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diff --git a/old/55608-0.txt b/old/55608-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d150b1b..0000000 --- a/old/55608-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,17978 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The War in the East, by Trumbull White - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The War in the East - Japan, China, and Corea - -Author: Trumbull White - -Release Date: September 23, 2017 [EBook #55608] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WAR IN THE EAST *** - - - - -Produced by KD Weeks, Brian Coe and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - Transcriber’s Note: - -This version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects. -Italics are delimited with the ‘_’ character as _italic_. - -Footnotes have been moved to follow the paragraphs in which they are -referenced. - -There are numerous illustrations, the captions of which are retained in -this version. These have been moved to fall on paragraph breaks. - -Minor errors, attributable to the printer, including several associated -with pagination and indexing, have been corrected. Please see the -transcriber’s note at the end of this text for details regarding the -handling of any textual issues encountered during its preparation. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -[Illustration: BATTLEFIELD OF PING-YANG.] - -[Illustration] - - The War in the East. - - JAPAN, - CHINA, - AND COREA. - -A complete history of the War: Its causes and - results; its campaigns on sea and land; its - terrific fights, grand victories and - overwhelming defeats. - - With a preliminary account of the customs, habits - and history of the three peoples involved. Their - cities, arts, sciences, amusements and - literature. - - - BY - - TRUMBULL WHITE, - Late Correspondent of the “North China Daily News,” and the “Kobe - Herald.” - - WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY - JULIUS KUMPEI MATUMOTO, A.M. - OF TOKIO, JAPAN. - - WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY - TEITOKU MORIMOTO, J.C. FIREMAN, - and others. - - P.W. ZIEGLER & CO., - PHILADELPHIA, PA.; ST. LOUIS, MO. - - - - - Copyrighted, 1895, by - - TRUMBULL WHITE - - - - - PREFACE. - - -Some striking act in a man’s career is necessary to attract general -attention to him. The one who moves along through his path in life doing -nothing out of the ordinary, will win few glances from the public, and -little will the world notice his existence. Worthy of the worthiest he -may be, but if he does nothing to demonstrate it, how shall the world -know his merit or his strength? But with all this true, it does not -follow that it is man’s duty to seek an occasion to advertise these -qualities. Only when the necessity for action arises, then should he -act, and then will the world know what his ability and character are. - -The same is true as to the nations of the earth. Those years during -which they move onward in their national life and history in peace and -quietness, however full of latent strength they may be, are not the ones -which command the attention of the eyes of the world. It is the year of -supreme test, of struggle, moral or physical, that furnishes crucial -testimony what the nation really is. War is always a curse unless it be -waged to advance justice and assure more worthy peace. But if such a war -be necessary, the progress of it, the results, and the lessons they -teach are essential to the student of humanity, in whatever quarter of -the globe the battles are. - -China, Japan and Corea are a strange trinity to most of us in the -western world. Separated from us by long distances and by immense -differences in race, in language, in religion, and in customs, they have -been known here only through the writings of the comparatively few -travelers who exchange visits. Of late years, it is true, the hermitages -of the Orient have been opening to freer intercourse, trade and treaties -have multiplied, and students have come to us for the knowledge we could -give them. But there was needed a great movement of some sort to awaken -the Orient from its centuries of slumber, and to make known to us the -truth of eastern affairs. Nothing could do this as the War in the East -has done. We can study its conduct and its results if we will, in a way -to teach us more of the characteristics of the three nations than we -could learn in any other way. - -It has been the object of the author in the present volume, to record -the facts of the war and its preliminaries so clearly that every seeker -for knowledge might trace the lessons for himself. To justify this -effort, it is necessary to say no more than that the conflict involves -directly nations whose total population includes more than one-fourth of -the human race. And the results will affect the progress of civilization -in those countries, as well as the commercial and other interests of all -the European and American nations. - -Invertebrate China, with scorn of western methods, and complacent rest -in the belief that all but her own people are barbarians, had to face an -inevitable war with Japan, the sprightly, absorbent, adaptive, -western-spirited, whose career in the two score years since her doors -were opened to the call of the American Perry has been the marvel of -those who knew it. And the conflict was to be on the soil of the Hermit -Nation, Corea, “the Land of Morning Calm,” for centuries the land of -contention between “the Day’s Beginning” and “the Middle Kingdom.” - -It is to record the history and description of these realms and peoples -in sufficient detail to make plainer the facts of the war that the -preliminary chapters are written. The work must speak for itself. The -importance of the subjects included in the volume must be the -explanation of any inadequacy of treatment. - - TRUMBULL WHITE. - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - - PART I. CHINA, THE CELESTIAL KINGDOM. - - CHAPTER I.—History from the Earliest Times to First Contact 33 - with European Civilization - - CHAPTER II.—History from First Contact with European 71 - Civilization to the Outbreak of the War with Japan - - CHAPTER III.—The Chinese Empire, its Geography, Government, 99 - Climate, and Products - - CHAPTER IV.—The Chinese People, their Personal 135 - Characteristics, Manner of Life, Industries, Social - Customs, Art, Science, Literature, and Religion - - -------------- - - PART II. JAPAN, THE ISLAND EMPIRE. - - CHAPTER V.—History from the Earliest Times to First Contact 187 - with European Civilization - - CHAPTER VI.—History from First Contact with European 223 - Civilization to the Present Time—How the United States - Opened Japan to the World - - CHAPTER VII.—The Japanese Empire, its Geography, Government, 265 - Climate, and Products - - CHAPTER VIII.—The Japanese People, their Personal 285 - Characteristics, Manner of Life, Industries, Social - Customs, Art, Science, Literature, and Religion - - -------------- - - PART III. COREA, THE HERMIT NATION. - - CHAPTER IX.—History from the Earliest Times to the Present 327 - - CHAPTER X.—The Kingdom of Corea, its Geography, Government, 372 - Climate, and Products - - CHAPTER XI.—The Coreans and how they Live, their Personal 391 - Characteristics, Industries, Social Customs, Art, Science, - Literature, and Religion - - -------------- - - PART IV. THE WAR BETWEEN JAPAN AND CHINA. - - CHAPTER XII.—Causes of the War, Condition of the Three 419 - Nations at the Outbreak of Hostilities, and the - Preparations for the Impending Struggle - - CHAPTER XIII.—How the Conflict Began. The First Overt Acts 437 - of Offense, the Sinking of the Kow-shing, and the Formal - Declarations of War by the Rulers of Japan and China - - CHAPTER XIV.—From Asan to Ping-Yang. The Campaign in the 457 - North of Corea During August and Early September - - CHAPTER XV.—On Land and Sea. The Assault on Ping-Yang by the 481 - Japanese, and the Flight of the Chinese. Battle off the - Yalu River, the First Great Fight Between Modern Battle - Ships, and its Lessons - - CHAPTER XVI.—The Advance into China. Japan’s Forward 507 - Movement across the Yalu River. Li Hung Chang Losing his - Influence in Chinese Affairs - - CHAPTER XVII.—Review of the State of the Conflict and the 543 - Lessons to be Learned by the Aspect of Affairs at the - First of November - - CHAPTER XVIII.—Preparing to Attack Port Arthur. Advance 562 - Movements on the Kwang Tung Peninsula - - CHAPTER XIX.—Port Arthur. Successful Assault on the Chinese 583 - Stronghold. Barbarity to the Wounded and Prisoners on Both - Sides. Horrible Mutilation and Brutality - - CHAPTER XX.—From Port Arthur to Wei-hai-wei. China’s Offer 611 - of Peace. Envoy Rejected - - CHAPTER XXI.—The Expedition to Capture Wei-hai-wei and its 629 - Success. Admiral Ting’s Suicide - - CHAPTER XXII.—The End of Hostile Operations. Capture of 643 - Niuchwang and Hai-chow - - CHAPTER XXIII.—The Negotiations for Peace. Terms of the 655 - Treaty. Probable Results of the War - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - Battle Field of Ping-Yang, Frontispiece. - - Battle of the Yalu, 21 - - The Fight of Ping-Yang, 28 - - Chinese Musician, 32 - - Chinese Idea of Creation, 35 - - Emperor Shun Plowing, 36 - - View from Summer Palace, Peking, 37 - - Chinese Temple, 42 - - Image of Confucius, 46 - - Manchoorian Ministers, 48 - - Great Wall of China, 50 - - Buddhist Priest, 52 - - Chinese Archers, 57 - - Chinese Writer, 59 - - Chinese Cannoniers, 64 - - Ancient Chinese Arch, 65 - - A Chinese Lodging House, 70 - - Chinese Priest, 75 - - Man of Swatow, 76 - - Chinese Paper-Maker, 79 - - Chinese Peasant, Peiho District, 82 - - Battle of Crickets, 85 - - Chinese Mandarin, 87 - - Gate at Peking, 89 - - Opium Smokers, 92 - - Chinese Miners, 101 - - Chinese Farm Scene, 108 - - Chinese Tea Farm, 109 - - Chinese Street Scene, 111 - - Chinese Farmer, 113 - - An Imperial Audience, 117 - - Preparation of Vermicelli, 119 - - Chinese Ladies, 122 - - Palanquin of a High Official, 125 - - The Governor of a Province, 126 - - Punishment by the Gangue, 130 - - Flogging a Culprit, 131 - - Outside Peking, 134 - - Discipline on the March in the Chinese Army, 143 - - A Typhoon, 150 - - Bandaging the Feet, 151 - - The Seat of the War, 156 - - The Punishments of Hell, 158 - - Chinese Cart, 162 - - School Boy, 163 - - Chinese School, 164 - - Chinese Engineers Laying a Military Telegraph, 165 - - Chinese School Girl, 167 - - Chinese Artist, 168 - - Chinese Barber, 169 - - [Female Types and Costumes, facing 170] - - Porter’s Chair, 171 - - Chinese Emperor, King of Corea, and Chinese Officials, 175 - - Buddhist Temple, 178 - - Temple of Five Hundred Gods, at Canton, 181 - - Japanese Musician, 184 - - The Mikado and his Principal Officers, 187 - - Japanese God of Thunder, 189 - - Japanese God of Riding, 190 - - Japanese Peasantry, 192 - - Japanese God of War, 196 - - Tokio Types and Costumes, 198 - - Japanese Musician, 199 - - Japanese Silk Spinner, 200 - - Colossal Japanese Image, 205 - - Japanese Female Types, 207 - - Shinto Temple, 209 - - Japanese God of Wind, 211 - - Daimios of Japan, 212 - - Sketch Showing Development of Japanese Army, 213 - - Buddhist Priest, 215 - - Japanese Junk, 218 - - Old Time Japanese Ferry, 220 - - Scenes of Industrial Life, 221 - - Japanese Bell Towers, 229 - - Image of Buddha, 232 - - Japanese Samurai or Warrior of the Old Time, 233 - - Japanese General of the Old Time, 234 - - Japanese Bridge, 235 - - Baptism of Buddha, 240 - - Woman of Court of Kioto, 249 - - Chinese Coolie, 254 - - Japanese Gymnasts—Kioto, 256 - - Formosan Type, 258 - - Entrance to Nagasaki Harbor, 261 - - Fuji-yama, 267 - - Japanese Idols, 272 - - Japanese Jugglers, 277 - - Japanese Court Dress, Old Style, 281 - - Council of War on a Japanese Battle-Ship, 284 - - Dressing the Hair, 287 - - Child Carrying Baby, 291 - - The Chinese Fleet at Wei-hai-wei, 293 - - Japanese Bath, 296 - - Japanese Couch, 299 - - Sketches in Japan and Corea, 304 - - Geisha Girls Playing Japanese Musical Instruments, 307 - - Japanese Alphabet, New, 308 - - Japanese Alphabet, Old, 309 - - Shinto Priest, 311 - - Japanese Troops Landing at Chemulpo, 313 - - Street Scenes, 316 - - The Ainos, 319 - - Rats as Rice Merchants, 321 - - Corean Landscape, 324 - - Raw Levies for the Chinese Army, 326 - - Pagoda at Seoul, 333 - - Corean Soldiers, 334 - - Fighting Before the Gate of Seoul, 335 - - Old Man in Corea, 337 - - Coast Near Chemulpo, 342 - - Corean Mandarins, 347 - - Colossal Corean Idol—Un-jin Miriok, 358 - - Map Showing Japan, Corea and Part of China, 368 - - Corean Bull Harrowing, 375 - - Corean City Wall, 376 - - Chinese Protected Cruiser Chih-Yuen, 377 - - Gate of Seoul, 381 - - Naval Attack on the Chen-Yuen Before Chemulpo, 384 - - Corean Magistrate and Servant, 387 - - Japanese Naval Attack on Forts at Wei-hai-wei, 390 - - Statesman on Monocycle, 393 - - Corean Brush Cutter, 394 - - Porters With Chair, 395 - - Japanese Warship, “Yoshino,” 399 - - Corean Boat, 403 - - The Battle at Asan, 405 - - Corean Eggseller, 407 - - Japanese Soldiers Descending from the Castle at 412 - Fenghwang, - - Corean Band of Musicians, 413 - - Japanese Coolies Following the Army, 418 - - Japanese Army at Chiu-lien-cheng, 421 - - The Corean Regent, 424 - - Corean Natives Viewing Japanese Soldiers, 427 - - Sinking of the Kow-shing, 432 - - Mr. Otori Before the Commissioners, 434 - - Japanese Army on the March, 436 - - Procession in Seoul, 439 - - After the Battle, 441 - - The Attack on Ping-Yang, 448 - - Opening the Gates at Ping-Yang, 454 - - Fighting at Foochow, 463 - - Capture of Ping-Yang, 469 - - First Sight of Ping-Yang, 473 - - Battle of the Yalu—Sinking of the Chih-Yuen, 476 - - Bringing in the Wounded, 478 - - The Mikado Reviewing the Army, 480 - - Corean Police Agent, 481 - - Japanese Kitchen in Camp, 482 - - Japanese Soldier Saluting a Field Cemetery, 484 - - Crowd in Tokio Looking at Pictures of the War, 485 - - Japanese Ambulance Officer, 487 - - Chinamen Mutilating Remains of Japanese Soldiers, 488 - - The Ping-Yuen, 489 - - The Yoshino, 494 - - Japanese Advance at the Crossing of the Yalu River, 496 - - The Matsusima, 497 - - H. Sakomoto, 498 - - Japanese Infantry Attacking a Chinese Position, 505 - - Principal Street of Mukden, 509 - - Chinese Troops Trying to Save Their Artillery, 512 - - Transporting Chinese Troops, 513 - - Japanese Military Hospital, 515 - - Review of Chinese Troops at Port Arthur, 518 - - Japanese Soldiers Digging Well, 521 - - Constantine von Hannecken, 526 - - The Attack on Port Arthur, 527 - - Surrender of Chinese General and Staff, 533 - - Map of Territory Adjacent to the Mouth of the Yalu, 535 - - Japanese Army Crossing the Yalu on a Pontoon Bridge, 537 - - The Japanese at Port Arthur, 540 - - Sinking of the Kow-shing, 547 - - Naval Skirmish July 25th, 548 - - Routed Chinese Flying Before the Victorious Enemy, 549 - - Skirmish on July 27th, 551 - - Before the Wall of Seoul, 552 - - Japanese Cavalrymen, 558 - - Port Arthur—Transports Entering the Inner Harbor, 560 - - General Nodzu, 562 - - Chinese Earthworks, 564 - - View of Talien-wan Bay, 565 - - Port Arthur—Japanese Coolies Removing Chinese Dead, 569 - - Japanese Skirmishers before Port Arthur, 577 - - Retreat of Chinese Soldiers After the Fall of Port 580 - Arthur, - - Japanese Soldiers Removing Dead Bodies, 581 - - Japanese Attack on Port Arthur, 587 - - The Attack on Kinchow, 589 - - Port Arthur from the Bay, 593 - - Japanese Soldiers Mutilating Bodies, 599 - - Marshal Oyama, 603 - - Chang Yen Hoon, 610 - - Distant View of Wei-hai-wei and its Surroundings, 630 - - Admiral McClure, 639 - - Japanese Soldiers Escorting Chinese Prisoners, 640 - - Chinese Soldiers on the March, 645 - - Chinese Soldier Laden with Provision, 649 - - Gap in the Great Wall at Shan-hai-kwan, 653 - - - - - INTRODUCTION. - - -The unexpected news of war between the Mikado’s Empire and the Celestial -Kingdom has startled the whole world. Thereby considerable light was -thrown upon the Oriental world. - -Japan, up to a very short time ago, through the pen and tongue of poets -and artists, who have visited this land, has been thought to be merely a -country of beautiful flowers, charming mademoiselles, fantastic -parasols, fans and screens. Such misrepresentation has long impressed -the western mind, and the people hardly imagined Japan as a political -power, enlightened by a perfect educational system and developed to a -high pitch of excellence in naval and military arts. - -The war in the East is certainly interesting from more than one point of -view. Viewing it from the humane standpoint, Japan is, indeed, the true -standard-bearer of civilization and progress in the far east. Her -mission is to enlighten the millions of slumbering souls in the -Celestial Kingdom, darkened for generations. Politically, she, with her -enterprising genius, youthful courage and alert brain, as well as the -art and science of civilization, has lifted herself into the ranks of -the most powerful nations of the earth, and compelled the whole of the -western powers to reckon her as a “living force,” as she has proved her -right to a proud place among the chief powers of the world. -Commercially, she has demonstrated herself the mistress of the Pacific -and Asiatic Seas. - -From the outbreak of the war all the civilized nations, except England, -have sympathized with Japan, especially the people of America have given -a strong moral support to Japan, not because this country is the warmest -friend of Japan, but because Japan is, to-day, the propagandist of -civilization and humanity in the far east. - -At the beginning of the hostilities a majority of the people had an -erroneous idea that the overwhelming population and resources of China -would soon be able to crush the Island Empire of Japan; but they -overlooked the fact that in our day it is science, brains and courage, -together with the perfected organization of warfare that grasp the palm -of victory. Thousands of sheep could do nothing against a ferocious -wolf. So the numerical comparison has but little weight. - -Some sagacious writer compared Japan to a lively swordfish and China to -a jellyfish, being punctured at every point. Truly Japan has proved it -so. - -From the sinking of the Kow-shing transport, up to the present time, -Japan has an unbroken series of victories over China. At the battle of -Asan she gained the first brilliant victories and swept all the Chinese -put of Corea, and at Ping-Yang, by both tactics and superb strategy, -crushed the best army of China, which Li Hung Chang brought up to the -greatest efficiency, by the aid of many European officers, as if it had -been an egg shell. Again, at the mouth of the Yalu River, she gained a -brilliant naval victory over China, by completely destroying the -Ping-Yang squadron. Once more on the land the Japanese army stormed Port -Arthur, the strongest naval fort, known as the Gibraltar of China. - -All these facts are viewed with amazement by the eyes of the world. For -all that the people know about Japan and the Japanese is that the people -of Japan are very artistic, as the producers of beautiful porcelain, -embroidery, lacquer work and all sorts of artistic fancy goods, and they -wonder how it is possible that such an artistic people as the Japanese -could fight against sober, calm Chinamen. But such an erroneous notion -would soon vanish if they came to learn the true nature and character of -the Japanese. - -More than once the world has seen that an artistic nation could fight. -The Greeks demonstrated this long ago, and the French in the latter -times have shown a shining example. Japan is reckoned as one of the most -artistic people in the world, as the producer of beautiful things, as -the lover of fine arts and natural beauties. The Japanese have proved -the same as what the ancient Greeks and modern French have shown. The -history of Japan reveals the true color of the Japanese as brilliant -fighters and a warlike nation. “In no country,” says Mr. Rogers, “has -military instinct been more pronounced in the best blood of the people. -Far back in the past, beyond that shadowy line where legend and history -blend, their story has been one of almost continual war, and the -straightest path to distinction and honor has, from the earliest times, -led across the battle field. The statesmen of Japan saw, as did Cavour, -that the surest way to win the respect of nations was by success in -war.” - -The ancestor of the Japanese people, who claim to have descended from -high heaven, seems to have been the descendant of the ancient Hittites, -the warlike and conquering tribe once settled in the plain of -Mesopotamia. The Hittites, so far as our investigation is concerned, -extending their sway of conquest towards the north-eastern portion of -Asia, must have, at last, brought the Japanese family to the island of -Japan. As they settled on the island, they found it inhabited by many -different tribes; but they soon vanquished them and established the -everlasting foundation of the Mikado’s Empire, which they called the -“Glorious Kingdom of Military Valour.” The first Mikado was Jimmu, whose -coronation took place two thousand five hundred and fifty-four years -ago, long before Alexander the Great thought he had conquered the world -and Julius Cæsar entered Gaul. The present Mikado is the one hundred and -twenty-second lineal descendant of the first Mikado Jimmu. The unbroken -dynasty of the Mikado has continued for twenty-five centuries. The -people are brave, adventurous and courageous. Fanatical patriotism for -country and strong loyalty towards the Mikado are essential -characteristics of the Japanese people. And all these tend to form the -peculiar nationality of Japan. Since the establishment of the Mikado’s -Empire their land has never been defiled by invaders and they have never -known how to be subject to a foreign yoke. The history of Japan is the -pride of the Japanese people. - -The Japanese, in an early time, have displayed their superior courage -and distinguished themselves from the rest of the Asiatic nations in the -point of military affairs. - -In the year A.D. 201 the Empress Jingo, the greatest female character in -the Japanese history, undertook a gigantic expedition to the Asiatic -continent. She assembled an immense army and built a great navy. Placing -herself as the commander-in-chief of the invading army, she sailed for -the continent. Her victory was brilliant. Corea was at once subjected -without any bloodshed. Long since the Japanese power was established on -the Asiatic continent. - -Again in the sixteenth century, ambitious Taiko, who is known as the -Napoleon of Japan, undertook a great continental expedition, to show the -military glory of Japan before the world. He found Japan too small to -satisfy his immoderate ambition, and sent word to the emperor of China -and the king of Corea that if they would not hear him, he would invade -their territory with his invincible army. It was his plan to divide the -four hundred provinces of China and eight provinces of Corea among his -generals in fiefs, after conquering them. So he assembled his generals -and fired their enthusiasm, recounting their exploits mutually achieved. -All the generals and soldiers were delighted with the expedition. Fifty -thousand samurai were embarked for the continent and sixty thousand -reserve was kept ready in Japan as re-enforcement. - -The Japanese army was everywhere victorious. After many battles fought -and fortresses stormed, the entire kingdom of Corea was subdued. The -capitol was taken, the king fled. The emperor of China sent an army -forward against the Japanese and a severe battle was fought. The -victorious Japanese were on the point of invading China, when in 1598, -the death of Taiko was announced and the Japanese government ordered the -invading army to return home. Peace was concluded. Thus the conquest of -China was frustrated. - -The invasion of the Mongolian-Tartars is the most memorable event in -Japanese history, which excited the utmost patriotism and valour of the -nation. The dangers and glories at this time will never be forgotten by -the Japanese. - -In the thirteenth