, pp. 94–129.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f223'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r223'>223</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Paris, 1911, 420 pp.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f224'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r224'>224</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide supra</span></i>, p. 27.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f225'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r225'>225</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Die soziale Geographie, hauptsächlich von Bastian und

-Ratzel tiefer begründet, wird gegenwärtig immer sorgsamer

-ausgebaut und hat namentlich in dem Wiener Erwin Hanslick

-einen eifrigen Förderer, der auf die Ermittlung von geographischen

-Kulturgrenzen ausgeht. In andrer Weise nimmt von ihr

-Willy Hellpach seinen Ausgang, der Geographie, Psychologie

-und Soziologie zu einem neuen Gebiet zu vereinigen sucht.”—Rudolf

-Goldscheid, “Soziologie” in <cite>Das Jahr 1913, Ein Gesamtbild

-der Kulturentwicklung</cite>, herausgegeben von D. Sarason (Leipzig

-und Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1913), p. 432.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f226'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r226'>226</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1911, 368 pp.—“Hier [in Hellpach’s

-book] wird alles zusammengefaßt, was über den Einfluß

-von ‘Wetter, Klima und Landschaft’ auf das Seelenleben bekannt

-ist.”—Otto Schlüter, “Anthropogeographie” in <cite>Das Jahr 1913</cite>,

-etc., p. 401.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f227'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r227'>227</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Hellpach, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 4.—Chiefly with those of the

-atmosphere; he devotes nine pages (98–107) to the telluric elements

-of the weather, and 87 pages (230–317) to the third main

-part of the book: “Landschaft und Seelenleben.” For soil as

-a co-factor, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also the ch. “Klimawechsel” in Part II (pp. 118–38).

-Hellpach defines Landschaft (p. 230) as follows: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Unter

-Landschaft verstehen wir den <em>sinnlichen</em> Gesamteindruck, der

-von einem Stück der Oberfläche und dem dazu gehörigen Abschnitt

-des Himmelsgewölbes in uns erweckt wird. ... das

-<em>sicht</em>bare Landschaftsbild bildet unter allen Umständen den

-Kern dessen, was wir Landschaft nennen ...</span> [And he adds

-that for an investigation of the effect of Landscape upon the human

-soul] <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">sind die nicht-optischen sinnlichen Eigenschaften

-der Landschaft von unentbehrlicher Bedeutung: Töne und

-Geräusche, Düfte und Gerüche und eine höchst verwickelte

-Summe von Affizierungen der Berührungs-, Temperatur-, ja

-zuweilen der Schmerzempfindlichkeit erst bilden mit Farben und

-Formen zusammen das natürliche Ganze, das wir in seelischen

-Wirkungen als <em>Landschaft</em> erleben.</span>”</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f228'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r228'>228</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i>, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">e.g.</span></i>, p. 8.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f229'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r229'>229</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Hellpach himself testifies (p. 318) that his book is a

-“Sammlung der Tatsachen.” Cf. also Schlüter’s opinion cited

-above in note no. 226.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f230'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r230'>230</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Manifestly, this is to be understood as a virtue in Hellpach,

-and not as a fault, since this conviction is gained only by dint of

-Hellpach’s clear delimitation of the scope of his work; it constitutes

-one of the results of his own labor.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f231'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r231'>231</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Schlüter’s art. in <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Jahr 1913</span></cite>, p. 402.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f232'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r232'>232</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Paris, 1910; 2nd ed. 1912.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f233'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r233'>233</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For a statement of principles (theoretical exposition),

-<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> the first two chaps. (pp. 1–92); for a summary, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> ch. X, section

-2 (pp. 780–9): “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le facteur psychologique dans les phénomènes

-naturels et l’activité humaine,</span>” and section 3 (pp. 790–807):

-“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’adaptation humaine aux conditions géographiques</span>.” In the

-preface to the second ed., there are quoted seven pages from a

-review of the first ed. of Brunhes’ work by Paul Mantoux, wherein

-the scope, content, and import of the first ed. are succinctly

-summarized.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f234'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r234'>234</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. Y., 1911, 637 pp.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f235'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r235'>235</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Wm. J. Thomas, <cite>Source Book for Social Origins</cite>

-(Chicago and London, 1909), p. 138 (Bibliogr. to Part I).—Without

-fear of contradiction, it may be said that the best two

-recent treatises on human geography are those by Brunhes and

-Semple.—For a brief concrete anthropo-geographical sketch,

-besides the works previously cited, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">W. Ule, <cite>Grundriß

-der Allgemeinen Erdkunde</cite> (2. verm. Aufl., Leipzig: S. Hirzel,

-1915, 487 pp.), pp. 361 ff.</span> See also the brief résumé in G. Schmoller’s

-<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Grundr. d. Allgem. Volkswirtschaftslehre</span></cite> (Leipzig, 1901),

-pp. 144 ff.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f236'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r236'>236</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Unverkennbar ist es, daß die Naturgewalten in ihren

-bedingenden Einflüssen auf das Persönliche der Völkerentwicklung

-immer mehr und mehr zurückweichen mußten, in demselben

-Maße wie diese vorwärts schritten. Sie übten im Anfange der

-Menschengeschichte als Naturimpulse über die ersten Entwicklungen

-in der Wiege der Menschheit einen sehr entscheidenden

-Einfluß aus, dessen Differenzen wir vielleicht noch in dem Naturschlage

-der verschiedenen Menschenrassen oder ihrer physisch

-verschiedenen Völkergruppen aus einer gänzlich unbekannten

-Zeit wahrzunehmen vermochten. Aber dieser Einfluß mußte

-abnehmen, ... Die zivilisierte Menschheit entwindet sich nach

-und nach, ebenso wie der einzelne Mensch, den unmittelbar bedingenden

-Fesseln der Natur und ihres Wohnortes. Die Einflüsse

-derselben Naturverhältnisse und derselben tellurischen

-Weltstellungen der erfüllten Räume bleiben sich also nicht durch

-alle Zeiten gleich.</span>” Ritter, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>; see Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 74 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et

-seq.</span></i></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f237'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r237'>237</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Man ist in Nachfolge C. Ritters vielfach geneigt, anzunehmen,

-daß die Natureinflüsse sich mit zunehmender Kultur

-immer weniger geltend machen.”—E. Bernheim, <cite>Lehrb. d. hist.

-Methode</cite> (Leipzig, 1908), p. 642.</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f238'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r238'>238</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Theo. Waitz, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Anthropologie der Naturvölker</span></cite>, I (Leipzig,

-1859), p. 341; see Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 185.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f239'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r239'>239</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Die Einteilung der Menschheit war nur geographisch-historisch

-möglich. Denn der Mensch steht in fester Abhängigkeit,

-in engstem Verbande zu der Natur, aus und an welcher er

-sich entwickelt hat, zur Natur der Erde, welcher letzteren kleiner,

-aber integrierender Teil er ist. Auch seine Entwicklung ist

-noch im Steigen, aber nur im Bereiche seines inneren, geistigen

-Lebens ... je höher der Mensch steigt, um so mehr macht

-er sich von dem zwingenden Einfluß der Erde frei; und wenn er

-demselben auch nie ganz entgehen wird, da er Nahrung braucht,

-von der Schwere sich nicht loslösen kann, so ist dennoch diese

-immer wachsende Freiheit ... eine stärkende ... Aussicht

-für die Zukunft ...”—<cite>Anthropologische Beiträge</cite>, 1. Bd.

-(Halle, 1875), p. 423</span>; see Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 227.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f240'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r240'>240</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Principles of Sociology</cite>, I, sec. 21.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f241'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r241'>241</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Vide Ripley, “Geography and Sociology,” p. 649.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f242'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r242'>242</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection</cite>, p. 319;

-cited by E. B. Tylor in the article “Anthropology,” <cite>Ency. Brit.</cite>

-(11th ed.), vol. 2, p. 114.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f243'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r243'>243</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Réclus, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, (1879); quoted by Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 86 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f244'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r244'>244</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“... je crois, que la civilisation dans son premier

-stade dépend bien plus du milieu physique et tellurique, qu’aux

-époques suivantes.”—Aug. Matteuzzi, <cite>Les Facteurs de l’Évolution

-des Peuples</cite> (Paris, 1900), p. 29. “... Tout ceci nous amène

-à affirmer ce fait, que les premières civilisations, dans des milieux

-favorables, eurent une relation étroite avec la culture du sol; et

-que dans un développement ultérieur, ce rapport se relâcha ...”</span>—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,

-p. 25. For best summaries of immense material collected

-on the relation of primitive human life to environment,

-see the five papers in the <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1895: “Relation

-of Primitive Peoples to Environment” by J. W. Powell (pp.

-625 ff.); “Influence of Environment upon Human Industries

-or Arts” by O. T. Mason (pp. 639 ff.); “The Japanese Nation—A

-Typical Product of Environment” by G. G. Hubbard (pp.

-667 ff.); “The Tusayan Ritual: A Study of the Influence of

-Environment on Aboriginal Cults” by J. W. Fewkes (pp. 683 ff.);

-and, probably the best of the five, “The Relation of Institutions

-to Environment” by the eminent ethnologist W. J. McGee (pp.

-701 ff.).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f245'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r245'>245</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Anthropogeogr.</cite>, I<sup>2</sup>: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Mensch und die Umwelt</span>” (pp.

-41–65).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f246'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r246'>246</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Geogr. and Sociol.,” p. 650.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f247'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r247'>247</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See his presidential address on the Origin of Man before

-the Section of Anthropology (<cite>Report of the British Association

-for the Advancement of Science, 1912</cite>; London, 1913), p. 576.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f248'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r248'>248</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>The Positive Philosophy of Aug. Comte, Freely Translated

-and Condensed by Harriet Martineau</cite> (In 2 vols., 3rd ed., London,

-1893—the original appeared from 1830–42), vol. 2, p. 96.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f249'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r249'>249</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Aug. Comte’s Positive Philosophie im Außug von I. Rig,

-Übersetzt von Kirchmann</span></cite> (2 Bde, Heidelberg, 1883), S. 94 ff.;

-Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 130.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f250'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r250'>250</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>A System of Logic</cite> (New Impression; London: Longmans,

-Green &amp; Co., 1911—first published in 1843), p. 572.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f251'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r251'>251</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A. Schäffle, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Bau und Leben des sozialen Körpers</span></cite>, Tübingen,

-1875, 2. Aufl., 1881; Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 161.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f252'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r252'>252</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Post’s general attitude is best seen in his ‘Introduction

-to the Study of Ethnological Jurisprudence,’ which was published

-in 1886, and in his ‘African Jurisprudence’ of 1887.”—John L.

-Myres, “The Influence of Anthropology on the Course of Political

-Science” (Presidential address to the Anthropological Section

-of the British Assoc. for the Advancement of Science), <cite>Report

-Brit. Assoc., 1909</cite> (London, 1910), p. 613.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f253'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r253'>253</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Myres, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, pp. 613 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f254'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r254'>254</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 231.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f255'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r255'>255</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See the 4th ch. of his <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie Sociale</span></cite> (Paris, 1911):

-“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Agents et Caractères Physiques Considérés Isolément</span>” (pp.

-92–144).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f256'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r256'>256</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“... as political and legal institutions are indissolubly

-bound up with social and religious, it follows inevitably that the

-political and legal institutions of a race cradled in Northern

-Europe are exceedingly ill adapted for the children of the equator.

-Accordingly in any wise administration of these regions it must

-be a primary object to study the native institutions, to modify

-... them ..., but never to seek to eradicate and supplant

-them. Any attempt to do so will be but vain, for these institutions

-are as much part of the land as are its climate, its soil, its

-fauna, and its flora. ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret.</span>’”—The

-Application of Zoological Laws to Man, in

-<cite>Rep. Brit. Assoc, f. the Adv. of Sci., 1908</cite> (London, 1909), p. 843.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f257'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r257'>257</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 310 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f258'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r258'>258</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> pp. 141–75 in <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Weltkrieg im Unterricht, Vorschläge

-u. Anregungen</span></cite>, etc. (Gotha: F. A. Perthes), esp. pp 163–5;

-he also discusses other phases of the relation between physical

-environment and the present war.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f259'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r259'>259</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>I: <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Deutsche Rundschau</span></cite>, April, 1915, pp. 78–91, and II

-(Schluß): <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, May, 1915, pp. 207–17.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f260'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r260'>260</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">In <cite>Monatshefte für den Naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht</cite>,

-1. Kriegsheft von Bastian Schmid (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1915).</span></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f261'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r261'>261</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cf. Gooch, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 585 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f262'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r262'>262</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See his Introduction to Dexter’s <cite>Weather Influences</cite> (N. Y.,

-1904), p. XXIV.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f263'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r263'>263</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Les Facteurs de L’Évolution des Peuples</cite> (Paris, 1900), p.

-25, 29, 27.—“C’est dans l’intensité de l’effort dirigé par les groupes

-sociaux contre les résistances du milieu, que réside la première

-impulsion vers la civilisation.”</span>—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 27.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f264'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r264'>264</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>But he adds, “... no disturbing causes, acting on social

-development, could do more than to affect its rate of progress.

-This is true of the operation of influences from the inorganic

-world, as of all others. In our view of biology we saw that the

-human being cannot be modified indefinitely by exterior circumstances;

-that such modifications can affect only the degrees of

-phenomena, without at all changing their nature; and again,

-that when the disturbing influences exceed their general limits,

-the organism is no longer modified, but destroyed.”—<cite>The Positive

-Philosophy of Aug. Comte, tr. by Harriet Martineau</cite>, vol. 2, p. 98;

-97.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f265'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r265'>265</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Ripley, <cite>Races of Europe</cite> (1899), p. 11; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> the references

-given there, and in the note on the same page.—Cf. also Ellsworth

-Huntington’s <cite>Palestine and its Transformation</cite> (1910), and

-his suggestive articles on “Changes of Climate and History”

-(in <cite>The American Historical Review</cite> for January, 1913, vol. 18,

-pp. 213–32) [for references to other writings on the subject by

-the same author,—and by A. T. Olmstead—<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> p. 214 n.]; on

-“Climate and Civilization” (in <cite>Harper’s Magazine</cite> for February,

-1915, vol. 130, pp. 367–73); on “Is Civilization Determined by

-Climate?” (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i> May, 1915, pp. 943–51); a new book of his, entitled

-<cite>Civilization and Climate</cite> (333 pp.), is announced for publication

-by the Yale Univ. Press.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f266'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r266'>266</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 280 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f267'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r267'>267</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“... cetera [Mattiaci] similes Batavis, nisi quod ipso

-adhuc terrae suae solo et caelo acrius animantur.”—F. Ritter,

-<cite>P. C. Taciti Opera</cite> (1864), p. 643.</span> <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">In <cite>Römische Prosaiker in neuen

-Übersetzungen</cite> (hg. v. C. N. von Osiander und G. Schwab, 51.

-Bändchen, Stuttg., 1852, S. 123)</span> this is rendered as follows:

-“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Im ganzen gleichen sie [die Mattiaker] den Batavern, nur daß

-Boden und Klima ihres Landes sie noch kriegerischer macht.</span>”</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f268'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r268'>268</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cesare Lombroso, <cite>Crime, Its Causes and Remedies</cite> (Boston,

-1911), pp. 3 f.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f269'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r269'>269</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 282.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f270'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r270'>270</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 582 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f271'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r271'>271</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Haddon &amp; Quiggin, <cite>Hist. of Anthropology</cite> (London, 1910),

-pp. 84 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f272'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r272'>272</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cesare Lombroso, <cite>Crime</cite>, etc., p. 2.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f273'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r273'>273</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. S. Shaler, Nature and Man in America (N. Y., 1893),

-p. 288.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f274'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r274'>274</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">In <cite>Abhandlungen der Königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften,

-Phil.-hist. Classe</cite>, 1912, p. 13: “In einer Wendung,

-die an Distinktionen Schleiermachers erinnert, hat er [Dilthey]

-in seiner letzten größeren Arbeit erklärt, daß unser wissenschaftliches

-Denken von zwei großen Tendenzen beherrscht sei.

-Der Mensch finde sich auf der einen Seite bestimmt von der

-physischen Welt, in der die seelischen Vorgänge nur wie Interpolationen

-erscheinen.</span> [The other is: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">das Leben</span> (life), <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">das

-Erlebnis</span> (experience).]”</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f275'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r275'>275</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ridgeway, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 843.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f276'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r276'>276</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 258 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i>—For the effect

-of physical environment on the Jews in Palestine, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Friedrich

-Otto Hertz, <cite>Rasse und Kultur</cite> (Leipzig, 1915, 421 pp.), pp. 162 ff.;

-and “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Soziale Grundlagen des Monotheismus u. Polytheismus</span>”

-(pp. 170 ff.) and the literature there cited. Cf. also <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Natürliche

-u. Soziale Grundlagen der indischen Entwicklung</span>”

-(pp. 198 ff.).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f277'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r277'>277</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 309 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f278'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r278'>278</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> his <cite>Weather Influences, An Empirical Study of the

-Mental and Physiological Effects of Definite Meteorological Conditions</cite>,

-with Introduction by Cleveland Abbe (N. Y.: Macmillan,

-1904, 277 pp.).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f279'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r279'>279</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>I saw somewhere that exception had been taken to his

-results, but I failed at the time to make a note thereof and have

-been unable to find the passage again.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f280'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r280'>280</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 266; 269; 272 f.—The fifth and last is not cited

-here.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f281'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r281'>281</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 310; 335, where ref. is also made to F. A.

-Cook’s article on “Some Physiological Effects of Arctic Cold,

-Darkness and Light” (<cite>MED. REC.</cite>, June 12, 1897, pp. 833–36).</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f282'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r282'>282</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>London and N. Y., 1892.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f283'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r283'>283</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 90.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f284'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r284'>284</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, pp. 113–5.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f285'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r285'>285</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Diese Priorität (der erste Versuch überhaupt, die Einflüsse

-des naturalen Milieus auf die Psyche darzustellen) gebührt,

-nach mancherlei Vorläufern minder geschlossenen Charakters</span>

-(<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">z. B. <cite>Quételet</cite>, Sur l’homme etc. 1835, Bd. 2, Kap. 3, Abschn.

-2–3, Influence du climat et des saisons sur le penchant au crime</span>)

-<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">ohne Zweifel <cite>Lombroso</cite>, aus dessen 1878 erschienenem Buche</span>

-‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Pensiero e meteore</span>’ <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Extracte auch in seine andern Publikationen,

-namentlich in</span> ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Genio e follia</span>,’ <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">übergegangen sind.”—Hellpach,

-<cite>Die Geopsychischen Erscheinungen</cite></span> (Leipzig, 1911), p. 336.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f286'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r286'>286</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Criminal Man, According to the Classification of Cesare

-Lombroso Briefly Summarized by his Daughter Gina Lombroso

-Ferrero</cite> (“The Science Series”; N. Y. and London: G. P. Putnam’s

-Sons, 1911, 322 pp.), p. 145.—Lombroso’s <cite><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">L’Uomo di genio</span></cite>

-appeared in 1888, <cite><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">L’Uomo delinquente</span></cite> in 1889, and <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">La Donna

-delinquente</span></cite> in 1893.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f287'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r287'>287</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Criminal Man</cite>, p. 145.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f288'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r288'>288</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Tr. by H. P. Horton, “The Modern Criminal Science

-Series,” Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1911, 471 pp.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f289'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r289'>289</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“It is brought out in Guerry’s statistics that the crime of

-rape occurs in England and France oftenest in the hot months;

-and Curcio has observed the same thing in Italy....</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“In England, according to Guerry, and in Italy, according

-to Curcio, the maximum number of murders falls in the hottest

-months....</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“Poisoning also, according to Guerry, occurs oftenest in

-May. The same phenomenon is to be observed in the case of

-Rebellions. In studying (as I have in my ‘Political Crime’)

-the 836 uprisings that took place in the whole world in the period

-between 1791 and 1880, one finds that in Asia and Africa the

-greatest number falls in July. In Europe and America the

-greater prevalence of rebellions in the hot months could not be

-more clearly marked. In Europe the maximum proved to be

-in July [in this connection one might also point to the beginning

-of the present European war which falls in the midsummer of

-1914], and in South America in January, which are respectively

-the two hottest months. The minimum falls in Europe in December

-and January, and in South America in May and June,

-which again correspond in temperature.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“If now we pass from the whole of Europe to the particular

-countries, we still find the greatest number of uprisings in the

-hot months....</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“Benoiston de Chateauneuf points out that duels in the army

-are more frequent in the summer.</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“I have proved that the same influence manifests itself in

-the case of men of genius (‘Man of Genius,’ Part I.).</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“Ferri, in his ‘Crime in its Relation to Temperature,’ has

-proved from a study of the French criminal statistics from 1825

-to 1878 that one can deduce an almost complete parallelism

-between heat and criminality, not only for the different months,

-but also for years of different degrees of heat. The influence of

-the temperature on crime from 1825 to 1848 appears to be very

-pronounced and constant, and is often even greater than that

-exercised by agricultural production. Since 1848, notwithstanding

-the more serious agricultural and political disturbances,

-the coincidence between temperature and criminality becomes

-from time to time plainly apparent, especially in the case of

-homicide and murder....</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“The connection comes out much more plainly, however, in

-the statistics of rape and offenses against chastity, which follow

-to an even greater degree the annual variations in temperature....</p>

-

-<p class='c000'>“As regards crimes against property there is a marked increase

-in the winter (theft and forgery being the most abundant

-in January), while the other seasons differ little from one another....”—Lombroso,

-<cite>Crime, Its Causes and Remedies</cite>,

-pp. 4–8. “Superintendents of prisons have generally observed

-that the inmates are more excited when storms are approaching

-and during the first quarter of the moon....”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 12.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f290'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r290'>290</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 13.—“In studying the distribution of simple

-and aggravated homicides in Europe, we find the highest figures

-in Italy and the other southern countries, and the lowest in the

-more northerly regions, England, Denmark, Germany. The

-same can be said of political uprisings in all Europe. We see,

-in fact, that the number of crimes increases as we go from north

-to south, and in the same measure as the heat increases.”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,

-p. 14.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f291'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r291'>291</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>This follows Laing. See Robertson, <cite>Buckle and his Critics</cite>

-(London, 1895), p. 553.—Cf. also C. M. Gießler’s article, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über

-den Einfluß von Wärme und Kälte auf das seelische Funktionieren

-des Menschen</span>,” in <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche

-Philosophie u. Soziologie</span></i>, 1902, pp. 319–38. Gießler refers (p.

-334) to Oppenheimer “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über den Einfluß des Klimas auf den

-Menschen</span>” (Berlin, 1867). <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> also E. Huntington’s article

-on “Work and Weather,” <cite>Harper’s Magazine</cite>, vol. 130 (January,

-1915), pp. 233–44.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f292'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r292'>292</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1908</cite> (London, 1909), p. 844.</p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f293'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r293'>293</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>On the use of alcohol in its relation to the northern climate,

-<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also Auguste Matteuzzi, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les Facteurs de L’Évolution

-des Peuples</span></cite> (Paris, 1900), pp. 329 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>

-</div>

-<div class='footnote' id='f294'>

-<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r294'>294</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Some of these are to be discussed in a subsequent paper.</p>

-</div>

-

-<div class='pbb'>

- <hr class='pb c002' />

-</div>

-<div class='tnotes'>

-

-<div class='chapter'>

-  <h2 class='c007'>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</h2>

-</div>

- <ol class='ol_1 c003'>

-    <li>Replaced “sz” with “ß” in German words. The “ß” character was not used in the

-    original.

-

-    </li>

-    <li>Changed “Nachbaren” to “Nachbarn” on p. <a href='#t30'>30</a>.

-

-    </li>

-    <li>Silently corrected typographical errors.

-

-    </li>

-    <li>Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.

-    </li>

-  </ol>

-

-</div>

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-<pre>

-

-

-

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+  </head>
+  <body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 55619 ***</div>
+
+<div class='tnotes covernote'>
+
+<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber's Note:</strong></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class='ph1'>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c001'>
+    <div>THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT</div>
+    <div class='c002'>Part I</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c003'>
+    <div><span class='large'>The University of Chicago</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+  <h1 class='c004'>THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT<br /> <span class='c005'><em>An Outline of the History of the Idea of Milieu, and its Present Status</em></span><br /> <span class='xlarge'>PART I</span><br /> <span class='large'>A DISSERTATION</span><br /> <span class='small'>SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY</span><br /> <span class='xsmall'>DEPARTMENT OF GERMANIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES</span></h1>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c003'>
+    <div><span class='small'>BY</span></div>
+    <div class='c002'><span class='large'>ARMIN HAJMAN KOLLER</span></div>
+    <div class='c003'><span class='small'>The Collegiate Press</span></div>
+    <div class='c002'><span class='sc'>George Banta Publishing Company</span></div>
+    <div><span class='sc'>Menasha, Wisconsin</span></div>
+    <div>1918</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c001'>
+    <div><span class='xxlarge'>THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT</span></div>
+    <div class='c002'><span class='xlarge'>PART I</span></div>
+    <div class='c002'><span class='large'><em>An Outline of the History of the Idea of Milieu, and its Present Status</em></span></div>
+    <div class='c002'>BY</div>
+    <div><span class='large'>ARMIN HAJMAN KOLLER, <span class='sc'>Ph.D.</span></span></div>
+    <div>Instructor in German</div>
+    <div>The University of Illinois</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c006'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>“.............................</div>
+      <div class='line'><em>He fixed thee ’mid this dance</em></div>
+      <div class='line'><em>Of plastic circumstance</em>.”</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line in12'>Robert Browning, “<cite>Rabbi Ben Ezra</cite>.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div><span class='small'>The Collegiate Press</span></div>
+    <div>GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY</div>
+    <div>MENASHA, WISCONSIN</div>
+    <div>1918</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c001'>
+    <div><em>Copyright, 1918</em></div>
+    <div><em>By Armin H. Koller</em></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c001'>
+    <div>TO</div>
+    <div>MY PARENTS</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <h2 class='c007'>CONTENTS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class='table0' summary='CONTENTS'>
+  <tr>
+    <th class='c008'></th>
+    <th class='c009'>&nbsp;</th>
+    <th class='c010'>PAGE</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008' colspan='2'>Introductory Remark. Meanings of the Word <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Milieu</span></i></td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c012'>I.</td>
+    <td class='c009'>A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Down to the Nineteenth Century</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c012'>II.</td>
+    <td class='c009'>A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Since the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Anthropo-geography, Geography and History</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Geography and History</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>More Recent Anthropo-geographical Treatises</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Primitive Peoples and Environment</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Society and Physical Milieu</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_74'>74</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Government, War, Progress, and Climate</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_76'>76</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Climate and Man’s Characteristics</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Man’s Intellect and Physical Environment</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Religion and Physical Milieu</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Climate and Conduct</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_84'>84</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Climatic Control of Food and Drink</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_91'>91</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008' colspan='2'>Summary</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008' colspan='2'>Appendix</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <h2 class='c007'>PREFACE</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c013'>In 1912 (see <cite>Publications of the Modern Language
+Association of America</cite>, Vol. 28, N. S., Vol. 21,
+1913, Proceedings for 1912, p. xxxix), I called
+attention to the Herder-Taine problem on milieu.
+The paper discussing that problem awaits the
+completion of another paper entitled “Herder’s
+Conception of Milieu.” The latter was my
+starting point. Setting about to inform myself
+on the history of the theory, I determined to obtain
+for myself, if possible, a tolerably complete idea,
+at least in its essentials, of the theory of milieu,
+to see where the theory led to, where it started
+from, what changes it has undergone, and what
+were its ramifications. My plan was to state
+briefly my findings in a chapter preparatory to
+stating Herder’s idea of milieu. As guide-posts
+were lacking, at least I knew of none, I was bound
+to seek by accident and for a number of years. In
+stumbling along, I first chanced upon the Herder-Taine
+problem. When my material swelled to
+proportions that could not be controlled in part
+of a chapter or in a chapter, I had to separate it,
+by its main divisions, into parts. The question
+arose, should it be a <em>concrete</em> treatise on environment.
+I soon found that to be, at least for the time
+being, beyond my province and also beyond my
+present purpose; besides, it would have swerved
+me too far afield; moreover, it would have had to
+be limited to a small portion of the subject. My
+present concern in this theory being genetic and
+historical, it seemed best to assemble all the sources
+one could find bearing on the history of the theory
+and to indicate the trend of its development in a
+rough preliminary sketch. Such a sketch is a
+requisite first step and perhaps a modest contribution
+to a history of the theory under consideration.
+The first part of this sketch is herein given. The
+original plan, mentioned above, of a prefatory
+chapter to Herder accounts for the retention of
+untranslated passages in the text of this part, a
+practice to be eschewed in the subsequent parts
+of this study which are to appear shortly.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Nearly all the material was collected by October,
+1915, and this manuscript was finished early
+in January, 1917.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to
+Professor Martin Schütze of the University of
+Chicago for the suggestion, made in 1907, to find
+out what Herder’s idea of milieu is; to my friend
+and former colleague at the University of Illinois,
+Dr. Charles C. Adams (now Assistant Professor of
+Ecology at Syracuse University) for references
+given me at my request (but he is in no wise to be
+held responsible for the bringing in of these references);
+and to my good friend and colleague, Professor
+John Driscoll Fitz-Gerald of the University
+of Illinois for a number of helpful suggestions
+given when reading the manuscript and for assisting
+with the reading of the galley proof.</p>
+
+<div class='c014'><span class='sc'>Armin H. Koller.</span></div>
+
+<div class='lg-container-l'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'><em>Champaign, Illinois,</em></div>
+      <div class='line in4'><em>April, 1918.</em></div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span>
+  <h2 class='c007'>INTRODUCTORY REMARK<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>Meanings of the Word “Milieu”</span></span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c013'>Before entering upon the discussion of the
+principal theme of this study,<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c015'><sup>[1]</sup></a> it is necessary to
+cast a brief glance over the origin and development
+of the meaning and use of the word milieu.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Milieu” (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mi-lieu=medius locus</span></i>), originally
+signifying middle point or part, central place or
+portion, mid-point, center, had been employed in
+France as a term in physics at least as early as the
+seventeenth century (Pascal). The fourth edition
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>of the dictionary of the French Academy<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c015'><sup>[2]</sup></a> defines
+it as follows: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">En termes de Physique, on appelle
+<em>Milieu</em>, Tout corps, soit solide, soit fluide, traversé
+par la lumière ou par un autre corps.</span>” [In the
+fifth edition—1813—the following illustration in
+italics is added to the foregoing: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La lumière se
+rompt différemment en traversant différens
+milieux.</span>”]</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">On appelle aussi <em>milieu</em>, Le fluide qui environne
+les corps. <em>L’air est le milieu dans lequel nous
+vivons. L’eau est le milieu qu’habitent les poissons.</em></span>”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Diderot’s Encyclopedia<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c015'><sup>[3]</sup></a> testifies to this same
+sense of “medium”: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>Milieu</em>, dans la Philosophie
+mêchanique, signifie un espace matériel à travers
+lequel passe un corps dans son mouvement, ou en
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>général, un espace matériel dans lequel un corps
+est placé, soit qu’il se meuve ou non.</span></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Ainsi on imagine l’éther comme un <em>milieu</em>
+dans lequel les corps célestes se meuvent.—L’air
+est un <em>milieu</em> dans lequel les corps se meuvent près
+de la surface de la terre.—L’eau est le <em>milieu</em> dans
+lequel les poissons vivent &amp; se meuvent.—Le verre
+enfin est un <em>milieu</em>, en égard à la lumière, parce
+qu’il lui permet un passage à travers ses pores.</span>”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Auguste Comte<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c015'><sup>[4]</sup></a> extended its signification as
+a term in biology to include “the totality of external
+conditions of any kind whatsoever”: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>Milieu</em>
+..., non-seulement le fluide où l’organisme est
+plongé, mais, en général, <em>l’ensemble total des circonstances
+extérieurs d’un genre quelconque</em></span> [the
+italics are ours], <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">nécessaires à l’existence de chaque
+organisme déterminé. Ceux qui auront suffisamment
+médité sur le rôle capital que doit remplir,
+dans toute biologie positive, l’idée correspondante,
+ne me reprocheront pas, sans doute, l’introduction
+de cette expression nouvelle.</span>”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Hippolyte Taine who generalized it still further,
+broadened its connotation to comprehend
+the whole social surroundings.<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c015'><sup>[5]</sup></a> Milieu as a
+<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">terminus technicus</span></i> is ordinarily considered as
+having been coined by Taine, but whether that
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>be so or not, one may safely say that its wide
+acceptance is due, primarily, to him and to his
+renowned disciple Zola.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c015'><sup>[6]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In the course of the last century, the designation
+milieu became not only more generalized and
+more frequent in use, but also more extensive, and
+more specific and distinctive in meaning: “Depuis
+BALZAC [who in 1841 in his <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Comédie humaine, La
+maison du chat-qui-pelote</cite>, préface, p. 2</span>, used the
+term loosely, in the “vulgar” sense], <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">le sens vulgaire
+du milieu social n’a fait que s’affirmer davantage
+par un emploi toujours plus généralisé: c’est
+devenu un cliché de la conversation de parler
+aujourd’hui d’un ‘bon milieu,’ d’un ‘milieu intéressant,’</span> etc.”<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c015'><sup>[7]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Littré<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c015'><sup>[8]</sup></a> registers eighteen different definitions
+for the word milieu.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Friedrich Düsel<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c015'><sup>[9]</sup></a> renders milieu by eighteen
+(18) German words.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In <cite>Unsere Umgangssprache</cite>,<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c015'><sup>[10]</sup></a> milieu is translated
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>into German by forty-six (46) words and
+phrases.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Claude Bernard, the celebrated French physiologist,
+differentiates between inner and outer
+milieu:<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c015'><sup>[11]</sup></a> “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Je crois ..., avoir le premier insisté
+sur cette idée qu’il y a pour l’animal réellement
+deux milieux: un milieu extérieur dans lequel est
+placé l’organisme et un milieu intérieur dans lequel
+vivent les éléments des tissus....</span>” Probably
+as a result, we have today “micro-milieu” in
+micro-biology.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>According to Jean Finot,<a id='r12' /><a href='#f12' class='c015'><sup>[12]</sup></a> milieu “includes
+the sum total of the conditions which accompany
+the conception and earthly existence of a being,
+and which end only with its death.”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The term milieu was introduced by Herbert
+Spencer into English literature as “environment,”
+says Martin Schütze.<a id='r13' /><a href='#f13' class='c015'><sup>[13]</sup></a> Although Carlyle employed
+the term “environment” as early as 1827,<a id='r14' /><a href='#f14' class='c015'><sup>[14]</sup></a>
+nevertheless, the fact that the term is generally
+current, is undoubtedly attributable in the first
+place to Spencer.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The word “Umwelt” is quoted by J. H.
+Campe,<a id='r15' /><a href='#f15' class='c015'><sup>[15]</sup></a> who believed himself to have been the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>coiner of the term; five years later (1816) Goethe
+used it at the beginning of his “Italienische
+Reise.”<a id='r16' /><a href='#f16' class='c015'><sup>[16]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The painstaking and scholarly German lexicographer,
+Daniel Sanders, who seldom fails to
+give his reader some reliable suggestion, refers
+in his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache</span></cite><a id='r17' /><a href='#f17' class='c015'><sup>[17]</sup></a> (which
+despite the contributions of recent scholarship
+still remains a great work) to a passage in the
+poetical works of the Danish writer Baggesen
+(2, 102) in which the word “Umwelt” is employed.
+This passage occurs in the elegy entitled
+“Napoleon” addressed to Voß and written in
+1800.<a id='r18' /><a href='#f18' class='c015'><sup>[18]</sup></a> Baggesen, then, made use of “Umwelt”
+a decade before Campe.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Its Italian equivalent is “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambiente</span>,” which is
+noted here only because of the French “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">l’ambiance</span>”
+and the English “ambient” and “circumambiency.”</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>
+  <h2 class='c007'>I<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Down to the Nineteenth Century</span></span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c013'>Recorded mesologic<a id='r19' /><a href='#f19' class='c015'><sup>[19]</sup></a> thinking begins with the
+ancient Jewish Prophets whose striking <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">aperçus</span></i>
+concerning the providential correspondence between
+the configuration of the surface of the earth
+and the destiny of nations, concerning the connection
+between “Landesnatur” and “Volkscharakter,”
+etc., anticipated<a id='r20' /><a href='#f20' class='c015'><sup>[20]</sup></a> a number of great
+thoughts of later anthropo-geographers.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>Hippocrates (if he really is the author of the
+essay commonly ascribed to him and entitled
+<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">περὶ αέρων ὑδάτων τόπων</span>) investigates the effect of
+climate on man’s nature, character, temperament,
+and life, with the emphasis on the regularity of
+the effect.<a id='r21' /><a href='#f21' class='c015'><sup>[21]</sup></a> Owing to the imperfection of knowledge
+in his day, his observations are necessarily
+vague.<a id='r22' /><a href='#f22' class='c015'><sup>[22]</sup></a> He limited himself to the problem of the
+relation between land and people.<a id='r23' /><a href='#f23' class='c015'><sup>[23]</sup></a> He is said
+to be the founder of anthropo-geography.<a id='r24' /><a href='#f24' class='c015'><sup>[24]</sup></a> His
+treatise is admirable and unequalled in the eyes
+of Auguste Comte.<a id='r25' /><a href='#f25' class='c015'><sup>[25]</sup></a> Hippocrates, “in his work,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span><cite>About Air, Water, and Places</cite>, first discusses the
+influence of environment on man, physical, moral,
+and pathological. He divided mankind into groups,
+impressed with homogeneous characters by homogeneous
+surroundings, demonstrating that mountains,
+plains, damp, aridity, and so on, produced
+definite and varying types.”<a id='r26' /><a href='#f26' class='c015'><sup>[26]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Aristotle, in his <cite>Politics</cite>, enquires into the
+influence especially of geographical position on
+laws and the form of government,<a id='r27' /><a href='#f27' class='c015'><sup>[27]</sup></a> while in his
+<cite>Problems</cite> he shows the far-reaching dependence of
+national character on the physical environment:
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zeigt ja doch Aristoteles selbst in einem andern
+Werke das entschiedenste Bestreben, eine sehr
+weitgehende Abhängigkeit des Volkscharakters
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>von geographischen Verhältnissen zu erweisen.
+Während die Politik [especially parts of the
+seventh book] nicht über Andeutungen</span> [on the
+effect of the milieu] hinausgeht [discussed by
+Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, on pp. 64–8], <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">läßt der vierzehnte
+Abschnitt der ‘Probleme,’ welcher sich mit den
+Einwirkungen der Landesnatur auf Physik und
+Ethik des Menschen beschäftigt, deutlich einen
+Standpunkt erkennen, welcher auf das Lebhafteste
+an die physiologische Betrachtungsweise der
+neueren französisch-englischen Geschichtsphilosophie
+erinnert ...</span>”<a id='r28' /><a href='#f28' class='c015'><sup>[28]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Eratosthenes, in a work cited by Varro, sought
+to prove, in the opinion of the Italian scholar
+Matteuzzi prematurely, that man’s character
+and the form of his government are subordinated
+to proximity or remoteness from the sun.<a id='r29' /><a href='#f29' class='c015'><sup>[29]</sup></a> The
+greatest geographer of antiquity, Strabo, in his
+Geography, connected man with nature in a
+causal relation.<a id='r30' /><a href='#f30' class='c015'><sup>[30]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>John M. Robertson, noting that “theories of
+the influence of climate on character were common
+in antiquity,” refers<a id='r31' /><a href='#f31' class='c015'><sup>[31]</sup></a> to Vitruvius (VI, 1), Vegetius
+(“<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">De re militari</span>,” 1, 2), and Servius (on Vergil,
+<cite>Aeneid</cite>, VI, 724). Ritter does not mention the
+effort of the ancients in this line of ideas.<a id='r32' /><a href='#f32' class='c015'><sup>[32]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Giovanni Villani, the noted Florentine historian
+of the fourteenth century, observes with a
+deal of finesse that Arezzo by reason of its air and
+position produces men of great subtilty of mind.<a id='r33' /><a href='#f33' class='c015'><sup>[33]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>The Arabic statesman and philosopher of
+history, Ibn Khaldūn, little mentioned, yet known
+by his great work, the <cite>Universal History</cite>, attempted
+in the <cite>Muqaddama</cite><a id='r34' /><a href='#f34' class='c015'><sup>[34]</sup></a> (the preface, comprising the
+first volume of his <cite>History</cite>), which he composed
+between 1374 and 1378,<a id='r35' /><a href='#f35' class='c015'><sup>[35]</sup></a> to explain the history
+and civilization of man, more especially of some
+of the Arabic peoples, by the encompassing physical
+and social conditions. The “First Section of the
+‘Prolegomena’ treats of society in general, and
+of the varieties of the human race, and of the
+regions of the earth which they inhabit, as related
+thereto. It starts from the position that man is
+by nature a social being. His body and mind,
+wants and affections, for their exercise, satisfaction,
+and development, all imply and demand co-operation
+and communion with his fellows,—participation
+in a collective and common life....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“There follows a lengthened description of the
+physical basis and conditions of history and civilisation.
+The chief features of the inhabited portions
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>of the earth, its regions, principal seas, great
+rivers, climates, &amp;c., are made the subjects of
+exposition. The seven climatic zones, and the
+ten sections of each, are delineated, and their
+inhabitants specified. The three climatic zones of
+moderate temperature are described in detail,
+and the distinctive features of the social condition
+and civilisation of their inhabitants dwelt upon.
+The influence of the atmosphere, heat, &amp;c., on
+the physical and even mental and moral peculiarities
+of peoples is maintained to be great. Not
+only the darkness of skin of the negroes, but their
+characteristics of disposition and of mode of life,
+are traced to the influence of climate. A careful
+attempt is also made to show how differences of
+fertility of soil—how dearth and abundance—modify
+the bodily constitution and affect the minds
+of men, and so operate on society....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“The Second Section of the ‘Prolegomena’
+treats of the civilisation of nomadic and half-savage
+peoples.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“In it Ibn Khaldūn appears at his best, ...
+He begins by indicating how the different usages
+and institutions of peoples depend to a large extent
+on the ways in which they provide for their subsistence.
+He describes how peoples have at first
+contented themselves with simple necessities, and
+then gradually risen to refinement and luxury
+through a series of states or stages all of which
+are alike conformed to nature, in the sense of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>being adapted to its circumstances or environment.”<a id='r36' /><a href='#f36' class='c015'><sup>[36]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Ibn Khaldūn seems also to have had a clear
+idea of some aspects of the principle of relativity,<a id='r37' /><a href='#f37' class='c015'><sup>[37]</sup></a>
+an integral part and inevitable concomitant of
+the theory of milieu, since “As causes of historians
+erring as they have done, there are mentioned
+[by Khaldūn in the introduction] the overlooking
+of the differences of times and epochs, ...”<a id='r38' /><a href='#f38' class='c015'><sup>[38]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>About the middle of the sixteenth century we
+find Michelangelo avowing to Vasari (who hailed
+from Arezzo): “Any mental excellence I may
+possess, I have because I was born in the fine air
+of your Aretine district.”<a id='r39' /><a href='#f39' class='c015'><sup>[39]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In “Measure for Measure” (Act III, Sc. I,
+v. 8–11), a play first produced in 1604, Shakespeare
+affirms of man:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c006'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>“... a breath thou art,</div>
+      <div class='line'>Servile to all the skyey influences</div>
+      <div class='line'>That do this habitation where thou keep’st,</div>
+      <div class='line'>Hourly afflict.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c000'>During the Renaissance, Greek thought on
+milieu is resurrected in France. Thence it spreads
+later, particularly in the eighteenth century, to
+England and Germany. Jean Bodin bridges the
+gap existent since the close of classical antiquity.
+He is the first among modern writers not only to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>revive the idea in Western Europe,<a id='r40' /><a href='#f40' class='c015'><sup>[40]</sup></a> but also to
+make it a subject for detailed investigation.
+Bodin thus first in French letters introduces and
+firmly establishes a line of study destined to be
+followed by a long list of authors among whom are
+to be found many illustrious French names.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Bodin “treats of physical causes with considerable
+fulness in the fifth chapter of the
+‘Method,’<a id='r41' /><a href='#f41' class='c015'><sup>[41]</sup></a> and in a still more detailed and developed
+form in the first chapter of the fifth book of
+the ‘Republic.’”<a id='r42' /><a href='#f42' class='c015'><sup>[42]</sup></a> He traces the relation between
+climate and the ever changing fate of States, and
+elaborates the manifold effects of climate on
+States, laws, religion, language, and temperament.<a id='r43' /><a href='#f43' class='c015'><sup>[43]</sup></a>
+In Bodin’s view, man’s physical constitution
+is closely and directly connected with
+climate and surrounding nature; it is in harmony
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>with the behavior of the earth in the respective
+zones of his abode.<a id='r44' /><a href='#f44' class='c015'><sup>[44]</sup></a> From this assumption of
+dependence of the human body on climate, there
+follow a number of inferences concerning the
+physical properties of man’s constitution.<a id='r45' /><a href='#f45' class='c015'><sup>[45]</sup></a> Temperament
+varies according to climate. Language,
+the generative power, diseases likewise depend
+indirectly on climate.<a id='r46' /><a href='#f46' class='c015'><sup>[46]</sup></a> Man’s talents and capacities
+do so no less.<a id='r47' /><a href='#f47' class='c015'><sup>[47]</sup></a> The climate in each region
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>always favors the development of some special
+aptitude; on this basis he groups the peoples of
+the earth.<a id='r48' /><a href='#f48' class='c015'><sup>[48]</sup></a> Although the nexus between human
+abilities and the physical milieu is thus intimate,
+yet reason, common to all men and invariable, is
+<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">per se</span></i> independent of physical environment.<a id='r49' /><a href='#f49' class='c015'><sup>[49]</sup></a>
+He postulates, then, reason as the absolute part
+of the mind, not subject to surrounding influences,
+whereas the unfolding of the human faculties is
+relative to the environment. By taking this
+middle course concerning the effect of nature on
+man, Bodin escapes the extreme views of nature’s
+compelling influence over man, on the one hand,
+and of man’s total independence of nature, on the
+other.<a id='r50' /><a href='#f50' class='c015'><sup>[50]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Bodin also investigates the influence upon
+national character of geographical situation, of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>elevation, of the quality of the native soil, and of
+an east-west position.<a id='r51' /><a href='#f51' class='c015'><sup>[51]</sup></a> Nations and their civilizations
+differ according to the particular conditions
+of a given national existence.<a id='r52' /><a href='#f52' class='c015'><sup>[52]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>He holds fast to the doctrine of the freedom
+of the will. Man is morally free from environmental
+control. The circumambient medium
+determines only the <em>development</em> of man’s capabilities.<a id='r53' /><a href='#f53' class='c015'><sup>[53]</sup></a>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>Man can counteract, and may, even
+though with difficulty, overcome the injurious
+action of climate and nature.<a id='r54' /><a href='#f54' class='c015'><sup>[54]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“... It is altogether unfair,” concludes
+Flint,<a id='r55' /><a href='#f55' class='c015'><sup>[55]</sup></a> “to put their general enunciations [<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>,
+those made by Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle,
+Polybius, and Galen] of the principle that physical
+circumstances originate and modify national characteristics,
+on a level with Bodin’s serious, sustained,
+and elaborate attempt to apply it over a
+wide area and to a vast number of cases. Dividing
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>nations into northern, middle, and southern,<a id='r56' /><a href='#f56' class='c015'><sup>[56]</sup></a>
+he investigates with wonderful fulness of knowledge
+how climatic and geographical conditions
+have affected the bodily strength, the courage, the
+intelligence, the humanity, the chastity, and, in
+short, the mind, morals, and manners of their
+inhabitants; what influence mountains, winds,
+diversities of soil, &amp;c., have exerted on individuals
+and societies; and he elicits a vast number of
+general views....”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Bodin, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">der größte theoretische Politiker
+Frankreichs im 16. Jahrhundert</span>,” declares Renz,<a id='r57' /><a href='#f57' class='c015'><sup>[57]</sup></a>
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">besitzt ... das unbestreitbare Verdienst, wenn
+nicht die Grundgedanken und nicht ausschließlich
+originale Gedanken, so doch die erste weitgehende
+wissenschaftliche Untersuchung über den Zusammenhang
+zwischen umgebender Natur und Menschenwelt
+in neuerer Zeit auf dem Boden der
+Erfahrung und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts
+angestellt zu haben</span>.”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Bodin, “writing in 1577 OF THE LAWES AND
+CUSTOMES OF A COMMON WEALTH (English
+edition [translated by Richard Knowlles]
+1605), contains, as Professor J. L. Myres has
+pointed out (Rept. Brit. Assoc., 1909 [1910], p. 593),
+‘the whole pith and kernel of modern anthropo-geography....’”<a id='r58' /><a href='#f58' class='c015'><sup>[58]</sup></a>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>And Renz believes that
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">In der Bodinschen Behandlung der Theorie des
+Klimas finden sich die Anfänge der Anthropogeographie
+und der Ethnographie...</span>”<a id='r59' /><a href='#f59' class='c015'><sup>[59]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Writing in 1713, Lenglet du Fresnoy, toward
+the end of the sixth chapter of the first volume of
+his <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Méthode pour étudier l’histoire</span></cite>, expresses,
+decades before Montesquieu, the latter’s basic
+idea of the effect of social and political milieu on
+laws.<a id='r60' /><a href='#f60' class='c015'><sup>[60]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In any discussion of milieu, Montesquieu is
+the writer most frequently mentioned, although
+not the most often read and quoted. He devotes
+the well-known five “Books,” from the fourteenth
+to the eighteenth, of his magnum opus, <cite>L’Esprit
+des Lois</cite> (1748),<a id='r61' /><a href='#f61' class='c015'><sup>[61]</sup></a> to a consideration of this idea
+which, as has already been seen, was anything but
+original with him.<a id='r62' /><a href='#f62' class='c015'><sup>[62]</sup></a> In Books fourteen to seventeen
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>he treats of the relation of laws to climate,
+and in Book eighteen of their relation to soil. In
+the fourteenth<a id='r63' /><a href='#f63' class='c015'><sup>[63]</sup></a> he discusses the effect of climate
+on the body (and mind) of individual man, in the
+fifteenth<a id='r64' /><a href='#f64' class='c015'><sup>[64]</sup></a> on civil slavery, in the sixteenth<a id='r65' /><a href='#f65' class='c015'><sup>[65]</sup></a> on
+domestic slavery, in the seventeenth<a id='r66' /><a href='#f66' class='c015'><sup>[66]</sup></a> on political
+servitude, and lastly in the eighteenth<a id='r67' /><a href='#f67' class='c015'><sup>[67]</sup></a> he delineates
+the influence of the fertility and barrenness
+of the soil. By climate he means little more than
+heat and cold. In the light of the continued high
+praise bestowed on him for much longer than a
+century, the altogether too general and dogmatic
+statements of these short seventy-odd pages would
+seem somewhat meager, so that upon their perusal
+one is very likely to suffer an outright disenchantment.
+Therefore, Flint’s judgment appears overdrawn,
+when he says that Montesquieu “showed on
+a grand scale and in the most effective way ...
+that, like all things properly historical, they [laws,
+customs, institutions] must be estimated not
+according to an abstract or absolute standard,
+but as concrete realities related to given times
+and places, to their determining causes and condition,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>and to the whole social organism to which
+they belong, and the whole social medium in which
+they subsist. Plato and Aristotle, Machiavelli
+and Bodin, had already, indeed, inculcated this
+historical and political relativism; but it was
+Montesquieu who gained educated Europe over
+to the acceptance of it.”<a id='r68' /><a href='#f68' class='c015'><sup>[68]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Turgot’s sketch of a ‘Political Geography’
+shows “that he had attained to a broader view
+of the relationship of human development to the
+features of the earth and to physical agencies in
+general than even Montesquieu. And he saw with
+perfect clearness not only that many of Montesquieu’s
+inductions were premature and inadequate,
+but that there was a defect in the method by which
+he arrived at them.... The excellent criticism
+of Comte, in the fifth volume of the ‘Philosophie
+Positive,’ and in the fourth volume of the ‘Politique
+Positive,’ on this portion of Montesquieu’s speculations,
+is only a more elaborate reproduction of
+that of Turgot, and is expressed in terms which
+show that it was directly suggested by that of
+Turgot.”<a id='r69' /><a href='#f69' class='c015'><sup>[69]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Cuvier “had not hesitated to trace the close
+relation borne by philosophy and art to the
+underlying geological formations.”<a id='r70' /><a href='#f70' class='c015'><sup>[70]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In the teaching of a number of great thinkers
+of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, man
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>is “the product of environment and education”
+and, in their opinion, “all men were born equal
+and later became unequal through unequal opportunities.”<a id='r71' /><a href='#f71' class='c015'><sup>[71]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Goethe echoed Herder’s thought when he
+remarked to Eckermann on the flora of a country
+and the disposition of its residents: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Sie haben
+nicht Unrecht, sagte Goethe (d. 2. April 1829),
+und daher kommt es denn auch, daß man der
+Pflanzenwelt eines Landes einen Einfluß auf die
+Gemütsart seiner Bewohner zugestanden hat.
+Und gewiß! wer sein Leben lang von hohen
+ernsten Eichen umgeben wäre, müßte ein anderer
+Mensch werden, als wer täglich unter luftigen
+Birken sich erginge...</span>”<a id='r72' /><a href='#f72' class='c015'><sup>[72]</sup></a> And again, when
+he said of environment and national character:
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... so viel ist gewiß, daß außer dem Angeborenen
+der Rasse, sowohl Boden und Klima als
+Nahrung und Beschäftigung einwirkt, um den
+Charakter eines Volkes zu vollenden ...</span>”<a id='r73' /><a href='#f73' class='c015'><sup>[73]</sup></a>
+And in the following, Goethe but reiterates Herder’s
+oft uttered admiration for islanders and coast
+dwellers: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Auch von den Kräften des <cite>Meeres</cite>
+und der <cite>Seeluft</cite> war die Rede gewesen (d. 12. März
+1828), wo denn Goethe die Meinung äußerte,
+daß er alle Insulaner und Meer-Anwohner des
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>gemäßigten Klimas bei weitem für produktiver
+und tatkräftiger halte als die Völker im Innern
+großer Kontinente</span>.”<a id='r74' /><a href='#f74' class='c015'><sup>[74]</sup></a> And: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Es ist ein eigenes
+Ding, erwiederte Goethe (d. 12. März 1828),—liegt
+es in der Abstammung, liegt es im Boden,
+liegt es in der freien Verfassung, liegt es in der
+gesunden Erziehung,—genug! die Engländer überhaupt
+scheinen vor vielen anderen etwas voraus
+zu haben ...</span>”<a id='r75' /><a href='#f75' class='c015'><sup>[75]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Wolf and Niebuhr began to examine historical
+<em>sources</em> “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">nach neuen Prinzipien des Eingetauchtseins
+in eine bestimmte seelische Umwelt, in ein
+klargezeichnetes zeitgenössisches Milieu</span>.”<a id='r76' /><a href='#f76' class='c015'><sup>[76]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>One of the principal offices of an historian, according
+to August Wilhelm Schlegel, is “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die zeit- und
+kulturgeschichtliche Bedingtheit aller Erscheinungen
+aufzuzeigen</span>.”<a id='r77' /><a href='#f77' class='c015'><sup>[77]</sup></a> But the effect of
+physical milieu on history is not rated high in the
+philosophy of the romanticists.<a id='r78' /><a href='#f78' class='c015'><sup>[78]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>Ingeniously, albeit not with his wonted acuteness,
+Hegel penned the concept “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Volksgeist</span>.”<a id='r79' /><a href='#f79' class='c015'><sup>[79]</sup></a>
+The saying, which now seems trivial, that every
+nation and every man in the nation is “ein Kind
+seiner Zeit,” is said to be Hegel’s.<a id='r80' /><a href='#f80' class='c015'><sup>[80]</sup></a> Hegel, however,
+distinctly rejected the idea of explaining
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">die Geschichte und den Geist der verschiedenen
+Völker aus dem Klima ihrer Länder</span>.”<a id='r81' /><a href='#f81' class='c015'><sup>[81]</sup></a> The
+implication would be that one single factor might
+satisfactorily be held responsible for all progress
+in human history. As climate can not explain
+everything to Hegel, it seems not to explain anything
+at all to him. Hegel, then, is excessive in
+his denial of the power of environment. This is
+markedly shown by his thinking his position substantiated
+by the fact that the climate of Greece,
+although the same since classical antiquity, has
+not changed the Turks who now [<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, early in the
+nineteenth century] dwell in Greece into ancient
+Greeks.<a id='r82' /><a href='#f82' class='c015'><sup>[82]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>
+  <h2 class='c007'>II<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Since the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century</span></span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Anthropo-geography, Geography and History</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>The theory of social environment, as we have
+seen, gradually rises, especially since the renaissance,
+parallel with the theory of physical milieu.
+The stream of thought commences to broaden on
+both sides as we approach the eighteenth century,
+and broadens still further, and deepens, in the
+nineteenth, when specialization occurs or continues
+in anthropo-geography, biology, jurisprudence and
+economics, anthropology, sociology, and literature,
+and latterly in physics. These furnish us
+the divisions for subsequent discussions.<a id='r83' /><a href='#f83' class='c015'><sup>[83]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>All antecedent thought on the subject converges
+in Herder and from this focal point, as a collecting
+and fructifying center, it emerges, branches out
+and radiates in a definite number of directions.
+This can only be indicated here.<a id='r84' /><a href='#f84' class='c015'><sup>[84]</sup></a> One main
+ramification leads us to anthropo-geography. Consequently,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>we must now turn to a detailed consideration
+of the idea of milieu in anthropo-geography.<a id='r85' /><a href='#f85' class='c015'><sup>[85]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Karl Ritter first in anthropo-geography elucidated
+Herder’s ideas on environment. “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... KARL
+RITTER steht auf HERDERS Schultern, wenn
+er in seiner ‘Allgemeinen Erdkunde’ den Gedanken
+der tiefgehenden Beeinflussung der Völkergeschichte
+durch die äußeren Umgebungen
+entwickelt ...</span>”<a id='r86' /><a href='#f86' class='c015'><sup>[86]</sup></a> Ritter is said to be given
+too much credit for connecting scientifically geography
+and history: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">C. Ritter führte, ...
+die Herder’schen Anschauungen deutlicher aus.
+Die wissenschaftliche, nicht bloß äußerliche
+Verbindung von Geographie und Geschichte
+kettet sich an seinen Namen. Nicht ganz mit
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>Recht; ...</span>”<a id='r87' /><a href='#f87' class='c015'><sup>[87]</sup></a> Richthofen thinks that Ritter’s
+basic idea was almost without influence on geography;
+only the historians profited by it.<a id='r88' /><a href='#f88' class='c015'><sup>[88]</sup></a> Alexander
+von Humboldt, on the other hand, declares
+in the first volume of his <cite>Cosmos</cite> that “The views
+of comparative geography have been specially
+enlarged by that admirable work, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Erdkunde im
+Verhältnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte</span>, in which
+Carl Ritter so ably delineates the physiognomy
+of our globe and shows the influence of its external
+configuration on the physical phenomena on its
+surface, on the migrations, laws, and manners of
+nations, and on all the principal historical events
+enacted upon the face of the earth.”<a id='r89' /><a href='#f89' class='c015'><sup>[89]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In the <cite>Erdkunde</cite>,<a id='r90' /><a href='#f90' class='c015'><sup>[90]</sup></a> Ritter propounds a program
+for anthropo-geographical investigation, i.e., for
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>the investigation of the mutual relation between
+man and his environment. As every moral man
+should, so should also “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">jeder menschliche Verein,
+jedes Volk seiner eigenen inneren und äußeren
+Kräfte, wie derjenigen der Nachbarn<a id='t30'></a> und seiner
+Stellung zu allen von außen herein wirkenden
+Verhältnissen inne werden.</span>”<a id='r91' /><a href='#f91' class='c015'><sup>[91]</sup></a> Nature exercises
+greater influence over peoples than over individual
+men: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Eigentümlichkeit des Volkes kann nur
+aus seinem Wesen erkannt werden, aus seinem
+Verhältnis zu sich selbst, zu seinen Gliedern, zu
+seinen Umgebungen, und weil kein Volk ohne
+Staat und Vaterland gedacht werden kann, aus
+seinem Verhältnis zu beiden und aus dem Verhältnis
+von beiden zu Nachbarländern und Nachbarstaaten.
+Hier zeigt sich der Einfluß, den die
+Natur auf die Völker, und zwar in einem noch weit
+höheren Grade, als auf den einzelnen Menschen
+ausüben muß ...</span></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Denn durch eine höhere Ordnung bestimmt,
+treten die Völker wie die Menschen zugleich unter
+dem Einfluß einer Tätigkeit der Natur und der
+Vernunft hervor aus dem geistigen wie aus dem
+physischen Elemente in den Alles verschlingenden
+Kreis des Weltlebens. Gestaltet sich doch jeder
+Organismus dem inneren Zusammenhange und dem
+äußeren Umfange nach ... Sie (Völker und
+Staaten) stehen alle unter demselben Einflusse der
+Natur ...</span>”<a id='r92' /><a href='#f92' class='c015'><sup>[92]</sup></a> To the problem of the reciprocal
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>relation between external and internal factors,
+Ritter devoted a special essay, entitled “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über
+das historische Element in der geographischen
+Wissenschaft</span>,” which he read before the Academy
+of Sciences at Berlin in 1833.<a id='r93' /><a href='#f93' class='c015'><sup>[93]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In Alexander von Humboldt’s <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ansichten der
+Natur</span></cite>,<a id='r94' /><a href='#f94' class='c015'><sup>[94]</sup></a> “Everywhere the reader’s attention is
+directed to the perpetual influence which physical
+nature exercises on the moral condition and on the
+destiny of man.”<a id='r95' /><a href='#f95' class='c015'><sup>[95]</sup></a> In passing, Humboldt also
+touches on environment in the first volume of his
+chef-d’oeuvre, <cite>Kosmos</cite>, assigning it, however, but
+a modest rôle: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Es würde das allgemeine Naturbild,
+das ich zu entwerfen strebe, unvollständig
+bleiben, wenn ich hier nicht auch den Mut hätte,
+das Menschengeschlecht in seinen physischen
+Abstufungen, in der geographischen Verbreitung
+seiner gleichzeitig vorhandenen Typen, in dem Einfluß,
+welchen es von den Kräften der Erde empfangen
+und wechselseitig, wenn auch schwächer,
+auf sie ausgeübt hat, mit wenigen Zügen zu schildern.
+Abhängig, wenn gleich in minderem Grade
+als Pflanzen und Tiere, von dem Boden und den
+meteorologischen Prozessen des Luftkreises, den
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>Naturgewalten durch Geistestätigkeit und stufenweise
+erhöhte Intelligenz, wie durch eine wunderbare
+sich allen Klimaten aneignende Biegsamkeit
+des Organismus leichter entgehend, nimmt das
+Geschlecht wesentlich Teil an dem ganzen Erdenleben.</span>”<a id='r96' /><a href='#f96' class='c015'><sup>[96]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>J. G. Kohl’s book, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Verkehr und die Ansiedlungen
+der Menschheit in ihrer Abhängigkeit von der
+Gestaltung der Erdoberfläche</span></cite>,<a id='r97' /><a href='#f97' class='c015'><sup>[97]</sup></a> occupies itself with
+the question of the dependence of human progress
+in general, and of density and concentration of
+population in particular, upon natural conditions.
+The causes of these phenomena are, to Kohl, partly
+moral or political, and partly physical. The physical
+causes of concentration are twofold: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Teils
+sind es solche, die von dem mehr oder minder
+großen Produktenreichtum des Bodens, teils
+solche, die von der Gestaltung der Erdoberfläche
+abhängen ... so zeigt sich dann, daß von allen
+verschiedenen Ursachen der Kondensierung der
+Bevölkerung die Bodengestaltung die allerwichtigste
+ist.</span>”<a id='r98' /><a href='#f98' class='c015'><sup>[98]</sup></a> Opposed to these natural conditions
+is a series of what Kohl styles political influences,
+such as national character, institutions created
+by the State, laws, etc.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die moralischen oder
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>politischen Ursachen der verschiedenen Dichtigkeit
+der Bevölkerung sind in dem Kulturzustande
+und besonders in der politischen Verfassung der
+Bewohner der verschiedenen Erdstriche begründet ...
+Auch sind viele verschiedene Sitten
+der Völker als einflußreiche Ursachen der mehr oder
+minder großen Dichtigkeit der Bevölkerung zu
+betrachten.</span>”<a id='r99' /><a href='#f99' class='c015'><sup>[99]</sup></a> Not only national character, but
+also education is to be counted among the political
+influences: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Unter politischen und moralischen
+Einflüssen, die nicht von der Natur bedingt werden,
+verstehen wir solche Kräfte, solche Volkstalente
+und Eigentümlichkeiten des Charakters, die nicht
+der Boden, die Luft und das Klima dem Volke
+geben. So groß nämlich auch die Gewalt des
+Bodens, des Klimas und der Natur ist, so sehr
+die Zonen, die Gebirge, die Sümpfe, die Wälder,
+die Wüsten u.s.w. alle Bevölkerung, die in ihre
+Gebiete fällt, auf einerlei Weise zu bilden und zu
+modeln streben, so sehr behauptet doch immer noch
+nebenher der ursprüngliche Charakter des Stammes
+und die Erziehung, welche das Volk sich gibt,
+ihre eigenen Rechte. Es existieren beide Einflüsse
+neben einander, beschränken sich gegenseitig,
+aber sie heben sich nicht auf ... Das,
+was nun nicht vom Boden abhängt und was ein
+Volk auf jeden Boden, den es bezieht, mit hin
+bringt, ist wiederum Zweierlei, entweder etwas
+Angeborenes oder etwas Angenommenes.</span>”<a id='r100' /><a href='#f100' class='c015'><sup>[100]</sup></a> It
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>is difficult to differentiate between what is due to
+original endowment and what to the milieu, yet
+natural influences can not be ignored: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Welcher
+Geist ... möchte den Versuch wagen, zu entscheiden,
+was im Charakter des Volkes ...
+Angenommenes und was Selbstgegebenes sei, was
+endlich in ihren Handlungen und Bewegungen
+von Klima und Landesbeschaffenheit bedingt
+werde. Die Charaktergepräge der Nationen, wie
+wir sie jetzt in diesen neuesten Momenten der
+weltgeschichtlichen Entwicklung sehen, sind Gebilde,
+welche unter der Einwirkung unerforschbar
+vielfacher Einflüsse entstanden sind.... Und
+doch stehen sie (die Natureinflüsse, die von den
+Historikern gewöhnlich unberücksichtigt geblieben
+sind) vielleicht auch bei allen jenen Dingen, die
+wir im Vordergrunde agieren sehen, im Hintergrunde
+und wirken als die Quellen der Erscheinungen
+mittelbar selbst da, wo wir dieselben anderen
+Ursachen zuschreiben. So mag jede Art der
+Staatsverfassung, der Gewerbzweige geschöpft und
+hervorgeblüht sein aus der Tiefe des Nationalgeistes,
+des Boden- und des Luftgeistes, während
+wir sie als Willkürliches und Selbstgegebenes
+auffassen.</span>”<a id='r101' /><a href='#f101' class='c015'><sup>[101]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The naturalist Karl Ernst von Baer discusses
+the influence of external nature upon the social
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>relations of individual nations and upon the history
+of mankind in general,<a id='r102' /><a href='#f102' class='c015'><sup>[102]</sup></a> while the geologist Bernhard
+Cotta attempts to show the effect of soil and
+geological structure on German life.<a id='r103' /><a href='#f103' class='c015'><sup>[103]</sup></a> Accepting,
+in the main, Cotta as a basis, J. Kutzen, in <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das
+deutsche Land, Seine Natur in ihren charakteristischen
+Zügen und sein Einfluß auf Geschichte
+und Leben der Menschen, Skizzen und Bilder</span></i>,<a id='r104' /><a href='#f104' class='c015'><sup>[104]</sup></a>
+the bulk of which book is physical geography,
+intersperses therewith anthropo-geographical statements
+that are in some cases interwoven in, and in
+others added to, the descriptive parts, pointing out
+the relation of environment to the life and history
+of the Germans.<a id='r105' /><a href='#f105' class='c015'><sup>[105]</sup></a> Kutzen claims his work to be
+the first that treats the <em>whole</em> of Germany in the
+way just indicated.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In The Natural History of the German People,<a id='r106' /><a href='#f106' class='c015'><sup>[106]</sup></a>
+W. H. Riehl studies the action of natural
+conditions on man. He is concerned with the
+connections between land and people: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Will man
+die naturgeschichtliche Methode der Wissenschaft
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>vom Volke in ihrer ganzen Breite und Tiefe nachweisen,
+dann muß man auch in das Wesen dieser
+örtlichen Besonderungen des Volkstumes eindringen.
+In der Lehre von der bürgerlichen
+Gesellschaft ist das Verhältnis der großen natürlichen
+Volksgruppen zueinander nachgewiesen:
+hier sollen diese Gruppen nach den örtlichen
+Bedingungen des Landes, in welchem das Volksleben
+wurzelt, dargestellt werden. Erst aus den
+individuellen Bezügen von LAND UND LEUTEN
+entwickelt sich die kulturgeschichtliche Abstraktion
+der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft.</span>”<a id='r107' /><a href='#f107' class='c015'><sup>[107]</sup></a> And “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das
+vorliegende Buch hat sich das bescheidenere Ziel
+gesteckt, zusammenhängende Skizzen zu liefern
+zur Naturgeschichte des Volkes <em>in seinem Zusammenhang
+mit dem Lande</em>.</span>”<a id='r108' /><a href='#f108' class='c015'><sup>[108]</sup></a> His chief aim is to
+prove that the connection between land and people
+is the basis of all social development and of all
+social research: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ich hatte mir von Anbeginn
+das Ziel gesteckt, den Zusammenhang von Land
+und Volk als Fundament aller sozialen und politischen
+Entwicklung, als Ausgangspunkt aller
+sozialen Forschung nachzuweisen, und dieses
+Hauptziel, die eigentliche Tendenz des Buches,
+hat heute noch denselben Wert, dieselbe fördernde
+Kraft wie vor einem Menschenalter.</span>”<a id='r109' /><a href='#f109' class='c015'><sup>[109]</sup></a> He wants
+to show how “Volksart” and “Landesart” hang
+together, how nationality grows organically out
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>of the soil: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ich nenne dieses Wanderbuch einen
+zweiten Band zu ‘Land und Leuten.’ In jener
+Schrift verarbeite ich zahlreiche Wanderskizzen,
+um den Zusammenhang von Volksart und Landesart,
+das organische Erwachsen des Volkstumes
+aus dem Boden nachzuweisen.</span>”<a id='r110' /><a href='#f110' class='c015'><sup>[110]</sup></a> Everywhere
+Riehl finds “an organic relation between nature
+and man,” according to Gooch.<a id='r111' /><a href='#f111' class='c015'><sup>[111]</sup></a> Riehl recognizes
+“that man could only develop within the
+limits imposed by nature.”<a id='r112' /><a href='#f112' class='c015'><sup>[112]</sup></a> The problem of
+how locality affects social groups has, of course,
+not originated with Riehl, but it received a reformulation
+at his hands. It must be added,
+however, that his bombastic assertions far outrun
+his data. His claims are disproportionate to his
+facts.<a id='r113' /><a href='#f113' class='c015'><sup>[113]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Alfred Kirchhoff brilliantly sketches the reciprocal
+relations between land and people in Germany,
+in an essay entitled <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die deutschen Landschaften
+und Stämme</span></cite>.<a id='r114' /><a href='#f114' class='c015'><sup>[114]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Achelis<a id='r115' /><a href='#f115' class='c015'><sup>[115]</sup></a> refers to Bastian’s doctrine of geographical
+provinces, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">wo eine Reihe rein physikalischer
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>Agentien: Temperatur, Boden, Flora,
+Fauna, etc. sich mit entsprechenden psychischen
+kombinieren, so daß man in konzentrischer
+Reihenfolge von botanischen, zoologischen und
+anthropologischen Kreisen reden könnte. Der
+leitende Grundsatz, sagt Bastian, für geographisch-typische
+Provinzen fällt in die Abhängigkeit des
+Organismus von seiner geographischen Umgebung</span>
+(<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">le Milieu</span></i> <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">oder</span> <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Monde ambiant</span></i>), <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">in eine gegenseitig
+festgeschlossene Wechselwirkung und also
+in Naturgesetze, mit denen sich rechnen läßt
+(<cite>Zur Lehre von den geographischen Provinzen</cite></span> [Berlin,
+1886], S. 6).”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The reciprocal influences of man and his
+environment are illustrated by Alfred Kirchhoff
+in <cite>Mensch und Erde, Skizzen von den Wechselbeziehungen
+zwischen beiden</cite>.<a id='r116' /><a href='#f116' class='c015'><sup>[116]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Ferdinand von Richthofen<a id='r117' /><a href='#f117' class='c015'><sup>[117]</sup></a> traces the gradual
+evolution of “Siedlung und Verkehr,” under which
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>two concepts he subsumes all relations of man to
+the soil.<a id='r118' /><a href='#f118' class='c015'><sup>[118]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>It was Friedrich Ratzel, however, who “performed
+the great service of placing anthropo-geography
+on a secure scientific basis. He had
+his forerunners in Montesquieu,<a id='r119' /><a href='#f119' class='c015'><sup>[119]</sup></a> Alexander von
+Humboldt, Buckle, Ritter, Kohl, Peschel and
+others; but he first investigated the subject from
+the modern scientific point of view, ... and
+based his conclusions on world-wide inductions,
+for which his predecessors did not command the
+data.”<a id='r120' /><a href='#f120' class='c015'><sup>[120]</sup></a> He “has written the standard work on
+<cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>.”<a id='r121' /><a href='#f121' class='c015'><sup>[121]</sup></a> Employing the analytical
+method, Ratzel was the first to divide the subject-matter
+into categories: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ratzel hat das Verdienst,
+daß er zuerst den Stoff in Kategorien teilte. Er
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>wendet die analytische Methode der allgemeinen
+Geographie an und betrachtet den Einfluß einzelner
+Naturgegebenheiten auf den Menschen,
+z.B. der Inseln, Halbinseln, Gebirge, Ebenen,
+Steppen, Wüsten, Küsten, Flußmündungen<a id='r122' /><a href='#f122' class='c015'><sup>[122]</sup></a> usw.
+Die analytische Methode allein kann zum Ziele
+führen.</span>”<a id='r123' /><a href='#f123' class='c015'><sup>[123]</sup></a> The great and permanent merit of
+Ratzel’s <cite>Politische Geographie</cite><a id='r124' /><a href='#f124' class='c015'><sup>[124]</sup></a> is its setting forth
+how closely the State is bound to the physical
+milieu.<a id='r125' /><a href='#f125' class='c015'><sup>[125]</sup></a> It treats partly of the effect of nature
+and soil on the formation of the State and on
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>political boundaries.<a id='r126' /><a href='#f126' class='c015'><sup>[126]</sup></a> Ratzel expounds environmental
+action also in his books <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Vereinigten
+Staaten von Amerika</span></cite>,<a id='r127' /><a href='#f127' class='c015'><sup>[127]</sup></a> <cite>The History of Mankind</cite>,<a id='r128' /><a href='#f128' class='c015'><sup>[128]</sup></a>
+and in his article on “The Principles of Anthropo-geography.”<a id='r129' /><a href='#f129' class='c015'><sup>[129]</sup></a>
+Among his followers is to be
+counted Andrew R. Cowan, whose <cite>Master-Clues
+in World-History</cite><a id='r130' /><a href='#f130' class='c015'><sup>[130]</sup></a> is “deeply impregnated with
+Ratzel’s teachings.”<a id='r131' /><a href='#f131' class='c015'><sup>[131]</sup></a> Camille Vallaux devotes
+the fifth chapter (pp. 145–73) of his <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie
+Sociale, Le Sol et L’État</span></cite>,<a id='r132' /><a href='#f132' class='c015'><sup>[132]</sup></a> to a criticism of the
+theories of <em>Raum</em> (space) and of Lage (situation)
+as developed by Ratzel in his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Politische Geographie</span></cite>.
+And, in general, Ratzel’s “published work had been
+open to the just criticism of inadequate citation
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>of authorities.”<a id='r133' /><a href='#f133' class='c015'><sup>[133]</sup></a> O. Schlüter in “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die leitenden
+Gesichtspunkte der Anthropogeographie, insbesondere
+der Lehre Friedrich Ratzels</span>”<a id='r134' /><a href='#f134' class='c015'><sup>[134]</sup></a> gives us
+the best single estimate of Ratzel, the best orientation—within
+the compass of an article well written,
+well poised, and illuminating—on Ratzel’s work,
+thought, method, and application.<a id='r135' /><a href='#f135' class='c015'><sup>[135]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Geography and History</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>We shall now see, first, the stand taken by
+some French writers, and then that taken by German
+and English writers, on the question of how
+physical environment affects history.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>One of the “three most philosophical writers
+on climate,”<a id='r136' /><a href='#f136' class='c015'><sup>[136]</sup></a> Charles Comte, not related by
+birth to the founder of Positivism, is, likewise,
+one of the earliest disciples of Herder in France.
+Herder “seems to have helped to inspire”<a id='r137' /><a href='#f137' class='c015'><sup>[137]</sup></a>
+Charles Comte’s <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traité de Législation</span></cite>.<a id='r138' /><a href='#f138' class='c015'><sup>[138]</sup></a> Charles
+Comte’s “discussion of the questions which relate
+to the influence of physical nature on human development
+must have been the fruit of long and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>careful study. It was as great an advance on
+Montesquieu’s treatment of the subject as Montesquieu’s
+had been on that of Bodin. It disproved,
+corrected, or confirmed a host of Montesquieu’s
+observations and conclusions. It showed that
+he had ascribed too much to climate, and too
+little to the configuration of the earth’s surface,
+the distribution of mountains and rivers, &amp;c.;
+and that he had conceived vaguely, and even to a
+large extent erroneously, of the modes in which
+climate and the fertility or sterility of soil affect
+human development. But while Comte thus
+justly criticised Montesquieu, he himself exaggerated
+the efficiency of physical agencies. Indeed,
+he virtually traced to their operation the whole
+development of history ... he has assumed that
+physical agencies ultimately account for historical
+change and movement, for public institutions and
+laws....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Charles Comte fully recognises that the same
+physical medium has a very different influence on
+different generations; and that institutions and
+laws, education and manners, and, in a word, all
+the constituents of the social medium, have as
+real an influence on the development of history
+as those of the physical medium. Yet he assumes
+the latter to be the first, although to a large extent
+only indirect, causes of the whole amount of change
+effected.”<a id='r139' /><a href='#f139' class='c015'><sup>[139]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Victor Cousin, another Frenchman, reconnects
+with Herder. Cousin had direct acquaintance
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>with at least the principal work of Herder, for the
+rendering of whose “Ideen” into French by
+Quinet he seems responsible.<a id='r140' /><a href='#f140' class='c015'><sup>[140]</sup></a> In the eighth
+lecture of his “admired”<a id='r141' /><a href='#f141' class='c015'><sup>[141]</sup></a> <cite>Cours de 1828 sur la
+Philosophie de l’Histoire</cite>, he discourses on the
+rôle that geography plays in history.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>F. Guizot, in the fifth lecture of <cite>The History
+of Civilization</cite>,<a id='r142' /><a href='#f142' class='c015'><sup>[142]</sup></a> comments briefly on the influence
+of external circumstances upon liberty.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The romantic French historiographer, Jules
+Michelet, in his <cite>Histoire de France</cite> (second volume,
+1833), and in his <cite>Histoire Romaine</cite> (1839), interlinks
+geography with history, and brilliantly describes
+the countries whose histories he is writing.
+Like some before him (such as Montesquieu), and
+many after him (such as Riehl, Curtius, and
+Gothein),<a id='r143' /><a href='#f143' class='c015'><sup>[143]</sup></a> who traveled in the respective countries
+before describing them or composing their
+history, Michelet, as one preliminary measure
+toward equipping himself for such a task, visited
+Italy<a id='r144' /><a href='#f144' class='c015'><sup>[144]</sup></a> and various parts of France, the latter
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>repeatedly, in order to gain a first hand impression
+of the physical milieu and the people of those lands.
+He is said to be the first [<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sic!</span></i>] in France who, under
+the influence of Herder, had the idea that geography
+was the foundation of history: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Sous
+l’influence de Herder, il [Michelet] eut, le premier
+en France, l’idée que la géographie était le fondement
+de l’histoire: ‘Le matériel, la race, le peuple
+qui la continue me paraissaient avoir besoin qu’on
+mît dessous une bonne et forte base, la terre, qui
+les portât et qui les nourrît. Et notez que ce sol
+n’est pas seulement le théâtre de l’action. Par la
+nourriture, le climat, etc., il y influe de cent
+manières. Tel le nid, tel l’oiseau. Telle la patrie,
+tel l’homme.’</span>”<a id='r145' /><a href='#f145' class='c015'><sup>[145]</sup></a> Without this basis, the actor
+in history, the people, would be treading on air
+like figures in some Chinese paintings. Says Jules
+Simon of the celebrated tableau in the second
+volume of the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Histoire de France</cite>: “Son héros
+[Michelet’s] ... c’est la France. Il en fait une
+description qui remplit tout le troisième livre et
+qui est un chef-d’oeuvre. Chose nouvelle, cette
+géographie a autant de mouvement que l’histoire.
+Elle est animée, vivante, agissante. Il en montre
+à merveille l’utilité, la nécessité. Sans cette base
+géographique, le peuple, l’acteur historique,
+semblerait marcher en l’air, comme dans les
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>peintures chinoises, où le sol manque.”</span><a id='r146' /><a href='#f146' class='c015'><sup>[146]</sup></a> In the
+<cite>Introduction to Universal History</cite> (1831), Michelet
+says, “In Germany and Italy, fatality is still
+strong; moral freedom is still borne down by powerful
+influences of race, locality, and climate.”<a id='r147' /><a href='#f147' class='c015'><sup>[147]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Ernst Kapp, in the <cite>Philosophische Erdkunde</cite>,<a id='r148' /><a href='#f148' class='c015'><sup>[148]</sup></a>
+criticizes writers on the philosophy of history for
+their failure to give due attention to the geographical
+existence of the nations. Nor are geographical
+intermezzos alone sufficient: “Man [these writers]
+<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">hat zwar eine Ahnung von dem geographischen
+Element in der Geschichte, nicht aber das deutliche
+Bewußtsein, daß die Menschheit an dem Planeten
+ihre physische Individualität besitzt, daß sie zu
+ihm sich verhält, wie die Seele zum Leib. Anstatt
+die geographische Betrachtung durch und durch
+mit der historischen verwachsen zu lassen</span> [which
+he proposes to do], <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">hat man teils geographische
+Intermezzos nach subjektivem Gutdünken ...
+eingestreut, teils auch sich mit einer dem Ganzen
+voraufgeschickten geographischen Grundlage ein
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>für allemal begnügt. Man hat hierbei nicht
+bedacht, daß man die Geschichte, wenn man ihr
+den planetarischen Grund und Boden, auf den man
+sie von vornherein stellt, wegrückt, zwischen
+Himmel und Erde schweben läßt und ihre Behandlung
+dem veränderlichen Luftzuge des subjektiven
+Beliebens mehr oder minder preisgibt ...
+Darin ruht die Selbständigkeit der geographischen
+Wissenschaft, ..., daß ihr Objekt
+die Erde ist, ... die Erde, wie sie bestimmend
+auf die Entwicklung des Geistes einwirkt und hinwiederum
+vom Geist bestimmt und verändert
+wird. Dies Verhältnis des Planeten zum Geist
+ist ein wesentliches.</span>”<a id='r149' /><a href='#f149' class='c015'><sup>[149]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Arnold H. Guyot, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ce Suisse transplanté en
+Amérique</span>,”<a id='r150' /><a href='#f150' class='c015'><sup>[150]</sup></a> treats the same topic in the <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie
+physique comparée, considérée dans ses
+rapports avec l’histoire de l’humanité</span></cite>.<a id='r151' /><a href='#f151' class='c015'><sup>[151]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The frequently misquoted Henry Thomas
+Buckle, in the celebrated second chapter of the
+<cite>History of Civilization in England</cite>,<a id='r152' /><a href='#f152' class='c015'><sup>[152]</sup></a> shows the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>largely indirect effects of climate, food, and soil,
+chiefly upon the civilizations—of India, Egypt,
+Mexico, Peru, etc.—anterior to those of Europe,
+and of a fourth class of physical agents, namely,
+of what he terms the general aspect of nature upon
+the imagination—religion, literature, art—of those
+peoples. Buckle does not maintain that these
+four classes of the Environment were the <em>sole</em>
+factors in producing civilization; in fact he makes
+it quite clear that they were <em>not</em> the only factors,
+that they affected the civilizations mentioned in
+an indirect way and he indicates how this has
+taken place. Buckle’s statements of his ideas had
+been misrepresented, twisted, and distorted to
+such a degree that John M. Robertson felt impelled
+to write a whole book<a id='r153' /><a href='#f153' class='c015'><sup>[153]</sup></a> in rebuttal, in order
+to set Buckle’s detractors and controversial critics
+right and to refute their unfair imputations to
+Buckle’s intended meaning.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The romanticist Ernst Curtius is sometimes
+referred to as one of those historians who give
+adequate expression to the action of the physical
+milieu upon the course of history. But Vallaux
+declares that Curtius, like Michelet, has made of
+human geography and of political geography
+<em>merely</em> a preliminary and introductory science to
+history: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">une science auxiliaire ou plutôt liminaire,
+sorte de <em>portique d’entrée</em></span> [the italics are ours] <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pour
+leurs brillantes constructions</span>,”<a id='r154' /><a href='#f154' class='c015'><sup>[154]</sup></a> lending thus
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>support to Kapp’s contention.<a id='r155' /><a href='#f155' class='c015'><sup>[155]</sup></a> Nor would Ratzel
+be content with a portrayal of the land as an
+introduction to the history of a country, even
+though it be as richly colored as that drawn by
+Curtius.<a id='r156' /><a href='#f156' class='c015'><sup>[156]</sup></a> A description, in itself, fails to penetrate
+to the core of the relation. If we now turn
+to Curtius’ <cite>The History of Greece</cite>,<a id='r157' /><a href='#f157' class='c015'><sup>[157]</sup></a> we find that
+the first chapter in the first book<a id='r158' /><a href='#f158' class='c015'><sup>[158]</sup></a> considers Land
+and People, a part of which (pp. 9–18) gives a
+geographical description of Hellas, and another part
+of which (pp. 19–25, seven pages scant) points
+out the connection between the land and the
+people. Elsewhere,<a id='r159' /><a href='#f159' class='c015'><sup>[159]</sup></a> Curtius shows the interaction
+between the physical environment of
+Athens and the Athenians.<a id='r160' /><a href='#f160' class='c015'><sup>[160]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>George Grote, whose account of the relation
+between the Greek land and the Greek people is
+held by some<a id='r161' /><a href='#f161' class='c015'><sup>[161]</sup></a> to be excellent, in <cite>A History of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>Greece</cite>,<a id='r162' /><a href='#f162' class='c015'><sup>[162]</sup></a> devotes four pages (227–30) of the chapter
+on General Geography and Limits of Greece to
+show the effects of the configuration of Greece
+upon the political relation of the inhabitants<a id='r163' /><a href='#f163' class='c015'><sup>[163]</sup></a>
+and the effects upon their intellectual development,<a id='r164' /><a href='#f164' class='c015'><sup>[164]</sup></a>
+the rest of the chapter being given over
+to a description of the geography of Greece.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Alfred E. Zimmern, in <cite>The Greek Commonwealth,
+Politics and Economics in Fifth-Century
+Athens</cite>,<a id='r165' /><a href='#f165' class='c015'><sup>[165]</sup></a> deals very cleverly with the main features
+of the material environment of Greek civilization:
+The Mediterranean Area; The Sea; The
+Climate; The Soil; Fellowship, or the Rule of
+Public Opinion, under which headings he discusses
+the influence of environment upon Greek institutions.<a id='r166' /><a href='#f166' class='c015'><sup>[166]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>As early as 1864, G. P. Marsh investigates the
+subject of man’s reaction on his milieu in <cite>Man and
+Nature, or Physical Geography as Modified by
+Human Action</cite> (London).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>John William Draper, in his <cite>History of the Intellectual
+Development of Europe</cite>,<a id='r167' /><a href='#f167' class='c015'><sup>[167]</sup></a> in the composition
+of which Herderian ideas were the guides,<a id='r168' /><a href='#f168' class='c015'><sup>[168]</sup></a>
+first attempts to show (vol. I, pp. 6–17) that
+individual man, as well as communities, nations,
+and universal humanity, are under the control
+of physical conditions; then (pp. 23–35) he points
+out how the topography, meteorology, and secular
+geological movements of Europe affected its
+inhabitants. On the whole, he overstates the
+force of environment and neglects the human
+factor; nevertheless his uncompromising affirmations
+bring out strikingly some of the environmental
+effects on man.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>The uncritical Max Duncker, in the nine
+volume <cite>Geschichte des Altertums</cite>,<a id='r169' /><a href='#f169' class='c015'><sup>[169]</sup></a> not only has
+chapters on <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Land und Volk</span></i>, or <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Land und Stämme</span></i>
+at the beginning of the history of a given nation,
+but he also dwells elsewhere in his text on the
+sway of geography in history.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Élisée Réclus, in the magistral <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Nouvelle Géographie
+Universelle</span></cite> (1879 ff.), speaking of the
+difficulties encountered by research, queries: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">...
+Was verdanken die Nationen dem Einfluß der
+Natur, die sie umgibt? Was verdanken sie dem
+Milieu, das ihre Vorfahren bewohnten, ihren
+Rasseinstinkten, ihren verschiedenartigen Mischungen,
+den von Außen eingeführten Überlieferungen?
+Man weiß es nicht, kaum daß einige
+Lichtstrahlen in jene Finsternis dringen.</span>”<a id='r170' /><a href='#f170' class='c015'><sup>[170]</sup></a> The
+preponderance of European nations is by no means
+attributable, as some arrogantly and self-conceitedly
+fancied, to any racial endowment; on
+the contrary, it is due to the favoring conditions
+of the physical environment prevailing in Europe:
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Man weiß, wie mächtig der Einfluß des geographischen
+Milieu auf die Fortschritte der
+europäischen Nationen gewesen ist. Ihre Überlegenheit
+ist keineswegs, wie einige sich dünkelhafter
+Weise eingebildet haben, der eigentümlichen
+Anlage der Rassen zuzuschreiben, denn in
+anderen Gegenden der alten Welt haben sich eben
+dieselben Rassen weniger schöpferisch erwiesen.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>Es sind die glücklichen Bedingungen der Wärme,
+des Klimas, der Gestalt und Lage des Festlandes,
+welche den Europäern die Ehre verschafft haben,
+die ersten gewesen zu sein in der Kenntnis der Erde
+in ihrem ganzen Umfange und lange Zeit an der
+Spitze der Zivilisation geblieben zu sein.</span>”<a id='r171' /><a href='#f171' class='c015'><sup>[171]</sup></a>
+These conditions help to explain, in part, the character
+of the nations: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Mit vollem Recht lieben es
+also die historischen Geographen bei der Gestalt
+der verschiedenen Erdteile und bei den Folgen zu
+verweilen, welche sich daraus für die Bestimmung
+der Völker ergeben. Die Gestalt der Hochebenen,
+die Höhe der Berge, der Lauf und der Reichtum
+der Flüsse, die Nachbarschaft des Ozeans, die
+Gliederung der Küsten, die Temperatur der Atmosphäre,
+die Häufigkeit oder Seltenheit des Regens,
+die unzähligen wechselseitigen Einflüsse der Sonne,
+der Luft und der Gewässer, alle Erscheinungen
+des Pflanzenlebens habe eine Bedeutung in ihren
+Augen und dienen ihnen (wenigstens zum Teil),
+den Charakter und das erste Leben der Nationen
+zu erklären ...</span>”<a id='r172' /><a href='#f172' class='c015'><sup>[172]</sup></a> Continental and oceanic
+forms and other features of the globe vary in their
+value for man in accordance with the stage of
+civilization to which he attained.<a id='r173' /><a href='#f173' class='c015'><sup>[173]</sup></a> Notwithstanding
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>this separation, in principle, of natural
+and national influences upon social evolution, its
+application to concrete cases Réclus finds arduous:
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Durch das Studium der Sonne und durch die
+unablässige Beobachtung der klimatischen Erscheinungen
+können wir ganz allgemein verstehen,
+welches der Einfluß der Natur auf die Entwicklung
+der Völker gewesen ist; aber es ist schwieriger,
+das auf jede Rasse, auf jede Nation zu verteilen....</span>”<a id='r174' /><a href='#f174' class='c015'><sup>[174]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>P. Mougeoulle’s theory in <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les problèmes de
+l’histoire</span></cite>,<a id='r175' /><a href='#f175' class='c015'><sup>[175]</sup></a> is an altogether one-sided geographical
+theory of history.<a id='r176' /><a href='#f176' class='c015'><sup>[176]</sup></a> The sole cause of the external
+as well as the internal history of peoples, is, in
+his opinion, the geographical Milieu.<a id='r177' /><a href='#f177' class='c015'><sup>[177]</sup></a> To Mougeoulle,
+the Milieu is the author, whereas man is
+the actor of the Drama of history.<a id='r178' /><a href='#f178' class='c015'><sup>[178]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Léon Metchnikoff, in <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Civilisation et Les
+Grands Fleuves Historiques</span></cite>,<a id='r179' /><a href='#f179' class='c015'><sup>[179]</sup></a> pays some attention
+to the influences (astronomic, physical—the geosphere,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere—,
+vegetal, animal, anthropological) of the milieu
+on man and society; yet his main care is with the
+action of parts of the hydrosphere on human progress.
+Following C. Böttiger (<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Mittelmeer</span></cite>,
+Leipzig, 1859), Metchnikoff distinguishes the
+three milieus: fluvial or potamic, mediterranean
+or thalassic, and oceanic or universal.<a id='r180' /><a href='#f180' class='c015'><sup>[180]</sup></a> On this
+basis he divides universal history into three periods:
+1) the period of the fluvial civilizations (temps
+anciens), furnishing the principal theme of his
+argument (discussed in the last four chapters of his
+book); 2) that of the mediterranean civilizations
+(temps moyens); 3) and that of the oceanic civilizations.
+The fluvial or ancient period, from the
+beginnings to <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circa</span></i> 800 B.C., comprises the history
+of the four great civilizations of antiquity, in
+Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">qui ont eu
+pour milieu géographique des régions arrosées par
+certains fleuves ou couples de fleuves célèbres</span>.”
+The mediterranean or middle period extends from
+the seventh century B.C.—the foundation of
+Carthage—to Charles the Fifth. The modern or
+oceanic period has two epochs: a) the <em>atlantic</em>
+epoch, from the discovery of America to about the
+middle of the nineteenth century; and b) the
+<em>universal</em> epoch, just beginning.<a id='r181' /><a href='#f181' class='c015'><sup>[181]</sup></a> In the main,
+Metchnikoff limits the scope of his work to the
+compass of fluvial civilizations. He studies in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>detail the four great historical rivers or pairs of
+rivers (the Nile, the Tigris and the Euphrates,
+the Indus and the Ganges, and the Hoangho and
+the Yangtze-Kiang, those great educators of mankind)
+in their bearing upon the four grand civilizations—Chinese,
+Hindu, Assyro-Babylonian, and
+Egyptian—of remote antiquity, all of which
+expanded in fluvial regions.<a id='r182' /><a href='#f182' class='c015'><sup>[182]</sup></a> The River, in all
+countries, presents itself to Metchnikoff as the
+living synthesis of all the complex conditions of
+the climate, of the soil, of the configuration of the
+earth, and of the geologic formation. In Egypt
+and in China, in India and in Mesopotamia, the
+River has been “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">comme une synthèse vivante des
+conditions géographiques les plus multiples</span>.”<a id='r183' /><a href='#f183' class='c015'><sup>[183]</sup></a>
+He finds that each of the four great monarchies of
+antiquity had been a natural consequence or result
+of the hydrological system of the country that
+served as its cradle, and that history, in the entire
+ancient world, had been a toil, a forced labor
+(“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">une corvée</span>”), imposed on a part of mankind by
+certain orographic peculiarities of the Milieu.
+Metchnikoff concludes that in these empires “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">le
+Milieu s’est trouvé être invariablement le vrai
+créateur de l’histoire</span>.” The eloquent example
+of these four grand ancient civilizations sufficiently
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>proves to him that no important historical expansion
+could ever occur in any country of the world,
+unless the milieu condemned its inhabitants to
+that excessive solidarity which he shows to have
+been brutally imposed everywhere at the shores
+of these great historical rivers; a milieu is conceivable,
+however, where this condition, rigorously
+required by history, may be fulfilled by an environmental
+factor other than a river or a system of
+rivers.<a id='r184' /><a href='#f184' class='c015'><sup>[184]</sup></a> Metchnikoff protests that he is far from
+advocating potamic<a id='r185' /><a href='#f185' class='c015'><sup>[185]</sup></a> or geographical<a id='r186' /><a href='#f186' class='c015'><sup>[186]</sup></a> fatalism.<a id='r187' /><a href='#f187' class='c015'><sup>[187]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Babington’s study of the power of environment
+over history points out the fallacy of the race
+theory in the history of the Roman empire, of
+Germany, and of China.<a id='r188' /><a href='#f188' class='c015'><sup>[188]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>N. S. Shaler, in <cite>Nature and Man in America</cite>,<a id='r189' /><a href='#f189' class='c015'><sup>[189]</sup></a>
+traces, on the one hand, the action of environment
+on organic life, and, on the other, the effect of
+geographic conditions on the development of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>peoples, more especially on that of man in North
+America.<a id='r190' /><a href='#f190' class='c015'><sup>[190]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Since about the middle of the eighties, under
+the leadership of the late historian E. A. Freeman
+and of the illustrious statesman and scholar, Lord
+James Bryce, “a marked revival of interest” has
+been exhibited in England in studying the physical
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>milieu as it relates to man and human society,
+institutions and history.<a id='r191' /><a href='#f191' class='c015'><sup>[191]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The leading point of view in H. F. Helmolt’s
+<cite>The History of the World, a Survey of Man’s
+Record</cite>,<a id='r192' /><a href='#f192' class='c015'><sup>[192]</sup></a> is the treatment of man’s relation to his
+physical environment, the relation of geography
+to history, the dependence of man on his geographical
+surroundings. “It [Helmolt’s <cite>History</cite>] deals
+with history in the light of physical environment....
+Its ground plan, so to speak, is primarily
+geographical....”<a id='r193' /><a href='#f193' class='c015'><sup>[193]</sup></a> It was conceived in the
+spirit of Ratzel;<a id='r194' /><a href='#f194' class='c015'><sup>[194]</sup></a> it is said to have brought for
+the first time “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">die Länder- und Völkerkunde in
+den Dienst der Weltgeschichtsdarstellung</span>.”<a id='r195' /><a href='#f195' class='c015'><sup>[195]</sup></a> Helmolt’s
+“great co-operative <cite>History of Mankind</cite>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>... emphasizes the sovereign influences of nature
+and geography,” says Gooch.<a id='r196' /><a href='#f196' class='c015'><sup>[196]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Rev. H. B. George, in <cite>The Relations of Geography
+and History</cite>,<a id='r197' /><a href='#f197' class='c015'><sup>[197]</sup></a> attempts to “point out systematically
+how these [geographical] causes work [all history
+through], first in general, and then in reference
+to the various countries of Europe,”<a id='r198' /><a href='#f198' class='c015'><sup>[198]</sup></a> although
+“This work does not pretend to attempt the
+impossible task of describing all the influence
+exerted by geographical conditions on human
+history. All that it professes to do is to indicate
+the modes in which that influence works, with
+sufficient illustrations from actual history.”<a id='r199' /><a href='#f199' class='c015'><sup>[199]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Professor Geddes, of Edinburgh, is the most
+energetic expounder of this idea—the anthropo-geographical
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>conception of history—in the English-speaking
+world, says Small.<a id='r200' /><a href='#f200' class='c015'><sup>[200]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Throughout the entire treatment of Guglielmo
+Ferrero’s<a id='r201' /><a href='#f201' class='c015'><sup>[201]</sup></a> <cite>History of Rome</cite> (one of the most original
+and important historical works of recent
+years), geography thoroughly permeates history.<a id='r202' /><a href='#f202' class='c015'><sup>[202]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Robert Sieger<a id='r203' /><a href='#f203' class='c015'><sup>[203]</sup></a> attempts to explain the history
+and policies of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy
+“aus ihren geographischen Grundlagen.”<a id='r204' /><a href='#f204' class='c015'><sup>[204]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Ellsworth Huntington, in <cite>The Pulse of Asia</cite>,<a id='r205' /><a href='#f205' class='c015'><sup>[205]</sup></a>
+illustrates the geographic basis of history.<a id='r206' /><a href='#f206' class='c015'><sup>[206]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The Columbia School of sociological historians,
+and others, interpret history partly in terms of
+the milieu: physical (economic and geographic)
+and social.<a id='r207' /><a href='#f207' class='c015'><sup>[207]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>Human geography, and political geography,
+have long been divided into fragmentary parts,
+contended for by economics, history, and sociology.<a id='r208' /><a href='#f208' class='c015'><sup>[208]</sup></a>
+Yet the discipline of anthropo-geography
+has now become “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">eine mächtige Hilfswissenschaft
+der geschichtlichen Auffassung</span>.”<a id='r209' /><a href='#f209' class='c015'><sup>[209]</sup></a> So that, today,
+it has become a custom to include in textbooks
+of history one or more chapters on the relation
+of geography to history, to show the dependence
+of history on environment.<a id='r210' /><a href='#f210' class='c015'><sup>[210]</sup></a> The study
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>of the latter is a part of Kulturgeschichte or
+History of Civilization which is defined as embracing
+the non-political aspects of civilization such
+as the influence of nature, the pressure of economic
+factors, the origin and transformation of ideas,
+the contribution of science and art, religion and
+philosophy, literature and law, the material conditions
+of life, the fortunes of the masses.<a id='r211' /><a href='#f211' class='c015'><sup>[211]</sup></a> Likewise,
+only on a broader scale, the milieu is being
+examined in a new branch of study, which is one
+resultant of anthropo-geographical research. This
+new branch of study is economic geography, which,
+according to John McFarlane,<a id='r212' /><a href='#f212' class='c015'><sup>[212]</sup></a> “may be defined
+as the study of the influence exerted upon the
+economic activities of man by his physical environment,
+and more especially by the form and structure
+of the surface of the land, the climatic conditions
+which prevail upon it, and the place relations in
+which its different regions stand to one another.”
+Seligman says that the modern study of economic
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>geography is but an expansion of the study of the
+influence of milieu.<a id='r213' /><a href='#f213' class='c015'><sup>[213]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Indeed, geography itself, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, the new geography,
+is conceived of as the science or study of
+the responses of organisms to inorganic, and to a
+certain extent organic, environmental control.<a id='r214' /><a href='#f214' class='c015'><sup>[214]</sup></a>
+Professor William Morris Davis, of Harvard University,
+is one of the chief exponents of this theory
+in the United States. Very recently, Rollin D.
+Salisbury said:<a id='r215' /><a href='#f215' class='c015'><sup>[215]</sup></a> “By common consent, Geography
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>(as distinct from physical geography) is
+the science which deals with the relations of physical
+environment to life and its activities. In this
+sense, geography is a connecting link between
+geology, physiography, and climatology, on the
+one hand, and zoölogy, botany, sociology, economics,
+and history on the other. Its subject-matter
+is in process of formulation....”<a id='r216' /><a href='#f216' class='c015'><sup>[216]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>More Recent Anthropo-geographical Treatises</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>James Bryce offers the most excellent general
+survey of man’s relation to his physical environment.<a id='r217' /><a href='#f217' class='c015'><sup>[217]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Herbertson’s very useful and readable introductory
+book gives “concrete pictures of human
+life under these very different conditions [typical
+environments]. They show, in the first place,
+how the occupation of different groups of mankind
+depends on their geographical surroundings,
+and how these occupations in turn affect not only
+the material life, the houses, food, clothing, etc.,
+but also family life, notions of property, progress
+in trade and manufactures, power of expansion,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>and ideals of government. All these are classified,
+not according to race, which is often an accident,
+but according to those permanent influences
+by which all races are affected.”<a id='r218' /><a href='#f218' class='c015'><sup>[218]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Robert DeCourcy Ward, in his standard work
+on <cite>Climate Considered Especially in Relation to
+Man</cite>,<a id='r219' /><a href='#f219' class='c015'><sup>[219]</sup></a> presents “typical illustrations” of environmental
+action on the life of man in the tropics
+(Ch. 8, pp. 220–71), in the temperate zones (Ch. 9
+pp. 272–321), and in the polar zones (Ch. 10, pp.
+322–37).<a id='r220' /><a href='#f220' class='c015'><sup>[220]</sup></a> In a chapter on the hygiene of the
+zones (Ch. 7, pp. 178–219), Ward also surveys
+“some of the relations between weather and climate
+and a few of the more important diseases.”<a id='r221' /><a href='#f221' class='c015'><sup>[221]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>R. R. Marett’s chapter on “Environment”
+in his <cite>Anthropology</cite><a id='r222' /><a href='#f222' class='c015'><sup>[222]</sup></a> presents, beside a number of
+valuable general and critical remarks, chiefly a
+regional survey of the world showing the general
+effect of geographical environment on man.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Camille Vallaux, in <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie Sociale, Le Sol
+et L’État</span></cite>,<a id='r223' /><a href='#f223' class='c015'><sup>[223]</sup></a> beginning with the sixth chapter, also
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>discusses some phases of what would in E. C. Hayes’
+classification<a id='r224' /><a href='#f224' class='c015'><sup>[224]</sup></a> be called the technical milieu.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The most recent German essay, Willy Hellpach’s<a id='r225' /><a href='#f225' class='c015'><sup>[225]</sup></a>
+<cite>Die Geopsychischen Erscheinungen: Wetter,
+Klima und Landschaft in ihrem Einfluß auf das
+Seelenleben</cite>,<a id='r226' /><a href='#f226' class='c015'><sup>[226]</sup></a> deals with the <em>direct</em> effects of the
+surrounding <em>atmosphere</em> and soil on the human
+psyche.<a id='r227' /><a href='#f227' class='c015'><sup>[227]</sup></a> Hellpach seems primarily interested in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>“Psycho-Pathologie”;<a id='r228' /><a href='#f228' class='c015'><sup>[228]</sup></a> he lays most stress on
+<i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">das Pathologische</span></i>, particularly in the main—first
+two—parts of his essay: “Wetter und Seelenleben,”
+and “Klima und Seelenleben,” where
+the pathological effect is strongly emphasized.
+Hellpach’s valuable summary of what we know
+today of this phase of the milieu,<a id='r229' /><a href='#f229' class='c015'><sup>[229]</sup></a> revealing as
+it does by the meager number of the facts assembled
+the crying need for many more such facts, may be,
+in its results, somewhat disappointing<a id='r230' /><a href='#f230' class='c015'><sup>[230]</sup></a> for the
+present day, but it augurs well for future investigation.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The latest extensive presentation of general
+anthropo-geography,<a id='r231' /><a href='#f231' class='c015'><sup>[231]</sup></a> Jean Brunhes’ <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La géographie
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>humaine</span></cite>,<a id='r232' /><a href='#f232' class='c015'><sup>[232]</sup></a> pays more attention to present
+than to historical conditions,<a id='r233' /><a href='#f233' class='c015'><sup>[233]</sup></a> and thus fittingly
+complements Ellen C. Semple’s <cite>Influences of
+Geographic Environment</cite>,<a id='r234' /><a href='#f234' class='c015'><sup>[234]</sup></a> which “may be regarded
+as superseding Ratzel’s great work on
+Anthropo-geography.”<a id='r235' /><a href='#f235' class='c015'><sup>[235]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Primitive Peoples and Environment</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>Karl Ritter, in the essay “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über das historische
+Element in der geographischen Wissenschaft</span>”
+(1833), declares that the forces of nature which
+at the commencement of human history exerted
+a very decisive influence were bound to recede
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>more and more, and their action had to diminish,
+in proportion to man’s progress. Civilized mankind
+extricates itself gradually, like single man,
+from the immediately conditioning fetters of
+nature and of its place of abode.<a id='r236' /><a href='#f236' class='c015'><sup>[236]</sup></a> This opinion
+of Ritter’s was adopted by many.<a id='r237' /><a href='#f237' class='c015'><sup>[237]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Theodor Waitz regards primitive man both as
+purely a product of, and as being completely at
+the mercy of, circumambient nature: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Denken wir
+uns vom Menschen Alles hinweg, was an ihm
+Wirkung der Kultur ist, so steht er da als bloßes
+Produkt der Macht, die ihn in’s Leben rief, ...
+Das Erste, was an ihm charakteristisch für uns
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>hervorträte, würde die sehr vollständige Abhängigkeit
+sein, in der er sich von seiner Naturumgebung
+befände: der gesammte Inhalt, den sein inneres
+Leben zunächst gewönne, würde ein ziemlich reines
+Produkt dieser letzteren sein. Der Naturmensch
+wird zunächst nur das, wozu die Naturverhältnisse
+ihn machen, unter die er sich gestellt findet; wovon
+er sich nährt, das werden diese ihm darbieten, auf
+welche Weise und durch welche Mittel er seine
+Nahrung gewinnt, dazu werden diese ihm Anleitung
+geben müssen; ob er Kleidung und sonstigen
+Schutz gegen äußere Schädlichkeiten bedarf,
+und wie er diesem Bedürfnis abzuhelfen strebt,
+werden sie ihn lehren und die Erfindungen, die
+hierzu nötig sind, ihm an die Hand geben müssen;
+sie werden mit einem Wort seine ganze Lebenseinrichtung
+bestimmen ...</span>”<a id='r238' /><a href='#f238' class='c015'><sup>[238]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>G. Gerland holds that man developed from
+and upon nature, on which he is very closely dependent
+and of which he is a small part, and that the
+higher he rises the more he frees himself from the
+compelling influence of the earth, which, however,
+he can never wholly escape.<a id='r239' /><a href='#f239' class='c015'><sup>[239]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>In the opinion of Herbert Spencer, the earlier
+stages of social evolution are far more dependent
+on local conditions than the later stages. They
+are more at the mercy of their surroundings.<a id='r240' /><a href='#f240' class='c015'><sup>[240]</sup></a>
+Both Spencer and Benjamin Kidd believe that
+primitive man is at the mercy of the milieu.<a id='r241' /><a href='#f241' class='c015'><sup>[241]</sup></a>
+The “remotely ancient representatives of the
+human species ... were in their then wild state
+much more plastic than now to external nature,”
+according to Wallace.<a id='r242' /><a href='#f242' class='c015'><sup>[242]</sup></a> Historical and statistical
+geography show us “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">die Menschen, wie sie in
+ihre aktive Rolle eingetreten sind und durch
+Arbeit die Überlegenheit über das Milieu gewinnen,
+das sie umgibt ... Nachdem der Mensch ganz
+den Einfluß des Milieu über sich ergehen ließ,
+hat er denselben zu seinem Nutzen umgestaltet ...</span>”<a id='r243' /><a href='#f243' class='c015'><sup>[243]</sup></a>
+The intimate connection of first civilizations
+with physical environment slackens with subsequent
+advance.<a id='r244' /><a href='#f244' class='c015'><sup>[244]</sup></a> This apparently deep-rooted
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>view is controverted by Ratzel who flatly contradicts
+it. Distinguishing between the direct and
+the indirect effects of milieu, he argues in straight
+opposition that with progressing civilization we
+are increasingly dependent on environment, that
+the degree of such dependence has not lessened
+with advancement in civilization, and that only
+the manner of the relation has changed.<a id='r245' /><a href='#f245' class='c015'><sup>[245]</sup></a> Environment
+affects even the highest civilization, says
+Ripley.<a id='r246' /><a href='#f246' class='c015'><sup>[246]</sup></a> G. Elliot Smith maintains that “Environment,
+however it may act, whether directly
+or indirectly, is still helping to shape the human
+form, and is affecting the development of Man’s