century, Genghis Khan, who is now identified as -Minamoto Yoshitsune or Gen Gi Kei in Japanese history, who left Japan -for Manchilia, began his sway of conquest in Mongolia. The conquest of -the whole earth was promised him. He vanquished China, Corea and the -whole of Central and Northern Asia, subjected India and overthrew the -Caliphate of Bagdad. In Europe, he made subject the entire dominion of -Russia and extended the Mongolian Empire as far as the Oder and the -Danube. After his death the Empire was divided among his three sons. -Kublai Khan received as his share North-eastern Asia. He had completely -overthrown the Sung dynasty of China and founded the Mongolian dynasty. -He placed the whole of Eastern Asia under his yoke, and then sent envoys -to Japan, demanding tributes and homage. The nation of Japan was -indignant at the insolent demand, for they were never accustomed to such -treatment, and dismissed them in disgrace. Six embassies were sent and -six times rejected. Again, the haughty Mongolian prince sent nine -envoys, who demanded a definite answer from the Japanese sovereign. The -Japanese reply was given by cutting off their heads. - -At the sight of imminent foreign invasion, the Japanese were in a great -hurry to prepare for war. Once more, and for the last time, Chinese -envoys came to demand tribute; again the sword gave the answer. Enraged, -the great Mongolian prince prepared a gigantic armada to crush the -island of Japan, which had refused homage and tribute to the invincible -conqueror. The army, consisting of one hundred thousand Chinese and -Tartars and seven thousand Coreans, aided by thirty-five hundred of -armed navy, that seemed to cover the entire seas, sailed for the -invasion in August of 1281. The whole nation of Japan now roused with -sword in hand and marched against its formidable foe. Re-enforcements -poured in from all quarters to swell the host of defenders. The fierce -Mongolian force could not effect their landing, but were driven into the -sea as soon as they reached the shore. Aided by a mighty typhoon, before -which the Chinese armada was utterly helpless, the Japanese fiercely -attacked the invaders and after a bloody struggle, they succeeded in -destroying the enemy’s war ships, and killing all or driving them into -the sea to be drowned. The corpses were piled on the shore or floating -on the water so thickly that it seemed almost possible to walk thereon. -Only three out of hundreds of thousands of invaders, were sent back to -tell their emperor how the brave men of Japan had destroyed their -armada. - -The courage of the Japanese is fully manifested in these great events. -Many ambitious men, seeking for military glory, have expatriated -themselves from their own native lands, and gone off to the less warlike -countries of Asia, where they found themselves by their distinguished -courage and military genius, kings, ministers and generals. - -The Japanese seamen have long been renowned for their adventurous spirit -and audacity. Trading ships of Japan, in the remotest ancient age, are -said to have sailed around the Persian Gulf, beyond the Indian seas. It -is said that at the beginning of the fourteenth century a Japanese junk -had discovered the American Pacific sea-coast, now known as the regions -of Oregon and California. For a long time the Japanese pirates were the -mistress of all the eastern seas. China, Siam, Birmah and the southern -islands had paid tribute to them. The name of the Japanese was, indeed, -the terror of the Oriental world, just as the northmen had been the -object of dread to the southern Europeans. - -A policy, that was adopted by the Japanese people in the seventeenth -century, was an injurious one for its national development. Up to this -time, foreign intercourse was free and commerce flourished. Nagasaki, -Hirado, Satsuma, and all western seaports were the cosmopolitan cities, -where all European and Asiatic tradesmen were found crowded. -Unfortunately these foreigners were sources of vice. The avarice and -extortion of the foreign traders; bitter sectarian strife between -Dominicans, Franciscans and the Jesuits; and the most cruel intolerance -and persecution by the Catholic people, which were vices unknown to the -Japanese mind; political-religious plots of the Christians against the -Japanese government; the slave trade carried on by the foreign -merchants, and the like events, disgusted the Japanese authority, and -forced them to believe the exclusion of the vicious foreigners was -absolutely necessary to the welfare of Japan. Thus the Japanese resolved -to expel all foreigners out of the islands. Tokugawa, the founder of Tai -Kun shogunate, vigorously enforced this principle and carried it so far -that all the Roman Catholics both native and foreign were extinguished -and all foreign merchants except a few Dutch, were expelled out of the -country. The policy of the Tokugawa Government not only excluded the -foreigners but also kept the natives at home. No foreigners (except the -Dutch) were allowed to peep in this forbidden land and no native was -permitted to leave his own country. Thus it was cut off from all the -rest of the world. Japan furnishes different varieties of productions, -which can amply supply all the needs of the nation without any -inconvenience; hence commercial intercourse with foreign lands, was not -absolutely necessary. In the course of time she had forgotten all about -the outside world and so the world neglected her. - -The people, however, enjoyed a profound peace by this policy. Ignoring -the rise and fall of other nations, the people in this ocean guarded -paradise, cultivated arts and learning and developed their own -civilization, which is quite different from what we call now the -civilization of the nineteenth century. While thus she was enjoying -tranquility and cultivating the arts and learning in a secluded corner -of the earth, in the western nations, endless struggles and everlasting -contests completely revolutionized the old phases of the earth. The -peace and culture of two centuries and a half, which Japan has enjoyed, -exalted her to the certain state of civilization. But her isolated -condition and tranquility lacked the systematic development of army and -navy and the arts of international negotiation, which are the weapons -vitally important in order to stand on the field of struggle for -existence. - -Suddenly this tranquility that has continued for two hundred and fifty -years, was broken, when in 1853, the war ships of Commodore Perry -appeared in the Bay of Yeddo. This event threw into great confusion and -panic the whole nation. Japan had no navy and no army to fight with the -foreign intruders, nor had she the art of diplomacy, with which to -consult in regard to the protection of Japan’s interest. Japan stood -then with her naked civilization against the armed civilization of -Europe. She was forced to make a disadvantageous treaty with the -European and American states at the cannon’s mouth. In this treaty she -conceded her sovereign right to the western people who live in the -realm. - -Thus Japan entered, infamously, the group of the civilized world. She -saw at once that the western nations were far in advance of her in the -art of war and diplomacy, that they have learned from the constant -struggle of the past three centuries, while she was devoted to arts and -learning. She perceived that the so-called civilization of the 19th -century is but a disguised form of barbarism of iron and fire, covered -with comity and humanity, and that to exist in the field of struggle for -existence she must adopt the same means by which the European nations -stand. Hence the whole nation of Japan, since the intercourse with the -western people, has struggled, with the utmost energy, to adopt what is -called the 19th century civilization. - -In 1868 a revolution took place, from which the New Japan suddenly -emanated. The French Revolution did not cause greater changes in France -than the Revolution of 1868 in Japan. The old feudal regime, in full -force, was cast away. The social system was completely reorganized. New -and enlightened criminal and civil codes were enacted; the modes of -judicial procedure were utterly revolutionized; the jail system -radically improved; the most effective organization of police, of posts, -of railways, of telegraphs, telephones and all means of communication -were adopted; enlightened methods of national education were employed; -and the Christian religion was welcomed for the sake of social -innovation. The most complete national system of navy and army, after -the modern European model, was achieved. The sound order of the imperial -government, financially and politically, were firmly established; the -most improved and extended scheme of local government was put into -operation, and the central government was organized according to the -pattern of the most advanced scale. The imperial constitution was -promulgated, and the Imperial Diet, consisting of two houses—the House -of Lords and House of Commons—elected by popular votes, was founded. -Freedom of thought, speech and faith was established; the system of an -influential press and party rapidly grew up. Now the monarchial -absolutism of the Mikado’s Empire is replaced by a government by -parliament and constitution. - -[Illustration: BATTLE OF THE YALU.—Japanese Drawing.] - -Such is the progress which Japan has achieved in the past twenty-five -years. This progress must not, by any means, be taken as strange. The -Revolution of 1868 also, must not be imagined as the birthday of the -Empire of the Rising Sun. Those who do not know the true condition of -the Japanese before the Revolution, and who observe superficially the -phases of modern Japan, have often said that the Japanese are merely -imitating western civilization without any idea of understanding it. -This a gross mistake. The Revolution of 1868 is merely a moment of -transition when Japan adopted the western system. The Japanese mind was -fully developed and enlightened, at the time when they came in contact -with foreigners, to fully grasp western civilization. Mentally, the -Japanese people were so enlightened as to be able to digest European -science and art at one glance. As a clever writer has said: “It must be -clearly understood that like a skillful gardener, who grafts a new rose -or an apple upon a healthy and well-established stock, so did Japan -adopt the scientific and civil achievement of the west to an eastern -root, full of vigorous life and latent force.” For these causes we have -no reason to wonder at the rapid progress which the Japanese have made -in the past twenty-five years. And by all these facts, we have no reason -to wonder how the colossal Celestial Empire, that was thought by the -Europeans invincible, came to ask the mercy of Japan. - -The collision between Japan and China, though it was thought strange to -those who are not familiar to eastern affairs, is not a surprising -matter to the person well acquainted with Asiatic politics. Japan had -predicted, long ago, that the inevitable conflict of the two powers in -the Orient must come sooner or later, and the nation has been long -prepared for to-day. She has perceived the weakness and corruption of -the Celestial Empire, while the European diplomats were dazzled, in the -court of Peking, by an outward appearance of unity, power, and majesty -that the huge Middle Kingdom maintained for centuries. She knew quite -well that the lack of national spirit and effective system of -government, hatred of races, depravity of the officers, ignorance of the -people, corruption of naval and military organization and constant -maladministration of the Manchoorian government dominated the stupid -empire, whose people still proudly style their country the “Flowery -Kingdom, in the Enlightened Earth.” - -The Japanese, as they are polite and artistic, are by no means a -blood-thirsty race; nay, far from that. But the present war is in an -inevitable chain of circumstances. For a long time the Japanese and -Chinese were not good friends, they hated each other, as much, if not -more than the French and the Germans do to-day. - -Since Japan came in contact with the Europeans, she adopted, with the -most marvelous activity, the western methods which have completely -revolutionized the nation in a quarter of a century, while China -maintained her regime and looked upon all western arts and science with -utmost hatred and contempt. So she regarded Japan as the traitor of -Asia. Naturally Japan represented the civilization and progress in the -far east; and China ultra-conservatism. It was long expected that the -collision of these two antagonistic principles must come. And so it has -now come. - -Moreover, the goal of Japan was, as the leading spirit of Asia, to exalt -herself among the first-class powers of the civilized world. But China, -up to a very short time ago, pretended to be the mistress of Asia. Thus -they envied each other, and conflict of the two powers for supremacy -became inevitable. The first collision between Japan and China came in -1874, with the question of the Liu Kiu Islands, which China abandoned -for Japan, then the Formosa expedition provoked serious trouble between -the two countries. In both cases Japan came off successful in the end. - -Again there were collisions in Corea, just as Rome and Carthage met in -Sicily. Corea has for a long time, paid tribute both to Japan and China, -yet neither had any definite sovereign right over Corea, but mere -suzerain powers. In 1875, the Japanese government abandoned all her -ancient, traditional suzerain rights in Corea, and concluded a treaty -which recognized Corea as an independent State, enjoying the same -sovereign powers as Japan. Soon after, the United States, England, -France, Germany and Russia followed Japan’s example. This friendly act -of Japan by which she introduced Corea as an independent State among -civilized nations, was a terrible blow to China, who still had the -intention of claiming her traditional suzerainty over Corea. It must be -remembered that the permanent neutrality of the Hermit Kingdom is of -vital importance to the prosperity and safety of the country of the -Rising Sun. It is evident from this point of view that Japan can never -permit the Chinese claim of suzerainty, nor Russian aggression in Corea. - -From the time that Japan recognized Corea as an independent nation, she -made great efforts for the progress of Corea. Many Corean students were -educated and many Japanese, sent there as instructors and as advisors, -assisted the advancement of her civilization. Japan has never failed to -show her friendly sympathy towards Corea, for the progress and welfare -of Corea as a firm independent state, has great bearing upon Asiatic -civilization, and upon the safety of Japan itself. - -While Japan was using her best efforts as the sincere friend of Corea, -China constantly and secretly intrigued with the Corean government and -the conservatives, in order to restore her old suzerainty and to -annihilate Japan’s influence in Corea. In 1882, an insurrection, -instigated by the Chinese officers, broke out in Seoul. It was directed -chiefly against the Japanese, as the promoters of foreign intercourse. -The mob attacked the Japanese legation and several members were -murdered. The Japanese minister and his staff escaped to the palace to -find refuge, but found there the gates were shut against them, then they -were obliged to cut their way through the mob and run all night to -Chemulpo, where they were rescued by an English boat and returned to -Japan. The insurrection was suppressed by a Chinese force and a number -of the leaders were executed. The Corean government consented to pay a -sum of $500,000 as indemnity, but this was subsequently forgiven to -Corea in consequence of inability to pay it. There were already existing -in Corea two parties, that is, the progressive and the conservative. The -former party represented civilized elements and the spirit of Japan, -while the latter represented the majority of the officers and it was -supported by the Chinese government. These two parties were bitter -enemies and struggled for supremacy. - -Since the rebellion of 1882, Chinese influence in Corea rapidly -increased, consequently the conservative spirit predominated. Two years -later, the leaders of the progressive party undertook a bold attempt -when they saw that their party influence was waning. During a dinner -party to celebrate the opening of the new post-office, a plan was made -to murder all the conservative leaders who had dominant influence in the -government. They partly succeeded in the attempt. The revolutionary -leaders proceeded to the palace, secured the person and the sympathy of -the king, who sent an autograph letter to ask the Japanese minister for -the protection of the royal palace. Thereon, the Japanese minister -guarded the palace for a few days with his legation guard of one hundred -and thirty Japanese soldiers. In the meantime the Chinese force in -Seoul, two thousand in number proceeded to the palace, and without any -negotiation or explanation fired upon the Japanese guard. The king fled -to the Chinese army and the Japanese retired to the palace of their -legation which they found surrounded by the Chinese army. They abandoned -the spot, finding it impossible to maintain the legation without any -provisions, fought their way to Chemulpo, where they found their way to -Japan. Many Japanese were killed in this event. The Japanese government -demanded satisfaction from China on account of the action of the Chinese -soldiers. The convention of Tien-tsin, after long negotiation between -Count Ito, the present premier of Japan and Li Hung Chang, the viceroy -of China, was concluded. The main points of the Tien-tsin treaty were -three: (1) that the king of Corea should provide a sufficient force to -maintain order in future, to be trained by officers of some nation other -than China or Japan; (2) that certain internal reforms should be made; -(3) that if necessary to preserve order and protect their nations either -Japan or China should have the right to dispatch troops to Corea, on -giving notice each to the other, and that when order was restored both -forces should be withdrawn simultaneously. - -The event of 1885 completely extinguished the Japanese influence and -established the Chinese authority in Corea. The Chinese minister in -Seoul got complete possession of the Corean government, entirely crushed -the revolutionary party and organized an ultra-conservative government -and appointed ministers at his will. Japan’s influence in Corea has been -almost nill during the past ten years, for she has been very busy with -her internal reorganization and has not had much time to look after -Corea. - -[Illustration: THE FIGHT AT PING-YANG.] - -Two prominent leaders of the revolutionary party fled to Japan on -account of the failure of the coup d'état of 1885, where they found -their asylum. The Chinese and Corean governments dispatched missions to -demand the extradition of these unfortunate political reformers, but -Japan was firm in her refusal, on the ground of the ethics of -international law. The Corean government, sanctioned by that of China, -at once began to take measures to effect the removal of these ruined -leaders by other processes. Official assassins followed their footsteps -for ten years in vain. But at last they succeeded in murdering -Kim-ok-Kiun, one of those reformers, and most barbarous cruelties were -committed by the Chinese and Corean authorities. The murder of -Kim-ok-Kiun excited great sympathy from the Japanese public. Many a time -China and Corea cast disdain and contempt upon Japan’s name. Many a time -the political and commercial interest of Japan were impaired by them. -Yet Japan forgave their insolence with generous heart. - -The progress of the late rebellion in Corea was beyond her power to -check. A state of perpetual anarchy seemed to prevail. Insolent China -seemed to be using the Corean mobs for her own advantage, and directly -against Japan’s interests. China, ignoring the treaty of Tien-tsin in -1885, sent troops to Corea. Japan no longer lightly viewed China’s -insolence and Corean disorder. - -Japan’s ardent need to take a decided step in Corea, at this moment -seemed a more cogent one in the commercial point of view than her -political interest. The greater part of the modern trade of Corea has -been created by Japan and is in the hands of her merchants; the net -value of Corean direct foreign trade for 1892 and 1893 together was -$4,240,498 with China, while $8,306,571 with Japan. Hence the interest -of Japan is twice that of China. In tonnage of shipping the proportion -is vastly greater in favor of Japan. Her tonnage in 1893 was over twenty -times that of China, as the exact figures show: tonnage—China, 14,376; -Japan, 304,224. Thus Japan’s economic interests in Corea are decidedly -greater than any other nation’s. - -Immediately after China sent troops to Corea, Japan, also, sent her -force, to preserve her political as well as economic interests, and -determined not to draw back her troops until Corea should restore the -sound order of society and wipe out the Chinese claim of Corean -suzerainty, for so long as Chinese influence predominates in Corea, any -thoughts of her advancement are hopeless. For a long maladministration -of the Li government had weakened the Hermit Kingdom. The country is no -more than a desert and its people are plunged in the most miserable -poverty of any in the poverty-stricken east. The Japanese government -proposed to the Chinese government according to the Tien-tsin treaty, a -measure of internal reform for Corea, which was rejected with insult by -the Chinese authority. - -At first Japan had, by no means, any intention to make war with China, -but she was forced by her to enter the struggle. She has never infringed -the ethics of international law, nor the comity of nations. It was China -that provoked the eastern war, now raging in the Orient, but not Japan; -the true idea of Japan, in the war, is, by conquest, to put the blame on -China for refusing to adhere faithfully to the spirit of her treaties -and for trying to keep Corea in barbarism, and for endeavoring to stop -the progress of civilization in Eastern Asia. Her mission in the east is -to crush the insolent and ignorant self-conceit of the Peking government -and to reform the barbarous abuses of the Corean administration. -Therefore Japan fights to-day for the sake of civilization and humanity. - -After the eastern war was declared, four months had hardly passed, until -the fighting power and the economic resources of the Chinese Empire were -destroyed and exhausted. China was forced to beg the mercy of Japan. The -banner of the “Rising Sun” is now triumphant. Japan dictating the terms -of peace, signifies the beginning of a better era for benighted China -and the preservation of permanent peace in the Orient. - - JULIUS KUMPÉI MATUMOTO, A.M., - Tokio, Japan. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - _CHINA_ - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -[Illustration: CHINESE MUSICIAN.] - - - - - HISTORICAL SKETCH OF CHINA FROM THE EARLIEST - TIMES TO FIRST CONTACT WITH - EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION. - - -------------- - -Origin of Chinese People—Legends—Golden Age of China—Beginnings of -Authentic History—Dynasty of Chow—Cultivation of Literature and -Progress—Music, Slavery, Household Habits Three Thousand Tears -Ago—Confucius and his Work—First Emperor of China—Burning of Books—Han -Dynasty—Famous Men of the Period—Paper Money and Printing—Invasions of -Tartars and Mongols—Sung Dynasty—Literary Works—Famous Chinese -Poet—Literature, Law and Medicine—Kublai Khan—Ming Dynasty—Private -Library of a Chinese Emperor—Founding of the Present Dynasty—Connection -Between Chinese History and the Rest of the World. - - -Obscurity shrouds the origin of the Chinese race. The Chinese people -cannot be proved to have originally come from anywhere beyond the limits -of the Chinese empire. At the remotest period to which investigations -can satisfactorily go back, without quitting the domain of history for -that of legend, we find them already in existence as an organized, and -as a more or less civilized nation. Previous to that time, their -condition had doubtless been that of nomadic tribes, but whether as -immigrants or as true sons of the soil there is scarcely sufficient -evidence to show. Conjecture, however, based for the most part upon -coincidences of speech, writing or manners and customs, has been busy -with their ultimate origin; and they have been variously identified with -the Turks, with the Chaldees, with the earliest inhabitants of Ireland, -and with the lost tribes of Israel. - -The most satisfactory, however, of recent conclusions, based on most -careful investigations are as follows: The first records we have of them -represent the Chinese as a band of immigrants settling in the -north-eastern provinces of the modern empire of China and fighting their -way amongst the aborigines much as the Jews of old forced their way into -Canaan against the various tribes which they found in possession of the -land. It is probable that though they all entered China by the same -route they separated into bands almost on the threshold of the empire, -one body, those who have left us the records of their history in the -ancient Chinese books, apparently following the course of the Yellow -river, and turning southward with it from its northernmost bend, -settling themselves in the fertile districts of the modern provinces of -Shan-hsi and Honan. But as it is believed also that at about the same -period a large settlement was made as far south as Anam of which there -is no mention in the books of the northern Chinese, we must assume that -another body struck directly southward through the southern provinces of -China to that country. - -Many writers answer the question that arises as to whence these people -came, by declaring that research directly points to the land south of -the Caspian sea. They find many reasons in the study of languages which -furnish philological proof of this assertion. And they affirm that in -all probability the outbreak in Susiana of possibly some political -disturbance in about the 24th or 23rd century B.C., drove the Chinese -from the land of their adoption and that they wandered eastward until -they finally settled in China and the country south of it. Such an -emigration is by no means unusual in Asia. We know that the Ottoman -Turks originally had their home in northern Mongolia, and we have a -record of the movement at the end of last century of a body of six -hundred thousand Kalmucks from Russia to the confines of China. It would -appear also that the Chinese came into China possessed of the resources -of western Asian culture. They brought with them a knowledge of writing -and astronomy as well as of the arts which primarily minister to the -wants and comforts of mankind. - -[Illustration: CHINESE IDEA OF CREATION.] - -According to one native authority, China, that is, the world was evolved -out of chaos exactly 3,276,494 years ago. This evolution was brought -about by the action of a First Cause or Force which separated into two -principles, active and passive, male and female. Or as some native -writers explain it, out of a great egg came a man. Out of the upper half -of the egg he created the heavens and out of the lower half he created -the earth. He created five elements, earth, water, fire, metal and wood. -Out of the vapor from gold he created man and out of vapor from wood he -created woman. Traditional pictures of this first man and first woman -represent them wearing for dress, girdles of fig leaves. He created the -sun to rule the day, the moon to rule the night, and the stars. Those -who care to go deeper into these traditions than the limits of this work -permit will find ample material for interesting research in the -analogies to Christian history. - -These principles, male and female, found their material embodiment in -heaven and earth and became the father and mother of all things, -beginning with man, who was immediately associated with them in a -triumvirate of creative powers. Then ensued ten immense periods, the -last of which has been made by some Chinese writers on chronology to end -where every sober history of China should begin, namely, with the -establishment of the Chow dynasty eleven hundred years before the birth -of Christ. During this almost immeasurable lapse of time, the process of -development was going on, involving such discoveries as the production -of fire, the construction of houses, boats and wheeled vehicles, the -cultivation of grain, and mutual communication by means of writing. - -The father of Chinese history chose indeed to carry us back to the court -of the Yellow Emperor, B.C. 2697, and to introduce us to his successors -Yao and Shun and to the great Yu, who by his engineering skill had -drained away a terrible inundation which some have sought to identify -with Noah’s flood. - -[Illustration: EMPEROR SHUN PLOWING.] - -This flood was in Shun’s reign. The waters we are told rose to so great -a height that the people had to betake themselves to the mountains to -escape death. Most of the provinces of the existing empire were -inundated. The disaster arose, as many similar disasters, though of less -magnitude, have since arisen, in consequence of the Yellow river -bursting its bounds, and the great Yu was appointed to lead the waters -back to their channel. With unremitting energy he set about his task, -and in nine years succeeded in bringing the river under his control. -During this period so absorbed was he in his work, that we are told he -took heed neither of food nor clothing, and that thrice he passed the -door of his house without once stopping to enter. At the completion of -his labors he divided the empire into nine instead of twelve provinces, -and tradition represents him as having engraved a record of his toils on -a stone tablet on Mount Heng in the province of Hoopih. As a reward for -the services he had rendered for the empire, he was invested with the -principality of Hea, and after having occupied the throne conjointly -with Shun for some years he succeeded that sovereign on his death in -2308 B.C. - -[Illustration: VIEW FROM SUMMER PALACE, PEKING.] - -But all these things were in China’s “golden age,” the true record of -which is shrouded for us in the obscurity of centuries. There were a few -laws, but never any occasion to exact the penalties attached to -misconduct. It was considered superfluous to close the house door at -night, and no one would even pick up any lost property that lay in the -high road. All was virtue, happiness and prosperity, the like of which -has not since been known. The Emperor Shun was raised from the plow -handle to the throne simply because of his filial piety, in recognition -of which wild beasts used to come and voluntarily drag his plow for him -through the furrowed fields, while birds of the air would hover round -and guard his sprouting grain from the depredations of insects. - -This of course is not history; and but little more can be said for the -accounts given of the two dynasties which ruled China between the -“golden age” and the opening reigns of the House of Chow. The historian -in question had not many sources of information at command. Beside -tradition, of which he largely availed himself, the chief of these was -the hundred chapters that had been edited by Confucius from the -historical remains of those times, now known as the “Book of History.” -This contains an unquestionable foundation of facts, pointing to a -comparatively advanced state of civilization, even so far back as two -thousand years before our era; but the picture is dimly seen and many of -its details are of little practical value. This calculation declares -that with Yu began the dynasty of Hea which gave place in 1766 B.C. to -the Shang dynasty. The last sovereign of the Hea line, Kieh Kwei, is -said to have been a monster of iniquity and to have suffered the just -punishment for his crimes at the hands of T'ang, the prince of the state -of Shang, who took his throne from him. In like manner, six hundred and -forty years later, Woo Wang, the prince of Chow, overthrew Chow Sin, the -last of the Shang dynasty, and established himself as the chief of the -sovereign state of the empire. - -It is only with the dynasty of the Chows that we begin to feel ourselves -on safe ground, though long before that date the Chinese were -undoubtedly enjoying a far higher civilization than fell to the share of -most western nations until many centuries later. The art of writing had -been already fully developed, having passed, if we are to believe native -researches from an original system of knotted cords, through successive -stages of notches on wood and rude outlines of natural objects down to -the phonetic stage in which it exists at the present day. Astronomical -observations of a simple kind had been made and recorded and the year -divided into months. The rite of marriage had been substituted for -capture; and although cowries were still employed and remained in use -until a much later date, metallic coins of various shapes and sizes -began to be recognized as a more practicable medium of exchange. Music, -both vocal and instrumental, was widely cultivated; and a kind of solemn -posturing filled the place that has been occupied by dancing among -nations farther to the west. Painting, charioteering and archery were -reckoned among the fine arts; the crossbow especially being a favorite -weapon either on the battle field or on the chase. The people seem to -have lived upon rice and cabbage, pork and fish, much as they do now; -they also drank the ardent spirit distilled from rice vulgarly known as -“Samshoo” and clad themselves in silk, or their own coarse home stuffs -according to the means of each. All this is previous to the dynasty of -Chow with which it is now proposed to begin. - -The Chows rose to power over the vices of preceding rulers, aided by the -genius of a certain duke or chieftain of the Chow state, though he -personally never reached the imperial throne. It was his more famous son -who in B.C. 1122 routed the forces of the last tyrant of the -semi-legendary period and made himself master of China. The China of -those days consisted of a number of petty principalities clustering -round one central state and thus constituting a federation. The central -state managed the common affairs, while each one had its own local laws -and administration. It was in some senses a feudal age, somewhat similar -to that which prevailed in Europe for many centuries. The various dukes -were regarded as vassals owing allegiance to the sovereign at the head -of the imperial state, and bound to assist him with money and men in -case of need. And in order to keep together this mass, constantly in -danger of disintegration from strifes within, the sovereigns of the -House of Chow were forever summoning these vassal dukes to the capital -and making them renew, with ceremonies of sacrifice and potations of -blood, their vows of loyalty and treaties of alliance. At a great feast -held by Yu after his accession, there were, it is said, ten thousand -princes present with their symbols of rank. But the feudal states were -constantly being absorbed by one another. On the rise of the Shang -dynasty there were only somewhat over three thousand, which had -decreased to thirteen hundred when the sovereignty of the Chows was -established. - -The senior duke always occupied a position somewhat closer to the -sovereign than the others. It was his special business to protect the -imperial territory from invasion by any malcontent vassal; and he was -often deputed to punish acts of insubordination and contumacy, relying -for help on the sworn faith of all the states as a body against any -individual recalcitrant. Such was the political condition of things -through a long series of reigns for nearly nine centuries, the later -history of this long and famous dynasty being simply the record of a -struggle against the increasing power and ambitious designs of the -vassal state of Ching, until at length the power of the latter not only -outgrew that of the sovereign state, but successfully defied the united -efforts of all the others combined together in a league. In 403 B.C. the -number of states had been reduced to seven great ones, all sooner or -later claiming to be “the kingdom,” and contending for the supremacy -until Ching put down all the others and in 221 B.C. its king assumed the -title of Hwang Ti or emperor and determined that there should be no more -feudal principalities, and that as there is but one sun in the sky there -should be but one ruler in the nation. - -It is interesting to glance backward over these nine hundred years and -gather some facts as to the China of those days. The religion of the -Chinese was a modification of the older and simpler forms of nature -worship practised by their ruder forefathers. The principal objects of -veneration were still heaven and earth and the more prominent among the -destructive and beneficient powers of nature. But a tide of -personification and deification had begun to set in and to the spirits -of natural objects and influences now rapidly assuming material shape -had been added the spirits of departed heroes whose protection was -invoked after death by those to whom it had been afforded during life. - -The sovereign of the Chow dynasty worshipped in a building which they -called “the hall of light,” which also served the purpose of an audience -and council chamber. It was 112 feet square and surmounted by a dome; -typical of heaven above and earth beneath. China has always been -remarkably backward in architectural development, never having got -beyond the familiar roof with its turned up corners, in which -antiquaries trace a likeness to the tent of their nomad days. Hence it -is that the “hall of light” of the Chows is considered by the Chinese to -have been a very wonderful structure. - -[Illustration: CHINESE TEMPLE.] - -Some have said that the Pentateuch was carried to China in the sixth -century B.C., but no definite traces of Judaism are discoverable until -several centuries later. - -The Chow period was pre-eminently one of ceremonial observances pushed -to an extreme limit. Even Confucius was unable to rise above the dead -level of an ultra formal etiquette, which occupies in his teachings a -place altogether out of proportion to any advantages likely to accrue -from the most scrupulous compliance with its rules. During the early -centuries of this period laws were excessively severe and punishments -correspondingly barbarous; mutilation and death by burning or dissection -being among the enumerated penalties. From all accounts there speedily -occurred a marked degeneracy in the characters of the Chow kings. Among -the most conspicuous of the early kings was Muh, who rendered himself -notorious for having promulgated a penal code under which the redemption -of punishments was made permissible by the payment of fines. - -Notwithstanding the spirit of lawlessness that spread far and wide among -the princes and nobles, creating misery and unrest throughout the -country, that literary instinct which has been a marked characteristic -of the Chinese throughout their long history continued as active as -ever. At stated intervals officials, we are told, were sent in light -carriages into all parts of the empire to collect words from the -changing dialects of each district; and at the time of the royal -progresses the official music masters and historiographers of each -principality presented to the officials appointed for the purpose, -collections of the odes and songs of each locality, in order, we are -told, that the character of the rule exercised by their princes should -be judged by the tone of the poetical and musical productions of their -subjects. The odes and songs as found and thus collected were carefully -preserved in royal archives, and it was from these materials, as is -commonly believed, that Confucius compiled the celebrated “She King” or -“Book of Odes.” - -One hundred years before the close of the Chow dynasty, a great -statesman named Wei Yang appeared in the rising state of Ch’in and -brought about many valuable reformations. Among other things he -introduced a system of tithings, which has endured to the present day. -The unit of Chinese social life has always been the family and not the -individual; and this statesman caused the family to be divided into -groups of ten families to each, upon a basis of mutual protection and -responsibility. The soil of China has always been guarded as the -inalienable property of her imperial ruler for the time being, held in -trust by him on behalf of a higher and greater power whose vice-regent -he is. In the age of the Chows, land appears to have been cultivated -upon a system of communal tenure, one-ninth of the total produce being -devoted in all cases to the expenses of government and the maintenance -of the ruling family in each state. Copper coins of a uniform shape and -portable size were first cast, according to Chinese writers, about half -way through the sixth century B.C. An irregular form of money, however, -had been in circulation long before, one of the early vassal dukes -having been advised, in order to replenish his treasury, to “break up -the hills and make money out of the metal therein; to evaporate sea -water and make salt. This,” added his advising minister, “will benefit -the realm and with the profits you may buy up all kinds of goods cheap -and store them until the market has risen; establish also three hundred -depots of courtesans for the traders, who will thereby be induced to -bring all kinds of merchandise to your country. This merchandise you -will tax and thus have a sufficiency of funds to meet the expenses of -your army.” Such were some of the principles of finance and political -economy among the Chows, customs duties being apparently even at that -early date a recognized part of the revenue. - -The art of healing was practised among the Chinese in their prehistoric -times, but the first quasi-scientific efforts of which we have any -record belong to the period with which we are now dealing. The -physicians of the Chow dynasty classify diseases under the four seasons -of the year—headaches and neuralgic affections under spring, skin -diseases of all kinds under summer, fever and agues under autumn, and -bronchial and pulmonary complaints under winter. The public at large was -warned against rashly swallowing the prescriptions of any physician -whose family had not been three generations in the medical profession. - -When the Chows went into battle they formed a line with the bowman on -the left and the spearman on the right flank. The centre was occupied by -chariots, each drawn by three or four horses harnessed abreast. Swords, -daggers, shields, iron headed clubs, huge iron hooks, drums, cymbals, -gongs, horns, banners and streamers innumerable were also among the -equipment of war. Quarter was rarely if ever given and it was customary -to cut the ears from the bodies of the slain. - -It was under the Chows, a thousand years before Christ, that the people -of China began to possess family names. By the time of Confucius the use -of surnames had become definitely established for all classes. The Chows -founded a university, a shadow of which remains to the present day. They -seem to have had theatrical representations of some kind, though it is -difficult to say of what nature these actually were. Music must have -already reached a stage of considerable development, if we are to -believe Confucius himself, who has left it on record that after -listening to a certain melody he was so affected as not to be able to -taste meat for three months. - -Slavery was at this date a regular domestic institution and was not -confined as now to the purchase of women alone; and whereas in still -earlier ages it had been usual to bury wooden puppets in the tombs of -princes, we now read of slave boys and slave girls barbarously interred -alive with the body of every ruler of a state, in order, as was -believed, to wait upon the tyrant’s spirit after death. But public -opinion began during the Confucian era to discountenance this savage -rite, and the son of a man who left instructions that he should be -buried in a large coffin between two of his concubines, ventured to -disobey his father’s commands. - -We know that the Chows sat on chairs while all other eastern nations -were sitting on the ground, and ate their food and drank their wine from -tables; that they slept on beds and rode on horseback. They measured the -hours with the aid of sun dials; and the invention of the compass is -attributed, though on somewhat insufficient grounds, to one of their -earliest heroes. They played games of calculation of an abstruse -character, and others involving dexterity. They appear to have worn -shoes of leather, and stockings, and hats, and caps, in addition to -robes of silk; and to have possessed such other material luxuries as -fans, mirrors of metal, bath tubs, and flat irons. But it is often -difficult to separate truth from falsehood in the statement of Chinese -writers with regard to their history. They are fond of exaggerating the -civilization of their forefathers, which, as a matter of fact, was -sufficiently advanced to command admiration without the undesirable -coloring of fiction they have thus been tempted to lay on. - -[Illustration: IMAGE OF CONFUCIUS.] - -Of the religions of the Chinese we will speak in a succeeding chapter, -but it must be said here that during the Chow dynasty was born the most -famous of Chinese teachers, Confucius. He was preceded about the middle -of the dynasty by Lao-tzu, the founder of an abstruse system of ethical -philosophy which was destined to develop into the Taoism of to-day. -Closely following, and partially a contemporary, came Confucius, “a -teacher who has been equalled in his influence upon masses of the human -race by Buddha alone and approached only by Mahomet and Christ.” -Confucius devoted his life chiefly to the moral amelioration of his -fellow men by oral teaching, but he was also an author of many works. A -hundred years later came Mencius, the record of whose teachings also -forms an important part of the course of study of a modern student in -China. His pet theory was that the nature of man is good, and that all -evil tendencies are necessarily acquired from evil communications either -by heredity or association. It was during this same period that the -literature of the Chinese language was founded. Of this subject, and -some of the famous works, more will be said in a succeeding chapter -devoted to literature and education. - -In their campaign against the prevailing lawlessness and violence, -neither Confucius nor Mencius was able to make any headway. Their -preachings fell on deaf ears and their peaceful admonitions were passed -unheeded by men who held their fiefs by the strength of their right -arms, and administered the affairs of their principalities surrounded by -the din of war. The feudal system and the dynasty of the Chows were -tottering when Confucius died although it was more than two hundred -years after when Ch’in acquired the supremacy. - -[Illustration: MANCHURIAN MINISTERS.] - -The nine centuries covered by the history of the Chows were full of -stirring incidents in other parts of the world. The Trojan war had just -been brought to an end and Æneas had taken refuge in Italy from the sack -of Troy. Early in the dynasty Zoroaster was founding in Persia the -religion of the Magi, the worship of fire which survives in the -Parseeism of Bombay. Saul was made king of Israel and Solomon built the -temple of Jerusalem. Later on Lycurgus gave laws to the Spartans and -Romulus laid the first stone of the Eternal City. Then came the -Babylonic captivity, the appearance of Buddha, the conquest of Asia -Minor by Cyrus, the rise of the Roman Republic, the defeats of Darius at -Marathon and of Xerxes at Salamis, the Peloponnesian War, the retreat of -the Ten Thousand, and Roman conquests down to the end of the first