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>customs and achievements at least as powerfully
+as, if not more so than, ever before.”<a id='r247' /><a href='#f247' class='c015'><sup>[247]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Society and Physical Milieu</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>The social evolution proceeds amidst the entire
+system of exterior conditions (chemical, physical,
+astronomical), by which its rate of progress is
+determined. Social phenomena can no more be
+understood apart from their environment than
+those of individual life.<a id='r248' /><a href='#f248' class='c015'><sup>[248]</sup></a> The study of social
+evolution presupposes a relation to the physical
+milieu: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Studium der sozialen Entwicklung
+setzt eine Beziehung zwischen der Menschheit,
+welche den Vorgang vollführt, und der Gesamtheit
+der äußeren Einflüsse voraus, welche letztere
+man auch die sogenannte Umgebung heißen
+könnte.</span>”<a id='r249' /><a href='#f249' class='c015'><sup>[249]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>John Stuart Mill asserts that “All phenomena
+of society are phenomena of human nature, generated
+by the action of outward circumstances
+upon masses of human beings.”<a id='r250' /><a href='#f250' class='c015'><sup>[250]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>To Schäffle, in the analysis of the structure and
+functions of human society there exist as influential
+factors the external surroundings, on the one hand,
+and the active elements of the social body (the
+individual and the population), on the other; for,
+as Schäffle emphasizes, not only economics, but
+all social science must take into consideration
+not only Society, but also Nature, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, the natural
+fund or stock, designated by soil and climate,
+of the immediate world-surroundings of the social
+body as the external sphere embracing societary
+life, and that, not only as a sum total of free possessions,
+but also as a multiplicity of free, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, unsubjugated
+resistances.<a id='r251' /><a href='#f251' class='c015'><sup>[251]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>As “the result of a survey of social organizations,
+considered as machinery in motion, [Hermann]
+Post<a id='r252' /><a href='#f252' class='c015'><sup>[252]</sup></a> points out very justly that it is
+useless to attempt to explain social phenomena
+on the basis of the psychological activities of individuals,
+as is too commonly assumed, because all
+individuals whose conduct we can possibly observe
+have themselves been educated in some society
+or other, and presume in all their social acts the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>assumptions on which that society itself proceeds....
+It [Post’s method] is the same method, of
+course, which had already yielded such remarkable
+results to Montesquieu, and even to Locke. The
+point of view is no longer that of a Maine or a
+McLennan.... It is that of a spectator of
+human society as a whole.... And its immediate
+outcome has been to throw into the
+strongest possible relief the dependence of the
+form and, still more, of the actual content of all
+human societies on something which is not in the
+human mind at all, but is the infinite variety of
+that external Nature which Society exists to fend
+off from Man, and also to let Man dominate if
+he can.”<a id='r253' /><a href='#f253' class='c015'><sup>[253]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Government, War, Progress, and Climate</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>James Bryce “has recently clearly set forth
+the climatic control of government in an essay on
+‘British Experience in the Government of Colonies’
+(<cite>Century</cite>, March, 1899, 718–729).”<a id='r254' /><a href='#f254' class='c015'><sup>[254]</sup></a> Vallaux,
+however, is sceptical as to the influence of
+physical environment upon the State.<a id='r255' /><a href='#f255' class='c015'><sup>[255]</sup></a> William
+Ridgeway avers that political and legal institutions
+are the result of environment.<a id='r256' /><a href='#f256' class='c015'><sup>[256]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>Far-reaching and weighty historical consequences
+“have followed from special conditions of
+climate or weather. Maguire’s ‘Outlines of Military
+Geography’ (Cambridge, 1899) contains a
+chapter on the influence of climate on military
+operations, but this subject has hitherto received
+little attention. More recently, Bentley, in a
+presidential address before the Royal Meteorological
+Society, London, considered the matter.”<a id='r257' /><a href='#f257' class='c015'><sup>[257]</sup></a>
+Still more recently, the relation of climate or
+weather to war has been scrutinized, among others,
+by F. Lampe in “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der erdkundliche Unterricht</span>,”<a id='r258' /><a href='#f258' class='c015'><sup>[258]</sup></a>
+by Otto Baschin in “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Krieg und das Wetter</span>,”<a id='r259' /><a href='#f259' class='c015'><sup>[259]</sup></a>
+and by E. Alt in “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Krieg und Witterung</span>.”<a id='r260' /><a href='#f260' class='c015'><sup>[260]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>Hellwald, “the well-known traveller and geographer,”
+compiled his “History of Civilization
+in its Natural Development” in 1874, according
+to the findings of which, cultural development is
+“a natural process, conditioned by race, geography,
+and climate. Civilisation means the
+mastering of nature and the taming of man....
+Hellwald’s standpoint is shared, though less
+aggressively displayed by Henne-am-Rhyn.”<a id='r261' /><a href='#f261' class='c015'><sup>[261]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>To the late meteorologist Cleveland Abbe,
+“Everything seems to combine to prove that the
+existing order of events both material and intellectual
+has been brought about by a slow process
+of change, due to the interaction of the atoms and
+masses that constitute the material world around
+us.”<a id='r262' /><a href='#f262' class='c015'><sup>[262]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The great diversity of existent civilizations,
+declares Auguste Matteuzzi, is due to the diversity
+of the milieus where they developed. In order
+to discover why any civilization becomes more
+heterogeneous and more perfect, one must study
+the geographic milieu where it evolved. The
+organic and inorganic milieu of evolving ethnic
+groups constrains human societies to an incessant
+process of adaptation, and these societies in their
+turn react upon the milieu and modify it.<a id='r263' /><a href='#f263' class='c015'><sup>[263]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>In short, says Auguste Comte, “all human
+progress, political, moral, or intellectual, is inseparable
+from material progression, in virtue of the
+close interconnection which, as we have seen,
+characterizes the natural course of social phenomena.”<a id='r264' /><a href='#f264' class='c015'><sup>[264]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>That civilization is a result of adaptation to
+environment, physical as well as political, is the
+view entertained by Bryce, Strachey, and Geikie.<a id='r265' /><a href='#f265' class='c015'><sup>[265]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>
+  <h3 class='c016'><em>Climate and Man’s Characteristics</em></h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c017'>There are “certain broad, distinguishing characteristics
+of man in the temperate and tropical
+zones, in determining which it is reasonable to
+believe that climate has played a part. Similarly,
+there has been a natural tendency to attribute
+certain differences between northerners and southerners
+in the temperate zones to a difference in
+climate.... These national differences are proverbial
+between northern and southern Germans,
+French, Spanish, Russians, Italians, Arabs, and
+other peoples. The influence of climate has likewise
+been traced in the sad, even pessimistic tone
+of much of the northern literature, and in the
+gravity and melancholy of modern northern music,
+as well as of the older northern folk-songs ...
+even racial distinctions are more or less directly
+traceable, in many instances, to climate.... Sir
+Archibald Geikie, in his <cite>Scottish Reminiscences</cite>,
+has emphasized the climatic influence in producing
+the grim character of the Scot....”<a id='r266' /><a href='#f266' class='c015'><sup>[266]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Tacitus, in the 29th chapter of the <cite>Germania</cite>,
+assures us that the soil and climate of the land
+of the Mattiaci caused them to be more bellicose
+than their neighbors.<a id='r267' /><a href='#f267' class='c015'><sup>[267]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>Daudet, “who has written an entire novel
+(‘Numa Roumestan’) to depict the great influence
+of the climate of southern Europe upon conduct,
+says: ‘The Southerner does not love strong drinks;
+he is intoxicated by nature. Sun and wind distil
+in him a terrible natural alcohol to whose influence
+every one born under this sky is subject. Some
+have only the mild fever which sets their speech
+and gesture free, redoubles their audacity, makes
+everything seem rosy-hued, and drives them on to
+boasting; others live in a blind delirium. And
+what Southerner has not felt the sudden giving
+way, the exhaustion of his whole being, that follows
+an outburst of rage or enthusiasm?’”<a id='r268' /><a href='#f268' class='c015'><sup>[268]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Draper “emphasized the important historical
+consequences of the difference in the characteristics
+of northerners and southerners in the United States,
+which he attributed largely to climate, and which
+found expression in the Civil War.... The
+Boers in Africa have developed along lines different
+from those of the Dutch in the United
+States.”<a id='r269' /><a href='#f269' class='c015'><sup>[269]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Man’s Intellect and Physical Environment</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>Auguste Comte, who “was very slightly affected
+by German thought,” and who, in early youth,
+came under the influence of the philosophy that
+had become prevalent in France before the Revolution,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>“read the works of most of its leading representatives.
+He accepted its cardinal principle
+that ‘thought depends on sense, or, more broadly,
+on the environment.’”<a id='r270' /><a href='#f270' class='c015'><sup>[270]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Adolf Bastian worked unceasingly “among the
+conceptions of the <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Naturvölker</span>—the ‘cryptograms
+of mankind,’ as he called them—..., demonstrating
+first the surprising uniformity of outlook
+on the part of the more primitive peoples, and
+secondly the correlation of differences of conceptions
+with differences in material surroundings,
+varying with geographical conditions. This second
+doctrine he elaborated in his <cite>Zur Lehre von den
+geographischen Provinzen</cite>, in 1886.”<a id='r271' /><a href='#f271' class='c015'><sup>[271]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Physiology and statistics “show that most
+human functions are subject to the influence of
+heat (Lombroso, ‘Pensiero e Meteore,’ Milan,
+1878). It is to be expected, then, that excessive
+heat will have its effect upon the human mind.”<a id='r272' /><a href='#f272' class='c015'><sup>[272]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The physiographer, “... looking back over
+the history of life upon the earth’s surface, ...
+is forced to the conclusion that its highest estate
+embodied in the moral and intellectual qualities
+of man has been, in the main, secured by the geographic
+variations which have slowly developed
+through the geological ages.”<a id='r273' /><a href='#f273' class='c015'><sup>[273]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>Benno Erdmann, in his “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Gedächtnisrede auf
+Wilhelm Dilthey</span>,” observes that in ripe old age
+Dilthey in the last of his larger works declared
+that man finds himself determined by the physical
+world in which mental occurrences appear only as
+interpolations.<a id='r274' /><a href='#f274' class='c015'><sup>[274]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Religion and Physical Milieu</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>As physical characteristics “are in the main
+the result of environment, social institutions and
+religious ideas are no less the product of that environment....
+We might just as well ask the
+Ethiopian to change his skin as to change radically
+his social and religious ideas. It has been shown
+by experience that Christianity can make but little
+headway amongst many peoples in Africa or Asia,
+where on the other hand Muhammadanism has
+made and is steadily making progress, ... This
+is probably due to the fact that Muhammadanism
+is a religion evolved ... in latitudes bordering
+on the aboriginal races of Africa and Asia, and that
+it is far more akin in its social ideas to those of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>the Negro or Malay than are those of Christianity,
+...”<a id='r275' /><a href='#f275' class='c015'><sup>[275]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Ernest Renan “points out that the desert is
+monotheistic, its uniformity suggesting a belief
+in the unity of God.... In his <cite>Seas and Skies
+in Many Latitudes</cite> (London, 1888, pp. 42–43),
+Abercromby gives two maps, showing respectively
+the areas of Mohammedanism and the districts in
+Asia and Africa with a mean annual rainfall of less
+than ten inches. The maps are strikingly similar.
+The author adds: ‘Whether this distribution of a
+great creed is the result of chance, or of some deep
+connection between the tenets of that religion and
+climatic influences, I can not say;—but still the
+relation is so remarkable that I have thought it
+well to bring the matter forward.’”<a id='r276' /><a href='#f276' class='c015'><sup>[276]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Climate and Conduct</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>The “frequent and sudden weather changes
+of the temperate zones affect man in many ways,
+as do the larger seasonal changes. The relations
+between weather and conduct have frequently been
+investigated. Professor E. G. Dexter has made an
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>extended empirical study of the effects of the
+weather ... Bertillon has collected data on
+suicides and seasons in France, ...”<a id='r277' /><a href='#f277' class='c015'><sup>[277]</sup></a> Dexter
+studies empirically by means of statistics—plotting
+certain curves—the relation between temperature,
+barometric pressure, humidity, wind, character
+of the day, precipitation, on the one hand, and
+the child in school—work, deportment, attendance—, crime,
+insanity, health—sickness and
+death—, suicide, drunkenness, attention—errors
+in calculation made by clerks in banks—, on
+the other.<a id='r278' /><a href='#f278' class='c015'><sup>[278]</sup></a> Of his general conclusions<a id='r279' /><a href='#f279' class='c015'><sup>[279]</sup></a> the first
+is: “Varying meteorological conditions affect
+directly, though in different ways, the metabolism
+of life”; the second: “The ‘reserve energy’ capable
+of being utilized for intellectual processes and
+activities other than those of the vital organs is
+affected [<em>effected</em>, in the original] most by meteorological
+changes”; the third: “The quality of the
+emotional state is plainly influenced by the weather
+states”; the fourth: “Although meteorological
+conditions affect the emotional states, which without
+doubt have weight in the determination of
+conduct in its broadest sense, it would seem that
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>their effects upon that portion of the reserve energy
+which is available for action are of the greatest
+import.”<a id='r280' /><a href='#f280' class='c015'><sup>[280]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The nervous effects of the weather including
+cyclonic winds have also been noted. Among the
+Eskimos, “Marriages take place at an early age,
+especially among the women, and the return of
+the sun after the long winter has a stimulating
+effect on the animal passions which leads to sexual
+excesses of all kinds.”<a id='r281' /><a href='#f281' class='c015'><sup>[281]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Albert Leffingwell investigates <cite>The Influence
+of Seasons Upon Conduct</cite><a id='r282' /><a href='#f282' class='c015'><sup>[282]</sup></a> in Great Britain and
+elsewhere. He formulates the underlying assumption
+of his inquiry in the following manner: “It
+is not a new theory, though I propose to carry it
+somewhat further than it has been pushed hitherto.
+Over half a century ago, Quetelet in his great work
+“On Man,” suggested the hypothesis.... The
+hypothesis toward which all the facts point is
+simply this: that upon the nervous organization
+of human bodies (perhaps specially upon dwellers
+in the temperate zones) there is exerted during the
+procession of the seasons, from winter’s close till
+midsummer, some undefined, specific influence,
+which in some manner tends to increase the excitability
+of emotion and passion, and thus also to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>increase all actions arising therefrom.”<a id='r283' /><a href='#f283' class='c015'><sup>[283]</sup></a> To
+mention only one of Leffingwell’s illustrations, he
+brings together in a statistical table the total number
+of all crimes against persons in England for
+ten years (1878–87), the same facts for Ireland
+during the same decade, and for France during
+forty years (1830–69), and in conjunction therewith
+says: “Here, again, we find that all crimes, even
+those arising from personal antipathy or hatred,
+seem specially prevalent in the warmer half of
+the year. In England, 55 per cent of all such acts
+of violence during the ten years 1878–1887 happened
+in spring and summer, and in France during
+a period of forty years the average was the same.
+Ireland, indeed, shows a more even distribution of
+such crimes; but the tendency is seen even there.”<a id='r284' /><a href='#f284' class='c015'><sup>[284]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Cesare Lombroso, who is claimed to be the first
+to have essayed to portray the effect of physical
+environment on the human psyche,<a id='r285' /><a href='#f285' class='c015'><sup>[285]</sup></a> states in his
+<cite>Criminal Man</cite>,<a id='r286' /><a href='#f286' class='c015'><sup>[286]</sup></a> referring to Ferri and Holzendorf,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>that with high temperature there is an increase in
+crimes of violence, while low temperature has the
+effect of increasing the number of crimes against
+property. In “comparing statistics of criminality
+in France with those of the variations in temperature,
+Ferri noted an increase in crimes of violence
+during the warmer years.”<a id='r287' /><a href='#f287' class='c015'><sup>[287]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Lombroso, in his <cite>Crime, Its Causes and Remedies</cite>,<a id='r288' /><a href='#f288' class='c015'><sup>[288]</sup></a>
+citing the conclusions of the relevant
+statistical evidence, establishes that in England
+and France and Italy the crimes of rape and of
+murder occur in greatest number in the hottest
+months; that the maximum number of all rebellions
+in the whole world between 1791 and 1880 falls
+everywhere in the hottest month, while its minimum
+number comes in the coldest months; and that
+crimes against property markedly increase in the
+winter.<a id='r289' /><a href='#f289' class='c015'><sup>[289]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>In the southern parts of Italy and France
+“there occur many more crimes against persons
+than in the central and northern portions....
+Guerry has shown that crimes against persons are
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>twice as numerous in southern France (4.9) as in
+central and northern France (2.7 and 2.9). <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vice
+versa</span></i>, crimes against property are more frequent
+in the north (4.9), than in the central and southern
+regions (2.3).”<a id='r290' /><a href='#f290' class='c015'><sup>[290]</sup></a> According to Buckle,<a id='r291' /><a href='#f291' class='c015'><sup>[291]</sup></a> climate
+makes men’s habits regular or irregular.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>
+  <h3 class='c016'><em>Climatic Control of Food and Drink</em></h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c017'>William Ridgeway, summarizing his argument
+in “The Application of Zoölogical Laws to Man,”<a id='r292' /><a href='#f292' class='c015'><sup>[292]</sup></a>
+says: “We have seen that environment is a powerful
+factor in the differentiation of the various races
+of man, alike in physique, institutions, and religion.
+It is probable that the food supply at hand in each
+region may be an important element in these variations,
+whilst the nature of the food and drink preferred
+there may itself be due in no small degree
+to climatic conditions.... The aboriginal of
+the tropics is distinctly a vegetarian, whilst the
+Eskimo within the arctic circle is practically wholly
+carnivorous. In each case the taste is almost certainly
+due to the necessities of their environment....
+It is probable that the more northward man
+advanced the more carnivorous he became in
+order to support the rigours of the northern climate.
+The same holds equally true in the case of drink....
+All across Northern Europe and Asia there
+is a universal love of strong drink, which is not the
+mere outcome of vicious desires, but of climatic
+law.... This view derives additional support
+from the well-authenticated fact that one of the
+chief characteristics of the descendants of British
+settlers in Australia is their strong teetotalism.
+This cannot be set down to their having a higher
+moral standard than their ancestors, but rather,
+as in the case of Spaniards and Italians (temperance
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>reformers point to the sobriety of the
+Spaniards, Italians, and other South Europeans),
+to the circumstance that they live in a country
+much warmer and drier than the British Isles.
+We must therefore, no matter how reluctantly,
+come to the conclusion that no attempt to eradicate
+this tendency to alcohol in these latitudes can be
+successful....”<a id='r293' /><a href='#f293' class='c015'><sup>[293]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>
+  <h2 class='c007'>SUMMARY</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c013'>The Introductory Remark traces the semasiology
+and use of the word <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">milieu</span></i> and discusses its
+English and German equivalents “environment”
+and “Umwelt.”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>An historical sketch of the milieu idea is then
+taken up from the very beginnings to the nineteenth
+century. The earlier notions of environmental
+influence are general and undifferentiated.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The Hebrew Prophets see the hand of Providence
+in the harmony of national fate with the
+configuration of the globe. Hippocrates dwells
+upon the regularity of climatic effect on man.
+Aristotle notes the action of physical environment
+on government and national character. Eratosthenes,
+Strabo, and other Greek thinkers, relate
+man causally to surrounding nature. Villani
+says that the fine air of Arezzo produces great
+minds. Ibn Khaldūn explains, especially Arabic
+history, by the circumambient physical and social
+medium. Michelangelo credits Arezzo’s fine air
+with his mentality. Man is subject to the “skyey
+influences” hourly (Shakespeare).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Jean Bodin plants the study of environment
+in French soil so firmly and so successfully that it
+has since become, in a very real sense, indigenous
+to France and that Bertillon could justly claim
+it to be a study “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">très-française</span></i>,” a claim which
+is true to this very day. Bodin’s second contribution
+is that he undertook, for the first time in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>the modern period (on the basis of sixteenth century
+knowledge and experience), a scientific and
+detailed examination, far-reaching and extensive
+in scope, of the manifold influences of climatic and
+geographical conditions upon States, laws, national
+character, religion, language, temperament, talents
+and aptitudes,—in brief, upon man’s mind, manners,
+and morals.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The study of milieu thus inaugurated in France
+by Bodin is set up as a French tradition by Lenglet
+du Fresnoy, Montesquieu, Turgot, Cuvier, and
+others,<a id='r294' /><a href='#f294' class='c015'><sup>[294]</sup></a> and has been continued by French writers
+to our day.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>A number of philosophers in the seventeenth
+and eighteenth centuries take up this idea. The
+doctrine of environment spreads to England and
+Germany.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In Germany, Herder becomes the fulcrum of all
+previous thought (Hebrew, Greek, French, English,
+and German) on this theory. Herder, in
+turn, in addition to his other and principal contributions
+to the theory, affects it by giving a
+quickened impetus not only to the contemporary
+development thereof, but also to the later course
+of that development. Goethe reflects some of
+Herder’s conceptions. Wolf, Niebuhr, the German
+romanticists—August Wilhelm Schlegel in
+especial—and Hegel apply Herder’s idea to history
+and continue it therein. Hegel combats the
+notion that climate can be the be-all and end-all
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>of historical explanation; he implies that climate
+was held to be a <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vera causa</span></i>.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The theory of social environment evolves,
+particularly since Ibn Khaldūn, parallel with that
+of the physical milieu.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The nineteenth century brings differentiation
+carried out in human geography including history,
+in biology, in jurisprudence and economics, in
+anthropology, in sociology, in literature, and latterly
+in physics. These disciplines determine our
+divisions for discussions shortly to follow the
+present one.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The major portion of this study is then given
+over to following the milieu idea in some of the
+more important French, English, and German
+writers of the past century on what for want of a
+better name has been called anthropo-geography
+inclusive of certain aspects of history.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>On the whole, their method has been the comparative
+method. Principles laid down <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">a priori</span></i>
+would be illustrated by typical cases selected
+mostly from the past. Or, the process would be
+reversed to an <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">a posteriori</span></i> reasoning: history restudied
+to find out its possible connections with
+the environment. Again: some would pick out
+a phase of the encompassing medium and follow
+out its effects in a particular country, while others
+would try to arrive at a more general conclusion.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>With reference to climate in particular, the
+statistical method was employed by Quételet,
+Bertillon, Leffingwell, Ferri, Holzendorf, Guerry,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>Curcio, Lombroso, and others, who established a
+parallelism, or coincidence, between certain climatic
+features and the criminal conduct of man.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Delimited aspects of environment, relating
+again more to climate than any other phase of the
+milieu, were made the objects of observational or
+experimentally observational studies by Dexter,
+Brunhes, and Hellpach, the last two giving the
+most recent comprehensive summaries of our
+knowledge in this field. And they are among the
+best we have.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The next part of this study will continue the
+survey of the history of this theory in the above
+mentioned sciences as well as in literature.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>
+  <h2 class='c007'>APPENDIX</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c013'>Since the foregoing study was completed, E.
+Huntington’s stimulating book—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide supra</span></i>, p. 79,
+n.—on <cite>Civilization and Climate</cite> has appeared. He
+continues what Dexter began. Lack of definiteness
+in observation, argumentative conviction, reasoned
+out opinion, are superseded by scientific exactness in
+ascertaining the action of climate. Chapters 4–7
+(pp. 49–147) concern us here. In these chapters he
+investigates “the exact effect of various climatic factors
+upon selected groups of people” (p. 49).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Huntington subjects to statistical analysis the
+daily records of about 550 factory operatives, pieceworkers,
+employed in three factories in three New
+England cities. The records, most of them for a
+complete year, are distributed over the four years
+from 1910 to 1913 (p. 53).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>He computes wage averages. He finds for each
+working day the average hourly wage for each group
+of operatives. When the daily averages had been
+found, they were averaged together by weeks. To
+give each individual an equal importance, the figures
+of each group have been reduced to percentages.
+Finally, the different groups were combined (p. 57).
+His final computations are represented in curves. A
+curve, graduated in twelve parts (one for each month),
+for a given year shows the earnings in percentages at
+any point and thus reveals the <em>time</em> of the weakness
+or efficiency of the worker; it shows the time of his
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>wages from least to most, thereby indicating the time
+of his work and energy from poorest to best.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Huntington worked up similarly the records of 65
+operatives in a North Carolina factory, of 240 operatives
+in four cotton mills in South Carolina and Georgia, of
+57 carpenters at Jacksonville, Fla., and on a different
+basis the work of 2700 cigar makers in two cigar
+factories in Florida. On the first basis he also computed
+a series of data from a large factory at Pittsburgh,
+Pennsylvania, based on the work of about 950
+operatives in 1910, of about 750 in 1911, of 69 in 1912,
+of about 7000 in 1913. He figured the monthly or
+bi-weekly averages of hourly earnings of these pieceworkers
+in Pittsburgh.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Discussing the curves in Figure 1 (p. 59), he mentions
+(p. 61) five features revealed by the curves that
+show no sign of disappearing. They are: “an extremely
+low place in midwinter, and a less pronounced
+low place in midsummer; a high point in June, a still
+higher point at the end of October, and a hump in
+mid-December....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Before we discuss the causes of the variability
+of the summers let us consider the meaning of the
+curves as a whole. In the first place, it is evident that,
+although details may vary from year to year, the
+general course of events is uniformly from low in the
+winter to high in the fall with a drop of more or less
+magnitude in summer. To what can this be due?...</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“We seem forced to search outside of the factories
+for the reasons for our seasonal fluctuations of wages....
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>There seems to be no recourse except to ascribe
+the fluctuations of the curves to climate [pp. 64–5].</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“The verity of the conclusion just reached is
+strongly confirmed by comparison with other regions
+and other types of human activity.... The curves
+[in Figure 2, pp. 66–7] range from the Adirondacks in
+northern New York to Tampa in southern Florida
+and include one from Denmark. With them I have
+repeated some of the curves of Figure 1 for the sake
+of comparison. The most remarkable feature of this
+series is that although there is great diversity of place
+and of activity, all the curves harmonize with what
+would be expected on the basis of Figure 1 [p. 65].</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“The general form of the curves for Pittsburgh and
+Connecticut is obviously the same....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“The agreement between the curves for Connecticut
+and Pennsylvania is far too close to be accidental
+[p. 76].</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“We have now seen that from New England to
+Florida physical strength and health vary in accordance
+with the seasons. Extremes seem to produce the
+same effect everywhere. The next question is whether
+mental activity varies the same way” (p. 77).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Huntington uses the marks of “about 1900 students
+for a single year” in mathematics (weekly averages at
+Annapolis and daily averages at West Point) and in
+English (at Annapolis). From these data he compiles
+the curves in Figure 3 (p. 80). He says (p. 81), “The
+curves of mental activity all resemble it [the average
+curve of physical work] in having two main maxima,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>in fall and spring.... At Annapolis, just as at
+West Point, the time of best work is when the mean
+temperature is not far from forty degrees [Fahrenheit].</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Summing up the matter, we find that the results
+of investigations in Denmark, Japan, Connecticut,
+Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland, the Carolinas,
+Georgia, and Florida are in harmony. They all show
+that except in Florida neither the winter nor the summer
+is the most favorable season. Both physical and
+mental activity reach pronounced maxima in the
+spring and fall, with minima in midwinter and midsummer.
+The consistency of our results is of great
+importance. It leads to the belief that in all parts
+of the world the climate is exercising an influence
+which can readily be measured, and can be subjected
+to statistical analysis” (p. 82).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>This is his conclusion in Chapter IV (pp. 49–82),
+“The Effect of the Seasons.”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Having seen in the fourth chapter “that both
+physical and mental energy vary from season to season
+according to well-defined laws,” Huntington investigates
+in the fifth chapter (“The Effect of Humidity
+and Temperature,” pp. 83–110) “the special features
+of seasonal change which are most effective” (p. 83).
+Explaining the curves of Human Activity and Mean
+Temperature (p. 99), he says (p. 98), “With the
+exception of the last two, which are distinctly the
+least reliable, the physical group all reach maxima at a
+temperature between 59° and 65°. Even the two less
+reliable curves reach their maxima within the next
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>four degrees. All the curves decline at low temperatures,
+..., and also at high.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Another point brought out by the curves [on p.
+99] is that as we go to more southerly climes the optimum
+temperature of the human race becomes higher.
+It is important to note, however, that the variation
+in the optimum is slight compared with the variation
+in the mean temperature of the places in question.
+For instance, in Connecticut the optimum seems to
+be about 60° for people of north European stock. This
+is about ten degrees higher than the mean temperature
+for the year as a whole. In Florida, on the other hand,
+the optimum for Cubans is about 65°, which is five
+degrees <em>lower</em> than the mean temperature for the
+year at Tampa. In other words, with a difference of
+twenty degrees in the mean annual temperature, and
+with a distinctly northern race compared with a
+southern, we find that the optimum differs only about
+5° F. This seems to mean that for the entire human
+race the optimum temperature probably does not vary
+more than ten or fifteen degrees [pp. 100–101].</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“The last thing to be considered in Figure 8 [p. 99]
+is the mental curve [showing optimum mental work at
+38° F.] at the bottom. It is based on so large a number
+of people, and is so regular, that its general reliability
+seems great, although I think that future studies
+may show the optimum to be a few degrees higher than
+is here indicated. It agrees with the results of Lehmann
+and Pedersen. Furthermore, from general
+observation we are most of us aware that we are mentally
+more active in comparatively cool weather.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>Perhaps ‘spring fever’ is a mental state far more than
+a physical. Apparently people do the best mental
+work on days when the thermometer ranges from
+freezing to about 50°—that is, when the mean temperature
+is not far from 40°. Inasmuch as human
+progress depends upon a coördination of mental and
+physical activity, we seem to be justified in the conclusion
+that the greatest total efficiency occurs halfway
+between the mental and physical optima, that is, with
+a mean temperature of about 50°” (pp. 102–103).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The curves (p. 105) on Mean Temperature and
+Vital Processes in Plants, Animals and Man show
+physical energy to be at the optimum at the mean
+temperature of 60° F., mental energy at 38°, mental
+and physical energy combined at from 40° to 60°. Of
+this last mentioned curve he says: “It may be taken
+as representing man’s actual productive activity in
+the things that make for a high civilization. The
+resemblance of the human curves to those of the lower
+organisms is obvious. In general, the lower types
+of life, or the lower forms of activity, seem to reach
+their optima at higher temperatures than do the more
+advanced types and the more lofty functions such as
+mentality. The whole trend of biological thought is
+toward the conclusion that the same laws apply to all
+forms of life. They differ in application, but not in
+principle. The law of optimum temperature apparently
+controls the phenomena of life from the lowest
+activities of protoplasm to the highest activities of
+the human intellect” (pp. 109–110).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>In Chapter VI (“Work and Weather,” pp. 111–128),
+he interprets the curves he plotted showing especially
+the influence of changes of temperature from day to day,
+and of the character of each day and its relation to
+storms. In the very interesting Chapter VII (pp.
+129–147) he discusses “The Ideal Climate.”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In the closing paragraph of his book, he says, “If
+our hypothesis is true, man is more closely dependent
+upon nature than he has realized. A realization of
+his limitations, however, is the first step toward freedom
+[p. 293].</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“The hypothesis, briefly stated, is this: Today a
+certain peculiar type of climate prevails wherever
+civilization is high. In the past the same type seems
+to have prevailed wherever a great civilization arose.
+Therefore, such a climate seems to be a necessary
+condition of great progress. It is not the cause of
+civilization, for that lies infinitely deeper. Nor is it
+the only, or the most important condition. It is
+merely one of several, ...” (p. 9.)</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Huntington mentions (p. 7) Lehmann and Pedersen’s
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Wetter und unsere Arbeit</span>” and Berliner’s
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Einfluß von Klima, Wetter und Jahreßeit auf das
+Nerven- und Seelenleben</span>,” without the date or place
+of publication.</p>
+
+<p class='c018'><span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span><span class='sc'>Note</span>: Since the foregoing pages went to press, the following
+publications have appeared; being too late for inclusion or comment
+in the text, they are added here for reference:</p>
+
+<p class='c019'>Douglas W. Johnson, <cite>Topography and Strategy in the War</cite>,
+N. Y., Henry Holt &amp; Co., 1917, 221 pp. (Thorough and very
+illuminating; points out how the surface features of the country
+influenced military operations in the most important theaters of
+the war.)</p>
+
+<p class='c019'>James Fairgrieve, <cite>Geography and World Power</cite>, N. Y., E. P.
+Dutton &amp; Co., 1917, 356 pp. (Shows how History has been
+controlled by Geography.)</p>
+
+<p class='c019'>Robert De C. Ward, “Weather Controls Over the Fighting
+in the Italian War Zone,” <cite>The Scientific Monthly</cite>, Vol. 6, No. 2
+(February, 1918), pp. 97–105. And “Weather Controls Over
+the Fighting in Mesopotamia, in Palestine, and near the Suez
+Canal,” <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibidem</span></i>, Vol. 6, No. 4 (April, 1918), pp. 289–304.</p>
+
+<hr class='c020' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f1'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For brief but valuable sketches of one phase or another
+of the history of the theory of milieu, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Friedrich Ratzel, <cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>.
+1. <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Teil: Grundzüge der Anwendung der Erdkunde
+auf die Geschichte</span></cite> (2. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1899, 604 pp.),
+pp. 13–23, 25–30, 31–40; Gustav Schmoller, <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Grundriß der Allgemeinen
+Volkswirtschaftslehre</span></i>. Erster Teil (<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Vierte bis sechste
+Aufl.</span>, Leipzig, 1901), p. 127, pp. 137 f., 144 ff., Zweiter Teil
+(<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Erste bis sechste Aufl.</span>, Leipzig, 1904), pp. 656 ff.; <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ferdinand v.
+Richthofen’s Vorlesungen über Allgemeine Siedlungs- und Verkehrsgeographie</span></cite>,
+bearb. und herausgegeben von O. Schlüter (Berlin,
+1908, 351 pp.—A course of lectures delivered in the summer semester
+of 1891 in Berlin, repeated in the winter semester in 1897/8),
+pp. 6–13; Jean Brunhes, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Géographie Humaine</span></cite> (<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Deuxième
+édition</span>, Paris: Alcan, 1912, 801 pp.), pp. 36 ff.; A. C. Haddon
+and A. H. Quiggin, <cite>History of Anthropology</cite> (London, 1910,
+158 pp.), pp. 131 f., 150–52; William Z. Ripley, “Geography and
+Sociology,” <cite>Political Science Quarterly</cite>, X (1895), pp. 636–54;
+also the same author’s <cite>The Races of Europe</cite> (New York: D.
+Appleton &amp; Co., 1899), pp. 2–5. Cf. also O. Schlüter, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die
+leitenden Gesichtspunkte der Anthropogeographie, insbesondere
+der Lehre Friedrich Ratzels,” <em>Arch. f. Sozialwissenschaft</em>, Bd.
+IV (1906), S. 581–630, and Rudolf Goldscheid, <cite>Höherentwicklung
+und Menschenökonomie</cite>, I [Philosophisch-soziologische Bücherei,
+Band VIII], (Leipzig: W. Klinkhardt, 1911, 664 pp.), p. 52.</span>
+For bibliographies, in addition to those yet to be mentioned,
+see also Ratzel, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 579–85; Brunhes, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, nn.; Ellen C. Semple,
+<cite>Influences of Geographic Environment, On the Basis of Ratzel’s
+System of Anthropo-geography</cite> (New York: H. Holt &amp; Co., 1911,
+637 pp.), to each chapter of which an extensive bibliography is
+added; William J. Thomas, <cite>Source Book for Social Origins</cite> (Chicago
+and London, 1909) pp. 134–39: Bibliography to Part I: The
+Relation of Society to Geographic and Economic Environment
+(pp. 29–129, Comment on Part I, pp. 130–33); Ripley, “Geography
+and Sociology,” <cite>Pol. Sc. Quar.</cite>, X (1895), pp. 654–5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f2'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Dictionnaire de l’Académie Françoise.</cite> Quatrième Édition.
+Tome Second (Paris, 1762), p. 143.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f3'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r3'>3</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences</span></i>, etc.
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Nouvelle Éd. 1778</span>, ed. by Diderot and D’Alembert, 21st vol.,
+p. 853.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f4'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r4'>4</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cours de Philosophie Positive</span></cite> (6 vols., 1830–42, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">5<sup>e</sup> édition</span>,
+Paris, 1892–94), see vol. 3, p. 235 n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f5'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r5'>5</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cp. esp. the Introduction to his <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Histoire de la Littérature
+Anglaise</cite>, 5 Tomes (8<sup>e</sup> Édition, Paris: Hachette, 1892)</span>; the first
+edition appeared in 1863, after Taine had been at work on it for
+well-nigh a decade.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f6'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r6'>6</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For Zola as the disciple of Taine, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> H. Wiegler, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Geschichte
+und Kritik der Theorie des Milieus bei Émile Zola</span></cite> (Diss., Rostock,
+1905), esp. pp. 19–36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f7'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r7'>7</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Émile Waxweiler, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Esquisse d’une Sociologie</span></cite> (Bruxelles,
+1906), p. 65.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f8'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r8'>8</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire de la Langue Française</span></cite>, vol. 3 (1885), pp.
+559 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f9'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r9'>9</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verdeutschungen, Wörterbuch fürs tägliche Leben</span></cite> (Braunschweig,
+Verlag von George Westermann, 1915, 176 pp.), p. 93.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f10'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r10'>10</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Verdeutschungsbücher des Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins,
+III</cite> (Zweite Aufl., neu bearb. v. Edward Lohmeyer,
+Berlin, Verlag des Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins, 1915,
+182 pp.), pp. 91 f.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f11'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r11'>11</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Phénomènes de la vie</span></cite> (<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">2<sup>e</sup> éd.</span>, Paris, 1885), t. I, p. 112. See
+Waxweiler, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f12'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r12'>12</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Race Prejudice</cite>, transl. by Florence Wade-Evans (London,
+1906), p. 130.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f13'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r13'>13</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“The Services of Naturalism to Life and Literature. Reprinted,
+with Additions, from <cite>The Sewanee Review</cite>, October,
+1903,” p. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f14'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r14'>14</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Murray’s NED., vol. III, Part II, (1897), p. 231.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f15'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r15'>15</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wörterbuch d. d. Sprache</span></i> (1811), Bd. 5, S. 113.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f16'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r16'>16</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See the article by I. Stosch on “Umwelt-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">milieu</span></i>,” <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Zeitschrift
+für Deutsche Wortforschung</cite>, g. v. Fr. Kluge, 7. Bd. (1905), pp.
+58–9</span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f17'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r17'>17</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">2. Bd., 2. Hälfte (Leipzig: Otto Wigand, 1865), p. 1556<sup>b</sup>.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f18'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r18'>18</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A. Gombert cites the passage in question in his article
+<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Umwelt,” <cite>Z. f. D. Wf.</cite>, 7. Bd. (1905), pp. 150–52.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f19'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r19'>19</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The Belgian sociologist De Greef, in his <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Introduction
+à la Sociologie</span></cite> (1886–89), raised “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mésologie</span>” (denoting “Erkenntnis
+der milieux”) to a special introductory branch of sociology
+for the purpose of discussing, according to Ratzel superficially,
+the external factors of history; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Paul Barth, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Philosophie
+der Geschichte als Soziologie</span></cite>, I (Leipzig: Reisland, 1897), p. 70
+and Ratzel, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i> p. 29. The term “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mésologie</span>” was in use in
+France at an earlier date than that. See for example the title
+of an article written at the close of the Franco-German war by
+Dr. Bertillon, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“De l´Influence du milieu ou Mésologie,” <cite>La Philosophie
+Positive</cite>, Revue dirigée par É. Littré &amp; G. Wyrouboff,
+Tome IX</span> (Paris, 1872), pp. 309–20. Or see M. E. Jourdy, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De
+l´Influence du milieu ou Mésologie</span>,” <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, Tome X (1873), pp.
+154–60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f20'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r20'>20</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Fr. de Rougemont, in his important work <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les deux cités;
+la philosophie de l´histoire aux différents âges de l´humanité</span></cite> (1874)
+treats this question exhaustively. See Robert Poehlmann,
+<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Hellenische Anschauungen über den Zusammenhang zwischen
+Natur und Geschichte</span></cite> (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1879, 93 pp.), pp. 8 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f21'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r21'>21</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Eugénie Dutoit, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Theorie des Milieu</span></cite> (Diss., Bern,
+1899, 136 pp.), pp. 52–5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f22'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r22'>22</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Hippocrate fut le premier à observer quelques-uns des
+effets du milieu sur l’individu. Ses observations sont nécessairement
+nébuleuses et chaotiques, plutôt descriptives et qualitatives,
+étant donnée l’imperfection des connaissances de son temps.”—Auguste
+Matteuzzi, <cite>Les Facteurs de l’Évolution des Peuples</cite> (Paris,
+1900), p. 6 (Avant-Propos).</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f23'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r23'>23</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wir sahen, daß sich das Buch des Hippokrates durchaus
+darauf beschränkte, die Wechselbeziehungen zwischen Landesnatur
+und Volkscharakter zu erörtern.</span>”—Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 51.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f24'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r24'>24</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Hippokrates von Kos, ‘der Vater der Heilkunde’ (ca.
+460 bis ca. 370), ist der <em>Begründer der Anthropogeographie</em>. Er
+schrieb ein Buch über Klima, Wasser und Bodenbeschaffenheit
+und ihren Einfluß auf die Bewohner eines Landes in physischer
+und geistiger Beziehung. Der philosophische Gedanke war damit
+angeregt, fand aber keine weitere Entwicklung.</span>”—<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">F. v. Richthofen’s
+Vorlesungen</span></cite>, etc. (Berlin, 1908), p. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f25'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r25'>25</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>System of Positive Polity</cite> (4 vols., London: Longmans,
+Green &amp; Co., 1875–77—the original was published in 1851–54),
+vol. II, p. 364: “... a study [of the aggregate of material
+influences: Astronomical, Physical, Chemical] which was commenced
+by the great Hippocrates in his admirable and unequalled
+Treatise upon Climate.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f26'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r26'>26</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Haddon and Quiggin, <cite>Hist. of Anthropology</cite> (1910), p.
+150.—Poehlmann discusses Hippocrates in <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Hellenische Anschauungen</span></cite>,
+etc., pp. 12–37.—Ludwig Stein, in his book <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die soziale
+Frage im Lichte der Philosophie</span></cite> (2. verb. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1903),
+p. 403, n., says that “Aless. Chiapelli, <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Le promesse filosofiche
+del Socialismo</span></i> (Napoli, 1897), p. 41, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">hebt die interessante Tatsache
+hervor, daß die Lehre vom ‘Milieu’ ihrem Keime nach
+auf Hippokrates zurückgeht</span>.” But a little over three decades
+earlier, Peschel in his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Geschichte der Erdkunde</span></cite> (1. Aufl., 1865)
+surveyed on two pages some important phases of Hippocrates
+and Strabo on milieu. And earlier still, a half century before
+Peschel, Ukert in his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Geographie der Griechen und Römer</span></cite> (1816),
+I, 1, 79, noted Hippocrates as carefully observing the effect of
+climate on the body and mind of man. (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Poehlmann, l.c.,
+pp. 7 f.)—And to Herder, Hippocrates was the principal author
+on climate: “... <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hippocrat. de aere, locis et aquis</span></i>, ... <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Für
+mich der Hauptschriftsteller über das Klima.”—<cite>Herders Sämmtliche
+Werke</cite>, hg. v. B. Suphan, 13, 269 n.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f27'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r27'>27</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Dutoit, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Theorie des Milieu</span></cite>, pp. 55–8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f28'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r28'>28</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 68.—Aristotle neglects to give credit
+to Hippocrates in connection with his ideas on environment,
+although indebted to Hippocrates whom he mentions elsewhere.
+See Dutoit, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 57.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f29'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r29'>29</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Varron, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De re rustica</span></i>, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">1, cite une oeuvre d’Eratosthènes
+où celui-ci cherchait à démontrer que le caractère de l’homme
+et la forme du gouvernement sont subordonnés au voisinage ou
+à l’éloignement du soleil. Tentative sublime mais prématurée,
+pour ramener les phénomènes sociaux à des lois uniques et générales.”—Auguste
+Matteuzzi, <cite>Les Facteurs de l’Évolution des
+Peuples</cite> (Paris, 1900), p. 6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f30'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r30'>30</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die vollständigste Beschreibung [of the earth] gab erst
+Strabo in seinem Werk</span> <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">γεογραφικά</span>. <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Hier begegnen wir zum
+zweitenmal der philosophischen Idee, <em>Mensch und Natur in
+Kausalzusammenhang</em> miteinander zu bringen. Strabos Geographie
+ist als ‘Länder- und Völkerkunde’ das größte Werk des
+Altertums. Die Anschauung eines kausalen Zusammenhanges
+des Menschen mit der Natur ging darauf unter</span> [according to
+him, until the middle of the eighteenth century, until Montesquieu].”—<cite>Richthofen’s
+Vorlesungen</cite>, etc. (1908), p. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f31'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r31'>31</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Buckle and his Critics</cite> (London, 1895, 548 pp.), p. 7 n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f32'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r32'>32</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 7.—For a brief statement of the
+theory of milieu in Greek writers (Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato,
+Aristotle, Theophrastus), <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Curtius, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Boden und Clima von Athen</span></cite>
+(1877), p. 4 f. For Aristotle, compare also Dondorff, <cite>Das hellenische
+Land als Schauplatz der althellenischen Geschichte</cite> (Hamburg,
+1899, 42 pp.), pp. 11 f. Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, discusses the views on
+environment of Herodotus (pp. 37–47), of Thucydides (pp. 52–4),
+of Xenophon (pp. 55 f.), of Ephoros [only fragments of his
+great work, A Universal History, are extant; cited by Strabo]
+(pp. 56–9), of Plato (pp. 59–64), of Aristotle (pp. 64–74), of Polybios
+(pp. 75–7), of Posidonios [in Strabo and in Galen] (pp. 78–80),
+of Strabo (pp. 80–90), of Galen (pp. 91 f.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f33'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r33'>33</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Élisàr v. Kupffer, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Klima und Dichtung, Ein Beitrag
+zur Psychophysik</cite> [in <cite>Grenzfragen der Literatur und Medizin</cite> in
+Einzeldarstellungen hg. v. S. Rahmer, Berlin, 4. Heft] (München,
+1907), p. 63.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f34'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r34'>34</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Translated into French by Baron Meg. F. de Slane (3
+vols., Paris, 1862–8).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f35'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r35'>35</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See R. Flint, <cite>History of the Philosophy of History, Historical
+Philosophy in France and French Belgium and Switzerland</cite> (New
+York: Scribner, 1894, 706 pp.), pp. 159 f.—“His [Mohammed
+Ibn Khaldūn’s] fame rests securely ... on his <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">magnum opus</span></i>,
+the ‘Universal History,’ and especially on the first part of it,
+the ‘Prolegomena’ (p. 162).... They [the Prolegomena]
+may fairly be regarded as forming a distinct and complete work....
+It consists of a preface, an introduction, and six sections
+or divisions (p. 163).”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f36'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r36'>36</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 164 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f37'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r37'>37</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide infra</span></i>, p. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f38'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r38'>38</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 164.—Cf. also pp. 158–72, for Ibn Khaldūn
+in general.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f39'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r39'>39</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cf. Kupffer, <cite>Klima and Dichtung</cite>, p. 63.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f40'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r40'>40</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Da Bodin hauptsächlich an die Anschauungen des
+Aristoteles anknüpft, ...—Auch an Strabo, der dem Einfluß
+des Klimas und der Landesnatur schon die schöpferischen
+Kräfte des Volksgeistes gegenübergestellt hat, lehnt sich Bodin
+an.”—Fritz Renz, <cite>Jean Bodin, Ein Beitrag z. Geschichte d. hist.
+Methode im 16. Jahrhundert</cite> [Geschichtliche Untersuchungen hg.
+v. Karl Lamprecht, III. Bd., I. Heft], (Gotha, 1905, 84 pp.),
+p. 48 n.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f41'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r41'>41</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem</span></cite>, published
+in 1566.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f42'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r42'>42</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, 198.—The ‘Republic’ was first published in
+1576 in French under the title <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De la République</span></cite>. Eight years
+later (1584) Bodin himself translated it into Latin as <cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Republica
+Libri Sex</span></cite>. See Ludwig Stein, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Die soziale Frage im Lichte der
+Philosophie</cite> (2. verb. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1902), p. 217 n.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f43'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r43'>43</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Compare Dutoit, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Theorie des Milieu</span></cite>, pp. 58–62.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f44'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r44'>44</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die physische Konstitution des Menschen hängt nach
+Bodin eng mit den klimatischen Verhältnissen seiner Heimat
+zusammen und entspricht dem Verhalten der Erde, die er bewohnt ...</span>”—Renz,
+<cite>Jean Bodin</cite> (1905), p. 50.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Da
+der animalische Körper wie alle Körper aus einer Mischung der
+Elemente besteht, so ergibt sich eine direkte Abhängigkeit der
+physischen Konstitution von der umgebenden Natur, ja sogar
+eine Übereinstimmung mit dem Verhalten der Erde in dem betreffenden
+Himmelsstrich. Der menschliche Körper reagiert auf
+die klimatischen Einflüsse genau so wie die Erde, die er bewohnt,
+...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibidem</span></i>, p. 44.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f45'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r45'>45</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Discussed by Renz, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 47–61, in the chapter <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Die
+Theorie des Klimas.”—“Behandelt wird die Theorie des Klimas
+nach dem 5. Kapitel des ‘Methodus,’ in dem sich Bodin zum
+ersten Male mit dieser Doktrin befaßte; zur Erläuterung wird
+auch das 1. Kapitel des V. Buches der ‘République’ herangezogen,
+in dem die Theorie des Klimas, aber in gedrängterer
+Form, wiederholt wird.</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 47 n. Cf. also p. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f46'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r46'>46</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Sogar das Temperament variiert nach dem Klima ...</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wie das Temperament wird die Sprache von dem inneren
+physischen Bau abhängig gedacht ...</span></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ebenso wird die Fortpflanzungsfähigkeit in direkte Abhängigkeit
+von der physischen Konstitution gebracht ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+pp. 52 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f47'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r47'>47</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wie das Äußere und die physische Konstitution hängen
+auch die Anlagen und Fähigkeiten der Völker mit den klimatischen
+Verschiedenheiten zusammen ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 54.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f48'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r48'>48</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Nach der Dreiteilung der seelischen Fähigkeiten
+bei dem Einzelmenschen und den Bewohnern jedes Staates werden
+die Völker auf der ganzen Erde gruppiert, indem durch das
+Klima immer eine Anlage besonders zur Ausbildung kommt ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+p. 46.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f49'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r49'>49</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Bodin nimmt zwei Teile des menschlichen Seelenlebens
+an, erstens eine allen Menschen gemeinsame, unveränderliche
+geistige Befähigung, die Vernunft, und zweitens Anlagen,
+die von dem Klima und der physischen Natur des Menschen
+abhängen. In der</span> ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">République</span>’ <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">wird ausgeführt, daß diese
+abhängigen Anlagen nur verschiedene von dem geographischen
+Milieu abhängige Entwicklungsstufen des Verstandes sind,
+während dieser an sich von den einzelnen Gegenden unabhängig
+ist ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f50'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r50'>50</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Indem er [Bodin] als erster in der Neuzeit auf
+streng wissenschaftlicher Grundlage versucht, die Wechselwirkung,
+die zwischen dem historischen Verlauf und der Natur
+stattfindet, festzustellen, gelangt er zu der Annahme von zwei
+Teilen des geistig-seelischen Innenlebens, eines von den umgebenden
+Verhältnissen abhängigen und eines absoluten, gegen äußere
+Einflüsse sich passiv verhaltenden Teils. Willensfreiheit
+neben der durch das Milieu bedingten Ausbildung bestimmter
+Anlagen und Fähigkeiten ist der mittlere Weg, den er zwischen
+der Annahme des zwingenden Einflusses der äußeren Natur und
+der gänzlichen Unabhängigkeit von ihr einschlägt ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+p. 77.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f51'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r51'>51</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Neben dem Horizontal- wendet Bodin den Vertikalmaßstab
+zur Beurteilung der Völker an, indem er untersucht, wie die
+verschiedene Erhebung des Bodens auf die Gestaltung des Volkscharakters
+einwirkt ...</span></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ebenso wird die Natur der Völker von der Qualität des
+heimatlichen Bodens beeinflußt, ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 58.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Einfluß,
+der sich aus der östlicheren oder westlicheren Wohnlage
+auf den Volkscharakter geltend macht, ist, wo nicht in der Richtung
+Süd-Nord sich erstreckende Gebirge eine deutlichere Scheidelinie
+bilden, nach Bodin schwer zu bestimmen ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i> p. 57.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f52'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r52'>52</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Neben der Vorstellung von der geistig-sittlichen Einheit
+der Menschen geht die Erkenntnis der Verschiedenartigkeit
+der Nationen und ihres Bildungsgrades her, die aus den partikularen
+Bedingungen des nationalen Einzeldaseins resultiert. Zur
+Erklärung des Volkscharakters wird, wie schon dargelegt, die
+Theorie des Klimas herangezogen ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 62.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f53'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r53'>53</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Bodin hat sich deswegen mit der Theorie des Klimas
+beschäftigt, weil er in der Geschichte und im Völkerleben bestimmte
+regelmäßige Erscheinungen wahrnahm, die er sich nur
+aus dem Einfluß des geographischen Milieus erklären konnte.
+Bei dem strengen Festhalten an der menschlichen Willensfreiheit
+konnte er sich diesen Einfluß nur durch die Annahme einer von
+äußeren Verhältnissen abhängigen Entwicklungsfähigkeit der
+geistigen Anlagen in bestimmter Richtung erklären...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+p. 60 f.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das unbedingte Festhalten an der menschlichen
+Willensfreiheit mußte Bodin vor der Annahme bewahren, daß
+der Einfluß des geographischen Milieus auf die Menschen ein
+zwingender sei. Nur die Entwicklung der Anlagen wird von
+der Umwelt bestimmt, nicht aber das sittliche Wollen ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+p. 59.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f54'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r54'>54</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wo die äußere Natur zur Entwicklung schlechter Anlagen
+führt, besitzt nach Bodin die Menschheit in der Erziehung
+ein Mittel, diesem Übelstand zu begegnen.</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 77.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">...
+den Menschen [wird] die Fähigkeit zugesprochen ...,
+die schädlichen Einwirkungen des Klimas wenn auch schwer,
+zu überwinden ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f55'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r55'>55</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, p. 198.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f56'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r56'>56</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Den Vergleich der drei Völkergruppen [südliche,
+mittlere, nördliche] mit den menschlichen Lebensaltern hat
+Bodin von Aristoteles entlehnt, was er Meth. V 140, 141 selbst
+zugibt.</span>”—Renz, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 57.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f57'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r57'>57</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, p. 48.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f58'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r58'>58</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Haddon and Quiggin, <cite>Hist. of Anthropology</cite> (London,
+1910), p. 150.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f59'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r59'>59</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, p. 77.—For Bodin in general, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Renz, <cite>Jean Bodin</cite>;
+Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 190–200; Ludwig Stein, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Die soziale Frage im Lichte
+der Philosophie</cite>, pp. 217–19. H. Morf, <cite>Französische Literatur im
+Zeitalter der Renaissance</cite> (2. verb. Aufl., Straßburg: Trübner,
+1914)</span>, is brief on Bodin, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> esp. pp. 131 f.; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also p. 125.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f60'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r60'>60</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">E. Bernheim, <cite>Lehrbuch der historischen Methode</cite> (5.
+u. 6. Aufl, Leipzig, 1908), p. 230.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f61'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r61'>61</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Montesquieu, <cite>The Spirit of Laws</cite> (translated from the
+French by Th. Nugent, new ed., revised by J. V. Prichard, 2
+vols., London: Geo. Bell and Sons, 1906), I, 238–314.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f62'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r62'>62</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Seine [Montesquieu’s] Hervorkehrung des Einflusses,
+den Klima und Bodenbeschaffenheit auf die Soziabilität der
+Menschennatur ausüben, geht ebenfalls auf Locke, weiterhin
+auf Bodin zurück.”—L. Stein, <cite>Die soziale Frage</cite></span>, etc., p. 364.—According
+to Dutoit (<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Theorie des Milieu</span></cite>, p. 62), Montesquieu
+concealed his obligation to Bodin.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f63'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r63'>63</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 238–53.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f64'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r64'>64</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 253–69.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f65'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r65'>65</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 270–83.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f66'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r66'>66</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 284–91.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f67'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r67'>67</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 291–314.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f68'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r68'>68</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 279 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f69'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r69'>69</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 286.—(Turgot died in 1781.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f70'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r70'>70</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ripley, <cite>The Races of Europe</cite> (1899), p. 4.—Cuvier was
+twenty years younger than Goethe; both died in the same year.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f71'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r71'>71</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>E. G. Conklin, <cite>Heredity and Environment in the Development
+of Men</cite> (Princeton Univ. Press, 1915, 533 pp.), p. 303.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f72'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r72'>72</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Eckermanns Gespräche mit Goethe</cite>, neu herausgegeben v.
+H. H. Houben (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1909), p. 264.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f73'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r73'>73</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 265.—These two passages are also cited by Kupffer,
+<cite>Klima and Dichtung</cite>, p. 64.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f74'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r74'>74</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Eckermanns Gespräche mit Goethe</span></cite>, p. 542.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f75'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r75'>75</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 546.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f76'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r76'>76</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Karl Lamprecht, “Neue Kulturgeschichte” (pp. 449–64
+in Das Jahr 1913, <cite>Ein Gesamtbild der Kulturentwicklung</cite>, hg. v.
+D. Sarason, Leipzig-Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1913), p. 453.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f77'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r77'>77</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Albert Poetzsch, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Studien zur frühromantischen Politik und
+Geschichtsauffassung</span></cite> (Leipzig: Voigtländer, 1907, 111 pp.), p. 89.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f78'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r78'>78</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Einwirkung der äußeren Natur auf die Geschichte
+tritt zurück [in der romantischen Geschichtsphilosophie]</span>”; and
+in a note is added: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wenn auch der Zusammenhang von Boden
+und Geschichte, namentlich von natürl. Grenzen u. Staat,
+der Betrachtung nicht verloren geht. Vgl. A. W. Schlegel, Enz.
+216. 697.</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 94.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f79'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r79'>79</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Bernheim, <cite>Lehrb. d. hist. Methode</cite>, p. 650.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f80'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r80'>80</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 515.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f81'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r81'>81</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Ludwig Gumplowicz, <cite>Der Rassenkampf</cite> (2....
+Aufl., Innsbruck, 1909), p. 9 n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f82'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r82'>82</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> the quotation from Hegel by Gumplowicz, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p.
+13 n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f83'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r83'>83</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>This paper will carry the discussion through anthropo-geography.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f84'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r84'>84</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The whole question, including Herder’s own idea thereof
+and his indebtedness to preceding authors, both German and
+foreign, as well as his influence upon succeeding writers at home
+and abroad, his relation to his contemporaries, etc., will be
+essayed more fully in a series of papers, to be published soon,
+dealing with “Herder’s Conception of Milieu,” “Herder’s Relations
+to France,” “Herder’s Relations to England,” and “Herder
+in His Own Milieu.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f85'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r85'>85</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The term “anthropo-geography” derives from the title
+of Fr. Ratzel’s main work.—“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">... le domaine si intéressant,
+mais à peine défriché, de l’<em>anthropogéographie</em>, semble avoir acquis à
+ce mot le droit de cité dans le langage scientifique.</span>”—L. Metchnikoff,
+<cite>La Civilisation et Les Grands Fleuves Historiques</cite> (Paris,
+1889), p. 70 and n.—In England, and in America, it is commonly
+called human geography, after the French “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">la géographie humaine</span>.”
+Various names have been proposed for this subject.
+See also W. Z. Ripley, “Geography and Sociology.” The Viennese
+Erwin Hanslick, I believe, denominates it “Kulturgeographie.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f86'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r86'>86</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Walther May, “Herders Anschauung der organischen
+Natur,” <cite>Archiv f. d. Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften u. d.
+Technik</cite>, etc., Leipzig, Bd. 4 (1913, S. 8–39, 89–113), p. 91.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f87'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r87'>87</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Ferd. v. Richthofen’s Vorlesungen üb. Allgem. Siedlungs- u.
+Verkehrsgeographie</cite>, bearb. u. hg. v. O. Schlüter (Berlin, 1908),
+p. 11.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f88'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r88'>88</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Ritter selbst hat keine methodische Darstellung,
+kein Lehrgebäude gegeben; sondern nur Andeutungen, die anregend
+sind. Daher blieb Ritters Grundidee fast ohne Einfluß
+auf die Geographie; nur die Historiker haben sie sich angeeignet
+und haben seitdem größeres Gewicht auf die Landesnatur gelegt.</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+p. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f89'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r89'>89</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Cosmos, a Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe</cite>,
+translated by E. C. Otté (5 vols., New York: Harper, 1875–77),
+p. 48.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f90'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r90'>90</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Erdkunde im Verhältnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte
+des Menschen oder eine allgemeine, vergleichende Geographie</span></cite> was
+published in two volumes at Berlin in 1817–18; the second edition,
+completely revised, appeared in nineteen volumes from 1822 to
+1859, the year of his death. Neither edition is finished; the second
+deals only with Africa (vol. 1) and Asia (vols. 2–19).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f91'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r91'>91</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Naturkunde</span></cite>, etc.—See Th. Achelis, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Moderne Völkerkunde</span></cite>
+(Stuttgart, 1896), p. 71.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f92'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r92'>92</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, see Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 72 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f93'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r93'>93</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>In Felix Lampe’s book, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Große Geographen, Bilder aus der
+Geschichte der Erdkunde</cite> (Leipzig u. Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1915,
+288 S. [Band 28 der v. B. Schmid in Zwickau herausgegebenen
+“Naturwissenschaftlichen Bibliothek”])</span>, neither the chapter
+on Ritter (pp. 227–33), nor that on “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die wissenschaftliche Geographie
+der Gegenwart</span>” (pp. 281–87) is very full.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f94'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r94'>94</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Stuttgart &amp; Tübingen, 1808.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f95'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r95'>95</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Views of Nature</cite> (London, 1850), Author’s Preface, p. X.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f96'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r96'>96</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>p. 382. See Achelis, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Moderne Völkerkunde</span></cite>, pp. 88 f.—The
+relation of man to environment is also referred to in <cite>Cosmos</cite>
+(English translation by Otté), I, pp. 351–9.—<cite>Kosmos</cite> was originally
+published as follows: vols. 1 and 2 in 1845–7; vols. 3 and 4 in
+1850–8; vol. 5 in 1862.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f97'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r97'>97</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Leipzig, 1841.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f98'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r98'>98</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Kohl, <cite>Der Verkehr</cite>, etc., p. 111. See Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 80 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f99'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r99'>99</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ibid.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f100'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r100'>100</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Kohl, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 537. See Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 81 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f101'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r101'>101</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Kohl, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,—See Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 82 f.—The manifold
+influences of nature are also exemplified in Kohl’s <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die geographische
+Lage der Hauptstädte Europas</span></cite>, 1874, and <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">L. Felix, Der Einfluß
+der Natur auf die Entwicklung des Eigentums</span></cite>, 1893.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f102'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r102'>102</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über den Einfluß der äußeren Natur auf die sozialen
+Verhältnisse der einzelnen Völker und die Geschichte der Menschheit
+überhaupt, 1848</span></cite>; later published in <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Studien aus dem Gebiete
+der Naturwissenschaft</span></cite>, I, 1876.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f103'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r103'>103</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Deutschlands Boden, sein geologischer Bau und dessen
+Einwirkungen auf das Leben der Menschen</cite>, 2 Bde., Leipzig, 1854.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f104'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r104'>104</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>501 pp., Breslau: F. Hirt, 1855.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f105'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r105'>105</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Kutzen himself says in the <cite>Vorwort</cite> that he “leans on”
+Cotta; he cites the latter, for instance, on p. 466.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f106'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r106'>106</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Die Naturgeschichte des Volkes als Grundlage einer deutschen
+Sozialpolitik</cite>, vol. 1 (11th ed., Stuttgart: Cotta, 1908):
+Land und Leute.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f107'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r107'>107</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> the first Preface, written in 1853, to volume one,
+pp. VI-VII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f108'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r108'>108</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Die Naturgeschichte</cite>, etc., I, p. 42.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f109'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r109'>109</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, Vorwort zur achten Auflage, 1883, p. X.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f110'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r110'>110</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Die Naturgeschichte, etc., Vierter Band, “Wanderbuch,”
+als zweiter Teil zu “Land und Leute.”</cite> Vierte Aufl., 1903, p. 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f111'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r111'>111</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>G. P. Gooch, <cite>History and Historians in the Nineteenth
+Century</cite> (London &amp; N. Y.; Longmans, Green &amp; Co., 1913), p. 576.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f112'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r112'>112</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Gooch, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, p. 575.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f113'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r113'>113</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For Riehl’s view of milieu in a scheme of sciences, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span>
+<cite>Die Naturgeschichte</cite>, etc., I, pp. 40–2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f114'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r114'>114</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">164 pp., Meyers Volksbücher, Leipzig u. Wien: Bibliographisches
+Institut</span>, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.a.</span></i>—This essay forms the second chapter
+in Hans Meyer’s <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das deutsche Volkstum</span></cite> (2. Aufl., 1903), pp.
+41–122.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f115'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r115'>115</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Moderne Völkerkunde</span></cite>, p. 81, n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f116'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r116'>116</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>2. Aufl., 1905 (<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Aus Natur und Geisteswelt</span></cite>, 31. Bändchen,
+Leipzig: B. G. Teubner), 127 pp.—It has been translated into
+English under the title <cite>Man and Earth</cite> (London &amp; N. Y., 1906.
+Reprinted 1914, 223 pp.) by A. S. “from the second amended
+German edition,” in which are intercalated two chapters: Chapter
+V, on <cite>The British Isles and Britons</cite>, by the author; and Chapter
+VI, on <cite>America and the Americans</cite>, by the translator.—The
+first four chapters of a general nature—features of the globe, sea,
+steppes and deserts, in their influence on civilization, the influence
+of man on landscape—are followed by four chapters on
+<cite>The British Isles and Britons, America and the Americans, Germany
+and the Germans, China and the Chinese</cite>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f117'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r117'>117</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Vorlesungen</cite>, etc., delivered at Berlin in 1891 and 1897/8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f118'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r118'>118</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Es ist mehr unsere Aufgabe gewesen, in dem großen
+Getriebe der Siedlung und des Verkehrs der <em>allmählichen
+Entwicklung</em> nachzugehen, das steigende Maß der Überwindung
+von Widerständen durch den Menschen zu zeigen, die Kräfte
+zu untersuchen, welche in der Entwicklung wirksam sind,—als
+bei der großen Fülle des Tatsächlichen der heutigen Zeit zu
+verweilen.</span>” <cite>Vorlesungen</cite>, p. 351.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f119'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r119'>119</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>It will be noted that Herder is not mentioned here.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f120'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r120'>120</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ellen C. Semple, <cite>Influences of Geographic Environment</cite>
+(N. Y., 1911), p. V.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f121'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r121'>121</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“In Germany the exponents of these theories [of environmental
+influence] were Cotta and Kohl, and later Peschel, Kirchhof,
+Bastian, and Gerland; but the greatest name of all is that of
+Fr. Ratzel, who has written the standard work on <cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>.”—Haddon
+and Quiggin, <cite>Hist. of Anthropology</cite> (London,
+1910), p. 152.—The first vol. of Ratzel’s <cite>Anthropogeographie</cite> was
+published in 1882, 2nd ed. in 1899, the second vol. in 1897.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f122'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r122'>122</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>As further illustration, it might be instructive to compare
+here the chapter headings of Semple’s <cite>Influences of Geographic
+Environment</cite>, which book was written “On the Basis of Ratzel’s
+System of Anthropo-geography.” They are as follows: I—Operation
+of Geographic Factors in History (1–31); II—Classes
+of Geographic Influences (22–50); III—Society and State in
+Relation to the Land (51–73); IV—Movements of Peoples in
+Their Geographical Significance (74–128); V—Geographical
+Location (129–67); VI—Geographical Area (168–203); VII—Geographical
+Boundaries (204–41); VIII—Coast Peoples (242–91);
+IX—Oceans and Enclosed Seas (292–317); X—Man’s Relation
+to the Water (318–35); XI—The Anthropo-geography of
+Rivers (336–80); XII—Continents and Their Peninsulas (380–408);
+XIII—Island Peoples (409–72); XIV—Plains, Steppes and
+Deserts (473–523); XV—Mountain Barriers and Their Passes
+(524–56); XVI—Influences of a Mountain Environment (557–606);
+XVII—The Influences of Climate upon Man (607–37).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f123'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r123'>123</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Richthofen’s Vorlesungen</cite>, p. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f124'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r124'>124</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>1897; 2. Aufl. 1903.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f125'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r125'>125</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Diese [die enge Erdgebundenheit] in ihrer ganzen tiefgreifenden
+Bedeutung für das staatliche Leben erkannt und
+dargelegt zu haben, bleibt freilich für immer ein großes Verdienst
+der ‘Politischen Geographie’ ...”—O. Schlüter, “Die
+leitenden Gesichtspunkte d. Anthropogeogr.,” <em>Arch. f. Sozialwiss.</em>,
+Bd. IV, p. 620.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f126'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r126'>126</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Richthofen, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f127'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r127'>127</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>2 vols., München, 1893; see vol. 2, 2nd ed.: <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Politische
+Geographie der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, unter besonderer
+Berücksichtigung der natürlichen Bedingungen u. wirtschaftlichen
+Verhältnisse</span></cite> (763 pp.), esp. pp. 1–176.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f128'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r128'>128</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>London, 1896 (this is a translation of his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Völkerkunde</span></cite>,
+1887/8), <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> the opening pp. of vol. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f129'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r129'>129</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>In Helmolt, <cite>The History of the World</cite> (N. Y., 1902), vol.
+1, pp. 62–103, where Ratzel discusses in turn The Coherence of
+Countries, The Relation of Man to the Collective Life of the Earth,
+Races and States as Organisms, Historical Movement, Natural
+Regions, Climate and Location, Geographical Situation, Area,
+Population, The Water-Oceans, Seas, and Rivers, Conformation
+of the Earth’s Surface.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f130'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r130'>130</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>London &amp; N. Y.: Longmans, 1915.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f131'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r131'>131</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See <cite>The Nation</cite>, N. Y., March 18, 1915, p. 310.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f132'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r132'>132</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Paris, 1911, 420 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f133'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r133'>133</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Semple, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. VI; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also Ratzel, <cite>Anthropogeogr.</cite>, I,<sup>2</sup> p.
+XII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f134'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r134'>134</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Archiv f. Sozialwissenschaft</cite>, Bd. IV (1906), pp. 581–630.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f135'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r135'>135</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For Ratzel, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Paul Barth, <cite>Die Philosophie der Geschichte
+als Soziologie</cite>, I (Leipzig: Reisland, 1897), pp. 227–30</span>;
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Jean Brunhes, <cite>La Géographie Humaine</cite>, 2<sup>e</sup> éd. (Paris: Alcan,
+1912), pp. 39–47.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f136'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r136'>136</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Buckle, History of Civilization (1867), p. 32 n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f137'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r137'>137</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Robertson, <cite>Buckle and his Critics</cite> (London, 1895), p. 8 n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f138'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r138'>138</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>4. vols., 1822–3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f139'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r139'>139</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 577–9. See also p. 576.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f140'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r140'>140</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide supra</span></i> my note no. 84.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f141'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r141'>141</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 467.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f142'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r142'>142</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>The History of Civilization from the Fall of the Roman Empire
+to the French Revolution</cite> (4 vols., translated by Wm. Hazlitt,
+N. Y.: D. Appleton &amp; Co., 1867—the lectures were delivered in
+the years 1828, 1829, and 1830), vol. 2, pp. 109 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f143'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r143'>143</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Gothein had attracted attention by a study of the civilisation
+of Southern Italy, which he had traversed on foot as Riehl
+had traversed the Palatinate.”—Gooch, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 587.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f144'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r144'>144</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Voila pourquoi il [Michelet] va en Italie avant d’écrire
+son <cite>Histoire Romaine</cite>; il veut avoir l’impression, le contact du
+sol, du climat, du paysage.”—Lanson, <cite>Hist. de la Litt. Franç.</cite>
+(1912), p. 1021 n.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f145'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r145'>145</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Abry-Audic-Crouzet, <cite>Littérature Française</cite> (3<sup>e</sup> éd., Paris,
+1916), p. 580.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f146'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r146'>146</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Jules Simon, <cite>Mignet, Michelet, Henri Martin</cite> (Paris, 1890),
+p. 191.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f147'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r147'>147</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 540.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f148'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r148'>148</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Philos. Erdk. als wissenschaftliche Darstellung der Erdverhältnisse
+u. des Menschenlebens nach ihrem inneren Zusammenhange</span></cite>,
+2 vols., Braunschweig, 1845; the 2nd ed. appeared in 1868
+under the title <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Allgemeine Vergleichende Erdkunde</span></cite>.—This book
+holds a high place in Ratzel’s estimation: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Kapp, dessen Philos.
+Erdk. eine tiefgedachte, von überragendem philosophischem
+Standpunkte aus gewonnene Übersicht der Naturbedingtheit
+des Geschichtsverlaufes in den größten Zügen entrollt, ...”—Ratzel,
+<cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>, I<sup>2</sup>, p. 34.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f149'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r149'>149</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 76 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f150'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r150'>150</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Brunhes, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 38 n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f151'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r151'>151</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Boston, 1849—It has been translated into English under
+the title <cite>The Earth and man, or Physical geography in its relation
+to the history of mankind, Slightly abridged, etc.</cite> (London: Parker,
+1852), and into German as <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Grundzüge der vergleichenden physikalischen
+Erdkunde in ihrer Beziehung zur Geschichte des Menschen</span></cite>
+(1851).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f152'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r152'>152</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>(N. Y.: D. Appleton &amp; Co., 1867—first published in
+1857–61), vol. I, pp. 29–106: Influence exercised by physical
+laws over the organization of society and over the character of
+individuals.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f153'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r153'>153</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Buckle and his Critics</cite>, London, 1895, 548 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f154'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r154'>154</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Camille Vallaux, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie Sociale</span></cite> (Paris, 1911), p. 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f155'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r155'>155</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide supra</span></i>, p. 46 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f156'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r156'>156</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>, I<sup>2</sup>, p. 87.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f157'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r157'>157</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The German original appeared in 1857–67, and the English
+translation by A. W. Ward in 1868–73.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f158'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r158'>158</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>New York: Scribner, vol. I (1871), pp. 9–46; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> esp. pp.
+9–25, 34, 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f159'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r159'>159</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Boden und Klima von Athen. Rede in der öffentlichen
+Sitzung</cite> [<em>der Kgl. Akademie der Wissenschaften</em>] <em>am Leibniztage
+5. Juli 1877</em> (15 pp.).</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f160'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r160'>160</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For the same, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">H. Koester “Über den Einfluß
+landschaftlicher Verhältnisse auf die Entwicklung des attischen
+Volkscharakters” (Progr., Saarbrücken, 1898).</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f161'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r161'>161</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>E.g. by Ratzel, jointly with Curtius’ account thereof.
+Cf. <cite>Anthropogeogr.</cite>, I<sup>2</sup>, p. 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f162'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r162'>162</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>In 12 vols., vol. II (London: John Murray, 1869), Part
+II, ch. I, pp. 213–37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f163'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r163'>163</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Political effects of locality: strengthened defense; difficulty
+of attack; politically disunited; indefinite multiplication of self-governing
+cities.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f164'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r164'>164</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Intellectual effects of locality: the geographical position
+made them mountaineers and mariners; variety of experience;
+each petty community possessed an individual life, yet sympathized
+with the remainder; commerce with a great diversity of half-country-men;
+Grecian festivals; Homer dependent upon the conditions
+of his age.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f165'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r165'>165</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Oxford, Clarendon Press (1911, 454 pp.), pp. 13–64. “It
+is now generally admitted that neither an individual nor a nation
+can be properly understood without a knowledge of their surroundings
+and means of support—in other words, of their geographical
+and economic conditions.”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, Preface, p. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f166'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r166'>166</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Zimmern refers in this book—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">e.g.</span></i> p. 18, 41, 43, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et al.</span></i>—to
+the writings of Myres: “Greek Lands and the Greek People,”
+“Herodotus and Anthropology” (in “Anthropology and the Classics”),
+and “The Geographical Aspect of Greek Colonization”
+(in <cite>Proceedings of the Classical Association</cite>, vol. VIII—1911).—Cf.
+also H. Dondorff, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Das hellenische Land als Schauplatz der
+althellenischen Geschichte, in Sammlung gemeinverständlicher
+wissenschaftlicher Vorträge, begründet von Virchow u. Holtzendorf</cite>,
+1889, Neue Folge, Serie 3, Heft 72.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f167'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r167'>167</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Revised ed., in 2 vols. (N. Y.: Harper &amp; Brothers, 1876).
+The Preface of the first ed. is dated 1861.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f168'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r168'>168</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Heinrich Boehmer, <cite>Geschichte der Entwicklung der naturwissenschaftlichen
+Weltanschauung in Deutschland</cite> (Gotha, 1872,
+232 pp.), p. 195: “... Herdersche Ideen waren leitend für
+den Aufbau der Geschichte.”</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f169'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r169'>169</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Leipzig, 1878–86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f170'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r170'>170</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cited by Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 84.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f171'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r171'>171</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, pp. 85 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f172'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r172'>172</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f173'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r173'>173</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Indessen darf man nicht vergessen, daß die allgemeine
+Gestalt der Kontinente und der Meere und aller besonderer
+Züge der Erde in der Geschichte der Menschheit einen
+wesentlich wechselnden Wert besitzen, je nach dem Stande der
+Kultur, auf welchem die Nationen angelangt sind ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f174'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r174'>174</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 87.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f175'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r175'>175</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Paris, 1886.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f176'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r176'>176</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> P. Barth, <cite>Die Philosophie der Geschichte als Soziologie</cite>
+(Leipzig, 1897), p. 230.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f177'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r177'>177</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Barth, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 231 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f178'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r178'>178</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 233.—Mougeoulle makes the milieu account for
+the great men in history, the great popular epics, social and
+historical life in general; the tendencies of the three historical
+schools—German, French, and English—are connected with the
+differences in the milieus of their respective countries.—Cf.
+<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, pp. 230–2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f179'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r179'>179</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>Avec une Préface de M. Élisée Réclus</em> (Paris: Hachette,
+1889, 369 pp.), pp. 53–71.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f180'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r180'>180</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 156; 130.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f181'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r181'>181</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 154; 157 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f182'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r182'>182</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 278; 190 ff.; 188; 135.—But why does he confine
+himself to these four countries?</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f183'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r183'>183</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 185; 364. For a general statement on the significance
+of rivers, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, pp. 188–90. The particular nature of
+the rivers of the “territoire des civilisations fluviales” imposed
+on the inhabitants the yoke of despotism.—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 161.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f184'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r184'>184</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, pp. 364 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f185'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r185'>185</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 364.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f186'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r186'>186</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">e.g.</span></i>, p. 128; 224–27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f187'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r187'>187</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>His general theory is stated on pp. 39–42, 53–71, 79 f.,
+89, 99 f., 102–60. Chapter 7, pp. 161–90, is a general discussion
+of the geographical environment of the “Civilisations Fluviales,”
+followed successively by a detailed treatment of “Le Nil” (ch.
+8, pp. 191–234), of “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Tigre et L’Euphrate</span>” (ch. 9, pp. 235–78),
+of “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Indus et Le Gange</span>” (ch. 10, pp. 279–319), of “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Hoang-Ho
+et Le Yangtse-Kiang</span>” (ch. 11, pp. 320–66).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f188'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r188'>188</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>W. D. Babington, <cite>Fallacies of Race Theories as Applied
+to National Characteristics</cite> (Longmans, Green &amp; Co., 1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f189'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r189'>189</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. Y., Scribner, 1893, 290 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f190'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r190'>190</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For the rôle of the physical milieu in American history,
+<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also: Justin Winsor, <cite>The Mississippi Basin, The Struggle in
+America between England and France: 1697–1763</cite> (Boston &amp; N.
+Y., 1898) [influence of geography over history during colonization
+and settlement]; Frederick Jackson Turner, <cite>Rise of the New
+West</cite>: 1819–1829 (N. Y. &amp; London: Harper &amp; Brothers, 1906)
+[vol. 14 of <cite>The American Nation, A History</cite>, ed. by A. B. Hart, in
+27 vols. In the Author’s Preface, p. XVII, Turner remarks:
+“In the present volume I have kept before myself the importance
+of regarding American development as the outcome of economic
+and social as well as political forces.” And, he should have added,
+of geographical environment. <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> especially the first half of
+his book for the working out of his milieu idea]; James Bryce,
+<cite>The American Commonwealth</cite>, (2 vols., new ed., completely revised,
+N. Y.: Macmillan, 1910–11) [see vol. 2, ch. 91 (pp. 449–68),
+“The home of the nation,” for a statement of the influence of
+physical conditions on American history]; E. C. Semple, <cite>American
+History and Its Geographic Conditions</cite> (Boston &amp; N. Y.: Houghton,
+Mifflin &amp; Co., 1903, 435 pp.) [regarded, I believe, as one of the
+best treatises on the subject]; A. P. Brigham, <cite>Geographic Influences
+in American History</cite> (Boston: Ginn, 1903, 355 pp.) [a concrete
+essay; has much physiography; includes present conditions];
+A. M. Simons, <cite>Social Forces in American History</cite> (N. Y.: Macmillan,
+1914, 325 pp.) [a discussion of the effect of the industrial
+and economic environment on social institutions in America];
+perhaps it may be added here that some American universities
+offer a course on the relation of geography to American history.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f191'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r191'>191</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Ripley, “Geography and Sociology” (1895), p. 637;
+and Ripley, <cite>The Races of Europe</cite> (1899), pp. 4 ff.; for titles of
+their writings on this subject, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, pp. 4–6 nn., and “Geogr.
+and Soc.,” pp. 654 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f192'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r192'>192</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>8 vols., N. Y., Dodd, Mead &amp; Co., 1902–7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f193'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r193'>193</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Bryce’s article in Helmolt’s <cite>Hist. of the World</cite>, vol.
+1, p. XL.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f194'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r194'>194</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Anderseits wieder hat ja Helmolt in seinem geschichtlichen
+Sammelwerke im Geiste Ratzels den Versuch gemacht, ein
+Gesamtgeschichtsbild auf geographischer Grundlage aufzubauen,
+so daß kein Teil der Ökumene aus der Weltgeschichte ausgeschlossen
+bleibt.”—L. Gumplowicz, Der <cite>Rassenkampf</cite> (2 ....
+Aufl., 1909), p. 403 (Anhang).</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f195'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r195'>195</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... die bisherigen Weltgeschichten waren gar keine
+Geschichte der Welt oder auch nur unserer Welt, sondern einzig
+eine solche der Kulturnationen. Mit dieser Gepflogenheit hat
+Helmolts Werk in ebenso glücklicher wie origineller Weise gebrochen,
+indem es zum ersten Male die Länder- und Völkerkunde
+in den Dienst der Weltgeschichtsdarstellung hineinzog.</span>”—From
+a review of the first ed. of <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Helmolts Weltgeschichte</span></cite> (1899) in the
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Braunschweigische Landeßeitung</span>” (February 4, 1908), quoted
+in the prospectus of the second German edition.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f196'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r196'>196</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century</cite> (London,
+1913).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f197'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r197'>197</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Second ed., Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1903, 288 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f198'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r198'>198</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>George, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. V (Preface).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f199'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r199'>199</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, pp. 111 f.—George cites no authorities or sources;
+he has no bibliography; he does not quote a single book in his
+discussion; he has no <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Auseinandersetzung</span></i> with his predecessors
+in the field; and finally, he gives no clue as to the origin of his
+data.—Chaps. 1–8 (pp. 1–110) are the general part of the book;
+chaps. 9–20 (pp. 111–282) deal with: The Outlines of Europe,
+The British Islands, France, The Spanish Peninsula, Italy, The
+Alpine Passes, Switzerland, The Rhineland, The Baltic Region,
+The Danube Basin, Theatres of European War, The Mediterranean
+Basin.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f200'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r200'>200</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A. W. Small, <cite>General Sociology</cite> (Chicago, 1905), p. 53.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f201'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r201'>201</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The distinguished Italian historian is the son-in-law of
+the late eminent Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f202'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r202'>202</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Jean Brunhes, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Géographie Humaine</span></cite> (<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">2<sup>e</sup> éd.</span>, Paris,
+1912), p. 721.—For references to historical works dealing with
+history on a geographical basis, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">(1<sup>e</sup> éd., Paris, 1910), ch.
+X, 1: L’esprit géographique dans les sciences économiques, sociales
+et historiques</span> (pp. 739 ff., esp. 774 ff. [Michelet, Vidal de la
+Blache, Th. Reinach, A. Leroy-Beaulieu, C. Jullian, A. Harnack,
+H. F. Helmolt, G. Ferrero, E. C. Semple, Erwin Hanslick, &amp; o.]).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f203'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r203'>203</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Die geographischen Grundlagen der österreichisch-ungarischen
+Monarchie u. ihrer Außenpolitik</cite> (Leipzig u. Berlin: B. G.
+Teubner, 1915).</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f204'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r204'>204</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See the review of Sieger’s book by Edwin Rollett in the
+<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Österreichische Rundschau</span></cite>, Bd. 43, H. 4 (15. Mai 1915), pp. 188 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f205'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r205'>205</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Boston &amp; N. Y., Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co., 1907.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f206'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r206'>206</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cf. esp. ch. 18 (pp. 359–85) for a summary of conclusions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f207'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r207'>207</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">e.g.</span></i> James Harvey Robinson’s <cite>The New History,
+Essays Illustrating the Modern Historical Outlook</cite> (N. Y.: Macmillan,
+1912), for references to the theory of milieu, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> esp. p.
+64, 73, 76 f., 92 f., 97 f., 124–6, 144, 145 f., 247, 253–7, and ch. 3
+(pp. 70 ff.): The new allies of history. Or take for choice the
+title of a recent book by Charles A. Beard: <cite>An Economic Interpretation
+of American Politics</cite> (Macmillan, 1916), to be further
+persuaded of the attention bestowed by historians on the
+milieu. Or, see works by Seligman and J. T. Shotwell.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f208'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r208'>208</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> C. Vallaux, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie Sociale, Le Sol et L’État</span></cite>
+(Paris, 1911), p. 23.—Such economists as Blanqui, Bastiat, and
+J.—B. Say, brought to light the geographical bases of the material
+life of societies. The sociologists themselves, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bien que leur
+science soit jeune, n’ont pas toujours oublié le cadre naturel et
+la position terrestre des agrégats qu’ils étudient. Par tous ces
+chercheurs de tendances diverses, la géographie humaine et la
+géographie politique ont progressé tout autant que par les efforts
+des géographes proprement dits</span>.”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f209'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r209'>209</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">E. Bernheim, <cite>Lehrbuch der historischen Methode</cite> (5. u.
+6. Aufl., Leipzig, 1908), p. 316; 636.—Cf. also E. Fr. Th. Lindner,
+<cite>Geschichtsphilosophie, das Wesen der geschichtlichen Entwicklung</cite>
+(2. erweiterte u. umgearb. Aufl., Stuttg. u. Berlin: Cotta, 1904,
+241 pp.), 2. Abschnitt (pp. 23–34): Die Veränderung, but more
+esp. 10. Abschnitt (pp. 217–41): Die Ursachen u. die Weise der
+Entwicklung.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f210'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r210'>210</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For orientation and literature on views opposing the naturalistic
+interpretation of history, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> L. Stein, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Philosophische
+Strömungen der Gegenwart</span></cite> (Stuttgart, Verl. v. F. Enke, 1908),
+pp. 430 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f211'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r211'>211</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See G. P. Gooch, <cite>History and Historians in the Nineteenth
+Century</cite> (London &amp; N. Y.: Longmans, Green &amp; Co., 1913), p.
+573; see ch. 28 (pp. 573–94): “The History of Civilisation;”
+also <cite>The Cambridge Modern History</cite> [ed. by A. W. Ward and others,
+Cambridge: The Univ. Press, 1910], vol. 12: <cite>The Latest Age</cite>,
+ch. 26 (pp. 816 ff.: “The Growth of Historical Science” by G.
+P. Gooch).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f212'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r212'>212</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Economic Geography</cite> (N. Y.: Macmillan, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.a.</span></i>—1915?—;
+not earlier than 1910, for statistics for that year are given in
+the text; 560 pp.), p. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f213'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r213'>213</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Since his [Buckle’s] time much more has been done, not
+only in studying, as Buckle himself did, the immediate influence
+of climate and soil, but also in explaining the allied field of the
+effect of the fauna and the flora on social development. The
+subject of the domestication of animals, for instance, and its
+profound effect on human progress has not only been investigated
+by a number of recent students [especially E. Hahn, <cite>Die Haustiere
+u. ihre Beziehung zur Wirtschaft des Menschen</cite>, 1896], but
+has been made the very basis of the explanation of early American
+civilization by one of the most brilliant and most learned of
+recent historians [Payne, <cite>History of the New World called America</cite>;
+esp. vol. 1, bk. II]. A Russian scholar has shown in detail the
+connection between the great rivers and the progress of humanity,
+and the whole modern study of economic geography is but an
+expansion on broader lines of the same idea.”—Edwin R. A.
+Seligman, <cite>The Economic Interpretation of History</cite> (N. Y.: The
+Columbia Univ. Press, 1902, 166 pp.), pp. 13 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f214'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r214'>214</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Wm. Morris Davis, <cite>Geographical Essays</cite>, ed. by D. W.
+Johnson (Ginn &amp; Co.: Boston, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.a.</span></i>, copyright 1909), esp. the
+first two essays: “An inductive study of the content of geography”
+(1906), pp. 3–22, and “The progress of geography in the
+schools” (1902), pp. 23–69.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f215'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r215'>215</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>In an address delivered at the dedication of Julius Rosenwald
+Hall, printed in <cite>The University of Chicago Magazine</cite> (vol.
+VII, No. 6—April, 1915—, pp. 175–8) under the title “Some
+Matters of History.” See p. 177.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f216'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r216'>216</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Felix Lampe, in <cite>Große Geographen</cite> (Leipzig, 1915), has
+a rather brief chapter (pp. 281–7) on “Die wissenschaftliche
+Geographie der Gegenwart.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f217'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r217'>217</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See the Introductory Essay by the Right Hon. [now
+Viscount] James Bryce in Helmolt’s <cite>Hist. of the World</cite>, vol. 1,
+pp. I-LX, esp. pp. XXV-XLI.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f218'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r218'>218</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A. J. Herbertson and F. D. Herbertson, <cite>Man and his
+Work, an Introduction to Human Geography</cite> (London: Black,
+1909, 132 pp.), p. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f219'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r219'>219</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. Y., G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908, 363 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f220'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r220'>220</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“In the chapters on the life of man in the different zones,
+I have made liberal use of Ratzel’s <cite>Anthropogeographie</cite> (2d ed.,
+Stuttgart, 1899).”—Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. VI.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f221'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r221'>221</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. V.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f222'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r222'>222</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. Y. and London, 1911. See ch. 4, pp. 94–129.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f223'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r223'>223</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Paris, 1911, 420 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f224'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r224'>224</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide supra</span></i>, p. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f225'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r225'>225</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Die soziale Geographie, hauptsächlich von Bastian und
+Ratzel tiefer begründet, wird gegenwärtig immer sorgsamer
+ausgebaut und hat namentlich in dem Wiener Erwin Hanslick
+einen eifrigen Förderer, der auf die Ermittlung von geographischen
+Kulturgrenzen ausgeht. In andrer Weise nimmt von ihr
+Willy Hellpach seinen Ausgang, der Geographie, Psychologie
+und Soziologie zu einem neuen Gebiet zu vereinigen sucht.”—Rudolf
+Goldscheid, “Soziologie” in <cite>Das Jahr 1913, Ein Gesamtbild
+der Kulturentwicklung</cite>, herausgegeben von D. Sarason (Leipzig
+und Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1913), p. 432.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f226'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r226'>226</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1911, 368 pp.—“Hier [in Hellpach’s
+book] wird alles zusammengefaßt, was über den Einfluß
+von ‘Wetter, Klima und Landschaft’ auf das Seelenleben bekannt
+ist.”—Otto Schlüter, “Anthropogeographie” in <cite>Das Jahr 1913</cite>,
+etc., p. 401.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f227'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r227'>227</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Hellpach, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 4.—Chiefly with those of the
+atmosphere; he devotes nine pages (98–107) to the telluric elements
+of the weather, and 87 pages (230–317) to the third main
+part of the book: “Landschaft und Seelenleben.” For soil as
+a co-factor, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also the ch. “Klimawechsel” in Part II (pp. 118–38).
+Hellpach defines Landschaft (p. 230) as follows: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Unter
+Landschaft verstehen wir den <em>sinnlichen</em> Gesamteindruck, der
+von einem Stück der Oberfläche und dem dazu gehörigen Abschnitt
+des Himmelsgewölbes in uns erweckt wird. ... das
+<em>sicht</em>bare Landschaftsbild bildet unter allen Umständen den
+Kern dessen, was wir Landschaft nennen ...</span> [And he adds
+that for an investigation of the effect of Landscape upon the human
+soul] <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">sind die nicht-optischen sinnlichen Eigenschaften
+der Landschaft von unentbehrlicher Bedeutung: Töne und
+Geräusche, Düfte und Gerüche und eine höchst verwickelte
+Summe von Affizierungen der Berührungs-, Temperatur-, ja
+zuweilen der Schmerzempfindlichkeit erst bilden mit Farben und
+Formen zusammen das natürliche Ganze, das wir in seelischen
+Wirkungen als <em>Landschaft</em> erleben.</span>”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f228'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r228'>228</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i>, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">e.g.</span></i>, p. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f229'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r229'>229</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Hellpach himself testifies (p. 318) that his book is a
+“Sammlung der Tatsachen.” Cf. also Schlüter’s opinion cited
+above in note no. 226.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f230'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r230'>230</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Manifestly, this is to be understood as a virtue in Hellpach,
+and not as a fault, since this conviction is gained only by dint of
+Hellpach’s clear delimitation of the scope of his work; it constitutes
+one of the results of his own labor.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f231'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r231'>231</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Schlüter’s art. in <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Jahr 1913</span></cite>, p. 402.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f232'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r232'>232</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Paris, 1910; 2nd ed. 1912.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f233'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r233'>233</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For a statement of principles (theoretical exposition),
+<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> the first two chaps. (pp. 1–92); for a summary, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> ch. X, section
+2 (pp. 780–9): “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le facteur psychologique dans les phénomènes
+naturels et l’activité humaine,</span>” and section 3 (pp. 790–807):
+“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’adaptation humaine aux conditions géographiques</span>.” In the
+preface to the second ed., there are quoted seven pages from a
+review of the first ed. of Brunhes’ work by Paul Mantoux, wherein
+the scope, content, and import of the first ed. are succinctly
+summarized.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f234'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r234'>234</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. Y., 1911, 637 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f235'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r235'>235</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Wm. J. Thomas, <cite>Source Book for Social Origins</cite>
+(Chicago and London, 1909), p. 138 (Bibliogr. to Part I).—Without
+fear of contradiction, it may be said that the best two
+recent treatises on human geography are those by Brunhes and
+Semple.—For a brief concrete anthropo-geographical sketch,
+besides the works previously cited, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">W. Ule, <cite>Grundriß
+der Allgemeinen Erdkunde</cite> (2. verm. Aufl., Leipzig: S. Hirzel,
+1915, 487 pp.), pp. 361 ff.</span> See also the brief résumé in G. Schmoller’s
+<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Grundr. d. Allgem. Volkswirtschaftslehre</span></cite> (Leipzig, 1901),
+pp. 144 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f236'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r236'>236</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Unverkennbar ist es, daß die Naturgewalten in ihren
+bedingenden Einflüssen auf das Persönliche der Völkerentwicklung
+immer mehr und mehr zurückweichen mußten, in demselben
+Maße wie diese vorwärts schritten. Sie übten im Anfange der
+Menschengeschichte als Naturimpulse über die ersten Entwicklungen
+in der Wiege der Menschheit einen sehr entscheidenden
+Einfluß aus, dessen Differenzen wir vielleicht noch in dem Naturschlage
+der verschiedenen Menschenrassen oder ihrer physisch
+verschiedenen Völkergruppen aus einer gänzlich unbekannten
+Zeit wahrzunehmen vermochten. Aber dieser Einfluß mußte
+abnehmen, ... Die zivilisierte Menschheit entwindet sich nach
+und nach, ebenso wie der einzelne Mensch, den unmittelbar bedingenden
+Fesseln der Natur und ihres Wohnortes. Die Einflüsse
+derselben Naturverhältnisse und derselben tellurischen
+Weltstellungen der erfüllten Räume bleiben sich also nicht durch
+alle Zeiten gleich.</span>” Ritter, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>; see Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 74 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et
+seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f237'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r237'>237</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Man ist in Nachfolge C. Ritters vielfach geneigt, anzunehmen,
+daß die Natureinflüsse sich mit zunehmender Kultur
+immer weniger geltend machen.”—E. Bernheim, <cite>Lehrb. d. hist.
+Methode</cite> (Leipzig, 1908), p. 642.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f238'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r238'>238</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Theo. Waitz, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Anthropologie der Naturvölker</span></cite>, I (Leipzig,
+1859), p. 341; see Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 185.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f239'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r239'>239</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Die Einteilung der Menschheit war nur geographisch-historisch
+möglich. Denn der Mensch steht in fester Abhängigkeit,
+in engstem Verbande zu der Natur, aus und an welcher er
+sich entwickelt hat, zur Natur der Erde, welcher letzteren kleiner,
+aber integrierender Teil er ist. Auch seine Entwicklung ist
+noch im Steigen, aber nur im Bereiche seines inneren, geistigen
+Lebens ... je höher der Mensch steigt, um so mehr macht
+er sich von dem zwingenden Einfluß der Erde frei; und wenn er
+demselben auch nie ganz entgehen wird, da er Nahrung braucht,
+von der Schwere sich nicht loslösen kann, so ist dennoch diese
+immer wachsende Freiheit ... eine stärkende ... Aussicht
+für die Zukunft ...”—<cite>Anthropologische Beiträge</cite>, 1. Bd.
+(Halle, 1875), p. 423</span>; see Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 227.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f240'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r240'>240</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Principles of Sociology</cite>, I, sec. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f241'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r241'>241</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Vide Ripley, “Geography and Sociology,” p. 649.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f242'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r242'>242</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection</cite>, p. 319;
+cited by E. B. Tylor in the article “Anthropology,” <cite>Ency. Brit.</cite>
+(11th ed.), vol. 2, p. 114.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f243'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r243'>243</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Réclus, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, (1879); quoted by Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 86 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f244'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r244'>244</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“... je crois, que la civilisation dans son premier
+stade dépend bien plus du milieu physique et tellurique, qu’aux
+époques suivantes.”—Aug. Matteuzzi, <cite>Les Facteurs de l’Évolution
+des Peuples</cite> (Paris, 1900), p. 29. “... Tout ceci nous amène
+à affirmer ce fait, que les premières civilisations, dans des milieux
+favorables, eurent une relation étroite avec la culture du sol; et
+que dans un développement ultérieur, ce rapport se relâcha ...”</span>—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+p. 25. For best summaries of immense material collected
+on the relation of primitive human life to environment,
+see the five papers in the <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1895: “Relation
+of Primitive Peoples to Environment” by J. W. Powell (pp.
+625 ff.); “Influence of Environment upon Human Industries
+or Arts” by O. T. Mason (pp. 639 ff.); “The Japanese Nation—A
+Typical Product of Environment” by G. G. Hubbard (pp.
+667 ff.); “The Tusayan Ritual: A Study of the Influence of
+Environment on Aboriginal Cults” by J. W. Fewkes (pp. 683 ff.);
+and, probably the best of the five, “The Relation of Institutions
+to Environment” by the eminent ethnologist W. J. McGee (pp.
+701 ff.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f245'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r245'>245</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Anthropogeogr.</cite>, I<sup>2</sup>: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Mensch und die Umwelt</span>” (pp.
+41–65).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f246'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r246'>246</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Geogr. and Sociol.,” p. 650.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f247'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r247'>247</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See his presidential address on the Origin of Man before
+the Section of Anthropology (<cite>Report of the British Association
+for the Advancement of Science, 1912</cite>; London, 1913), p. 576.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f248'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r248'>248</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>The Positive Philosophy of Aug. Comte, Freely Translated
+and Condensed by Harriet Martineau</cite> (In 2 vols., 3rd ed., London,
+1893—the original appeared from 1830–42), vol. 2, p. 96.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f249'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r249'>249</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Aug. Comte’s Positive Philosophie im Außug von I. Rig,
+Übersetzt von Kirchmann</span></cite> (2 Bde, Heidelberg, 1883), S. 94 ff.;
+Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 130.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f250'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r250'>250</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>A System of Logic</cite> (New Impression; London: Longmans,
+Green &amp; Co., 1911—first published in 1843), p. 572.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f251'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r251'>251</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A. Schäffle, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Bau und Leben des sozialen Körpers</span></cite>, Tübingen,
+1875, 2. Aufl., 1881; Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 161.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f252'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r252'>252</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Post’s general attitude is best seen in his ‘Introduction
+to the Study of Ethnological Jurisprudence,’ which was published
+in 1886, and in his ‘African Jurisprudence’ of 1887.”—John L.
+Myres, “The Influence of Anthropology on the Course of Political
+Science” (Presidential address to the Anthropological Section
+of the British Assoc. for the Advancement of Science), <cite>Report
+Brit. Assoc., 1909</cite> (London, 1910), p. 613.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f253'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r253'>253</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Myres, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, pp. 613 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f254'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r254'>254</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 231.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f255'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r255'>255</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See the 4th ch. of his <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie Sociale</span></cite> (Paris, 1911):
+“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Agents et Caractères Physiques Considérés Isolément</span>” (pp.
+92–144).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f256'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r256'>256</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“... as political and legal institutions are indissolubly
+bound up with social and religious, it follows inevitably that the
+political and legal institutions of a race cradled in Northern
+Europe are exceedingly ill adapted for the children of the equator.
+Accordingly in any wise administration of these regions it must
+be a primary object to study the native institutions, to modify
+... them ..., but never to seek to eradicate and supplant
+them. Any attempt to do so will be but vain, for these institutions
+are as much part of the land as are its climate, its soil, its
+fauna, and its flora. ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret.</span>’”—The
+Application of Zoological Laws to Man, in
+<cite>Rep. Brit. Assoc, f. the Adv. of Sci., 1908</cite> (London, 1909), p. 843.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f257'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r257'>257</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 310 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f258'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r258'>258</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> pp. 141–75 in <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Weltkrieg im Unterricht, Vorschläge
+u. Anregungen</span></cite>, etc. (Gotha: F. A. Perthes), esp. pp 163–5;
+he also discusses other phases of the relation between physical
+environment and the present war.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f259'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r259'>259</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>I: <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Deutsche Rundschau</span></cite>, April, 1915, pp. 78–91, and II
+(Schluß): <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, May, 1915, pp. 207–17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f260'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r260'>260</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">In <cite>Monatshefte für den Naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht</cite>,
+1. Kriegsheft von Bastian Schmid (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1915).</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f261'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r261'>261</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cf. Gooch, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 585 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f262'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r262'>262</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See his Introduction to Dexter’s <cite>Weather Influences</cite> (N. Y.,
+1904), p. XXIV.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f263'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r263'>263</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Les Facteurs de L’Évolution des Peuples</cite> (Paris, 1900), p.
+25, 29, 27.—“C’est dans l’intensité de l’effort dirigé par les groupes
+sociaux contre les résistances du milieu, que réside la première
+impulsion vers la civilisation.”</span>—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f264'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r264'>264</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>But he adds, “... no disturbing causes, acting on social
+development, could do more than to affect its rate of progress.
+This is true of the operation of influences from the inorganic
+world, as of all others. In our view of biology we saw that the
+human being cannot be modified indefinitely by exterior circumstances;
+that such modifications can affect only the degrees of
+phenomena, without at all changing their nature; and again,
+that when the disturbing influences exceed their general limits,
+the organism is no longer modified, but destroyed.”—<cite>The Positive
+Philosophy of Aug. Comte, tr. by Harriet Martineau</cite>, vol. 2, p. 98;
+97.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f265'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r265'>265</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Ripley, <cite>Races of Europe</cite> (1899), p. 11; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> the references
+given there, and in the note on the same page.—Cf. also Ellsworth
+Huntington’s <cite>Palestine and its Transformation</cite> (1910), and
+his suggestive articles on “Changes of Climate and History”
+(in <cite>The American Historical Review</cite> for January, 1913, vol. 18,
+pp. 213–32) [for references to other writings on the subject by
+the same author,—and by A. T. Olmstead—<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> p. 214 n.]; on
+“Climate and Civilization” (in <cite>Harper’s Magazine</cite> for February,
+1915, vol. 130, pp. 367–73); on “Is Civilization Determined by
+Climate?” (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i> May, 1915, pp. 943–51); a new book of his, entitled
+<cite>Civilization and Climate</cite> (333 pp.), is announced for publication
+by the Yale Univ. Press.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f266'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r266'>266</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 280 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f267'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r267'>267</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“... cetera [Mattiaci] similes Batavis, nisi quod ipso
+adhuc terrae suae solo et caelo acrius animantur.”—F. Ritter,
+<cite>P. C. Taciti Opera</cite> (1864), p. 643.</span> <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">In <cite>Römische Prosaiker in neuen
+Übersetzungen</cite> (hg. v. C. N. von Osiander und G. Schwab, 51.
+Bändchen, Stuttg., 1852, S. 123)</span> this is rendered as follows:
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Im ganzen gleichen sie [die Mattiaker] den Batavern, nur daß
+Boden und Klima ihres Landes sie noch kriegerischer macht.</span>”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f268'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r268'>268</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cesare Lombroso, <cite>Crime, Its Causes and Remedies</cite> (Boston,
+1911), pp. 3 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f269'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r269'>269</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 282.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f270'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r270'>270</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 582 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f271'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r271'>271</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Haddon &amp; Quiggin, <cite>Hist. of Anthropology</cite> (London, 1910),
+pp. 84 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f272'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r272'>272</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cesare Lombroso, <cite>Crime</cite>, etc., p. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f273'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r273'>273</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. S. Shaler, Nature and Man in America (N. Y., 1893),
+p. 288.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f274'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r274'>274</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">In <cite>Abhandlungen der Königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften,
+Phil.-hist. Classe</cite>, 1912, p. 13: “In einer Wendung,
+die an Distinktionen Schleiermachers erinnert, hat er [Dilthey]
+in seiner letzten größeren Arbeit erklärt, daß unser wissenschaftliches
+Denken von zwei großen Tendenzen beherrscht sei.
+Der Mensch finde sich auf der einen Seite bestimmt von der
+physischen Welt, in der die seelischen Vorgänge nur wie Interpolationen
+erscheinen.</span> [The other is: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">das Leben</span> (life), <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">das
+Erlebnis</span> (experience).]”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f275'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r275'>275</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ridgeway, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 843.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f276'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r276'>276</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 258 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i>—For the effect
+of physical environment on the Jews in Palestine, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Friedrich
+Otto Hertz, <cite>Rasse und Kultur</cite> (Leipzig, 1915, 421 pp.), pp. 162 ff.;
+and “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Soziale Grundlagen des Monotheismus u. Polytheismus</span>”
+(pp. 170 ff.) and the literature there cited. Cf. also <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Natürliche
+u. Soziale Grundlagen der indischen Entwicklung</span>”
+(pp. 198 ff.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f277'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r277'>277</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 309 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f278'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r278'>278</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> his <cite>Weather Influences, An Empirical Study of the
+Mental and Physiological Effects of Definite Meteorological Conditions</cite>,
+with Introduction by Cleveland Abbe (N. Y.: Macmillan,
+1904, 277 pp.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f279'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r279'>279</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>I saw somewhere that exception had been taken to his
+results, but I failed at the time to make a note thereof and have
+been unable to find the passage again.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f280'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r280'>280</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 266; 269; 272 f.—The fifth and last is not cited
+here.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f281'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r281'>281</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 310; 335, where ref. is also made to F. A.
+Cook’s article on “Some Physiological Effects of Arctic Cold,
+Darkness and Light” (<cite>MED. REC.</cite>, June 12, 1897, pp. 833–36).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f282'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r282'>282</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>London and N. Y., 1892.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f283'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r283'>283</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 90.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f284'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r284'>284</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, pp. 113–5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f285'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r285'>285</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Diese Priorität (der erste Versuch überhaupt, die Einflüsse
+des naturalen Milieus auf die Psyche darzustellen) gebührt,
+nach mancherlei Vorläufern minder geschlossenen Charakters</span>
+(<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">z. B. <cite>Quételet</cite>, Sur l’homme etc. 1835, Bd. 2, Kap. 3, Abschn.
+2–3, Influence du climat et des saisons sur le penchant au crime</span>)
+<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">ohne Zweifel <cite>Lombroso</cite>, aus dessen 1878 erschienenem Buche</span>
+‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Pensiero e meteore</span>’ <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Extracte auch in seine andern Publikationen,
+namentlich in</span> ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Genio e follia</span>,’ <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">übergegangen sind.”—Hellpach,
+<cite>Die Geopsychischen Erscheinungen</cite></span> (Leipzig, 1911), p. 336.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f286'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r286'>286</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Criminal Man, According to the Classification of Cesare
+Lombroso Briefly Summarized by his Daughter Gina Lombroso
+Ferrero</cite> (“The Science Series”; N. Y. and London: G. P. Putnam’s
+Sons, 1911, 322 pp.), p. 145.—Lombroso’s <cite><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">L’Uomo di genio</span></cite>
+appeared in 1888, <cite><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">L’Uomo delinquente</span></cite> in 1889, and <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">La Donna
+delinquente</span></cite> in 1893.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f287'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r287'>287</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Criminal Man</cite>, p. 145.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f288'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r288'>288</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Tr. by H. P. Horton, “The Modern Criminal Science
+Series,” Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1911, 471 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f289'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r289'>289</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“It is brought out in Guerry’s statistics that the crime of
+rape occurs in England and France oftenest in the hot months;
+and Curcio has observed the same thing in Italy....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“In England, according to Guerry, and in Italy, according
+to Curcio, the maximum number of murders falls in the hottest
+months....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Poisoning also, according to Guerry, occurs oftenest in
+May. The same phenomenon is to be observed in the case of
+Rebellions. In studying (as I have in my ‘Political Crime’)
+the 836 uprisings that took place in the whole world in the period
+between 1791 and 1880, one finds that in Asia and Africa the
+greatest number falls in July. In Europe and America the
+greater prevalence of rebellions in the hot months could not be
+more clearly marked. In Europe the maximum proved to be
+in July [in this connection one might also point to the beginning
+of the present European war which falls in the midsummer of
+1914], and in South America in January, which are respectively
+the two hottest months. The minimum falls in Europe in December
+and January, and in South America in May and June,
+which again correspond in temperature.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“If now we pass from the whole of Europe to the particular
+countries, we still find the greatest number of uprisings in the
+hot months....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Benoiston de Chateauneuf points out that duels in the army
+are more frequent in the summer.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“I have proved that the same influence manifests itself in
+the case of men of genius (‘Man of Genius,’ Part I.).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Ferri, in his ‘Crime in its Relation to Temperature,’ has
+proved from a study of the French criminal statistics from 1825
+to 1878 that one can deduce an almost complete parallelism
+between heat and criminality, not only for the different months,
+but also for years of different degrees of heat. The influence of
+the temperature on crime from 1825 to 1848 appears to be very
+pronounced and constant, and is often even greater than that
+exercised by agricultural production. Since 1848, notwithstanding
+the more serious agricultural and political disturbances,
+the coincidence between temperature and criminality becomes
+from time to time plainly apparent, especially in the case of
+homicide and murder....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“The connection comes out much more plainly, however, in
+the statistics of rape and offenses against chastity, which follow
+to an even greater degree the annual variations in temperature....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“As regards crimes against property there is a marked increase
+in the winter (theft and forgery being the most abundant
+in January), while the other seasons differ little from one another....”—Lombroso,
+<cite>Crime, Its Causes and Remedies</cite>,
+pp. 4–8. “Superintendents of prisons have generally observed
+that the inmates are more excited when storms are approaching
+and during the first quarter of the moon....”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f290'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r290'>290</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 13.—“In studying the distribution of simple
+and aggravated homicides in Europe, we find the highest figures
+in Italy and the other southern countries, and the lowest in the
+more northerly regions, England, Denmark, Germany. The
+same can be said of political uprisings in all Europe. We see,
+in fact, that the number of crimes increases as we go from north
+to south, and in the same measure as the heat increases.”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+p. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f291'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r291'>291</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>This follows Laing. See Robertson, <cite>Buckle and his Critics</cite>
+(London, 1895), p. 553.—Cf. also C. M. Gießler’s article, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über
+den Einfluß von Wärme und Kälte auf das seelische Funktionieren
+des Menschen</span>,” in <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche
+Philosophie u. Soziologie</span></i>, 1902, pp. 319–38. Gießler refers (p.
+334) to Oppenheimer “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über den Einfluß des Klimas auf den
+Menschen</span>” (Berlin, 1867). <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> also E. Huntington’s article
+on “Work and Weather,” <cite>Harper’s Magazine</cite>, vol. 130 (January,
+1915), pp. 233–44.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f292'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r292'>292</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1908</cite> (London, 1909), p. 844.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f293'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r293'>293</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>On the use of alcohol in its relation to the northern climate,
+<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also Auguste Matteuzzi, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les Facteurs de L’Évolution
+des Peuples</span></cite> (Paris, 1900), pp. 329 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f294'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r294'>294</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Some of these are to be discussed in a subsequent paper.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c002' />
+</div>
+<div class='tnotes'>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <h2 class='c007'>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</h2>
+</div>
+ <ol class='ol_1 c003'>
+    <li>Replaced “sz” with “ß” in German words. The “ß” character was not used in the
+    original.
+
+    </li>
+    <li>Changed “Nachbaren” to “Nachbarn” on p. <a href='#t30'>30</a>.
+
+    </li>
+    <li>Silently corrected typographical errors.
+
+    </li>
+    <li>Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.
+    </li>
+  </ol>
+
+</div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 55619 ***</div>
+  </body>
+  <!-- created with ppgen.py 3.56n on 2017-09-24 18:00:20 GMT -->
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg's The Theory of Environment, by Armin Hajman Koller
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: The Theory of Environment
+       An outline of the history of the idea of Milieu, and its present status
+
+Author: Armin Hajman Koller
+
+Release Date: September 24, 2017 [EBook #55619]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT ***
+
+
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+Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
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+
+
+                       THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT
+
+                                 Part I
+
+
+                       The University of Chicago
+
+
+
+
+                       THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT
+   _An Outline of the History of the Idea of Milieu, and its Present
+                                Status_
+                                 PART I
+                             A DISSERTATION
+ SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE
+          IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
+            DEPARTMENT OF GERMANIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES
+
+
+                                   BY
+
+                          ARMIN HAJMAN KOLLER
+
+
+                          The Collegiate Press
+
+                    GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY
+                           MENASHA, WISCONSIN
+                                  1918
+
+
+
+
+                       THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT
+
+                                 PART I
+
+   _An Outline of the History of the Idea of Milieu, and its Present
+                                Status_
+
+                                   BY
+                       ARMIN HAJMAN KOLLER, PH.D.
+                          Instructor in German
+                       The University of Illinois
+
+            “.............................
+            _He fixed thee ’mid this dance
+            Of plastic circumstance_.”
+
+                        Robert Browning, “_Rabbi Ben Ezra_.”
+
+                          The Collegiate Press
+                    GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY
+                           MENASHA, WISCONSIN
+                                  1918
+
+
+
+
+                            _Copyright, 1918
+                          By Armin H. Koller_
+
+
+
+
+                                   TO
+                               MY PARENTS
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+ Introductory Remark. Meanings of the Word _Milieu_                    1
+
+   I. A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Down to the
+        Nineteenth Century                                             7
+
+  II. A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Since the
+        Beginning of the Nineteenth Century                           27
+
+      Anthropo-geography, Geography and History                       27
+
+      Geography and History                                           42
+
+      More Recent Anthropo-geographical Treatises                     65
+
+      Primitive Peoples and Environment                               69
+
+      Society and Physical Milieu                                     74
+
+      Government, War, Progress, and Climate                          76
+
+      Climate and Man’s Characteristics                               80
+
+      Man’s Intellect and Physical Environment                        81
+
+      Religion and Physical Milieu                                    83
+
+      Climate and Conduct                                             84
+
+      Climatic Control of Food and Drink                              91
+
+ Summary                                                              93
+
+ Appendix                                                             97
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+In 1912 (see _Publications of the Modern Language Association of
+America_, Vol. 28, N. S., Vol. 21, 1913, Proceedings for 1912, p.
+xxxix), I called attention to the Herder-Taine problem on milieu. The
+paper discussing that problem awaits the completion of another paper
+entitled “Herder’s Conception of Milieu.” The latter was my starting
+point. Setting about to inform myself on the history of the theory, I
+determined to obtain for myself, if possible, a tolerably complete idea,
+at least in its essentials, of the theory of milieu, to see where the
+theory led to, where it started from, what changes it has undergone, and
+what were its ramifications. My plan was to state briefly my findings in
+a chapter preparatory to stating Herder’s idea of milieu. As guide-posts
+were lacking, at least I knew of none, I was bound to seek by accident
+and for a number of years. In stumbling along, I first chanced upon the
+Herder-Taine problem. When my material swelled to proportions that could
+not be controlled in part of a chapter or in a chapter, I had to
+separate it, by its main divisions, into parts. The question arose,
+should it be a _concrete_ treatise on environment. I soon found that to
+be, at least for the time being, beyond my province and also beyond my
+present purpose; besides, it would have swerved me too far afield;
+moreover, it would have had to be limited to a small portion of the
+subject. My present concern in this theory being genetic and historical,
+it seemed best to assemble all the sources one could find bearing on the
+history of the theory and to indicate the trend of its development in a
+rough preliminary sketch. Such a sketch is a requisite first step and
+perhaps a modest contribution to a history of the theory under
+consideration. The first part of this sketch is herein given. The
+original plan, mentioned above, of a prefatory chapter to Herder
+accounts for the retention of untranslated passages in the text of this
+part, a practice to be eschewed in the subsequent parts of this study
+which are to appear shortly.
+
+Nearly all the material was collected by October, 1915, and this
+manuscript was finished early in January, 1917.
+
+I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to Professor Martin Schütze of
+the University of Chicago for the suggestion, made in 1907, to find out
+what Herder’s idea of milieu is; to my friend and former colleague at
+the University of Illinois, Dr. Charles C. Adams (now Assistant
+Professor of Ecology at Syracuse University) for references given me at
+my request (but he is in no wise to be held responsible for the bringing
+in of these references); and to my good friend and colleague, Professor
+John Driscoll Fitz-Gerald of the University of Illinois for a number of
+helpful suggestions given when reading the manuscript and for assisting
+with the reading of the galley proof.
+
+                                                        ARMIN H. KOLLER.
+
+ _Champaign, Illinois,
+     April, 1918._
+
+
+
+
+                          INTRODUCTORY REMARK
+                     MEANINGS OF THE WORD “MILIEU”
+
+
+Before entering upon the discussion of the principal theme of this
+study,[1] it is necessary to cast a brief glance over the origin and
+development of the meaning and use of the word milieu.
+
+“Milieu” (_mi-lieu=medius locus_), originally signifying middle point or
+part, central place or portion, mid-point, center, had been employed in
+France as a term in physics at least as early as the seventeenth century
+(Pascal). The fourth edition of the dictionary of the French Academy[2]
+defines it as follows: “En termes de Physique, on appelle _Milieu_, Tout
+corps, soit solide, soit fluide, traversé par la lumière ou par un autre
+corps.” [In the fifth edition—1813—the following illustration in italics
+is added to the foregoing: “La lumière se rompt différemment en
+traversant différens milieux.”]
+
+“On appelle aussi _milieu_, Le fluide qui environne les corps. _L’air
+est le milieu dans lequel nous vivons. L’eau est le milieu qu’habitent
+les poissons._”
+
+Diderot’s Encyclopedia[3] testifies to this same sense of “medium”:
+“_Milieu_, dans la Philosophie mêchanique, signifie un espace matériel à
+travers lequel passe un corps dans son mouvement, ou en général, un
+espace matériel dans lequel un corps est placé, soit qu’il se meuve ou
+non.
+
+“Ainsi on imagine l’éther comme un _milieu_ dans lequel les corps
+célestes se meuvent.—L’air est un _milieu_ dans lequel les corps se
+meuvent près de la surface de la terre.—L’eau est le _milieu_ dans
+lequel les poissons vivent & se meuvent.—Le verre enfin est un _milieu_,
+en égard à la lumière, parce qu’il lui permet un passage à travers ses
+pores.”
+
+Auguste Comte[4] extended its signification as a term in biology to
+include “the totality of external conditions of any kind whatsoever”:
+“_Milieu_ ..., non-seulement le fluide où l’organisme est plongé, mais,
+en général, _l’ensemble total des circonstances extérieurs d’un genre
+quelconque_ [the italics are ours], nécessaires à l’existence de chaque
+organisme déterminé. Ceux qui auront suffisamment médité sur le rôle
+capital que doit remplir, dans toute biologie positive, l’idée
+correspondante, ne me reprocheront pas, sans doute, l’introduction de
+cette expression nouvelle.”
+
+Hippolyte Taine who generalized it still further, broadened its
+connotation to comprehend the whole social surroundings.[5] Milieu as a
+_terminus technicus_ is ordinarily considered as having been coined by
+Taine, but whether that be so or not, one may safely say that its wide
+acceptance is due, primarily, to him and to his renowned disciple
+Zola.[6]
+
+In the course of the last century, the designation milieu became not
+only more generalized and more frequent in use, but also more extensive,
+and more specific and distinctive in meaning: “Depuis BALZAC [who in
+1841 in his _Comédie humaine, La maison du chat-qui-pelote_, préface, p.
+2, used the term loosely, in the “vulgar” sense], le sens vulgaire du
+milieu social n’a fait que s’affirmer davantage par un emploi toujours
+plus généralisé: c’est devenu un cliché de la conversation de parler
+aujourd’hui d’un ‘bon milieu,’ d’un ‘milieu intéressant,’ etc.”[7]
+
+Littré[8] registers eighteen different definitions for the word milieu.
+
+Friedrich Düsel[9] renders milieu by eighteen (18) German words.
+
+In _Unsere Umgangssprache_,[10] milieu is translated into German by
+forty-six (46) words and phrases.
+
+Claude Bernard, the celebrated French physiologist, differentiates
+between inner and outer milieu:[11] “Je crois ..., avoir le premier
+insisté sur cette idée qu’il y a pour l’animal réellement deux milieux:
+un milieu extérieur dans lequel est placé l’organisme et un milieu
+intérieur dans lequel vivent les éléments des tissus....” Probably as a
+result, we have today “micro-milieu” in micro-biology.
+
+According to Jean Finot,[12] milieu “includes the sum total of the
+conditions which accompany the conception and earthly existence of a
+being, and which end only with its death.”
+
+The term milieu was introduced by Herbert Spencer into English
+literature as “environment,” says Martin Schütze.[13] Although Carlyle
+employed the term “environment” as early as 1827,[14] nevertheless, the
+fact that the term is generally current, is undoubtedly attributable in
+the first place to Spencer.
+
+The word “Umwelt” is quoted by J. H. Campe,[15] who believed himself to
+have been the coiner of the term; five years later (1816) Goethe used it
+at the beginning of his “Italienische Reise.”[16]
+
+The painstaking and scholarly German lexicographer, Daniel Sanders, who
+seldom fails to give his reader some reliable suggestion, refers in his
+_Wörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache_[17] (which despite the contributions
+of recent scholarship still remains a great work) to a passage in the
+poetical works of the Danish writer Baggesen (2, 102) in which the word
+“Umwelt” is employed. This passage occurs in the elegy entitled
+“Napoleon” addressed to Voß and written in 1800.[18] Baggesen, then,
+made use of “Umwelt” a decade before Campe.
+
+Its Italian equivalent is “ambiente,” which is noted here only because
+of the French “l’ambiance” and the English “ambient” and
+“circumambiency.”
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 1:
+
+  For brief but valuable sketches of one phase or another of the
+  history of the theory of milieu, cf. Friedrich Ratzel,
+  _Anthropogeographie_. 1. _Teil: Grundzüge der Anwendung der Erdkunde
+  auf die Geschichte_ (2. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1899, 604 pp.), pp. 13–23,
+  25–30, 31–40; Gustav Schmoller, _Grundriß der Allgemeinen
+  Volkswirtschaftslehre_. Erster Teil (Vierte bis sechste Aufl.,
+  Leipzig, 1901), p. 127, pp. 137 f., 144 ff., Zweiter Teil (Erste bis
+  sechste Aufl., Leipzig, 1904), pp. 656 ff.; _Ferdinand v.
+  Richthofen’s Vorlesungen über Allgemeine Siedlungs- und
+  Verkehrsgeographie_, bearb. und herausgegeben von O. Schlüter
+  (Berlin, 1908, 351 pp.—A course of lectures delivered in the summer
+  semester of 1891 in Berlin, repeated in the winter semester in
+  1897/8), pp. 6–13; Jean Brunhes, _La Géographie Humaine_ (Deuxième
+  édition, Paris: Alcan, 1912, 801 pp.), pp. 36 ff.; A. C. Haddon and
+  A. H. Quiggin, _History of Anthropology_ (London, 1910, 158 pp.),
+  pp. 131 f., 150–52; William Z. Ripley, “Geography and Sociology,”
+  _Political Science Quarterly_, X (1895), pp. 636–54; also the same
+  author’s _The Races of Europe_ (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1899),
+  pp. 2–5. Cf. also O. Schlüter, “Die leitenden Gesichtspunkte der
+  Anthropogeographie, insbesondere der Lehre Friedrich Ratzels,”
+  _Arch. f. Sozialwissenschaft_, Bd. IV (1906), S. 581–630, and Rudolf
+  Goldscheid, _Höherentwicklung und Menschenökonomie_, I
+  [Philosophisch-soziologische Bücherei, Band VIII], (Leipzig: W.
+  Klinkhardt, 1911, 664 pp.), p. 52. For bibliographies, in addition
+  to those yet to be mentioned, see also Ratzel, _l.c._, pp. 579–85;
+  Brunhes, _l.c._, nn.; Ellen C. Semple, _Influences of Geographic
+  Environment, On the Basis of Ratzel’s System of Anthropo-geography_
+  (New York: H. Holt & Co., 1911, 637 pp.), to each chapter of which
+  an extensive bibliography is added; William J. Thomas, _Source Book
+  for Social Origins_ (Chicago and London, 1909) pp. 134–39:
+  Bibliography to Part I: The Relation of Society to Geographic and
+  Economic Environment (pp. 29–129, Comment on Part I, pp. 130–33);
+  Ripley, “Geography and Sociology,” _Pol. Sc. Quar._, X (1895), pp.
+  654–5.
+
+Footnote 2:
+
+  _Dictionnaire de l’Académie Françoise._ Quatrième Édition. Tome Second
+  (Paris, 1762), p. 143.
+
+Footnote 3:
+
+  _Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences_, etc. Nouvelle
+  Éd. 1778, ed. by Diderot and D’Alembert, 21st vol., p. 853.
+
+Footnote 4:
+
+  _Cours de Philosophie Positive_ (6 vols., 1830–42, 5^e édition, Paris,
+  1892–94), see vol. 3, p. 235 n.
+
+Footnote 5:
+
+  Cp. esp. the Introduction to his _Histoire de la Littérature
+  Anglaise_, 5 Tomes (8^e Édition, Paris: Hachette, 1892); the first
+  edition appeared in 1863, after Taine had been at work on it for
+  well-nigh a decade.
+
+Footnote 6:
+
+  For Zola as the disciple of Taine, cf. H. Wiegler, _Geschichte und
+  Kritik der Theorie des Milieus bei Émile Zola_ (Diss., Rostock, 1905),
+  esp. pp. 19–36.
+
+Footnote 7:
+
+  _Vide_ Émile Waxweiler, _Esquisse d’une Sociologie_ (Bruxelles, 1906),
+  p. 65.
+
+Footnote 8:
+
+  _Dictionnaire de la Langue Française_, vol. 3 (1885), pp. 559 f.
+
+Footnote 9:
+
+  _Verdeutschungen, Wörterbuch fürs tägliche Leben_ (Braunschweig,
+  Verlag von George Westermann, 1915, 176 pp.), p. 93.
+
+Footnote 10:
+
+  _Verdeutschungsbücher des Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins, III_
+  (Zweite Aufl., neu bearb. v. Edward Lohmeyer, Berlin, Verlag des
+  Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins, 1915, 182 pp.), pp. 91 f.
+
+Footnote 11:
+
+  _Phénomènes de la vie_ (2^e éd., Paris, 1885), t. I, p. 112. See
+  Waxweiler, _l.c._, p. 36.
+
+Footnote 12:
+
+  _Race Prejudice_, transl. by Florence Wade-Evans (London, 1906), p.
+  130.
+
+Footnote 13:
+
+  “The Services of Naturalism to Life and Literature. Reprinted, with
+  Additions, from _The Sewanee Review_, October, 1903,” p. 2.
+
+Footnote 14:
+
+  See Murray’s NED., vol. III, Part II, (1897), p. 231.
+
+Footnote 15:
+
+  _Wörterbuch d. d. Sprache_ (1811), Bd. 5, S. 113.
+
+Footnote 16:
+
+  See the article by I. Stosch on “Umwelt-_milieu_,” _Zeitschrift für
+  Deutsche Wortforschung_, g. v. Fr. Kluge, 7. Bd. (1905), pp. 58–9.
+
+Footnote 17:
+
+  2. Bd., 2. Hälfte (Leipzig: Otto Wigand, 1865), p. 1556^b.
+
+Footnote 18:
+
+  A. Gombert cites the passage in question in his article “Umwelt,” _Z.
+  f. D. Wf._, 7. Bd. (1905), pp. 150–52.
+
+
+
+
+                                   I
+  A SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE IDEA OF MILIEU DOWN TO THE NINETEENTH
+                                CENTURY
+
+
+Recorded mesologic[19] thinking begins with the ancient Jewish Prophets
+whose striking _aperçus_ concerning the providential correspondence
+between the configuration of the surface of the earth and the destiny of
+nations, concerning the connection between “Landesnatur” and
+“Volkscharakter,” etc., anticipated[20] a number of great thoughts of
+later anthropo-geographers.
+
+Hippocrates (if he really is the author of the essay commonly ascribed
+to him and entitled περὶ αέρων ὑδάτων τόπων) investigates the effect of
+climate on man’s nature, character, temperament, and life, with the
+emphasis on the regularity of the effect.[21] Owing to the imperfection
+of knowledge in his day, his observations are necessarily vague.[22] He
+limited himself to the problem of the relation between land and
+people.[23] He is said to be the founder of anthropo-geography.[24] His
+treatise is admirable and unequalled in the eyes of Auguste Comte.[25]
+Hippocrates, “in his work, _About Air, Water, and Places_, first
+discusses the influence of environment on man, physical, moral, and
+pathological. He divided mankind into groups, impressed with homogeneous
+characters by homogeneous surroundings, demonstrating that mountains,
+plains, damp, aridity, and so on, produced definite and varying
+types.”[26]
+
+Aristotle, in his _Politics_, enquires into the influence especially of
+geographical position on laws and the form of government,[27] while in
+his _Problems_ he shows the far-reaching dependence of national
+character on the physical environment: “Zeigt ja doch Aristoteles selbst
+in einem andern Werke das entschiedenste Bestreben, eine sehr
+weitgehende Abhängigkeit des Volkscharakters von geographischen
+Verhältnissen zu erweisen. Während die Politik [especially parts of the
+seventh book] nicht über Andeutungen [on the effect of the milieu]
+hinausgeht [discussed by Poehlmann, _l.c._, on pp. 64–8], läßt der
+vierzehnte Abschnitt der ‘Probleme,’ welcher sich mit den Einwirkungen
+der Landesnatur auf Physik und Ethik des Menschen beschäftigt, deutlich
+einen Standpunkt erkennen, welcher auf das Lebhafteste an die
+physiologische Betrachtungsweise der neueren französisch-englischen
+Geschichtsphilosophie erinnert ...”[28]
+
+Eratosthenes, in a work cited by Varro, sought to prove, in the opinion
+of the Italian scholar Matteuzzi prematurely, that man’s character and
+the form of his government are subordinated to proximity or remoteness
+from the sun.[29] The greatest geographer of antiquity, Strabo, in his
+Geography, connected man with nature in a causal relation.[30]
+
+John M. Robertson, noting that “theories of the influence of climate on
+character were common in antiquity,” refers[31] to Vitruvius (VI, 1),
+Vegetius (“De re militari,” 1, 2), and Servius (on Vergil, _Aeneid_, VI,
+724). Ritter does not mention the effort of the ancients in this line of
+ideas.[32]
+
+Giovanni Villani, the noted Florentine historian of the fourteenth
+century, observes with a deal of finesse that Arezzo by reason of its
+air and position produces men of great subtilty of mind.[33]
+
+The Arabic statesman and philosopher of history, Ibn Khaldūn, little
+mentioned, yet known by his great work, the _Universal History_,
+attempted in the _Muqaddama_[34] (the preface, comprising the first
+volume of his _History_), which he composed between 1374 and 1378,[35]
+to explain the history and civilization of man, more especially of
+some of the Arabic peoples, by the encompassing physical and social
+conditions. The “First Section of the ‘Prolegomena’ treats of society
+in general, and of the varieties of the human race, and of the regions
+of the earth which they inhabit, as related thereto. It starts from
+the position that man is by nature a social being. His body and mind,
+wants and affections, for their exercise, satisfaction, and
+development, all imply and demand co-operation and communion with his
+fellows,—participation in a collective and common life....
+
+“There follows a lengthened description of the physical basis and
+conditions of history and civilisation. The chief features of the
+inhabited portions of the earth, its regions, principal seas, great
+rivers, climates, &c., are made the subjects of exposition. The seven
+climatic zones, and the ten sections of each, are delineated, and their
+inhabitants specified. The three climatic zones of moderate temperature
+are described in detail, and the distinctive features of the social
+condition and civilisation of their inhabitants dwelt upon. The
+influence of the atmosphere, heat, &c., on the physical and even mental
+and moral peculiarities of peoples is maintained to be great. Not only
+the darkness of skin of the negroes, but their characteristics of
+disposition and of mode of life, are traced to the influence of climate.
+A careful attempt is also made to show how differences of fertility of
+soil—how dearth and abundance—modify the bodily constitution and affect
+the minds of men, and so operate on society....
+
+“The Second Section of the ‘Prolegomena’ treats of the civilisation of
+nomadic and half-savage peoples.
+
+“In it Ibn Khaldūn appears at his best, ... He begins by indicating how
+the different usages and institutions of peoples depend to a large
+extent on the ways in which they provide for their subsistence. He
+describes how peoples have at first contented themselves with simple
+necessities, and then gradually risen to refinement and luxury through a
+series of states or stages all of which are alike conformed to nature,
+in the sense of being adapted to its circumstances or environment.”[36]
+
+Ibn Khaldūn seems also to have had a clear idea of some aspects of the
+principle of relativity,[37] an integral part and inevitable concomitant
+of the theory of milieu, since “As causes of historians erring as they
+have done, there are mentioned [by Khaldūn in the introduction] the
+overlooking of the differences of times and epochs, ...”[38]
+
+About the middle of the sixteenth century we find Michelangelo avowing
+to Vasari (who hailed from Arezzo): “Any mental excellence I may
+possess, I have because I was born in the fine air of your Aretine
+district.”[39]
+
+In “Measure for Measure” (Act III, Sc. I, v. 8–11), a play first
+produced in 1604, Shakespeare affirms of man:
+
+              “... a breath thou art,
+              Servile to all the skyey influences
+              That do this habitation where thou keep’st,
+              Hourly afflict.”
+
+During the Renaissance, Greek thought on milieu is resurrected in
+France. Thence it spreads later, particularly in the eighteenth century,
+to England and Germany. Jean Bodin bridges the gap existent since the
+close of classical antiquity. He is the first among modern writers not
+only to revive the idea in Western Europe,[40] but also to make it a
+subject for detailed investigation. Bodin thus first in French letters
+introduces and firmly establishes a line of study destined to be
+followed by a long list of authors among whom are to be found many
+illustrious French names.
+
+Bodin “treats of physical causes with considerable fulness in the fifth
+chapter of the ‘Method,’[41] and in a still more detailed and developed
+form in the first chapter of the fifth book of the ‘Republic.’”[42] He
+traces the relation between climate and the ever changing fate of
+States, and elaborates the manifold effects of climate on States, laws,
+religion, language, and temperament.[43] In Bodin’s view, man’s physical
+constitution is closely and directly connected with climate and
+surrounding nature; it is in harmony with the behavior of the earth in
+the respective zones of his abode.[44] From this assumption of
+dependence of the human body on climate, there follow a number of
+inferences concerning the physical properties of man’s constitution.[45]
+Temperament varies according to climate. Language, the generative power,
+diseases likewise depend indirectly on climate.[46] Man’s talents and
+capacities do so no less.[47] The climate in each region always favors
+the development of some special aptitude; on this basis he groups the
+peoples of the earth.[48] Although the nexus between human abilities and
+the physical milieu is thus intimate, yet reason, common to all men and
+invariable, is _per se_ independent of physical environment.[49] He
+postulates, then, reason as the absolute part of the mind, not subject
+to surrounding influences, whereas the unfolding of the human faculties
+is relative to the environment. By taking this middle course concerning
+the effect of nature on man, Bodin escapes the extreme views of nature’s
+compelling influence over man, on the one hand, and of man’s total
+independence of nature, on the other.[50]
+
+Bodin also investigates the influence upon national character of
+geographical situation, of elevation, of the quality of the native soil,
+and of an east-west position.[51] Nations and their civilizations differ
+according to the particular conditions of a given national
+existence.[52]
+
+He holds fast to the doctrine of the freedom of the will. Man is morally
+free from environmental control. The circumambient medium determines
+only the _development_ of man’s capabilities.[53] Man can counteract,
+and may, even though with difficulty, overcome the injurious action of
+climate and nature.[54]
+
+“... It is altogether unfair,” concludes Flint,[55] “to put their
+general enunciations [_i.e._, those made by Hippocrates, Plato,
+Aristotle, Polybius, and Galen] of the principle that physical
+circumstances originate and modify national characteristics, on a level
+with Bodin’s serious, sustained, and elaborate attempt to apply it over
+a wide area and to a vast number of cases. Dividing nations into
+northern, middle, and southern,[56] he investigates with wonderful
+fulness of knowledge how climatic and geographical conditions have
+affected the bodily strength, the courage, the intelligence, the
+humanity, the chastity, and, in short, the mind, morals, and manners of
+their inhabitants; what influence mountains, winds, diversities of soil,
+&c., have exerted on individuals and societies; and he elicits a vast
+number of general views....”
+
+Bodin, “der größte theoretische Politiker Frankreichs im 16.
+Jahrhundert,” declares Renz,[57] “besitzt ... das unbestreitbare
+Verdienst, wenn nicht die Grundgedanken und nicht ausschließlich
+originale Gedanken, so doch die erste weitgehende wissenschaftliche
+Untersuchung über den Zusammenhang zwischen umgebender Natur und
+Menschenwelt in neuerer Zeit auf dem Boden der Erfahrung und
+Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts angestellt zu haben.”
+
+Bodin, “writing in 1577 OF THE LAWES AND CUSTOMES OF A COMMON
+WEALTH (English edition [translated by Richard Knowlles] 1605),
+contains, as Professor J. L. Myres has pointed out (Rept. Brit.
+Assoc., 1909 [1910], p. 593), ‘the whole pith and kernel of modern
+anthropo-geography....’”[58] And Renz believes that “In der
+Bodinschen Behandlung der Theorie des Klimas finden sich die
+Anfänge der Anthropogeographie und der Ethnographie...”[59]
+
+Writing in 1713, Lenglet du Fresnoy, toward the end of the sixth chapter
+of the first volume of his _Méthode pour étudier l’histoire_, expresses,
+decades before Montesquieu, the latter’s basic idea of the effect of
+social and political milieu on laws.[60]
+
+In any discussion of milieu, Montesquieu is the writer most frequently
+mentioned, although not the most often read and quoted. He devotes the
+well-known five “Books,” from the fourteenth to the eighteenth, of his
+magnum opus, _L’Esprit des Lois_ (1748),[61] to a consideration of this
+idea which, as has already been seen, was anything but original with
+him.[62] In Books fourteen to seventeen he treats of the relation of
+laws to climate, and in Book eighteen of their relation to soil. In the
+fourteenth[63] he discusses the effect of climate on the body (and mind)
+of individual man, in the fifteenth[64] on civil slavery, in the
+sixteenth[65] on domestic slavery, in the seventeenth[66] on political
+servitude, and lastly in the eighteenth[67] he delineates the influence
+of the fertility and barrenness of the soil. By climate he means little
+more than heat and cold. In the light of the continued high praise
+bestowed on him for much longer than a century, the altogether too
+general and dogmatic statements of these short seventy-odd pages would
+seem somewhat meager, so that upon their perusal one is very likely to
+suffer an outright disenchantment. Therefore, Flint’s judgment appears
+overdrawn, when he says that Montesquieu “showed on a grand scale and in
+the most effective way ... that, like all things properly historical,
+they [laws, customs, institutions] must be estimated not according to an
+abstract or absolute standard, but as concrete realities related to
+given times and places, to their determining causes and condition, and
+to the whole social organism to which they belong, and the whole social
+medium in which they subsist. Plato and Aristotle, Machiavelli and
+Bodin, had already, indeed, inculcated this historical and political
+relativism; but it was Montesquieu who gained educated Europe over to
+the acceptance of it.”[68]
+
+Turgot’s sketch of a ‘Political Geography’ shows “that he had attained
+to a broader view of the relationship of human development to the
+features of the earth and to physical agencies in general than even
+Montesquieu. And he saw with perfect clearness not only that many of
+Montesquieu’s inductions were premature and inadequate, but that there
+was a defect in the method by which he arrived at them.... The excellent
+criticism of Comte, in the fifth volume of the ‘Philosophie Positive,’
+and in the fourth volume of the ‘Politique Positive,’ on this portion of
+Montesquieu’s speculations, is only a more elaborate reproduction of
+that of Turgot, and is expressed in terms which show that it was
+directly suggested by that of Turgot.”[69]
+
+Cuvier “had not hesitated to trace the close relation borne by
+philosophy and art to the underlying geological formations.”[70]
+
+In the teaching of a number of great thinkers of the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries, man is “the product of environment and education”
+and, in their opinion, “all men were born equal and later became unequal
+through unequal opportunities.”[71]
+
+Goethe echoed Herder’s thought when he remarked to Eckermann on the
+flora of a country and the disposition of its residents: “Sie haben
+nicht Unrecht, sagte Goethe (d. 2. April 1829), und daher kommt es denn
+auch, daß man der Pflanzenwelt eines Landes einen Einfluß auf die
+Gemütsart seiner Bewohner zugestanden hat. Und gewiß! wer sein Leben
+lang von hohen ernsten Eichen umgeben wäre, müßte ein anderer Mensch
+werden, als wer täglich unter luftigen Birken sich erginge...”[72] And
+again, when he said of environment and national character: “... so viel
+ist gewiß, daß außer dem Angeborenen der Rasse, sowohl Boden und Klima
+als Nahrung und Beschäftigung einwirkt, um den Charakter eines Volkes zu
+vollenden ...”[73] And in the following, Goethe but reiterates Herder’s
+oft uttered admiration for islanders and coast dwellers: “Auch von den
+Kräften des _Meeres_ und der _Seeluft_ war die Rede gewesen (d. 12. März
+1828), wo denn Goethe die Meinung äußerte, daß er alle Insulaner und
+Meer-Anwohner des gemäßigten Klimas bei weitem für produktiver und
+tatkräftiger halte als die Völker im Innern großer Kontinente.”[74] And:
+“Es ist ein eigenes Ding, erwiederte Goethe (d. 12. März 1828),—liegt es
+in der Abstammung, liegt es im Boden, liegt es in der freien Verfassung,
+liegt es in der gesunden Erziehung,—genug! die Engländer überhaupt
+scheinen vor vielen anderen etwas voraus zu haben ...”[75]
+
+Wolf and Niebuhr began to examine historical _sources_ “nach neuen
+Prinzipien des Eingetauchtseins in eine bestimmte seelische Umwelt, in
+ein klargezeichnetes zeitgenössisches Milieu.”[76]
+
+One of the principal offices of an historian, according to August
+Wilhelm Schlegel, is “Die zeit- und kulturgeschichtliche Bedingtheit
+aller Erscheinungen aufzuzeigen.”[77] But the effect of physical milieu
+on history is not rated high in the philosophy of the romanticists.[78]
+
+Ingeniously, albeit not with his wonted acuteness, Hegel penned the
+concept “Volksgeist.”[79] The saying, which now seems trivial, that
+every nation and every man in the nation is “ein Kind seiner Zeit,” is
+said to be Hegel’s.[80] Hegel, however, distinctly rejected the idea of
+explaining “die Geschichte und den Geist der verschiedenen Völker aus
+dem Klima ihrer Länder.”[81] The implication would be that one single
+factor might satisfactorily be held responsible for all progress in
+human history. As climate can not explain everything to Hegel, it seems
+not to explain anything at all to him. Hegel, then, is excessive in his
+denial of the power of environment. This is markedly shown by his
+thinking his position substantiated by the fact that the climate of
+Greece, although the same since classical antiquity, has not changed the
+Turks who now [_i.e._, early in the nineteenth century] dwell in Greece
+into ancient Greeks.[82]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 19:
+
+  The Belgian sociologist De Greef, in his _Introduction à la
+  Sociologie_ (1886–89), raised “Mésologie” (denoting “Erkenntnis der
+  milieux”) to a special introductory branch of sociology for the
+  purpose of discussing, according to Ratzel superficially, the external
+  factors of history; cf. Paul Barth, _Die Philosophie der Geschichte
+  als Soziologie_, I (Leipzig: Reisland, 1897), p. 70 and Ratzel, _l.c._
+  p. 29. The term “Mésologie” was in use in France at an earlier date
+  than that. See for example the title of an article written at the
+  close of the Franco-German war by Dr. Bertillon, “De l´Influence du
+  milieu ou Mésologie,” _La Philosophie Positive_, Revue dirigée par É.
+  Littré & G. Wyrouboff, Tome IX (Paris, 1872), pp. 309–20. Or see M. E.
+  Jourdy, “De l´Influence du milieu ou Mésologie,” _ibid._, Tome X
+  (1873), pp. 154–60.
+
+Footnote 20:
+
+  Fr. de Rougemont, in his important work _Les deux cités; la
+  philosophie de l´histoire aux différents âges de l´humanité_ (1874)
+  treats this question exhaustively. See Robert Poehlmann, _Hellenische
+  Anschauungen über den Zusammenhang zwischen Natur und Geschichte_
+  (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1879, 93 pp.), pp. 8 f.
+
+Footnote 21:
+
+  _Vide_ Eugénie Dutoit, _Die Theorie des Milieu_ (Diss., Bern, 1899,
+  136 pp.), pp. 52–5.
+
+Footnote 22:
+
+  “Hippocrate fut le premier à observer quelques-uns des effets du
+  milieu sur l’individu. Ses observations sont nécessairement nébuleuses
+  et chaotiques, plutôt descriptives et qualitatives, étant donnée
+  l’imperfection des connaissances de son temps.”—Auguste Matteuzzi,
+  _Les Facteurs de l’Évolution des Peuples_ (Paris, 1900), p. 6
+  (Avant-Propos).
+
+Footnote 23:
+
+  “Wir sahen, daß sich das Buch des Hippokrates durchaus darauf
+  beschränkte, die Wechselbeziehungen zwischen Landesnatur und
+  Volkscharakter zu erörtern.”—Poehlmann, _l.c._, p. 51.
+
+Footnote 24:
+
+  “Hippokrates von Kos, ‘der Vater der Heilkunde’ (ca. 460 bis ca. 370),
+  ist der _Begründer der Anthropogeographie_. Er schrieb ein Buch über
+  Klima, Wasser und Bodenbeschaffenheit und ihren Einfluß auf die
+  Bewohner eines Landes in physischer und geistiger Beziehung. Der
+  philosophische Gedanke war damit angeregt, fand aber keine weitere
+  Entwicklung.”—_F. v. Richthofen’s Vorlesungen_, etc. (Berlin, 1908),
+  p. 7.
+
+Footnote 25:
+
+  _System of Positive Polity_ (4 vols., London: Longmans, Green & Co.,
+  1875–77—the original was published in 1851–54), vol. II, p. 364: “...
+  a study [of the aggregate of material influences: Astronomical,
+  Physical, Chemical] which was commenced by the great Hippocrates in
+  his admirable and unequalled Treatise upon Climate.”
+
+Footnote 26:
+
+  Haddon and Quiggin, _Hist. of Anthropology_ (1910), p. 150.—Poehlmann
+  discusses Hippocrates in _Hellenische Anschauungen_, etc., pp.
+  12–37.—Ludwig Stein, in his book _Die soziale Frage im Lichte der
+  Philosophie_ (2. verb. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1903), p. 403, n., says that
+  “Aless. Chiapelli, _Le promesse filosofiche del Socialismo_ (Napoli,
+  1897), p. 41, hebt die interessante Tatsache hervor, daß die Lehre vom
+  ‘Milieu’ ihrem Keime nach auf Hippokrates zurückgeht.” But a little
+  over three decades earlier, Peschel in his _Geschichte der Erdkunde_
+  (1. Aufl., 1865) surveyed on two pages some important phases of
+  Hippocrates and Strabo on milieu. And earlier still, a half century
+  before Peschel, Ukert in his _Geographie der Griechen und Römer_
+  (1816), I, 1, 79, noted Hippocrates as carefully observing the effect
+  of climate on the body and mind of man. (_Vide_ Poehlmann, l.c., pp. 7
+  f.)—And to Herder, Hippocrates was the principal author on climate:
+  “... _Hippocrat. de aere, locis et aquis_, ... Für mich der
+  Hauptschriftsteller über das Klima.”—_Herders Sämmtliche Werke_, hg.
+  v. B. Suphan, 13, 269 n.
+
+Footnote 27:
+
+  See Dutoit, _Die Theorie des Milieu_, pp. 55–8.
+
+Footnote 28:
+
+  Poehlmann, _l.c._, p. 68.—Aristotle neglects to give credit to
+  Hippocrates in connection with his ideas on environment, although
+  indebted to Hippocrates whom he mentions elsewhere. See Dutoit,
+  _l.c._, p. 57.
+
+Footnote 29:
+
+  “Varron, _De re rustica_, 1, cite une oeuvre d’Eratosthènes où
+  celui-ci cherchait à démontrer que le caractère de l’homme et la forme
+  du gouvernement sont subordonnés au voisinage ou à l’éloignement du
+  soleil. Tentative sublime mais prématurée, pour ramener les phénomènes
+  sociaux à des lois uniques et générales.”—Auguste Matteuzzi, _Les
+  Facteurs de l’Évolution des Peuples_ (Paris, 1900), p. 6.
+
+Footnote 30:
+
+  “Die vollständigste Beschreibung [of the earth] gab erst Strabo in
+  seinem Werk γεογραφικά. Hier begegnen wir zum zweitenmal der
+  philosophischen Idee, _Mensch und Natur in Kausalzusammenhang_
+  miteinander zu bringen. Strabos Geographie ist als ‘Länder- und
+  Völkerkunde’ das größte Werk des Altertums. Die Anschauung eines