Punic -war. From a literary point of view the Chow dynasty was the age of the -Vedas in India; of Homer, Æschylus, Herodotus, Aristophanes, Thucydides, -Aristotle and Demosthenes in Greece; and of the Jewish prophets from -Samuel to Daniel; and of the Talmud as originally undertaken by the -scribes subsequent to the return from the captivity in Babylon. - -It has been stated that the imperial rule of the Chows over the vassal -states which made up the China of those early days, was gradually -undermined by the growing power and influence of one of the latter, the -very name of which was transformed into a byword of reproach, so that to -call a person “a man of Ch’in” was equivalent to saying in vulgar -parlance, “He is no friend of mine.” The struggle between the Ch’ins and -the rest of the empire may be likened to the struggle between Athens and -the rest of Greece though the end in each case was not the same. The -state of Ch’in vanquished its combined opponents, and finally -established a dynasty, short-lived indeed, but containing among the few -rulers who sat upon the throne, only about fifty years in all, the name -of one remarkable man, the first emperor of the united China. - -[Illustration: GREAT WALL OF CHINA.] - -On the ruins of the old feudal system, the landmarks of which his three -or four predecessors had succeeded in sweeping away, Hwang Ti laid the -foundations of a coherent empire which was to date from himself as its -founder. He sent an army of 300,000 men to fight against the Huns. He -dispatched a fleet to search for some mysterious islands off the coast -of China; and this expedition has since been connected with the -colonization of Japan. He built the Great Wall which is nearly fourteen -hundred miles in length, forming the most prominent artificial object on -the surface of the earth. His copper coinage was so uniformly good that -the cowry disappeared altogether from commerce with this reign. -According to some, the modern hair pencil employed by the Chinese as a -pen was invented about this time, to be used for writing on silk; while -the characters themselves underwent certain modifications and -orthographical improvements. The first emperor desired above all things -to impart a fresh stimulus to literary effort; but he adopted singularly -unfortunate means to secure this desirable end. For listening to the -insidious flattery of courtiers, he determined that literature should -begin anew with his reign. He therefore issued orders for the -destruction of all existing books, with the exception of works treating -of medicine, agriculture and divination and the annals of his own house; -and he actually put to death many hundreds of the literati who refused -to comply with these commands. The decree was obeyed as faithfully as -was possible in case of so sweeping an ordinance and for many years a -night of ignorance rested on the country. Numbers of valuable works thus -perished in a general literary conflagration, popularly known as “the -burning of the books;” and it is partly to accident and partly to the -pious efforts of the scholars of the age, that posterity is indebted for -the preservation of the most precious relics of ancient Chinese -literature. The death of Hwang Ti was the signal for an outbreak among -the dispossessed feudal princes, who, however, after some years of -disorder, were again reduced to the rank of citizens by a successful -peasant leader who adopted the title of Kaou Ti, and named his dynasty -that of Han, with himself its first emperor. - -From that day to this, with occasional interregnums, the empire has been -ruled on the lines laid down by Hwang Ti. Dynasty has succeeded dynasty -but the political tradition has remained unchanged, and though Mongols -and Manchoos have at different times wrested the throne from its -legitimate heirs, they have been engulfed in a homogeneous mass -inhabiting the empire, and instead of impressing their seal upon the -country, have become but the reflection of the vanquished. The stately -House of Han ruled over China for four hundred years, approximately from -200 B.C. to 200 A.D. During the whole period the empire made vast -strides towards a more settled state of prosperity and civilization, -although there were constant wars with the Tartar tribes to the north -and the various Turkish tribes on the west. The communications with the -Huns were particularly close, and even now traces of Hunnish influence -are discernible in several of the recognized surnames of the Chinese. -This dynasty also witnessed the spectacle, most unusual in the east, of -a woman wielding the imperial sceptre; and hers was not a reign -calculated to inspire the people of China with much faith either in the -virtue or the administrative ability of the sex. In Chinese history -however, her place is that of the only female sovereign who ever -legitimately occupied the throne. - -[Illustration: BUDDHIST PRIEST.] - -It was under the Han dynasty that the religion of Buddha first became -known to the Chinese people, and Taoism began to develop from quiet -philosophy to foolish superstitions and practices. It was also during -this period that the Jews appear to have founded a colony in Honan, but -we cannot say what kind of a reception was accorded to the new faith. In -the glow of early Buddhism, and in the exciting times of its subsequent -persecution, it is probable that Judaism failed to attract much serious -attention from the Chinese. In 1850 certain Hebrew rolls were recovered -from the few remaining descendants of former Jews; but there was then no -one left who could read a word of them, or who possessed any knowledge -of the creed of their forefathers, beyond a few traditions of the -scantiest possible kind. - -But the most remarkable of all events connected with our present period, -was the general revival of learning and authorship. The Confucian texts -were rescued from hiding places in which they had been concealed at the -risk of death; editing committees were appointed, and immense efforts -made to repair the mischief sustained by literature at the hand of the -first emperor. Ink and paper were invented and authorship was thus -enabled to make a fresh start, the very start indeed, that the first -emperor had longed to associate with his own reign, and had attempted to -secure by such impracticable means. During the latter portion of the -second century B. C., flourished the “Father of Chinese History.” His -great work, which has been the model for all subsequent histories, is -divided into one hundred and thirty books, and deals with a period -extending from the reign of the Yellow emperor down to his own times. In -another branch of literature, a foremost place among the lexicographers -of the world may fairly be claimed for Hsu Shen, the author of a famous -dictionary. Many other celebrated writers lived and prospered during the -Han dynasty. One man whose name must be mentioned insured for himself, -by his virtue and integrity, a more imperishable fame than any mere -literary achievement could bestow. Yang Chen was indeed a scholar of no -mean attainments, and away in his occidental home he was known as the -“Confucius of the west.” An officer of government in a high position, -with every means of obtaining wealth at his command, he lived and died -in comparative poverty, his only object of ambition being the reputation -of a spotless official. The Yangs of his day grumbled sorely at -opportunities thus thrown away; but the Yangs of to-day glory in the -fame of their great ancestor and are proud to worship in the ancestral -hall to which his uprightness has bequeathed the name. For once when -pressed to receive a bribe, with the additional inducement that no one -would know of the transaction, he quietly replied—“How so? Heaven would -know; earth would know; you would know and I should know.” And to this -hour the ancestral shrine of the clan of the Yangs bears as it name “The -Hall of the Four Knows.” - -It was in all probability under the dynasty of the Hans that the drama -first took its place among the amusements of the people. - -It is unnecessary to linger over the four centuries which connect the -Hans with the T'angs. There was not in them that distinctness of -character or coherency of aim which leave a great impress upon the -times. The three kingdoms passed rapidly away, and other small dynasties -succeeded them, but their names and dates are not essential to a right -comprehension of the state of China then or now. A few points may, -however, be briefly mentioned before quitting this period of transition. -Diplomatic relations were opened with Japan; and Christianity was -introduced by the Nestorians under the title of the “luminous teaching.” -Tea was not known in China before this date. It was at the close of this -transitional period that we first detect traces of the art of printing, -still in an embryonic state, and it seems to be quite certain that -before the end of the sixth century the Chinese were in possession of a -method of reproduction from wooden blocks. One of the last emperors of -the period succeeded in adding largely to the empire by annexation -toward the west. Embassies reached his court from various nations, -including Japan and Cochin China, and helped to add to the lustre of his -reign. - -The three centuries A.D. 600-900, during which the T'angs sat upon the -throne, form a brilliant epoch in Chinese history, and the southern -people of China are still proud of the designation which has descended -to them as “men of T’ang.” Emperor Hsuan Tsung fought against the -prevailing extravagance in dress; founded a large dramatic college; and -was an enthusiastic patron of literature. Buddhism flourished during -this period in spite of edicts against it. Finally, it gained the favor -of the emperors and for a time overpowered even Confucianism. It was -during the reign of the second emperor of the T'angs and only six years -after the Hegira that the religion of Mahomet first reached the shores -of China. A maternal uncle of the prophet visited the country and -obtained permission to build a mosque at Canton, portions of which may -perhaps still be found in the thrice restored structure which now stands -upon its site. The use of paper money was first introduced by the -government toward the closing years of the dynasty; and it is near to -this time that we can trace back the existence of the modern court -circular and daily record of edicts, memorials, etc., commonly known as -the Peking Gazette. - -Another unimportant transition period, sixty years in duration, forms -the connecting link between the houses of T'ang and Sung. It is known in -Chinese history as the period of the five dynasties, after the five -short-lived ones crowded into this space of time. It is remarkable -chiefly for the more extended practice of printing from wooden blocks, -the standard classical works being now for the first time printed in -this way. The discreditable custom of cramping women’s feet into the -so-called “golden lilies” belongs probably to this date, though referred -by some to a period several hundred years later. - -It has been said before that the age of the T'angs was the age of -Mahomet and his new religion, the propagation of which was destined to -meet in the west with a fatal check from the arms of Charles Martel at -the battle of Tours. It was the age of Rome independent under her early -popes; of Charlemagne as emperor of the west; of Egbert as first king of -England; and of Alfred the Great. - -The Sung dynasty extended from about A.D. 960 to 1280. The first portion -of this dynasty may be considered as on the whole, one of the most -prosperous and peaceable periods of the history of China. The nation had -already in a great measure settled down to that state of material -civilization and mental culture in which it may be said to have been -discovered by Europeans a few centuries later. To the appliances of -Chinese ordinary life it is probable that but few additions have been -made even since a much earlier date. The national costume has indeed -undergone subsequent variations, and at least one striking change has -been introduced in later years, that is, the tail, which will be -mentioned later. But the plows and hoes, the water wheels and well -sweeps, the tools of artisans, mud huts, junks, carts, chairs, tables, -chopsticks, etc., which we still see in China, are doubtless -approximately those of more than two thousand years ago. Mencius -observed that the written language was the same, and axle-trees of the -same length all over the empire; and to this day an unaltering -uniformity is one of the chief characteristics of the Chinese people in -every department of life. - -The house of Sung was not however without the usual troubles for any -length of time. Periodical revolts are the special feature of Chinese -history, and the Sungs were hardly exempt from them in a greater degree -than other dynasties. The Tartars too, were forever encroaching upon -Chinese territory and finally overran and occupied a large part of -northern China. This resulted in an amicable arrangement to divide the -empire, the Tartars retaining their conquests in the north. Less than a -hundred years later came the invasion of the Mongols under Genghis Khan, -with the long struggle which eventuated in a complete overthrow of both -the Tartars and the Sungs and the final establishment of the Mongol -dynasty under Kublai Khan, whose success was in a great measure due to -the military capacity of his famous lieutenant Bayan. From this struggle -one name in particular has survived to form a landmark of which the -Chinese are justly proud. It is that of the patriot statesman Wen -T'ien-hsiang, whose fidelity to the Sungs no defeats could shake, no -promises undermine; and who perished miserably in the hands of the enemy -rather than abjure the loyalty which had been the pride and almost the -object of his existence. - -Another name inseparably connected with the history of the Sungs is that -of Wang An-shih who has been styled “The Innovator” from the gigantic -administrative changes or innovations he labored ineffectually to -introduce. The chief of these were a universal system of militia under -which the whole body of citizens were liable to military drill and to be -called out for service in time of need; and a system of state loans to -agriculturists in order to supply capital for more extensive and more -remunerative farming operations. His schemes were ultimately set aside -through the opposition of a statesman whose name is connected even more -closely with literature than with politics. Ssu-ma Kuang spent nineteen -years of his life in the compilation of “The Mirror of History,” a -history of China in two hundred and ninety-four books, from the earliest -times of the Chow dynasty down to the accession of the house of Sung. - -[Illustration: CHINESE ARCHERS.] - -A century later this lengthy production was recast in a greatly -condensed form under the superintendence of Chu Hsi, the latter work at -once taking rank as the standard history of China to that date. Chu Hsi -himself played in other ways by far the most important part among all -the literary giants of the Sungs. Besides holding, during a large -portion of his life, high official position, with an almost unqualified -success, his writings are more extensive and more varied in character -than those of any other Chinese author; and the complete collection of -his great philosophical works, published in 1713, fills no fewer than -sixty-six books. He introduced interpretations of the Confucian -classics, either wholly or partially at variance with those which had -been put forth by the scholars of the Han dynasty and received as -infallible ever since, thus modifying to a certain extent the prevailing -standard of political and social morality. His principle was simply one -of consistency. He refused to interpret certain words in a given passage -in one sense and the same words occurring elsewhere in another sense. -And this principle recommended itself at once to the highly logical mind -of the Chinese. Chu Hsi’s commentaries were received to the exclusion of -all others and still form the only authorized interpretation of the -classical books, upon a knowledge of which all success at the great -competitive examination for literary degrees may be said to entirely -depend. - -[Illustration: CHINESE WRITER.] - -It would be a lengthy task to merely enumerate the names in the great -phalanx of writers who flourished under the Sungs and who formed an -Augustan Age of Chinese literature. Exception must however be made in -favor of Ou-Yang Hsiu, who besides being an eminent statesman, was a -voluminous historian of the immediately preceding dynasties, an essayist -of rare ability, and a poet; and of Su Tung-p'o whose name next to that -of Chu Hsi fills the largest place in Chinese memorials of this period. -A vigorous opponent of “The Innovator,” he suffered banishment for his -opposition; and again, after his rival’s fall, he was similarly punished -for further crossing the imperial will. His exile was shared by the -beautiful and accomplished girl “Morning Clouds,” to whose inspiration -we owe many of the elaborate poems and other productions in the -composition of which the banished poet beguiled his time; and whose -untimely death of consumption, on the banks of their favorite lake, -hastened the poet’s end, which occurred shortly after his recall from -banishment. - -Buddhism and Taoism had by this time made advances toward tacit terms of -mutual toleration. They wisely agreed to share rather than to quarrel -over the carcass which lay at their feet; and from that date they have -flourished together without prejudice. - -The system of competitive examinations and literary degrees had been -still more fully elaborated, and the famous child’s primer, the “Three -Character Classic,” which is even now the first stepping stone to -knowledge, had been placed in the hands of school boys. The surnames of -the people were collected to the number of four hundred and thirty-eight -in all; and although this was admittedly not complete, the great -majority of those names which were omitted, once perhaps in common use, -have altogether disappeared. It is comparatively rare nowadays to meet -with a person whose family name is not to be found within the limits of -this small collection. Administration of justice is said to have -flourished under the incorrupt officials of this dynasty. The functions -of magistrates were more fully defined; while the study of medical -jurisprudence was stimulated by the publication of a volume which, -although combining the maximum of superstition with the minimum of -scientific research, is still the officially recognized text book on all -subjects connected with murder, suicide and accidental death. Medicine -and the art of healing came in for a considerable share of attention at -the hands of the Sungs and many voluminous works on therapeutics have -come down to us from this period. Inoculation for small-pox has been -known to the Chinese at least since the early years of this dynasty if -not earlier. - -The irruption of the Mongols under Genghis Khan, and the comparatively -short dynasty which was later on actually established under Kublai Khan, -may be regarded as the period of transition from the epoch of the Sungs -to the epoch of the Mings. For the first eighty years after the nominal -accession of Genghis Khan the empire was more or less in a state of -siege and martial law from one end to the other; and then in less than -one hundred years afterwards the Mongol dynasty had passed away. The -story of Ser Marco Polo and his wonderful travels, familiar to most -readers, gives us a valuable insight into this period of brilliant -courts, thronged marts, fine cities, and great national wealth. - -At this date the literary glory of the Sungs had hardly begun to grow -dim. Ma Tuan-lin carried on his voluminous work through all the -troublous times, and at his death bequeathed to the world “The -Antiquarian Researches,” in three hundred and forty-eight books, which -have made his name famous to every student of Chinese literature. Plane -and spherical trigonometry were both known to the Chinese by this time, -and mathematics generally began to receive a larger share of the -attention of scholars. It was also under the Mongol dynasty that the -novel first made its appearance, a fact pointing to a definite social -advancement, if only in the direction of luxurious reading. Among other -points may be mentioned a great influx of Mohammedans, and consequent -spread of their religion about this time. - -The Grand Canal was completed by Kublai Khan, and thus Cambaluc, the -Peking of those days, was united by inland water communication with the -extreme south of China. The work seems to have been begun by the Emperor -Yang Ti seven centuries previously, but the greater part of the -undertaking was done in the reign of Kublai Khan. Hardly so successful -was the same emperor’s huge naval expedition against Japan, which in -point of number of ships and men, the insular character of the enemy’s -country, the chastisement intended, and the total loss of the fleet in a -storm, aided by the stubborn resistance of the Japanese themselves, -suggests a very obvious comparison with the object and fate of the -Spanish Armada. - -The age of the Sungs carries us from a hundred years previous to the -Norman Conquest down to about the death of Edward III. It was the epoch -of Venetian commerce and maritime supremacy; and of the first great -lights in Italian literature, Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio. English, -French, German and Spanish literature had yet to develop, only one or -two of the earlier writers, such as Chaucer, having yet appeared on the -scene. - -The founder of the Ming dynasty rose from starvation and obscurity to -occupy the throne of the Chinese empire. In his youth he sought refuge -from the pangs of hunger in a Buddhist monastery; later on he became a -soldier of fortune, and joined the ranks of the insurgents who were -endeavoring to shake off the alien yoke of the Mongols. His own great -abilities carried him on. He speedily obtained the leadership of a large -army, with which he totally destroyed the power of the Mongols, and -finally established a new Chinese dynasty over the thirteen provinces -into which the empire was divided. He fixed his capitol at Nanking, -where it remained until the accession of the third emperor, the -conqueror of Cochin China and Tonquin, who transferred the seat of -government back to Peking, the capitol of the Mongols, from which it has -never since been removed. - -[Illustration: CHINESE CANNONIERS.] - -For nearly three hundred years, from 1370 to 1650, the Mings swayed the -destinies of China. Their rule was not one of uninterrupted peace, -either within or without the empire; but it was on the whole a wise and -popular rule, and the period which it covers is otherwise notable for -immense literary activity and for considerable refinement in manners and -material civilization. - -From without, the Mings were constantly harrassed by the encroachments -of the Tartars; while from within the ceaseless intriguing of the -eunuchs was a fertile cause of trouble. - -[Illustration: ANCIENT CHINESE ARCH.] - -Chief among the literary achievements of this period, is the gigantic -encyclopedia in over twenty-two thousand books, only one copy of which, -and that imperfect, has survived out of the four that were originally -made. Allowing fifty octavo pages to a book, the result would be a total -of at least one million one hundred thousand pages, the index alone -occupying no fewer than three thousand pages. This wonderful work is now -probably rotting, if not already rotted beyond hope of preservation, in -some damp corner of the imperial palace at Peking. Another important and -more accessible production was the so-called “Chinese Herbal.” This was -a compilation from the writings of no fewer than eight hundred preceding -writers on botany, mineralogy, entomology, etc., the whole forming a -voluminous but unscientific book of reference on the natural history