+  kausalen Zusammenhanges des Menschen mit der Natur ging darauf unter
+  [according to him, until the middle of the eighteenth century, until
+  Montesquieu].”—_Richthofen’s Vorlesungen_, etc. (1908), p. 8.
+
+Footnote 31:
+
+  _Buckle and his Critics_ (London, 1895, 548 pp.), p. 7 n.
+
+Footnote 32:
+
+  See Poehlmann, _l.c._, p. 7.—For a brief statement of the theory of
+  milieu in Greek writers (Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato, Aristotle,
+  Theophrastus), cf. Curtius, _Boden und Clima von Athen_ (1877), p. 4
+  f. For Aristotle, compare also Dondorff, _Das hellenische Land als
+  Schauplatz der althellenischen Geschichte_ (Hamburg, 1899, 42 pp.),
+  pp. 11 f. Poehlmann, _l.c._, discusses the views on environment of
+  Herodotus (pp. 37–47), of Thucydides (pp. 52–4), of Xenophon (pp. 55
+  f.), of Ephoros [only fragments of his great work, A Universal
+  History, are extant; cited by Strabo] (pp. 56–9), of Plato (pp.
+  59–64), of Aristotle (pp. 64–74), of Polybios (pp. 75–7), of
+  Posidonios [in Strabo and in Galen] (pp. 78–80), of Strabo (pp.
+  80–90), of Galen (pp. 91 f.).
+
+Footnote 33:
+
+  _Vide_ Élisàr v. Kupffer, _Klima und Dichtung, Ein Beitrag zur
+  Psychophysik_ [in _Grenzfragen der Literatur und Medizin_ in
+  Einzeldarstellungen hg. v. S. Rahmer, Berlin, 4. Heft] (München,
+  1907), p. 63.
+
+Footnote 34:
+
+  Translated into French by Baron Meg. F. de Slane (3 vols., Paris,
+  1862–8).
+
+Footnote 35:
+
+  See R. Flint, _History of the Philosophy of History, Historical
+  Philosophy in France and French Belgium and Switzerland_ (New York:
+  Scribner, 1894, 706 pp.), pp. 159 f.—“His [Mohammed Ibn Khaldūn’s]
+  fame rests securely ... on his _magnum opus_, the ‘Universal History,’
+  and especially on the first part of it, the ‘Prolegomena’ (p. 162)....
+  They [the Prolegomena] may fairly be regarded as forming a distinct
+  and complete work.... It consists of a preface, an introduction, and
+  six sections or divisions (p. 163).”
+
+Footnote 36:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, pp. 164 f.
+
+Footnote 37:
+
+  _Vide infra_, p. 27.
+
+Footnote 38:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, p. 164.—Cf. also pp. 158–72, for Ibn Khaldūn in
+  general.
+
+Footnote 39:
+
+  Cf. Kupffer, _Klima and Dichtung_, p. 63.
+
+Footnote 40:
+
+  “Da Bodin hauptsächlich an die Anschauungen des Aristoteles anknüpft,
+  ...—Auch an Strabo, der dem Einfluß des Klimas und der Landesnatur
+  schon die schöpferischen Kräfte des Volksgeistes gegenübergestellt
+  hat, lehnt sich Bodin an.”—Fritz Renz, _Jean Bodin, Ein Beitrag z.
+  Geschichte d. hist. Methode im 16. Jahrhundert_ [Geschichtliche
+  Untersuchungen hg. v. Karl Lamprecht, III. Bd., I. Heft], (Gotha,
+  1905, 84 pp.), p. 48 n.
+
+Footnote 41:
+
+  _Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem_, published in 1566.
+
+Footnote 42:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, 198.—The ‘Republic’ was first published in 1576 in
+  French under the title _De la République_. Eight years later (1584)
+  Bodin himself translated it into Latin as _De Republica Libri Sex_.
+  See Ludwig Stein, _Die soziale Frage im Lichte der Philosophie_ (2.
+  verb. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1902), p. 217 n.
+
+Footnote 43:
+
+  Compare Dutoit, _Die Theorie des Milieu_, pp. 58–62.
+
+Footnote 44:
+
+  “Die physische Konstitution des Menschen hängt nach Bodin eng mit den
+  klimatischen Verhältnissen seiner Heimat zusammen und entspricht dem
+  Verhalten der Erde, die er bewohnt ...”—Renz, _Jean Bodin_ (1905), p.
+  50.—“... Da der animalische Körper wie alle Körper aus einer Mischung
+  der Elemente besteht, so ergibt sich eine direkte Abhängigkeit der
+  physischen Konstitution von der umgebenden Natur, ja sogar eine
+  Übereinstimmung mit dem Verhalten der Erde in dem betreffenden
+  Himmelsstrich. Der menschliche Körper reagiert auf die klimatischen
+  Einflüsse genau so wie die Erde, die er bewohnt, ...”—_Ibidem_, p. 44.
+
+Footnote 45:
+
+  Discussed by Renz, _l.c._, pp. 47–61, in the chapter “Die Theorie des
+  Klimas.”—“Behandelt wird die Theorie des Klimas nach dem 5. Kapitel
+  des ‘Methodus,’ in dem sich Bodin zum ersten Male mit dieser Doktrin
+  befaßte; zur Erläuterung wird auch das 1. Kapitel des V. Buches der
+  ‘République’ herangezogen, in dem die Theorie des Klimas, aber in
+  gedrängterer Form, wiederholt wird.”—_Ibid._, p. 47 n. Cf. also p. 45.
+
+Footnote 46:
+
+  “Sogar das Temperament variiert nach dem Klima ...
+
+  “Wie das Temperament wird die Sprache von dem inneren physischen Bau
+  abhängig gedacht ...
+
+  “Ebenso wird die Fortpflanzungsfähigkeit in direkte Abhängigkeit von
+  der physischen Konstitution gebracht ...”—_Ibid._, pp. 52 f.
+
+Footnote 47:
+
+  “Wie das Äußere und die physische Konstitution hängen auch die Anlagen
+  und Fähigkeiten der Völker mit den klimatischen Verschiedenheiten
+  zusammen ...”—_Ibid._, p. 54.
+
+Footnote 48:
+
+  “... Nach der Dreiteilung der seelischen Fähigkeiten bei dem
+  Einzelmenschen und den Bewohnern jedes Staates werden die Völker auf
+  der ganzen Erde gruppiert, indem durch das Klima immer eine Anlage
+  besonders zur Ausbildung kommt ...”—_Ibid._, p. 46.
+
+Footnote 49:
+
+  “... Bodin nimmt zwei Teile des menschlichen Seelenlebens an, erstens
+  eine allen Menschen gemeinsame, unveränderliche geistige Befähigung,
+  die Vernunft, und zweitens Anlagen, die von dem Klima und der
+  physischen Natur des Menschen abhängen. In der ‘République’ wird
+  ausgeführt, daß diese abhängigen Anlagen nur verschiedene von dem
+  geographischen Milieu abhängige Entwicklungsstufen des Verstandes
+  sind, während dieser an sich von den einzelnen Gegenden unabhängig ist
+  ...”—_Ibid._, p. 45.
+
+Footnote 50:
+
+  “... Indem er [Bodin] als erster in der Neuzeit auf streng
+  wissenschaftlicher Grundlage versucht, die Wechselwirkung, die
+  zwischen dem historischen Verlauf und der Natur stattfindet,
+  festzustellen, gelangt er zu der Annahme von zwei Teilen des
+  geistig-seelischen Innenlebens, eines von den umgebenden Verhältnissen
+  abhängigen und eines absoluten, gegen äußere Einflüsse sich passiv
+  verhaltenden Teils. Willensfreiheit neben der durch das Milieu
+  bedingten Ausbildung bestimmter Anlagen und Fähigkeiten ist der
+  mittlere Weg, den er zwischen der Annahme des zwingenden Einflusses
+  der äußeren Natur und der gänzlichen Unabhängigkeit von ihr einschlägt
+  ...”—_Ibid._, p. 77.
+
+Footnote 51:
+
+  “Neben dem Horizontal- wendet Bodin den Vertikalmaßstab zur
+  Beurteilung der Völker an, indem er untersucht, wie die verschiedene
+  Erhebung des Bodens auf die Gestaltung des Volkscharakters einwirkt
+  ...
+
+  “Ebenso wird die Natur der Völker von der Qualität des heimatlichen
+  Bodens beeinflußt, ...”—_Ibid._, p. 58.—“Der Einfluß, der sich aus der
+  östlicheren oder westlicheren Wohnlage auf den Volkscharakter geltend
+  macht, ist, wo nicht in der Richtung Süd-Nord sich erstreckende
+  Gebirge eine deutlichere Scheidelinie bilden, nach Bodin schwer zu
+  bestimmen ...”—_Ibid._ p. 57.
+
+Footnote 52:
+
+  “Neben der Vorstellung von der geistig-sittlichen Einheit der Menschen
+  geht die Erkenntnis der Verschiedenartigkeit der Nationen und ihres
+  Bildungsgrades her, die aus den partikularen Bedingungen des
+  nationalen Einzeldaseins resultiert. Zur Erklärung des Volkscharakters
+  wird, wie schon dargelegt, die Theorie des Klimas herangezogen
+  ...”—_Ibid._, p. 62.
+
+Footnote 53:
+
+  “Bodin hat sich deswegen mit der Theorie des Klimas beschäftigt, weil
+  er in der Geschichte und im Völkerleben bestimmte regelmäßige
+  Erscheinungen wahrnahm, die er sich nur aus dem Einfluß des
+  geographischen Milieus erklären konnte. Bei dem strengen Festhalten an
+  der menschlichen Willensfreiheit konnte er sich diesen Einfluß nur
+  durch die Annahme einer von äußeren Verhältnissen abhängigen
+  Entwicklungsfähigkeit der geistigen Anlagen in bestimmter Richtung
+  erklären...”—_Ibid._, p. 60 f.—“Das unbedingte Festhalten an der
+  menschlichen Willensfreiheit mußte Bodin vor der Annahme bewahren, daß
+  der Einfluß des geographischen Milieus auf die Menschen ein zwingender
+  sei. Nur die Entwicklung der Anlagen wird von der Umwelt bestimmt,
+  nicht aber das sittliche Wollen ...”—_Ibid._, p. 59.
+
+Footnote 54:
+
+  “Wo die äußere Natur zur Entwicklung schlechter Anlagen führt, besitzt
+  nach Bodin die Menschheit in der Erziehung ein Mittel, diesem
+  Übelstand zu begegnen.”—_Ibid._, p. 77.—“... den Menschen [wird] die
+  Fähigkeit zugesprochen ..., die schädlichen Einwirkungen des Klimas
+  wenn auch schwer, zu überwinden ...”—_Ibid._, p. 60.
+
+Footnote 55:
+
+  _L.c._, p. 198.
+
+Footnote 56:
+
+  “... Den Vergleich der drei Völkergruppen [südliche, mittlere,
+  nördliche] mit den menschlichen Lebensaltern hat Bodin von Aristoteles
+  entlehnt, was er Meth. V 140, 141 selbst zugibt.”—Renz, _l.c._, p. 57.
+
+Footnote 57:
+
+  _L.c._, p. 48.
+
+Footnote 58:
+
+  Haddon and Quiggin, _Hist. of Anthropology_ (London, 1910), p. 150.
+
+Footnote 59:
+
+  _L.c._, p. 77.—For Bodin in general, cf. Renz, _Jean Bodin_; Flint,
+  _l.c._, pp. 190–200; Ludwig Stein, _Die soziale Frage im Lichte der
+  Philosophie_, pp. 217–19. H. Morf, _Französische Literatur im
+  Zeitalter der Renaissance_ (2. verb. Aufl., Straßburg: Trübner, 1914),
+  is brief on Bodin, _vide_ esp. pp. 131 f.; cf. also p. 125.
+
+Footnote 60:
+
+  _Vide_ E. Bernheim, _Lehrbuch der historischen Methode_ (5. u. 6.
+  Aufl, Leipzig, 1908), p. 230.
+
+Footnote 61:
+
+  Montesquieu, _The Spirit of Laws_ (translated from the French by Th.
+  Nugent, new ed., revised by J. V. Prichard, 2 vols., London: Geo. Bell
+  and Sons, 1906), I, 238–314.
+
+Footnote 62:
+
+  “Seine [Montesquieu’s] Hervorkehrung des Einflusses, den Klima und
+  Bodenbeschaffenheit auf die Soziabilität der Menschennatur ausüben,
+  geht ebenfalls auf Locke, weiterhin auf Bodin zurück.”—L. Stein, _Die
+  soziale Frage_, etc., p. 364.—According to Dutoit (_Die Theorie des
+  Milieu_, p. 62), Montesquieu concealed his obligation to Bodin.
+
+Footnote 63:
+
+  _L.c._, pp. 238–53.
+
+Footnote 64:
+
+  _L.c._, pp. 253–69.
+
+Footnote 65:
+
+  _L.c._, pp. 270–83.
+
+Footnote 66:
+
+  _L.c._, pp. 284–91.
+
+Footnote 67:
+
+  _L.c._, pp. 291–314.
+
+Footnote 68:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, pp. 279 f.
+
+Footnote 69:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, p. 286.—(Turgot died in 1781.)
+
+Footnote 70:
+
+  Ripley, _The Races of Europe_ (1899), p. 4.—Cuvier was twenty years
+  younger than Goethe; both died in the same year.
+
+Footnote 71:
+
+  E. G. Conklin, _Heredity and Environment in the Development of Men_
+  (Princeton Univ. Press, 1915, 533 pp.), p. 303.
+
+Footnote 72:
+
+  _Eckermanns Gespräche mit Goethe_, neu herausgegeben v. H. H. Houben
+  (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1909), p. 264.
+
+Footnote 73:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 265.—These two passages are also cited by Kupffer, _Klima
+  and Dichtung_, p. 64.
+
+Footnote 74:
+
+  _Eckermanns Gespräche mit Goethe_, p. 542.
+
+Footnote 75:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 546.
+
+Footnote 76:
+
+  Karl Lamprecht, “Neue Kulturgeschichte” (pp. 449–64 in Das Jahr 1913,
+  _Ein Gesamtbild der Kulturentwicklung_, hg. v. D. Sarason,
+  Leipzig-Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1913), p. 453.
+
+Footnote 77:
+
+  Albert Poetzsch, _Studien zur frühromantischen Politik und
+  Geschichtsauffassung_ (Leipzig: Voigtländer, 1907, 111 pp.), p. 89.
+
+Footnote 78:
+
+  “Die Einwirkung der äußeren Natur auf die Geschichte tritt zurück [in
+  der romantischen Geschichtsphilosophie]”; and in a note is added:
+  “Wenn auch der Zusammenhang von Boden und Geschichte, namentlich von
+  natürl. Grenzen u. Staat, der Betrachtung nicht verloren geht. Vgl. A.
+  W. Schlegel, Enz. 216. 697.”—_Ibid._, p. 94.
+
+Footnote 79:
+
+  Bernheim, _Lehrb. d. hist. Methode_, p. 650.
+
+Footnote 80:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 515.
+
+Footnote 81:
+
+  See Ludwig Gumplowicz, _Der Rassenkampf_ (2.... Aufl., Innsbruck,
+  1909), p. 9 n.
+
+Footnote 82:
+
+  _Vide_ the quotation from Hegel by Gumplowicz, _l.c._, p. 13 n.
+
+
+
+
+                                   II
+A SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE IDEA OF MILIEU SINCE THE BEGINNING OF THE
+                           NINETEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+              _Anthropo-geography, Geography and History_
+
+The theory of social environment, as we have seen, gradually rises,
+especially since the renaissance, parallel with the theory of physical
+milieu. The stream of thought commences to broaden on both sides as we
+approach the eighteenth century, and broadens still further, and
+deepens, in the nineteenth, when specialization occurs or continues in
+anthropo-geography, biology, jurisprudence and economics, anthropology,
+sociology, and literature, and latterly in physics. These furnish us the
+divisions for subsequent discussions.[83]
+
+All antecedent thought on the subject converges in Herder and from this
+focal point, as a collecting and fructifying center, it emerges,
+branches out and radiates in a definite number of directions. This can
+only be indicated here.[84] One main ramification leads us to
+anthropo-geography. Consequently, we must now turn to a detailed
+consideration of the idea of milieu in anthropo-geography.[85]
+
+Karl Ritter first in anthropo-geography elucidated Herder’s ideas on
+environment. “... KARL RITTER steht auf HERDERS Schultern, wenn er in
+seiner ‘Allgemeinen Erdkunde’ den Gedanken der tiefgehenden
+Beeinflussung der Völkergeschichte durch die äußeren Umgebungen
+entwickelt ...”[86] Ritter is said to be given too much credit for
+connecting scientifically geography and history: “C. Ritter führte, ...
+die Herder’schen Anschauungen deutlicher aus. Die wissenschaftliche,
+nicht bloß äußerliche Verbindung von Geographie und Geschichte kettet
+sich an seinen Namen. Nicht ganz mit Recht; ...”[87] Richthofen thinks
+that Ritter’s basic idea was almost without influence on geography; only
+the historians profited by it.[88] Alexander von Humboldt, on the other
+hand, declares in the first volume of his _Cosmos_ that “The views of
+comparative geography have been specially enlarged by that admirable
+work, Erdkunde im Verhältnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte, in which Carl
+Ritter so ably delineates the physiognomy of our globe and shows the
+influence of its external configuration on the physical phenomena on its
+surface, on the migrations, laws, and manners of nations, and on all the
+principal historical events enacted upon the face of the earth.”[89]
+
+In the _Erdkunde_,[90] Ritter propounds a program for
+anthropo-geographical investigation, i.e., for the investigation of the
+mutual relation between man and his environment. As every moral man
+should, so should also “jeder menschliche Verein, jedes Volk seiner
+eigenen inneren und äußeren Kräfte, wie derjenigen der Nachbarn und
+seiner Stellung zu allen von außen herein wirkenden Verhältnissen inne
+werden.”[91] Nature exercises greater influence over peoples than over
+individual men: “Die Eigentümlichkeit des Volkes kann nur aus seinem
+Wesen erkannt werden, aus seinem Verhältnis zu sich selbst, zu seinen
+Gliedern, zu seinen Umgebungen, und weil kein Volk ohne Staat und
+Vaterland gedacht werden kann, aus seinem Verhältnis zu beiden und aus
+dem Verhältnis von beiden zu Nachbarländern und Nachbarstaaten. Hier
+zeigt sich der Einfluß, den die Natur auf die Völker, und zwar in einem
+noch weit höheren Grade, als auf den einzelnen Menschen ausüben muß ...
+
+“Denn durch eine höhere Ordnung bestimmt, treten die Völker wie die
+Menschen zugleich unter dem Einfluß einer Tätigkeit der Natur und der
+Vernunft hervor aus dem geistigen wie aus dem physischen Elemente in den
+Alles verschlingenden Kreis des Weltlebens. Gestaltet sich doch jeder
+Organismus dem inneren Zusammenhange und dem äußeren Umfange nach ...
+Sie (Völker und Staaten) stehen alle unter demselben Einflusse der Natur
+...”[92] To the problem of the reciprocal relation between external and
+internal factors, Ritter devoted a special essay, entitled “Über das
+historische Element in der geographischen Wissenschaft,” which he read
+before the Academy of Sciences at Berlin in 1833.[93]
+
+In Alexander von Humboldt’s _Ansichten der Natur_,[94] “Everywhere the
+reader’s attention is directed to the perpetual influence which physical
+nature exercises on the moral condition and on the destiny of man.”[95]
+In passing, Humboldt also touches on environment in the first volume of
+his chef-d’oeuvre, _Kosmos_, assigning it, however, but a modest rôle:
+“Es würde das allgemeine Naturbild, das ich zu entwerfen strebe,
+unvollständig bleiben, wenn ich hier nicht auch den Mut hätte, das
+Menschengeschlecht in seinen physischen Abstufungen, in der
+geographischen Verbreitung seiner gleichzeitig vorhandenen Typen, in dem
+Einfluß, welchen es von den Kräften der Erde empfangen und
+wechselseitig, wenn auch schwächer, auf sie ausgeübt hat, mit wenigen
+Zügen zu schildern. Abhängig, wenn gleich in minderem Grade als Pflanzen
+und Tiere, von dem Boden und den meteorologischen Prozessen des
+Luftkreises, den Naturgewalten durch Geistestätigkeit und stufenweise
+erhöhte Intelligenz, wie durch eine wunderbare sich allen Klimaten
+aneignende Biegsamkeit des Organismus leichter entgehend, nimmt das
+Geschlecht wesentlich Teil an dem ganzen Erdenleben.”[96]
+
+J. G. Kohl’s book, _Der Verkehr und die Ansiedlungen der Menschheit in
+ihrer Abhängigkeit von der Gestaltung der Erdoberfläche_,[97] occupies
+itself with the question of the dependence of human progress in general,
+and of density and concentration of population in particular, upon
+natural conditions. The causes of these phenomena are, to Kohl, partly
+moral or political, and partly physical. The physical causes of
+concentration are twofold: “Teils sind es solche, die von dem mehr oder
+minder großen Produktenreichtum des Bodens, teils solche, die von der
+Gestaltung der Erdoberfläche abhängen ... so zeigt sich dann, daß von
+allen verschiedenen Ursachen der Kondensierung der Bevölkerung die
+Bodengestaltung die allerwichtigste ist.”[98] Opposed to these natural
+conditions is a series of what Kohl styles political influences, such as
+national character, institutions created by the State, laws, etc.—“Die
+moralischen oder politischen Ursachen der verschiedenen Dichtigkeit der
+Bevölkerung sind in dem Kulturzustande und besonders in der politischen
+Verfassung der Bewohner der verschiedenen Erdstriche begründet ... Auch
+sind viele verschiedene Sitten der Völker als einflußreiche Ursachen der
+mehr oder minder großen Dichtigkeit der Bevölkerung zu betrachten.”[99]
+Not only national character, but also education is to be counted among
+the political influences: “Unter politischen und moralischen Einflüssen,
+die nicht von der Natur bedingt werden, verstehen wir solche Kräfte,
+solche Volkstalente und Eigentümlichkeiten des Charakters, die nicht der
+Boden, die Luft und das Klima dem Volke geben. So groß nämlich auch die
+Gewalt des Bodens, des Klimas und der Natur ist, so sehr die Zonen, die
+Gebirge, die Sümpfe, die Wälder, die Wüsten u.s.w. alle Bevölkerung, die
+in ihre Gebiete fällt, auf einerlei Weise zu bilden und zu modeln
+streben, so sehr behauptet doch immer noch nebenher der ursprüngliche
+Charakter des Stammes und die Erziehung, welche das Volk sich gibt, ihre
+eigenen Rechte. Es existieren beide Einflüsse neben einander,
+beschränken sich gegenseitig, aber sie heben sich nicht auf ... Das, was
+nun nicht vom Boden abhängt und was ein Volk auf jeden Boden, den es
+bezieht, mit hin bringt, ist wiederum Zweierlei, entweder etwas
+Angeborenes oder etwas Angenommenes.”[100] It is difficult to
+differentiate between what is due to original endowment and what to the
+milieu, yet natural influences can not be ignored: “Welcher Geist ...
+möchte den Versuch wagen, zu entscheiden, was im Charakter des Volkes
+... Angenommenes und was Selbstgegebenes sei, was endlich in ihren
+Handlungen und Bewegungen von Klima und Landesbeschaffenheit bedingt
+werde. Die Charaktergepräge der Nationen, wie wir sie jetzt in diesen
+neuesten Momenten der weltgeschichtlichen Entwicklung sehen, sind
+Gebilde, welche unter der Einwirkung unerforschbar vielfacher Einflüsse
+entstanden sind.... Und doch stehen sie (die Natureinflüsse, die von den
+Historikern gewöhnlich unberücksichtigt geblieben sind) vielleicht auch
+bei allen jenen Dingen, die wir im Vordergrunde agieren sehen, im
+Hintergrunde und wirken als die Quellen der Erscheinungen mittelbar
+selbst da, wo wir dieselben anderen Ursachen zuschreiben. So mag jede
+Art der Staatsverfassung, der Gewerbzweige geschöpft und hervorgeblüht
+sein aus der Tiefe des Nationalgeistes, des Boden- und des Luftgeistes,
+während wir sie als Willkürliches und Selbstgegebenes auffassen.”[101]
+
+The naturalist Karl Ernst von Baer discusses the influence of external
+nature upon the social relations of individual nations and upon the
+history of mankind in general,[102] while the geologist Bernhard Cotta
+attempts to show the effect of soil and geological structure on German
+life.[103] Accepting, in the main, Cotta as a basis, J. Kutzen, in _Das
+deutsche Land, Seine Natur in ihren charakteristischen Zügen und sein
+Einfluß auf Geschichte und Leben der Menschen, Skizzen und Bilder_,[104]
+the bulk of which book is physical geography, intersperses therewith
+anthropo-geographical statements that are in some cases interwoven in,
+and in others added to, the descriptive parts, pointing out the relation
+of environment to the life and history of the Germans.[105] Kutzen
+claims his work to be the first that treats the _whole_ of Germany in
+the way just indicated.
+
+In The Natural History of the German People,[106] W. H. Riehl studies
+the action of natural conditions on man. He is concerned with the
+connections between land and people: “Will man die naturgeschichtliche
+Methode der Wissenschaft vom Volke in ihrer ganzen Breite und Tiefe
+nachweisen, dann muß man auch in das Wesen dieser örtlichen
+Besonderungen des Volkstumes eindringen. In der Lehre von der
+bürgerlichen Gesellschaft ist das Verhältnis der großen natürlichen
+Volksgruppen zueinander nachgewiesen: hier sollen diese Gruppen nach den
+örtlichen Bedingungen des Landes, in welchem das Volksleben wurzelt,
+dargestellt werden. Erst aus den individuellen Bezügen von LAND UND
+LEUTEN entwickelt sich die kulturgeschichtliche Abstraktion der
+bürgerlichen Gesellschaft.”[107] And “Das vorliegende Buch hat sich das
+bescheidenere Ziel gesteckt, zusammenhängende Skizzen zu liefern zur
+Naturgeschichte des Volkes _in seinem Zusammenhang mit dem Lande_.”[108]
+His chief aim is to prove that the connection between land and people is
+the basis of all social development and of all social research: “Ich
+hatte mir von Anbeginn das Ziel gesteckt, den Zusammenhang von Land und
+Volk als Fundament aller sozialen und politischen Entwicklung, als
+Ausgangspunkt aller sozialen Forschung nachzuweisen, und dieses
+Hauptziel, die eigentliche Tendenz des Buches, hat heute noch denselben
+Wert, dieselbe fördernde Kraft wie vor einem Menschenalter.”[109] He
+wants to show how “Volksart” and “Landesart” hang together, how
+nationality grows organically out of the soil: “Ich nenne dieses
+Wanderbuch einen zweiten Band zu ‘Land und Leuten.’ In jener Schrift
+verarbeite ich zahlreiche Wanderskizzen, um den Zusammenhang von
+Volksart und Landesart, das organische Erwachsen des Volkstumes aus dem
+Boden nachzuweisen.”[110] Everywhere Riehl finds “an organic relation
+between nature and man,” according to Gooch.[111] Riehl recognizes “that
+man could only develop within the limits imposed by nature.”[112] The
+problem of how locality affects social groups has, of course, not
+originated with Riehl, but it received a reformulation at his hands. It
+must be added, however, that his bombastic assertions far outrun his
+data. His claims are disproportionate to his facts.[113]
+
+Alfred Kirchhoff brilliantly sketches the reciprocal relations between
+land and people in Germany, in an essay entitled _Die deutschen
+Landschaften und Stämme_.[114]
+
+Achelis[115] refers to Bastian’s doctrine of geographical provinces, “wo
+eine Reihe rein physikalischer Agentien: Temperatur, Boden, Flora,
+Fauna, etc. sich mit entsprechenden psychischen kombinieren, so daß man
+in konzentrischer Reihenfolge von botanischen, zoologischen und
+anthropologischen Kreisen reden könnte. Der leitende Grundsatz, sagt
+Bastian, für geographisch-typische Provinzen fällt in die Abhängigkeit
+des Organismus von seiner geographischen Umgebung (_le Milieu_ oder
+_Monde ambiant_), in eine gegenseitig festgeschlossene Wechselwirkung
+und also in Naturgesetze, mit denen sich rechnen läßt (_Zur Lehre von
+den geographischen Provinzen_ [Berlin, 1886], S. 6).”
+
+The reciprocal influences of man and his environment are illustrated by
+Alfred Kirchhoff in _Mensch und Erde, Skizzen von den Wechselbeziehungen
+zwischen beiden_.[116]
+
+Ferdinand von Richthofen[117] traces the gradual evolution of “Siedlung
+und Verkehr,” under which two concepts he subsumes all relations of man
+to the soil.[118]
+
+It was Friedrich Ratzel, however, who “performed the great service of
+placing anthropo-geography on a secure scientific basis. He had his
+forerunners in Montesquieu,[119] Alexander von Humboldt, Buckle,
+Ritter, Kohl, Peschel and others; but he first investigated the
+subject from the modern scientific point of view, ... and based his
+conclusions on world-wide inductions, for which his predecessors did
+not command the data.”[120] He “has written the standard work on
+_Anthropogeographie_.”[121] Employing the analytical method, Ratzel
+was the first to divide the subject-matter into categories: “Ratzel
+hat das Verdienst, daß er zuerst den Stoff in Kategorien teilte. Er
+wendet die analytische Methode der allgemeinen Geographie an und
+betrachtet den Einfluß einzelner Naturgegebenheiten auf den Menschen,
+z.B. der Inseln, Halbinseln, Gebirge, Ebenen, Steppen, Wüsten, Küsten,
+Flußmündungen[122] usw. Die analytische Methode allein kann zum Ziele
+führen.”[123] The great and permanent merit of Ratzel’s _Politische
+Geographie_[124] is its setting forth how closely the State is bound
+to the physical milieu.[125] It treats partly of the effect of nature
+and soil on the formation of the State and on political
+boundaries.[126] Ratzel expounds environmental action also in his
+books _Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika_,[127] _The History of
+Mankind_,[128] and in his article on “The Principles of
+Anthropo-geography.”[129] Among his followers is to be counted Andrew
+R. Cowan, whose _Master-Clues in World-History_[130] is “deeply
+impregnated with Ratzel’s teachings.”[131] Camille Vallaux devotes the
+fifth chapter (pp. 145–73) of his _Géographie Sociale, Le Sol et
+L’État_,[132] to a criticism of the theories of _Raum_ (space) and of
+Lage (situation) as developed by Ratzel in his _Politische
+Geographie_. And, in general, Ratzel’s “published work had been open
+to the just criticism of inadequate citation of authorities.”[133] O.
+Schlüter in “Die leitenden Gesichtspunkte der Anthropogeographie,
+insbesondere der Lehre Friedrich Ratzels”[134] gives us the best
+single estimate of Ratzel, the best orientation—within the compass of
+an article well written, well poised, and illuminating—on Ratzel’s
+work, thought, method, and application.[135]
+
+
+                        _Geography and History_
+
+We shall now see, first, the stand taken by some French writers, and
+then that taken by German and English writers, on the question of how
+physical environment affects history.
+
+One of the “three most philosophical writers on climate,”[136] Charles
+Comte, not related by birth to the founder of Positivism, is, likewise,
+one of the earliest disciples of Herder in France. Herder “seems to have
+helped to inspire”[137] Charles Comte’s _Traité de Législation_.[138]
+Charles Comte’s “discussion of the questions which relate to the
+influence of physical nature on human development must have been the
+fruit of long and careful study. It was as great an advance on
+Montesquieu’s treatment of the subject as Montesquieu’s had been on that
+of Bodin. It disproved, corrected, or confirmed a host of Montesquieu’s
+observations and conclusions. It showed that he had ascribed too much to
+climate, and too little to the configuration of the earth’s surface, the
+distribution of mountains and rivers, &c.; and that he had conceived
+vaguely, and even to a large extent erroneously, of the modes in which
+climate and the fertility or sterility of soil affect human development.
+But while Comte thus justly criticised Montesquieu, he himself
+exaggerated the efficiency of physical agencies. Indeed, he virtually
+traced to their operation the whole development of history ... he has
+assumed that physical agencies ultimately account for historical change
+and movement, for public institutions and laws....
+
+“Charles Comte fully recognises that the same physical medium has a very
+different influence on different generations; and that institutions and
+laws, education and manners, and, in a word, all the constituents of the
+social medium, have as real an influence on the development of history
+as those of the physical medium. Yet he assumes the latter to be the
+first, although to a large extent only indirect, causes of the whole
+amount of change effected.”[139]
+
+Victor Cousin, another Frenchman, reconnects with Herder. Cousin had
+direct acquaintance with at least the principal work of Herder, for the
+rendering of whose “Ideen” into French by Quinet he seems
+responsible.[140] In the eighth lecture of his “admired”[141] _Cours de
+1828 sur la Philosophie de l’Histoire_, he discourses on the rôle that
+geography plays in history.
+
+F. Guizot, in the fifth lecture of _The History of Civilization_,[142]
+comments briefly on the influence of external circumstances upon
+liberty.
+
+The romantic French historiographer, Jules Michelet, in his _Histoire de
+France_ (second volume, 1833), and in his _Histoire Romaine_ (1839),
+interlinks geography with history, and brilliantly describes the
+countries whose histories he is writing. Like some before him (such as
+Montesquieu), and many after him (such as Riehl, Curtius, and
+Gothein),[143] who traveled in the respective countries before
+describing them or composing their history, Michelet, as one preliminary
+measure toward equipping himself for such a task, visited Italy[144] and
+various parts of France, the latter repeatedly, in order to gain a first
+hand impression of the physical milieu and the people of those lands. He
+is said to be the first [_sic!_] in France who, under the influence of
+Herder, had the idea that geography was the foundation of history: “Sous
+l’influence de Herder, il [Michelet] eut, le premier en France, l’idée
+que la géographie était le fondement de l’histoire: ‘Le matériel, la
+race, le peuple qui la continue me paraissaient avoir besoin qu’on mît
+dessous une bonne et forte base, la terre, qui les portât et qui les
+nourrît. Et notez que ce sol n’est pas seulement le théâtre de l’action.
+Par la nourriture, le climat, etc., il y influe de cent manières. Tel le
+nid, tel l’oiseau. Telle la patrie, tel l’homme.’”[145] Without this
+basis, the actor in history, the people, would be treading on air like
+figures in some Chinese paintings. Says Jules Simon of the celebrated
+tableau in the second volume of the _Histoire de France_: “Son héros
+[Michelet’s] ... c’est la France. Il en fait une description qui remplit
+tout le troisième livre et qui est un chef-d’oeuvre. Chose nouvelle,
+cette géographie a autant de mouvement que l’histoire. Elle est animée,
+vivante, agissante. Il en montre à merveille l’utilité, la nécessité.
+Sans cette base géographique, le peuple, l’acteur historique, semblerait
+marcher en l’air, comme dans les peintures chinoises, où le sol
+manque.”[146] In the _Introduction to Universal History_ (1831),
+Michelet says, “In Germany and Italy, fatality is still strong; moral
+freedom is still borne down by powerful influences of race, locality,
+and climate.”[147]
+
+Ernst Kapp, in the _Philosophische Erdkunde_,[148] criticizes writers on
+the philosophy of history for their failure to give due attention to the
+geographical existence of the nations. Nor are geographical intermezzos
+alone sufficient: “Man [these writers] hat zwar eine Ahnung von dem
+geographischen Element in der Geschichte, nicht aber das deutliche
+Bewußtsein, daß die Menschheit an dem Planeten ihre physische
+Individualität besitzt, daß sie zu ihm sich verhält, wie die Seele zum
+Leib. Anstatt die geographische Betrachtung durch und durch mit der
+historischen verwachsen zu lassen [which he proposes to do], hat man
+teils geographische Intermezzos nach subjektivem Gutdünken ...
+eingestreut, teils auch sich mit einer dem Ganzen voraufgeschickten
+geographischen Grundlage ein für allemal begnügt. Man hat hierbei nicht
+bedacht, daß man die Geschichte, wenn man ihr den planetarischen Grund
+und Boden, auf den man sie von vornherein stellt, wegrückt, zwischen
+Himmel und Erde schweben läßt und ihre Behandlung dem veränderlichen
+Luftzuge des subjektiven Beliebens mehr oder minder preisgibt ... Darin
+ruht die Selbständigkeit der geographischen Wissenschaft, ..., daß ihr
+Objekt die Erde ist, ... die Erde, wie sie bestimmend auf die
+Entwicklung des Geistes einwirkt und hinwiederum vom Geist bestimmt und
+verändert wird. Dies Verhältnis des Planeten zum Geist ist ein
+wesentliches.”[149]
+
+Arnold H. Guyot, “ce Suisse transplanté en Amérique,”[150] treats the
+same topic in the _Géographie physique comparée, considérée dans ses
+rapports avec l’histoire de l’humanité_.[151]
+
+The frequently misquoted Henry Thomas Buckle, in the celebrated second
+chapter of the _History of Civilization in England_,[152] shows the
+largely indirect effects of climate, food, and soil, chiefly upon the
+civilizations—of India, Egypt, Mexico, Peru, etc.—anterior to those of
+Europe, and of a fourth class of physical agents, namely, of what he
+terms the general aspect of nature upon the imagination—religion,
+literature, art—of those peoples. Buckle does not maintain that these
+four classes of the Environment were the _sole_ factors in producing
+civilization; in fact he makes it quite clear that they were _not_ the
+only factors, that they affected the civilizations mentioned in an
+indirect way and he indicates how this has taken place. Buckle’s
+statements of his ideas had been misrepresented, twisted, and distorted
+to such a degree that John M. Robertson felt impelled to write a whole
+book[153] in rebuttal, in order to set Buckle’s detractors and
+controversial critics right and to refute their unfair imputations to
+Buckle’s intended meaning.
+
+The romanticist Ernst Curtius is sometimes referred to as one of those
+historians who give adequate expression to the action of the physical
+milieu upon the course of history. But Vallaux declares that Curtius,
+like Michelet, has made of human geography and of political geography
+_merely_ a preliminary and introductory science to history: “une science
+auxiliaire ou plutôt liminaire, sorte de _portique d’entrée_ [the
+italics are ours] pour leurs brillantes constructions,”[154] lending
+thus support to Kapp’s contention.[155] Nor would Ratzel be content with
+a portrayal of the land as an introduction to the history of a country,
+even though it be as richly colored as that drawn by Curtius.[156] A
+description, in itself, fails to penetrate to the core of the relation.
+If we now turn to Curtius’ _The History of Greece_,[157] we find that
+the first chapter in the first book[158] considers Land and People, a
+part of which (pp. 9–18) gives a geographical description of Hellas, and
+another part of which (pp. 19–25, seven pages scant) points out the
+connection between the land and the people. Elsewhere,[159] Curtius
+shows the interaction between the physical environment of Athens and the
+Athenians.[160]
+
+George Grote, whose account of the relation between the Greek land and
+the Greek people is held by some[161] to be excellent, in _A History of
+Greece_,[162] devotes four pages (227–30) of the chapter on General
+Geography and Limits of Greece to show the effects of the configuration
+of Greece upon the political relation of the inhabitants[163] and the
+effects upon their intellectual development,[164] the rest of the
+chapter being given over to a description of the geography of Greece.
+
+Alfred E. Zimmern, in _The Greek Commonwealth, Politics and Economics in
+Fifth-Century Athens_,[165] deals very cleverly with the main features
+of the material environment of Greek civilization: The Mediterranean
+Area; The Sea; The Climate; The Soil; Fellowship, or the Rule of Public
+Opinion, under which headings he discusses the influence of environment
+upon Greek institutions.[166]
+
+As early as 1864, G. P. Marsh investigates the subject of man’s reaction
+on his milieu in _Man and Nature, or Physical Geography as Modified by
+Human Action_ (London).
+
+John William Draper, in his _History of the Intellectual Development of
+Europe_,[167] in the composition of which Herderian ideas were the
+guides,[168] first attempts to show (vol. I, pp. 6–17) that individual
+man, as well as communities, nations, and universal humanity, are under
+the control of physical conditions; then (pp. 23–35) he points out how
+the topography, meteorology, and secular geological movements of Europe
+affected its inhabitants. On the whole, he overstates the force of
+environment and neglects the human factor; nevertheless his
+uncompromising affirmations bring out strikingly some of the
+environmental effects on man.
+
+The uncritical Max Duncker, in the nine volume _Geschichte des
+Altertums_,[169] not only has chapters on _Land und Volk_, or _Land und
+Stämme_ at the beginning of the history of a given nation, but he also
+dwells elsewhere in his text on the sway of geography in history.
+
+Élisée Réclus, in the magistral _Nouvelle Géographie Universelle_ (1879
+ff.), speaking of the difficulties encountered by research, queries:
+“... Was verdanken die Nationen dem Einfluß der Natur, die sie umgibt?
+Was verdanken sie dem Milieu, das ihre Vorfahren bewohnten, ihren
+Rasseinstinkten, ihren verschiedenartigen Mischungen, den von Außen
+eingeführten Überlieferungen? Man weiß es nicht, kaum daß einige
+Lichtstrahlen in jene Finsternis dringen.”[170] The preponderance of
+European nations is by no means attributable, as some arrogantly and
+self-conceitedly fancied, to any racial endowment; on the contrary, it
+is due to the favoring conditions of the physical environment prevailing
+in Europe: “Man weiß, wie mächtig der Einfluß des geographischen Milieu
+auf die Fortschritte der europäischen Nationen gewesen ist. Ihre
+Überlegenheit ist keineswegs, wie einige sich dünkelhafter Weise
+eingebildet haben, der eigentümlichen Anlage der Rassen zuzuschreiben,
+denn in anderen Gegenden der alten Welt haben sich eben dieselben Rassen
+weniger schöpferisch erwiesen. Es sind die glücklichen Bedingungen der
+Wärme, des Klimas, der Gestalt und Lage des Festlandes, welche den
+Europäern die Ehre verschafft haben, die ersten gewesen zu sein in der
+Kenntnis der Erde in ihrem ganzen Umfange und lange Zeit an der Spitze
+der Zivilisation geblieben zu sein.”[171] These conditions help to
+explain, in part, the character of the nations: “Mit vollem Recht lieben
+es also die historischen Geographen bei der Gestalt der verschiedenen
+Erdteile und bei den Folgen zu verweilen, welche sich daraus für die
+Bestimmung der Völker ergeben. Die Gestalt der Hochebenen, die Höhe der
+Berge, der Lauf und der Reichtum der Flüsse, die Nachbarschaft des
+Ozeans, die Gliederung der Küsten, die Temperatur der Atmosphäre, die
+Häufigkeit oder Seltenheit des Regens, die unzähligen wechselseitigen
+Einflüsse der Sonne, der Luft und der Gewässer, alle Erscheinungen des
+Pflanzenlebens habe eine Bedeutung in ihren Augen und dienen ihnen
+(wenigstens zum Teil), den Charakter und das erste Leben der Nationen zu
+erklären ...”[172] Continental and oceanic forms and other features of
+the globe vary in their value for man in accordance with the stage of
+civilization to which he attained.[173] Notwithstanding this separation,
+in principle, of natural and national influences upon social evolution,
+its application to concrete cases Réclus finds arduous: “Durch das
+Studium der Sonne und durch die unablässige Beobachtung der klimatischen
+Erscheinungen können wir ganz allgemein verstehen, welches der Einfluß
+der Natur auf die Entwicklung der Völker gewesen ist; aber es ist
+schwieriger, das auf jede Rasse, auf jede Nation zu verteilen....”[174]
+
+P. Mougeoulle’s theory in _Les problèmes de l’histoire_,[175] is an
+altogether one-sided geographical theory of history.[176] The sole cause
+of the external as well as the internal history of peoples, is, in his
+opinion, the geographical Milieu.[177] To Mougeoulle, the Milieu is the
+author, whereas man is the actor of the Drama of history.[178]
+
+Léon Metchnikoff, in _La Civilisation et Les Grands Fleuves
+Historiques_,[179] pays some attention to the influences (astronomic,
+physical—the geosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere—, vegetal,
+animal, anthropological) of the milieu on man and society; yet his main
+care is with the action of parts of the hydrosphere on human progress.
+Following C. Böttiger (_Das Mittelmeer_, Leipzig, 1859), Metchnikoff
+distinguishes the three milieus: fluvial or potamic, mediterranean or
+thalassic, and oceanic or universal.[180] On this basis he divides
+universal history into three periods: 1) the period of the fluvial
+civilizations (temps anciens), furnishing the principal theme of his
+argument (discussed in the last four chapters of his book); 2) that of
+the mediterranean civilizations (temps moyens); 3) and that of the
+oceanic civilizations. The fluvial or ancient period, from the
+beginnings to _circa_ 800 B.C., comprises the history of the four great
+civilizations of antiquity, in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, “qui
+ont eu pour milieu géographique des régions arrosées par certains
+fleuves ou couples de fleuves célèbres.” The mediterranean or middle
+period extends from the seventh century B.C.—the foundation of
+Carthage—to Charles the Fifth. The modern or oceanic period has two
+epochs: a) the _atlantic_ epoch, from the discovery of America to about
+the middle of the nineteenth century; and b) the _universal_ epoch, just
+beginning.[181] In the main, Metchnikoff limits the scope of his work to
+the compass of fluvial civilizations. He studies in detail the four
+great historical rivers or pairs of rivers (the Nile, the Tigris and the
+Euphrates, the Indus and the Ganges, and the Hoangho and the
+Yangtze-Kiang, those great educators of mankind) in their bearing upon
+the four grand civilizations—Chinese, Hindu, Assyro-Babylonian, and
+Egyptian—of remote antiquity, all of which expanded in fluvial
+regions.[182] The River, in all countries, presents itself to
+Metchnikoff as the living synthesis of all the complex conditions of the
+climate, of the soil, of the configuration of the earth, and of the
+geologic formation. In Egypt and in China, in India and in Mesopotamia,
+the River has been “comme une synthèse vivante des conditions
+géographiques les plus multiples.”[183] He finds that each of the four
+great monarchies of antiquity had been a natural consequence or result
+of the hydrological system of the country that served as its cradle, and
+that history, in the entire ancient world, had been a toil, a forced
+labor (“une corvée”), imposed on a part of mankind by certain orographic
+peculiarities of the Milieu. Metchnikoff concludes that in these empires
+“le Milieu s’est trouvé être invariablement le vrai créateur de
+l’histoire.” The eloquent example of these four grand ancient
+civilizations sufficiently proves to him that no important historical
+expansion could ever occur in any country of the world, unless the
+milieu condemned its inhabitants to that excessive solidarity which he
+shows to have been brutally imposed everywhere at the shores of these
+great historical rivers; a milieu is conceivable, however, where this
+condition, rigorously required by history, may be fulfilled by an
+environmental factor other than a river or a system of rivers.[184]
+Metchnikoff protests that he is far from advocating potamic[185] or
+geographical[186] fatalism.[187]
+
+Babington’s study of the power of environment over history points out
+the fallacy of the race theory in the history of the Roman empire, of
+Germany, and of China.[188]
+
+N. S. Shaler, in _Nature and Man in America_,[189] traces, on the one
+hand, the action of environment on organic life, and, on the other, the
+effect of geographic conditions on the development of peoples, more
+especially on that of man in North America.[190]
+
+Since about the middle of the eighties, under the leadership of the late
+historian E. A. Freeman and of the illustrious statesman and scholar,
+Lord James Bryce, “a marked revival of interest” has been exhibited in
+England in studying the physical milieu as it relates to man and human
+society, institutions and history.[191]
+
+The leading point of view in H. F. Helmolt’s _The History of the World,
+a Survey of Man’s Record_,[192] is the treatment of man’s relation to
+his physical environment, the relation of geography to history, the
+dependence of man on his geographical surroundings. “It [Helmolt’s
+_History_] deals with history in the light of physical environment....
+Its ground plan, so to speak, is primarily geographical....”[193] It was
+conceived in the spirit of Ratzel;[194] it is said to have brought for
+the first time “die Länder- und Völkerkunde in den Dienst der
+Weltgeschichtsdarstellung.”[195] Helmolt’s “great co-operative _History
+of Mankind_ ... emphasizes the sovereign influences of nature and
+geography,” says Gooch.[196]
+
+Rev. H. B. George, in _The Relations of Geography and History_,[197]
+attempts to “point out systematically how these [geographical] causes
+work [all history through], first in general, and then in reference to
+the various countries of Europe,”[198] although “This work does not
+pretend to attempt the impossible task of describing all the influence
+exerted by geographical conditions on human history. All that it
+professes to do is to indicate the modes in which that influence works,
+with sufficient illustrations from actual history.”[199]
+
+Professor Geddes, of Edinburgh, is the most energetic expounder of this
+idea—the anthropo-geographical conception of history—in the
+English-speaking world, says Small.[200]
+
+Throughout the entire treatment of Guglielmo Ferrero’s[201] _History of
+Rome_ (one of the most original and important historical works of recent
+years), geography thoroughly permeates history.[202]
+
+Robert Sieger[203] attempts to explain the history and policies of the
+Austro-Hungarian monarchy “aus ihren geographischen Grundlagen.”[204]
+
+Ellsworth Huntington, in _The Pulse of Asia_,[205] illustrates the
+geographic basis of history.[206]
+
+The Columbia School of sociological historians, and others, interpret
+history partly in terms of the milieu: physical (economic and
+geographic) and social.[207]
+
+Human geography, and political geography, have long been divided into
+fragmentary parts, contended for by economics, history, and
+sociology.[208] Yet the discipline of anthropo-geography has now become
+“eine mächtige Hilfswissenschaft der geschichtlichen Auffassung.”[209]
+So that, today, it has become a custom to include in textbooks of
+history one or more chapters on the relation of geography to history, to
+show the dependence of history on environment.[210] The study of the
+latter is a part of Kulturgeschichte or History of Civilization which is
+defined as embracing the non-political aspects of civilization such as
+the influence of nature, the pressure of economic factors, the origin
+and transformation of ideas, the contribution of science and art,
+religion and philosophy, literature and law, the material conditions of
+life, the fortunes of the masses.[211] Likewise, only on a broader
+scale, the milieu is being examined in a new branch of study, which is
+one resultant of anthropo-geographical research. This new branch of
+study is economic geography, which, according to John McFarlane,[212]
+“may be defined as the study of the influence exerted upon the economic
+activities of man by his physical environment, and more especially by
+the form and structure of the surface of the land, the climatic
+conditions which prevail upon it, and the place relations in which its
+different regions stand to one another.” Seligman says that the modern
+study of economic geography is but an expansion of the study of the
+influence of milieu.[213]
+
+Indeed, geography itself, _i.e._, the new geography, is conceived of as
+the science or study of the responses of organisms to inorganic, and to
+a certain extent organic, environmental control.[214] Professor William
+Morris Davis, of Harvard University, is one of the chief exponents of
+this theory in the United States. Very recently, Rollin D. Salisbury
+said:[215] “By common consent, Geography (as distinct from physical
+geography) is the science which deals with the relations of physical
+environment to life and its activities. In this sense, geography is a
+connecting link between geology, physiography, and climatology, on the
+one hand, and zoölogy, botany, sociology, economics, and history on the
+other. Its subject-matter is in process of formulation....”[216]
+
+
+             _More Recent Anthropo-geographical Treatises_
+
+James Bryce offers the most excellent general survey of man’s relation
+to his physical environment.[217]
+
+Herbertson’s very useful and readable introductory book gives “concrete
+pictures of human life under these very different conditions [typical
+environments]. They show, in the first place, how the occupation of
+different groups of mankind depends on their geographical surroundings,
+and how these occupations in turn affect not only the material life, the
+houses, food, clothing, etc., but also family life, notions of property,
+progress in trade and manufactures, power of expansion, and ideals of
+government. All these are classified, not according to race, which is
+often an accident, but according to those permanent influences by which
+all races are affected.”[218]
+
+Robert DeCourcy Ward, in his standard work on _Climate Considered
+Especially in Relation to Man_,[219] presents “typical illustrations” of
+environmental action on the life of man in the tropics (Ch. 8, pp.
+220–71), in the temperate zones (Ch. 9 pp. 272–321), and in the polar
+zones (Ch. 10, pp. 322–37).[220] In a chapter on the hygiene of the
+zones (Ch. 7, pp. 178–219), Ward also surveys “some of the relations
+between weather and climate and a few of the more important
+diseases.”[221]
+
+R. R. Marett’s chapter on “Environment” in his _Anthropology_[222]
+presents, beside a number of valuable general and critical remarks,
+chiefly a regional survey of the world showing the general effect of
+geographical environment on man.
+
+Camille Vallaux, in _Géographie Sociale, Le Sol et L’État_,[223]
+beginning with the sixth chapter, also discusses some phases of what
+would in E. C. Hayes’ classification[224] be called the technical
+milieu.
+
+The most recent German essay, Willy Hellpach’s[225] _Die
+Geopsychischen Erscheinungen: Wetter, Klima und Landschaft in ihrem
+Einfluß auf das Seelenleben_,[226] deals with the _direct_ effects of
+the surrounding _atmosphere_ and soil on the human psyche.[227]
+Hellpach seems primarily interested in “Psycho-Pathologie”;[228] he
+lays most stress on _das Pathologische_, particularly in the
+main—first two—parts of his essay: “Wetter und Seelenleben,” and
+“Klima und Seelenleben,” where the pathological effect is strongly
+emphasized. Hellpach’s valuable summary of what we know today of this
+phase of the milieu,[229] revealing as it does by the meager number of
+the facts assembled the crying need for many more such facts, may be,
+in its results, somewhat disappointing[230] for the present day, but
+it augurs well for future investigation.
+
+The latest extensive presentation of general anthropo-geography,[231]
+Jean Brunhes’ _La géographie humaine_,[232] pays more attention to
+present than to historical conditions,[233] and thus fittingly
+complements Ellen C. Semple’s _Influences of Geographic
+Environment_,[234] which “may be regarded as superseding Ratzel’s great
+work on Anthropo-geography.”[235]
+
+
+                  _Primitive Peoples and Environment_
+
+Karl Ritter, in the essay “Über das historische Element in der
+geographischen Wissenschaft” (1833), declares that the forces of nature
+which at the commencement of human history exerted a very decisive
+influence were bound to recede more and more, and their action had to
+diminish, in proportion to man’s progress. Civilized mankind extricates
+itself gradually, like single man, from the immediately conditioning
+fetters of nature and of its place of abode.[236] This opinion of
+Ritter’s was adopted by many.[237]
+
+Theodor Waitz regards primitive man both as purely a product of, and as
+being completely at the mercy of, circumambient nature: “Denken wir uns
+vom Menschen Alles hinweg, was an ihm Wirkung der Kultur ist, so steht
+er da als bloßes Produkt der Macht, die ihn in’s Leben rief, ... Das
+Erste, was an ihm charakteristisch für uns hervorträte, würde die sehr
+vollständige Abhängigkeit sein, in der er sich von seiner Naturumgebung
+befände: der gesammte Inhalt, den sein inneres Leben zunächst gewönne,
+würde ein ziemlich reines Produkt dieser letzteren sein. Der Naturmensch
+wird zunächst nur das, wozu die Naturverhältnisse ihn machen, unter die
+er sich gestellt findet; wovon er sich nährt, das werden diese ihm
+darbieten, auf welche Weise und durch welche Mittel er seine Nahrung
+gewinnt, dazu werden diese ihm Anleitung geben müssen; ob er Kleidung
+und sonstigen Schutz gegen äußere Schädlichkeiten bedarf, und wie er
+diesem Bedürfnis abzuhelfen strebt, werden sie ihn lehren und die
+Erfindungen, die hierzu nötig sind, ihm an die Hand geben müssen; sie
+werden mit einem Wort seine ganze Lebenseinrichtung bestimmen ...”[238]
+
+G. Gerland holds that man developed from and upon nature, on which he is
+very closely dependent and of which he is a small part, and that the
+higher he rises the more he frees himself from the compelling influence
+of the earth, which, however, he can never wholly escape.[239]
+
+In the opinion of Herbert Spencer, the earlier stages of social
+evolution are far more dependent on local conditions than the later
+stages. They are more at the mercy of their surroundings.[240] Both
+Spencer and Benjamin Kidd believe that primitive man is at the mercy of
+the milieu.[241] The “remotely ancient representatives of the human
+species ... were in their then wild state much more plastic than now to
+external nature,” according to Wallace.[242] Historical and statistical
+geography show us “die Menschen, wie sie in ihre aktive Rolle
+eingetreten sind und durch Arbeit die Überlegenheit über das Milieu
+gewinnen, das sie umgibt ... Nachdem der Mensch ganz den Einfluß des
+Milieu über sich ergehen ließ, hat er denselben zu seinem Nutzen
+umgestaltet ...”[243] The intimate connection of first civilizations
+with physical environment slackens with subsequent advance.[244] This
+apparently deep-rooted view is controverted by Ratzel who flatly
+contradicts it. Distinguishing between the direct and the indirect
+effects of milieu, he argues in straight opposition that with
+progressing civilization we are increasingly dependent on environment,
+that the degree of such dependence has not lessened with advancement in
+civilization, and that only the manner of the relation has changed.[245]
+Environment affects even the highest civilization, says Ripley.[246] G.
+Elliot Smith maintains that “Environment, however it may act, whether
+directly or indirectly, is still helping to shape the human form, and is
+affecting the development of Man’s customs and achievements at least as
+powerfully as, if not more so than, ever before.”[247]
+
+
+                     _Society and Physical Milieu_
+
+The social evolution proceeds amidst the entire system of exterior
+conditions (chemical, physical, astronomical), by which its rate of
+progress is determined. Social phenomena can no more be understood apart
+from their environment than those of individual life.[248] The study of
+social evolution presupposes a relation to the physical milieu: “Das
+Studium der sozialen Entwicklung setzt eine Beziehung zwischen der
+Menschheit, welche den Vorgang vollführt, und der Gesamtheit der äußeren
+Einflüsse voraus, welche letztere man auch die sogenannte Umgebung
+heißen könnte.”[249]
+
+John Stuart Mill asserts that “All phenomena of society are phenomena of
+human nature, generated by the action of outward circumstances upon
+masses of human beings.”[250]
+
+To Schäffle, in the analysis of the structure and functions of human
+society there exist as influential factors the external surroundings, on
+the one hand, and the active elements of the social body (the individual
+and the population), on the other; for, as Schäffle emphasizes, not only
+economics, but all social science must take into consideration not only
+Society, but also Nature, _i.e._, the natural fund or stock, designated
+by soil and climate, of the immediate world-surroundings of the social
+body as the external sphere embracing societary life, and that, not only
+as a sum total of free possessions, but also as a multiplicity of free,
+_i.e._, unsubjugated resistances.[251]
+
+As “the result of a survey of social organizations, considered as
+machinery in motion, [Hermann] Post[252] points out very justly that it
+is useless to attempt to explain social phenomena on the basis of the
+psychological activities of individuals, as is too commonly assumed,
+because all individuals whose conduct we can possibly observe have
+themselves been educated in some society or other, and presume in all
+their social acts the assumptions on which that society itself
+proceeds.... It [Post’s method] is the same method, of course, which had
+already yielded such remarkable results to Montesquieu, and even to
+Locke. The point of view is no longer that of a Maine or a McLennan....
+It is that of a spectator of human society as a whole.... And its
+immediate outcome has been to throw into the strongest possible relief
+the dependence of the form and, still more, of the actual content of all
+human societies on something which is not in the human mind at all, but
+is the infinite variety of that external Nature which Society exists to
+fend off from Man, and also to let Man dominate if he can.”[253]
+
+
+                _Government, War, Progress, and Climate_
+
+James Bryce “has recently clearly set forth the climatic control of
+government in an essay on ‘British Experience in the Government of
+Colonies’ (_Century_, March, 1899, 718–729).”[254] Vallaux, however, is
+sceptical as to the influence of physical environment upon the
+State.[255] William Ridgeway avers that political and legal institutions
+are the result of environment.[256]
+
+Far-reaching and weighty historical consequences “have followed from
+special conditions of climate or weather. Maguire’s ‘Outlines of
+Military Geography’ (Cambridge, 1899) contains a chapter on the
+influence of climate on military operations, but this subject has
+hitherto received little attention. More recently, Bentley, in a
+presidential address before the Royal Meteorological Society, London,
+considered the matter.”[257] Still more recently, the relation of
+climate or weather to war has been scrutinized, among others, by F.
+Lampe in “Der erdkundliche Unterricht,”[258] by Otto Baschin in “Der
+Krieg und das Wetter,”[259] and by E. Alt in “Krieg und Witterung.”[260]
+
+Hellwald, “the well-known traveller and geographer,” compiled his
+“History of Civilization in its Natural Development” in 1874, according
+to the findings of which, cultural development is “a natural process,
+conditioned by race, geography, and climate. Civilisation means the
+mastering of nature and the taming of man.... Hellwald’s standpoint is
+shared, though less aggressively displayed by Henne-am-Rhyn.”[261]
+
+To the late meteorologist Cleveland Abbe, “Everything seems to combine
+to prove that the existing order of events both material and
+intellectual has been brought about by a slow process of change, due to
+the interaction of the atoms and masses that constitute the material
+world around us.”[262]
+
+The great diversity of existent civilizations, declares Auguste
+Matteuzzi, is due to the diversity of the milieus where they developed.
+In order to discover why any civilization becomes more heterogeneous and
+more perfect, one must study the geographic milieu where it evolved. The
+organic and inorganic milieu of evolving ethnic groups constrains human
+societies to an incessant process of adaptation, and these societies in
+their turn react upon the milieu and modify it.[263]
+
+In short, says Auguste Comte, “all human progress, political, moral, or
+intellectual, is inseparable from material progression, in virtue of the
+close interconnection which, as we have seen, characterizes the natural
+course of social phenomena.”[264]
+
+That civilization is a result of adaptation to environment, physical as
+well as political, is the view entertained by Bryce, Strachey, and
+Geikie.[265]
+
+
+                  _Climate and Man’s Characteristics_
+
+There are “certain broad, distinguishing characteristics of man in the
+temperate and tropical zones, in determining which it is reasonable to
+believe that climate has played a part. Similarly, there has been a
+natural tendency to attribute certain differences between northerners
+and southerners in the temperate zones to a difference in climate....
+These national differences are proverbial between northern and southern
+Germans, French, Spanish, Russians, Italians, Arabs, and other peoples.
+The influence of climate has likewise been traced in the sad, even
+pessimistic tone of much of the northern literature, and in the gravity
+and melancholy of modern northern music, as well as of the older
+northern folk-songs ... even racial distinctions are more or less
+directly traceable, in many instances, to climate.... Sir Archibald
+Geikie, in his _Scottish Reminiscences_, has emphasized the climatic
+influence in producing the grim character of the Scot....”[266]
+
+Tacitus, in the 29th chapter of the _Germania_, assures us that the soil
+and climate of the land of the Mattiaci caused them to be more bellicose
+than their neighbors.[267]
+
+Daudet, “who has written an entire novel (‘Numa Roumestan’) to depict
+the great influence of the climate of southern Europe upon conduct,
+says: ‘The Southerner does not love strong drinks; he is intoxicated by
+nature. Sun and wind distil in him a terrible natural alcohol to whose
+influence every one born under this sky is subject. Some have only the
+mild fever which sets their speech and gesture free, redoubles their
+audacity, makes everything seem rosy-hued, and drives them on to
+boasting; others live in a blind delirium. And what Southerner has not
+felt the sudden giving way, the exhaustion of his whole being, that
+follows an outburst of rage or enthusiasm?’”[268]
+
+Draper “emphasized the important historical consequences of the
+difference in the characteristics of northerners and southerners in the
+United States, which he attributed largely to climate, and which found
+expression in the Civil War.... The Boers in Africa have developed along
+lines different from those of the Dutch in the United States.”[269]
+
+
+               _Man’s Intellect and Physical Environment_
+
+Auguste Comte, who “was very slightly affected by German thought,” and
+who, in early youth, came under the influence of the philosophy that had
+become prevalent in France before the Revolution, “read the works of
+most of its leading representatives. He accepted its cardinal principle
+that ‘thought depends on sense, or, more broadly, on the
+environment.’”[270]
+
+Adolf Bastian worked unceasingly “among the conceptions of the
+Naturvölker—the ‘cryptograms of mankind,’ as he called them—...,
+demonstrating first the surprising uniformity of outlook on the part of
+the more primitive peoples, and secondly the correlation of differences
+of conceptions with differences in material surroundings, varying with
+geographical conditions. This second doctrine he elaborated in his _Zur
+Lehre von den geographischen Provinzen_, in 1886.”[271]
+
+Physiology and statistics “show that most human functions are subject to
+the influence of heat (Lombroso, ‘Pensiero e Meteore,’ Milan, 1878). It
+is to be expected, then, that excessive heat will have its effect upon
+the human mind.”[272]
+
+The physiographer, “... looking back over the history of life upon the
+earth’s surface, ... is forced to the conclusion that its highest estate
+embodied in the moral and intellectual qualities of man has been, in the
+main, secured by the geographic variations which have slowly developed
+through the geological ages.”[273]
+
+Benno Erdmann, in his “Gedächtnisrede auf Wilhelm Dilthey,” observes
+that in ripe old age Dilthey in the last of his larger works declared
+that man finds himself determined by the physical world in which mental
+occurrences appear only as interpolations.[274]
+
+
+                     _Religion and Physical Milieu_
+
+As physical characteristics “are in the main the result of environment,
+social institutions and religious ideas are no less the product of that
+environment.... We might just as well ask the Ethiopian to change his
+skin as to change radically his social and religious ideas. It has been
+shown by experience that Christianity can make but little headway
+amongst many peoples in Africa or Asia, where on the other hand
+Muhammadanism has made and is steadily making progress, ... This is
+probably due to the fact that Muhammadanism is a religion evolved ... in
+latitudes bordering on the aboriginal races of Africa and Asia, and that
+it is far more akin in its social ideas to those of the Negro or Malay
+than are those of Christianity, ...”[275]
+
+Ernest Renan “points out that the desert is monotheistic, its uniformity
+suggesting a belief in the unity of God.... In his _Seas and Skies in
+Many Latitudes_ (London, 1888, pp. 42–43), Abercromby gives two maps,
+showing respectively the areas of Mohammedanism and the districts in
+Asia and Africa with a mean annual rainfall of less than ten inches. The
+maps are strikingly similar. The author adds: ‘Whether this distribution
+of a great creed is the result of chance, or of some deep connection
+between the tenets of that religion and climatic influences, I can not
+say;—but still the relation is so remarkable that I have thought it well
+to bring the matter forward.’”[276]
+
+
+                         _Climate and Conduct_
+
+The “frequent and sudden weather changes of the temperate zones affect
+man in many ways, as do the larger seasonal changes. The relations
+between weather and conduct have frequently been investigated. Professor
+E. G. Dexter has made an extended empirical study of the effects of the
+weather ... Bertillon has collected data on suicides and seasons in
+France, ...”[277] Dexter studies empirically by means of
+statistics—plotting certain curves—the relation between temperature,
+barometric pressure, humidity, wind, character of the day,
+precipitation, on the one hand, and the child in school—work,
+deportment, attendance—, crime, insanity, health—sickness and death—,
+suicide, drunkenness, attention—errors in calculation made by clerks in
+banks—, on the other.[278] Of his general conclusions[279] the first is:
+“Varying meteorological conditions affect directly, though in different
+ways, the metabolism of life”; the second: “The ‘reserve energy’ capable
+of being utilized for intellectual processes and activities other than
+those of the vital organs is affected [_effected_, in the original] most
+by meteorological changes”; the third: “The quality of the emotional
+state is plainly influenced by the weather states”; the fourth:
+“Although meteorological conditions affect the emotional states, which
+without doubt have weight in the determination of conduct in its
+broadest sense, it would seem that their effects upon that portion of
+the reserve energy which is available for action are of the greatest
+import.”[280]
+
+The nervous effects of the weather including cyclonic winds have also
+been noted. Among the Eskimos, “Marriages take place at an early age,
+especially among the women, and the return of the sun after the long
+winter has a stimulating effect on the animal passions which leads to
+sexual excesses of all kinds.”[281]
+
+Albert Leffingwell investigates _The Influence of Seasons Upon
+Conduct_[282] in Great Britain and elsewhere. He formulates the
+underlying assumption of his inquiry in the following manner: “It is not
+a new theory, though I propose to carry it somewhat further than it has
+been pushed hitherto. Over half a century ago, Quetelet in his great
+work “On Man,” suggested the hypothesis.... The hypothesis toward which
+all the facts point is simply this: that upon the nervous organization
+of human bodies (perhaps specially upon dwellers in the temperate zones)
+there is exerted during the procession of the seasons, from winter’s
+close till midsummer, some undefined, specific influence, which in some
+manner tends to increase the excitability of emotion and passion, and
+thus also to increase all actions arising therefrom.”[283] To mention
+only one of Leffingwell’s illustrations, he brings together in a
+statistical table the total number of all crimes against persons in
+England for ten years (1878–87), the same facts for Ireland during the
+same decade, and for France during forty years (1830–69), and in
+conjunction therewith says: “Here, again, we find that all crimes, even
+those arising from personal antipathy or hatred, seem specially
+prevalent in the warmer half of the year. In England, 55 per cent of all
+such acts of violence during the ten years 1878–1887 happened in spring
+and summer, and in France during a period of forty years the average was
+the same. Ireland, indeed, shows a more even distribution of such
+crimes; but the tendency is seen even there.”[284]
+
+Cesare Lombroso, who is claimed to be the first to have essayed to
+portray the effect of physical environment on the human psyche,[285]
+states in his _Criminal Man_,[286] referring to Ferri and Holzendorf,
+that with high temperature there is an increase in crimes of violence,
+while low temperature has the effect of increasing the number of crimes
+against property. In “comparing statistics of criminality in France with
+those of the variations in temperature, Ferri noted an increase in
+crimes of violence during the warmer years.”[287]
+
+Lombroso, in his _Crime, Its Causes and Remedies_,[288] citing the
+conclusions of the relevant statistical evidence, establishes that in
+England and France and Italy the crimes of rape and of murder occur in
+greatest number in the hottest months; that the maximum number of all
+rebellions in the whole world between 1791 and 1880 falls everywhere in
+the hottest month, while its minimum number comes in the coldest months;
+and that crimes against property markedly increase in the winter.[289]
+
+In the southern parts of Italy and France “there occur many more crimes
+against persons than in the central and northern portions.... Guerry has
+shown that crimes against persons are twice as numerous in southern
+France (4.9) as in central and northern France (2.7 and 2.9). _Vice
+versa_, crimes against property are more frequent in the north (4.9),
+than in the central and southern regions (2.3).”[290] According to
+Buckle,[291] climate makes men’s habits regular or irregular.
+
+
+                  _Climatic Control of Food and Drink_
+
+William Ridgeway, summarizing his argument in “The Application of
+Zoölogical Laws to Man,”[292] says: “We have seen that environment is a
+powerful factor in the differentiation of the various races of man,
+alike in physique, institutions, and religion. It is probable that the
+food supply at hand in each region may be an important element in these
+variations, whilst the nature of the food and drink preferred there may
+itself be due in no small degree to climatic conditions.... The
+aboriginal of the tropics is distinctly a vegetarian, whilst the Eskimo
+within the arctic circle is practically wholly carnivorous. In each case
+the taste is almost certainly due to the necessities of their
+environment.... It is probable that the more northward man advanced the
+more carnivorous he became in order to support the rigours of the
+northern climate. The same holds equally true in the case of drink....
+All across Northern Europe and Asia there is a universal love of strong
+drink, which is not the mere outcome of vicious desires, but of climatic
+law.... This view derives additional support from the well-authenticated
+fact that one of the chief characteristics of the descendants of British
+settlers in Australia is their strong teetotalism. This cannot be set
+down to their having a higher moral standard than their ancestors, but
+rather, as in the case of Spaniards and Italians (temperance reformers
+point to the sobriety of the Spaniards, Italians, and other South
+Europeans), to the circumstance that they live in a country much warmer
+and drier than the British Isles. We must therefore, no matter how
+reluctantly, come to the conclusion that no attempt to eradicate this
+tendency to alcohol in these latitudes can be successful....”[293]
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 83:
+
+  This paper will carry the discussion through anthropo-geography.
+
+Footnote 84:
+
+  The whole question, including Herder’s own idea thereof and his
+  indebtedness to preceding authors, both German and foreign, as well as
+  his influence upon succeeding writers at home and abroad, his relation
+  to his contemporaries, etc., will be essayed more fully in a series of
+  papers, to be published soon, dealing with “Herder’s Conception of
+  Milieu,” “Herder’s Relations to France,” “Herder’s Relations to
+  England,” and “Herder in His Own Milieu.”
+
+Footnote 85:
+
+  The term “anthropo-geography” derives from the title of Fr. Ratzel’s
+  main work.—“... le domaine si intéressant, mais à peine défriché, de
+  l’_anthropogéographie_, semble avoir acquis à ce mot le droit de cité
+  dans le langage scientifique.”—L. Metchnikoff, _La Civilisation et Les
+  Grands Fleuves Historiques_ (Paris, 1889), p. 70 and n.—In England,
+  and in America, it is commonly called human geography, after the
+  French “la géographie humaine.” Various names have been proposed for
+  this subject. See also W. Z. Ripley, “Geography and Sociology.” The
+  Viennese Erwin Hanslick, I believe, denominates it “Kulturgeographie.”
+
+Footnote 86:
+
+  Walther May, “Herders Anschauung der organischen Natur,” _Archiv f. d.
+  Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften u. d. Technik_, etc., Leipzig, Bd.
+  4 (1913, S. 8–39, 89–113), p. 91.
+
+Footnote 87:
+
+  _Ferd. v. Richthofen’s Vorlesungen üb. Allgem. Siedlungs- u.
+  Verkehrsgeographie_, bearb. u. hg. v. O. Schlüter (Berlin, 1908), p.
+  11.
+
+Footnote 88:
+
+  “... Ritter selbst hat keine methodische Darstellung, kein Lehrgebäude
+  gegeben; sondern nur Andeutungen, die anregend sind. Daher blieb
+  Ritters Grundidee fast ohne Einfluß auf die Geographie; nur die
+  Historiker haben sie sich angeeignet und haben seitdem größeres
+  Gewicht auf die Landesnatur gelegt.”—_Ibid._, p. 11.
+
+Footnote 89:
+
+  _Cosmos, a Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe_,
+  translated by E. C. Otté (5 vols., New York: Harper, 1875–77), p. 48.
+
+Footnote 90:
+
+  _Die Erdkunde im Verhältnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte des Menschen
+  oder eine allgemeine, vergleichende Geographie_ was published in two
+  volumes at Berlin in 1817–18; the second edition, completely revised,
+  appeared in nineteen volumes from 1822 to 1859, the year of his death.
+  Neither edition is finished; the second deals only with Africa (vol.
+  1) and Asia (vols. 2–19).
+
+Footnote 91:
+
+  _Die Naturkunde_, etc.—See Th. Achelis, _Moderne Völkerkunde_
+  (Stuttgart, 1896), p. 71.
+
+Footnote 92:
+
+  _Ibid._, see Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 72 f.
+
+Footnote 93:
+
+  In Felix Lampe’s book, _Große Geographen, Bilder aus der Geschichte
+  der Erdkunde_ (Leipzig u. Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1915, 288 S. [Band 28
+  der v. B. Schmid in Zwickau herausgegebenen “Naturwissenschaftlichen
+  Bibliothek”]), neither the chapter on Ritter (pp. 227–33), nor that on
+  “Die wissenschaftliche Geographie der Gegenwart” (pp. 281–87) is very
+  full.
+
+Footnote 94:
+
+  Stuttgart & Tübingen, 1808.
+
+Footnote 95:
+
+  _Views of Nature_ (London, 1850), Author’s Preface, p. X.
+
+Footnote 96:
+
+  p. 382. See Achelis, _Moderne Völkerkunde_, pp. 88 f.—The relation of
+  man to environment is also referred to in _Cosmos_ (English
+  translation by Otté), I, pp. 351–9.—_Kosmos_ was originally published
+  as follows: vols. 1 and 2 in 1845–7; vols. 3 and 4 in 1850–8; vol. 5
+  in 1862.
+
+Footnote 97:
+
+  Leipzig, 1841.
+
+Footnote 98:
+
+  Kohl, _Der Verkehr_, etc., p. 111. See Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 80 f.
+
+Footnote 99:
+
+  Ibid.
+
+Footnote 100:
+
+  Kohl, _l.c._, p. 537. See Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 81 f.
+
+Footnote 101:
+
+  Kohl, _Ibid._,—See Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 82 f.—The manifold influences
+  of nature are also exemplified in Kohl’s _Die geographische Lage der
+  Hauptstädte Europas_, 1874, and _L. Felix, Der Einfluß der Natur auf
+  die Entwicklung des Eigentums_, 1893.
+
+Footnote 102:
+
+  _Über den Einfluß der äußeren Natur auf die sozialen Verhältnisse der
+  einzelnen Völker und die Geschichte der Menschheit überhaupt, 1848_;
+  later published in _Studien aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissenschaft_, I,
+  1876.
+
+Footnote 103:
+
+  _Deutschlands Boden, sein geologischer Bau und dessen Einwirkungen auf
+  das Leben der Menschen_, 2 Bde., Leipzig, 1854.
+
+Footnote 104:
+
+  501 pp., Breslau: F. Hirt, 1855.
+
+Footnote 105:
+
+  Kutzen himself says in the _Vorwort_ that he “leans on” Cotta; he
+  cites the latter, for instance, on p. 466.
+
+Footnote 106:
+
+  _Die Naturgeschichte des Volkes als Grundlage einer deutschen
+  Sozialpolitik_, vol. 1 (11th ed., Stuttgart: Cotta, 1908): Land und
+  Leute.
+
+Footnote 107:
+
+  _Vide_ the first Preface, written in 1853, to volume one, pp. VI-VII.
+
+Footnote 108:
+
+  _Die Naturgeschichte_, etc., I, p. 42.
+
+Footnote 109:
+
+  _Ibid._, Vorwort zur achten Auflage, 1883, p. X.
+
+Footnote 110:
+
+  _Die Naturgeschichte, etc., Vierter Band, “Wanderbuch,” als zweiter
+  Teil zu “Land und Leute.”_ Vierte Aufl., 1903, p. 32.
+
+Footnote 111:
+
+  G. P. Gooch, _History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century_
+  (London & N. Y.; Longmans, Green & Co., 1913), p. 576.
+
+Footnote 112:
+
+  Gooch, _ibid._, p. 575.
+
+Footnote 113:
+
+  For Riehl’s view of milieu in a scheme of sciences, cf. _Die
+  Naturgeschichte_, etc., I, pp. 40–2.
+
+Footnote 114:
+
+  164 pp., Meyers Volksbücher, Leipzig u. Wien: Bibliographisches
+  Institut, _s.a._—This essay forms the second chapter in Hans Meyer’s
+  _Das deutsche Volkstum_ (2. Aufl., 1903), pp. 41–122.
+
+Footnote 115:
+
+  _Moderne Völkerkunde_, p. 81, n.
+
+Footnote 116:
+
+  2. Aufl., 1905 (_Aus Natur und Geisteswelt_, 31. Bändchen, Leipzig: B.
+  G. Teubner), 127 pp.—It has been translated into English under the
+  title _Man and Earth_ (London & N. Y., 1906. Reprinted 1914, 223 pp.)
+  by A. S. “from the second amended German edition,” in which are
+  intercalated two chapters: Chapter V, on _The British Isles and
+  Britons_, by the author; and Chapter VI, on _America and the
+  Americans_, by the translator.—The first four chapters of a general
+  nature—features of the globe, sea, steppes and deserts, in their
+  influence on civilization, the influence of man on landscape—are
+  followed by four chapters on _The British Isles and Britons, America
+  and the Americans, Germany and the Germans, China and the Chinese_.
+
+Footnote 117:
+
+  _Vorlesungen_, etc., delivered at Berlin in 1891 and 1897/8.
+
+Footnote 118:
+
+  “... Es ist mehr unsere Aufgabe gewesen, in dem großen Getriebe der
+  Siedlung und des Verkehrs der _allmählichen Entwicklung_ nachzugehen,
+  das steigende Maß der Überwindung von Widerständen durch den Menschen
+  zu zeigen, die Kräfte zu untersuchen, welche in der Entwicklung
+  wirksam sind,—als bei der großen Fülle des Tatsächlichen der heutigen
+  Zeit zu verweilen.” _Vorlesungen_, p. 351.
+
+Footnote 119:
+
+  It will be noted that Herder is not mentioned here.
+
+Footnote 120:
+
+  Ellen C. Semple, _Influences of Geographic Environment_ (N. Y., 1911),
+  p. V.
+
+Footnote 121:
+
+  “In Germany the exponents of these theories [of environmental
+  influence] were Cotta and Kohl, and later Peschel, Kirchhof, Bastian,
+  and Gerland; but the greatest name of all is that of Fr. Ratzel, who
+  has written the standard work on _Anthropogeographie_.”—Haddon and
+  Quiggin, _Hist. of Anthropology_ (London, 1910), p. 152.—The first
+  vol. of Ratzel’s _Anthropogeographie_ was published in 1882, 2nd ed.
+  in 1899, the second vol. in 1897.
+
+Footnote 122:
+
+  As further illustration, it might be instructive to compare here the
+  chapter headings of Semple’s _Influences of Geographic Environment_,
+  which book was written “On the Basis of Ratzel’s System of
+  Anthropo-geography.” They are as follows: I—Operation of Geographic
+  Factors in History (1–31); II—Classes of Geographic Influences
+  (22–50); III—Society and State in Relation to the Land (51–73);
+  IV—Movements of Peoples in Their Geographical Significance (74–128);
+  V—Geographical Location (129–67); VI—Geographical Area (168–203);
+  VII—Geographical Boundaries (204–41); VIII—Coast Peoples (242–91);
+  IX—Oceans and Enclosed Seas (292–317); X—Man’s Relation to the Water
+  (318–35); XI—The Anthropo-geography of Rivers (336–80); XII—Continents
+  and Their Peninsulas (380–408); XIII—Island Peoples (409–72);
+  XIV—Plains, Steppes and Deserts (473–523); XV—Mountain Barriers and
+  Their Passes (524–56); XVI—Influences of a Mountain Environment
+  (557–606); XVII—The Influences of Climate upon Man (607–37).
+
+Footnote 123:
+
+  _Richthofen’s Vorlesungen_, p. 13.
+
+Footnote 124:
+
+  1897; 2. Aufl. 1903.
+
+Footnote 125:
+
+  “Diese [die enge Erdgebundenheit] in ihrer ganzen tiefgreifenden
+  Bedeutung für das staatliche Leben erkannt und dargelegt zu haben,
+  bleibt freilich für immer ein großes Verdienst der ‘Politischen
+  Geographie’ ...”—O. Schlüter, “Die leitenden Gesichtspunkte d.
+  Anthropogeogr.,” _Arch. f. Sozialwiss._, Bd. IV, p. 620.
+
+Footnote 126:
+
+  _Vide_ Richthofen, _l.c._, p. 12.
+
+Footnote 127:
+
+  2 vols., München, 1893; see vol. 2, 2nd ed.: _Politische Geographie
+  der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung
+  der natürlichen Bedingungen u. wirtschaftlichen Verhältnisse_ (763
+  pp.), esp. pp. 1–176.
+
+Footnote 128:
+
+  London, 1896 (this is a translation of his _Völkerkunde_, 1887/8), cf.
+  the opening pp. of vol. 1.
+
+Footnote 129:
+
+  In Helmolt, _The History of the World_ (N. Y., 1902), vol. 1, pp.
+  62–103, where Ratzel discusses in turn The Coherence of Countries, The
+  Relation of Man to the Collective Life of the Earth, Races and States
+  as Organisms, Historical Movement, Natural Regions, Climate and
+  Location, Geographical Situation, Area, Population, The Water-Oceans,
+  Seas, and Rivers, Conformation of the Earth’s Surface.
+
+Footnote 130:
+
+  London & N. Y.: Longmans, 1915.
+
+Footnote 131:
+
+  See _The Nation_, N. Y., March 18, 1915, p. 310.
+
+Footnote 132:
+
+  Paris, 1911, 420 pp.
+
+Footnote 133:
+
+  Semple, _l.c._, p. VI; cf. also Ratzel, _Anthropogeogr._, I,^2 p. XII.
+
+Footnote 134:
+
+  _Archiv f. Sozialwissenschaft_, Bd. IV (1906), pp. 581–630.
+
+Footnote 135:
+
+  For Ratzel, cf. also Paul Barth, _Die Philosophie der Geschichte als
+  Soziologie_, I (Leipzig: Reisland, 1897), pp. 227–30; Jean Brunhes,
+  _La Géographie Humaine_, 2^e éd. (Paris: Alcan, 1912), pp. 39–47.
+
+Footnote 136:
+
+  Buckle, History of Civilization (1867), p. 32 n.
+
+Footnote 137:
+
+  Robertson, _Buckle and his Critics_ (London, 1895), p. 8 n.
+
+Footnote 138:
+
+  4. vols., 1822–3.
+
+Footnote 139:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, pp. 577–9. See also p. 576.
+
+Footnote 140:
+
+  _Vide supra_ my note no. 84.
+
+Footnote 141:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, p. 467.
+
+Footnote 142:
+
+  _The History of Civilization from the Fall of the Roman Empire to the
+  French Revolution_ (4 vols., translated by Wm. Hazlitt, N. Y.: D.
+  Appleton & Co., 1867—the lectures were delivered in the years 1828,
+  1829, and 1830), vol. 2, pp. 109 f.
+
+Footnote 143:
+
+  “Gothein had attracted attention by a study of the civilisation of
+  Southern Italy, which he had traversed on foot as Riehl had traversed
+  the Palatinate.”—Gooch, _l.c._, p. 587.
+
+Footnote 144:
+
+  “Voila pourquoi il [Michelet] va en Italie avant d’écrire son
+  _Histoire Romaine_; il veut avoir l’impression, le contact du sol, du
+  climat, du paysage.”—Lanson, _Hist. de la Litt. Franç._ (1912), p.
+  1021 n.
+
+Footnote 145:
+
+  Abry-Audic-Crouzet, _Littérature Française_ (3^e éd., Paris, 1916), p.
+  580.
+
+Footnote 146:
+
+  Jules Simon, _Mignet, Michelet, Henri Martin_ (Paris, 1890), p. 191.
+
+Footnote 147:
+
+  Flint, _l.c._, p. 540.
+
+Footnote 148:
+
+  _Philos. Erdk. als wissenschaftliche Darstellung der Erdverhältnisse
+  u. des Menschenlebens nach ihrem inneren Zusammenhange_, 2 vols.,
+  Braunschweig, 1845; the 2nd ed. appeared in 1868 under the title
+  _Allgemeine Vergleichende Erdkunde_.—This book holds a high place in
+  Ratzel’s estimation: “Kapp, dessen Philos. Erdk. eine tiefgedachte,
+  von überragendem philosophischem Standpunkte aus gewonnene Übersicht
+  der Naturbedingtheit des Geschichtsverlaufes in den größten Zügen
+  entrollt, ...”—Ratzel, _Anthropogeographie_, I^2, p. 34.
+
+Footnote 149:
+
+  See Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 76 f.
+
+Footnote 150:
+
+  Brunhes, _l.c._, p. 38 n.
+
+Footnote 151:
+
+  Boston, 1849—It has been translated into English under the title _The
+  Earth and man, or Physical geography in its relation to the history of
+  mankind, Slightly abridged, etc._ (London: Parker, 1852), and into
+  German as _Grundzüge der vergleichenden physikalischen Erdkunde in
+  ihrer Beziehung zur Geschichte des Menschen_ (1851).
+
+Footnote 152:
+
+  (N. Y.: D. Appleton & Co., 1867—first published in 1857–61), vol. I,
+  pp. 29–106: Influence exercised by physical laws over the organization
+  of society and over the character of individuals.
+
+Footnote 153:
+
+  _Buckle and his Critics_, London, 1895, 548 pp.
+
+Footnote 154:
+
+  Camille Vallaux, _Géographie Sociale_ (Paris, 1911), p. 23.
+
+Footnote 155:
+
+  _Vide supra_, p. 46 f.
+
+Footnote 156:
+
+  _Anthropogeographie_, I^2, p. 87.
+
+Footnote 157:
+
+  The German original appeared in 1857–67, and the English translation
+  by A. W. Ward in 1868–73.
+
+Footnote 158:
+
+  New York: Scribner, vol. I (1871), pp. 9–46; cf. esp. pp. 9–25, 34,
+  37.
+
+Footnote 159:
+
+  _Boden und Klima von Athen. Rede in der öffentlichen Sitzung_ [_der
+  Kgl. Akademie der Wissenschaften_] _am Leibniztage 5. Juli 1877_ (15
+  pp.).
+
+Footnote 160:
+
+  For the same, cf. also H. Koester “Über den Einfluß landschaftlicher
+  Verhältnisse auf die Entwicklung des attischen Volkscharakters”
+  (Progr., Saarbrücken, 1898).
+
+Footnote 161:
+
+  E.g. by Ratzel, jointly with Curtius’ account thereof. Cf.
+  _Anthropogeogr._, I^2, p. 37.
+
+Footnote 162:
+
+  In 12 vols., vol. II (London: John Murray, 1869), Part II, ch. I, pp.
+  213–37.
+
+Footnote 163:
+
+  Political effects of locality: strengthened defense; difficulty of
+  attack; politically disunited; indefinite multiplication of
+  self-governing cities.
+
+Footnote 164:
+
+  Intellectual effects of locality: the geographical position made them
+  mountaineers and mariners; variety of experience; each petty community
+  possessed an individual life, yet sympathized with the remainder;
+  commerce with a great diversity of half-country-men; Grecian
+  festivals; Homer dependent upon the conditions of his age.
+
+Footnote 165:
+
+  Oxford, Clarendon Press (1911, 454 pp.), pp. 13–64. “It is now
+  generally admitted that neither an individual nor a nation can be
+  properly understood without a knowledge of their surroundings and
+  means of support—in other words, of their geographical and economic
+  conditions.”—_Ibid._, Preface, p. 5.
+
+Footnote 166:
+
+  Zimmern refers in this book—_e.g._ p. 18, 41, 43, _et al._—to the
+  writings of Myres: “Greek Lands and the Greek People,” “Herodotus and
+  Anthropology” (in “Anthropology and the Classics”), and “The
+  Geographical Aspect of Greek Colonization” (in _Proceedings of the
+  Classical Association_, vol. VIII—1911).—Cf. also H. Dondorff, _Das
+  hellenische Land als Schauplatz der althellenischen Geschichte, in
+  Sammlung gemeinverständlicher wissenschaftlicher Vorträge, begründet
+  von Virchow u. Holtzendorf_, 1889, Neue Folge, Serie 3, Heft 72.
+
+Footnote 167:
+
+  Revised ed., in 2 vols. (N. Y.: Harper & Brothers, 1876). The Preface
+  of the first ed. is dated 1861.
+
+Footnote 168:
+
+  Heinrich Boehmer, _Geschichte der Entwicklung der
+  naturwissenschaftlichen Weltanschauung in Deutschland_ (Gotha, 1872,
+  232 pp.), p. 195: “... Herdersche Ideen waren leitend für den Aufbau
+  der Geschichte.”
+
+Footnote 169:
+
+  Leipzig, 1878–86.
+
+Footnote 170:
+
+  Cited by Achelis, _l.c._, p. 84.
+
+Footnote 171:
+
+  _Ibid._, pp. 85 f.
+
+Footnote 172:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 86.
+
+Footnote 173:
+
+  “... Indessen darf man nicht vergessen, daß die allgemeine Gestalt der
+  Kontinente und der Meere und aller besonderer Züge der Erde in der
+  Geschichte der Menschheit einen wesentlich wechselnden Wert besitzen,
+  je nach dem Stande der Kultur, auf welchem die Nationen angelangt sind
+  ...”—_Ibid._
+
+Footnote 174:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 87.
+
+Footnote 175:
+
+  Paris, 1886.
+
+Footnote 176:
+
+  _Vide_ P. Barth, _Die Philosophie der Geschichte als Soziologie_
+  (Leipzig, 1897), p. 230.
+
+Footnote 177:
+
+  See Barth, _l.c._, pp. 231 f.
+
+Footnote 178:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 233.—Mougeoulle makes the milieu account for the great men
+  in history, the great popular epics, social and historical life in
+  general; the tendencies of the three historical schools—German,
+  French, and English—are connected with the differences in the milieus
+  of their respective countries.—Cf. _ibid._, pp. 230–2.
+
+Footnote 179:
+
+  _Avec une Préface de M. Élisée Réclus_ (Paris: Hachette, 1889, 369
+  pp.), pp. 53–71.
+
+Footnote 180:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 156; 130.
+
+Footnote 181:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 154; 157 f.
+
+Footnote 182:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 278; 190 ff.; 188; 135.—But why does he confine himself to
+  these four countries?
+
+Footnote 183:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 185; 364. For a general statement on the significance of
+  rivers, cf. _ibid._, pp. 188–90. The particular nature of the rivers
+  of the “territoire des civilisations fluviales” imposed on the
+  inhabitants the yoke of despotism.—_Ibid._, p. 161.
+
+Footnote 184:
+
+  _Ibid._, pp. 364 f.
+
+Footnote 185:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 364.
+
+Footnote 186:
+
+  _Ibid._, _e.g._, p. 128; 224–27.
+
+Footnote 187:
+
+  His general theory is stated on pp. 39–42, 53–71, 79 f., 89, 99 f.,
+  102–60. Chapter 7, pp. 161–90, is a general discussion of the
+  geographical environment of the “Civilisations Fluviales,” followed
+  successively by a detailed treatment of “Le Nil” (ch. 8, pp. 191–234),
+  of “Le Tigre et L’Euphrate” (ch. 9, pp. 235–78), of “L’Indus et Le
+  Gange” (ch. 10, pp. 279–319), of “Le Hoang-Ho et Le Yangtse-Kiang”
+  (ch. 11, pp. 320–66).
+
+Footnote 188:
+
+  W. D. Babington, _Fallacies of Race Theories as Applied to National
+  Characteristics_ (Longmans, Green & Co., 1895).
+
+Footnote 189:
+
+  N. Y., Scribner, 1893, 290 pp.
+
+Footnote 190:
+
+  For the rôle of the physical milieu in American history, cf. also:
+  Justin Winsor, _The Mississippi Basin, The Struggle in America between
+  England and France: 1697–1763_ (Boston & N. Y., 1898) [influence of
+  geography over history during colonization and settlement]; Frederick
+  Jackson Turner, _Rise of the New West_: 1819–1829 (N. Y. & London:
+  Harper & Brothers, 1906) [vol. 14 of _The American Nation, A History_,
+  ed. by A. B. Hart, in 27 vols. In the Author’s Preface, p. XVII,
+  Turner remarks: “In the present volume I have kept before myself the
+  importance of regarding American development as the outcome of
+  economic and social as well as political forces.” And, he should have
+  added, of geographical environment. _Vide_ especially the first half
+  of his book for the working out of his milieu idea]; James Bryce, _The
+  American Commonwealth_, (2 vols., new ed., completely revised, N. Y.:
+  Macmillan, 1910–11) [see vol. 2, ch. 91 (pp. 449–68), “The home of the
+  nation,” for a statement of the influence of physical conditions on
+  American history]; E. C. Semple, _American History and Its Geographic
+  Conditions_ (Boston & N. Y.: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1903, 435 pp.)
+  [regarded, I believe, as one of the best treatises on the subject]; A.
+  P. Brigham, _Geographic Influences in American History_ (Boston: Ginn,
+  1903, 355 pp.) [a concrete essay; has much physiography; includes
+  present conditions]; A. M. Simons, _Social Forces in American History_
+  (N. Y.: Macmillan, 1914, 325 pp.) [a discussion of the effect of the
+  industrial and economic environment on social institutions in
+  America]; perhaps it may be added here that some American universities
+  offer a course on the relation of geography to American history.
+
+Footnote 191:
+
+  See Ripley, “Geography and Sociology” (1895), p. 637; and Ripley, _The
+  Races of Europe_ (1899), pp. 4 ff.; for titles of their writings on
+  this subject, cf. _ibid._, pp. 4–6 nn., and “Geogr. and Soc.,” pp. 654
+  f.
+
+Footnote 192:
+
+  8 vols., N. Y., Dodd, Mead & Co., 1902–7.
+
+Footnote 193:
+
+  See Bryce’s article in Helmolt’s _Hist. of the World_, vol. 1, p. XL.
+
+Footnote 194:
+
+  “Anderseits wieder hat ja Helmolt in seinem geschichtlichen
+  Sammelwerke im Geiste Ratzels den Versuch gemacht, ein
+  Gesamtgeschichtsbild auf geographischer Grundlage aufzubauen, so daß
+  kein Teil der Ökumene aus der Weltgeschichte ausgeschlossen
+  bleibt.”—L. Gumplowicz, Der _Rassenkampf_ (2 .... Aufl., 1909), p. 403
+  (Anhang).
+
+Footnote 195:
+
+  “... die bisherigen Weltgeschichten waren gar keine Geschichte der
+  Welt oder auch nur unserer Welt, sondern einzig eine solche der
+  Kulturnationen. Mit dieser Gepflogenheit hat Helmolts Werk in
+  ebenso glücklicher wie origineller Weise gebrochen, indem es zum
+  ersten Male die Länder- und Völkerkunde in den Dienst der
+  Weltgeschichtsdarstellung hineinzog.”—From a review of the first
+  ed. of _Helmolts Weltgeschichte_ (1899) in the “Braunschweigische
+  Landeßeitung” (February 4, 1908), quoted in the prospectus of the
+  second German edition.
+
+Footnote 196:
+
+  _History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century_ (London, 1913).
+
+Footnote 197:
+
+  Second ed., Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1903, 288 pp.
+
+Footnote 198:
+
+  George, _l.c._, p. V (Preface).
+
+Footnote 199:
+
+  _Ibid._, pp. 111 f.—George cites no authorities or sources; he has no
+  bibliography; he does not quote a single book in his discussion; he
+  has no _Auseinandersetzung_ with his predecessors in the field; and
+  finally, he gives no clue as to the origin of his data.—Chaps. 1–8
+  (pp. 1–110) are the general part of the book; chaps. 9–20 (pp.
+  111–282) deal with: The Outlines of Europe, The British Islands,
+  France, The Spanish Peninsula, Italy, The Alpine Passes, Switzerland,
+  The Rhineland, The Baltic Region, The Danube Basin, Theatres of
+  European War, The Mediterranean Basin.
+
+Footnote 200:
+
+  A. W. Small, _General Sociology_ (Chicago, 1905), p. 53.
+
+Footnote 201:
+
+  The distinguished Italian historian is the son-in-law of the late
+  eminent Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso.
+
+Footnote 202:
+
+  _Vide_ Jean Brunhes, _La Géographie Humaine_ (2^e éd., Paris, 1912),
+  p. 721.—For references to historical works dealing with history on a
+  geographical basis, cf. _ibid._ (1^e éd., Paris, 1910), ch. X, 1:
+  L’esprit géographique dans les sciences économiques, sociales et
+  historiques (pp. 739 ff., esp. 774 ff. [Michelet, Vidal de la Blache,
+  Th. Reinach, A. Leroy-Beaulieu, C. Jullian, A. Harnack, H. F. Helmolt,
+  G. Ferrero, E. C. Semple, Erwin Hanslick, & o.]).
+
+Footnote 203:
+
+  _Die geographischen Grundlagen der österreichisch-ungarischen
+  Monarchie u. ihrer Außenpolitik_ (Leipzig u. Berlin: B. G. Teubner,
+  1915).
+
+Footnote 204:
+
+  See the review of Sieger’s book by Edwin Rollett in the
+  _Österreichische Rundschau_, Bd. 43, H. 4 (15. Mai 1915), pp. 188 f.
+
+Footnote 205:
+
+  Boston & N. Y., Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1907.
+
+Footnote 206:
+
+  Cf. esp. ch. 18 (pp. 359–85) for a summary of conclusions.
+
+Footnote 207:
+
+  _Vide_ _e.g._ James Harvey Robinson’s _The New History, Essays
+  Illustrating the Modern Historical Outlook_ (N. Y.: Macmillan, 1912),
+  for references to the theory of milieu, cf. esp. p. 64, 73, 76 f., 92
+  f., 97 f., 124–6, 144, 145 f., 247, 253–7, and ch. 3 (pp. 70 ff.): The
+  new allies of history. Or take for choice the title of a recent book
+  by Charles A. Beard: _An Economic Interpretation of American Politics_
+  (Macmillan, 1916), to be further persuaded of the attention bestowed
+  by historians on the milieu. Or, see works by Seligman and J. T.
+  Shotwell.
+
+Footnote 208:
+
+  _Vide_ C. Vallaux, _Géographie Sociale, Le Sol et L’État_ (Paris,
+  1911), p. 23.—Such economists as Blanqui, Bastiat, and J.—B. Say,
+  brought to light the geographical bases of the material life of
+  societies. The sociologists themselves, “bien que leur science soit
+  jeune, n’ont pas toujours oublié le cadre naturel et la position
+  terrestre des agrégats qu’ils étudient. Par tous ces chercheurs de
+  tendances diverses, la géographie humaine et la géographie politique
+  ont progressé tout autant que par les efforts des géographes
+  proprement dits.”—_Ibid._
+
+Footnote 209:
+
+  E. Bernheim, _Lehrbuch der historischen Methode_ (5. u. 6. Aufl.,
+  Leipzig, 1908), p. 316; 636.—Cf. also E. Fr. Th. Lindner,
+  _Geschichtsphilosophie, das Wesen der geschichtlichen Entwicklung_ (2.
+  erweiterte u. umgearb. Aufl., Stuttg. u. Berlin: Cotta, 1904, 241
+  pp.), 2. Abschnitt (pp. 23–34): Die Veränderung, but more esp. 10.
+  Abschnitt (pp. 217–41): Die Ursachen u. die Weise der Entwicklung.
+
+Footnote 210:
+
+  For orientation and literature on views opposing the naturalistic
+  interpretation of history, cf. L. Stein, _Philosophische Strömungen
+  der Gegenwart_ (Stuttgart, Verl. v. F. Enke, 1908), pp. 430 ff.
+
+Footnote 211:
+
+  See G. P. Gooch, _History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century_
+  (London & N. Y.: Longmans, Green & Co., 1913), p. 573; see ch. 28 (pp.
+  573–94): “The History of Civilisation;” also _The Cambridge Modern
+  History_ [ed. by A. W. Ward and others, Cambridge: The Univ. Press,
+  1910], vol. 12: _The Latest Age_, ch. 26 (pp. 816 ff.: “The Growth of
+  Historical Science” by G. P. Gooch).
+
+Footnote 212:
+
+  _Economic Geography_ (N. Y.: Macmillan, _s.a._—1915?—; not earlier
+  than 1910, for statistics for that year are given in the text; 560
+  pp.), p. 1.
+
+Footnote 213:
+
+  “Since his [Buckle’s] time much more has been done, not only in
+  studying, as Buckle himself did, the immediate influence of climate
+  and soil, but also in explaining the allied field of the effect of the
+  fauna and the flora on social development. The subject of the
+  domestication of animals, for instance, and its profound effect on
+  human progress has not only been investigated by a number of recent
+  students [especially E. Hahn, _Die Haustiere u. ihre Beziehung zur
+  Wirtschaft des Menschen_, 1896], but has been made the very basis of
+  the explanation of early American civilization by one of the most
+  brilliant and most learned of recent historians [Payne, _History of
+  the New World called America_; esp. vol. 1, bk. II]. A Russian scholar
+  has shown in detail the connection between the great rivers and the
+  progress of humanity, and the whole modern study of economic geography
+  is but an expansion on broader lines of the same idea.”—Edwin R. A.
+  Seligman, _The Economic Interpretation of History_ (N. Y.: The
+  Columbia Univ. Press, 1902, 166 pp.), pp. 13 f.
+
+Footnote 214:
+
+  See Wm. Morris Davis, _Geographical Essays_, ed. by D. W. Johnson
+  (Ginn & Co.: Boston, _s.a._, copyright 1909), esp. the first two
+  essays: “An inductive study of the content of geography” (1906), pp.
+  3–22, and “The progress of geography in the schools” (1902), pp.
+  23–69.
+
+Footnote 215:
+
+  In an address delivered at the dedication of Julius Rosenwald Hall,
+  printed in _The University of Chicago Magazine_ (vol. VII, No.
+  6—April, 1915—, pp. 175–8) under the title “Some Matters of History.”
+  See p. 177.
+
+Footnote 216:
+
+  Felix Lampe, in _Große Geographen_ (Leipzig, 1915), has a rather brief
+  chapter (pp. 281–7) on “Die wissenschaftliche Geographie der
+  Gegenwart.”
+
+Footnote 217:
+
+  See the Introductory Essay by the Right Hon. [now Viscount] James
+  Bryce in Helmolt’s _Hist. of the World_, vol. 1, pp. I-LX, esp. pp.
+  XXV-XLI.
+
+Footnote 218:
+
+  A. J. Herbertson and F. D. Herbertson, _Man and his Work, an
+  Introduction to Human Geography_ (London: Black, 1909, 132 pp.), p. 6.
+
+Footnote 219:
+
+  N. Y., G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908, 363 pp.
+
+Footnote 220:
+
+  “In the chapters on the life of man in the different zones, I have
+  made liberal use of Ratzel’s _Anthropogeographie_ (2d ed., Stuttgart,
+  1899).”—Ward, _op. cit._, p. VI.
+
+Footnote 221:
+
+  Ward, _op. cit._, p. V.
+
+Footnote 222:
+
+  N. Y. and London, 1911. See ch. 4, pp. 94–129.
+
+Footnote 223:
+
+  Paris, 1911, 420 pp.
+
+Footnote 224:
+
+  _Vide supra_, p. 27.
+
+Footnote 225:
+
+  “Die soziale Geographie, hauptsächlich von Bastian und Ratzel tiefer
+  begründet, wird gegenwärtig immer sorgsamer ausgebaut und hat
+  namentlich in dem Wiener Erwin Hanslick einen eifrigen Förderer, der
+  auf die Ermittlung von geographischen Kulturgrenzen ausgeht. In andrer
+  Weise nimmt von ihr Willy Hellpach seinen Ausgang, der Geographie,
+  Psychologie und Soziologie zu einem neuen Gebiet zu vereinigen
+  sucht.”—Rudolf Goldscheid, “Soziologie” in _Das Jahr 1913, Ein
+  Gesamtbild der Kulturentwicklung_, herausgegeben von D. Sarason
+  (Leipzig und Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1913), p. 432.
+
+Footnote 226:
+
+  Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1911, 368 pp.—“Hier [in Hellpach’s book] wird
+  alles zusammengefaßt, was über den Einfluß von ‘Wetter, Klima und
+  Landschaft’ auf das Seelenleben bekannt ist.”—Otto Schlüter,
+  “Anthropogeographie” in _Das Jahr 1913_, etc., p. 401.
+
+Footnote 227:
+
+  See Hellpach, _op. cit._, p. 4.—Chiefly with those of the atmosphere;
+  he devotes nine pages (98–107) to the telluric elements of the
+  weather, and 87 pages (230–317) to the third main part of the book:
+  “Landschaft und Seelenleben.” For soil as a co-factor, cf. also the
+  ch. “Klimawechsel” in Part II (pp. 118–38). Hellpach defines
+  Landschaft (p. 230) as follows: “Unter Landschaft verstehen wir den
+  _sinnlichen_ Gesamteindruck, der von einem Stück der Oberfläche und
+  dem dazu gehörigen Abschnitt des Himmelsgewölbes in uns erweckt wird.
+  ... das _sicht_bare Landschaftsbild bildet unter allen Umständen den
+  Kern dessen, was wir Landschaft nennen ... [And he adds that for an
+  investigation of the effect of Landscape upon the human soul] sind die
+  nicht-optischen sinnlichen Eigenschaften der Landschaft von
+  unentbehrlicher Bedeutung: Töne und Geräusche, Düfte und Gerüche und
+  eine höchst verwickelte Summe von Affizierungen der Berührungs-,
+  Temperatur-, ja zuweilen der Schmerzempfindlichkeit erst bilden mit
+  Farben und Formen zusammen das natürliche Ganze, das wir in seelischen
+  Wirkungen als _Landschaft_ erleben.”
+
+Footnote 228:
+
+  _Vide_, _e.g._, p. 8.
+
+Footnote 229:
+
+  Hellpach himself testifies (p. 318) that his book is a “Sammlung der
+  Tatsachen.” Cf. also Schlüter’s opinion cited above in note no. 226.
+
+Footnote 230:
+
+  Manifestly, this is to be understood as a virtue in Hellpach, and not
+  as a fault, since this conviction is gained only by dint of Hellpach’s
+  clear delimitation of the scope of his work; it constitutes one of the
+  results of his own labor.
+
+Footnote 231:
+
+  See Schlüter’s art. in _Das Jahr 1913_, p. 402.
+
+Footnote 232:
+
+  Paris, 1910; 2nd ed. 1912.
+
+Footnote 233:
+
+  For a statement of principles (theoretical exposition), cf. the first
+  two chaps. (pp. 1–92); for a summary, cf. ch. X, section 2 (pp.
+  780–9): “Le facteur psychologique dans les phénomènes naturels et
+  l’activité humaine,” and section 3 (pp. 790–807): “L’adaptation
+  humaine aux conditions géographiques.” In the preface to the second
+  ed., there are quoted seven pages from a review of the first ed. of
+  Brunhes’ work by Paul Mantoux, wherein the scope, content, and import
+  of the first ed. are succinctly summarized.
+
+Footnote 234:
+
+  N. Y., 1911, 637 pp.
+
+Footnote 235:
+
+  _Vide_ Wm. J. Thomas, _Source Book for Social Origins_ (Chicago and
+  London, 1909), p. 138 (Bibliogr. to Part I).—Without fear of
+  contradiction, it may be said that the best two recent treatises on
+  human geography are those by Brunhes and Semple.—For a brief concrete
+  anthropo-geographical sketch, besides the works previously cited, cf.
+  also W. Ule, _Grundriß der Allgemeinen Erdkunde_ (2. verm. Aufl.,
+  Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1915, 487 pp.), pp. 361 ff. See also the brief
+  résumé in G. Schmoller’s _Grundr. d. Allgem. Volkswirtschaftslehre_
+  (Leipzig, 1901), pp. 144 ff.
+
+Footnote 236:
+
+  “Unverkennbar ist es, daß die Naturgewalten in ihren bedingenden
+  Einflüssen auf das Persönliche der Völkerentwicklung immer mehr und
+  mehr zurückweichen mußten, in demselben Maße wie diese vorwärts
+  schritten. Sie übten im Anfange der Menschengeschichte als
+  Naturimpulse über die ersten Entwicklungen in der Wiege der Menschheit
+  einen sehr entscheidenden Einfluß aus, dessen Differenzen wir
+  vielleicht noch in dem Naturschlage der verschiedenen Menschenrassen
+  oder ihrer physisch verschiedenen Völkergruppen aus einer gänzlich
+  unbekannten Zeit wahrzunehmen vermochten. Aber dieser Einfluß mußte
+  abnehmen, ... Die zivilisierte Menschheit entwindet sich nach und
+  nach, ebenso wie der einzelne Mensch, den unmittelbar bedingenden
+  Fesseln der Natur und ihres Wohnortes. Die Einflüsse derselben
+  Naturverhältnisse und derselben tellurischen Weltstellungen der
+  erfüllten Räume bleiben sich also nicht durch alle Zeiten gleich.”
+  Ritter, _l.c._; see Achelis, _op. cit._, p. 74 _et seq._
+
+Footnote 237:
+
+  “Man ist in Nachfolge C. Ritters vielfach geneigt, anzunehmen, daß die
+  Natureinflüsse sich mit zunehmender Kultur immer weniger geltend
+  machen.”—E. Bernheim, _Lehrb. d. hist. Methode_ (Leipzig, 1908), p.
+  642.
+
+Footnote 238:
+
+  Theo. Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, I (Leipzig, 1859), p.
+  341; see Achelis, _op. cit._, p. 185.
+
+Footnote 239:
+
+  “Die Einteilung der Menschheit war nur geographisch-historisch
+  möglich. Denn der Mensch steht in fester Abhängigkeit, in engstem
+  Verbande zu der Natur, aus und an welcher er sich entwickelt hat, zur
+  Natur der Erde, welcher letzteren kleiner, aber integrierender Teil er
+  ist. Auch seine Entwicklung ist noch im Steigen, aber nur im Bereiche
+  seines inneren, geistigen Lebens ... je höher der Mensch steigt, um so
+  mehr macht er sich von dem zwingenden Einfluß der Erde frei; und wenn
+  er demselben auch nie ganz entgehen wird, da er Nahrung braucht, von
+  der Schwere sich nicht loslösen kann, so ist dennoch diese immer
+  wachsende Freiheit ... eine stärkende ... Aussicht für die Zukunft
+  ...”—_Anthropologische Beiträge_, 1. Bd. (Halle, 1875), p. 423; see
+  Achelis, _op. cit._, p. 227.
+
+Footnote 240:
+
+  _Principles of Sociology_, I, sec. 21.
+
+Footnote 241:
+
+  Vide Ripley, “Geography and Sociology,” p. 649.
+
+Footnote 242:
+
+  _Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection_, p. 319; cited by
+  E. B. Tylor in the article “Anthropology,” _Ency. Brit._ (11th ed.),
+  vol. 2, p. 114.
+
+Footnote 243:
+
+  Réclus, _op. cit._, (1879); quoted by Achelis, _l.c._, pp. 86 f.
+
+Footnote 244:
+
+  “... je crois, que la civilisation dans son premier stade dépend bien
+  plus du milieu physique et tellurique, qu’aux époques suivantes.”—Aug.
+  Matteuzzi, _Les Facteurs de l’Évolution des Peuples_ (Paris, 1900), p.
+  29. “... Tout ceci nous amène à affirmer ce fait, que les premières
+  civilisations, dans des milieux favorables, eurent une relation
+  étroite avec la culture du sol; et que dans un développement
+  ultérieur, ce rapport se relâcha ...”—_Ibid._, p. 25. For best
+  summaries of immense material collected on the relation of primitive
+  human life to environment, see the five papers in the _Smithsonian
+  Report_ for 1895: “Relation of Primitive Peoples to Environment” by J.
+  W. Powell (pp. 625 ff.); “Influence of Environment upon Human
+  Industries or Arts” by O. T. Mason (pp. 639 ff.); “The Japanese
+  Nation—A Typical Product of Environment” by G. G. Hubbard (pp. 667
+  ff.); “The Tusayan Ritual: A Study of the Influence of Environment on
+  Aboriginal Cults” by J. W. Fewkes (pp. 683 ff.); and, probably the
+  best of the five, “The Relation of Institutions to Environment” by the
+  eminent ethnologist W. J. McGee (pp. 701 ff.).
+
+Footnote 245:
+
+  _Anthropogeogr._, I^2: “Der Mensch und die Umwelt” (pp. 41–65).
+
+Footnote 246:
+
+  “Geogr. and Sociol.,” p. 650.
+
+Footnote 247:
+
+  See his presidential address on the Origin of Man before the Section
+  of Anthropology (_Report of the British Association for the
+  Advancement of Science, 1912_; London, 1913), p. 576.
+
+Footnote 248:
+
+  _The Positive Philosophy of Aug. Comte, Freely Translated and
+  Condensed by Harriet Martineau_ (In 2 vols., 3rd ed., London, 1893—the
+  original appeared from 1830–42), vol. 2, p. 96.
+
+Footnote 249:
+
+  _Aug. Comte’s Positive Philosophie im Außug von I. Rig, Übersetzt von
+  Kirchmann_ (2 Bde, Heidelberg, 1883), S. 94 ff.; Achelis, _op. cit._,
+  p. 130.
+
+Footnote 250:
+
+  _A System of Logic_ (New Impression; London: Longmans, Green & Co.,
+  1911—first published in 1843), p. 572.
+
+Footnote 251:
+
+  A. Schäffle, _Bau und Leben des sozialen Körpers_, Tübingen, 1875, 2.
+  Aufl., 1881; Achelis, _op. cit._, p. 161.
+
+Footnote 252:
+
+  “Post’s general attitude is best seen in his ‘Introduction to the
+  Study of Ethnological Jurisprudence,’ which was published in 1886, and
+  in his ‘African Jurisprudence’ of 1887.”—John L. Myres, “The Influence
+  of Anthropology on the Course of Political Science” (Presidential
+  address to the Anthropological Section of the British Assoc. for the
+  Advancement of Science), _Report Brit. Assoc., 1909_ (London, 1910),
+  p. 613.
+
+Footnote 253:
+
+  Myres, _ibid._, pp. 613 f.
+
+Footnote 254:
+
+  See Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, p. 231.
+
+Footnote 255:
+
+  See the 4th ch. of his _Géographie Sociale_ (Paris, 1911): “Agents et
+  Caractères Physiques Considérés Isolément” (pp. 92–144).
+
+Footnote 256:
+
+  “... as political and legal institutions are indissolubly bound up
+  with social and religious, it follows inevitably that the political
+  and legal institutions of a race cradled in Northern Europe are
+  exceedingly ill adapted for the children of the equator. Accordingly
+  in any wise administration of these regions it must be a primary
+  object to study the native institutions, to modify ... them ..., but
+  never to seek to eradicate and supplant them. Any attempt to do so
+  will be but vain, for these institutions are as much part of the land
+  as are its climate, its soil, its fauna, and its flora. ‘Naturam
+  expellas furca, tamen usque recurret.’”—The Application of Zoological
+  Laws to Man, in _Rep. Brit. Assoc, f. the Adv. of Sci., 1908_ (London,
+  1909), p. 843.
+
+Footnote 257:
+
+  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, pp. 310 _et seq._
+
+Footnote 258:
+
+  _Vide_ pp. 141–75 in _Der Weltkrieg im Unterricht, Vorschläge u.
+  Anregungen_, etc. (Gotha: F. A. Perthes), esp. pp 163–5; he also
+  discusses other phases of the relation between physical environment
+  and the present war.
+
+Footnote 259:
+
+  I: _Deutsche Rundschau_, April, 1915, pp. 78–91, and II (Schluß):
+  _ibid._, May, 1915, pp. 207–17.
+
+Footnote 260:
+
+  In _Monatshefte für den Naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht_, 1.
+  Kriegsheft von Bastian Schmid (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1915).
+
+Footnote 261:
+
+  Cf. Gooch, _op. cit._, pp. 585 _et seq._
+
+Footnote 262:
+
+  See his Introduction to Dexter’s _Weather Influences_ (N. Y., 1904),
+  p. XXIV.
+
+Footnote 263:
+
+  _Les Facteurs de L’Évolution des Peuples_ (Paris, 1900), p. 25, 29,
+  27.—“C’est dans l’intensité de l’effort dirigé par les groupes sociaux
+  contre les résistances du milieu, que réside la première impulsion
+  vers la civilisation.”—_Ibid._, p. 27.
+
+Footnote 264:
+
+  But he adds, “... no disturbing causes, acting on social development,
+  could do more than to affect its rate of progress. This is true of the
+  operation of influences from the inorganic world, as of all others. In
+  our view of biology we saw that the human being cannot be modified
+  indefinitely by exterior circumstances; that such modifications can
+  affect only the degrees of phenomena, without at all changing their
+  nature; and again, that when the disturbing influences exceed their
+  general limits, the organism is no longer modified, but
+  destroyed.”—_The Positive Philosophy of Aug. Comte, tr. by Harriet
+  Martineau_, vol. 2, p. 98; 97.
+
+Footnote 265:
+
+  See Ripley, _Races of Europe_ (1899), p. 11; cf. the references given
+  there, and in the note on the same page.—Cf. also Ellsworth
+  Huntington’s _Palestine and its Transformation_ (1910), and his
+  suggestive articles on “Changes of Climate and History” (in _The
+  American Historical Review_ for January, 1913, vol. 18, pp. 213–32)
+  [for references to other writings on the subject by the same
+  author,—and by A. T. Olmstead—cf. p. 214 n.]; on “Climate and
+  Civilization” (in _Harper’s Magazine_ for February, 1915, vol. 130,
+  pp. 367–73); on “Is Civilization Determined by Climate?” (_ibid._ May,
+  1915, pp. 943–51); a new book of his, entitled _Civilization and
+  Climate_ (333 pp.), is announced for publication by the Yale Univ.
+  Press.
+
+Footnote 266:
+
+  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, pp. 280 _et seq._
+
+Footnote 267:
+
+  “... cetera [Mattiaci] similes Batavis, nisi quod ipso adhuc terrae
+  suae solo et caelo acrius animantur.”—F. Ritter, _P. C. Taciti Opera_
+  (1864), p. 643. In _Römische Prosaiker in neuen Übersetzungen_ (hg. v.
+  C. N. von Osiander und G. Schwab, 51. Bändchen, Stuttg., 1852, S. 123)
+  this is rendered as follows: “Im ganzen gleichen sie [die Mattiaker]
+  den Batavern, nur daß Boden und Klima ihres Landes sie noch
+  kriegerischer macht.”
+
+Footnote 268:
+
+  Cesare Lombroso, _Crime, Its Causes and Remedies_ (Boston, 1911), pp.
+  3 f.
+
+Footnote 269:
+
+  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, p. 282.
+
+Footnote 270:
+
+  _Vide_ Flint, _l.c._, pp. 582 _et seq._
+
+Footnote 271:
+
+  Haddon & Quiggin, _Hist. of Anthropology_ (London, 1910), pp. 84 _et
+  seq._
+
+Footnote 272:
+
+  Cesare Lombroso, _Crime_, etc., p. 2.
+
+Footnote 273:
+
+  N. S. Shaler, Nature and Man in America (N. Y., 1893), p. 288.
+
+Footnote 274:
+
+  In _Abhandlungen der Königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften,
+  Phil.-hist. Classe_, 1912, p. 13: “In einer Wendung, die an
+  Distinktionen Schleiermachers erinnert, hat er [Dilthey] in seiner
+  letzten größeren Arbeit erklärt, daß unser wissenschaftliches Denken
+  von zwei großen Tendenzen beherrscht sei. Der Mensch finde sich auf
+  der einen Seite bestimmt von der physischen Welt, in der die
+  seelischen Vorgänge nur wie Interpolationen erscheinen. [The other is:
+  das Leben (life), das Erlebnis (experience).]”
+
+Footnote 275:
+
+  Ridgeway, _l.c._, p. 843.
+
+Footnote 276:
+
+  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, pp. 258 _et seq._—For the effect of
+  physical environment on the Jews in Palestine, cf. Friedrich Otto
+  Hertz, _Rasse und Kultur_ (Leipzig, 1915, 421 pp.), pp. 162 ff.; and
+  “Soziale Grundlagen des Monotheismus u. Polytheismus” (pp. 170 ff.)
+  and the literature there cited. Cf. also _ibid._, “Natürliche u.
+  Soziale Grundlagen der indischen Entwicklung” (pp. 198 ff.).
+
+Footnote 277:
+
+  Rob. DeC. Ward, _op. cit._, pp. 309 _et seq._
+
+Footnote 278:
+
+  _Vide_ his _Weather Influences, An Empirical Study of the Mental and
+  Physiological Effects of Definite Meteorological Conditions_, with
+  Introduction by Cleveland Abbe (N. Y.: Macmillan, 1904, 277 pp.).
+
+Footnote 279:
+
+  I saw somewhere that exception had been taken to his results, but I
+  failed at the time to make a note thereof and have been unable to find
+  the passage again.
+
+Footnote 280:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 266; 269; 272 f.—The fifth and last is not cited here.
+
+Footnote 281:
+
+  Ward, _op. cit._, p. 310; 335, where ref. is also made to F. A. Cook’s
+  article on “Some Physiological Effects of Arctic Cold, Darkness and
+  Light” (_MED. REC._, June 12, 1897, pp. 833–36).
+
+Footnote 282:
+
+  London and N. Y., 1892.
+
+Footnote 283:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 90.
+
+Footnote 284:
+
+  _Ibid._, pp. 113–5.
+
+Footnote 285:
+
+  “Diese Priorität (der erste Versuch überhaupt, die Einflüsse des
+  naturalen Milieus auf die Psyche darzustellen) gebührt, nach
+  mancherlei Vorläufern minder geschlossenen Charakters (z. B.
+  _Quételet_, Sur l’homme etc. 1835, Bd. 2, Kap. 3, Abschn. 2–3,
+  Influence du climat et des saisons sur le penchant au crime) ohne
+  Zweifel _Lombroso_, aus dessen 1878 erschienenem Buche ‘Pensiero e
+  meteore’ Extracte auch in seine andern Publikationen, namentlich in
+  ‘Genio e follia,’ übergegangen sind.”—Hellpach, _Die Geopsychischen
+  Erscheinungen_ (Leipzig, 1911), p. 336.
+
+Footnote 286:
+
+  _Criminal Man, According to the Classification of Cesare Lombroso
+  Briefly Summarized by his Daughter Gina Lombroso Ferrero_ (“The
+  Science Series”; N. Y. and London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1911, 322
+  pp.), p. 145.—Lombroso’s _L’Uomo di genio_ appeared in 1888, _L’Uomo
+  delinquente_ in 1889, and _La Donna delinquente_ in 1893.
+
+Footnote 287:
+
+  _Criminal Man_, p. 145.
+
+Footnote 288:
+
+  Tr. by H. P. Horton, “The Modern Criminal Science Series,” Boston:
+  Little, Brown and Co., 1911, 471 pp.
+
+Footnote 289:
+
+  “It is brought out in Guerry’s statistics that the crime of rape
+  occurs in England and France oftenest in the hot months; and Curcio
+  has observed the same thing in Italy....
+
+  “In England, according to Guerry, and in Italy, according to Curcio,
+  the maximum number of murders falls in the hottest months....
+
+  “Poisoning also, according to Guerry, occurs oftenest in May. The same
+  phenomenon is to be observed in the case of Rebellions. In studying
+  (as I have in my ‘Political Crime’) the 836 uprisings that took place
+  in the whole world in the period between 1791 and 1880, one finds that
+  in Asia and Africa the greatest number falls in July. In Europe and
+  America the greater prevalence of rebellions in the hot months could
+  not be more clearly marked. In Europe the maximum proved to be in July
+  [in this connection one might also point to the beginning of the
+  present European war which falls in the midsummer of 1914], and in
+  South America in January, which are respectively the two hottest
+  months. The minimum falls in Europe in December and January, and in
+  South America in May and June, which again correspond in temperature.
+
+  “If now we pass from the whole of Europe to the particular countries,
+  we still find the greatest number of uprisings in the hot months....
+
+  “Benoiston de Chateauneuf points out that duels in the army are more
+  frequent in the summer.
+
+  “I have proved that the same influence manifests itself in the case of
+  men of genius (‘Man of Genius,’ Part I.).
+
+  “Ferri, in his ‘Crime in its Relation to Temperature,’ has proved from
+  a study of the French criminal statistics from 1825 to 1878 that one
+  can deduce an almost complete parallelism between heat and
+  criminality, not only for the different months, but also for years of
+  different degrees of heat. The influence of the temperature on crime
+  from 1825 to 1848 appears to be very pronounced and constant, and is
+  often even greater than that exercised by agricultural production.
+  Since 1848, notwithstanding the more serious agricultural and
+  political disturbances, the coincidence between temperature and
+  criminality becomes from time to time plainly apparent, especially in
+  the case of homicide and murder....
+
+  “The connection comes out much more plainly, however, in the
+  statistics of rape and offenses against chastity, which follow to an
+  even greater degree the annual variations in temperature....
+
+  “As regards crimes against property there is a marked increase in the
+  winter (theft and forgery being the most abundant in January), while
+  the other seasons differ little from one another....”—Lombroso,
+  _Crime, Its Causes and Remedies_, pp. 4–8. “Superintendents of prisons
+  have generally observed that the inmates are more excited when storms
+  are approaching and during the first quarter of the moon....”—_Ibid._,
+  p. 12.
+
+Footnote 290:
+
+  _Ibid._, p. 13.—“In studying the distribution of simple and aggravated
+  homicides in Europe, we find the highest figures in Italy and the
+  other southern countries, and the lowest in the more northerly
+  regions, England, Denmark, Germany. The same can be said of political
+  uprisings in all Europe. We see, in fact, that the number of crimes
+  increases as we go from north to south, and in the same measure as the
+  heat increases.”—_Ibid._, p. 14.
+
+Footnote 291:
+
+  This follows Laing. See Robertson, _Buckle and his Critics_ (London,
+  1895), p. 553.—Cf. also C. M. Gießler’s article, “Über den Einfluß von
+  Wärme und Kälte auf das seelische Funktionieren des Menschen,” in
+  _Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie u. Soziologie_,
+  1902, pp. 319–38. Gießler refers (p. 334) to Oppenheimer “Über den
+  Einfluß des Klimas auf den Menschen” (Berlin, 1867). _Vide_ also E.
+  Huntington’s article on “Work and Weather,” _Harper’s Magazine_, vol.
+  130 (January, 1915), pp. 233–44.
+
+Footnote 292:
+
+  _Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1908_ (London, 1909), p. 844.
+
+Footnote 293:
+
+  On the use of alcohol in its relation to the northern climate, cf.
+  also Auguste Matteuzzi, _Les Facteurs de L’Évolution des Peuples_
+  (Paris, 1900), pp. 329 _et seq._
+
+
+
+
+                                SUMMARY
+
+
+The Introductory Remark traces the semasiology and use of the word
+_milieu_ and discusses its English and German equivalents “environment”
+and “Umwelt.”
+
+An historical sketch of the milieu idea is then taken up from the very
+beginnings to the nineteenth century. The earlier notions of
+environmental influence are general and undifferentiated.
+
+The Hebrew Prophets see the hand of Providence in the harmony of
+national fate with the configuration of the globe. Hippocrates dwells
+upon the regularity of climatic effect on man. Aristotle notes the
+action of physical environment on government and national character.
+Eratosthenes, Strabo, and other Greek thinkers, relate man causally to
+surrounding nature. Villani says that the fine air of Arezzo produces
+great minds. Ibn Khaldūn explains, especially Arabic history, by the
+circumambient physical and social medium. Michelangelo credits Arezzo’s
+fine air with his mentality. Man is subject to the “skyey influences”
+hourly (Shakespeare).
+
+Jean Bodin plants the study of environment in French soil so firmly and
+so successfully that it has since become, in a very real sense,
+indigenous to France and that Bertillon could justly claim it to be a
+study “_très-française_,” a claim which is true to this very day.
+Bodin’s second contribution is that he undertook, for the first time in
+the modern period (on the basis of sixteenth century knowledge and
+experience), a scientific and detailed examination, far-reaching and
+extensive in scope, of the manifold influences of climatic and
+geographical conditions upon States, laws, national character, religion,
+language, temperament, talents and aptitudes,—in brief, upon man’s mind,
+manners, and morals.
+
+The study of milieu thus inaugurated in France by Bodin is set up as a
+French tradition by Lenglet du Fresnoy, Montesquieu, Turgot, Cuvier, and
+others,[294] and has been continued by French writers to our day.
+
+A number of philosophers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
+take up this idea. The doctrine of environment spreads to England and
+Germany.
+
+In Germany, Herder becomes the fulcrum of all previous thought (Hebrew,
+Greek, French, English, and German) on this theory. Herder, in turn, in
+addition to his other and principal contributions to the theory, affects
+it by giving a quickened impetus not only to the contemporary
+development thereof, but also to the later course of that development.
+Goethe reflects some of Herder’s conceptions. Wolf, Niebuhr, the German
+romanticists—August Wilhelm Schlegel in especial—and Hegel apply
+Herder’s idea to history and continue it therein. Hegel combats the
+notion that climate can be the be-all and end-all of historical
+explanation; he implies that climate was held to be a _vera causa_.
+
+The theory of social environment evolves, particularly since Ibn
+Khaldūn, parallel with that of the physical milieu.
+
+The nineteenth century brings differentiation carried out in human
+geography including history, in biology, in jurisprudence and economics,
+in anthropology, in sociology, in literature, and latterly in physics.
+These disciplines determine our divisions for discussions shortly to
+follow the present one.
+
+The major portion of this study is then given over to following the
+milieu idea in some of the more important French, English, and German
+writers of the past century on what for want of a better name has been
+called anthropo-geography inclusive of certain aspects of history.
+
+On the whole, their method has been the comparative method. Principles
+laid down _a priori_ would be illustrated by typical cases selected
+mostly from the past. Or, the process would be reversed to an _a
+posteriori_ reasoning: history restudied to find out its possible
+connections with the environment. Again: some would pick out a phase of
+the encompassing medium and follow out its effects in a particular
+country, while others would try to arrive at a more general conclusion.
+
+With reference to climate in particular, the statistical method was
+employed by Quételet, Bertillon, Leffingwell, Ferri, Holzendorf, Guerry,
+Curcio, Lombroso, and others, who established a parallelism, or
+coincidence, between certain climatic features and the criminal conduct
+of man.
+
+Delimited aspects of environment, relating again more to climate than
+any other phase of the milieu, were made the objects of observational or
+experimentally observational studies by Dexter, Brunhes, and Hellpach,
+the last two giving the most recent comprehensive summaries of our
+knowledge in this field. And they are among the best we have.
+
+The next part of this study will continue the survey of the history of
+this theory in the above mentioned sciences as well as in literature.
+
+-----
+
+Footnote 294:
+
+  Some of these are to be discussed in a subsequent paper.
+
+
+
+
+                                APPENDIX
+
+
+Since the foregoing study was completed, E. Huntington’s stimulating
+book—_vide supra_, p. 79, n.—on _Civilization and Climate_ has appeared.
+He continues what Dexter began. Lack of definiteness in observation,
+argumentative conviction, reasoned out opinion, are superseded by
+scientific exactness in ascertaining the action of climate. Chapters 4–7
+(pp. 49–147) concern us here. In these chapters he investigates “the
+exact effect of various climatic factors upon selected groups of people”
+(p. 49).
+
+Huntington subjects to statistical analysis the daily records of about
+550 factory operatives, pieceworkers, employed in three factories in
+three New England cities. The records, most of them for a complete year,
+are distributed over the four years from 1910 to 1913 (p. 53).
+
+He computes wage averages. He finds for each working day the average
+hourly wage for each group of operatives. When the daily averages had
+been found, they were averaged together by weeks. To give each
+individual an equal importance, the figures of each group have been
+reduced to percentages. Finally, the different groups were combined (p.
+57). His final computations are represented in curves. A curve,
+graduated in twelve parts (one for each month), for a given year shows
+the earnings in percentages at any point and thus reveals the _time_ of
+the weakness or efficiency of the worker; it shows the time of his wages
+from least to most, thereby indicating the time of his work and energy
+from poorest to best.
+
+Huntington worked up similarly the records of 65 operatives in a North
+Carolina factory, of 240 operatives in four cotton mills in South
+Carolina and Georgia, of 57 carpenters at Jacksonville, Fla., and on a
+different basis the work of 2700 cigar makers in two cigar factories in
+Florida. On the first basis he also computed a series of data from a
+large factory at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, based on the work of about
+950 operatives in 1910, of about 750 in 1911, of 69 in 1912, of about
+7000 in 1913. He figured the monthly or bi-weekly averages of hourly
+earnings of these pieceworkers in Pittsburgh.
+
+Discussing the curves in Figure 1 (p. 59), he mentions (p. 61) five
+features revealed by the curves that show no sign of disappearing. They
+are: “an extremely low place in midwinter, and a less pronounced low
+place in midsummer; a high point in June, a still higher point at the
+end of October, and a hump in mid-December....
+
+“Before we discuss the causes of the variability of the summers let us
+consider the meaning of the curves as a whole. In the first place, it is
+evident that, although details may vary from year to year, the general
+course of events is uniformly from low in the winter to high in the fall
+with a drop of more or less magnitude in summer. To what can this be
+due?...
+
+“We seem forced to search outside of the factories for the reasons for
+our seasonal fluctuations of wages.... There seems to be no recourse
+except to ascribe the fluctuations of the curves to climate [pp. 64–5].
+
+“The verity of the conclusion just reached is strongly confirmed by
+comparison with other regions and other types of human activity.... The
+curves [in Figure 2, pp. 66–7] range from the Adirondacks in northern
+New York to Tampa in southern Florida and include one from Denmark. With
+them I have repeated some of the curves of Figure 1 for the sake of
+comparison. The most remarkable feature of this series is that although
+there is great diversity of place and of activity, all the curves
+harmonize with what would be expected on the basis of Figure 1 [p. 65].
+
+“The general form of the curves for Pittsburgh and Connecticut is
+obviously the same....
+
+“The agreement between the curves for Connecticut and Pennsylvania is
+far too close to be accidental [p. 76].
+
+“We have now seen that from New England to Florida physical strength and
+health vary in accordance with the seasons. Extremes seem to produce the
+same effect everywhere. The next question is whether mental activity
+varies the same way” (p. 77).
+
+Huntington uses the marks of “about 1900 students for a single year” in
+mathematics (weekly averages at Annapolis and daily averages at West
+Point) and in English (at Annapolis). From these data he compiles the
+curves in Figure 3 (p. 80). He says (p. 81), “The curves of mental
+activity all resemble it [the average curve of physical work] in having
+two main maxima, in fall and spring.... At Annapolis, just as at West
+Point, the time of best work is when the mean temperature is not far
+from forty degrees [Fahrenheit].
+
+“Summing up the matter, we find that the results of investigations in
+Denmark, Japan, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland, the
+Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida are in harmony. They all show that
+except in Florida neither the winter nor the summer is the most
+favorable season. Both physical and mental activity reach pronounced
+maxima in the spring and fall, with minima in midwinter and midsummer.
+The consistency of our results is of great importance. It leads to the
+belief that in all parts of the world the climate is exercising an
+influence which can readily be measured, and can be subjected to
+statistical analysis” (p. 82).
+
+This is his conclusion in Chapter IV (pp. 49–82), “The Effect of the
+Seasons.”
+
+Having seen in the fourth chapter “that both physical and mental energy
+vary from season to season according to well-defined laws,” Huntington
+investigates in the fifth chapter (“The Effect of Humidity and
+Temperature,” pp. 83–110) “the special features of seasonal change which
+are most effective” (p. 83). Explaining the curves of Human Activity and
+Mean Temperature (p. 99), he says (p. 98), “With the exception of the
+last two, which are distinctly the least reliable, the physical group
+all reach maxima at a temperature between 59° and 65°. Even the two less
+reliable curves reach their maxima within the next four degrees. All the
+curves decline at low temperatures, ..., and also at high.
+
+“Another point brought out by the curves [on p. 99] is that as we go to
+more southerly climes the optimum temperature of the human race becomes
+higher. It is important to note, however, that the variation in the
+optimum is slight compared with the variation in the mean temperature of
+the places in question. For instance, in Connecticut the optimum seems
+to be about 60° for people of north European stock. This is about ten
+degrees higher than the mean temperature for the year as a whole. In
+Florida, on the other hand, the optimum for Cubans is about 65°, which
+is five degrees _lower_ than the mean temperature for the year at Tampa.
+In other words, with a difference of twenty degrees in the mean annual
+temperature, and with a distinctly northern race compared with a
+southern, we find that the optimum differs only about 5° F. This seems
+to mean that for the entire human race the optimum temperature probably
+does not vary more than ten or fifteen degrees [pp. 100–101].
+
+“The last thing to be considered in Figure 8 [p. 99] is the mental curve
+[showing optimum mental work at 38° F.] at the bottom. It is based on so
+large a number of people, and is so regular, that its general
+reliability seems great, although I think that future studies may show
+the optimum to be a few degrees higher than is here indicated. It agrees
+with the results of Lehmann and Pedersen. Furthermore, from general
+observation we are most of us aware that we are mentally more active in
+comparatively cool weather. Perhaps ‘spring fever’ is a mental state far
+more than a physical. Apparently people do the best mental work on days
+when the thermometer ranges from freezing to about 50°—that is, when the
+mean temperature is not far from 40°. Inasmuch as human progress depends
+upon a coördination of mental and physical activity, we seem to be
+justified in the conclusion that the greatest total efficiency occurs
+halfway between the mental and physical optima, that is, with a mean
+temperature of about 50°” (pp. 102–103).
+
+The curves (p. 105) on Mean Temperature and Vital Processes in Plants,
+Animals and Man show physical energy to be at the optimum at the mean
+temperature of 60° F., mental energy at 38°, mental and physical energy
+combined at from 40° to 60°. Of this last mentioned curve he says: “It
+may be taken as representing man’s actual productive activity in the
+things that make for a high civilization. The resemblance of the human
+curves to those of the lower organisms is obvious. In general, the lower
+types of life, or the lower forms of activity, seem to reach their
+optima at higher temperatures than do the more advanced types and the
+more lofty functions such as mentality. The whole trend of biological
+thought is toward the conclusion that the same laws apply to all forms
+of life. They differ in application, but not in principle. The law of
+optimum temperature apparently controls the phenomena of life from the
+lowest activities of protoplasm to the highest activities of the human
+intellect” (pp. 109–110).
+
+In Chapter VI (“Work and Weather,” pp. 111–128), he interprets the
+curves he plotted showing especially the influence of changes of
+temperature from day to day, and of the character of each day and its
+relation to storms. In the very interesting Chapter VII (pp. 129–147) he
+discusses “The Ideal Climate.”
+
+In the closing paragraph of his book, he says, “If our hypothesis is
+true, man is more closely dependent upon nature than he has realized. A
+realization of his limitations, however, is the first step toward
+freedom [p. 293].
+
+“The hypothesis, briefly stated, is this: Today a certain peculiar type
+of climate prevails wherever civilization is high. In the past the same
+type seems to have prevailed wherever a great civilization arose.
+Therefore, such a climate seems to be a necessary condition of great
+progress. It is not the cause of civilization, for that lies infinitely
+deeper. Nor is it the only, or the most important condition. It is
+merely one of several, ...” (p. 9.)
+
+Huntington mentions (p. 7) Lehmann and Pedersen’s “Das Wetter und unsere
+Arbeit” and Berliner’s “Einfluß von Klima, Wetter und Jahreßeit auf das
+Nerven- und Seelenleben,” without the date or place of publication.
+
+
+
+
+    NOTE: Since the foregoing pages went to press, the following
+    publications have appeared; being too late for inclusion or
+    comment in the text, they are added here for reference:
+
+    Douglas W. Johnson, _Topography and Strategy in the War_, N. Y.,
+    Henry Holt & Co., 1917, 221 pp. (Thorough and very illuminating;
+    points out how the surface features of the country influenced
+    military operations in the most important theaters of the war.)
+
+    James Fairgrieve, _Geography and World Power_, N. Y., E. P.
+    Dutton & Co., 1917, 356 pp. (Shows how History has been
+    controlled by Geography.)
+
+    Robert De C. Ward, “Weather Controls Over the Fighting in the
+    Italian War Zone,” _The Scientific Monthly_, Vol. 6, No. 2
+    (February, 1918), pp. 97–105. And “Weather Controls Over the
+    Fighting in Mesopotamia, in Palestine, and near the Suez Canal,”
+    _ibidem_, Vol. 6, No. 4 (April, 1918), pp. 289–304.
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+                          TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
+
+
+ 1. Replaced “sz” with “ß” in German words. The “ß” character was not
+      used in the original.
+ 2. Changed “Nachbaren” to “Nachbarn” on p. 30.
+ 3. Silently corrected typographical errors.
+ 4. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.
+ 5. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.
+ 6. Superscripts are denoted by a carat before a single superscript
+      character or a series of superscripted characters enclosed in
+      curly braces, e.g. M^r. or M^{ister}.
+
+
+
+
+
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+
+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's The Theory of Environment, by Armin Hajman Koller
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: The Theory of Environment
+       An outline of the history of the idea of Milieu, and its present status
+
+Author: Armin Hajman Koller
+
+Release Date: September 24, 2017 [EBook #55619]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class='tnotes covernote'>
+
+<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber's Note:</strong></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class='ph1'>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c001'>
+    <div>THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT</div>
+    <div class='c002'>Part I</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c003'>
+    <div><span class='large'>The University of Chicago</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+  <h1 class='c004'>THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT<br /> <span class='c005'><em>An Outline of the History of the Idea of Milieu, and its Present Status</em></span><br /> <span class='xlarge'>PART I</span><br /> <span class='large'>A DISSERTATION</span><br /> <span class='small'>SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND LITERATURE IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY</span><br /> <span class='xsmall'>DEPARTMENT OF GERMANIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES</span></h1>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c003'>
+    <div><span class='small'>BY</span></div>
+    <div class='c002'><span class='large'>ARMIN HAJMAN KOLLER</span></div>
+    <div class='c003'><span class='small'>The Collegiate Press</span></div>
+    <div class='c002'><span class='sc'>George Banta Publishing Company</span></div>
+    <div><span class='sc'>Menasha, Wisconsin</span></div>
+    <div>1918</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c001'>
+    <div><span class='xxlarge'>THE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENT</span></div>
+    <div class='c002'><span class='xlarge'>PART I</span></div>
+    <div class='c002'><span class='large'><em>An Outline of the History of the Idea of Milieu, and its Present Status</em></span></div>
+    <div class='c002'>BY</div>
+    <div><span class='large'>ARMIN HAJMAN KOLLER, <span class='sc'>Ph.D.</span></span></div>
+    <div>Instructor in German</div>
+    <div>The University of Illinois</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c006'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>“.............................</div>
+      <div class='line'><em>He fixed thee ’mid this dance</em></div>
+      <div class='line'><em>Of plastic circumstance</em>.”</div>
+    </div>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line in12'>Robert Browning, “<cite>Rabbi Ben Ezra</cite>.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+  <div class='nf-center'>
+    <div><span class='small'>The Collegiate Press</span></div>
+    <div>GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY</div>
+    <div>MENASHA, WISCONSIN</div>
+    <div>1918</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c001'>
+    <div><em>Copyright, 1918</em></div>
+    <div><em>By Armin H. Koller</em></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='nf-center-c1'>
+<div class='nf-center c001'>
+    <div>TO</div>
+    <div>MY PARENTS</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <h2 class='c007'>CONTENTS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table class='table0' summary='CONTENTS'>
+  <tr>
+    <th class='c008'></th>
+    <th class='c009'>&nbsp;</th>
+    <th class='c010'>PAGE</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008' colspan='2'>Introductory Remark. Meanings of the Word <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Milieu</span></i></td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c012'>I.</td>
+    <td class='c009'>A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Down to the Nineteenth Century</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_7'>7</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c012'>II.</td>
+    <td class='c009'>A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Since the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Anthropo-geography, Geography and History</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Geography and History</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_42'>42</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>More Recent Anthropo-geographical Treatises</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Primitive Peoples and Environment</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_69'>69</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Society and Physical Milieu</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_74'>74</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Government, War, Progress, and Climate</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_76'>76</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Climate and Man’s Characteristics</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_80'>80</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Man’s Intellect and Physical Environment</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Religion and Physical Milieu</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Climate and Conduct</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_84'>84</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008'>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class='c009'>Climatic Control of Food and Drink</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_91'>91</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008' colspan='2'>Summary</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_93'>93</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class='c008' colspan='2'>Appendix</td>
+    <td class='c011'><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <h2 class='c007'>PREFACE</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c013'>In 1912 (see <cite>Publications of the Modern Language
+Association of America</cite>, Vol. 28, N. S., Vol. 21,
+1913, Proceedings for 1912, p. xxxix), I called
+attention to the Herder-Taine problem on milieu.
+The paper discussing that problem awaits the
+completion of another paper entitled “Herder’s
+Conception of Milieu.” The latter was my
+starting point. Setting about to inform myself
+on the history of the theory, I determined to obtain
+for myself, if possible, a tolerably complete idea,
+at least in its essentials, of the theory of milieu,
+to see where the theory led to, where it started
+from, what changes it has undergone, and what
+were its ramifications. My plan was to state
+briefly my findings in a chapter preparatory to
+stating Herder’s idea of milieu. As guide-posts
+were lacking, at least I knew of none, I was bound
+to seek by accident and for a number of years. In
+stumbling along, I first chanced upon the Herder-Taine
+problem. When my material swelled to
+proportions that could not be controlled in part
+of a chapter or in a chapter, I had to separate it,
+by its main divisions, into parts. The question
+arose, should it be a <em>concrete</em> treatise on environment.
+I soon found that to be, at least for the time
+being, beyond my province and also beyond my
+present purpose; besides, it would have swerved
+me too far afield; moreover, it would have had to
+be limited to a small portion of the subject. My
+present concern in this theory being genetic and
+historical, it seemed best to assemble all the sources
+one could find bearing on the history of the theory
+and to indicate the trend of its development in a
+rough preliminary sketch. Such a sketch is a
+requisite first step and perhaps a modest contribution
+to a history of the theory under consideration.
+The first part of this sketch is herein given. The
+original plan, mentioned above, of a prefatory
+chapter to Herder accounts for the retention of
+untranslated passages in the text of this part, a
+practice to be eschewed in the subsequent parts
+of this study which are to appear shortly.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Nearly all the material was collected by October,
+1915, and this manuscript was finished early
+in January, 1917.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to
+Professor Martin Schütze of the University of
+Chicago for the suggestion, made in 1907, to find
+out what Herder’s idea of milieu is; to my friend
+and former colleague at the University of Illinois,
+Dr. Charles C. Adams (now Assistant Professor of
+Ecology at Syracuse University) for references
+given me at my request (but he is in no wise to be
+held responsible for the bringing in of these references);
+and to my good friend and colleague, Professor
+John Driscoll Fitz-Gerald of the University
+of Illinois for a number of helpful suggestions
+given when reading the manuscript and for assisting
+with the reading of the galley proof.</p>
+
+<div class='c014'><span class='sc'>Armin H. Koller.</span></div>
+
+<div class='lg-container-l'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'><em>Champaign, Illinois,</em></div>
+      <div class='line in4'><em>April, 1918.</em></div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_1'>1</span>
+  <h2 class='c007'>INTRODUCTORY REMARK<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>Meanings of the Word “Milieu”</span></span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c013'>Before entering upon the discussion of the
+principal theme of this study,<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c015'><sup>[1]</sup></a> it is necessary to
+cast a brief glance over the origin and development
+of the meaning and use of the word milieu.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Milieu” (<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mi-lieu=medius locus</span></i>), originally
+signifying middle point or part, central place or
+portion, mid-point, center, had been employed in
+France as a term in physics at least as early as the
+seventeenth century (Pascal). The fourth edition
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_2'>2</span>of the dictionary of the French Academy<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c015'><sup>[2]</sup></a> defines
+it as follows: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">En termes de Physique, on appelle
+<em>Milieu</em>, Tout corps, soit solide, soit fluide, traversé
+par la lumière ou par un autre corps.</span>” [In the
+fifth edition—1813—the following illustration in
+italics is added to the foregoing: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La lumière se
+rompt différemment en traversant différens
+milieux.</span>”]</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">On appelle aussi <em>milieu</em>, Le fluide qui environne
+les corps. <em>L’air est le milieu dans lequel nous
+vivons. L’eau est le milieu qu’habitent les poissons.</em></span>”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Diderot’s Encyclopedia<a id='r3' /><a href='#f3' class='c015'><sup>[3]</sup></a> testifies to this same
+sense of “medium”: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>Milieu</em>, dans la Philosophie
+mêchanique, signifie un espace matériel à travers
+lequel passe un corps dans son mouvement, ou en
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_3'>3</span>général, un espace matériel dans lequel un corps
+est placé, soit qu’il se meuve ou non.</span></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Ainsi on imagine l’éther comme un <em>milieu</em>
+dans lequel les corps célestes se meuvent.—L’air
+est un <em>milieu</em> dans lequel les corps se meuvent près
+de la surface de la terre.—L’eau est le <em>milieu</em> dans
+lequel les poissons vivent &amp; se meuvent.—Le verre
+enfin est un <em>milieu</em>, en égard à la lumière, parce
+qu’il lui permet un passage à travers ses pores.</span>”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Auguste Comte<a id='r4' /><a href='#f4' class='c015'><sup>[4]</sup></a> extended its signification as
+a term in biology to include “the totality of external
+conditions of any kind whatsoever”: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>Milieu</em>
+..., non-seulement le fluide où l’organisme est
+plongé, mais, en général, <em>l’ensemble total des circonstances
+extérieurs d’un genre quelconque</em></span> [the
+italics are ours], <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">nécessaires à l’existence de chaque
+organisme déterminé. Ceux qui auront suffisamment
+médité sur le rôle capital que doit remplir,
+dans toute biologie positive, l’idée correspondante,
+ne me reprocheront pas, sans doute, l’introduction
+de cette expression nouvelle.</span>”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Hippolyte Taine who generalized it still further,
+broadened its connotation to comprehend
+the whole social surroundings.<a id='r5' /><a href='#f5' class='c015'><sup>[5]</sup></a> Milieu as a
+<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">terminus technicus</span></i> is ordinarily considered as
+having been coined by Taine, but whether that
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_4'>4</span>be so or not, one may safely say that its wide
+acceptance is due, primarily, to him and to his
+renowned disciple Zola.<a id='r6' /><a href='#f6' class='c015'><sup>[6]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In the course of the last century, the designation
+milieu became not only more generalized and
+more frequent in use, but also more extensive, and
+more specific and distinctive in meaning: “Depuis
+BALZAC [who in 1841 in his <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Comédie humaine, La
+maison du chat-qui-pelote</cite>, préface, p. 2</span>, used the
+term loosely, in the “vulgar” sense], <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">le sens vulgaire
+du milieu social n’a fait que s’affirmer davantage
+par un emploi toujours plus généralisé: c’est
+devenu un cliché de la conversation de parler
+aujourd’hui d’un ‘bon milieu,’ d’un ‘milieu intéressant,’</span> etc.”<a id='r7' /><a href='#f7' class='c015'><sup>[7]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Littré<a id='r8' /><a href='#f8' class='c015'><sup>[8]</sup></a> registers eighteen different definitions
+for the word milieu.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Friedrich Düsel<a id='r9' /><a href='#f9' class='c015'><sup>[9]</sup></a> renders milieu by eighteen
+(18) German words.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In <cite>Unsere Umgangssprache</cite>,<a id='r10' /><a href='#f10' class='c015'><sup>[10]</sup></a> milieu is translated
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_5'>5</span>into German by forty-six (46) words and
+phrases.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Claude Bernard, the celebrated French physiologist,
+differentiates between inner and outer
+milieu:<a id='r11' /><a href='#f11' class='c015'><sup>[11]</sup></a> “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Je crois ..., avoir le premier insisté
+sur cette idée qu’il y a pour l’animal réellement
+deux milieux: un milieu extérieur dans lequel est
+placé l’organisme et un milieu intérieur dans lequel
+vivent les éléments des tissus....</span>” Probably
+as a result, we have today “micro-milieu” in
+micro-biology.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>According to Jean Finot,<a id='r12' /><a href='#f12' class='c015'><sup>[12]</sup></a> milieu “includes
+the sum total of the conditions which accompany
+the conception and earthly existence of a being,
+and which end only with its death.”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The term milieu was introduced by Herbert
+Spencer into English literature as “environment,”
+says Martin Schütze.<a id='r13' /><a href='#f13' class='c015'><sup>[13]</sup></a> Although Carlyle employed
+the term “environment” as early as 1827,<a id='r14' /><a href='#f14' class='c015'><sup>[14]</sup></a>
+nevertheless, the fact that the term is generally
+current, is undoubtedly attributable in the first
+place to Spencer.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The word “Umwelt” is quoted by J. H.
+Campe,<a id='r15' /><a href='#f15' class='c015'><sup>[15]</sup></a> who believed himself to have been the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_6'>6</span>coiner of the term; five years later (1816) Goethe
+used it at the beginning of his “Italienische
+Reise.”<a id='r16' /><a href='#f16' class='c015'><sup>[16]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The painstaking and scholarly German lexicographer,
+Daniel Sanders, who seldom fails to
+give his reader some reliable suggestion, refers
+in his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache</span></cite><a id='r17' /><a href='#f17' class='c015'><sup>[17]</sup></a> (which
+despite the contributions of recent scholarship
+still remains a great work) to a passage in the
+poetical works of the Danish writer Baggesen
+(2, 102) in which the word “Umwelt” is employed.
+This passage occurs in the elegy entitled
+“Napoleon” addressed to Voß and written in
+1800.<a id='r18' /><a href='#f18' class='c015'><sup>[18]</sup></a> Baggesen, then, made use of “Umwelt”
+a decade before Campe.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Its Italian equivalent is “<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ambiente</span>,” which is
+noted here only because of the French “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">l’ambiance</span>”
+and the English “ambient” and “circumambiency.”</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_7'>7</span>
+  <h2 class='c007'>I<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Down to the Nineteenth Century</span></span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c013'>Recorded mesologic<a id='r19' /><a href='#f19' class='c015'><sup>[19]</sup></a> thinking begins with the
+ancient Jewish Prophets whose striking <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">aperçus</span></i>
+concerning the providential correspondence between
+the configuration of the surface of the earth
+and the destiny of nations, concerning the connection
+between “Landesnatur” and “Volkscharakter,”
+etc., anticipated<a id='r20' /><a href='#f20' class='c015'><sup>[20]</sup></a> a number of great
+thoughts of later anthropo-geographers.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_8'>8</span>Hippocrates (if he really is the author of the
+essay commonly ascribed to him and entitled
+<span lang="el" xml:lang="el">περὶ αέρων ὑδάτων τόπων</span>) investigates the effect of
+climate on man’s nature, character, temperament,
+and life, with the emphasis on the regularity of
+the effect.<a id='r21' /><a href='#f21' class='c015'><sup>[21]</sup></a> Owing to the imperfection of knowledge
+in his day, his observations are necessarily
+vague.<a id='r22' /><a href='#f22' class='c015'><sup>[22]</sup></a> He limited himself to the problem of the
+relation between land and people.<a id='r23' /><a href='#f23' class='c015'><sup>[23]</sup></a> He is said
+to be the founder of anthropo-geography.<a id='r24' /><a href='#f24' class='c015'><sup>[24]</sup></a> His
+treatise is admirable and unequalled in the eyes
+of Auguste Comte.<a id='r25' /><a href='#f25' class='c015'><sup>[25]</sup></a> Hippocrates, “in his work,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_9'>9</span><cite>About Air, Water, and Places</cite>, first discusses the
+influence of environment on man, physical, moral,
+and pathological. He divided mankind into groups,
+impressed with homogeneous characters by homogeneous
+surroundings, demonstrating that mountains,
+plains, damp, aridity, and so on, produced
+definite and varying types.”<a id='r26' /><a href='#f26' class='c015'><sup>[26]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Aristotle, in his <cite>Politics</cite>, enquires into the
+influence especially of geographical position on
+laws and the form of government,<a id='r27' /><a href='#f27' class='c015'><sup>[27]</sup></a> while in his
+<cite>Problems</cite> he shows the far-reaching dependence of
+national character on the physical environment:
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zeigt ja doch Aristoteles selbst in einem andern
+Werke das entschiedenste Bestreben, eine sehr
+weitgehende Abhängigkeit des Volkscharakters
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_10'>10</span>von geographischen Verhältnissen zu erweisen.
+Während die Politik [especially parts of the
+seventh book] nicht über Andeutungen</span> [on the
+effect of the milieu] hinausgeht [discussed by
+Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, on pp. 64–8], <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">läßt der vierzehnte
+Abschnitt der ‘Probleme,’ welcher sich mit den
+Einwirkungen der Landesnatur auf Physik und
+Ethik des Menschen beschäftigt, deutlich einen
+Standpunkt erkennen, welcher auf das Lebhafteste
+an die physiologische Betrachtungsweise der
+neueren französisch-englischen Geschichtsphilosophie
+erinnert ...</span>”<a id='r28' /><a href='#f28' class='c015'><sup>[28]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Eratosthenes, in a work cited by Varro, sought
+to prove, in the opinion of the Italian scholar
+Matteuzzi prematurely, that man’s character
+and the form of his government are subordinated
+to proximity or remoteness from the sun.<a id='r29' /><a href='#f29' class='c015'><sup>[29]</sup></a> The
+greatest geographer of antiquity, Strabo, in his
+Geography, connected man with nature in a
+causal relation.<a id='r30' /><a href='#f30' class='c015'><sup>[30]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_11'>11</span>John M. Robertson, noting that “theories of
+the influence of climate on character were common
+in antiquity,” refers<a id='r31' /><a href='#f31' class='c015'><sup>[31]</sup></a> to Vitruvius (VI, 1), Vegetius
+(“<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">De re militari</span>,” 1, 2), and Servius (on Vergil,
+<cite>Aeneid</cite>, VI, 724). Ritter does not mention the
+effort of the ancients in this line of ideas.<a id='r32' /><a href='#f32' class='c015'><sup>[32]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Giovanni Villani, the noted Florentine historian
+of the fourteenth century, observes with a
+deal of finesse that Arezzo by reason of its air and
+position produces men of great subtilty of mind.<a id='r33' /><a href='#f33' class='c015'><sup>[33]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_12'>12</span>The Arabic statesman and philosopher of
+history, Ibn Khaldūn, little mentioned, yet known
+by his great work, the <cite>Universal History</cite>, attempted
+in the <cite>Muqaddama</cite><a id='r34' /><a href='#f34' class='c015'><sup>[34]</sup></a> (the preface, comprising the
+first volume of his <cite>History</cite>), which he composed
+between 1374 and 1378,<a id='r35' /><a href='#f35' class='c015'><sup>[35]</sup></a> to explain the history
+and civilization of man, more especially of some
+of the Arabic peoples, by the encompassing physical
+and social conditions. The “First Section of the
+‘Prolegomena’ treats of society in general, and
+of the varieties of the human race, and of the
+regions of the earth which they inhabit, as related
+thereto. It starts from the position that man is
+by nature a social being. His body and mind,
+wants and affections, for their exercise, satisfaction,
+and development, all imply and demand co-operation
+and communion with his fellows,—participation
+in a collective and common life....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“There follows a lengthened description of the
+physical basis and conditions of history and civilisation.
+The chief features of the inhabited portions
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_13'>13</span>of the earth, its regions, principal seas, great
+rivers, climates, &amp;c., are made the subjects of
+exposition. The seven climatic zones, and the
+ten sections of each, are delineated, and their
+inhabitants specified. The three climatic zones of
+moderate temperature are described in detail,
+and the distinctive features of the social condition
+and civilisation of their inhabitants dwelt upon.
+The influence of the atmosphere, heat, &amp;c., on
+the physical and even mental and moral peculiarities
+of peoples is maintained to be great. Not
+only the darkness of skin of the negroes, but their
+characteristics of disposition and of mode of life,
+are traced to the influence of climate. A careful
+attempt is also made to show how differences of
+fertility of soil—how dearth and abundance—modify
+the bodily constitution and affect the minds
+of men, and so operate on society....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“The Second Section of the ‘Prolegomena’
+treats of the civilisation of nomadic and half-savage
+peoples.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“In it Ibn Khaldūn appears at his best, ...
+He begins by indicating how the different usages
+and institutions of peoples depend to a large extent
+on the ways in which they provide for their subsistence.
+He describes how peoples have at first
+contented themselves with simple necessities, and
+then gradually risen to refinement and luxury
+through a series of states or stages all of which
+are alike conformed to nature, in the sense of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_14'>14</span>being adapted to its circumstances or environment.”<a id='r36' /><a href='#f36' class='c015'><sup>[36]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Ibn Khaldūn seems also to have had a clear
+idea of some aspects of the principle of relativity,<a id='r37' /><a href='#f37' class='c015'><sup>[37]</sup></a>
+an integral part and inevitable concomitant of
+the theory of milieu, since “As causes of historians
+erring as they have done, there are mentioned
+[by Khaldūn in the introduction] the overlooking
+of the differences of times and epochs, ...”<a id='r38' /><a href='#f38' class='c015'><sup>[38]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>About the middle of the sixteenth century we
+find Michelangelo avowing to Vasari (who hailed
+from Arezzo): “Any mental excellence I may
+possess, I have because I was born in the fine air
+of your Aretine district.”<a id='r39' /><a href='#f39' class='c015'><sup>[39]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In “Measure for Measure” (Act III, Sc. I,
+v. 8–11), a play first produced in 1604, Shakespeare
+affirms of man:</p>
+
+<div class='lg-container-b c006'>
+  <div class='linegroup'>
+    <div class='group'>
+      <div class='line'>“... a breath thou art,</div>
+      <div class='line'>Servile to all the skyey influences</div>
+      <div class='line'>That do this habitation where thou keep’st,</div>
+      <div class='line'>Hourly afflict.”</div>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c000'>During the Renaissance, Greek thought on
+milieu is resurrected in France. Thence it spreads
+later, particularly in the eighteenth century, to
+England and Germany. Jean Bodin bridges the
+gap existent since the close of classical antiquity.
+He is the first among modern writers not only to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_15'>15</span>revive the idea in Western Europe,<a id='r40' /><a href='#f40' class='c015'><sup>[40]</sup></a> but also to
+make it a subject for detailed investigation.
+Bodin thus first in French letters introduces and
+firmly establishes a line of study destined to be
+followed by a long list of authors among whom are
+to be found many illustrious French names.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Bodin “treats of physical causes with considerable
+fulness in the fifth chapter of the
+‘Method,’<a id='r41' /><a href='#f41' class='c015'><sup>[41]</sup></a> and in a still more detailed and developed
+form in the first chapter of the fifth book of
+the ‘Republic.’”<a id='r42' /><a href='#f42' class='c015'><sup>[42]</sup></a> He traces the relation between
+climate and the ever changing fate of States, and
+elaborates the manifold effects of climate on
+States, laws, religion, language, and temperament.<a id='r43' /><a href='#f43' class='c015'><sup>[43]</sup></a>
+In Bodin’s view, man’s physical constitution
+is closely and directly connected with
+climate and surrounding nature; it is in harmony
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_16'>16</span>with the behavior of the earth in the respective
+zones of his abode.<a id='r44' /><a href='#f44' class='c015'><sup>[44]</sup></a> From this assumption of
+dependence of the human body on climate, there
+follow a number of inferences concerning the
+physical properties of man’s constitution.<a id='r45' /><a href='#f45' class='c015'><sup>[45]</sup></a> Temperament
+varies according to climate. Language,
+the generative power, diseases likewise depend
+indirectly on climate.<a id='r46' /><a href='#f46' class='c015'><sup>[46]</sup></a> Man’s talents and capacities
+do so no less.<a id='r47' /><a href='#f47' class='c015'><sup>[47]</sup></a> The climate in each region
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_17'>17</span>always favors the development of some special
+aptitude; on this basis he groups the peoples of
+the earth.<a id='r48' /><a href='#f48' class='c015'><sup>[48]</sup></a> Although the nexus between human
+abilities and the physical milieu is thus intimate,
+yet reason, common to all men and invariable, is
+<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">per se</span></i> independent of physical environment.<a id='r49' /><a href='#f49' class='c015'><sup>[49]</sup></a>
+He postulates, then, reason as the absolute part
+of the mind, not subject to surrounding influences,
+whereas the unfolding of the human faculties is
+relative to the environment. By taking this
+middle course concerning the effect of nature on
+man, Bodin escapes the extreme views of nature’s
+compelling influence over man, on the one hand,
+and of man’s total independence of nature, on the
+other.<a id='r50' /><a href='#f50' class='c015'><sup>[50]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Bodin also investigates the influence upon
+national character of geographical situation, of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_18'>18</span>elevation, of the quality of the native soil, and of
+an east-west position.<a id='r51' /><a href='#f51' class='c015'><sup>[51]</sup></a> Nations and their civilizations
+differ according to the particular conditions
+of a given national existence.<a id='r52' /><a href='#f52' class='c015'><sup>[52]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>He holds fast to the doctrine of the freedom
+of the will. Man is morally free from environmental
+control. The circumambient medium
+determines only the <em>development</em> of man’s capabilities.<a id='r53' /><a href='#f53' class='c015'><sup>[53]</sup></a>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span>Man can counteract, and may, even
+though with difficulty, overcome the injurious
+action of climate and nature.<a id='r54' /><a href='#f54' class='c015'><sup>[54]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“... It is altogether unfair,” concludes
+Flint,<a id='r55' /><a href='#f55' class='c015'><sup>[55]</sup></a> “to put their general enunciations [<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>,
+those made by Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle,
+Polybius, and Galen] of the principle that physical
+circumstances originate and modify national characteristics,
+on a level with Bodin’s serious, sustained,
+and elaborate attempt to apply it over a
+wide area and to a vast number of cases. Dividing
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>nations into northern, middle, and southern,<a id='r56' /><a href='#f56' class='c015'><sup>[56]</sup></a>
+he investigates with wonderful fulness of knowledge
+how climatic and geographical conditions
+have affected the bodily strength, the courage, the
+intelligence, the humanity, the chastity, and, in
+short, the mind, morals, and manners of their
+inhabitants; what influence mountains, winds,
+diversities of soil, &amp;c., have exerted on individuals
+and societies; and he elicits a vast number of
+general views....”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Bodin, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">der größte theoretische Politiker
+Frankreichs im 16. Jahrhundert</span>,” declares Renz,<a id='r57' /><a href='#f57' class='c015'><sup>[57]</sup></a>
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">besitzt ... das unbestreitbare Verdienst, wenn
+nicht die Grundgedanken und nicht ausschließlich
+originale Gedanken, so doch die erste weitgehende
+wissenschaftliche Untersuchung über den Zusammenhang
+zwischen umgebender Natur und Menschenwelt
+in neuerer Zeit auf dem Boden der
+Erfahrung und Wissenschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts
+angestellt zu haben</span>.”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Bodin, “writing in 1577 OF THE LAWES AND
+CUSTOMES OF A COMMON WEALTH (English
+edition [translated by Richard Knowlles]
+1605), contains, as Professor J. L. Myres has
+pointed out (Rept. Brit. Assoc., 1909 [1910], p. 593),
+‘the whole pith and kernel of modern anthropo-geography....’”<a id='r58' /><a href='#f58' class='c015'><sup>[58]</sup></a>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>And Renz believes that
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">In der Bodinschen Behandlung der Theorie des
+Klimas finden sich die Anfänge der Anthropogeographie
+und der Ethnographie...</span>”<a id='r59' /><a href='#f59' class='c015'><sup>[59]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Writing in 1713, Lenglet du Fresnoy, toward
+the end of the sixth chapter of the first volume of
+his <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Méthode pour étudier l’histoire</span></cite>, expresses,
+decades before Montesquieu, the latter’s basic
+idea of the effect of social and political milieu on
+laws.<a id='r60' /><a href='#f60' class='c015'><sup>[60]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In any discussion of milieu, Montesquieu is
+the writer most frequently mentioned, although
+not the most often read and quoted. He devotes
+the well-known five “Books,” from the fourteenth
+to the eighteenth, of his magnum opus, <cite>L’Esprit
+des Lois</cite> (1748),<a id='r61' /><a href='#f61' class='c015'><sup>[61]</sup></a> to a consideration of this idea
+which, as has already been seen, was anything but
+original with him.<a id='r62' /><a href='#f62' class='c015'><sup>[62]</sup></a> In Books fourteen to seventeen
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>he treats of the relation of laws to climate,
+and in Book eighteen of their relation to soil. In
+the fourteenth<a id='r63' /><a href='#f63' class='c015'><sup>[63]</sup></a> he discusses the effect of climate
+on the body (and mind) of individual man, in the
+fifteenth<a id='r64' /><a href='#f64' class='c015'><sup>[64]</sup></a> on civil slavery, in the sixteenth<a id='r65' /><a href='#f65' class='c015'><sup>[65]</sup></a> on
+domestic slavery, in the seventeenth<a id='r66' /><a href='#f66' class='c015'><sup>[66]</sup></a> on political
+servitude, and lastly in the eighteenth<a id='r67' /><a href='#f67' class='c015'><sup>[67]</sup></a> he delineates
+the influence of the fertility and barrenness
+of the soil. By climate he means little more than
+heat and cold. In the light of the continued high
+praise bestowed on him for much longer than a
+century, the altogether too general and dogmatic
+statements of these short seventy-odd pages would
+seem somewhat meager, so that upon their perusal
+one is very likely to suffer an outright disenchantment.
+Therefore, Flint’s judgment appears overdrawn,
+when he says that Montesquieu “showed on
+a grand scale and in the most effective way ...
+that, like all things properly historical, they [laws,
+customs, institutions] must be estimated not
+according to an abstract or absolute standard,
+but as concrete realities related to given times
+and places, to their determining causes and condition,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>and to the whole social organism to which
+they belong, and the whole social medium in which
+they subsist. Plato and Aristotle, Machiavelli
+and Bodin, had already, indeed, inculcated this
+historical and political relativism; but it was
+Montesquieu who gained educated Europe over
+to the acceptance of it.”<a id='r68' /><a href='#f68' class='c015'><sup>[68]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Turgot’s sketch of a ‘Political Geography’
+shows “that he had attained to a broader view
+of the relationship of human development to the
+features of the earth and to physical agencies in
+general than even Montesquieu. And he saw with
+perfect clearness not only that many of Montesquieu’s
+inductions were premature and inadequate,
+but that there was a defect in the method by which
+he arrived at them.... The excellent criticism
+of Comte, in the fifth volume of the ‘Philosophie
+Positive,’ and in the fourth volume of the ‘Politique
+Positive,’ on this portion of Montesquieu’s speculations,
+is only a more elaborate reproduction of
+that of Turgot, and is expressed in terms which
+show that it was directly suggested by that of
+Turgot.”<a id='r69' /><a href='#f69' class='c015'><sup>[69]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Cuvier “had not hesitated to trace the close
+relation borne by philosophy and art to the
+underlying geological formations.”<a id='r70' /><a href='#f70' class='c015'><sup>[70]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In the teaching of a number of great thinkers
+of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, man
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>is “the product of environment and education”
+and, in their opinion, “all men were born equal
+and later became unequal through unequal opportunities.”<a id='r71' /><a href='#f71' class='c015'><sup>[71]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Goethe echoed Herder’s thought when he
+remarked to Eckermann on the flora of a country
+and the disposition of its residents: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Sie haben
+nicht Unrecht, sagte Goethe (d. 2. April 1829),
+und daher kommt es denn auch, daß man der
+Pflanzenwelt eines Landes einen Einfluß auf die
+Gemütsart seiner Bewohner zugestanden hat.
+Und gewiß! wer sein Leben lang von hohen
+ernsten Eichen umgeben wäre, müßte ein anderer
+Mensch werden, als wer täglich unter luftigen
+Birken sich erginge...</span>”<a id='r72' /><a href='#f72' class='c015'><sup>[72]</sup></a> And again, when
+he said of environment and national character:
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... so viel ist gewiß, daß außer dem Angeborenen
+der Rasse, sowohl Boden und Klima als
+Nahrung und Beschäftigung einwirkt, um den
+Charakter eines Volkes zu vollenden ...</span>”<a id='r73' /><a href='#f73' class='c015'><sup>[73]</sup></a>
+And in the following, Goethe but reiterates Herder’s
+oft uttered admiration for islanders and coast
+dwellers: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Auch von den Kräften des <cite>Meeres</cite>
+und der <cite>Seeluft</cite> war die Rede gewesen (d. 12. März
+1828), wo denn Goethe die Meinung äußerte,
+daß er alle Insulaner und Meer-Anwohner des
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>gemäßigten Klimas bei weitem für produktiver
+und tatkräftiger halte als die Völker im Innern
+großer Kontinente</span>.”<a id='r74' /><a href='#f74' class='c015'><sup>[74]</sup></a> And: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Es ist ein eigenes
+Ding, erwiederte Goethe (d. 12. März 1828),—liegt
+es in der Abstammung, liegt es im Boden,
+liegt es in der freien Verfassung, liegt es in der
+gesunden Erziehung,—genug! die Engländer überhaupt
+scheinen vor vielen anderen etwas voraus
+zu haben ...</span>”<a id='r75' /><a href='#f75' class='c015'><sup>[75]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Wolf and Niebuhr began to examine historical
+<em>sources</em> “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">nach neuen Prinzipien des Eingetauchtseins
+in eine bestimmte seelische Umwelt, in ein
+klargezeichnetes zeitgenössisches Milieu</span>.”<a id='r76' /><a href='#f76' class='c015'><sup>[76]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>One of the principal offices of an historian, according
+to August Wilhelm Schlegel, is “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die zeit- und
+kulturgeschichtliche Bedingtheit aller Erscheinungen
+aufzuzeigen</span>.”<a id='r77' /><a href='#f77' class='c015'><sup>[77]</sup></a> But the effect of
+physical milieu on history is not rated high in the
+philosophy of the romanticists.<a id='r78' /><a href='#f78' class='c015'><sup>[78]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>Ingeniously, albeit not with his wonted acuteness,
+Hegel penned the concept “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Volksgeist</span>.”<a id='r79' /><a href='#f79' class='c015'><sup>[79]</sup></a>
+The saying, which now seems trivial, that every
+nation and every man in the nation is “ein Kind
+seiner Zeit,” is said to be Hegel’s.<a id='r80' /><a href='#f80' class='c015'><sup>[80]</sup></a> Hegel, however,
+distinctly rejected the idea of explaining
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">die Geschichte und den Geist der verschiedenen
+Völker aus dem Klima ihrer Länder</span>.”<a id='r81' /><a href='#f81' class='c015'><sup>[81]</sup></a> The
+implication would be that one single factor might
+satisfactorily be held responsible for all progress
+in human history. As climate can not explain
+everything to Hegel, it seems not to explain anything
+at all to him. Hegel, then, is excessive in
+his denial of the power of environment. This is
+markedly shown by his thinking his position substantiated
+by the fact that the climate of Greece,
+although the same since classical antiquity, has
+not changed the Turks who now [<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, early in the
+nineteenth century] dwell in Greece into ancient
+Greeks.<a id='r82' /><a href='#f82' class='c015'><sup>[82]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>
+  <h2 class='c007'>II<br /> <span class='large'><span class='sc'>A Sketch of the History of the Idea of Milieu Since the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century</span></span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Anthropo-geography, Geography and History</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>The theory of social environment, as we have
+seen, gradually rises, especially since the renaissance,
+parallel with the theory of physical milieu.
+The stream of thought commences to broaden on
+both sides as we approach the eighteenth century,
+and broadens still further, and deepens, in the
+nineteenth, when specialization occurs or continues
+in anthropo-geography, biology, jurisprudence and
+economics, anthropology, sociology, and literature,
+and latterly in physics. These furnish us
+the divisions for subsequent discussions.<a id='r83' /><a href='#f83' class='c015'><sup>[83]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>All antecedent thought on the subject converges
+in Herder and from this focal point, as a collecting
+and fructifying center, it emerges, branches out
+and radiates in a definite number of directions.
+This can only be indicated here.<a id='r84' /><a href='#f84' class='c015'><sup>[84]</sup></a> One main
+ramification leads us to anthropo-geography. Consequently,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>we must now turn to a detailed consideration
+of the idea of milieu in anthropo-geography.<a id='r85' /><a href='#f85' class='c015'><sup>[85]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Karl Ritter first in anthropo-geography elucidated
+Herder’s ideas on environment. “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... KARL
+RITTER steht auf HERDERS Schultern, wenn
+er in seiner ‘Allgemeinen Erdkunde’ den Gedanken
+der tiefgehenden Beeinflussung der Völkergeschichte
+durch die äußeren Umgebungen
+entwickelt ...</span>”<a id='r86' /><a href='#f86' class='c015'><sup>[86]</sup></a> Ritter is said to be given
+too much credit for connecting scientifically geography
+and history: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">C. Ritter führte, ...
+die Herder’schen Anschauungen deutlicher aus.
+Die wissenschaftliche, nicht bloß äußerliche
+Verbindung von Geographie und Geschichte
+kettet sich an seinen Namen. Nicht ganz mit
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>Recht; ...</span>”<a id='r87' /><a href='#f87' class='c015'><sup>[87]</sup></a> Richthofen thinks that Ritter’s
+basic idea was almost without influence on geography;
+only the historians profited by it.<a id='r88' /><a href='#f88' class='c015'><sup>[88]</sup></a> Alexander
+von Humboldt, on the other hand, declares
+in the first volume of his <cite>Cosmos</cite> that “The views
+of comparative geography have been specially
+enlarged by that admirable work, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Erdkunde im
+Verhältnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte</span>, in which
+Carl Ritter so ably delineates the physiognomy
+of our globe and shows the influence of its external
+configuration on the physical phenomena on its
+surface, on the migrations, laws, and manners of
+nations, and on all the principal historical events
+enacted upon the face of the earth.”<a id='r89' /><a href='#f89' class='c015'><sup>[89]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In the <cite>Erdkunde</cite>,<a id='r90' /><a href='#f90' class='c015'><sup>[90]</sup></a> Ritter propounds a program
+for anthropo-geographical investigation, i.e., for
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>the investigation of the mutual relation between
+man and his environment. As every moral man
+should, so should also “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">jeder menschliche Verein,
+jedes Volk seiner eigenen inneren und äußeren
+Kräfte, wie derjenigen der Nachbarn<a id='t30'></a> und seiner
+Stellung zu allen von außen herein wirkenden
+Verhältnissen inne werden.</span>”<a id='r91' /><a href='#f91' class='c015'><sup>[91]</sup></a> Nature exercises
+greater influence over peoples than over individual
+men: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Eigentümlichkeit des Volkes kann nur
+aus seinem Wesen erkannt werden, aus seinem
+Verhältnis zu sich selbst, zu seinen Gliedern, zu
+seinen Umgebungen, und weil kein Volk ohne
+Staat und Vaterland gedacht werden kann, aus
+seinem Verhältnis zu beiden und aus dem Verhältnis
+von beiden zu Nachbarländern und Nachbarstaaten.
+Hier zeigt sich der Einfluß, den die
+Natur auf die Völker, und zwar in einem noch weit
+höheren Grade, als auf den einzelnen Menschen
+ausüben muß ...</span></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Denn durch eine höhere Ordnung bestimmt,
+treten die Völker wie die Menschen zugleich unter
+dem Einfluß einer Tätigkeit der Natur und der
+Vernunft hervor aus dem geistigen wie aus dem
+physischen Elemente in den Alles verschlingenden
+Kreis des Weltlebens. Gestaltet sich doch jeder
+Organismus dem inneren Zusammenhange und dem
+äußeren Umfange nach ... Sie (Völker und
+Staaten) stehen alle unter demselben Einflusse der
+Natur ...</span>”<a id='r92' /><a href='#f92' class='c015'><sup>[92]</sup></a> To the problem of the reciprocal
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>relation between external and internal factors,
+Ritter devoted a special essay, entitled “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über
+das historische Element in der geographischen
+Wissenschaft</span>,” which he read before the Academy
+of Sciences at Berlin in 1833.<a id='r93' /><a href='#f93' class='c015'><sup>[93]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In Alexander von Humboldt’s <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ansichten der
+Natur</span></cite>,<a id='r94' /><a href='#f94' class='c015'><sup>[94]</sup></a> “Everywhere the reader’s attention is
+directed to the perpetual influence which physical
+nature exercises on the moral condition and on the
+destiny of man.”<a id='r95' /><a href='#f95' class='c015'><sup>[95]</sup></a> In passing, Humboldt also
+touches on environment in the first volume of his
+chef-d’oeuvre, <cite>Kosmos</cite>, assigning it, however, but
+a modest rôle: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Es würde das allgemeine Naturbild,
+das ich zu entwerfen strebe, unvollständig
+bleiben, wenn ich hier nicht auch den Mut hätte,
+das Menschengeschlecht in seinen physischen
+Abstufungen, in der geographischen Verbreitung
+seiner gleichzeitig vorhandenen Typen, in dem Einfluß,
+welchen es von den Kräften der Erde empfangen
+und wechselseitig, wenn auch schwächer,
+auf sie ausgeübt hat, mit wenigen Zügen zu schildern.
+Abhängig, wenn gleich in minderem Grade
+als Pflanzen und Tiere, von dem Boden und den
+meteorologischen Prozessen des Luftkreises, den
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>Naturgewalten durch Geistestätigkeit und stufenweise
+erhöhte Intelligenz, wie durch eine wunderbare
+sich allen Klimaten aneignende Biegsamkeit
+des Organismus leichter entgehend, nimmt das
+Geschlecht wesentlich Teil an dem ganzen Erdenleben.</span>”<a id='r96' /><a href='#f96' class='c015'><sup>[96]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>J. G. Kohl’s book, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Verkehr und die Ansiedlungen
+der Menschheit in ihrer Abhängigkeit von der
+Gestaltung der Erdoberfläche</span></cite>,<a id='r97' /><a href='#f97' class='c015'><sup>[97]</sup></a> occupies itself with
+the question of the dependence of human progress
+in general, and of density and concentration of
+population in particular, upon natural conditions.
+The causes of these phenomena are, to Kohl, partly
+moral or political, and partly physical. The physical
+causes of concentration are twofold: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Teils
+sind es solche, die von dem mehr oder minder
+großen Produktenreichtum des Bodens, teils
+solche, die von der Gestaltung der Erdoberfläche
+abhängen ... so zeigt sich dann, daß von allen
+verschiedenen Ursachen der Kondensierung der
+Bevölkerung die Bodengestaltung die allerwichtigste
+ist.</span>”<a id='r98' /><a href='#f98' class='c015'><sup>[98]</sup></a> Opposed to these natural conditions
+is a series of what Kohl styles political influences,
+such as national character, institutions created
+by the State, laws, etc.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die moralischen oder
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>politischen Ursachen der verschiedenen Dichtigkeit
+der Bevölkerung sind in dem Kulturzustande
+und besonders in der politischen Verfassung der
+Bewohner der verschiedenen Erdstriche begründet ...
+Auch sind viele verschiedene Sitten
+der Völker als einflußreiche Ursachen der mehr oder
+minder großen Dichtigkeit der Bevölkerung zu
+betrachten.</span>”<a id='r99' /><a href='#f99' class='c015'><sup>[99]</sup></a> Not only national character, but
+also education is to be counted among the political
+influences: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Unter politischen und moralischen
+Einflüssen, die nicht von der Natur bedingt werden,
+verstehen wir solche Kräfte, solche Volkstalente
+und Eigentümlichkeiten des Charakters, die nicht
+der Boden, die Luft und das Klima dem Volke
+geben. So groß nämlich auch die Gewalt des
+Bodens, des Klimas und der Natur ist, so sehr
+die Zonen, die Gebirge, die Sümpfe, die Wälder,
+die Wüsten u.s.w. alle Bevölkerung, die in ihre
+Gebiete fällt, auf einerlei Weise zu bilden und zu
+modeln streben, so sehr behauptet doch immer noch
+nebenher der ursprüngliche Charakter des Stammes
+und die Erziehung, welche das Volk sich gibt,
+ihre eigenen Rechte. Es existieren beide Einflüsse
+neben einander, beschränken sich gegenseitig,
+aber sie heben sich nicht auf ... Das,
+was nun nicht vom Boden abhängt und was ein
+Volk auf jeden Boden, den es bezieht, mit hin
+bringt, ist wiederum Zweierlei, entweder etwas
+Angeborenes oder etwas Angenommenes.</span>”<a id='r100' /><a href='#f100' class='c015'><sup>[100]</sup></a> It
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>is difficult to differentiate between what is due to
+original endowment and what to the milieu, yet
+natural influences can not be ignored: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Welcher
+Geist ... möchte den Versuch wagen, zu entscheiden,
+was im Charakter des Volkes ...
+Angenommenes und was Selbstgegebenes sei, was
+endlich in ihren Handlungen und Bewegungen
+von Klima und Landesbeschaffenheit bedingt
+werde. Die Charaktergepräge der Nationen, wie
+wir sie jetzt in diesen neuesten Momenten der
+weltgeschichtlichen Entwicklung sehen, sind Gebilde,
+welche unter der Einwirkung unerforschbar
+vielfacher Einflüsse entstanden sind.... Und
+doch stehen sie (die Natureinflüsse, die von den
+Historikern gewöhnlich unberücksichtigt geblieben
+sind) vielleicht auch bei allen jenen Dingen, die
+wir im Vordergrunde agieren sehen, im Hintergrunde
+und wirken als die Quellen der Erscheinungen
+mittelbar selbst da, wo wir dieselben anderen
+Ursachen zuschreiben. So mag jede Art der
+Staatsverfassung, der Gewerbzweige geschöpft und
+hervorgeblüht sein aus der Tiefe des Nationalgeistes,
+des Boden- und des Luftgeistes, während
+wir sie als Willkürliches und Selbstgegebenes
+auffassen.</span>”<a id='r101' /><a href='#f101' class='c015'><sup>[101]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The naturalist Karl Ernst von Baer discusses
+the influence of external nature upon the social
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>relations of individual nations and upon the history
+of mankind in general,<a id='r102' /><a href='#f102' class='c015'><sup>[102]</sup></a> while the geologist Bernhard
+Cotta attempts to show the effect of soil and
+geological structure on German life.<a id='r103' /><a href='#f103' class='c015'><sup>[103]</sup></a> Accepting,
+in the main, Cotta as a basis, J. Kutzen, in <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das
+deutsche Land, Seine Natur in ihren charakteristischen
+Zügen und sein Einfluß auf Geschichte
+und Leben der Menschen, Skizzen und Bilder</span></i>,<a id='r104' /><a href='#f104' class='c015'><sup>[104]</sup></a>
+the bulk of which book is physical geography,
+intersperses therewith anthropo-geographical statements
+that are in some cases interwoven in, and in
+others added to, the descriptive parts, pointing out
+the relation of environment to the life and history
+of the Germans.<a id='r105' /><a href='#f105' class='c015'><sup>[105]</sup></a> Kutzen claims his work to be
+the first that treats the <em>whole</em> of Germany in the
+way just indicated.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In The Natural History of the German People,<a id='r106' /><a href='#f106' class='c015'><sup>[106]</sup></a>
+W. H. Riehl studies the action of natural
+conditions on man. He is concerned with the
+connections between land and people: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Will man
+die naturgeschichtliche Methode der Wissenschaft
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>vom Volke in ihrer ganzen Breite und Tiefe nachweisen,
+dann muß man auch in das Wesen dieser
+örtlichen Besonderungen des Volkstumes eindringen.
+In der Lehre von der bürgerlichen
+Gesellschaft ist das Verhältnis der großen natürlichen
+Volksgruppen zueinander nachgewiesen:
+hier sollen diese Gruppen nach den örtlichen
+Bedingungen des Landes, in welchem das Volksleben
+wurzelt, dargestellt werden. Erst aus den
+individuellen Bezügen von LAND UND LEUTEN
+entwickelt sich die kulturgeschichtliche Abstraktion
+der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft.</span>”<a id='r107' /><a href='#f107' class='c015'><sup>[107]</sup></a> And “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das
+vorliegende Buch hat sich das bescheidenere Ziel
+gesteckt, zusammenhängende Skizzen zu liefern
+zur Naturgeschichte des Volkes <em>in seinem Zusammenhang
+mit dem Lande</em>.</span>”<a id='r108' /><a href='#f108' class='c015'><sup>[108]</sup></a> His chief aim is to
+prove that the connection between land and people
+is the basis of all social development and of all
+social research: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ich hatte mir von Anbeginn
+das Ziel gesteckt, den Zusammenhang von Land
+und Volk als Fundament aller sozialen und politischen
+Entwicklung, als Ausgangspunkt aller
+sozialen Forschung nachzuweisen, und dieses
+Hauptziel, die eigentliche Tendenz des Buches,
+hat heute noch denselben Wert, dieselbe fördernde
+Kraft wie vor einem Menschenalter.</span>”<a id='r109' /><a href='#f109' class='c015'><sup>[109]</sup></a> He wants
+to show how “Volksart” and “Landesart” hang
+together, how nationality grows organically out
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>of the soil: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ich nenne dieses Wanderbuch einen
+zweiten Band zu ‘Land und Leuten.’ In jener
+Schrift verarbeite ich zahlreiche Wanderskizzen,
+um den Zusammenhang von Volksart und Landesart,
+das organische Erwachsen des Volkstumes
+aus dem Boden nachzuweisen.</span>”<a id='r110' /><a href='#f110' class='c015'><sup>[110]</sup></a> Everywhere
+Riehl finds “an organic relation between nature
+and man,” according to Gooch.<a id='r111' /><a href='#f111' class='c015'><sup>[111]</sup></a> Riehl recognizes
+“that man could only develop within the
+limits imposed by nature.”<a id='r112' /><a href='#f112' class='c015'><sup>[112]</sup></a> The problem of
+how locality affects social groups has, of course,
+not originated with Riehl, but it received a reformulation
+at his hands. It must be added,
+however, that his bombastic assertions far outrun
+his data. His claims are disproportionate to his
+facts.<a id='r113' /><a href='#f113' class='c015'><sup>[113]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Alfred Kirchhoff brilliantly sketches the reciprocal
+relations between land and people in Germany,
+in an essay entitled <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die deutschen Landschaften
+und Stämme</span></cite>.<a id='r114' /><a href='#f114' class='c015'><sup>[114]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Achelis<a id='r115' /><a href='#f115' class='c015'><sup>[115]</sup></a> refers to Bastian’s doctrine of geographical
+provinces, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">wo eine Reihe rein physikalischer
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>Agentien: Temperatur, Boden, Flora,
+Fauna, etc. sich mit entsprechenden psychischen
+kombinieren, so daß man in konzentrischer
+Reihenfolge von botanischen, zoologischen und
+anthropologischen Kreisen reden könnte. Der
+leitende Grundsatz, sagt Bastian, für geographisch-typische
+Provinzen fällt in die Abhängigkeit des
+Organismus von seiner geographischen Umgebung</span>
+(<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">le Milieu</span></i> <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">oder</span> <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Monde ambiant</span></i>), <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">in eine gegenseitig
+festgeschlossene Wechselwirkung und also
+in Naturgesetze, mit denen sich rechnen läßt
+(<cite>Zur Lehre von den geographischen Provinzen</cite></span> [Berlin,
+1886], S. 6).”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The reciprocal influences of man and his
+environment are illustrated by Alfred Kirchhoff
+in <cite>Mensch und Erde, Skizzen von den Wechselbeziehungen
+zwischen beiden</cite>.<a id='r116' /><a href='#f116' class='c015'><sup>[116]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Ferdinand von Richthofen<a id='r117' /><a href='#f117' class='c015'><sup>[117]</sup></a> traces the gradual
+evolution of “Siedlung und Verkehr,” under which
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>two concepts he subsumes all relations of man to
+the soil.<a id='r118' /><a href='#f118' class='c015'><sup>[118]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>It was Friedrich Ratzel, however, who “performed
+the great service of placing anthropo-geography
+on a secure scientific basis. He had
+his forerunners in Montesquieu,<a id='r119' /><a href='#f119' class='c015'><sup>[119]</sup></a> Alexander von
+Humboldt, Buckle, Ritter, Kohl, Peschel and
+others; but he first investigated the subject from
+the modern scientific point of view, ... and
+based his conclusions on world-wide inductions,
+for which his predecessors did not command the
+data.”<a id='r120' /><a href='#f120' class='c015'><sup>[120]</sup></a> He “has written the standard work on
+<cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>.”<a id='r121' /><a href='#f121' class='c015'><sup>[121]</sup></a> Employing the analytical
+method, Ratzel was the first to divide the subject-matter
+into categories: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ratzel hat das Verdienst,
+daß er zuerst den Stoff in Kategorien teilte. Er
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>wendet die analytische Methode der allgemeinen
+Geographie an und betrachtet den Einfluß einzelner
+Naturgegebenheiten auf den Menschen,
+z.B. der Inseln, Halbinseln, Gebirge, Ebenen,
+Steppen, Wüsten, Küsten, Flußmündungen<a id='r122' /><a href='#f122' class='c015'><sup>[122]</sup></a> usw.
+Die analytische Methode allein kann zum Ziele
+führen.</span>”<a id='r123' /><a href='#f123' class='c015'><sup>[123]</sup></a> The great and permanent merit of
+Ratzel’s <cite>Politische Geographie</cite><a id='r124' /><a href='#f124' class='c015'><sup>[124]</sup></a> is its setting forth
+how closely the State is bound to the physical
+milieu.<a id='r125' /><a href='#f125' class='c015'><sup>[125]</sup></a> It treats partly of the effect of nature
+and soil on the formation of the State and on
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>political boundaries.<a id='r126' /><a href='#f126' class='c015'><sup>[126]</sup></a> Ratzel expounds environmental
+action also in his books <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Vereinigten
+Staaten von Amerika</span></cite>,<a id='r127' /><a href='#f127' class='c015'><sup>[127]</sup></a> <cite>The History of Mankind</cite>,<a id='r128' /><a href='#f128' class='c015'><sup>[128]</sup></a>
+and in his article on “The Principles of Anthropo-geography.”<a id='r129' /><a href='#f129' class='c015'><sup>[129]</sup></a>
+Among his followers is to be
+counted Andrew R. Cowan, whose <cite>Master-Clues
+in World-History</cite><a id='r130' /><a href='#f130' class='c015'><sup>[130]</sup></a> is “deeply impregnated with
+Ratzel’s teachings.”<a id='r131' /><a href='#f131' class='c015'><sup>[131]</sup></a> Camille Vallaux devotes
+the fifth chapter (pp. 145–73) of his <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie
+Sociale, Le Sol et L’État</span></cite>,<a id='r132' /><a href='#f132' class='c015'><sup>[132]</sup></a> to a criticism of the
+theories of <em>Raum</em> (space) and of Lage (situation)
+as developed by Ratzel in his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Politische Geographie</span></cite>.
+And, in general, Ratzel’s “published work had been
+open to the just criticism of inadequate citation
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>of authorities.”<a id='r133' /><a href='#f133' class='c015'><sup>[133]</sup></a> O. Schlüter in “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die leitenden
+Gesichtspunkte der Anthropogeographie, insbesondere
+der Lehre Friedrich Ratzels</span>”<a id='r134' /><a href='#f134' class='c015'><sup>[134]</sup></a> gives us
+the best single estimate of Ratzel, the best orientation—within
+the compass of an article well written,
+well poised, and illuminating—on Ratzel’s work,
+thought, method, and application.<a id='r135' /><a href='#f135' class='c015'><sup>[135]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Geography and History</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>We shall now see, first, the stand taken by
+some French writers, and then that taken by German
+and English writers, on the question of how
+physical environment affects history.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>One of the “three most philosophical writers
+on climate,”<a id='r136' /><a href='#f136' class='c015'><sup>[136]</sup></a> Charles Comte, not related by
+birth to the founder of Positivism, is, likewise,
+one of the earliest disciples of Herder in France.
+Herder “seems to have helped to inspire”<a id='r137' /><a href='#f137' class='c015'><sup>[137]</sup></a>
+Charles Comte’s <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Traité de Législation</span></cite>.<a id='r138' /><a href='#f138' class='c015'><sup>[138]</sup></a> Charles
+Comte’s “discussion of the questions which relate
+to the influence of physical nature on human development
+must have been the fruit of long and
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>careful study. It was as great an advance on
+Montesquieu’s treatment of the subject as Montesquieu’s
+had been on that of Bodin. It disproved,
+corrected, or confirmed a host of Montesquieu’s
+observations and conclusions. It showed that
+he had ascribed too much to climate, and too
+little to the configuration of the earth’s surface,
+the distribution of mountains and rivers, &amp;c.;
+and that he had conceived vaguely, and even to a
+large extent erroneously, of the modes in which
+climate and the fertility or sterility of soil affect
+human development. But while Comte thus
+justly criticised Montesquieu, he himself exaggerated
+the efficiency of physical agencies. Indeed,
+he virtually traced to their operation the whole
+development of history ... he has assumed that
+physical agencies ultimately account for historical
+change and movement, for public institutions and
+laws....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Charles Comte fully recognises that the same
+physical medium has a very different influence on
+different generations; and that institutions and
+laws, education and manners, and, in a word, all
+the constituents of the social medium, have as
+real an influence on the development of history
+as those of the physical medium. Yet he assumes
+the latter to be the first, although to a large extent
+only indirect, causes of the whole amount of change
+effected.”<a id='r139' /><a href='#f139' class='c015'><sup>[139]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Victor Cousin, another Frenchman, reconnects
+with Herder. Cousin had direct acquaintance
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>with at least the principal work of Herder, for the
+rendering of whose “Ideen” into French by
+Quinet he seems responsible.<a id='r140' /><a href='#f140' class='c015'><sup>[140]</sup></a> In the eighth