of -China. Shortly after the accession of the third emperor, Yung Lo, the -imperial library was estimated to contain written and printed works -amounting to a total of about one million in all. A book is a variable -quantity in Chinese literature, both as regards number and size of -pages; the number of books to a work also vary from one to several -hundred. But reckoning fifty pages to a book and twenty or twenty-five -books to a work, it will be seen that the collection was not an unworthy -private library for any emperor in the early years of the fifteenth -century. - -The overthrow of the Mings was brought about by a combination of events -of the utmost importance to those who would understand the present -position of the Tartars as rulers of China. A sudden rebellion had -resulted in the capture of Peking by the insurgents, and in the suicide -of the emperor who was fated to be the last of his line. The imperial -commander-in-chief, Wu San-kuei, at that time away on the frontiers of -Manchooria engaged in resisting the incursions of the Manchoo-Tartars, -now for a long time in a state of ferment, immediately hurried back to -the capitol but was totally defeated by the insurgent leader and once -more made his way, this time as a fugitive and a suppliant, toward the -Tartar camp. Here he obtained promises of assistance chiefly on -condition that he would shave his head and grow a tail in accordance -with Manchoo custom, and again set off with his new auxiliaries toward -Peking, being reinforced on the way by a body of Mongol volunteers. As -things turned out, the commander arrived in Peking in advance of these -allies, and actually succeeded with the remnant of his own scattered -forces in routing the troops of the rebel leader before the Tartars and -the Mongols came up. He then started in pursuit of the flying foe. -Meanwhile the Tartar contingent arrived and on entering the capitol the -young Manchoo prince in command was invited by the people of Peking to -ascend the vacant throne. So that by the time Wu San-kuei reappeared, he -found a new dynasty already established and his late Manchoo ally at the -head of affairs. His first intention had doubtless been to continue the -Ming line of emperors; but he seems to have readily fallen in with the -arrangement already made and to have tendered his formal allegiance on -the four following conditions: - -That no Chinese woman should be taken into the imperial seraglio; that -the first place at the great triennial examination for the highest -literary degrees should never be given to a Tartar; that the people -should adopt the national costume of the Tartars in their everyday life; -but that they should be allowed to bury their corpses in the dress of -the late dynasty; that this condition of costume should not apply to the -women of China who were not to be compelled either to wear the hair in a -tail before marriage as the Tartar girls do, or to abandon the custom of -compressing their feet. - -The great Ming dynasty was now at an end, though not destined wholly to -pass away. A large part of it may be said to remain in the literary -monuments. The dress of the period survives upon the modern Chinese -stage; and when occasionally the alien yoke has galled, seditious -whispers of “restoration” are not altogether unheard. Secret societies -have always been dreaded and prohibited by the government; and of these -none more so than the famous “Triad Society,” in which heaven, earth, -and man are supposed to be associated in close alliance, and whose -watchword is believed to embody some secret allusion to the downfall of -the present dynasty. - -In the latter part of the sixteenth century, the civilization of western -Europe began to make itself felt in China by the advent of the -Portuguese, and this matter will be returned to in the following -chapter. - -In other parts of the world, eventful times have set in. In England we -are brought from the accession of Richard II. down to the struggle -between the king and the commons and the ultimate establishment of the -commonwealth. We have Henry IV. in France and Ferdinand and Isabella in -Spain. In England, Shakspeare and Bacon; in France, Rabelais and -Descartes; in Germany, Luther and Copernicus; in Spain, Cervantes; and -in Italy, Galileo, Machiavelli and Tasso; these names to which should be -added those of the great explorers, Columbus and Vasco de Gama, serve to -remind one of what was meanwhile passing in the west. - -[Illustration: A CHINESE LODGING HOUSE.] - - - - - FROM FIRST CONTACT WITH EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION - TO THE OUTBREAK OF THE WAR. - - -------------- - -How the Western Nations Formed the Acquaintance of China—First Mention -of the Orient by Grecian and Roman Historians—Introduction of -Judaism—Nestorian Missionaries Bring Christianity—Marco Polo’s Wonderful -Journey—Roman Missionaries in the Field—Dissentions among Christians -Discredit their Work—Work of the Jesuits—The Dynasty of the -Chings—Splendid Literary Labors of Two Emperors—England’s First Embassy -to China—The Opium War—Opening the Ports of China—Treaties with Western -Nations—The Tai-Ping Rebellion—The Later Years of Chinese History. - - -The works of several Greek and Roman historians, principally those of -Ptolemy and Arian, who lived in the second century, contain references -of a vague character to a country now generally believed to be China. -Ptolemy states that his information came from the agents of Macedonian -traders, who gave him an account of a journey of seven months from the -principal city of eastern Turkestan, in a direction east inclining a -little south. It is probable that these agents belonged to some of the -Tartar tribes of Central Asia. They represented the name of this most -eastern nation to be Serica, and that on the borders of this kingdom -they met and traded with its inhabitants, the Seres. Herodotus speaks of -the Isadores as a people in the extreme north-east of Asia. Ptolemy also -mentions these tribes as a part of Serica and under its sway. Ammianus -Marcellinus, a Roman historian of the fourth century, speaks of the land -of the Seres as surrounded by a high and continuous wall. This was about -six hundred years after the great wall of northern China was built. -Virgil, Pliny, Ricitus and Juvenal refer to the Seres in connection with -the Seric garments which seem to have been made of fine silk or gauze. -This article of dress was much sought after in Rome by the wealthy and -luxurious, and as late as the second century, is said to have been worth -its weight in gold. From the length and description of the route of the -traders, the description of the mountains and rivers which they passed, -the character of the people with whom they traded and the articles of -traffic, the evidence seems almost conclusive that the nation which the -Greeks and Romans designated by the name of Serica is that now known to -us as China. The particular countries visited by the caravans which -brought the silk to Europe, were probably the dependencies or -territories of China on the west, or possibly cities within the extreme -north-west limit of China proper. - -The introduction of Judaism into China is evidenced by a Jewish -synagogue which existed until quite recently in Kai-fung-foo, a city in -the province of Honan. Connected with this synagogue were some Hebrew -manuscripts, and a few worshippers who retained some of the forms of -their religion, but very little knowledge of its real character and -spirit. There is a great deal of uncertainty as to when the Jews came to -China, though they have, no doubt, resided there for many centuries. - -Nestorian missionaries entered China some time before the seventh -century. The principal record which they have left of the success of -their missions is the celebrated Nestorian monument in Fen-gan-foo. This -monument contains a short history of the sect from the year 630 to 781, -and also an abstract of the Christian religion. The missionaries of this -sect have left but few records of their labors or of their observations -as travelers, but the churches planted by them seem to have existed -until a comparatively recent period. The Romish missionaries who entered -China in the beginning of the fourteenth century, found them possessed -of considerable influence, not only among the people, but also at court, -and met with no little opposition from them in their first attempts to -introduce the doctrines of their church. It seems to be true that during -the period of nearly eight hundred years in which Nestorian Christianity -maintained its foothold in China, large numbers of converts were made. -But in process of time the Nestorian churches departed widely from their -first teachings. After the fall of the Mongolian empire they were cut -off from connection with the west, and not having sufficient vitality to -resist the adverse influences of heathenism the people by degrees -relapsed into idolatry or took up the new faiths that were introduced. - -The first western writer, whose works are extant, who has given anything -like full and explicit explanation respecting China is Ser Marco Polo. -He went to China in the year 1274, in company with his father and uncle, -who were Venetian noblemen. At this time, the independent nomad tribes -of central Asia being united in one government, it was practicable to -reach eastern Asia by passing through the Mongolian empire. Marco Polo -spent twenty-four years in China, and seems to have been treated kindly -and hospitably. After his return to Europe he was taken prisoner in a -war with the Genoese, and during his confinement wrote an account of his -travels. The description he gives of the vast territories of China, its -teeming population, and flourishing cities, the refinement and -civilization of its people, and their curious customs, seemed to his -countrymen more like a fiction of fairyland than sober and authentic -narrative. It is said that he was urged when on his death bed to retract -these statements and make confession of falsehood, which he refused to -do. He was undoubtedly one of the most remarkable travelers of any age. - -During the period of the Mongolian empire which comprehended under its -sway the greater part of Asia from China on the east to the -Mediterranean on the west, an intense desire was kindled in the Roman -church to convert this powerful nation to its faith. Among the first and -the most noted of the missionaries sent to China at this time, was John -of Mount Corvin, who reached Peking in 1293. He was afterward made an -archbishop. From time to time bishops and priests were sent out to -re-enforce this mission, but they met with indifferent success; and when -the Mongols were driven from China the enterprise was abandoned as a -complete failure. After the fall of the Mongolian empire, direct -overland communication with eastern Asia was interrupted, and for about -two hundred years China was again almost completely isolated from the -western world. - -The use of the magnetic needle, and improvements in navigation, made a -new era in intercourse with the Orient. It is supposed that the first -voyage from Europe to China was made by a Portuguese vessel in 1516. -From this period commercial intercourse with China became more frequent, -and various embassies were sent to the Chinese court by different -nations of Europe. Unfortunately the growing familiarity of the Chinese -with western nations did not increase their respect and confidence in -them. This was due partly to the servility of most of the embassies to -Peking, but principally, no doubt, to the want of honesty and the -general lawlessness of most of the traders from the west. The -consequence was that the Chinese became desirous of restricting foreign -intercourse, and exercising as strict surveillance over their -troublesome visitors as possible. - -Immediately after connection was established between Europe and the far -east by sea, another and a more successful effort was made by the Roman -church to propagate its faith in the Chinese empire, this being -coincident with the growth of the exchange of business. Francis Xavier, -in his attempt to gain an entrance into the country, died on one of the -islands of the coast in 1552. Toward the close of the Sixteenth century -the Portuguese appeared upon the scene, and from their “concession” at -Macao, at one time the residence of Camoens, opened commercial relations -between China and the west. They brought the Chinese, among other -things, opium, which had previously been imported overland from India. -They possibly taught them how to make gunpowder, to the invention of -which the Chinese do not seem, upon striking a balance of evidence, to -possess an independent claim. About the same time Rome contributed the -first installment of those wonderful Jesuit fathers whose names yet echo -in the empire, the memory of their scientific labors and the benefits -they thus conferred upon China having long survived the wreck and -discredit of the faith to which they devoted their lives. At this -distance of time it does not appear to be a wild statement, to assert -that had the Jesuits, the Franciscans, and the Dominicans been able to -resist quarreling among themselves, and had they rather united to -persuade papal infallibility to permit the incorporation of -ancestor-worship with the rites and ceremonies of the Romish church, -China would at this moment be a Catholic country and Buddhism, Taoism, -and Confucianism would long since have receded into the past. - -[Illustration: CHINESE PRIEST.] - -Of all these Jesuit missionaries, the name of Matteo Ricci stands by -common consent upon the long list. He established himself in Canton in -the garb of a Buddhist priest in 1581. He was a man of varied -intellectual gifts and extensive learning, united with indomitable -energy, zeal and perseverance, and great prudence. In 1601 he reached -Peking in the dress of a literary gentleman. He spent many years in -China. He associated with the highest personages in the land. He -acquired an unrivalled knowledge of the book language, and left behind -him several valuable treatises of a metaphysical and theological -character, written in such a polished style as to command the -recognition and even the admiration of the Chinese. One of his most -intimate friends and fellow workers was the well-known scholar and -statesman, Hsu Kuang-chi, the author of a voluminous compendium of -agriculture, and joint author of the large work which introduced -European astronomy to the Chinese. He was appointed by the emperor to -co-operate with other Jesuit missionaries in reforming the national -calendar, which had gradually reached a stage of hopeless inaccuracy. He -wrote independently several small scientific works; also a severe -criticism of the Buddhist religion, and finally, not least in -importance, a defense of the Jesuits, addressed to the throne, when -their influence at court had begun to excite envy and distrust. Hsu -Kuang-chi forms the sole exception in the history of China of a scholar -and a man of means and position on the side of Christianity. - -[Illustration: MAN OF SWATOW.] - -The age of the Chings is the age in which we live, but it is not so -familiar to some persons as it ought to be that a Tartar and not a -Chinese sovereign is now seated on the throne in China. For some time -after the accession of the first Manchoo emperor, there was considerable -friction between the two races. The subjugation of the empire by the -Manchoos was followed by a military occupation of the country, which -survived the original necessity, and has remained part of the system of -government until the present day. The dynasty thus founded, partly by -accident as it seems, as was related in the last chapter, has remained -in power through the entire period of intercourse with western nations. -The title adopted by the first emperor of the line was Shun-che. It was -during the reign of this sovereign that Adam Schaal, a German Jesuit, -took up his residence at Peking and that the first Russian embassy, -1656, visited the capital. But in those days the Chinese had not learned -to tolerate the idea that a foreigner should enter the presence of the -Son of Heaven unless he were willing to perform the prostration known as -the Ko-t’ow, and the Russians not being inclined to humor any such -presumptuous folly left the capital without opening negotiations. - -Of the nine emperors of this line, from the first to the present, the -second in every way fills the largest space in Chinese history. Kang Hi, -the son of Shun-che, reigned for sixty-one years. This sovereign is -renowned in modern Chinese history as a model ruler, a skillful general -and an able author. During his reign Thibet was added to the empire, and -the Eleuths were successfully subdued. But it is as a just and -considerate ruler that he is best remembered among the people. He -treated the early Catholic priests with kindness and distinction, and -availed himself in many ways of their scientific knowledge. He -promulgated sixteen moral maxims collectively known as the “Sacred -Edict,” forming a complete code of rules for the guidance of every day -life, and presented in such terse, yet intelligible terms, that they at -once took firm hold of the public mind and have retained their position -ever since. Kang Hi was the most successful patron of literature the -world has ever seen. He caused to be published under his own personal -supervision the four following compilations, known as the four great -works of the present dynasty: A huge thesaurus of extracts in one -hundred and ten thick volumes; an encyclopedia in four hundred and fifty -books, usually bound in one hundred and sixty volumes; an enlarged and -improved edition of a herbarium in one hundred books; and a complete -collection of the important philosophical writings of Chu Hsi in -sixty-six books. In addition to these the emperor designed and gave his -name to the great modern lexicon of the Chinese language, which contains -over forty thousand characters under separate entries, accompanied in -each case by appropriate citations from the works of authors of every -age and every style. The monumental encyclopedia contains articles on -every known subject, and extracts from all works of authority dating -from the twelfth century B.C. to that time. As only one hundred copies -of the first imperial edition were printed, all of which were presented -to princes of the blood and high officials, it is rapidly becoming -extremely rare, and it is not unlikely that before long the copy in the -possession of the British museum will be the only complete copy -existing. A cold caught on a hunting excursion in Mongolia brought his -memorable reign of sixty-one years to a close, and he was succeeded on -the throne by his son Yung Ching. - -The labors of the missionaries during the years of this last reign have -been effective in establishing many churches and bishoprics, and in -making many thousands of converts. But the suspicions in the minds of -the Chinese rulers that the Christians were leagued with rebels, as well -as the controversies between the different sects, antagonized the -authorities. Under the third Manchoo emperor, Yung Ching, began that -violent persecution of the Catholics which continued almost to the -present day, and in the year 1723 an edict was promulgated prohibiting -the further propagation of this religion in the empire. From this time -the Roman Catholics were subjected to this persecution except for a few -alternate periods of comparative toleration. They have retained their -position in the face of great difficulties and trials, and since the -late treaties with China the number of their converts has rapidly -increased. - -After a reign of twelve years, Yung Ching was gathered to his fathers, -having bequeathed the throne to his son Kien Lung. This fourth emperor -of the dynasty enjoyed a long and glorious reign. He possessed many of -the great qualities of his grandfather, but he lacked his wisdom and -moderation. His generals led a large army into Nepaul and conquered the -Goorkhas, reaching a point only some sixty miles distant from British -territory. He carried his armies north, south, and west, and converted -Kuldja into a Chinese province. But in Burmah, Cochin China, and Formosa -his troops suffered discomfiture. During his reign, which extended over -sixty years, a full Chinese cycle, the relations of his government with -the East India Company were extremely unsatisfactory. The English -merchants were compelled to submit to many indignities and wrongs; and -for the purpose of establishing a better international understanding -Lord Macartney was sent by George III. on a special mission to the court -of Peking. The ambassador was received graciously by the emperor, who -accepted the presents sent him by the English king, but owing to his -ignorance of his own relative position, and of even the rudiments of -international law, he declined to give those assurances of a more -equitable policy which were demanded of him. - -[Illustration: CHINESE PAPER-MAKING.] - -Like his illustrious ancestor, Kien Lung was a generous patron of -literature, though only two instead of five great literary monuments -remain to mark his sixty years of power. These are a magnificent -bibliographical work in two hundred parts, consisting of a catalogue of -the books in the imperial library, with valuable historical and critical -notices attached to the entries of each; and a huge topography of the -whole empire in five hundred books, beyond doubt one of the most -comprehensive and exhaustive works of the kind ever published. Kang Hi -had been a voluminous poet; but the productions of Kien Lung far -outnumber those of any previous or subsequent bard. For more than fifty -years this emperor was an industrious poet, finding time in the -intervals of state duties to put together no fewer than thirty-three -thousand nine hundred and fifty separate pieces. In the estimation -however of this apparently impossible contribution to poetic literature, -it must always be borne in mind that the stanza of four lines is a -favorite length for a poem and that the couplet is not uncommon. Even -thus a large balance stands to the credit of a Chinese emperor, whose -time is rarely his own, and whose day is divided with wearisome -regularity, beginning with councils and audiences long before daylight -has appeared. We gain a glimpse into Kien Lung’s court from the account -of Lord Macartney’s embassy in 1795, which was so favorably received by -the venerable monarch a short time previous to his abdication, and three -years before his death, and forms such a contrast with that of Lord -Amherst to his successor in 1816. In 1795, at the age of eighty-five -years, Kien Lung abdicated in favor of his fifteenth son who ascended -the throne with the title of Kea King. - -During the reign of Kea King, a second English embassy was sent to -Peking, in 1816, to represent to the emperor the unsatisfactory position -of the English merchants in China. The envoy, Lord Amherst, was met at -the mouth of the Peiho and conducted to Yuen-ming-yuen or summer palace, -where the emperor was residing. On his arrival he was officially warned -that only on condition of his performing the Ko-t’ow would he be -permitted to behold “the dragon countenance.” This of course was -impossible, and he consequently left the palace without having slept a -night under its roof. - -[Illustration: CHINESE PEASANT, PEIHO DISTRICT.] - -Meanwhile the internal affairs of the country were even more disturbed -than the foreign relations. A succession of rebellions broke out in the -western and northern provinces and the sea-boards were ravaged by -pirates. While these disturbing causes were in full play the emperor -died, in 1820, and the throne devolved upon Tao Kuang, his second son. -It was during the reign of Kea King that Protestant missionaries -initiated a systematic attempt to convert the Chinese to Christianity; -but the religious toleration of these people, which on the whole has -been a marked feature in their civilization of all ages, had been sorely -tried by the Catholics and but little progress was made. In another -direction some of the early Protestant missionaries did great service to -the world at large. They spent much of their time in grappling with the -difficulties of the written language; and the publication of Dr. -Morrison’s famous dictionary and the achievements of Dr. Legge were the -culmination of these labors. - -Under Tao Kuang both home and foreign affairs went from bad to worse. A -secret league known as the Triad Society, which was first formed during -the reign of Kang Hi, now assumed a formidable bearing, and in many -parts of the country, notably in Honan, Kwang-hsi, and Formosa, -insurrections broke out at its instigation. At the same time the -mandarins continued to persecute the English merchants, and on the -expiration of the East India Company’s monopoly in 1834 the English -government sent Lord Napier to Canton to superintend the foreign trade -at that port. Thwarted at every turn by the presumptuous obstinacy of -the mandarins, Lord Napier’s health gave way under the constant -vexations connected with his post, and he died at Macao after but a few -months’ residence in China. - -The opium trade was now the question of the hour, and at the urgent -demand of Commissioner Lin, Captain Elliot, the superintendent of trade, -agreed that all opium in the hands of English merchants should be given -up to the authorities. On the 3rd of April, 1839, twenty thousand two -hundred and eighty-three chests of opium were, in accordance with this -agreement, handed over to the mandarins, who burnt them to ashes. This -demand of Lin’s, though agreed to by the superintendent of trade, was -considered so unreasonable by the English government that in the -following year war was declared against China. The island of Chusan and -the Bogue forts on the Canton river soon fell into the English hands, -and Commissioner Lin’s successor sought to purchase peace by the cession -of Hong Kong and the payment of an indemnity of $6,000,000. This -convention was, however, repudiated by the Peking government, and it was -not until Canton, Amoy, Ningpo, Shanghai, Chapoo and Chin-keang Foo had -been taken by the British troops, that the emperor at last consented to -come to terms, now of course far more onerous. By a treaty made by Sir -Henry Pottinger in 1842 the cession of Hong Kong was supplemented by the -opening of the four ports of Amoy, Foochow Foo, Ningpo, and Shanghai to -foreign trade, and the indemnity of $6,000,000 was increased to -$21,000,000. - -Without noticing the other points at issue and the merits of the dispute -concerning them, it is considered by the world at large that one of the -blackest pages in the records of the history of civilization is that -which tells of the forcing of the opium traffic upon the Chinese by -Great Britain. The Chinese people were making most strenuous efforts to -abolish the traffic in opium and the habit of its use, which had been -introduced from India, and which was rapidly becoming the curse of the -nation. But for commercial motives, in this Victorian age of -civilization, England sent to force compliance with the demand of her -merchants in China that the sale of the drug be legalized. The rapid -spread of the use of opium among the hundreds of millions of Chinese, -dating from this time, may be charged against England, in the long -account which records the oppression and the shame of her dealings with -whatever eastern nation she has played the game of war and colonization -and annexation. - -[Illustration: BATTLE OF CRICKETS.] - -Death put an end to Tao Kuang’s reign in 1850, and his fourth son, Hien -Feng, assumed rule over the distracted empire which was bequeathed him -by his father. There is a popular belief among the Chinese that two -hundred years is the natural life of a dynasty. This is one of those -traditions which are apt to bring about their own fulfilment, and in the -beginning of the reign of Hien Feng the air was rife with rumors that an -effort was to be made to restore the Ming dynasty to the throne. On such -occasions there are always real or pretended scions of the required -family forthcoming. And when the flames of rebellion broke out in -Kwang-hsi a claimant suddenly appeared under the title of Teen-tih, -“heavenly virtue,” to head the movement. But he had not the capacity -required to play the necessary part, and the affair languished and would -have died out altogether had not a leader named Hung Sew-tseuen arose, -who combined all the qualities required in a leader of men, energy, -enthusiasm, and religious bigotry. - -[Illustration: CHINESE MANDARIN.] - -As soon as he was sufficiently powerful he advanced northward into Honan -and Hoopih, and captured Woo-chang Foo, the capital of the last named -province, and a city of great commercial and strategical importance, -situated as it is at the junction of the Han river with the Chiang. -Having made this place secure he advanced down the river and made -himself master of Gan-ting and the old capital of the empire, Nanking. -Here in 1852 he established his throne, and proclaimed the commencement -of Taiping dynasty. For himself he adopted the title of Teen-wang, or -“heavenly king.” For a time all went well with the new dynasty. The -Tai-ping standard was carried northward to the walls of Tien-tsin and -floated over the towns of Chin-keang Foo and Soochow Foo. - -Meanwhile the imperial authorities had by their stupidity raised another -enemy against themselves. The outrage on the English flag perpetrated on -board the Chinese lorcha “Arrow,” at Canton in 1857, having been left -unredressed by the mandarins, led to the proclamation of war by England. -Canton fell to the arms of General Straubenzee, and Sir Michael Seymour -in December of the same year, and in the following spring the Taku forts -at the mouth of the Peiho having been taken, Lord Elgin, who had in the -meantime arrived as plenipotentiary minister, advanced up the river to -Tien-tsin on his way to the capital. At that city, however, he was met -by imperial commissioners, and yielding to their entreaties he concluded -a treaty with them which it was arranged should be ratified at Peking in -the following year. - -But the evil genius of the Chinese still pursuing them, they -treacherously fired on the fleet accompanying Sir Frederic Bruce, Lord -Elgin’s brother, proceeding in 1860 to Peking, in fulfillment of this -agreement. This outrage rendered another military expedition necessary, -and in conjunction with the French government, the English cabinet sent -out a force under the command of Sir Hope Grant, with orders to march to -Peking. In the summer of 1861 the allied forces landed at Peh-tang, a -village twelve miles north of the Taku forts, and taking these -intrenchments in the rear captured them with but a trifling loss. This -success was so utterly unexpected by the Chinese, that leaving Tien-tsin -unprotected they retreated rapidly to the neighborhood of the capital. -The allies pushed on after them, and in reply to an invitation sent from -the imperial commissioners at Tung-chow, a town twelve miles from -Peking, Sir Harry Parkes and Mr. Loch, accompanied by an escort and some -few friends, went in advance of the army to make a preliminary -convention. While so engaged they were treacherously taken prisoners and -carried to Peking. - -This act precipitated an engagement in which the Chinese were completely -routed, and the allies marched on to Peking. After the usual display of -obstinacy the Chinese yielded to the demand for the surrender of the -An-ting gate of the city. From this vantage point Lord Elgin opened -negotiations, and having secured the release of Sir Harry Parkes and the -other prisoners who had survived the tortures to which they had been -subjected, and having burnt the summer palace of the emperor as a -punishment for their treacherous capture and for the cruelties -perpetrated on them, he concluded a treaty with Prince Kung, the -representative of the emperor. By this instrument the Chinese agreed to -pay a war indemnity of $8,000,000 and to open six other ports in China, -one in Formosa, and one in the island of Hainan to foreign trade, and to -permit the representatives of the foreign governments to reside at -Peking. - -[Illustration: GATE AT PEKING.] - -Having thus relieved themselves from the presence of a foreign foe, the -authorities were able to devote their attention to the suppression of -the Tai-ping rebellion. Fortunately for themselves, the apparent -friendliness with which they greeted the arrival of the British legation -at Peking enlisted for them the sympathies of Sir Frederic Bruce, the -British minister, and inclined him to listen to their request for the -services of an English officer in their campaign against the rebels. At -the request of Bruce, General Staveley selected Major Gordon, since -generally known as Chinese Gordon, who was killed a few years ago at -Khartoom, for this duty. A better man or one more peculiarly fit for the -work could have been found. A numerous force known as “the ever -victorious army,” partly officered by foreigners, had for some time been -commanded by an American named Ward and after his death by Burgevine, -another American. Over this force Gordon was placed, and at the head of -it he marched in conjunction with the Chinese generals against the -Tai-pings. With masterly strategy he struck a succession of rapid and -telling blows against the fortunes of the rebels. City after city fell -into his hands, and at length the leaders at Soochow opened the gates of -the city to him on condition that he would spare their lives. With cruel -treachery, when these men presented themselves before Li Hung Chang to -offer their submission to the emperor, they were seized and beheaded. On -learning how lightly his word had been treated by the Chinese general, -Gordon armed himself, for the first time during the campaign with a -revolver, and sought out the Chinese headquarters intending to avenge -with his own hand this murder of the Tai-ping leaders. But Li Hung Chang -having received timely notice of the righteous anger he had aroused took -to flight, and Gordon, thus thwarted in his immediate object, threw up -his command feeling that it was impossible to continue to act with so -orientally-minded a colleague. - -After considerable negotiation however, he was persuaded to return to -his command and soon succeeded in so completely crippling the power of -the rebels that in July 1864, Nanking, their last stronghold, fell into -the hands of the imperialists. Teen-wang was then already dead, and his -body was found within the walls wrapped in imperial yellow. Thus was -crushed out a rebellion which had paralyzed the imperial power in the -central provinces of the empire and which had for twelve years seriously -threatened the existence of the reigning dynasty. - -[Illustration: OPIUM SMOKERS.] - -Meanwhile in the summer following the conclusion of the treaty of -Peking, 1861, the emperor, Hien Feng, breathed his last at Jehol, an -event which was in popular belief foretold by the appearance of a comet -in the early part of the summer. He was succeeded to the throne by his -only son, a mere child, and the offspring of one of the imperial -concubines. He adopted the name of Tung Chih. On account of his youth -the administration of affairs was placed in the hands of the two dowager -empresses, the wife of the last emperor and the mother of the new one. -These regents were aided by the counsels of the boy emperor’s uncle, -Prince Kung. - -Under the direction of these regents, though the internal affairs of the -empire prospered, the foreign relations were disturbed by the display of -an increasingly hostile spirit towards the Christian missionaries and -their converts, which culminated in 1870 in the Tien-tsin massacre. In -some of the central provinces reports had been industriously circulated -that the Roman Catholic missionaries were in the habit of kidnapping and -murdering children, in order to make medicine from their eyeballs. -Ridiculous as the rumor was, it found ready credence among the ignorant -people, and several outrages were perpetrated on the missionaries and -their converts in Kwang-hsi and Sze-chwan. Through the active -interference, however, of the French minister on the spot, the agitation -was locally suppressed only to be renewed at Tien-tsin. Here also the -same absurd rumors were set afloat, and were especially directed against -some sisters of charity who had opened an orphanage in the city. - -For some days previous to the massacre on the 21st of June, reports -increasing in alarm reached the foreign residents that an outbreak was -to be apprehended, and three times the English consul wrote to Chung -How, the superintendent of the three northern ports, calling upon him to -take measures to subdue the gathering passions of the people which had -been further dangerously exasperated by an infamous proclamation issued -by the prefects. To these communications the consul did not receive any -reply, and on the morning of the 21st, a day which had apparently been -deliberately fixed for the massacre, the attack was made. The mob first -broke into the French consulate and while the consul, M. Fontanier, was -with Chung How endeavoring to persuade him to interfere, two Frenchmen -and their wives, and Father Chevrien were there murdered. While -returning the consul suffered the same fate. Having thus whetted their -taste for blood, the rioters then set fire to the French cathedral, and -afterward moved on to the orphanage of the sisters of mercy. In spite of -the appeals of these defenseless women for mercy, if not for themselves -at least for the orphans under their charge, the mob broke into the -hospital, killed and mutilated most shockingly all the sisters, -smothered from thirty to forty children in the vault, and carried off a -still larger number of older persons to prisons in the city, where they -were subjected to tortures of which they bore terrible evidence when -their release was at length affected. In addition to these victims, a -Russian gentleman with his bride, and a friend, who were unfortunate -enough to meet the rioters on their way to the cathedral, were also -murdered. No other foreigners were injured, a circumstance due to the -fact that the fury of the mob was primarily directed against the French -Roman Catholics, and also that the foreign settlement where all but -those engaged in missionary work resided, was at a distance of a couple -of miles from the city. - -When the evil was done, the Chinese authorities professed themselves -anxious to make reparation, and Chung How was eventually sent to Paris -to offer the apologies of the Peking cabinet to the French government. -These were ultimately accepted; and it was further arranged that the -Tien-tsin prefect and district magistrate should be removed from their -posts and degraded, and that twenty of the active murderers should be -executed. By these retributive measures the emperor’s government made -its peace with the European powers, and the foreign relations again -assumed their former friendly footing. - -The Chinese had now leisure to devote their efforts to the subjugation -of the Panthay rebels. This was a great Mohammedan uprising which dated -back as far as 1856 and which had for its object the separation of the -province of Yun-nan into an independent state. The visit of the adopted -son of the rebel leader, the sultan Suleiman, to England, for the -purpose of attempting to enlist the sympathies of the English government -in the Panthay cause, no doubt added zest to the action of the -mandarins, who after a short but vigorous campaign, marked by scenes of -bloodshed and wholesale carnage, suppressed the rebellion and restored -the province to the imperial sway. - -Peace was thus brought about, and when the empresses handed over the -reigns of power to the emperor, on the occasion of his marriage in 1872, -tranquility reigned throughout the eighteen provinces. The formal -assumption of power proclaimed by this marriage was considered by the -foreign ministers a fitting opportunity to insist on the fulfillment of -the article in the treaties which provided for their reception by the -emperor, and after much negotiation it was finally arranged that the -emperor should receive them on the 29th of June, 1873. - -Very early therefore on the morning of that day, the ministers were -astir and were conducted in their sedan chairs to the park on the west -side of the palace, where they were met by some of the ministers of -state, who led them to the “Temple of Prayer for Seasonable Weather.” -Here they were kept waiting for some time while tea and confectionery -from the imperial kitchen, by favor of the emperor, were served to them. -They were then conducted to an oblong tent made of matting on the west -side of the Tsze-kwang pavilion, where they were met by Prince Kung and -other ministers. As soon as the emperor reached the pavilion, the -Japanese ambassador was introduced into his presence and when he had -retired the other foreign ministers entered the audience chamber in a -body. The emperor was seated facing southward. On either side of his -majesty stood, with Prince Kung, several princes and high officers. When -the foreign ministers reached the center aisle they halted and bowed one -and all together; they then advanced in line a little further and made a -second bow; and when they had nearly reached the yellow table on which -their credentials were to be deposited they bowed a third time; after -which they remained erect. M. Vlangaly, the Russian minister, then read -a congratulatory address in French, which was translated by an -interpreter into Chinese, and the ministers making another reverence -respectfully laid their letters of credence upon the yellow table. The -emperor was pleased to make a slight inclination of the head towards -them, and Prince Kung advancing to the left of the throne and falling -upon his knees, had the honor to be informed in Manchoo that his majesty -acknowledged the receipt of the letters presented. Prince Kung, with his -arms raised according to precedent set by Confucius when in the presence -of his sovereign, came down by the steps on the left of the desk, to the -foreign ministers, and respectfully repeated this in Chinese. After this -he again prostrated himself, and in like manner received and conveyed a -message to the effect that his majesty hoped that all foreign questions -would be satisfactorily disposed of. The ministers then withdrew, bowing -repeatedly, until they reached the entrance. - -Thus ended the first instance during the present century of Europeans -being received in imperial audience. Whether under more fortunate -circumstances the ceremony might have been repeated it is difficult to -say, but in the following year the young emperor was stricken down with -the small-pox, or “enjoyed the felicity of the heavenly flowers,” and -finally succumbed to the disease on the twelfth of January, 1875. With -great ceremony the funeral obsequies were performed over the body of him -who had been Tung Chih, and the coffin was finally laid in the imperial -mausoleum among the eastern hills beside the remains of his -predecessors. His demise was shortly afterwards followed by the death of -the girl empress he had just previously raised to the throne. - -For the first time in the annals of the Ching dynasty, the throne was -now left without a direct heir. As it is the office of the son and heir -to perform regularly the ancestral worship, it is necessary that if -there should be no son, the heir should be, if possible, of a later -generation than the deceased. In the present instance this was -impossible, and it was necessary therefore that the lot should fall on -one of the cousins of the late emperor. Tsai-teen, the son of the Prince -of Chun, a child not quite four years old, was chosen to fill the vacant -throne, and the title conferred upon him was Kuang Su or “an inheritance -of glory.” - -Scarcely had the proclamation gone forth of the assumption of the -imperial title by Kuang Su, when news reached the English legation at -Peking of the murder at Manwyne, in the province of Yun-nan, of Mr. -Margary, an officer in the consular service who had been dispatched to -meet an expedition sent by the Indian government, under the command of -Colonel Horace Browne, to discover a route from Birmah into the -south-western provinces of China. In accordance with conventional -practice, the Chinese government, on being called to account for this -outrage, attempted to lay it to the charge of brigands. But the evidence -which Sir Thomas Wade was able to adduce proved too strong to be ignored -even by the Peking mandarins, and eventually they signed a convention in -which they practically acknowledged their blood guiltiness, under the -terms of which some fresh commercial privileges were granted, and an -indemnity was paid. - -At the same time a Chinese nobleman was sent to England to make apology, -and to establish an embassy on a permanent footing at the court of St. -James. Since that time the Chinese empire has been at peace with all -foreign powers until the eruptions of the recent months. There have been -some narrow escapes from war with the European countries holding -possessions on the southern Chinese border, but serious results have not -followed. Ministers have been maintained in China by the western -nations, and by China in the western capitals. - -Under the child Kuang Su, who came to the throne in 1875, we have seen -the completion of Chinese re-conquests in Central Asia and the -restoration of Kuldja by the Russians. For many years the progressive -party in the nation’s councils, under the leadership of Li Hung Chang, -Viceroy of Chihli, gradually appeared to gain ground, amply posted as -the court of Peking was in the affairs of western countries. Even the -old conservative party, of which the successful and the aged general Tso -Tsung-tang was the representative, has vastly modified its tone in the -last twenty years. - -It is true that the short experimental line of railway which had been -laid down between Shanghai and Wusung was objected to, and finally got -rid of by the Chinese government; but the reason for this apparently -retrograde step arose out of the not very scrupulous means employed by -the promoters of the scheme, and out of the very natural dislike of an -independent state to be forced into innovations for which it may not be -altogether prepared. Since that time several telegraph lines have been -constructed, beginning with the first one between Peking and Shanghai, -which formed the final connecting link between the capital of the -Chinese empire and the western civilized world. The freedom of residence -has been greatly extended to foreigners living in China. Travel has -become safer, and popular hatred towards foreigners not as apparent. -Slow as it has been to take effect, nevertheless the influence of closer -association with western civilization has made its impress on the -Chinese nation, and the extreme conservatism in many details has been -compelled to waver. The stories of the war which are to follow will -indicate much of the characteristics of the later day history of the -empire. - - - - - THE CHINESE EMPIRE. - - -------------- - -Origin of the Name of China, and What the Chinese Call their Own -Country—Dependencies of the Empire—China and the United States in -Comparison—Their Many Physical Similarities—Mountains and Plains—The -Fertile Soil—Provinces of China—Rivers and Lakes—Climate—Fauna and -Flora—Industries of the People—Commerce with Foreign Nations—The Cities -of China—Forms of Government and Administration. - - -Until recent years the word China was unknown in the empire which we -call by that name, but of late it has become more familiar to the -Chinese, and in certain regions they are in fact adopting it for their -own use, owing to the frequency with which they hear it from the -foreigners with whom they are doing business. The name was no doubt -introduced in Europe and America from the nations of Central Asia who -speak of the Chinese by various names derived from that of the powerful -Ching family, who