+lecture of his “admired”<a id='r141' /><a href='#f141' class='c015'><sup>[141]</sup></a> <cite>Cours de 1828 sur la
+Philosophie de l’Histoire</cite>, he discourses on the
+rôle that geography plays in history.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>F. Guizot, in the fifth lecture of <cite>The History
+of Civilization</cite>,<a id='r142' /><a href='#f142' class='c015'><sup>[142]</sup></a> comments briefly on the influence
+of external circumstances upon liberty.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The romantic French historiographer, Jules
+Michelet, in his <cite>Histoire de France</cite> (second volume,
+1833), and in his <cite>Histoire Romaine</cite> (1839), interlinks
+geography with history, and brilliantly describes
+the countries whose histories he is writing.
+Like some before him (such as Montesquieu), and
+many after him (such as Riehl, Curtius, and
+Gothein),<a id='r143' /><a href='#f143' class='c015'><sup>[143]</sup></a> who traveled in the respective countries
+before describing them or composing their
+history, Michelet, as one preliminary measure
+toward equipping himself for such a task, visited
+Italy<a id='r144' /><a href='#f144' class='c015'><sup>[144]</sup></a> and various parts of France, the latter
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_45'>45</span>repeatedly, in order to gain a first hand impression
+of the physical milieu and the people of those lands.
+He is said to be the first [<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">sic!</span></i>] in France who, under
+the influence of Herder, had the idea that geography
+was the foundation of history: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Sous
+l’influence de Herder, il [Michelet] eut, le premier
+en France, l’idée que la géographie était le fondement
+de l’histoire: ‘Le matériel, la race, le peuple
+qui la continue me paraissaient avoir besoin qu’on
+mît dessous une bonne et forte base, la terre, qui
+les portât et qui les nourrît. Et notez que ce sol
+n’est pas seulement le théâtre de l’action. Par la
+nourriture, le climat, etc., il y influe de cent
+manières. Tel le nid, tel l’oiseau. Telle la patrie,
+tel l’homme.’</span>”<a id='r145' /><a href='#f145' class='c015'><sup>[145]</sup></a> Without this basis, the actor
+in history, the people, would be treading on air
+like figures in some Chinese paintings. Says Jules
+Simon of the celebrated tableau in the second
+volume of the <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Histoire de France</cite>: “Son héros
+[Michelet’s] ... c’est la France. Il en fait une
+description qui remplit tout le troisième livre et
+qui est un chef-d’oeuvre. Chose nouvelle, cette
+géographie a autant de mouvement que l’histoire.
+Elle est animée, vivante, agissante. Il en montre
+à merveille l’utilité, la nécessité. Sans cette base
+géographique, le peuple, l’acteur historique,
+semblerait marcher en l’air, comme dans les
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_46'>46</span>peintures chinoises, où le sol manque.”</span><a id='r146' /><a href='#f146' class='c015'><sup>[146]</sup></a> In the
+<cite>Introduction to Universal History</cite> (1831), Michelet
+says, “In Germany and Italy, fatality is still
+strong; moral freedom is still borne down by powerful
+influences of race, locality, and climate.”<a id='r147' /><a href='#f147' class='c015'><sup>[147]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Ernst Kapp, in the <cite>Philosophische Erdkunde</cite>,<a id='r148' /><a href='#f148' class='c015'><sup>[148]</sup></a>
+criticizes writers on the philosophy of history for
+their failure to give due attention to the geographical
+existence of the nations. Nor are geographical
+intermezzos alone sufficient: “Man [these writers]
+<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">hat zwar eine Ahnung von dem geographischen
+Element in der Geschichte, nicht aber das deutliche
+Bewußtsein, daß die Menschheit an dem Planeten
+ihre physische Individualität besitzt, daß sie zu
+ihm sich verhält, wie die Seele zum Leib. Anstatt
+die geographische Betrachtung durch und durch
+mit der historischen verwachsen zu lassen</span> [which
+he proposes to do], <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">hat man teils geographische
+Intermezzos nach subjektivem Gutdünken ...
+eingestreut, teils auch sich mit einer dem Ganzen
+voraufgeschickten geographischen Grundlage ein
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span>für allemal begnügt. Man hat hierbei nicht
+bedacht, daß man die Geschichte, wenn man ihr
+den planetarischen Grund und Boden, auf den man
+sie von vornherein stellt, wegrückt, zwischen
+Himmel und Erde schweben läßt und ihre Behandlung
+dem veränderlichen Luftzuge des subjektiven
+Beliebens mehr oder minder preisgibt ...
+Darin ruht die Selbständigkeit der geographischen
+Wissenschaft, ..., daß ihr Objekt
+die Erde ist, ... die Erde, wie sie bestimmend
+auf die Entwicklung des Geistes einwirkt und hinwiederum
+vom Geist bestimmt und verändert
+wird. Dies Verhältnis des Planeten zum Geist
+ist ein wesentliches.</span>”<a id='r149' /><a href='#f149' class='c015'><sup>[149]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Arnold H. Guyot, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">ce Suisse transplanté en
+Amérique</span>,”<a id='r150' /><a href='#f150' class='c015'><sup>[150]</sup></a> treats the same topic in the <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie
+physique comparée, considérée dans ses
+rapports avec l’histoire de l’humanité</span></cite>.<a id='r151' /><a href='#f151' class='c015'><sup>[151]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The frequently misquoted Henry Thomas
+Buckle, in the celebrated second chapter of the
+<cite>History of Civilization in England</cite>,<a id='r152' /><a href='#f152' class='c015'><sup>[152]</sup></a> shows the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>largely indirect effects of climate, food, and soil,
+chiefly upon the civilizations—of India, Egypt,
+Mexico, Peru, etc.—anterior to those of Europe,
+and of a fourth class of physical agents, namely,
+of what he terms the general aspect of nature upon
+the imagination—religion, literature, art—of those
+peoples. Buckle does not maintain that these
+four classes of the Environment were the <em>sole</em>
+factors in producing civilization; in fact he makes
+it quite clear that they were <em>not</em> the only factors,
+that they affected the civilizations mentioned in
+an indirect way and he indicates how this has
+taken place. Buckle’s statements of his ideas had
+been misrepresented, twisted, and distorted to
+such a degree that John M. Robertson felt impelled
+to write a whole book<a id='r153' /><a href='#f153' class='c015'><sup>[153]</sup></a> in rebuttal, in order
+to set Buckle’s detractors and controversial critics
+right and to refute their unfair imputations to
+Buckle’s intended meaning.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The romanticist Ernst Curtius is sometimes
+referred to as one of those historians who give
+adequate expression to the action of the physical
+milieu upon the course of history. But Vallaux
+declares that Curtius, like Michelet, has made of
+human geography and of political geography
+<em>merely</em> a preliminary and introductory science to
+history: “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">une science auxiliaire ou plutôt liminaire,
+sorte de <em>portique d’entrée</em></span> [the italics are ours] <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">pour
+leurs brillantes constructions</span>,”<a id='r154' /><a href='#f154' class='c015'><sup>[154]</sup></a> lending thus
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>support to Kapp’s contention.<a id='r155' /><a href='#f155' class='c015'><sup>[155]</sup></a> Nor would Ratzel
+be content with a portrayal of the land as an
+introduction to the history of a country, even
+though it be as richly colored as that drawn by
+Curtius.<a id='r156' /><a href='#f156' class='c015'><sup>[156]</sup></a> A description, in itself, fails to penetrate
+to the core of the relation. If we now turn
+to Curtius’ <cite>The History of Greece</cite>,<a id='r157' /><a href='#f157' class='c015'><sup>[157]</sup></a> we find that
+the first chapter in the first book<a id='r158' /><a href='#f158' class='c015'><sup>[158]</sup></a> considers Land
+and People, a part of which (pp. 9–18) gives a
+geographical description of Hellas, and another part
+of which (pp. 19–25, seven pages scant) points
+out the connection between the land and the
+people. Elsewhere,<a id='r159' /><a href='#f159' class='c015'><sup>[159]</sup></a> Curtius shows the interaction
+between the physical environment of
+Athens and the Athenians.<a id='r160' /><a href='#f160' class='c015'><sup>[160]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>George Grote, whose account of the relation
+between the Greek land and the Greek people is
+held by some<a id='r161' /><a href='#f161' class='c015'><sup>[161]</sup></a> to be excellent, in <cite>A History of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>Greece</cite>,<a id='r162' /><a href='#f162' class='c015'><sup>[162]</sup></a> devotes four pages (227–30) of the chapter
+on General Geography and Limits of Greece to
+show the effects of the configuration of Greece
+upon the political relation of the inhabitants<a id='r163' /><a href='#f163' class='c015'><sup>[163]</sup></a>
+and the effects upon their intellectual development,<a id='r164' /><a href='#f164' class='c015'><sup>[164]</sup></a>
+the rest of the chapter being given over
+to a description of the geography of Greece.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Alfred E. Zimmern, in <cite>The Greek Commonwealth,
+Politics and Economics in Fifth-Century
+Athens</cite>,<a id='r165' /><a href='#f165' class='c015'><sup>[165]</sup></a> deals very cleverly with the main features
+of the material environment of Greek civilization:
+The Mediterranean Area; The Sea; The
+Climate; The Soil; Fellowship, or the Rule of
+Public Opinion, under which headings he discusses
+the influence of environment upon Greek institutions.<a id='r166' /><a href='#f166' class='c015'><sup>[166]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>As early as 1864, G. P. Marsh investigates the
+subject of man’s reaction on his milieu in <cite>Man and
+Nature, or Physical Geography as Modified by
+Human Action</cite> (London).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>John William Draper, in his <cite>History of the Intellectual
+Development of Europe</cite>,<a id='r167' /><a href='#f167' class='c015'><sup>[167]</sup></a> in the composition
+of which Herderian ideas were the guides,<a id='r168' /><a href='#f168' class='c015'><sup>[168]</sup></a>
+first attempts to show (vol. I, pp. 6–17) that
+individual man, as well as communities, nations,
+and universal humanity, are under the control
+of physical conditions; then (pp. 23–35) he points
+out how the topography, meteorology, and secular
+geological movements of Europe affected its
+inhabitants. On the whole, he overstates the
+force of environment and neglects the human
+factor; nevertheless his uncompromising affirmations
+bring out strikingly some of the environmental
+effects on man.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>The uncritical Max Duncker, in the nine
+volume <cite>Geschichte des Altertums</cite>,<a id='r169' /><a href='#f169' class='c015'><sup>[169]</sup></a> not only has
+chapters on <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Land und Volk</span></i>, or <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Land und Stämme</span></i>
+at the beginning of the history of a given nation,
+but he also dwells elsewhere in his text on the
+sway of geography in history.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Élisée Réclus, in the magistral <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Nouvelle Géographie
+Universelle</span></cite> (1879 ff.), speaking of the
+difficulties encountered by research, queries: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">...
+Was verdanken die Nationen dem Einfluß der
+Natur, die sie umgibt? Was verdanken sie dem
+Milieu, das ihre Vorfahren bewohnten, ihren
+Rasseinstinkten, ihren verschiedenartigen Mischungen,
+den von Außen eingeführten Überlieferungen?
+Man weiß es nicht, kaum daß einige
+Lichtstrahlen in jene Finsternis dringen.</span>”<a id='r170' /><a href='#f170' class='c015'><sup>[170]</sup></a> The
+preponderance of European nations is by no means
+attributable, as some arrogantly and self-conceitedly
+fancied, to any racial endowment; on
+the contrary, it is due to the favoring conditions
+of the physical environment prevailing in Europe:
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Man weiß, wie mächtig der Einfluß des geographischen
+Milieu auf die Fortschritte der
+europäischen Nationen gewesen ist. Ihre Überlegenheit
+ist keineswegs, wie einige sich dünkelhafter
+Weise eingebildet haben, der eigentümlichen
+Anlage der Rassen zuzuschreiben, denn in
+anderen Gegenden der alten Welt haben sich eben
+dieselben Rassen weniger schöpferisch erwiesen.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>Es sind die glücklichen Bedingungen der Wärme,
+des Klimas, der Gestalt und Lage des Festlandes,
+welche den Europäern die Ehre verschafft haben,
+die ersten gewesen zu sein in der Kenntnis der Erde
+in ihrem ganzen Umfange und lange Zeit an der
+Spitze der Zivilisation geblieben zu sein.</span>”<a id='r171' /><a href='#f171' class='c015'><sup>[171]</sup></a>
+These conditions help to explain, in part, the character
+of the nations: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Mit vollem Recht lieben es
+also die historischen Geographen bei der Gestalt
+der verschiedenen Erdteile und bei den Folgen zu
+verweilen, welche sich daraus für die Bestimmung
+der Völker ergeben. Die Gestalt der Hochebenen,
+die Höhe der Berge, der Lauf und der Reichtum
+der Flüsse, die Nachbarschaft des Ozeans, die
+Gliederung der Küsten, die Temperatur der Atmosphäre,
+die Häufigkeit oder Seltenheit des Regens,
+die unzähligen wechselseitigen Einflüsse der Sonne,
+der Luft und der Gewässer, alle Erscheinungen
+des Pflanzenlebens habe eine Bedeutung in ihren
+Augen und dienen ihnen (wenigstens zum Teil),
+den Charakter und das erste Leben der Nationen
+zu erklären ...</span>”<a id='r172' /><a href='#f172' class='c015'><sup>[172]</sup></a> Continental and oceanic
+forms and other features of the globe vary in their
+value for man in accordance with the stage of
+civilization to which he attained.<a id='r173' /><a href='#f173' class='c015'><sup>[173]</sup></a> Notwithstanding
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>this separation, in principle, of natural
+and national influences upon social evolution, its
+application to concrete cases Réclus finds arduous:
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Durch das Studium der Sonne und durch die
+unablässige Beobachtung der klimatischen Erscheinungen
+können wir ganz allgemein verstehen,
+welches der Einfluß der Natur auf die Entwicklung
+der Völker gewesen ist; aber es ist schwieriger,
+das auf jede Rasse, auf jede Nation zu verteilen....</span>”<a id='r174' /><a href='#f174' class='c015'><sup>[174]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>P. Mougeoulle’s theory in <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les problèmes de
+l’histoire</span></cite>,<a id='r175' /><a href='#f175' class='c015'><sup>[175]</sup></a> is an altogether one-sided geographical
+theory of history.<a id='r176' /><a href='#f176' class='c015'><sup>[176]</sup></a> The sole cause of the external
+as well as the internal history of peoples, is, in
+his opinion, the geographical Milieu.<a id='r177' /><a href='#f177' class='c015'><sup>[177]</sup></a> To Mougeoulle,
+the Milieu is the author, whereas man is
+the actor of the Drama of history.<a id='r178' /><a href='#f178' class='c015'><sup>[178]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Léon Metchnikoff, in <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Civilisation et Les
+Grands Fleuves Historiques</span></cite>,<a id='r179' /><a href='#f179' class='c015'><sup>[179]</sup></a> pays some attention
+to the influences (astronomic, physical—the geosphere,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere—,
+vegetal, animal, anthropological) of the milieu
+on man and society; yet his main care is with the
+action of parts of the hydrosphere on human progress.
+Following C. Böttiger (<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Mittelmeer</span></cite>,
+Leipzig, 1859), Metchnikoff distinguishes the
+three milieus: fluvial or potamic, mediterranean
+or thalassic, and oceanic or universal.<a id='r180' /><a href='#f180' class='c015'><sup>[180]</sup></a> On this
+basis he divides universal history into three periods:
+1) the period of the fluvial civilizations (temps
+anciens), furnishing the principal theme of his
+argument (discussed in the last four chapters of his
+book); 2) that of the mediterranean civilizations
+(temps moyens); 3) and that of the oceanic civilizations.
+The fluvial or ancient period, from the
+beginnings to <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">circa</span></i> 800 B.C., comprises the history
+of the four great civilizations of antiquity, in
+Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">qui ont eu
+pour milieu géographique des régions arrosées par
+certains fleuves ou couples de fleuves célèbres</span>.”
+The mediterranean or middle period extends from
+the seventh century B.C.—the foundation of
+Carthage—to Charles the Fifth. The modern or
+oceanic period has two epochs: a) the <em>atlantic</em>
+epoch, from the discovery of America to about the
+middle of the nineteenth century; and b) the
+<em>universal</em> epoch, just beginning.<a id='r181' /><a href='#f181' class='c015'><sup>[181]</sup></a> In the main,
+Metchnikoff limits the scope of his work to the
+compass of fluvial civilizations. He studies in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>detail the four great historical rivers or pairs of
+rivers (the Nile, the Tigris and the Euphrates,
+the Indus and the Ganges, and the Hoangho and
+the Yangtze-Kiang, those great educators of mankind)
+in their bearing upon the four grand civilizations—Chinese,
+Hindu, Assyro-Babylonian, and
+Egyptian—of remote antiquity, all of which
+expanded in fluvial regions.<a id='r182' /><a href='#f182' class='c015'><sup>[182]</sup></a> The River, in all
+countries, presents itself to Metchnikoff as the
+living synthesis of all the complex conditions of
+the climate, of the soil, of the configuration of the
+earth, and of the geologic formation. In Egypt
+and in China, in India and in Mesopotamia, the
+River has been “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">comme une synthèse vivante des
+conditions géographiques les plus multiples</span>.”<a id='r183' /><a href='#f183' class='c015'><sup>[183]</sup></a>
+He finds that each of the four great monarchies of
+antiquity had been a natural consequence or result
+of the hydrological system of the country that
+served as its cradle, and that history, in the entire
+ancient world, had been a toil, a forced labor
+(“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">une corvée</span>”), imposed on a part of mankind by
+certain orographic peculiarities of the Milieu.
+Metchnikoff concludes that in these empires “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">le
+Milieu s’est trouvé être invariablement le vrai
+créateur de l’histoire</span>.” The eloquent example
+of these four grand ancient civilizations sufficiently
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>proves to him that no important historical expansion
+could ever occur in any country of the world,
+unless the milieu condemned its inhabitants to
+that excessive solidarity which he shows to have
+been brutally imposed everywhere at the shores
+of these great historical rivers; a milieu is conceivable,
+however, where this condition, rigorously
+required by history, may be fulfilled by an environmental
+factor other than a river or a system of
+rivers.<a id='r184' /><a href='#f184' class='c015'><sup>[184]</sup></a> Metchnikoff protests that he is far from
+advocating potamic<a id='r185' /><a href='#f185' class='c015'><sup>[185]</sup></a> or geographical<a id='r186' /><a href='#f186' class='c015'><sup>[186]</sup></a> fatalism.<a id='r187' /><a href='#f187' class='c015'><sup>[187]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Babington’s study of the power of environment
+over history points out the fallacy of the race
+theory in the history of the Roman empire, of
+Germany, and of China.<a id='r188' /><a href='#f188' class='c015'><sup>[188]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>N. S. Shaler, in <cite>Nature and Man in America</cite>,<a id='r189' /><a href='#f189' class='c015'><sup>[189]</sup></a>
+traces, on the one hand, the action of environment
+on organic life, and, on the other, the effect of
+geographic conditions on the development of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>peoples, more especially on that of man in North
+America.<a id='r190' /><a href='#f190' class='c015'><sup>[190]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Since about the middle of the eighties, under
+the leadership of the late historian E. A. Freeman
+and of the illustrious statesman and scholar, Lord
+James Bryce, “a marked revival of interest” has
+been exhibited in England in studying the physical
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>milieu as it relates to man and human society,
+institutions and history.<a id='r191' /><a href='#f191' class='c015'><sup>[191]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The leading point of view in H. F. Helmolt’s
+<cite>The History of the World, a Survey of Man’s
+Record</cite>,<a id='r192' /><a href='#f192' class='c015'><sup>[192]</sup></a> is the treatment of man’s relation to his
+physical environment, the relation of geography
+to history, the dependence of man on his geographical
+surroundings. “It [Helmolt’s <cite>History</cite>] deals
+with history in the light of physical environment....
+Its ground plan, so to speak, is primarily
+geographical....”<a id='r193' /><a href='#f193' class='c015'><sup>[193]</sup></a> It was conceived in the
+spirit of Ratzel;<a id='r194' /><a href='#f194' class='c015'><sup>[194]</sup></a> it is said to have brought for
+the first time “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">die Länder- und Völkerkunde in
+den Dienst der Weltgeschichtsdarstellung</span>.”<a id='r195' /><a href='#f195' class='c015'><sup>[195]</sup></a> Helmolt’s
+“great co-operative <cite>History of Mankind</cite>
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>... emphasizes the sovereign influences of nature
+and geography,” says Gooch.<a id='r196' /><a href='#f196' class='c015'><sup>[196]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Rev. H. B. George, in <cite>The Relations of Geography
+and History</cite>,<a id='r197' /><a href='#f197' class='c015'><sup>[197]</sup></a> attempts to “point out systematically
+how these [geographical] causes work [all history
+through], first in general, and then in reference
+to the various countries of Europe,”<a id='r198' /><a href='#f198' class='c015'><sup>[198]</sup></a> although
+“This work does not pretend to attempt the
+impossible task of describing all the influence
+exerted by geographical conditions on human
+history. All that it professes to do is to indicate
+the modes in which that influence works, with
+sufficient illustrations from actual history.”<a id='r199' /><a href='#f199' class='c015'><sup>[199]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Professor Geddes, of Edinburgh, is the most
+energetic expounder of this idea—the anthropo-geographical
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>conception of history—in the English-speaking
+world, says Small.<a id='r200' /><a href='#f200' class='c015'><sup>[200]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Throughout the entire treatment of Guglielmo
+Ferrero’s<a id='r201' /><a href='#f201' class='c015'><sup>[201]</sup></a> <cite>History of Rome</cite> (one of the most original
+and important historical works of recent
+years), geography thoroughly permeates history.<a id='r202' /><a href='#f202' class='c015'><sup>[202]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Robert Sieger<a id='r203' /><a href='#f203' class='c015'><sup>[203]</sup></a> attempts to explain the history
+and policies of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy
+“aus ihren geographischen Grundlagen.”<a id='r204' /><a href='#f204' class='c015'><sup>[204]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Ellsworth Huntington, in <cite>The Pulse of Asia</cite>,<a id='r205' /><a href='#f205' class='c015'><sup>[205]</sup></a>
+illustrates the geographic basis of history.<a id='r206' /><a href='#f206' class='c015'><sup>[206]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The Columbia School of sociological historians,
+and others, interpret history partly in terms of
+the milieu: physical (economic and geographic)
+and social.<a id='r207' /><a href='#f207' class='c015'><sup>[207]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_62'>62</span>Human geography, and political geography,
+have long been divided into fragmentary parts,
+contended for by economics, history, and sociology.<a id='r208' /><a href='#f208' class='c015'><sup>[208]</sup></a>
+Yet the discipline of anthropo-geography
+has now become “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">eine mächtige Hilfswissenschaft
+der geschichtlichen Auffassung</span>.”<a id='r209' /><a href='#f209' class='c015'><sup>[209]</sup></a> So that, today,
+it has become a custom to include in textbooks
+of history one or more chapters on the relation
+of geography to history, to show the dependence
+of history on environment.<a id='r210' /><a href='#f210' class='c015'><sup>[210]</sup></a> The study
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>of the latter is a part of Kulturgeschichte or
+History of Civilization which is defined as embracing
+the non-political aspects of civilization such
+as the influence of nature, the pressure of economic
+factors, the origin and transformation of ideas,
+the contribution of science and art, religion and
+philosophy, literature and law, the material conditions
+of life, the fortunes of the masses.<a id='r211' /><a href='#f211' class='c015'><sup>[211]</sup></a> Likewise,
+only on a broader scale, the milieu is being
+examined in a new branch of study, which is one
+resultant of anthropo-geographical research. This
+new branch of study is economic geography, which,
+according to John McFarlane,<a id='r212' /><a href='#f212' class='c015'><sup>[212]</sup></a> “may be defined
+as the study of the influence exerted upon the
+economic activities of man by his physical environment,
+and more especially by the form and structure
+of the surface of the land, the climatic conditions
+which prevail upon it, and the place relations in
+which its different regions stand to one another.”
+Seligman says that the modern study of economic
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>geography is but an expansion of the study of the
+influence of milieu.<a id='r213' /><a href='#f213' class='c015'><sup>[213]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Indeed, geography itself, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, the new geography,
+is conceived of as the science or study of
+the responses of organisms to inorganic, and to a
+certain extent organic, environmental control.<a id='r214' /><a href='#f214' class='c015'><sup>[214]</sup></a>
+Professor William Morris Davis, of Harvard University,
+is one of the chief exponents of this theory
+in the United States. Very recently, Rollin D.
+Salisbury said:<a id='r215' /><a href='#f215' class='c015'><sup>[215]</sup></a> “By common consent, Geography
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>(as distinct from physical geography) is
+the science which deals with the relations of physical
+environment to life and its activities. In this
+sense, geography is a connecting link between
+geology, physiography, and climatology, on the
+one hand, and zoölogy, botany, sociology, economics,
+and history on the other. Its subject-matter
+is in process of formulation....”<a id='r216' /><a href='#f216' class='c015'><sup>[216]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>More Recent Anthropo-geographical Treatises</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>James Bryce offers the most excellent general
+survey of man’s relation to his physical environment.<a id='r217' /><a href='#f217' class='c015'><sup>[217]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Herbertson’s very useful and readable introductory
+book gives “concrete pictures of human
+life under these very different conditions [typical
+environments]. They show, in the first place,
+how the occupation of different groups of mankind
+depends on their geographical surroundings,
+and how these occupations in turn affect not only
+the material life, the houses, food, clothing, etc.,
+but also family life, notions of property, progress
+in trade and manufactures, power of expansion,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>and ideals of government. All these are classified,
+not according to race, which is often an accident,
+but according to those permanent influences
+by which all races are affected.”<a id='r218' /><a href='#f218' class='c015'><sup>[218]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Robert DeCourcy Ward, in his standard work
+on <cite>Climate Considered Especially in Relation to
+Man</cite>,<a id='r219' /><a href='#f219' class='c015'><sup>[219]</sup></a> presents “typical illustrations” of environmental
+action on the life of man in the tropics
+(Ch. 8, pp. 220–71), in the temperate zones (Ch. 9
+pp. 272–321), and in the polar zones (Ch. 10, pp.
+322–37).<a id='r220' /><a href='#f220' class='c015'><sup>[220]</sup></a> In a chapter on the hygiene of the
+zones (Ch. 7, pp. 178–219), Ward also surveys
+“some of the relations between weather and climate
+and a few of the more important diseases.”<a id='r221' /><a href='#f221' class='c015'><sup>[221]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>R. R. Marett’s chapter on “Environment”
+in his <cite>Anthropology</cite><a id='r222' /><a href='#f222' class='c015'><sup>[222]</sup></a> presents, beside a number of
+valuable general and critical remarks, chiefly a
+regional survey of the world showing the general
+effect of geographical environment on man.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Camille Vallaux, in <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie Sociale, Le Sol
+et L’État</span></cite>,<a id='r223' /><a href='#f223' class='c015'><sup>[223]</sup></a> beginning with the sixth chapter, also
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>discusses some phases of what would in E. C. Hayes’
+classification<a id='r224' /><a href='#f224' class='c015'><sup>[224]</sup></a> be called the technical milieu.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The most recent German essay, Willy Hellpach’s<a id='r225' /><a href='#f225' class='c015'><sup>[225]</sup></a>
+<cite>Die Geopsychischen Erscheinungen: Wetter,
+Klima und Landschaft in ihrem Einfluß auf das
+Seelenleben</cite>,<a id='r226' /><a href='#f226' class='c015'><sup>[226]</sup></a> deals with the <em>direct</em> effects of the
+surrounding <em>atmosphere</em> and soil on the human
+psyche.<a id='r227' /><a href='#f227' class='c015'><sup>[227]</sup></a> Hellpach seems primarily interested in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>“Psycho-Pathologie”;<a id='r228' /><a href='#f228' class='c015'><sup>[228]</sup></a> he lays most stress on
+<i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">das Pathologische</span></i>, particularly in the main—first
+two—parts of his essay: “Wetter und Seelenleben,”
+and “Klima und Seelenleben,” where
+the pathological effect is strongly emphasized.
+Hellpach’s valuable summary of what we know
+today of this phase of the milieu,<a id='r229' /><a href='#f229' class='c015'><sup>[229]</sup></a> revealing as
+it does by the meager number of the facts assembled
+the crying need for many more such facts, may be,
+in its results, somewhat disappointing<a id='r230' /><a href='#f230' class='c015'><sup>[230]</sup></a> for the
+present day, but it augurs well for future investigation.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The latest extensive presentation of general
+anthropo-geography,<a id='r231' /><a href='#f231' class='c015'><sup>[231]</sup></a> Jean Brunhes’ <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La géographie
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>humaine</span></cite>,<a id='r232' /><a href='#f232' class='c015'><sup>[232]</sup></a> pays more attention to present
+than to historical conditions,<a id='r233' /><a href='#f233' class='c015'><sup>[233]</sup></a> and thus fittingly
+complements Ellen C. Semple’s <cite>Influences of
+Geographic Environment</cite>,<a id='r234' /><a href='#f234' class='c015'><sup>[234]</sup></a> which “may be regarded
+as superseding Ratzel’s great work on
+Anthropo-geography.”<a id='r235' /><a href='#f235' class='c015'><sup>[235]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Primitive Peoples and Environment</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>Karl Ritter, in the essay “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über das historische
+Element in der geographischen Wissenschaft</span>”
+(1833), declares that the forces of nature which
+at the commencement of human history exerted
+a very decisive influence were bound to recede
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>more and more, and their action had to diminish,
+in proportion to man’s progress. Civilized mankind
+extricates itself gradually, like single man,
+from the immediately conditioning fetters of
+nature and of its place of abode.<a id='r236' /><a href='#f236' class='c015'><sup>[236]</sup></a> This opinion
+of Ritter’s was adopted by many.<a id='r237' /><a href='#f237' class='c015'><sup>[237]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Theodor Waitz regards primitive man both as
+purely a product of, and as being completely at
+the mercy of, circumambient nature: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Denken wir
+uns vom Menschen Alles hinweg, was an ihm
+Wirkung der Kultur ist, so steht er da als bloßes
+Produkt der Macht, die ihn in’s Leben rief, ...
+Das Erste, was an ihm charakteristisch für uns
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>hervorträte, würde die sehr vollständige Abhängigkeit
+sein, in der er sich von seiner Naturumgebung
+befände: der gesammte Inhalt, den sein inneres
+Leben zunächst gewönne, würde ein ziemlich reines
+Produkt dieser letzteren sein. Der Naturmensch
+wird zunächst nur das, wozu die Naturverhältnisse
+ihn machen, unter die er sich gestellt findet; wovon
+er sich nährt, das werden diese ihm darbieten, auf
+welche Weise und durch welche Mittel er seine
+Nahrung gewinnt, dazu werden diese ihm Anleitung
+geben müssen; ob er Kleidung und sonstigen
+Schutz gegen äußere Schädlichkeiten bedarf,
+und wie er diesem Bedürfnis abzuhelfen strebt,
+werden sie ihn lehren und die Erfindungen, die
+hierzu nötig sind, ihm an die Hand geben müssen;
+sie werden mit einem Wort seine ganze Lebenseinrichtung
+bestimmen ...</span>”<a id='r238' /><a href='#f238' class='c015'><sup>[238]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>G. Gerland holds that man developed from
+and upon nature, on which he is very closely dependent
+and of which he is a small part, and that the
+higher he rises the more he frees himself from the
+compelling influence of the earth, which, however,
+he can never wholly escape.<a id='r239' /><a href='#f239' class='c015'><sup>[239]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>In the opinion of Herbert Spencer, the earlier
+stages of social evolution are far more dependent
+on local conditions than the later stages. They
+are more at the mercy of their surroundings.<a id='r240' /><a href='#f240' class='c015'><sup>[240]</sup></a>
+Both Spencer and Benjamin Kidd believe that
+primitive man is at the mercy of the milieu.<a id='r241' /><a href='#f241' class='c015'><sup>[241]</sup></a>
+The “remotely ancient representatives of the
+human species ... were in their then wild state
+much more plastic than now to external nature,”
+according to Wallace.<a id='r242' /><a href='#f242' class='c015'><sup>[242]</sup></a> Historical and statistical
+geography show us “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">die Menschen, wie sie in
+ihre aktive Rolle eingetreten sind und durch
+Arbeit die Überlegenheit über das Milieu gewinnen,
+das sie umgibt ... Nachdem der Mensch ganz
+den Einfluß des Milieu über sich ergehen ließ,
+hat er denselben zu seinem Nutzen umgestaltet ...</span>”<a id='r243' /><a href='#f243' class='c015'><sup>[243]</sup></a>
+The intimate connection of first civilizations
+with physical environment slackens with subsequent
+advance.<a id='r244' /><a href='#f244' class='c015'><sup>[244]</sup></a> This apparently deep-rooted
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>view is controverted by Ratzel who flatly contradicts
+it. Distinguishing between the direct and
+the indirect effects of milieu, he argues in straight
+opposition that with progressing civilization we
+are increasingly dependent on environment, that
+the degree of such dependence has not lessened
+with advancement in civilization, and that only
+the manner of the relation has changed.<a id='r245' /><a href='#f245' class='c015'><sup>[245]</sup></a> Environment
+affects even the highest civilization, says
+Ripley.<a id='r246' /><a href='#f246' class='c015'><sup>[246]</sup></a> G. Elliot Smith maintains that “Environment,
+however it may act, whether directly
+or indirectly, is still helping to shape the human
+form, and is affecting the development of Man’s
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_74'>74</span>customs and achievements at least as powerfully
+as, if not more so than, ever before.”<a id='r247' /><a href='#f247' class='c015'><sup>[247]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Society and Physical Milieu</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>The social evolution proceeds amidst the entire
+system of exterior conditions (chemical, physical,
+astronomical), by which its rate of progress is
+determined. Social phenomena can no more be
+understood apart from their environment than
+those of individual life.<a id='r248' /><a href='#f248' class='c015'><sup>[248]</sup></a> The study of social
+evolution presupposes a relation to the physical
+milieu: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Studium der sozialen Entwicklung
+setzt eine Beziehung zwischen der Menschheit,
+welche den Vorgang vollführt, und der Gesamtheit
+der äußeren Einflüsse voraus, welche letztere
+man auch die sogenannte Umgebung heißen
+könnte.</span>”<a id='r249' /><a href='#f249' class='c015'><sup>[249]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>John Stuart Mill asserts that “All phenomena
+of society are phenomena of human nature, generated
+by the action of outward circumstances
+upon masses of human beings.”<a id='r250' /><a href='#f250' class='c015'><sup>[250]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_75'>75</span>To Schäffle, in the analysis of the structure and
+functions of human society there exist as influential
+factors the external surroundings, on the one hand,
+and the active elements of the social body (the
+individual and the population), on the other; for,
+as Schäffle emphasizes, not only economics, but
+all social science must take into consideration
+not only Society, but also Nature, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, the natural
+fund or stock, designated by soil and climate,
+of the immediate world-surroundings of the social
+body as the external sphere embracing societary
+life, and that, not only as a sum total of free possessions,
+but also as a multiplicity of free, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</span></i>, unsubjugated
+resistances.<a id='r251' /><a href='#f251' class='c015'><sup>[251]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>As “the result of a survey of social organizations,
+considered as machinery in motion, [Hermann]
+Post<a id='r252' /><a href='#f252' class='c015'><sup>[252]</sup></a> points out very justly that it is
+useless to attempt to explain social phenomena
+on the basis of the psychological activities of individuals,
+as is too commonly assumed, because all
+individuals whose conduct we can possibly observe
+have themselves been educated in some society
+or other, and presume in all their social acts the
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_76'>76</span>assumptions on which that society itself proceeds....
+It [Post’s method] is the same method, of
+course, which had already yielded such remarkable
+results to Montesquieu, and even to Locke. The
+point of view is no longer that of a Maine or a
+McLennan.... It is that of a spectator of
+human society as a whole.... And its immediate
+outcome has been to throw into the
+strongest possible relief the dependence of the
+form and, still more, of the actual content of all
+human societies on something which is not in the
+human mind at all, but is the infinite variety of
+that external Nature which Society exists to fend
+off from Man, and also to let Man dominate if
+he can.”<a id='r253' /><a href='#f253' class='c015'><sup>[253]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Government, War, Progress, and Climate</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>James Bryce “has recently clearly set forth
+the climatic control of government in an essay on
+‘British Experience in the Government of Colonies’
+(<cite>Century</cite>, March, 1899, 718–729).”<a id='r254' /><a href='#f254' class='c015'><sup>[254]</sup></a> Vallaux,
+however, is sceptical as to the influence of
+physical environment upon the State.<a id='r255' /><a href='#f255' class='c015'><sup>[255]</sup></a> William
+Ridgeway avers that political and legal institutions
+are the result of environment.<a id='r256' /><a href='#f256' class='c015'><sup>[256]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span>Far-reaching and weighty historical consequences
+“have followed from special conditions of
+climate or weather. Maguire’s ‘Outlines of Military
+Geography’ (Cambridge, 1899) contains a
+chapter on the influence of climate on military
+operations, but this subject has hitherto received
+little attention. More recently, Bentley, in a
+presidential address before the Royal Meteorological
+Society, London, considered the matter.”<a id='r257' /><a href='#f257' class='c015'><sup>[257]</sup></a>
+Still more recently, the relation of climate or
+weather to war has been scrutinized, among others,
+by F. Lampe in “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der erdkundliche Unterricht</span>,”<a id='r258' /><a href='#f258' class='c015'><sup>[258]</sup></a>
+by Otto Baschin in “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Krieg und das Wetter</span>,”<a id='r259' /><a href='#f259' class='c015'><sup>[259]</sup></a>
+and by E. Alt in “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Krieg und Witterung</span>.”<a id='r260' /><a href='#f260' class='c015'><sup>[260]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>Hellwald, “the well-known traveller and geographer,”
+compiled his “History of Civilization
+in its Natural Development” in 1874, according
+to the findings of which, cultural development is
+“a natural process, conditioned by race, geography,
+and climate. Civilisation means the
+mastering of nature and the taming of man....
+Hellwald’s standpoint is shared, though less
+aggressively displayed by Henne-am-Rhyn.”<a id='r261' /><a href='#f261' class='c015'><sup>[261]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>To the late meteorologist Cleveland Abbe,
+“Everything seems to combine to prove that the
+existing order of events both material and intellectual
+has been brought about by a slow process
+of change, due to the interaction of the atoms and
+masses that constitute the material world around
+us.”<a id='r262' /><a href='#f262' class='c015'><sup>[262]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The great diversity of existent civilizations,
+declares Auguste Matteuzzi, is due to the diversity
+of the milieus where they developed. In order
+to discover why any civilization becomes more
+heterogeneous and more perfect, one must study
+the geographic milieu where it evolved. The
+organic and inorganic milieu of evolving ethnic
+groups constrains human societies to an incessant
+process of adaptation, and these societies in their
+turn react upon the milieu and modify it.<a id='r263' /><a href='#f263' class='c015'><sup>[263]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span>In short, says Auguste Comte, “all human
+progress, political, moral, or intellectual, is inseparable
+from material progression, in virtue of the
+close interconnection which, as we have seen,
+characterizes the natural course of social phenomena.”<a id='r264' /><a href='#f264' class='c015'><sup>[264]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>That civilization is a result of adaptation to
+environment, physical as well as political, is the
+view entertained by Bryce, Strachey, and Geikie.<a id='r265' /><a href='#f265' class='c015'><sup>[265]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_80'>80</span>
+  <h3 class='c016'><em>Climate and Man’s Characteristics</em></h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c017'>There are “certain broad, distinguishing characteristics
+of man in the temperate and tropical
+zones, in determining which it is reasonable to
+believe that climate has played a part. Similarly,
+there has been a natural tendency to attribute
+certain differences between northerners and southerners
+in the temperate zones to a difference in
+climate.... These national differences are proverbial
+between northern and southern Germans,
+French, Spanish, Russians, Italians, Arabs, and
+other peoples. The influence of climate has likewise
+been traced in the sad, even pessimistic tone
+of much of the northern literature, and in the
+gravity and melancholy of modern northern music,
+as well as of the older northern folk-songs ...
+even racial distinctions are more or less directly
+traceable, in many instances, to climate.... Sir
+Archibald Geikie, in his <cite>Scottish Reminiscences</cite>,
+has emphasized the climatic influence in producing
+the grim character of the Scot....”<a id='r266' /><a href='#f266' class='c015'><sup>[266]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Tacitus, in the 29th chapter of the <cite>Germania</cite>,
+assures us that the soil and climate of the land
+of the Mattiaci caused them to be more bellicose
+than their neighbors.<a id='r267' /><a href='#f267' class='c015'><sup>[267]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>Daudet, “who has written an entire novel
+(‘Numa Roumestan’) to depict the great influence
+of the climate of southern Europe upon conduct,
+says: ‘The Southerner does not love strong drinks;
+he is intoxicated by nature. Sun and wind distil
+in him a terrible natural alcohol to whose influence
+every one born under this sky is subject. Some
+have only the mild fever which sets their speech
+and gesture free, redoubles their audacity, makes
+everything seem rosy-hued, and drives them on to
+boasting; others live in a blind delirium. And
+what Southerner has not felt the sudden giving
+way, the exhaustion of his whole being, that follows
+an outburst of rage or enthusiasm?’”<a id='r268' /><a href='#f268' class='c015'><sup>[268]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Draper “emphasized the important historical
+consequences of the difference in the characteristics
+of northerners and southerners in the United States,
+which he attributed largely to climate, and which
+found expression in the Civil War.... The
+Boers in Africa have developed along lines different
+from those of the Dutch in the United
+States.”<a id='r269' /><a href='#f269' class='c015'><sup>[269]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Man’s Intellect and Physical Environment</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>Auguste Comte, who “was very slightly affected
+by German thought,” and who, in early youth,
+came under the influence of the philosophy that
+had become prevalent in France before the Revolution,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>“read the works of most of its leading representatives.
+He accepted its cardinal principle
+that ‘thought depends on sense, or, more broadly,
+on the environment.’”<a id='r270' /><a href='#f270' class='c015'><sup>[270]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Adolf Bastian worked unceasingly “among the
+conceptions of the <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Naturvölker</span>—the ‘cryptograms
+of mankind,’ as he called them—..., demonstrating
+first the surprising uniformity of outlook
+on the part of the more primitive peoples, and
+secondly the correlation of differences of conceptions
+with differences in material surroundings,
+varying with geographical conditions. This second
+doctrine he elaborated in his <cite>Zur Lehre von den
+geographischen Provinzen</cite>, in 1886.”<a id='r271' /><a href='#f271' class='c015'><sup>[271]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Physiology and statistics “show that most
+human functions are subject to the influence of
+heat (Lombroso, ‘Pensiero e Meteore,’ Milan,
+1878). It is to be expected, then, that excessive
+heat will have its effect upon the human mind.”<a id='r272' /><a href='#f272' class='c015'><sup>[272]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The physiographer, “... looking back over
+the history of life upon the earth’s surface, ...
+is forced to the conclusion that its highest estate
+embodied in the moral and intellectual qualities
+of man has been, in the main, secured by the geographic
+variations which have slowly developed
+through the geological ages.”<a id='r273' /><a href='#f273' class='c015'><sup>[273]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>Benno Erdmann, in his “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Gedächtnisrede auf
+Wilhelm Dilthey</span>,” observes that in ripe old age
+Dilthey in the last of his larger works declared
+that man finds himself determined by the physical
+world in which mental occurrences appear only as
+interpolations.<a id='r274' /><a href='#f274' class='c015'><sup>[274]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Religion and Physical Milieu</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>As physical characteristics “are in the main
+the result of environment, social institutions and
+religious ideas are no less the product of that environment....
+We might just as well ask the
+Ethiopian to change his skin as to change radically
+his social and religious ideas. It has been shown
+by experience that Christianity can make but little
+headway amongst many peoples in Africa or Asia,
+where on the other hand Muhammadanism has
+made and is steadily making progress, ... This
+is probably due to the fact that Muhammadanism
+is a religion evolved ... in latitudes bordering
+on the aboriginal races of Africa and Asia, and that
+it is far more akin in its social ideas to those of
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>the Negro or Malay than are those of Christianity,
+...”<a id='r275' /><a href='#f275' class='c015'><sup>[275]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Ernest Renan “points out that the desert is
+monotheistic, its uniformity suggesting a belief
+in the unity of God.... In his <cite>Seas and Skies
+in Many Latitudes</cite> (London, 1888, pp. 42–43),
+Abercromby gives two maps, showing respectively
+the areas of Mohammedanism and the districts in
+Asia and Africa with a mean annual rainfall of less
+than ten inches. The maps are strikingly similar.
+The author adds: ‘Whether this distribution of a
+great creed is the result of chance, or of some deep
+connection between the tenets of that religion and
+climatic influences, I can not say;—but still the
+relation is so remarkable that I have thought it
+well to bring the matter forward.’”<a id='r276' /><a href='#f276' class='c015'><sup>[276]</sup></a></p>
+
+<h3 class='c016'><em>Climate and Conduct</em></h3>
+
+<p class='c017'>The “frequent and sudden weather changes
+of the temperate zones affect man in many ways,
+as do the larger seasonal changes. The relations
+between weather and conduct have frequently been
+investigated. Professor E. G. Dexter has made an
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>extended empirical study of the effects of the
+weather ... Bertillon has collected data on
+suicides and seasons in France, ...”<a id='r277' /><a href='#f277' class='c015'><sup>[277]</sup></a> Dexter
+studies empirically by means of statistics—plotting
+certain curves—the relation between temperature,
+barometric pressure, humidity, wind, character
+of the day, precipitation, on the one hand, and
+the child in school—work, deportment, attendance—, crime,
+insanity, health—sickness and
+death—, suicide, drunkenness, attention—errors
+in calculation made by clerks in banks—, on
+the other.<a id='r278' /><a href='#f278' class='c015'><sup>[278]</sup></a> Of his general conclusions<a id='r279' /><a href='#f279' class='c015'><sup>[279]</sup></a> the first
+is: “Varying meteorological conditions affect
+directly, though in different ways, the metabolism
+of life”; the second: “The ‘reserve energy’ capable
+of being utilized for intellectual processes and
+activities other than those of the vital organs is
+affected [<em>effected</em>, in the original] most by meteorological
+changes”; the third: “The quality of the
+emotional state is plainly influenced by the weather
+states”; the fourth: “Although meteorological
+conditions affect the emotional states, which without
+doubt have weight in the determination of
+conduct in its broadest sense, it would seem that
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>their effects upon that portion of the reserve energy
+which is available for action are of the greatest
+import.”<a id='r280' /><a href='#f280' class='c015'><sup>[280]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The nervous effects of the weather including
+cyclonic winds have also been noted. Among the
+Eskimos, “Marriages take place at an early age,
+especially among the women, and the return of
+the sun after the long winter has a stimulating
+effect on the animal passions which leads to sexual
+excesses of all kinds.”<a id='r281' /><a href='#f281' class='c015'><sup>[281]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Albert Leffingwell investigates <cite>The Influence
+of Seasons Upon Conduct</cite><a id='r282' /><a href='#f282' class='c015'><sup>[282]</sup></a> in Great Britain and
+elsewhere. He formulates the underlying assumption
+of his inquiry in the following manner: “It
+is not a new theory, though I propose to carry it
+somewhat further than it has been pushed hitherto.
+Over half a century ago, Quetelet in his great work
+“On Man,” suggested the hypothesis.... The
+hypothesis toward which all the facts point is
+simply this: that upon the nervous organization
+of human bodies (perhaps specially upon dwellers
+in the temperate zones) there is exerted during the
+procession of the seasons, from winter’s close till
+midsummer, some undefined, specific influence,
+which in some manner tends to increase the excitability
+of emotion and passion, and thus also to
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span>increase all actions arising therefrom.”<a id='r283' /><a href='#f283' class='c015'><sup>[283]</sup></a> To
+mention only one of Leffingwell’s illustrations, he
+brings together in a statistical table the total number
+of all crimes against persons in England for
+ten years (1878–87), the same facts for Ireland
+during the same decade, and for France during
+forty years (1830–69), and in conjunction therewith
+says: “Here, again, we find that all crimes, even
+those arising from personal antipathy or hatred,
+seem specially prevalent in the warmer half of
+the year. In England, 55 per cent of all such acts
+of violence during the ten years 1878–1887 happened
+in spring and summer, and in France during
+a period of forty years the average was the same.
+Ireland, indeed, shows a more even distribution of
+such crimes; but the tendency is seen even there.”<a id='r284' /><a href='#f284' class='c015'><sup>[284]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Cesare Lombroso, who is claimed to be the first
+to have essayed to portray the effect of physical
+environment on the human psyche,<a id='r285' /><a href='#f285' class='c015'><sup>[285]</sup></a> states in his
+<cite>Criminal Man</cite>,<a id='r286' /><a href='#f286' class='c015'><sup>[286]</sup></a> referring to Ferri and Holzendorf,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_88'>88</span>that with high temperature there is an increase in
+crimes of violence, while low temperature has the
+effect of increasing the number of crimes against
+property. In “comparing statistics of criminality
+in France with those of the variations in temperature,
+Ferri noted an increase in crimes of violence
+during the warmer years.”<a id='r287' /><a href='#f287' class='c015'><sup>[287]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Lombroso, in his <cite>Crime, Its Causes and Remedies</cite>,<a id='r288' /><a href='#f288' class='c015'><sup>[288]</sup></a>
+citing the conclusions of the relevant
+statistical evidence, establishes that in England
+and France and Italy the crimes of rape and of
+murder occur in greatest number in the hottest
+months; that the maximum number of all rebellions
+in the whole world between 1791 and 1880 falls
+everywhere in the hottest month, while its minimum
+number comes in the coldest months; and that
+crimes against property markedly increase in the
+winter.<a id='r289' /><a href='#f289' class='c015'><sup>[289]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>In the southern parts of Italy and France
+“there occur many more crimes against persons
+than in the central and northern portions....
+Guerry has shown that crimes against persons are
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>twice as numerous in southern France (4.9) as in
+central and northern France (2.7 and 2.9). <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vice
+versa</span></i>, crimes against property are more frequent
+in the north (4.9), than in the central and southern
+regions (2.3).”<a id='r290' /><a href='#f290' class='c015'><sup>[290]</sup></a> According to Buckle,<a id='r291' /><a href='#f291' class='c015'><sup>[291]</sup></a> climate
+makes men’s habits regular or irregular.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>
+  <h3 class='c016'><em>Climatic Control of Food and Drink</em></h3>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c017'>William Ridgeway, summarizing his argument
+in “The Application of Zoölogical Laws to Man,”<a id='r292' /><a href='#f292' class='c015'><sup>[292]</sup></a>
+says: “We have seen that environment is a powerful
+factor in the differentiation of the various races
+of man, alike in physique, institutions, and religion.
+It is probable that the food supply at hand in each
+region may be an important element in these variations,
+whilst the nature of the food and drink preferred
+there may itself be due in no small degree
+to climatic conditions.... The aboriginal of
+the tropics is distinctly a vegetarian, whilst the
+Eskimo within the arctic circle is practically wholly
+carnivorous. In each case the taste is almost certainly
+due to the necessities of their environment....
+It is probable that the more northward man
+advanced the more carnivorous he became in
+order to support the rigours of the northern climate.
+The same holds equally true in the case of drink....
+All across Northern Europe and Asia there
+is a universal love of strong drink, which is not the
+mere outcome of vicious desires, but of climatic
+law.... This view derives additional support
+from the well-authenticated fact that one of the
+chief characteristics of the descendants of British
+settlers in Australia is their strong teetotalism.
+This cannot be set down to their having a higher
+moral standard than their ancestors, but rather,
+as in the case of Spaniards and Italians (temperance
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>reformers point to the sobriety of the
+Spaniards, Italians, and other South Europeans),
+to the circumstance that they live in a country
+much warmer and drier than the British Isles.
+We must therefore, no matter how reluctantly,
+come to the conclusion that no attempt to eradicate
+this tendency to alcohol in these latitudes can be
+successful....”<a id='r293' /><a href='#f293' class='c015'><sup>[293]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>
+  <h2 class='c007'>SUMMARY</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c013'>The Introductory Remark traces the semasiology
+and use of the word <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">milieu</span></i> and discusses its
+English and German equivalents “environment”
+and “Umwelt.”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>An historical sketch of the milieu idea is then
+taken up from the very beginnings to the nineteenth
+century. The earlier notions of environmental
+influence are general and undifferentiated.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The Hebrew Prophets see the hand of Providence
+in the harmony of national fate with the
+configuration of the globe. Hippocrates dwells
+upon the regularity of climatic effect on man.
+Aristotle notes the action of physical environment
+on government and national character. Eratosthenes,
+Strabo, and other Greek thinkers, relate
+man causally to surrounding nature. Villani
+says that the fine air of Arezzo produces great
+minds. Ibn Khaldūn explains, especially Arabic
+history, by the circumambient physical and social
+medium. Michelangelo credits Arezzo’s fine air
+with his mentality. Man is subject to the “skyey
+influences” hourly (Shakespeare).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Jean Bodin plants the study of environment
+in French soil so firmly and so successfully that it
+has since become, in a very real sense, indigenous
+to France and that Bertillon could justly claim
+it to be a study “<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">très-française</span></i>,” a claim which
+is true to this very day. Bodin’s second contribution
+is that he undertook, for the first time in
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>the modern period (on the basis of sixteenth century
+knowledge and experience), a scientific and
+detailed examination, far-reaching and extensive
+in scope, of the manifold influences of climatic and
+geographical conditions upon States, laws, national
+character, religion, language, temperament, talents
+and aptitudes,—in brief, upon man’s mind, manners,
+and morals.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The study of milieu thus inaugurated in France
+by Bodin is set up as a French tradition by Lenglet
+du Fresnoy, Montesquieu, Turgot, Cuvier, and
+others,<a id='r294' /><a href='#f294' class='c015'><sup>[294]</sup></a> and has been continued by French writers
+to our day.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>A number of philosophers in the seventeenth
+and eighteenth centuries take up this idea. The
+doctrine of environment spreads to England and
+Germany.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In Germany, Herder becomes the fulcrum of all
+previous thought (Hebrew, Greek, French, English,
+and German) on this theory. Herder, in
+turn, in addition to his other and principal contributions
+to the theory, affects it by giving a
+quickened impetus not only to the contemporary
+development thereof, but also to the later course
+of that development. Goethe reflects some of
+Herder’s conceptions. Wolf, Niebuhr, the German
+romanticists—August Wilhelm Schlegel in
+especial—and Hegel apply Herder’s idea to history
+and continue it therein. Hegel combats the
+notion that climate can be the be-all and end-all
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_95'>95</span>of historical explanation; he implies that climate
+was held to be a <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vera causa</span></i>.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The theory of social environment evolves,
+particularly since Ibn Khaldūn, parallel with that
+of the physical milieu.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The nineteenth century brings differentiation
+carried out in human geography including history,
+in biology, in jurisprudence and economics, in
+anthropology, in sociology, in literature, and latterly
+in physics. These disciplines determine our
+divisions for discussions shortly to follow the
+present one.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The major portion of this study is then given
+over to following the milieu idea in some of the
+more important French, English, and German
+writers of the past century on what for want of a
+better name has been called anthropo-geography
+inclusive of certain aspects of history.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>On the whole, their method has been the comparative
+method. Principles laid down <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">a priori</span></i>
+would be illustrated by typical cases selected
+mostly from the past. Or, the process would be
+reversed to an <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">a posteriori</span></i> reasoning: history restudied
+to find out its possible connections with
+the environment. Again: some would pick out
+a phase of the encompassing medium and follow
+out its effects in a particular country, while others
+would try to arrive at a more general conclusion.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>With reference to climate in particular, the
+statistical method was employed by Quételet,
+Bertillon, Leffingwell, Ferri, Holzendorf, Guerry,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>Curcio, Lombroso, and others, who established a
+parallelism, or coincidence, between certain climatic
+features and the criminal conduct of man.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Delimited aspects of environment, relating
+again more to climate than any other phase of the
+milieu, were made the objects of observational or
+experimentally observational studies by Dexter,
+Brunhes, and Hellpach, the last two giving the
+most recent comprehensive summaries of our
+knowledge in this field. And they are among the
+best we have.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The next part of this study will continue the
+survey of the history of this theory in the above
+mentioned sciences as well as in literature.</p>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>
+  <h2 class='c007'>APPENDIX</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class='c013'>Since the foregoing study was completed, E.
+Huntington’s stimulating book—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide supra</span></i>, p. 79,
+n.—on <cite>Civilization and Climate</cite> has appeared. He
+continues what Dexter began. Lack of definiteness
+in observation, argumentative conviction, reasoned
+out opinion, are superseded by scientific exactness in
+ascertaining the action of climate. Chapters 4–7
+(pp. 49–147) concern us here. In these chapters he
+investigates “the exact effect of various climatic factors
+upon selected groups of people” (p. 49).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Huntington subjects to statistical analysis the
+daily records of about 550 factory operatives, pieceworkers,
+employed in three factories in three New
+England cities. The records, most of them for a
+complete year, are distributed over the four years
+from 1910 to 1913 (p. 53).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>He computes wage averages. He finds for each
+working day the average hourly wage for each group
+of operatives. When the daily averages had been
+found, they were averaged together by weeks. To
+give each individual an equal importance, the figures
+of each group have been reduced to percentages.
+Finally, the different groups were combined (p. 57).
+His final computations are represented in curves. A
+curve, graduated in twelve parts (one for each month),
+for a given year shows the earnings in percentages at
+any point and thus reveals the <em>time</em> of the weakness
+or efficiency of the worker; it shows the time of his
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>wages from least to most, thereby indicating the time
+of his work and energy from poorest to best.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Huntington worked up similarly the records of 65
+operatives in a North Carolina factory, of 240 operatives
+in four cotton mills in South Carolina and Georgia, of
+57 carpenters at Jacksonville, Fla., and on a different
+basis the work of 2700 cigar makers in two cigar
+factories in Florida. On the first basis he also computed
+a series of data from a large factory at Pittsburgh,
+Pennsylvania, based on the work of about 950
+operatives in 1910, of about 750 in 1911, of 69 in 1912,
+of about 7000 in 1913. He figured the monthly or
+bi-weekly averages of hourly earnings of these pieceworkers
+in Pittsburgh.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Discussing the curves in Figure 1 (p. 59), he mentions
+(p. 61) five features revealed by the curves that
+show no sign of disappearing. They are: “an extremely
+low place in midwinter, and a less pronounced
+low place in midsummer; a high point in June, a still
+higher point at the end of October, and a hump in
+mid-December....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Before we discuss the causes of the variability
+of the summers let us consider the meaning of the
+curves as a whole. In the first place, it is evident that,
+although details may vary from year to year, the
+general course of events is uniformly from low in the
+winter to high in the fall with a drop of more or less
+magnitude in summer. To what can this be due?...</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“We seem forced to search outside of the factories
+for the reasons for our seasonal fluctuations of wages....
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>There seems to be no recourse except to ascribe
+the fluctuations of the curves to climate [pp. 64–5].</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“The verity of the conclusion just reached is
+strongly confirmed by comparison with other regions
+and other types of human activity.... The curves
+[in Figure 2, pp. 66–7] range from the Adirondacks in
+northern New York to Tampa in southern Florida
+and include one from Denmark. With them I have
+repeated some of the curves of Figure 1 for the sake
+of comparison. The most remarkable feature of this
+series is that although there is great diversity of place
+and of activity, all the curves harmonize with what
+would be expected on the basis of Figure 1 [p. 65].</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“The general form of the curves for Pittsburgh and
+Connecticut is obviously the same....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“The agreement between the curves for Connecticut
+and Pennsylvania is far too close to be accidental
+[p. 76].</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“We have now seen that from New England to
+Florida physical strength and health vary in accordance
+with the seasons. Extremes seem to produce the
+same effect everywhere. The next question is whether
+mental activity varies the same way” (p. 77).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Huntington uses the marks of “about 1900 students
+for a single year” in mathematics (weekly averages at
+Annapolis and daily averages at West Point) and in
+English (at Annapolis). From these data he compiles
+the curves in Figure 3 (p. 80). He says (p. 81), “The
+curves of mental activity all resemble it [the average
+curve of physical work] in having two main maxima,
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>in fall and spring.... At Annapolis, just as at
+West Point, the time of best work is when the mean
+temperature is not far from forty degrees [Fahrenheit].</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Summing up the matter, we find that the results
+of investigations in Denmark, Japan, Connecticut,
+Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland, the Carolinas,
+Georgia, and Florida are in harmony. They all show
+that except in Florida neither the winter nor the summer
+is the most favorable season. Both physical and
+mental activity reach pronounced maxima in the
+spring and fall, with minima in midwinter and midsummer.
+The consistency of our results is of great
+importance. It leads to the belief that in all parts
+of the world the climate is exercising an influence
+which can readily be measured, and can be subjected
+to statistical analysis” (p. 82).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>This is his conclusion in Chapter IV (pp. 49–82),
+“The Effect of the Seasons.”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Having seen in the fourth chapter “that both
+physical and mental energy vary from season to season
+according to well-defined laws,” Huntington investigates
+in the fifth chapter (“The Effect of Humidity
+and Temperature,” pp. 83–110) “the special features
+of seasonal change which are most effective” (p. 83).
+Explaining the curves of Human Activity and Mean
+Temperature (p. 99), he says (p. 98), “With the
+exception of the last two, which are distinctly the
+least reliable, the physical group all reach maxima at a
+temperature between 59° and 65°. Even the two less
+reliable curves reach their maxima within the next
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>four degrees. All the curves decline at low temperatures,
+..., and also at high.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Another point brought out by the curves [on p.
+99] is that as we go to more southerly climes the optimum
+temperature of the human race becomes higher.
+It is important to note, however, that the variation
+in the optimum is slight compared with the variation
+in the mean temperature of the places in question.
+For instance, in Connecticut the optimum seems to
+be about 60° for people of north European stock. This
+is about ten degrees higher than the mean temperature
+for the year as a whole. In Florida, on the other hand,
+the optimum for Cubans is about 65°, which is five
+degrees <em>lower</em> than the mean temperature for the
+year at Tampa. In other words, with a difference of
+twenty degrees in the mean annual temperature, and
+with a distinctly northern race compared with a
+southern, we find that the optimum differs only about
+5° F. This seems to mean that for the entire human
+race the optimum temperature probably does not vary
+more than ten or fifteen degrees [pp. 100–101].</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“The last thing to be considered in Figure 8 [p. 99]
+is the mental curve [showing optimum mental work at
+38° F.] at the bottom. It is based on so large a number
+of people, and is so regular, that its general reliability
+seems great, although I think that future studies
+may show the optimum to be a few degrees higher than
+is here indicated. It agrees with the results of Lehmann
+and Pedersen. Furthermore, from general
+observation we are most of us aware that we are mentally
+more active in comparatively cool weather.
+<span class='pageno' id='Page_102'>102</span>Perhaps ‘spring fever’ is a mental state far more than
+a physical. Apparently people do the best mental
+work on days when the thermometer ranges from
+freezing to about 50°—that is, when the mean temperature
+is not far from 40°. Inasmuch as human
+progress depends upon a coördination of mental and
+physical activity, we seem to be justified in the conclusion
+that the greatest total efficiency occurs halfway
+between the mental and physical optima, that is, with
+a mean temperature of about 50°” (pp. 102–103).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>The curves (p. 105) on Mean Temperature and
+Vital Processes in Plants, Animals and Man show
+physical energy to be at the optimum at the mean
+temperature of 60° F., mental energy at 38°, mental
+and physical energy combined at from 40° to 60°. Of
+this last mentioned curve he says: “It may be taken
+as representing man’s actual productive activity in
+the things that make for a high civilization. The
+resemblance of the human curves to those of the lower
+organisms is obvious. In general, the lower types
+of life, or the lower forms of activity, seem to reach
+their optima at higher temperatures than do the more
+advanced types and the more lofty functions such as
+mentality. The whole trend of biological thought is
+toward the conclusion that the same laws apply to all
+forms of life. They differ in application, but not in
+principle. The law of optimum temperature apparently
+controls the phenomena of life from the lowest
+activities of protoplasm to the highest activities of
+the human intellect” (pp. 109–110).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>In Chapter VI (“Work and Weather,” pp. 111–128),
+he interprets the curves he plotted showing especially
+the influence of changes of temperature from day to day,
+and of the character of each day and its relation to
+storms. In the very interesting Chapter VII (pp.
+129–147) he discusses “The Ideal Climate.”</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>In the closing paragraph of his book, he says, “If
+our hypothesis is true, man is more closely dependent
+upon nature than he has realized. A realization of
+his limitations, however, is the first step toward freedom
+[p. 293].</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“The hypothesis, briefly stated, is this: Today a
+certain peculiar type of climate prevails wherever
+civilization is high. In the past the same type seems
+to have prevailed wherever a great civilization arose.
+Therefore, such a climate seems to be a necessary
+condition of great progress. It is not the cause of
+civilization, for that lies infinitely deeper. Nor is it
+the only, or the most important condition. It is
+merely one of several, ...” (p. 9.)</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>Huntington mentions (p. 7) Lehmann and Pedersen’s
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Wetter und unsere Arbeit</span>” and Berliner’s
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Einfluß von Klima, Wetter und Jahreßeit auf das
+Nerven- und Seelenleben</span>,” without the date or place
+of publication.</p>
+
+<p class='c018'><span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span><span class='sc'>Note</span>: Since the foregoing pages went to press, the following
+publications have appeared; being too late for inclusion or comment
+in the text, they are added here for reference:</p>
+
+<p class='c019'>Douglas W. Johnson, <cite>Topography and Strategy in the War</cite>,
+N. Y., Henry Holt &amp; Co., 1917, 221 pp. (Thorough and very
+illuminating; points out how the surface features of the country
+influenced military operations in the most important theaters of
+the war.)</p>
+
+<p class='c019'>James Fairgrieve, <cite>Geography and World Power</cite>, N. Y., E. P.
+Dutton &amp; Co., 1917, 356 pp. (Shows how History has been
+controlled by Geography.)</p>
+
+<p class='c019'>Robert De C. Ward, “Weather Controls Over the Fighting
+in the Italian War Zone,” <cite>The Scientific Monthly</cite>, Vol. 6, No. 2
+(February, 1918), pp. 97–105. And “Weather Controls Over
+the Fighting in Mesopotamia, in Palestine, and near the Suez
+Canal,” <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibidem</span></i>, Vol. 6, No. 4 (April, 1918), pp. 289–304.</p>
+
+<hr class='c020' />
+<div class='footnote' id='f1'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For brief but valuable sketches of one phase or another
+of the history of the theory of milieu, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Friedrich Ratzel, <cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>.
+1. <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Teil: Grundzüge der Anwendung der Erdkunde
+auf die Geschichte</span></cite> (2. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1899, 604 pp.),
+pp. 13–23, 25–30, 31–40; Gustav Schmoller, <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Grundriß der Allgemeinen
+Volkswirtschaftslehre</span></i>. Erster Teil (<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Vierte bis sechste
+Aufl.</span>, Leipzig, 1901), p. 127, pp. 137 f., 144 ff., Zweiter Teil
+(<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Erste bis sechste Aufl.</span>, Leipzig, 1904), pp. 656 ff.; <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ferdinand v.
+Richthofen’s Vorlesungen über Allgemeine Siedlungs- und Verkehrsgeographie</span></cite>,
+bearb. und herausgegeben von O. Schlüter (Berlin,
+1908, 351 pp.—A course of lectures delivered in the summer semester
+of 1891 in Berlin, repeated in the winter semester in 1897/8),
+pp. 6–13; Jean Brunhes, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Géographie Humaine</span></cite> (<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Deuxième
+édition</span>, Paris: Alcan, 1912, 801 pp.), pp. 36 ff.; A. C. Haddon
+and A. H. Quiggin, <cite>History of Anthropology</cite> (London, 1910,
+158 pp.), pp. 131 f., 150–52; William Z. Ripley, “Geography and
+Sociology,” <cite>Political Science Quarterly</cite>, X (1895), pp. 636–54;
+also the same author’s <cite>The Races of Europe</cite> (New York: D.
+Appleton &amp; Co., 1899), pp. 2–5. Cf. also O. Schlüter, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die
+leitenden Gesichtspunkte der Anthropogeographie, insbesondere
+der Lehre Friedrich Ratzels,” <em>Arch. f. Sozialwissenschaft</em>, Bd.
+IV (1906), S. 581–630, and Rudolf Goldscheid, <cite>Höherentwicklung
+und Menschenökonomie</cite>, I [Philosophisch-soziologische Bücherei,
+Band VIII], (Leipzig: W. Klinkhardt, 1911, 664 pp.), p. 52.</span>
+For bibliographies, in addition to those yet to be mentioned,
+see also Ratzel, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 579–85; Brunhes, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, nn.; Ellen C. Semple,
+<cite>Influences of Geographic Environment, On the Basis of Ratzel’s
+System of Anthropo-geography</cite> (New York: H. Holt &amp; Co., 1911,
+637 pp.), to each chapter of which an extensive bibliography is
+added; William J. Thomas, <cite>Source Book for Social Origins</cite> (Chicago
+and London, 1909) pp. 134–39: Bibliography to Part I: The
+Relation of Society to Geographic and Economic Environment
+(pp. 29–129, Comment on Part I, pp. 130–33); Ripley, “Geography
+and Sociology,” <cite>Pol. Sc. Quar.</cite>, X (1895), pp. 654–5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f2'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Dictionnaire de l’Académie Françoise.</cite> Quatrième Édition.
+Tome Second (Paris, 1762), p. 143.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f3'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r3'>3</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences</span></i>, etc.
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Nouvelle Éd. 1778</span>, ed. by Diderot and D’Alembert, 21st vol.,
+p. 853.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f4'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r4'>4</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cours de Philosophie Positive</span></cite> (6 vols., 1830–42, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">5<sup>e</sup> édition</span>,
+Paris, 1892–94), see vol. 3, p. 235 n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f5'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r5'>5</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cp. esp. the Introduction to his <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Histoire de la Littérature
+Anglaise</cite>, 5 Tomes (8<sup>e</sup> Édition, Paris: Hachette, 1892)</span>; the first
+edition appeared in 1863, after Taine had been at work on it for
+well-nigh a decade.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f6'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r6'>6</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For Zola as the disciple of Taine, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> H. Wiegler, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Geschichte
+und Kritik der Theorie des Milieus bei Émile Zola</span></cite> (Diss., Rostock,
+1905), esp. pp. 19–36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f7'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r7'>7</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Émile Waxweiler, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Esquisse d’une Sociologie</span></cite> (Bruxelles,
+1906), p. 65.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f8'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r8'>8</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire de la Langue Française</span></cite>, vol. 3 (1885), pp.
+559 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f9'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r9'>9</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verdeutschungen, Wörterbuch fürs tägliche Leben</span></cite> (Braunschweig,
+Verlag von George Westermann, 1915, 176 pp.), p. 93.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f10'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r10'>10</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Verdeutschungsbücher des Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins,
+III</cite> (Zweite Aufl., neu bearb. v. Edward Lohmeyer,
+Berlin, Verlag des Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins, 1915,
+182 pp.), pp. 91 f.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f11'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r11'>11</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Phénomènes de la vie</span></cite> (<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">2<sup>e</sup> éd.</span>, Paris, 1885), t. I, p. 112. See
+Waxweiler, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 36.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f12'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r12'>12</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Race Prejudice</cite>, transl. by Florence Wade-Evans (London,
+1906), p. 130.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f13'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r13'>13</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“The Services of Naturalism to Life and Literature. Reprinted,
+with Additions, from <cite>The Sewanee Review</cite>, October,
+1903,” p. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f14'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r14'>14</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Murray’s NED., vol. III, Part II, (1897), p. 231.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f15'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r15'>15</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wörterbuch d. d. Sprache</span></i> (1811), Bd. 5, S. 113.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f16'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r16'>16</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See the article by I. Stosch on “Umwelt-<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">milieu</span></i>,” <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Zeitschrift
+für Deutsche Wortforschung</cite>, g. v. Fr. Kluge, 7. Bd. (1905), pp.
+58–9</span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f17'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r17'>17</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">2. Bd., 2. Hälfte (Leipzig: Otto Wigand, 1865), p. 1556<sup>b</sup>.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f18'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r18'>18</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A. Gombert cites the passage in question in his article
+<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Umwelt,” <cite>Z. f. D. Wf.</cite>, 7. Bd. (1905), pp. 150–52.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f19'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r19'>19</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The Belgian sociologist De Greef, in his <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Introduction
+à la Sociologie</span></cite> (1886–89), raised “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mésologie</span>” (denoting “Erkenntnis
+der milieux”) to a special introductory branch of sociology
+for the purpose of discussing, according to Ratzel superficially,
+the external factors of history; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Paul Barth, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Philosophie
+der Geschichte als Soziologie</span></cite>, I (Leipzig: Reisland, 1897), p. 70
+and Ratzel, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i> p. 29. The term “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mésologie</span>” was in use in
+France at an earlier date than that. See for example the title
+of an article written at the close of the Franco-German war by
+Dr. Bertillon, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“De l´Influence du milieu ou Mésologie,” <cite>La Philosophie
+Positive</cite>, Revue dirigée par É. Littré &amp; G. Wyrouboff,
+Tome IX</span> (Paris, 1872), pp. 309–20. Or see M. E. Jourdy, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De
+l´Influence du milieu ou Mésologie</span>,” <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, Tome X (1873), pp.
+154–60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f20'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r20'>20</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Fr. de Rougemont, in his important work <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les deux cités;
+la philosophie de l´histoire aux différents âges de l´humanité</span></cite> (1874)
+treats this question exhaustively. See Robert Poehlmann,
+<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Hellenische Anschauungen über den Zusammenhang zwischen
+Natur und Geschichte</span></cite> (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1879, 93 pp.), pp. 8 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f21'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r21'>21</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Eugénie Dutoit, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Theorie des Milieu</span></cite> (Diss., Bern,
+1899, 136 pp.), pp. 52–5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f22'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r22'>22</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Hippocrate fut le premier à observer quelques-uns des
+effets du milieu sur l’individu. Ses observations sont nécessairement
+nébuleuses et chaotiques, plutôt descriptives et qualitatives,
+étant donnée l’imperfection des connaissances de son temps.”—Auguste
+Matteuzzi, <cite>Les Facteurs de l’Évolution des Peuples</cite> (Paris,
+1900), p. 6 (Avant-Propos).</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f23'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r23'>23</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wir sahen, daß sich das Buch des Hippokrates durchaus
+darauf beschränkte, die Wechselbeziehungen zwischen Landesnatur
+und Volkscharakter zu erörtern.</span>”—Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 51.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f24'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r24'>24</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Hippokrates von Kos, ‘der Vater der Heilkunde’ (ca.
+460 bis ca. 370), ist der <em>Begründer der Anthropogeographie</em>. Er
+schrieb ein Buch über Klima, Wasser und Bodenbeschaffenheit
+und ihren Einfluß auf die Bewohner eines Landes in physischer
+und geistiger Beziehung. Der philosophische Gedanke war damit
+angeregt, fand aber keine weitere Entwicklung.</span>”—<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">F. v. Richthofen’s
+Vorlesungen</span></cite>, etc. (Berlin, 1908), p. 7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f25'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r25'>25</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>System of Positive Polity</cite> (4 vols., London: Longmans,
+Green &amp; Co., 1875–77—the original was published in 1851–54),
+vol. II, p. 364: “... a study [of the aggregate of material
+influences: Astronomical, Physical, Chemical] which was commenced
+by the great Hippocrates in his admirable and unequalled
+Treatise upon Climate.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f26'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r26'>26</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Haddon and Quiggin, <cite>Hist. of Anthropology</cite> (1910), p.
+150.—Poehlmann discusses Hippocrates in <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Hellenische Anschauungen</span></cite>,
+etc., pp. 12–37.—Ludwig Stein, in his book <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die soziale
+Frage im Lichte der Philosophie</span></cite> (2. verb. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1903),
+p. 403, n., says that “Aless. Chiapelli, <i><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Le promesse filosofiche
+del Socialismo</span></i> (Napoli, 1897), p. 41, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">hebt die interessante Tatsache
+hervor, daß die Lehre vom ‘Milieu’ ihrem Keime nach
+auf Hippokrates zurückgeht</span>.” But a little over three decades
+earlier, Peschel in his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Geschichte der Erdkunde</span></cite> (1. Aufl., 1865)
+surveyed on two pages some important phases of Hippocrates
+and Strabo on milieu. And earlier still, a half century before
+Peschel, Ukert in his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Geographie der Griechen und Römer</span></cite> (1816),
+I, 1, 79, noted Hippocrates as carefully observing the effect of
+climate on the body and mind of man. (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Poehlmann, l.c.,
+pp. 7 f.)—And to Herder, Hippocrates was the principal author
+on climate: “... <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hippocrat. de aere, locis et aquis</span></i>, ... <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Für
+mich der Hauptschriftsteller über das Klima.”—<cite>Herders Sämmtliche
+Werke</cite>, hg. v. B. Suphan, 13, 269 n.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f27'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r27'>27</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Dutoit, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Theorie des Milieu</span></cite>, pp. 55–8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f28'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r28'>28</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 68.—Aristotle neglects to give credit
+to Hippocrates in connection with his ideas on environment,
+although indebted to Hippocrates whom he mentions elsewhere.
+See Dutoit, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 57.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f29'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r29'>29</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Varron, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De re rustica</span></i>, <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">1, cite une oeuvre d’Eratosthènes
+où celui-ci cherchait à démontrer que le caractère de l’homme
+et la forme du gouvernement sont subordonnés au voisinage ou
+à l’éloignement du soleil. Tentative sublime mais prématurée,
+pour ramener les phénomènes sociaux à des lois uniques et générales.”—Auguste
+Matteuzzi, <cite>Les Facteurs de l’Évolution des
+Peuples</cite> (Paris, 1900), p. 6.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f30'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r30'>30</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die vollständigste Beschreibung [of the earth] gab erst
+Strabo in seinem Werk</span> <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">γεογραφικά</span>. <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Hier begegnen wir zum
+zweitenmal der philosophischen Idee, <em>Mensch und Natur in
+Kausalzusammenhang</em> miteinander zu bringen. Strabos Geographie
+ist als ‘Länder- und Völkerkunde’ das größte Werk des
+Altertums. Die Anschauung eines kausalen Zusammenhanges
+des Menschen mit der Natur ging darauf unter</span> [according to
+him, until the middle of the eighteenth century, until Montesquieu].”—<cite>Richthofen’s
+Vorlesungen</cite>, etc. (1908), p. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f31'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r31'>31</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Buckle and his Critics</cite> (London, 1895, 548 pp.), p. 7 n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f32'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r32'>32</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 7.—For a brief statement of the
+theory of milieu in Greek writers (Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato,
+Aristotle, Theophrastus), <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Curtius, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Boden und Clima von Athen</span></cite>
+(1877), p. 4 f. For Aristotle, compare also Dondorff, <cite>Das hellenische
+Land als Schauplatz der althellenischen Geschichte</cite> (Hamburg,
+1899, 42 pp.), pp. 11 f. Poehlmann, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, discusses the views on
+environment of Herodotus (pp. 37–47), of Thucydides (pp. 52–4),
+of Xenophon (pp. 55 f.), of Ephoros [only fragments of his
+great work, A Universal History, are extant; cited by Strabo]
+(pp. 56–9), of Plato (pp. 59–64), of Aristotle (pp. 64–74), of Polybios
+(pp. 75–7), of Posidonios [in Strabo and in Galen] (pp. 78–80),
+of Strabo (pp. 80–90), of Galen (pp. 91 f.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f33'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r33'>33</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Élisàr v. Kupffer, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Klima und Dichtung, Ein Beitrag
+zur Psychophysik</cite> [in <cite>Grenzfragen der Literatur und Medizin</cite> in
+Einzeldarstellungen hg. v. S. Rahmer, Berlin, 4. Heft] (München,
+1907), p. 63.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f34'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r34'>34</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Translated into French by Baron Meg. F. de Slane (3
+vols., Paris, 1862–8).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f35'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r35'>35</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See R. Flint, <cite>History of the Philosophy of History, Historical
+Philosophy in France and French Belgium and Switzerland</cite> (New
+York: Scribner, 1894, 706 pp.), pp. 159 f.—“His [Mohammed
+Ibn Khaldūn’s] fame rests securely ... on his <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">magnum opus</span></i>,
+the ‘Universal History,’ and especially on the first part of it,
+the ‘Prolegomena’ (p. 162).... They [the Prolegomena]
+may fairly be regarded as forming a distinct and complete work....
+It consists of a preface, an introduction, and six sections
+or divisions (p. 163).”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f36'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r36'>36</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 164 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f37'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r37'>37</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide infra</span></i>, p. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f38'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r38'>38</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 164.—Cf. also pp. 158–72, for Ibn Khaldūn
+in general.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f39'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r39'>39</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cf. Kupffer, <cite>Klima and Dichtung</cite>, p. 63.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f40'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r40'>40</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Da Bodin hauptsächlich an die Anschauungen des
+Aristoteles anknüpft, ...—Auch an Strabo, der dem Einfluß
+des Klimas und der Landesnatur schon die schöpferischen
+Kräfte des Volksgeistes gegenübergestellt hat, lehnt sich Bodin
+an.”—Fritz Renz, <cite>Jean Bodin, Ein Beitrag z. Geschichte d. hist.
+Methode im 16. Jahrhundert</cite> [Geschichtliche Untersuchungen hg.
+v. Karl Lamprecht, III. Bd., I. Heft], (Gotha, 1905, 84 pp.),
+p. 48 n.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f41'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r41'>41</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem</span></cite>, published
+in 1566.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f42'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r42'>42</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, 198.—The ‘Republic’ was first published in
+1576 in French under the title <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De la République</span></cite>. Eight years
+later (1584) Bodin himself translated it into Latin as <cite><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Republica
+Libri Sex</span></cite>. See Ludwig Stein, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Die soziale Frage im Lichte der
+Philosophie</cite> (2. verb. Aufl., Stuttgart, 1902), p. 217 n.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f43'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r43'>43</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Compare Dutoit, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Theorie des Milieu</span></cite>, pp. 58–62.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f44'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r44'>44</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die physische Konstitution des Menschen hängt nach
+Bodin eng mit den klimatischen Verhältnissen seiner Heimat
+zusammen und entspricht dem Verhalten der Erde, die er bewohnt ...</span>”—Renz,
+<cite>Jean Bodin</cite> (1905), p. 50.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Da
+der animalische Körper wie alle Körper aus einer Mischung der
+Elemente besteht, so ergibt sich eine direkte Abhängigkeit der
+physischen Konstitution von der umgebenden Natur, ja sogar
+eine Übereinstimmung mit dem Verhalten der Erde in dem betreffenden
+Himmelsstrich. Der menschliche Körper reagiert auf
+die klimatischen Einflüsse genau so wie die Erde, die er bewohnt,
+...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibidem</span></i>, p. 44.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f45'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r45'>45</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Discussed by Renz, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 47–61, in the chapter <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Die
+Theorie des Klimas.”—“Behandelt wird die Theorie des Klimas
+nach dem 5. Kapitel des ‘Methodus,’ in dem sich Bodin zum
+ersten Male mit dieser Doktrin befaßte; zur Erläuterung wird
+auch das 1. Kapitel des V. Buches der ‘République’ herangezogen,
+in dem die Theorie des Klimas, aber in gedrängterer