held sway many centuries ago. The names which the -Chinese use in speaking of themselves are various. The most common one -is Chung Kwo, the “Middle Kingdom.” This term grew up in the feudal -period as a name for the royal domain in the midst of the other states, -or for those states as a whole in the midst of the uncivilized countries -around them. The assumption of universal sovereignty, of being the -geographical center of the world, and also the center of light and -civilization that have been so injurious to the nation, appear in -several of the most ancient names. In the oldest classical writings the -country is called the Flowery Kingdom, flowery presenting the idea of -beautiful, cultivated, and refined. The terms Heavenly Flowery Kingdom, -and Heavenly Dynasty are sometimes used, the word heavenly presenting -the Chinese idea that the empire is established by the authority of -heaven, and that the emperor rules by divine right. This title has given -rise to the contemptuous epithet applied to the race by the Europeans, -“The Celestials.” - -The Chinese empire, consisting of China proper and Manchooria, with its -dependencies of Mongolia, I-li and Thibet, embraces a vast territory in -eastern and central Asia, only inferior in extent to the dominions of -Great Britain and Russia. The dependencies are not colonies but subject -territories; and China proper itself indeed, has been a subject -territory of Manchooria since 1644. - -China proper was divided nearly two hundred years ago into eighteen -provinces; and since the recent separation of the island of Formosa from -Fu-chien, and its constitution into an independent province, we may say -that it now consists of nineteen. These form one of the corners of the -Asiatic continent, having the Pacific ocean on the south and east. They -are somewhat in the shape of an irregular rectangle, and including the -island of Hainan lie between 18 and 49 degrees north latitude and 98 and -124 degrees east longitude. Their area is about two million square -miles, while the whole empire has an area more than twice that large. - -In giving a correct general idea of China one cannot perhaps do better -than to institute a comparison between it and the United States, to -which it bears a striking resemblance. It occupies the same position in -the eastern hemisphere that the United States does in the western. Its -line of sea coast on the Pacific resembles that of the United States on -the Atlantic, not only in length but also in contour. Being found within -almost the same parallels of latitude, it embraces almost the same -variety of climate and production. A river as grand as the Mississippi, -flowing east, divides the empire into nearly two equal parts, which are -often designated as “north of the river” and “south of the river.” It -passes through an immense and fertile valley, and is supplied by -numerous tributaries having rise in mountain ranges on either side and -also in the Himalayas on the west. The area of China proper is about -two-thirds that of the states of the American union. - -[Illustration: CHINESE MINERS.] - -The resemblance holds also in the artificial divisions. While our -country is divided into more than forty states, China is divided into -nineteen provinces. As our states are divided into counties, so each -province has divisions called fu and each fu is again divided into about -an equal number of hien. These divisions and subdivisions of the -provinces are generally spoken of in English as departments or -prefectures, and districts, but they are much larger than our -corresponding counties and townships. And similarly to our own system of -government, each of these divisions and subdivisions has its own capital -or seat of civil power, in which the officers exercising jurisdiction -over it reside. The outer dependencies of the Chinese empire are -comparatively sparsely populated, and in this work, when China, without -specification, is mentioned, it is intended to refer to the eighteen -provinces exclusively, which include the vast proportion of the -population, intelligence and wealth of the empire. - -As to the physical features of China proper, the whole territory may be -described as sloping from the mountainous regions of Thibet and Nepaul -towards the shores of the Pacific on the east and south. A far extending -spur of the Himalayas called the Nanling, or southern range, is the most -extensive mountain system. It commences in Yun-nan, and passing -completely through the country enters the sea at Ningpo. Except for a -few steep passes, it thus forms a continuous barrier that separates the -coast regions of south-eastern China from the rest of the country. -Numerous spurs are cast off to the south and east of it, which appear in -the sea as a belt of rugged islands. On the borders of Thibet to the -north and west of this range, the country is mountainous, while to the -east and from the great wall on the north to the Po-yang Lake in the -south, there is the great plain comprising an area of more than two -hundred thousand square miles and supporting in the five provinces -contained in it more than one hundred and seventy-five million people. - -In the north-western provinces the soil is a brownish colored earth, -extremely porous, crumbling easily between the fingers, and carried far -and wide in clouds of dust. It covers the sub-soil to an enormous depth -and is apt to split perpendicularly in clefts which render traveling -difficult. Nevertheless by this cleavage it affords homes to thousands -of the people, who live in caves excavated near the bottom of the -cliffs. Sometimes whole villages are so formed in terraces of the earth -that rise one above another. The most valuable quality of this peculiar -soil is its marvelous fertility, as the fields composed of it require -scarcely any other dressing than a sprinkling of its own fresh loam. The -farmer in this way obtains an assured harvest two and even three times a -year. This fertility, provided there be a sufficient rainfall, seems -inexhaustible. The province of Shan-hsi has borne the name for thousands -of years of the “granary of the nation,” and it is, no doubt, due to the -distribution of this earth over its surface, that the great plain owes -its fruitfulness. - -Geographically speaking the arrangement of the provinces of China is as -follows: On the north there are four provinces, Chihli, Shan-hsi, -Shen-hsi, and Kan-su; on the west two, Szechwan, the largest of all, and -Yun-nan; on the south two, Kwang-hsi and Kwang-tung; on the east four, -Fu-chien, Cheh-chiang, Chiang-su, and Shan-tung. The central area -enclosed by these twelve provinces is occupied by Honan, An-hui, Hoopih, -Hunan, Chiang-hsi, and Kwei-chau. The latter is a poor province, with -parts of it largely occupied by clans or tribes supposed to be the -aborigines. The island of Formosa, lying off the coast of Fu-chien, -ninety miles west of Amoy, is about two hundred and thirty-five miles in -length, fertile and rich in coal, petroleum, and camphor wood. The first -settlement of a Chinese population took place only in 1683, and the -greater part of it is still occupied by aboriginal tribes of a more than -ordinary high type. The population of these provinces is immense, but -the various estimates and alleged censuses fluctuate and vary so much -that it is impossible to give a definite number as the total. It is a -safe estimate however to say that the population of the Chinese empire -approximates four hundred million, or considerably more than one-fourth -the population of the world, and nearly as much as the total of all -Europe and America. - -One of the most distinguishing features of China is found in the great -rivers. These are called for the most part “ho” in the north and -“chiang” (kiang) in the south. Two of these are famous and conspicuous -among the great rivers of the world, the Ho, Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, -and the Chiang, generally misnamed the Yang-tsze. The sources of these -two rivers are not far from one another. The Ho rises in the plain of -Odontala, which is a region of springs and small lakes, and the Chiang -from the mountains of Thibet only a few miles distant. The Ho pursues a -tortuous course first to the east and north until it crosses the great -wall into Mongolia. After flowing a long distance northward of the -Mongolian desert, to the northern limit of Shen-hsi, it then turns -directly south for a distance of five hundred miles. A right angle turns -its course again to the eastward and finally north-eastward, when it -flows into the Gulf of Pechili in the province of Shan-tung. The Chiang -on the contrary turns south where the Ho turns north, and then after a -general course to the eastward and northward, roughly parallel with its -fellow, flows into the Eastern Sea, not far from Shanghai. - -Both rivers are exceedingly tortuous and their courses are only roughly -outlined here. Almost the very opening of Chinese history is an account -of one of the inundations of the Ho River, which has often in course of -time changed its channel. The terrible calamities caused by it so often -have procured for it the name of “China’s sorrow.” As recently as 1887 -it burst its southern bank near Chang Chau, and poured its mighty flood -with hideous devastation, and the destruction of millions of lives, into -the populous province of Honan. Each of these rivers has a course of -more than three thousand miles. They are incomparably the greatest in -China, but there are many others which would be accounted great -elsewhere. In connection with inland navigation must be mentioned the -Grand Canal, intended to connect the northern and southern parts of the -empire by an easy water communication; and this it did when it was in -good order, extending from Peking to Hankow, a distance of more than six -hundred miles. Kublai Khan, the first sovereign of the Yuan dynasty, -must be credited with the glory of making this canal. Marco Polo -described it, and compliments the great ruler for the success of his -work. Steam communication all along the eastern seaboard from Canton to -Tien-tsin has very much superseded the use of the canal and portions of -it are now in bad condition, but as a truly imperial achievement it -continues to be a grand memorial of Kublai. - -The Great Wall was another vast achievement of human labor, constructed -more than two thousand years ago. It has been alleged a myth at some -times, but its existence has not been denied since explorations have -been made to the north of China Proper. It was not as useful as the -canal, and it failed to answer the purpose for which it was intended, a -defense against the incursions of the northern tribes. In 214 B.C. the -Emperor Che Hwang Ti determined to erect a grand barrier all along the -northern limit of his vast empire. The wall commences at the Shan-hsi -pass on the north coast of the Gulf of Pechili. From this point it is -carried westward till it terminates at the Chia-yu barrier gate, the -road through which leads to the “western regions.” It is twice -interrupted in its course by the Ho River, and has several branch and -loop walls to defend certain cities and districts. Its length in a -straight line would be one thousand two hundred and fifty-five miles, -but if measured along its sinuosities this distance must be increased to -one thousand five hundred. It is not built so grandly in its western -portions after passing the Ho River, nor should it be supposed that to -the east of this point it is all solid masonry. It is formed by two -strong retaining walls of brick rising from granite foundations, the -space between being filled with stones and earth. The breadth of it at -the base is about twenty-five feet, at the top fifteen feet, and the -height varies from fifteen to thirty feet. The surface at the top was -once covered with bricks but is now overgrown with grass. What travelers -go to visit from Peking is merely a loop wall of later formation, -enclosing portions of Chihli and Shan-hsi. - -China includes many lakes, but they are not so commanding in size as the -rivers. There are but three which are essential to mention. These are -the Tung-ting Hu, the largest, having a circumference of two hundred and -twenty miles, about in the center of the empire; the Po-yang Hu, half -way between the former and the sea; and the Tai Hu, not far from -Shanghai and the Yang-tsze River. The latter lake is famous for its -romantic scenery and numerous islets. - -The peculiarities of climate along the Chinese coast are due in great -measure to the northern and southern monsoons, the former prevailing -with more or less uniformity during the winter, and the latter during -the summer months. These winds give a greater degree of heat in summer -and of cold in winter than is experienced in the United States in -corresponding latitudes. At Ningpo, situated in latitude 30, about that -of New Orleans, large quantities of ice are secured in the winter for -summer use. It is, however, very thin measured by what we think proper -ice for preservation. In this part of China snow not infrequently falls -to the depth of six or eight inches, and the hills are sometimes covered -with it for weeks in succession. In the northern provinces the winters -are very severe. In the vicinity of Peking, not only are the canals and -rivers closed during the winter, but all commerce by sea is suspended -during two or three months, while in the summer that part of China is -very warm. The period of the change of the monsoon, when the two -opposite currents are struggling with each other is marked by a great -fall of rain and by the cyclones which are so much dreaded by mariners -on the Chinese coast. The southern monsoon gradually loses its force in -passing northward, and is not very marked above latitude 32, though its -influence is decidedly felt in July and August. With the exception of -the summer months the climate of the northern coast of China is -remarkably dry; that of the southern coast is damp most of the year, -especially during the months of May, June, and July. - -In different parts of the country almost every variety of climate can be -found, hot or cold, moist or dry, salubrious or malarial. The ports -which were at first opened as places of residence for foreigners were -unfortunately among the most unhealthful of the empire, not so much from -the enervating effects of their southerly latitude as from their local -miasmatic influences, being situated in the rice-producing districts and -surrounded more or less by stagnant water during the summer months. -Under the later treaties which opened new ports in the north, as well as -interior cities, foreigners have been permitted to live in regions whose -climates will compare favorably with most parts of our own country. The -Chinese themselves consider Kwang-tung, Kwang-hsi, and Yun-nan to be -less healthful than the other provinces; but foreigners using proper -precautions may enjoy their lives in every province. - -The Chinese are essentially an agricultural people, and from time -immemorial they have held agriculture in the highest esteem as being the -means by which the soil has been induced to supply the primary wants of -the empire, food. Of course the climate and the nature of a district -determine the kind of farming appropriate to it. Agriculturally China -may be said to be divided into two parts by the Chiang. South of that -river, speaking generally, the soil and climate point to rice as the -appropriate crop, while to the north lie vast plains which as clearly -are best designed for growing wheat, barley, oats, Indian corn and other -cereals. Culinary or kitchen herbs, mushrooms, and aquatic vegetables, -with ginger and a variety of other condiments, are everywhere produced -and widely used. From Formosa there comes sugar, and the cane thrives -also in the southern provinces. Oranges, pomegranates, peaches, -plantains, pineapples, mangoes, grapes, and many other fruits and nuts -are supplied in most markets. The cultivation of opium is constantly on -the increase. - -[Illustration: CHINESE FARM SCENE.] - -Of course the use of tea as a beverage is a national characteristic. The -plant does not grow in the north, but is cultivated extensively in the -western provinces and in the southern. The infusion of the leaves was -little if at all drunk in ancient times, but now its use is universal. -Fu-chien, Hoopih, and Hu-nan produce the greater part of the black teas; -the green comes chiefly from Cheh-chiang and An-hui; both kinds comes -from Kwang-tung and Sze-chwan. Next to silk, if not equally with it, tea -is China’s most valuable export. From rice and millet the Chinese -distill alcoholic liquors, but they are very sparingly used and it is a -compliment to the temperate inclinations of the people, that immediately -upon the opening of tea houses many years ago, the places for selling -liquor found themselves empty of business and were soon compelled to -close. - -[Illustration: CHINESE TEA FARM.] - -Birds and animals are found in great variety, though the country is too -thickly peopled and well cultivated to harbor many wild and dangerous -beasts. One occasionally hears of a tiger that has ventured from the -forest and been killed or captured, but the lion was never a denizen of -China and is only to be seen rampant in stone in front of temples. The -rhinoceros, elephant, and tapir are said still to exist in the forests -and swamps of Yun-nan; but the supply of elephants at Peking for the -carriage of the emperor when he proceeds to the great sacrificial altars -has been decreasing for several reigns. Both the brown and the black -bear are found, and several varieties of the deer family, of which the -musk deer is highly valued. Among the domestic animals the breed of -horses and cattle is dwarfish and no attempts seem to be made to improve -them. The ass is a more lively animal in the north than it is in -European countries or America, and receives much attention. About Peking -one is struck by many beautiful specimens of the mule. Princes are seen -riding on mules, or drawn by them in handsome litters, while their -attendants accompany them on horseback. The camel is seen only in the -north. Many birds of prey abound, including minos, crows, and magpies. -The people are fond of songbirds, especially the thrush, the canary, and -the lark. The lovely gold and silver pheasants are well known, and also -the mandarin duck, the emblem to the Chinese of conjugal fidelity. Many -geese too are reared and eaten, while the ducks are artificially -hatched. The number of pigs is enormous and fish are a plentiful supply -of food. - -[Illustration: CHINESE STREET SCENE.] - -The people are very fond of flowers and are excellent gardeners, but -their favorites are mostly cultivated in pots instead of in beds. - -Silk, linen, and cotton furnish abundant provision for the clothing of -the race. China was no doubt the original home of silk. The mulberry -tree grows everywhere and silk worms flourish as widely. In all -provinces some silk is produced, but the best is furnished from -Kwang-tung, Sze-chwan, and Cheh-chiang. From the twenty-third century -B.C. and earlier, the care of the silk worm and the spinning and weaving -of its produce have been the special work of women. As it is the duty of -the sovereign to turn over a few furrows in the spring to stimulate the -people to their agricultural tasks, so his consort should perform an -analogous ceremony with her silk worms and mulberry trees. The -manufactures of silk are not inferior to or less brilliant than any that -are produced in Europe, and nothing can exceed the embroidery of the -Chinese. The cotton plant appears to have been introduced some eight -hundred years ago from Eastern Turkestan and is now cultivated most -extensively in the basin of the Chiang River. The well known nankeen is -named for Nanking, a center for its manufacture. Of woolen fabrics the -production is not large, but there are felt caps, rugs of camels hair -and furs of various kinds. - -[Illustration: CHINESE FARMER.] - -While the Chinese have done justice to most of the natural capabilities -of their country, they have greatly failed in developing its mineral -resources. The skill which their lapidaries display in cutting the -minerals and jewels is well known, but in the development of the -utilitarian minerals they have been very negligent. The coal fields of -China are enormous, but the majority of them can hardly be said to be -more than scratched. Immense deposits of iron ore are still untouched. -Copper, lead, tin, silver, and gold are known to exist in many places, -but little has been done to make the stores of them available. More -attention has been directed to their mines since their government and -companies began to have steamers of their own and a scheme has been -approved by the government for working the gold mines in the valley of -the Amoor River. With the government once conscious of its mineral -wealth, there is no limit to the results which it may bring about. - -The commerce of China with the western nations has been constantly on -the increase for many years. The number of vessels entering and clearing -at the various treaty ports is now between thirty thousand and -thirty-five thousand annually, and the value of the whole trade, import -and export, approximates $300,000,000 annually. Of course the two -principal exports are tea and silk. About half of the trade is done by -means of vessels under the British flag, and nearly half of the -remainder are vessels of foreign type, but owned by Chinese and sailing -under the Chinese flag. - -The capitals of the different divisions of the empire are all walled -cities, and these form a striking feature of the country. There are -important distinctions between the cities of the third class, most of -which are designated as hien, a few as cheo and others as ting. Though -varying considerably in size, these different cities present nearly the -uniform appearance. They are surrounded by walls from twenty to -thirty-five feet in height, and are entered by large arched gateways -which open into the principal streets and are shut and barred at night. -These walls are from twenty to twenty-five feet thick at the base and -somewhat narrower at the top. The outside is of solid masonry from two -to four feet thick, built of hewn stone, or bricks backed with earth, -broken tiles, etc. There is generally a lighter stone facing on the -inside. The outside is surmounted by a parapet with embrasures generally -built of brick. - -The circumferences of the provincial cities vary from eight to fifteen -miles; those of the fu cities from four to ten miles, and those of the -hien cities from two or three to five miles. Some of the larger and more -important cities contain a smaller one, with its separate walls, -enclosed within the larger outside walls. This is the Tartar or military -city. It is occupied exclusively by Tartars with their families, forming -a colony or garrison, and numbering generally several thousand soldiers. -In times of insurrection and rebellion the emperor depends principally -upon these Tartar colonies to hold possession of the cities where they -are stationed. In such emergencies the inhabitants of these enclosed -Tartar cities, knowing that their lives and the lives of their families -are at stake, defend themselves with great desperation. - -The provincial capitals contain an average population of nearly one -million inhabitants; the fu cities from one hundred thousand to six -hundred thousand or even more, while the cities of the third class, -which are much more numerous, generally contain several tens of -thousands. The most of these towns of different classes have outgrown -their walls, and frequently one-fourth or even one-third of the -inhabitants live in the suburbs, which in some cases extend three or -four miles outside the walls in different directions. Property is less -valuable in these suburbs, not only because it is removed from the -business parts of the city, but also because it is more liable to be -destroyed in times of rebellion. All the names to be found on even our -largest maps of China, are the names of