+Form, wiederholt wird.</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 47 n. Cf. also p. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f46'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r46'>46</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Sogar das Temperament variiert nach dem Klima ...</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wie das Temperament wird die Sprache von dem inneren
+physischen Bau abhängig gedacht ...</span></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ebenso wird die Fortpflanzungsfähigkeit in direkte Abhängigkeit
+von der physischen Konstitution gebracht ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+pp. 52 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f47'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r47'>47</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wie das Äußere und die physische Konstitution hängen
+auch die Anlagen und Fähigkeiten der Völker mit den klimatischen
+Verschiedenheiten zusammen ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 54.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f48'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r48'>48</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Nach der Dreiteilung der seelischen Fähigkeiten
+bei dem Einzelmenschen und den Bewohnern jedes Staates werden
+die Völker auf der ganzen Erde gruppiert, indem durch das
+Klima immer eine Anlage besonders zur Ausbildung kommt ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+p. 46.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f49'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r49'>49</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Bodin nimmt zwei Teile des menschlichen Seelenlebens
+an, erstens eine allen Menschen gemeinsame, unveränderliche
+geistige Befähigung, die Vernunft, und zweitens Anlagen,
+die von dem Klima und der physischen Natur des Menschen
+abhängen. In der</span> ‘<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">République</span>’ <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">wird ausgeführt, daß diese
+abhängigen Anlagen nur verschiedene von dem geographischen
+Milieu abhängige Entwicklungsstufen des Verstandes sind,
+während dieser an sich von den einzelnen Gegenden unabhängig
+ist ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 45.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f50'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r50'>50</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Indem er [Bodin] als erster in der Neuzeit auf
+streng wissenschaftlicher Grundlage versucht, die Wechselwirkung,
+die zwischen dem historischen Verlauf und der Natur
+stattfindet, festzustellen, gelangt er zu der Annahme von zwei
+Teilen des geistig-seelischen Innenlebens, eines von den umgebenden
+Verhältnissen abhängigen und eines absoluten, gegen äußere
+Einflüsse sich passiv verhaltenden Teils. Willensfreiheit
+neben der durch das Milieu bedingten Ausbildung bestimmter
+Anlagen und Fähigkeiten ist der mittlere Weg, den er zwischen
+der Annahme des zwingenden Einflusses der äußeren Natur und
+der gänzlichen Unabhängigkeit von ihr einschlägt ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+p. 77.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f51'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r51'>51</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Neben dem Horizontal- wendet Bodin den Vertikalmaßstab
+zur Beurteilung der Völker an, indem er untersucht, wie die
+verschiedene Erhebung des Bodens auf die Gestaltung des Volkscharakters
+einwirkt ...</span></p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ebenso wird die Natur der Völker von der Qualität des
+heimatlichen Bodens beeinflußt, ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 58.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Einfluß,
+der sich aus der östlicheren oder westlicheren Wohnlage
+auf den Volkscharakter geltend macht, ist, wo nicht in der Richtung
+Süd-Nord sich erstreckende Gebirge eine deutlichere Scheidelinie
+bilden, nach Bodin schwer zu bestimmen ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i> p. 57.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f52'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r52'>52</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Neben der Vorstellung von der geistig-sittlichen Einheit
+der Menschen geht die Erkenntnis der Verschiedenartigkeit
+der Nationen und ihres Bildungsgrades her, die aus den partikularen
+Bedingungen des nationalen Einzeldaseins resultiert. Zur
+Erklärung des Volkscharakters wird, wie schon dargelegt, die
+Theorie des Klimas herangezogen ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 62.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f53'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r53'>53</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Bodin hat sich deswegen mit der Theorie des Klimas
+beschäftigt, weil er in der Geschichte und im Völkerleben bestimmte
+regelmäßige Erscheinungen wahrnahm, die er sich nur
+aus dem Einfluß des geographischen Milieus erklären konnte.
+Bei dem strengen Festhalten an der menschlichen Willensfreiheit
+konnte er sich diesen Einfluß nur durch die Annahme einer von
+äußeren Verhältnissen abhängigen Entwicklungsfähigkeit der
+geistigen Anlagen in bestimmter Richtung erklären...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+p. 60 f.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das unbedingte Festhalten an der menschlichen
+Willensfreiheit mußte Bodin vor der Annahme bewahren, daß
+der Einfluß des geographischen Milieus auf die Menschen ein
+zwingender sei. Nur die Entwicklung der Anlagen wird von
+der Umwelt bestimmt, nicht aber das sittliche Wollen ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+p. 59.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f54'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r54'>54</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wo die äußere Natur zur Entwicklung schlechter Anlagen
+führt, besitzt nach Bodin die Menschheit in der Erziehung
+ein Mittel, diesem Übelstand zu begegnen.</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 77.—“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">...
+den Menschen [wird] die Fähigkeit zugesprochen ...,
+die schädlichen Einwirkungen des Klimas wenn auch schwer,
+zu überwinden ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 60.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f55'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r55'>55</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, p. 198.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f56'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r56'>56</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Den Vergleich der drei Völkergruppen [südliche,
+mittlere, nördliche] mit den menschlichen Lebensaltern hat
+Bodin von Aristoteles entlehnt, was er Meth. V 140, 141 selbst
+zugibt.</span>”—Renz, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 57.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f57'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r57'>57</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, p. 48.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f58'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r58'>58</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Haddon and Quiggin, <cite>Hist. of Anthropology</cite> (London,
+1910), p. 150.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f59'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r59'>59</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, p. 77.—For Bodin in general, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Renz, <cite>Jean Bodin</cite>;
+Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 190–200; Ludwig Stein, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Die soziale Frage im Lichte
+der Philosophie</cite>, pp. 217–19. H. Morf, <cite>Französische Literatur im
+Zeitalter der Renaissance</cite> (2. verb. Aufl., Straßburg: Trübner,
+1914)</span>, is brief on Bodin, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">vide</span></i> esp. pp. 131 f.; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also p. 125.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f60'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r60'>60</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">E. Bernheim, <cite>Lehrbuch der historischen Methode</cite> (5.
+u. 6. Aufl, Leipzig, 1908), p. 230.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f61'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r61'>61</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Montesquieu, <cite>The Spirit of Laws</cite> (translated from the
+French by Th. Nugent, new ed., revised by J. V. Prichard, 2
+vols., London: Geo. Bell and Sons, 1906), I, 238–314.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f62'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r62'>62</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Seine [Montesquieu’s] Hervorkehrung des Einflusses,
+den Klima und Bodenbeschaffenheit auf die Soziabilität der
+Menschennatur ausüben, geht ebenfalls auf Locke, weiterhin
+auf Bodin zurück.”—L. Stein, <cite>Die soziale Frage</cite></span>, etc., p. 364.—According
+to Dutoit (<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Theorie des Milieu</span></cite>, p. 62), Montesquieu
+concealed his obligation to Bodin.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f63'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r63'>63</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 238–53.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f64'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r64'>64</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 253–69.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f65'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r65'>65</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 270–83.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f66'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r66'>66</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 284–91.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f67'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r67'>67</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>L.c.</cite>, pp. 291–314.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f68'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r68'>68</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 279 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f69'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r69'>69</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 286.—(Turgot died in 1781.)</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f70'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r70'>70</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ripley, <cite>The Races of Europe</cite> (1899), p. 4.—Cuvier was
+twenty years younger than Goethe; both died in the same year.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f71'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r71'>71</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>E. G. Conklin, <cite>Heredity and Environment in the Development
+of Men</cite> (Princeton Univ. Press, 1915, 533 pp.), p. 303.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f72'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r72'>72</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Eckermanns Gespräche mit Goethe</cite>, neu herausgegeben v.
+H. H. Houben (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1909), p. 264.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f73'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r73'>73</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 265.—These two passages are also cited by Kupffer,
+<cite>Klima and Dichtung</cite>, p. 64.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f74'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r74'>74</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Eckermanns Gespräche mit Goethe</span></cite>, p. 542.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f75'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r75'>75</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 546.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f76'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r76'>76</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Karl Lamprecht, “Neue Kulturgeschichte” (pp. 449–64
+in Das Jahr 1913, <cite>Ein Gesamtbild der Kulturentwicklung</cite>, hg. v.
+D. Sarason, Leipzig-Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1913), p. 453.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f77'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r77'>77</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Albert Poetzsch, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Studien zur frühromantischen Politik und
+Geschichtsauffassung</span></cite> (Leipzig: Voigtländer, 1907, 111 pp.), p. 89.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f78'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r78'>78</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Einwirkung der äußeren Natur auf die Geschichte
+tritt zurück [in der romantischen Geschichtsphilosophie]</span>”; and
+in a note is added: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wenn auch der Zusammenhang von Boden
+und Geschichte, namentlich von natürl. Grenzen u. Staat,
+der Betrachtung nicht verloren geht. Vgl. A. W. Schlegel, Enz.
+216. 697.</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 94.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f79'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r79'>79</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Bernheim, <cite>Lehrb. d. hist. Methode</cite>, p. 650.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f80'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r80'>80</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 515.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f81'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r81'>81</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Ludwig Gumplowicz, <cite>Der Rassenkampf</cite> (2....
+Aufl., Innsbruck, 1909), p. 9 n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f82'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r82'>82</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> the quotation from Hegel by Gumplowicz, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p.
+13 n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f83'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r83'>83</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>This paper will carry the discussion through anthropo-geography.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f84'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r84'>84</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The whole question, including Herder’s own idea thereof
+and his indebtedness to preceding authors, both German and
+foreign, as well as his influence upon succeeding writers at home
+and abroad, his relation to his contemporaries, etc., will be
+essayed more fully in a series of papers, to be published soon,
+dealing with “Herder’s Conception of Milieu,” “Herder’s Relations
+to France,” “Herder’s Relations to England,” and “Herder
+in His Own Milieu.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f85'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r85'>85</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The term “anthropo-geography” derives from the title
+of Fr. Ratzel’s main work.—“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">... le domaine si intéressant,
+mais à peine défriché, de l’<em>anthropogéographie</em>, semble avoir acquis à
+ce mot le droit de cité dans le langage scientifique.</span>”—L. Metchnikoff,
+<cite>La Civilisation et Les Grands Fleuves Historiques</cite> (Paris,
+1889), p. 70 and n.—In England, and in America, it is commonly
+called human geography, after the French “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">la géographie humaine</span>.”
+Various names have been proposed for this subject.
+See also W. Z. Ripley, “Geography and Sociology.” The Viennese
+Erwin Hanslick, I believe, denominates it “Kulturgeographie.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f86'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r86'>86</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Walther May, “Herders Anschauung der organischen
+Natur,” <cite>Archiv f. d. Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften u. d.
+Technik</cite>, etc., Leipzig, Bd. 4 (1913, S. 8–39, 89–113), p. 91.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f87'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r87'>87</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Ferd. v. Richthofen’s Vorlesungen üb. Allgem. Siedlungs- u.
+Verkehrsgeographie</cite>, bearb. u. hg. v. O. Schlüter (Berlin, 1908),
+p. 11.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f88'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r88'>88</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Ritter selbst hat keine methodische Darstellung,
+kein Lehrgebäude gegeben; sondern nur Andeutungen, die anregend
+sind. Daher blieb Ritters Grundidee fast ohne Einfluß
+auf die Geographie; nur die Historiker haben sie sich angeeignet
+und haben seitdem größeres Gewicht auf die Landesnatur gelegt.</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+p. 11.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f89'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r89'>89</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Cosmos, a Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe</cite>,
+translated by E. C. Otté (5 vols., New York: Harper, 1875–77),
+p. 48.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f90'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r90'>90</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Erdkunde im Verhältnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte
+des Menschen oder eine allgemeine, vergleichende Geographie</span></cite> was
+published in two volumes at Berlin in 1817–18; the second edition,
+completely revised, appeared in nineteen volumes from 1822 to
+1859, the year of his death. Neither edition is finished; the second
+deals only with Africa (vol. 1) and Asia (vols. 2–19).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f91'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r91'>91</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Naturkunde</span></cite>, etc.—See Th. Achelis, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Moderne Völkerkunde</span></cite>
+(Stuttgart, 1896), p. 71.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f92'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r92'>92</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, see Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 72 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f93'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r93'>93</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>In Felix Lampe’s book, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Große Geographen, Bilder aus der
+Geschichte der Erdkunde</cite> (Leipzig u. Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1915,
+288 S. [Band 28 der v. B. Schmid in Zwickau herausgegebenen
+“Naturwissenschaftlichen Bibliothek”])</span>, neither the chapter
+on Ritter (pp. 227–33), nor that on “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die wissenschaftliche Geographie
+der Gegenwart</span>” (pp. 281–87) is very full.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f94'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r94'>94</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Stuttgart &amp; Tübingen, 1808.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f95'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r95'>95</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Views of Nature</cite> (London, 1850), Author’s Preface, p. X.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f96'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r96'>96</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>p. 382. See Achelis, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Moderne Völkerkunde</span></cite>, pp. 88 f.—The
+relation of man to environment is also referred to in <cite>Cosmos</cite>
+(English translation by Otté), I, pp. 351–9.—<cite>Kosmos</cite> was originally
+published as follows: vols. 1 and 2 in 1845–7; vols. 3 and 4 in
+1850–8; vol. 5 in 1862.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f97'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r97'>97</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Leipzig, 1841.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f98'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r98'>98</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Kohl, <cite>Der Verkehr</cite>, etc., p. 111. See Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 80 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f99'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r99'>99</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ibid.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f100'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r100'>100</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Kohl, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 537. See Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 81 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f101'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r101'>101</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Kohl, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,—See Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 82 f.—The manifold
+influences of nature are also exemplified in Kohl’s <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die geographische
+Lage der Hauptstädte Europas</span></cite>, 1874, and <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">L. Felix, Der Einfluß
+der Natur auf die Entwicklung des Eigentums</span></cite>, 1893.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f102'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r102'>102</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über den Einfluß der äußeren Natur auf die sozialen
+Verhältnisse der einzelnen Völker und die Geschichte der Menschheit
+überhaupt, 1848</span></cite>; later published in <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Studien aus dem Gebiete
+der Naturwissenschaft</span></cite>, I, 1876.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f103'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r103'>103</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Deutschlands Boden, sein geologischer Bau und dessen
+Einwirkungen auf das Leben der Menschen</cite>, 2 Bde., Leipzig, 1854.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f104'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r104'>104</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>501 pp., Breslau: F. Hirt, 1855.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f105'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r105'>105</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Kutzen himself says in the <cite>Vorwort</cite> that he “leans on”
+Cotta; he cites the latter, for instance, on p. 466.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f106'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r106'>106</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Die Naturgeschichte des Volkes als Grundlage einer deutschen
+Sozialpolitik</cite>, vol. 1 (11th ed., Stuttgart: Cotta, 1908):
+Land und Leute.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f107'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r107'>107</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> the first Preface, written in 1853, to volume one,
+pp. VI-VII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f108'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r108'>108</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Die Naturgeschichte</cite>, etc., I, p. 42.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f109'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r109'>109</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, Vorwort zur achten Auflage, 1883, p. X.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f110'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r110'>110</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Die Naturgeschichte, etc., Vierter Band, “Wanderbuch,”
+als zweiter Teil zu “Land und Leute.”</cite> Vierte Aufl., 1903, p. 32.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f111'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r111'>111</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>G. P. Gooch, <cite>History and Historians in the Nineteenth
+Century</cite> (London &amp; N. Y.; Longmans, Green &amp; Co., 1913), p. 576.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f112'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r112'>112</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Gooch, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, p. 575.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f113'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r113'>113</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For Riehl’s view of milieu in a scheme of sciences, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span>
+<cite>Die Naturgeschichte</cite>, etc., I, pp. 40–2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f114'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r114'>114</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">164 pp., Meyers Volksbücher, Leipzig u. Wien: Bibliographisches
+Institut</span>, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.a.</span></i>—This essay forms the second chapter
+in Hans Meyer’s <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das deutsche Volkstum</span></cite> (2. Aufl., 1903), pp.
+41–122.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f115'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r115'>115</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Moderne Völkerkunde</span></cite>, p. 81, n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f116'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r116'>116</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>2. Aufl., 1905 (<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Aus Natur und Geisteswelt</span></cite>, 31. Bändchen,
+Leipzig: B. G. Teubner), 127 pp.—It has been translated into
+English under the title <cite>Man and Earth</cite> (London &amp; N. Y., 1906.
+Reprinted 1914, 223 pp.) by A. S. “from the second amended
+German edition,” in which are intercalated two chapters: Chapter
+V, on <cite>The British Isles and Britons</cite>, by the author; and Chapter
+VI, on <cite>America and the Americans</cite>, by the translator.—The
+first four chapters of a general nature—features of the globe, sea,
+steppes and deserts, in their influence on civilization, the influence
+of man on landscape—are followed by four chapters on
+<cite>The British Isles and Britons, America and the Americans, Germany
+and the Germans, China and the Chinese</cite>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f117'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r117'>117</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Vorlesungen</cite>, etc., delivered at Berlin in 1891 and 1897/8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f118'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r118'>118</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Es ist mehr unsere Aufgabe gewesen, in dem großen
+Getriebe der Siedlung und des Verkehrs der <em>allmählichen
+Entwicklung</em> nachzugehen, das steigende Maß der Überwindung
+von Widerständen durch den Menschen zu zeigen, die Kräfte
+zu untersuchen, welche in der Entwicklung wirksam sind,—als
+bei der großen Fülle des Tatsächlichen der heutigen Zeit zu
+verweilen.</span>” <cite>Vorlesungen</cite>, p. 351.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f119'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r119'>119</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>It will be noted that Herder is not mentioned here.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f120'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r120'>120</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ellen C. Semple, <cite>Influences of Geographic Environment</cite>
+(N. Y., 1911), p. V.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f121'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r121'>121</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“In Germany the exponents of these theories [of environmental
+influence] were Cotta and Kohl, and later Peschel, Kirchhof,
+Bastian, and Gerland; but the greatest name of all is that of
+Fr. Ratzel, who has written the standard work on <cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>.”—Haddon
+and Quiggin, <cite>Hist. of Anthropology</cite> (London,
+1910), p. 152.—The first vol. of Ratzel’s <cite>Anthropogeographie</cite> was
+published in 1882, 2nd ed. in 1899, the second vol. in 1897.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f122'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r122'>122</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>As further illustration, it might be instructive to compare
+here the chapter headings of Semple’s <cite>Influences of Geographic
+Environment</cite>, which book was written “On the Basis of Ratzel’s
+System of Anthropo-geography.” They are as follows: I—Operation
+of Geographic Factors in History (1–31); II—Classes
+of Geographic Influences (22–50); III—Society and State in
+Relation to the Land (51–73); IV—Movements of Peoples in
+Their Geographical Significance (74–128); V—Geographical
+Location (129–67); VI—Geographical Area (168–203); VII—Geographical
+Boundaries (204–41); VIII—Coast Peoples (242–91);
+IX—Oceans and Enclosed Seas (292–317); X—Man’s Relation
+to the Water (318–35); XI—The Anthropo-geography of
+Rivers (336–80); XII—Continents and Their Peninsulas (380–408);
+XIII—Island Peoples (409–72); XIV—Plains, Steppes and
+Deserts (473–523); XV—Mountain Barriers and Their Passes
+(524–56); XVI—Influences of a Mountain Environment (557–606);
+XVII—The Influences of Climate upon Man (607–37).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f123'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r123'>123</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Richthofen’s Vorlesungen</cite>, p. 13.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f124'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r124'>124</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>1897; 2. Aufl. 1903.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f125'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r125'>125</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Diese [die enge Erdgebundenheit] in ihrer ganzen tiefgreifenden
+Bedeutung für das staatliche Leben erkannt und
+dargelegt zu haben, bleibt freilich für immer ein großes Verdienst
+der ‘Politischen Geographie’ ...”—O. Schlüter, “Die
+leitenden Gesichtspunkte d. Anthropogeogr.,” <em>Arch. f. Sozialwiss.</em>,
+Bd. IV, p. 620.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f126'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r126'>126</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Richthofen, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f127'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r127'>127</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>2 vols., München, 1893; see vol. 2, 2nd ed.: <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Politische
+Geographie der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, unter besonderer
+Berücksichtigung der natürlichen Bedingungen u. wirtschaftlichen
+Verhältnisse</span></cite> (763 pp.), esp. pp. 1–176.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f128'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r128'>128</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>London, 1896 (this is a translation of his <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Völkerkunde</span></cite>,
+1887/8), <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> the opening pp. of vol. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f129'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r129'>129</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>In Helmolt, <cite>The History of the World</cite> (N. Y., 1902), vol.
+1, pp. 62–103, where Ratzel discusses in turn The Coherence of
+Countries, The Relation of Man to the Collective Life of the Earth,
+Races and States as Organisms, Historical Movement, Natural
+Regions, Climate and Location, Geographical Situation, Area,
+Population, The Water-Oceans, Seas, and Rivers, Conformation
+of the Earth’s Surface.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f130'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r130'>130</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>London &amp; N. Y.: Longmans, 1915.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f131'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r131'>131</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See <cite>The Nation</cite>, N. Y., March 18, 1915, p. 310.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f132'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r132'>132</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Paris, 1911, 420 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f133'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r133'>133</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Semple, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. VI; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also Ratzel, <cite>Anthropogeogr.</cite>, I,<sup>2</sup> p.
+XII.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f134'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r134'>134</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Archiv f. Sozialwissenschaft</cite>, Bd. IV (1906), pp. 581–630.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f135'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r135'>135</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For Ratzel, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Paul Barth, <cite>Die Philosophie der Geschichte
+als Soziologie</cite>, I (Leipzig: Reisland, 1897), pp. 227–30</span>;
+<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Jean Brunhes, <cite>La Géographie Humaine</cite>, 2<sup>e</sup> éd. (Paris: Alcan,
+1912), pp. 39–47.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f136'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r136'>136</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Buckle, History of Civilization (1867), p. 32 n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f137'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r137'>137</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Robertson, <cite>Buckle and his Critics</cite> (London, 1895), p. 8 n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f138'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r138'>138</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>4. vols., 1822–3.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f139'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r139'>139</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 577–9. See also p. 576.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f140'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r140'>140</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide supra</span></i> my note no. 84.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f141'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r141'>141</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 467.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f142'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r142'>142</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>The History of Civilization from the Fall of the Roman Empire
+to the French Revolution</cite> (4 vols., translated by Wm. Hazlitt,
+N. Y.: D. Appleton &amp; Co., 1867—the lectures were delivered in
+the years 1828, 1829, and 1830), vol. 2, pp. 109 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f143'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r143'>143</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Gothein had attracted attention by a study of the civilisation
+of Southern Italy, which he had traversed on foot as Riehl
+had traversed the Palatinate.”—Gooch, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 587.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f144'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r144'>144</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Voila pourquoi il [Michelet] va en Italie avant d’écrire
+son <cite>Histoire Romaine</cite>; il veut avoir l’impression, le contact du
+sol, du climat, du paysage.”—Lanson, <cite>Hist. de la Litt. Franç.</cite>
+(1912), p. 1021 n.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f145'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r145'>145</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Abry-Audic-Crouzet, <cite>Littérature Française</cite> (3<sup>e</sup> éd., Paris,
+1916), p. 580.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f146'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r146'>146</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Jules Simon, <cite>Mignet, Michelet, Henri Martin</cite> (Paris, 1890),
+p. 191.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f147'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r147'>147</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 540.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f148'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r148'>148</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Philos. Erdk. als wissenschaftliche Darstellung der Erdverhältnisse
+u. des Menschenlebens nach ihrem inneren Zusammenhange</span></cite>,
+2 vols., Braunschweig, 1845; the 2nd ed. appeared in 1868
+under the title <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Allgemeine Vergleichende Erdkunde</span></cite>.—This book
+holds a high place in Ratzel’s estimation: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Kapp, dessen Philos.
+Erdk. eine tiefgedachte, von überragendem philosophischem
+Standpunkte aus gewonnene Übersicht der Naturbedingtheit
+des Geschichtsverlaufes in den größten Zügen entrollt, ...”—Ratzel,
+<cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>, I<sup>2</sup>, p. 34.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f149'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r149'>149</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 76 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f150'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r150'>150</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Brunhes, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 38 n.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f151'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r151'>151</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Boston, 1849—It has been translated into English under
+the title <cite>The Earth and man, or Physical geography in its relation
+to the history of mankind, Slightly abridged, etc.</cite> (London: Parker,
+1852), and into German as <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Grundzüge der vergleichenden physikalischen
+Erdkunde in ihrer Beziehung zur Geschichte des Menschen</span></cite>
+(1851).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f152'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r152'>152</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>(N. Y.: D. Appleton &amp; Co., 1867—first published in
+1857–61), vol. I, pp. 29–106: Influence exercised by physical
+laws over the organization of society and over the character of
+individuals.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f153'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r153'>153</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Buckle and his Critics</cite>, London, 1895, 548 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f154'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r154'>154</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Camille Vallaux, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie Sociale</span></cite> (Paris, 1911), p. 23.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f155'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r155'>155</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide supra</span></i>, p. 46 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f156'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r156'>156</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Anthropogeographie</cite>, I<sup>2</sup>, p. 87.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f157'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r157'>157</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The German original appeared in 1857–67, and the English
+translation by A. W. Ward in 1868–73.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f158'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r158'>158</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>New York: Scribner, vol. I (1871), pp. 9–46; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> esp. pp.
+9–25, 34, 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f159'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r159'>159</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Boden und Klima von Athen. Rede in der öffentlichen
+Sitzung</cite> [<em>der Kgl. Akademie der Wissenschaften</em>] <em>am Leibniztage
+5. Juli 1877</em> (15 pp.).</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f160'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r160'>160</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For the same, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">H. Koester “Über den Einfluß
+landschaftlicher Verhältnisse auf die Entwicklung des attischen
+Volkscharakters” (Progr., Saarbrücken, 1898).</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f161'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r161'>161</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>E.g. by Ratzel, jointly with Curtius’ account thereof.
+Cf. <cite>Anthropogeogr.</cite>, I<sup>2</sup>, p. 37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f162'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r162'>162</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>In 12 vols., vol. II (London: John Murray, 1869), Part
+II, ch. I, pp. 213–37.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f163'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r163'>163</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Political effects of locality: strengthened defense; difficulty
+of attack; politically disunited; indefinite multiplication of self-governing
+cities.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f164'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r164'>164</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Intellectual effects of locality: the geographical position
+made them mountaineers and mariners; variety of experience;
+each petty community possessed an individual life, yet sympathized
+with the remainder; commerce with a great diversity of half-country-men;
+Grecian festivals; Homer dependent upon the conditions
+of his age.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f165'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r165'>165</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Oxford, Clarendon Press (1911, 454 pp.), pp. 13–64. “It
+is now generally admitted that neither an individual nor a nation
+can be properly understood without a knowledge of their surroundings
+and means of support—in other words, of their geographical
+and economic conditions.”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, Preface, p. 5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f166'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r166'>166</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Zimmern refers in this book—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">e.g.</span></i> p. 18, 41, 43, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et al.</span></i>—to
+the writings of Myres: “Greek Lands and the Greek People,”
+“Herodotus and Anthropology” (in “Anthropology and the Classics”),
+and “The Geographical Aspect of Greek Colonization”
+(in <cite>Proceedings of the Classical Association</cite>, vol. VIII—1911).—Cf.
+also H. Dondorff, <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Das hellenische Land als Schauplatz der
+althellenischen Geschichte, in Sammlung gemeinverständlicher
+wissenschaftlicher Vorträge, begründet von Virchow u. Holtzendorf</cite>,
+1889, Neue Folge, Serie 3, Heft 72.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f167'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r167'>167</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Revised ed., in 2 vols. (N. Y.: Harper &amp; Brothers, 1876).
+The Preface of the first ed. is dated 1861.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f168'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r168'>168</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Heinrich Boehmer, <cite>Geschichte der Entwicklung der naturwissenschaftlichen
+Weltanschauung in Deutschland</cite> (Gotha, 1872,
+232 pp.), p. 195: “... Herdersche Ideen waren leitend für
+den Aufbau der Geschichte.”</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f169'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r169'>169</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Leipzig, 1878–86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f170'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r170'>170</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cited by Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 84.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f171'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r171'>171</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, pp. 85 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f172'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r172'>172</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 86.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f173'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r173'>173</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... Indessen darf man nicht vergessen, daß die allgemeine
+Gestalt der Kontinente und der Meere und aller besonderer
+Züge der Erde in der Geschichte der Menschheit einen
+wesentlich wechselnden Wert besitzen, je nach dem Stande der
+Kultur, auf welchem die Nationen angelangt sind ...</span>”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f174'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r174'>174</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 87.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f175'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r175'>175</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Paris, 1886.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f176'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r176'>176</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> P. Barth, <cite>Die Philosophie der Geschichte als Soziologie</cite>
+(Leipzig, 1897), p. 230.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f177'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r177'>177</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Barth, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 231 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f178'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r178'>178</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 233.—Mougeoulle makes the milieu account for
+the great men in history, the great popular epics, social and
+historical life in general; the tendencies of the three historical
+schools—German, French, and English—are connected with the
+differences in the milieus of their respective countries.—Cf.
+<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, pp. 230–2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f179'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r179'>179</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><em>Avec une Préface de M. Élisée Réclus</em> (Paris: Hachette,
+1889, 369 pp.), pp. 53–71.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f180'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r180'>180</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 156; 130.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f181'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r181'>181</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 154; 157 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f182'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r182'>182</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 278; 190 ff.; 188; 135.—But why does he confine
+himself to these four countries?</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f183'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r183'>183</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 185; 364. For a general statement on the significance
+of rivers, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, pp. 188–90. The particular nature of
+the rivers of the “territoire des civilisations fluviales” imposed
+on the inhabitants the yoke of despotism.—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 161.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f184'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r184'>184</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, pp. 364 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f185'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r185'>185</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 364.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f186'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r186'>186</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">e.g.</span></i>, p. 128; 224–27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f187'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r187'>187</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>His general theory is stated on pp. 39–42, 53–71, 79 f.,
+89, 99 f., 102–60. Chapter 7, pp. 161–90, is a general discussion
+of the geographical environment of the “Civilisations Fluviales,”
+followed successively by a detailed treatment of “Le Nil” (ch.
+8, pp. 191–234), of “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Tigre et L’Euphrate</span>” (ch. 9, pp. 235–78),
+of “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Indus et Le Gange</span>” (ch. 10, pp. 279–319), of “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Hoang-Ho
+et Le Yangtse-Kiang</span>” (ch. 11, pp. 320–66).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f188'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r188'>188</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>W. D. Babington, <cite>Fallacies of Race Theories as Applied
+to National Characteristics</cite> (Longmans, Green &amp; Co., 1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f189'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r189'>189</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. Y., Scribner, 1893, 290 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f190'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r190'>190</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For the rôle of the physical milieu in American history,
+<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also: Justin Winsor, <cite>The Mississippi Basin, The Struggle in
+America between England and France: 1697–1763</cite> (Boston &amp; N.
+Y., 1898) [influence of geography over history during colonization
+and settlement]; Frederick Jackson Turner, <cite>Rise of the New
+West</cite>: 1819–1829 (N. Y. &amp; London: Harper &amp; Brothers, 1906)
+[vol. 14 of <cite>The American Nation, A History</cite>, ed. by A. B. Hart, in
+27 vols. In the Author’s Preface, p. XVII, Turner remarks:
+“In the present volume I have kept before myself the importance
+of regarding American development as the outcome of economic
+and social as well as political forces.” And, he should have added,
+of geographical environment. <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> especially the first half of
+his book for the working out of his milieu idea]; James Bryce,
+<cite>The American Commonwealth</cite>, (2 vols., new ed., completely revised,
+N. Y.: Macmillan, 1910–11) [see vol. 2, ch. 91 (pp. 449–68),
+“The home of the nation,” for a statement of the influence of
+physical conditions on American history]; E. C. Semple, <cite>American
+History and Its Geographic Conditions</cite> (Boston &amp; N. Y.: Houghton,
+Mifflin &amp; Co., 1903, 435 pp.) [regarded, I believe, as one of the
+best treatises on the subject]; A. P. Brigham, <cite>Geographic Influences
+in American History</cite> (Boston: Ginn, 1903, 355 pp.) [a concrete
+essay; has much physiography; includes present conditions];
+A. M. Simons, <cite>Social Forces in American History</cite> (N. Y.: Macmillan,
+1914, 325 pp.) [a discussion of the effect of the industrial
+and economic environment on social institutions in America];
+perhaps it may be added here that some American universities
+offer a course on the relation of geography to American history.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f191'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r191'>191</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Ripley, “Geography and Sociology” (1895), p. 637;
+and Ripley, <cite>The Races of Europe</cite> (1899), pp. 4 ff.; for titles of
+their writings on this subject, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, pp. 4–6 nn., and “Geogr.
+and Soc.,” pp. 654 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f192'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r192'>192</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>8 vols., N. Y., Dodd, Mead &amp; Co., 1902–7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f193'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r193'>193</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Bryce’s article in Helmolt’s <cite>Hist. of the World</cite>, vol.
+1, p. XL.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f194'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r194'>194</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Anderseits wieder hat ja Helmolt in seinem geschichtlichen
+Sammelwerke im Geiste Ratzels den Versuch gemacht, ein
+Gesamtgeschichtsbild auf geographischer Grundlage aufzubauen,
+so daß kein Teil der Ökumene aus der Weltgeschichte ausgeschlossen
+bleibt.”—L. Gumplowicz, Der <cite>Rassenkampf</cite> (2 ....
+Aufl., 1909), p. 403 (Anhang).</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f195'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r195'>195</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">... die bisherigen Weltgeschichten waren gar keine
+Geschichte der Welt oder auch nur unserer Welt, sondern einzig
+eine solche der Kulturnationen. Mit dieser Gepflogenheit hat
+Helmolts Werk in ebenso glücklicher wie origineller Weise gebrochen,
+indem es zum ersten Male die Länder- und Völkerkunde
+in den Dienst der Weltgeschichtsdarstellung hineinzog.</span>”—From
+a review of the first ed. of <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Helmolts Weltgeschichte</span></cite> (1899) in the
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Braunschweigische Landeßeitung</span>” (February 4, 1908), quoted
+in the prospectus of the second German edition.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f196'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r196'>196</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century</cite> (London,
+1913).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f197'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r197'>197</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Second ed., Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1903, 288 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f198'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r198'>198</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>George, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. V (Preface).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f199'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r199'>199</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, pp. 111 f.—George cites no authorities or sources;
+he has no bibliography; he does not quote a single book in his
+discussion; he has no <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Auseinandersetzung</span></i> with his predecessors
+in the field; and finally, he gives no clue as to the origin of his
+data.—Chaps. 1–8 (pp. 1–110) are the general part of the book;
+chaps. 9–20 (pp. 111–282) deal with: The Outlines of Europe,
+The British Islands, France, The Spanish Peninsula, Italy, The
+Alpine Passes, Switzerland, The Rhineland, The Baltic Region,
+The Danube Basin, Theatres of European War, The Mediterranean
+Basin.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f200'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r200'>200</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A. W. Small, <cite>General Sociology</cite> (Chicago, 1905), p. 53.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f201'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r201'>201</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>The distinguished Italian historian is the son-in-law of
+the late eminent Italian criminologist Cesare Lombroso.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f202'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r202'>202</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Jean Brunhes, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Géographie Humaine</span></cite> (<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">2<sup>e</sup> éd.</span>, Paris,
+1912), p. 721.—For references to historical works dealing with
+history on a geographical basis, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i> <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">(1<sup>e</sup> éd., Paris, 1910), ch.
+X, 1: L’esprit géographique dans les sciences économiques, sociales
+et historiques</span> (pp. 739 ff., esp. 774 ff. [Michelet, Vidal de la
+Blache, Th. Reinach, A. Leroy-Beaulieu, C. Jullian, A. Harnack,
+H. F. Helmolt, G. Ferrero, E. C. Semple, Erwin Hanslick, &amp; o.]).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f203'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r203'>203</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><cite>Die geographischen Grundlagen der österreichisch-ungarischen
+Monarchie u. ihrer Außenpolitik</cite> (Leipzig u. Berlin: B. G.
+Teubner, 1915).</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f204'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r204'>204</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See the review of Sieger’s book by Edwin Rollett in the
+<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Österreichische Rundschau</span></cite>, Bd. 43, H. 4 (15. Mai 1915), pp. 188 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f205'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r205'>205</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Boston &amp; N. Y., Houghton, Mifflin &amp; Co., 1907.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f206'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r206'>206</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cf. esp. ch. 18 (pp. 359–85) for a summary of conclusions.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f207'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r207'>207</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">e.g.</span></i> James Harvey Robinson’s <cite>The New History,
+Essays Illustrating the Modern Historical Outlook</cite> (N. Y.: Macmillan,
+1912), for references to the theory of milieu, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> esp. p.
+64, 73, 76 f., 92 f., 97 f., 124–6, 144, 145 f., 247, 253–7, and ch. 3
+(pp. 70 ff.): The new allies of history. Or take for choice the
+title of a recent book by Charles A. Beard: <cite>An Economic Interpretation
+of American Politics</cite> (Macmillan, 1916), to be further
+persuaded of the attention bestowed by historians on the
+milieu. Or, see works by Seligman and J. T. Shotwell.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f208'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r208'>208</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> C. Vallaux, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie Sociale, Le Sol et L’État</span></cite>
+(Paris, 1911), p. 23.—Such economists as Blanqui, Bastiat, and
+J.—B. Say, brought to light the geographical bases of the material
+life of societies. The sociologists themselves, “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">bien que leur
+science soit jeune, n’ont pas toujours oublié le cadre naturel et
+la position terrestre des agrégats qu’ils étudient. Par tous ces
+chercheurs de tendances diverses, la géographie humaine et la
+géographie politique ont progressé tout autant que par les efforts
+des géographes proprement dits</span>.”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f209'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r209'>209</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">E. Bernheim, <cite>Lehrbuch der historischen Methode</cite> (5. u.
+6. Aufl., Leipzig, 1908), p. 316; 636.—Cf. also E. Fr. Th. Lindner,
+<cite>Geschichtsphilosophie, das Wesen der geschichtlichen Entwicklung</cite>
+(2. erweiterte u. umgearb. Aufl., Stuttg. u. Berlin: Cotta, 1904,
+241 pp.), 2. Abschnitt (pp. 23–34): Die Veränderung, but more
+esp. 10. Abschnitt (pp. 217–41): Die Ursachen u. die Weise der
+Entwicklung.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f210'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r210'>210</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For orientation and literature on views opposing the naturalistic
+interpretation of history, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> L. Stein, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Philosophische
+Strömungen der Gegenwart</span></cite> (Stuttgart, Verl. v. F. Enke, 1908),
+pp. 430 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f211'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r211'>211</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See G. P. Gooch, <cite>History and Historians in the Nineteenth
+Century</cite> (London &amp; N. Y.: Longmans, Green &amp; Co., 1913), p.
+573; see ch. 28 (pp. 573–94): “The History of Civilisation;”
+also <cite>The Cambridge Modern History</cite> [ed. by A. W. Ward and others,
+Cambridge: The Univ. Press, 1910], vol. 12: <cite>The Latest Age</cite>,
+ch. 26 (pp. 816 ff.: “The Growth of Historical Science” by G.
+P. Gooch).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f212'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r212'>212</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Economic Geography</cite> (N. Y.: Macmillan, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.a.</span></i>—1915?—;
+not earlier than 1910, for statistics for that year are given in
+the text; 560 pp.), p. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f213'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r213'>213</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Since his [Buckle’s] time much more has been done, not
+only in studying, as Buckle himself did, the immediate influence
+of climate and soil, but also in explaining the allied field of the
+effect of the fauna and the flora on social development. The
+subject of the domestication of animals, for instance, and its
+profound effect on human progress has not only been investigated
+by a number of recent students [especially E. Hahn, <cite>Die Haustiere
+u. ihre Beziehung zur Wirtschaft des Menschen</cite>, 1896], but
+has been made the very basis of the explanation of early American
+civilization by one of the most brilliant and most learned of
+recent historians [Payne, <cite>History of the New World called America</cite>;
+esp. vol. 1, bk. II]. A Russian scholar has shown in detail the
+connection between the great rivers and the progress of humanity,
+and the whole modern study of economic geography is but an
+expansion on broader lines of the same idea.”—Edwin R. A.
+Seligman, <cite>The Economic Interpretation of History</cite> (N. Y.: The
+Columbia Univ. Press, 1902, 166 pp.), pp. 13 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f214'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r214'>214</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Wm. Morris Davis, <cite>Geographical Essays</cite>, ed. by D. W.
+Johnson (Ginn &amp; Co.: Boston, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">s.a.</span></i>, copyright 1909), esp. the
+first two essays: “An inductive study of the content of geography”
+(1906), pp. 3–22, and “The progress of geography in the
+schools” (1902), pp. 23–69.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f215'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r215'>215</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>In an address delivered at the dedication of Julius Rosenwald
+Hall, printed in <cite>The University of Chicago Magazine</cite> (vol.
+VII, No. 6—April, 1915—, pp. 175–8) under the title “Some
+Matters of History.” See p. 177.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f216'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r216'>216</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Felix Lampe, in <cite>Große Geographen</cite> (Leipzig, 1915), has
+a rather brief chapter (pp. 281–7) on “Die wissenschaftliche
+Geographie der Gegenwart.”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f217'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r217'>217</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See the Introductory Essay by the Right Hon. [now
+Viscount] James Bryce in Helmolt’s <cite>Hist. of the World</cite>, vol. 1,
+pp. I-LX, esp. pp. XXV-XLI.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f218'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r218'>218</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A. J. Herbertson and F. D. Herbertson, <cite>Man and his
+Work, an Introduction to Human Geography</cite> (London: Black,
+1909, 132 pp.), p. 6.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f219'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r219'>219</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. Y., G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908, 363 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f220'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r220'>220</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“In the chapters on the life of man in the different zones,
+I have made liberal use of Ratzel’s <cite>Anthropogeographie</cite> (2d ed.,
+Stuttgart, 1899).”—Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. VI.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f221'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r221'>221</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. V.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f222'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r222'>222</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. Y. and London, 1911. See ch. 4, pp. 94–129.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f223'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r223'>223</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Paris, 1911, 420 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f224'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r224'>224</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide supra</span></i>, p. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f225'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r225'>225</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Die soziale Geographie, hauptsächlich von Bastian und
+Ratzel tiefer begründet, wird gegenwärtig immer sorgsamer
+ausgebaut und hat namentlich in dem Wiener Erwin Hanslick
+einen eifrigen Förderer, der auf die Ermittlung von geographischen
+Kulturgrenzen ausgeht. In andrer Weise nimmt von ihr
+Willy Hellpach seinen Ausgang, der Geographie, Psychologie
+und Soziologie zu einem neuen Gebiet zu vereinigen sucht.”—Rudolf
+Goldscheid, “Soziologie” in <cite>Das Jahr 1913, Ein Gesamtbild
+der Kulturentwicklung</cite>, herausgegeben von D. Sarason (Leipzig
+und Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1913), p. 432.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f226'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r226'>226</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1911, 368 pp.—“Hier [in Hellpach’s
+book] wird alles zusammengefaßt, was über den Einfluß
+von ‘Wetter, Klima und Landschaft’ auf das Seelenleben bekannt
+ist.”—Otto Schlüter, “Anthropogeographie” in <cite>Das Jahr 1913</cite>,
+etc., p. 401.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f227'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r227'>227</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Hellpach, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 4.—Chiefly with those of the
+atmosphere; he devotes nine pages (98–107) to the telluric elements
+of the weather, and 87 pages (230–317) to the third main
+part of the book: “Landschaft und Seelenleben.” For soil as
+a co-factor, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also the ch. “Klimawechsel” in Part II (pp. 118–38).
+Hellpach defines Landschaft (p. 230) as follows: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Unter
+Landschaft verstehen wir den <em>sinnlichen</em> Gesamteindruck, der
+von einem Stück der Oberfläche und dem dazu gehörigen Abschnitt
+des Himmelsgewölbes in uns erweckt wird. ... das
+<em>sicht</em>bare Landschaftsbild bildet unter allen Umständen den
+Kern dessen, was wir Landschaft nennen ...</span> [And he adds
+that for an investigation of the effect of Landscape upon the human
+soul] <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">sind die nicht-optischen sinnlichen Eigenschaften
+der Landschaft von unentbehrlicher Bedeutung: Töne und
+Geräusche, Düfte und Gerüche und eine höchst verwickelte
+Summe von Affizierungen der Berührungs-, Temperatur-, ja
+zuweilen der Schmerzempfindlichkeit erst bilden mit Farben und
+Formen zusammen das natürliche Ganze, das wir in seelischen
+Wirkungen als <em>Landschaft</em> erleben.</span>”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f228'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r228'>228</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i>, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">e.g.</span></i>, p. 8.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f229'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r229'>229</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Hellpach himself testifies (p. 318) that his book is a
+“Sammlung der Tatsachen.” Cf. also Schlüter’s opinion cited
+above in note no. 226.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f230'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r230'>230</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Manifestly, this is to be understood as a virtue in Hellpach,
+and not as a fault, since this conviction is gained only by dint of
+Hellpach’s clear delimitation of the scope of his work; it constitutes
+one of the results of his own labor.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f231'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r231'>231</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Schlüter’s art. in <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Das Jahr 1913</span></cite>, p. 402.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f232'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r232'>232</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Paris, 1910; 2nd ed. 1912.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f233'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r233'>233</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>For a statement of principles (theoretical exposition),
+<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> the first two chaps. (pp. 1–92); for a summary, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> ch. X, section
+2 (pp. 780–9): “<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le facteur psychologique dans les phénomènes
+naturels et l’activité humaine,</span>” and section 3 (pp. 790–807):
+“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’adaptation humaine aux conditions géographiques</span>.” In the
+preface to the second ed., there are quoted seven pages from a
+review of the first ed. of Brunhes’ work by Paul Mantoux, wherein
+the scope, content, and import of the first ed. are succinctly
+summarized.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f234'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r234'>234</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. Y., 1911, 637 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f235'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r235'>235</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Wm. J. Thomas, <cite>Source Book for Social Origins</cite>
+(Chicago and London, 1909), p. 138 (Bibliogr. to Part I).—Without
+fear of contradiction, it may be said that the best two
+recent treatises on human geography are those by Brunhes and
+Semple.—For a brief concrete anthropo-geographical sketch,
+besides the works previously cited, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">W. Ule, <cite>Grundriß
+der Allgemeinen Erdkunde</cite> (2. verm. Aufl., Leipzig: S. Hirzel,
+1915, 487 pp.), pp. 361 ff.</span> See also the brief résumé in G. Schmoller’s
+<cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Grundr. d. Allgem. Volkswirtschaftslehre</span></cite> (Leipzig, 1901),
+pp. 144 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f236'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r236'>236</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Unverkennbar ist es, daß die Naturgewalten in ihren
+bedingenden Einflüssen auf das Persönliche der Völkerentwicklung
+immer mehr und mehr zurückweichen mußten, in demselben
+Maße wie diese vorwärts schritten. Sie übten im Anfange der
+Menschengeschichte als Naturimpulse über die ersten Entwicklungen
+in der Wiege der Menschheit einen sehr entscheidenden
+Einfluß aus, dessen Differenzen wir vielleicht noch in dem Naturschlage
+der verschiedenen Menschenrassen oder ihrer physisch
+verschiedenen Völkergruppen aus einer gänzlich unbekannten
+Zeit wahrzunehmen vermochten. Aber dieser Einfluß mußte
+abnehmen, ... Die zivilisierte Menschheit entwindet sich nach
+und nach, ebenso wie der einzelne Mensch, den unmittelbar bedingenden
+Fesseln der Natur und ihres Wohnortes. Die Einflüsse
+derselben Naturverhältnisse und derselben tellurischen
+Weltstellungen der erfüllten Räume bleiben sich also nicht durch
+alle Zeiten gleich.</span>” Ritter, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>; see Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 74 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et
+seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f237'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r237'>237</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Man ist in Nachfolge C. Ritters vielfach geneigt, anzunehmen,
+daß die Natureinflüsse sich mit zunehmender Kultur
+immer weniger geltend machen.”—E. Bernheim, <cite>Lehrb. d. hist.
+Methode</cite> (Leipzig, 1908), p. 642.</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f238'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r238'>238</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Theo. Waitz, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Anthropologie der Naturvölker</span></cite>, I (Leipzig,
+1859), p. 341; see Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 185.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f239'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r239'>239</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">“Die Einteilung der Menschheit war nur geographisch-historisch
+möglich. Denn der Mensch steht in fester Abhängigkeit,
+in engstem Verbande zu der Natur, aus und an welcher er
+sich entwickelt hat, zur Natur der Erde, welcher letzteren kleiner,
+aber integrierender Teil er ist. Auch seine Entwicklung ist
+noch im Steigen, aber nur im Bereiche seines inneren, geistigen
+Lebens ... je höher der Mensch steigt, um so mehr macht
+er sich von dem zwingenden Einfluß der Erde frei; und wenn er
+demselben auch nie ganz entgehen wird, da er Nahrung braucht,
+von der Schwere sich nicht loslösen kann, so ist dennoch diese
+immer wachsende Freiheit ... eine stärkende ... Aussicht
+für die Zukunft ...”—<cite>Anthropologische Beiträge</cite>, 1. Bd.
+(Halle, 1875), p. 423</span>; see Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 227.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f240'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r240'>240</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Principles of Sociology</cite>, I, sec. 21.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f241'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r241'>241</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Vide Ripley, “Geography and Sociology,” p. 649.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f242'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r242'>242</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection</cite>, p. 319;
+cited by E. B. Tylor in the article “Anthropology,” <cite>Ency. Brit.</cite>
+(11th ed.), vol. 2, p. 114.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f243'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r243'>243</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Réclus, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, (1879); quoted by Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 86 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f244'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r244'>244</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">“... je crois, que la civilisation dans son premier
+stade dépend bien plus du milieu physique et tellurique, qu’aux
+époques suivantes.”—Aug. Matteuzzi, <cite>Les Facteurs de l’Évolution
+des Peuples</cite> (Paris, 1900), p. 29. “... Tout ceci nous amène
+à affirmer ce fait, que les premières civilisations, dans des milieux
+favorables, eurent une relation étroite avec la culture du sol; et
+que dans un développement ultérieur, ce rapport se relâcha ...”</span>—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+p. 25. For best summaries of immense material collected
+on the relation of primitive human life to environment,
+see the five papers in the <cite>Smithsonian Report</cite> for 1895: “Relation
+of Primitive Peoples to Environment” by J. W. Powell (pp.
+625 ff.); “Influence of Environment upon Human Industries
+or Arts” by O. T. Mason (pp. 639 ff.); “The Japanese Nation—A
+Typical Product of Environment” by G. G. Hubbard (pp.
+667 ff.); “The Tusayan Ritual: A Study of the Influence of
+Environment on Aboriginal Cults” by J. W. Fewkes (pp. 683 ff.);
+and, probably the best of the five, “The Relation of Institutions
+to Environment” by the eminent ethnologist W. J. McGee (pp.
+701 ff.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f245'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r245'>245</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Anthropogeogr.</cite>, I<sup>2</sup>: “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Mensch und die Umwelt</span>” (pp.
+41–65).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f246'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r246'>246</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Geogr. and Sociol.,” p. 650.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f247'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r247'>247</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See his presidential address on the Origin of Man before
+the Section of Anthropology (<cite>Report of the British Association
+for the Advancement of Science, 1912</cite>; London, 1913), p. 576.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f248'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r248'>248</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>The Positive Philosophy of Aug. Comte, Freely Translated
+and Condensed by Harriet Martineau</cite> (In 2 vols., 3rd ed., London,
+1893—the original appeared from 1830–42), vol. 2, p. 96.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f249'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r249'>249</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Aug. Comte’s Positive Philosophie im Außug von I. Rig,
+Übersetzt von Kirchmann</span></cite> (2 Bde, Heidelberg, 1883), S. 94 ff.;
+Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 130.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f250'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r250'>250</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>A System of Logic</cite> (New Impression; London: Longmans,
+Green &amp; Co., 1911—first published in 1843), p. 572.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f251'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r251'>251</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>A. Schäffle, <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Bau und Leben des sozialen Körpers</span></cite>, Tübingen,
+1875, 2. Aufl., 1881; Achelis, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 161.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f252'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r252'>252</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“Post’s general attitude is best seen in his ‘Introduction
+to the Study of Ethnological Jurisprudence,’ which was published
+in 1886, and in his ‘African Jurisprudence’ of 1887.”—John L.
+Myres, “The Influence of Anthropology on the Course of Political
+Science” (Presidential address to the Anthropological Section
+of the British Assoc. for the Advancement of Science), <cite>Report
+Brit. Assoc., 1909</cite> (London, 1910), p. 613.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f253'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r253'>253</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Myres, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, pp. 613 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f254'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r254'>254</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 231.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f255'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r255'>255</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See the 4th ch. of his <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Géographie Sociale</span></cite> (Paris, 1911):
+“<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Agents et Caractères Physiques Considérés Isolément</span>” (pp.
+92–144).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f256'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r256'>256</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“... as political and legal institutions are indissolubly
+bound up with social and religious, it follows inevitably that the
+political and legal institutions of a race cradled in Northern
+Europe are exceedingly ill adapted for the children of the equator.
+Accordingly in any wise administration of these regions it must
+be a primary object to study the native institutions, to modify
+... them ..., but never to seek to eradicate and supplant
+them. Any attempt to do so will be but vain, for these institutions
+are as much part of the land as are its climate, its soil, its
+fauna, and its flora. ‘<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret.</span>’”—The
+Application of Zoological Laws to Man, in
+<cite>Rep. Brit. Assoc, f. the Adv. of Sci., 1908</cite> (London, 1909), p. 843.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f257'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r257'>257</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 310 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f258'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r258'>258</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> pp. 141–75 in <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Weltkrieg im Unterricht, Vorschläge
+u. Anregungen</span></cite>, etc. (Gotha: F. A. Perthes), esp. pp 163–5;
+he also discusses other phases of the relation between physical
+environment and the present war.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f259'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r259'>259</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>I: <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Deutsche Rundschau</span></cite>, April, 1915, pp. 78–91, and II
+(Schluß): <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, May, 1915, pp. 207–17.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f260'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r260'>260</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">In <cite>Monatshefte für den Naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht</cite>,
+1. Kriegsheft von Bastian Schmid (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1915).</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f261'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r261'>261</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cf. Gooch, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 585 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f262'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r262'>262</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See his Introduction to Dexter’s <cite>Weather Influences</cite> (N. Y.,
+1904), p. XXIV.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f263'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r263'>263</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr"><cite>Les Facteurs de L’Évolution des Peuples</cite> (Paris, 1900), p.
+25, 29, 27.—“C’est dans l’intensité de l’effort dirigé par les groupes
+sociaux contre les résistances du milieu, que réside la première
+impulsion vers la civilisation.”</span>—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 27.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f264'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r264'>264</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>But he adds, “... no disturbing causes, acting on social
+development, could do more than to affect its rate of progress.
+This is true of the operation of influences from the inorganic
+world, as of all others. In our view of biology we saw that the
+human being cannot be modified indefinitely by exterior circumstances;
+that such modifications can affect only the degrees of
+phenomena, without at all changing their nature; and again,
+that when the disturbing influences exceed their general limits,
+the organism is no longer modified, but destroyed.”—<cite>The Positive
+Philosophy of Aug. Comte, tr. by Harriet Martineau</cite>, vol. 2, p. 98;
+97.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f265'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r265'>265</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>See Ripley, <cite>Races of Europe</cite> (1899), p. 11; <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> the references
+given there, and in the note on the same page.—Cf. also Ellsworth
+Huntington’s <cite>Palestine and its Transformation</cite> (1910), and
+his suggestive articles on “Changes of Climate and History”
+(in <cite>The American Historical Review</cite> for January, 1913, vol. 18,
+pp. 213–32) [for references to other writings on the subject by
+the same author,—and by A. T. Olmstead—<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> p. 214 n.]; on
+“Climate and Civilization” (in <cite>Harper’s Magazine</cite> for February,
+1915, vol. 130, pp. 367–73); on “Is Civilization Determined by
+Climate?” (<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i> May, 1915, pp. 943–51); a new book of his, entitled
+<cite>Civilization and Climate</cite> (333 pp.), is announced for publication
+by the Yale Univ. Press.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f266'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r266'>266</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 280 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f267'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r267'>267</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">“... cetera [Mattiaci] similes Batavis, nisi quod ipso
+adhuc terrae suae solo et caelo acrius animantur.”—F. Ritter,
+<cite>P. C. Taciti Opera</cite> (1864), p. 643.</span> <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">In <cite>Römische Prosaiker in neuen
+Übersetzungen</cite> (hg. v. C. N. von Osiander und G. Schwab, 51.
+Bändchen, Stuttg., 1852, S. 123)</span> this is rendered as follows:
+“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Im ganzen gleichen sie [die Mattiaker] den Batavern, nur daß
+Boden und Klima ihres Landes sie noch kriegerischer macht.</span>”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f268'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r268'>268</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cesare Lombroso, <cite>Crime, Its Causes and Remedies</cite> (Boston,
+1911), pp. 3 f.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f269'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r269'>269</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 282.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f270'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r270'>270</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> Flint, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, pp. 582 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f271'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r271'>271</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Haddon &amp; Quiggin, <cite>Hist. of Anthropology</cite> (London, 1910),
+pp. 84 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f272'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r272'>272</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Cesare Lombroso, <cite>Crime</cite>, etc., p. 2.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f273'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r273'>273</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>N. S. Shaler, Nature and Man in America (N. Y., 1893),
+p. 288.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f274'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r274'>274</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">In <cite>Abhandlungen der Königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften,
+Phil.-hist. Classe</cite>, 1912, p. 13: “In einer Wendung,
+die an Distinktionen Schleiermachers erinnert, hat er [Dilthey]
+in seiner letzten größeren Arbeit erklärt, daß unser wissenschaftliches
+Denken von zwei großen Tendenzen beherrscht sei.
+Der Mensch finde sich auf der einen Seite bestimmt von der
+physischen Welt, in der die seelischen Vorgänge nur wie Interpolationen
+erscheinen.</span> [The other is: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">das Leben</span> (life), <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">das
+Erlebnis</span> (experience).]”</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f275'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r275'>275</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ridgeway, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">l.c.</span></i>, p. 843.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f276'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r276'>276</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 258 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i>—For the effect
+of physical environment on the Jews in Palestine, <span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> Friedrich
+Otto Hertz, <cite>Rasse und Kultur</cite> (Leipzig, 1915, 421 pp.), pp. 162 ff.;
+and “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Soziale Grundlagen des Monotheismus u. Polytheismus</span>”
+(pp. 170 ff.) and the literature there cited. Cf. also <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">ibid.</span></i>, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Natürliche
+u. Soziale Grundlagen der indischen Entwicklung</span>”
+(pp. 198 ff.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f277'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r277'>277</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Rob. DeC. Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, pp. 309 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f278'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r278'>278</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> his <cite>Weather Influences, An Empirical Study of the
+Mental and Physiological Effects of Definite Meteorological Conditions</cite>,
+with Introduction by Cleveland Abbe (N. Y.: Macmillan,
+1904, 277 pp.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f279'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r279'>279</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>I saw somewhere that exception had been taken to his
+results, but I failed at the time to make a note thereof and have
+been unable to find the passage again.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f280'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r280'>280</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 266; 269; 272 f.—The fifth and last is not cited
+here.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f281'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r281'>281</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Ward, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">op. cit.</span></i>, p. 310; 335, where ref. is also made to F. A.
+Cook’s article on “Some Physiological Effects of Arctic Cold,
+Darkness and Light” (<cite>MED. REC.</cite>, June 12, 1897, pp. 833–36).</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f282'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r282'>282</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>London and N. Y., 1892.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f283'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r283'>283</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 90.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f284'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r284'>284</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, pp. 113–5.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f285'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r285'>285</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Diese Priorität (der erste Versuch überhaupt, die Einflüsse
+des naturalen Milieus auf die Psyche darzustellen) gebührt,
+nach mancherlei Vorläufern minder geschlossenen Charakters</span>
+(<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">z. B. <cite>Quételet</cite>, Sur l’homme etc. 1835, Bd. 2, Kap. 3, Abschn.
+2–3, Influence du climat et des saisons sur le penchant au crime</span>)
+<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">ohne Zweifel <cite>Lombroso</cite>, aus dessen 1878 erschienenem Buche</span>
+‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Pensiero e meteore</span>’ <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Extracte auch in seine andern Publikationen,
+namentlich in</span> ‘<span lang="it" xml:lang="it">Genio e follia</span>,’ <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">übergegangen sind.”—Hellpach,
+<cite>Die Geopsychischen Erscheinungen</cite></span> (Leipzig, 1911), p. 336.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f286'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r286'>286</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Criminal Man, According to the Classification of Cesare
+Lombroso Briefly Summarized by his Daughter Gina Lombroso
+Ferrero</cite> (“The Science Series”; N. Y. and London: G. P. Putnam’s
+Sons, 1911, 322 pp.), p. 145.—Lombroso’s <cite><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">L’Uomo di genio</span></cite>
+appeared in 1888, <cite><span lang="it" xml:lang="it">L’Uomo delinquente</span></cite> in 1889, and <cite><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">La Donna
+delinquente</span></cite> in 1893.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f287'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r287'>287</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Criminal Man</cite>, p. 145.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f288'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r288'>288</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Tr. by H. P. Horton, “The Modern Criminal Science
+Series,” Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1911, 471 pp.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f289'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r289'>289</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>“It is brought out in Guerry’s statistics that the crime of
+rape occurs in England and France oftenest in the hot months;
+and Curcio has observed the same thing in Italy....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“In England, according to Guerry, and in Italy, according
+to Curcio, the maximum number of murders falls in the hottest
+months....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Poisoning also, according to Guerry, occurs oftenest in
+May. The same phenomenon is to be observed in the case of
+Rebellions. In studying (as I have in my ‘Political Crime’)
+the 836 uprisings that took place in the whole world in the period
+between 1791 and 1880, one finds that in Asia and Africa the
+greatest number falls in July. In Europe and America the
+greater prevalence of rebellions in the hot months could not be
+more clearly marked. In Europe the maximum proved to be
+in July [in this connection one might also point to the beginning
+of the present European war which falls in the midsummer of
+1914], and in South America in January, which are respectively
+the two hottest months. The minimum falls in Europe in December
+and January, and in South America in May and June,
+which again correspond in temperature.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“If now we pass from the whole of Europe to the particular
+countries, we still find the greatest number of uprisings in the
+hot months....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Benoiston de Chateauneuf points out that duels in the army
+are more frequent in the summer.</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“I have proved that the same influence manifests itself in
+the case of men of genius (‘Man of Genius,’ Part I.).</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“Ferri, in his ‘Crime in its Relation to Temperature,’ has
+proved from a study of the French criminal statistics from 1825
+to 1878 that one can deduce an almost complete parallelism
+between heat and criminality, not only for the different months,
+but also for years of different degrees of heat. The influence of
+the temperature on crime from 1825 to 1848 appears to be very
+pronounced and constant, and is often even greater than that
+exercised by agricultural production. Since 1848, notwithstanding
+the more serious agricultural and political disturbances,
+the coincidence between temperature and criminality becomes
+from time to time plainly apparent, especially in the case of
+homicide and murder....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“The connection comes out much more plainly, however, in
+the statistics of rape and offenses against chastity, which follow
+to an even greater degree the annual variations in temperature....</p>
+
+<p class='c000'>“As regards crimes against property there is a marked increase
+in the winter (theft and forgery being the most abundant
+in January), while the other seasons differ little from one another....”—Lombroso,
+<cite>Crime, Its Causes and Remedies</cite>,
+pp. 4–8. “Superintendents of prisons have generally observed
+that the inmates are more excited when storms are approaching
+and during the first quarter of the moon....”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 12.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f290'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r290'>290</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>, p. 13.—“In studying the distribution of simple
+and aggravated homicides in Europe, we find the highest figures
+in Italy and the other southern countries, and the lowest in the
+more northerly regions, England, Denmark, Germany. The
+same can be said of political uprisings in all Europe. We see,
+in fact, that the number of crimes increases as we go from north
+to south, and in the same measure as the heat increases.”—<i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ibid.</span></i>,
+p. 14.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f291'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r291'>291</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>This follows Laing. See Robertson, <cite>Buckle and his Critics</cite>
+(London, 1895), p. 553.—Cf. also C. M. Gießler’s article, “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über
+den Einfluß von Wärme und Kälte auf das seelische Funktionieren
+des Menschen</span>,” in <i><span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche
+Philosophie u. Soziologie</span></i>, 1902, pp. 319–38. Gießler refers (p.
+334) to Oppenheimer “<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Über den Einfluß des Klimas auf den
+Menschen</span>” (Berlin, 1867). <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Vide</span></i> also E. Huntington’s article
+on “Work and Weather,” <cite>Harper’s Magazine</cite>, vol. 130 (January,
+1915), pp. 233–44.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f292'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r292'>292</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span><cite>Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1908</cite> (London, 1909), p. 844.</p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f293'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r293'>293</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>On the use of alcohol in its relation to the northern climate,
+<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">cf.</span> also Auguste Matteuzzi, <cite><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les Facteurs de L’Évolution
+des Peuples</span></cite> (Paris, 1900), pp. 329 <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">et seq.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+<div class='footnote' id='f294'>
+<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r294'>294</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;</span>Some of these are to be discussed in a subsequent paper.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class='pbb'>
+ <hr class='pb c002' />
+</div>
+<div class='tnotes'>
+
+<div class='chapter'>
+  <h2 class='c007'>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</h2>
+</div>
+ <ol class='ol_1 c003'>
+    <li>Replaced “sz” with “ß” in German words. The “ß” character was not used in the
+    original.
+
+    </li>
+    <li>Changed “Nachbaren” to “Nachbarn” on p. <a href='#t30'>30</a>.
+
+    </li>
+    <li>Silently corrected typographical errors.
+
+    </li>
+    <li>Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.
+    </li>
+  </ol>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+  </body>
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