walled cities, and many of those -of the third class are not down for want of space. The total number of -these cities is more than one thousand seven hundred. From the number -and size of the cities of China it might be inferred that they contain -the greater portion of the inhabitants of the empire. This is however by -no means the case. The Chinese are mainly an agricultural people and -live for the most part in the almost innumerable villages which -everywhere dot its fertile plains. A detached or isolated farm house is -seldom seen. The country people live in towns or hamlets for the sake of -society and mutual protection. Most of the cities, even the smaller -ones, have thousands of these villages under their jurisdiction. In the -more populous parts of China will frequently be found, within a radius -of three or four miles, from one hundred and fifty to two hundred of -these villages. - -The estimate of population made on a previous page gives an average -population of about three hundred persons to the square mile, while that -of Belgium and some other European countries is greater. Perhaps no -country in the world is more fertile and capable of supporting a dense -population than China. Every available spot of ground is brought under -cultivation, and nearly all the land is made use of to provide food for -man, pasture fields being almost unknown. The masses of China eat very -little animal food, and what they do eat is mostly pork and fowls, the -raising of which requires little or no waste of ground. The -comparatively few horses and cattle and sheep which are found in the -country are kept in stables, or graze upon the hill tops, or are -tethered by the sides of canals. Taking these facts into consideration, -that an extended and exceedingly fertile country under the highest state -of cultivation, is taxed to its utmost capacity to supply the wants of a -frugal and industrious people, the estimate of population need not -excite incredulity. - -Nearly all of the cities marked on our maps of the coast of China, are -now open ports for traffic and residence of foreigners. The most -northerly of these is Niuchwang and the most southern Pak-hoi, while -between these familiar names are those of Canton, Swatow, Amoy, Foochow, -Ningpo, Shanghai, Tien-tsin and several others. Interior cities that -have been opened to foreigners include a number on the Chiang River, the -one farthest inland being I-chang. Peking is also accessible to -foreigners; and several ports on the islands of Hainan and Formosa are -opened by treaty. The population of these cities cannot be told with -much exactness, as the Chinese census can scarcely claim accuracy. But -the largest cities, such as Canton and Peking, are generally credited, -in common with several others even smaller, with passing the million -mark. - -[Illustration: AN IMPERIAL AUDIENCE.] - -The Chinese government is one of the great wonders of history. It -presents to-day the same character which it possessed more than three -thousand years ago, and which it has retained ever since, during a -period which covers the authentic history of the world. The government -may be described as being in theory a patriarchal despotism. The emperor -is the father of his people, and just as in a family the father’s law is -supreme, so the emperor exercises complete control over his subjects, -even to the extent of holding, under certain recognized conditions, -their lives in his hands. But from time immemorial it has been held by -the highest constitutional authorities that the duties existing between -the emperor and his people are reciprocal, and that though it is the -duty of the people to render a loyal and willing obedience to the -emperor, so long as his rule is just and beneficent, it is equally -incumbent upon them to resist his authority, to depose him, and even to -put him to death, in case he should desert the paths of rectitude and -virtue. - -As a matter of fact however, it is very difficult to say what extent of -power the emperor actually wields. The outside world sees only the -imperial bolts, but how they are forged or whose is the hand that shoots -them none can tell. The most common titles of the emperor are -Hwang-Shang, “The August Lofty One,” and Tien-Tsz, “The Son of Heaven.” -He lives in unapproachable grandeur, and is never seen except by members -of his own family and high state officers, save once a year when he -gives audience to few foreign diplomats. Nothing is omitted which can -add to the dignity and sacredness of his person or character. Almost -everything used by him or in his service is tabooed from the common -people, and distinguished by some peculiar mark or color so as to keep -up the impression of awe with which he is regarded, and which is so -powerful an auxiliary to his throne. The outward gate of the palace must -always be passed on foot, and the paved entrance walk leading up to it -can be used only by him. The vacant throne, or even a screen of yellow -silk thrown over a chair, is worshipped equally with his actual -presence, and an imperial dispatch is received in the provinces with -incense and prostration. - -[Illustration: PREPARATION OF VERMICELLI.] - -The throne is not strictly and necessarily hereditary, though the son of -the emperor generally succeeds to it. The emperor appoints his -successor, but it is supposed that in doing so he will have supreme -regard for the best good of his subjects, and will be governed by the -will of heaven, indicated by the conferring of regal gifts, and by -providential circumstances pointing out the individual whom heaven has -chosen. Of course in the case of unusually able men, such as the second -and fourth rulers of the present dynasty, their influence is more felt -than that of less energetic rulers; but the throne of China is so hedged -in with ceremonials and so padded with official etiquette that unless -its occupant be a man of supreme ability he cannot fail to fall under -the guidance of his ministers and favorites. In governing so large a -realm, of course it is necessary for the emperor to delegate his -authority to numerous officers who are regarded as his agents and -representatives in carrying out the imperial will. What they do the -emperor does through them. The recognized patriarchal character of the -government is seen in the familiar expressions of the people, -particularly at times when they consider themselves injured or aggrieved -by their officers, when they are apt to say, “A strange way for parents -to treat their children.” - -The government of the empire, omitting the regulation of the imperial -court and family, or the special Manchoo department, is conducted from -the capital, supervising, directing, controlling the different -provincial administrations, and exercising the power of removing from -his post any official whose conduct may be irregular or dangerous to the -state. - -There is the Grand Cabinet, the privy council of the emperor, in whose -presence it meets daily to transact the business of the state, between -the hours of 4:00 and 6:00 A.M. Its members are few and hold other -offices. There is also the Grand Secretariat, formerly the supreme -council, but under the present dynasty very much superseded by the -Cabinet. It consists of four grand and two assistant grand secretaries, -half of them Manchoos and half Chinese. The business on which the -Cabinet deliberates comes before it from the six boards or Luh-pu. These -are departments of long standing in the government, having been modeled -on much the same plan during the ancient dynasties. At the head of each -board are two presidents, called Shang-shu, and four vice-presidents -called Shi-lang, alternately a Manchoo and a Chinese. There are three -subordinate grades of officers in each board, with a great number of -minor clerks, and their appropriate departments for conducting the -details of the general and peculiar business coming under the cognizance -of the board, the whole being arranged in the most business-like style. - -[Illustration: NEWLY MARRIED.] - -[Illustration: YOUNG LADY OF QUALITY.] - -[CHINESE LADIES.] - -The six boards are respectively of Civil Office, of Revenue, of -Ceremonies, of War, of Punishments, and of Works. In 1861 the changed -relations between the empire and foreign nations led to the formation of -what may be called a seventh board styled the Tsung-li Yamen, or Court -of Foreign Affairs. There is also another important department which -must be mentioned, the censorate, members of which exercise a -supervision over the board, and are entrusted with the duty of exposing -errors and crimes in every department of government. Distributed through -the provinces they memorialize the emperor on all subjects connected -with the welfare of the people and the conduct of the government. -Sometimes they do not shrink even from the dangerous task of criticising -the conduct of the emperor himself. - -The different boards are all charged with the superintendence of the -affairs of the eighteen provinces into which the empire is divided. -Fifteen of these provinces are grouped into eight vice-royalties, and -the remaining three are administered by a governor. Each province is -autonomous, or nearly so, and the supreme authorities, whether viceroys -or governors, are practically independent so long as they act in -accordance with the very minute regulations laid down for their -guidance. The principal function of the Peking government is to see that -these regulations are carried out, and in case they should not be to -call the offending viceroy or governor to account. Below the -governor-general or governor of a province, are the lieutenant-governor, -commonly called the treasurer, the provincial judge, the -salt-comptroller, and the grain-intendant. The provinces are further -divided for the purposes of administration into prefectures, -departments, and districts. Each has its officers, magistrates, and a -whole host of petty underlings. The rank of the different officials in -these provinces is indicated by a knob or button on the top of their -caps. In the two highest it is made of red coral; in the third it is -clear blue; in the fourth it is lapis lazuli; in the fifth of crystal; -in the sixth of an opaque white stone; and in the three lowest it is -yellow, of gold or gilt. They also wear insignia or badges embroidered -on a square patch in the front or back of their robes, representing -birds on the civilians and animals on the military officers. - -Each viceroy raises his own army and navy, which he pays, or sometimes -unfortunately does not pay, out of the revenues of the government. He -levies his own taxes, and except in particular cases is the final court -of appeal in all judicial matters within the limits of his rule. But in -return for this latitude allowed him, he is held personally responsible -for the good government of his territory. If by any chance serious -disturbances break out and continue unsuppressed, he is called to -account, as having by his misconduct contributed to them, and he in his -turn looks to his subordinates to maintain order and execute justice -within their jurisdiction. Of himself he has no power to remove or -punish subordinate officials, but has to refer all complaints against -them to Peking. The personal responsibility resting upon him of -maintaining order makes him a severe critic on those who serve under -him, and very frequently junior officials are impeached and punished at -the instigation of their chief. Incapable and unworthy officials, -constant opium smokers, those who misappropriate public money, and those -who fail to arrest criminals, are those who meet swift punishment. On -the whole the conduct of junior officials is carefully watched. - -[Illustration: PALANQUIN OF A HIGH OFFICIAL.] - -As has been already said, the affairs of each province are administered -by the viceroy, or governor, and his subordinates, and speaking -generally their rule is as enlightened and as just as could be expected -in an oriental country where public opinion finds only a very imperfect -utterance. Official purity and justice must be treated as comparative -terms in China. The constitution of the civil service renders it next to -impossible that any office holder can be clean-handed. The salaries -awarded are low, out of all proportion to the necessary expenses -pertaining to the offices to which they are apportioned, and the -consequence is that in some way or other the officials are compelled to -make up the deficiency from the pockets of those subject to them. As a -rule, mandarins seldom enter office with private fortunes, and the -wealth therefore, which soothes the declining years of veteran -officials, may be fairly assumed to be ill-gotten gain. There are laws -against these exactions, and very often some magistrate is degraded or -executed for levying illegal assessments. The immunity which some -mandarins enjoy from the just consequences of their crimes, and the -severity with which the law is vindicated in the cases of others for -much lighter offenses, has a sinister aspect. But in a system of which -bribery and corruption practically form a part, one need not expect to -find purity in any direction. And it is not too much to say that the -whole civil service is, judged by an American standard, corrupt to the -core. The people however are lightly taxed and they readily submit to -limited extortion so long as the rule of the mandarin is otherwise just -and beneficent. - -[Illustration: THE GOVERNOR OF A PROVINCE.] - -How rarely does a mandarin earn the respect and affection of the people -is obvious from the great parade which is made on the departure from -their posts of the very occasional officials who are fortunate enough to -have done so. Archdeacon Gray relates that during his residence of a -quarter of a century at Canton he only met one man who had entitled -himself to the regret of the people at his departure. When the time came -for this man to leave the city, the people rose in multitudes to do him -honor and begged for him to return if he could. A somewhat similar scene -occurred at Tien-tsin in 1861, on the departure of the most benevolent -prefect that the city had ever seen. The people accompanied him beyond -the gate on his road to Peking with every token of honor and finally -begged from him his boots, which they carried back in triumph and hung -up as a memento in the temple of the city god. Going to the opposite -extreme, it sometimes happens that the people, goaded into rebellion by -a sense of wrong, rise in arms against some particularly obnoxious -mandarin and drive him from the district. But the Chinese are -essentially unwarlike, and it must be some act of gross oppression to -stir their blood to fever heat. - -A potent means of protection against oppression is granted to the people -by the appointment of imperial censors throughout the empire, whose duty -it is to report to the throne all cases of misrule, injustice, or -neglect on the part of the mandarins which come to their knowledge. The -same tolerance which is shown by the people towards the shortcomings and -ill deeds of the officials, is displayed by these men in the discharge -of their duties. Only aggravated cases make them take their pens in -hand, but when they do, it must be confessed that they show little -mercy. Neither are they respectors of persons; their lash falls alike on -all from the emperor on his throne to the police-runners in magisterial -courts. Nor is their plain speaking more amazing than the candor with -which their memorials affecting the characters of great and small alike -are published in the Peking Gazette. The gravest charges, such as of -peculation, neglect of duty, injustice, or incompetence, are brought -against mandarins of all ranks and are openly published in the official -paper. - -[Illustration: PUNISHMENT BY THE GANGUE.] - -In the administration of justice the same lax morality as in other -branches of government exists, and bribery is largely resorted to by -litigants, more especially in civil cases. As a rule money in excess of -the legal fees has in the first instance to be paid to clerks and -secretaries before a case can be put down for hearing, and a decision of -the presiding mandarin is too often influenced by the sums of money -which find their way into his purse from the pockets of either suitor. -But the greatest blot on Chinese administration is the inhumanity shown -to both culprits and witnesses in criminal procedure. Tortures of the -most painful and revolting kind are used to extort evidence, and -punishments scarcely more severely cruel are inflicted on the guilty -parties. Flogging with bamboos, beating the jaws with thick pieces of -leather, or the ankles with a stick, are some of the preliminary -tortures applied to witnesses or culprits who refuse to give the -evidence expected of them. Further refinements of cruelty are reserved -for hardened offenders by means of which infinite pain and often -permanent injury are inflicted. - -[Illustration: FLOGGING A CULPRIT.] - -It follows as a natural consequence that in a country where torture is -thus resorted to the punishments inflicted on criminals must be -proportionately cruel. Death, the final punishment, can unfortunately be -inflicted in various ways, and a sliding scale of capital punishments is -used by the Chinese to mark their sense of the varying heinousness of -murderous crimes. For parricide, matricide and wholesale murders, the -usual sentence is that of Ling-che, or “ignominious and slow death.” In -the carrying out of this sentence the culprit is fastened to a cross, -and cuts varying in number, at the discretion of the judge, from eight -to one hundred and twenty are made first on the face and fleshy parts of -the body, next the heart is pierced, and finally when death has been -thus caused, the limbs are separated from the body and divided. During a -recent year ten cases in which this punishment was inflicted were -reported in the official Peking Gazette. In ordinary cases of capital -punishment execution by beheading is the common mode. This is a speedy -and merciful death, the skill gained by frequent experience enabling the -executioner in almost every case to perform his task with one blow. -Another death which is less horrible to Chinamen, who view any -mutilation of the body as an extreme disgrace, is by strangulation. The -privilege of so passing out of the world is accorded at times to -influential criminals, whose crimes are not of so heinous a nature as to -demand their decapitation; and occasionally they are even allowed to be -their own executioners. - -Asiatics are almost invariably careless about the sufferings of others, -and the men of China are no exception to the rule. It is almost -impossible to exaggerate the horrors of a Chinese prison. The filth and -dirt of the rooms, the brutality of the jailers, the miserable diet, and -the entire absence of the commonest sanitary arrangements make a picture -which is too horrible to draw in detail. - -Chinese law-givers have distinguished very markedly between crimes -accompanied and unaccompanied with violence. For offenses of the latter -description, punishments of a comparatively light nature are inflicted, -such as wearing a wooden collar, and piercing the ears with arrows, to -the ends of which are attached slips of paper on which are inscribed the -crime of which the culprit has been guilty. Frequently the criminals -bearing these signs of their disgrace are paraded up and down the street -where their offense was committed, and sometimes in more serious cases -they are flogged through the leading thoroughfares of the city, preceded -by a herald who announces the nature of their misdemeanors. But to give -a list of Chinese punishments will be to exhaust the ingenuity of man to -torture his fellow creatures. The subject is a horrible one and it is a -relief to turn from the dingy prison gates and the halls of so-called -justice. - -After this review of the impersonal, and the material, and the official -character of the Chinese empire as a nation, let us now turn to the more -personal consideration of the people themselves, their characteristics, -and their manner of life and thought. - -[Illustration: - - OUTSIDE PEKING. - From a Sketch. -] - - - - - THE CHINESE PEOPLE. - - -------------- - -Severity of the Judgment of Americans and Chinese Against One -Another—Each Sees the Worst Side of the Other—Characteristics of the -Chinese, Their Physique, Temperament, and Morals—Tests of -Intellectuality—Marriage Customs of the Chinese—The Engagement—The -Wedding Ceremony—The Position of Women—Concubinage—Divorce—Family -Relationships—Dress of Men and Women—Distorted Feet versus -Queues—Chinese Houses and Home Life—Children—Education and -Schools—National Festivities—Music and Art—Chinese Religions—Language -and Literature. - - -In treating of the personal characteristics and customs of the Chinese -people it is the desire of the writer to get away from the hackneyed -descriptions of pigtails, shaven heads, thick soled shoes, assumption of -dignity and superiority, and great ignorance concerning many subjects -with which we are familiar, which usually mark the pages of articles and -books concerning this race. The Chinaman is believed by many to be the -personification of stupidity, and many writers who wish to make readable -matter gladly seize upon and exaggerate anything which can be made to -appear grotesque and ridiculous. It would be but a poor answer to these -views to say that they correspond remarkably with those which the -Chinese entertain of us. They also enjoy a great deal of pleasantry at -our expense, finding it almost impossible to regard otherwise than as -ludicrous our short cropped hair, tight fitting, ungraceful, and -uncomfortable looking clothes, men’s thin soled leather shoes, tall -stiff hats, gloves in summer time, the wasp-like appearance of ladies -with their small waists, our remarkable ignorance of the general rules -of propriety, and the strange custom of a man and his wife walking -together in public! These views we can afford to laugh at as relating to -comparatively trivial matters, but they think they have the evidence -that we are also inferior to them in intellectuality, in refinement, in -civilization, and especially morals. It is evident that one party or the -other has made a serious mistake, and it would be but a natural and -reasonable presumption that both may have erred to some extent. We -should look at this matter from an impartial standpoint, and take into -view not simply facts which are comparatively unimportant and -exceptional, but those which are fundamental and of widespread -influence, and should construe these facts justly and generously. We -should take pains not to form the judgment that because a people or a -custom is different from our own it is therefore necessarily worse. - -There are many reasons why unfair judgments have been formed by us -against the Chinese and by the Chinese against Europeans and Americans. -Each nation is apt to see the worst side of the other. It so happens -that the Chinese who have come to America are almost all from the -southern provinces and from the lower classes of the worst part of the -empire. We have formed many of our impressions from our observation of -these low class adventurers. They on the other hand have not received -the treatment here which would cause them to carry back to China kindly -opinions of Americans. - -In China the same or similar conditions have existed. In the open ports, -where a large foreign commerce has sprung up, an immense number of -Chinese congregate from the interior. Many of them are adventurers who -come to these places to engage in the general scramble for wealth. The -Chinamen of the best class are, as a matter of fact, not the most -numerous in the open ports. Moreover foreign ideas and customs prevail -to a great extent in these foreign communities, and the natives, -whatever they might have been originally, gradually become more or less -denationalized, and present a modified type of their race. The Chinese -being every day brought into contact with drunken sailors and -unscrupulous traders from the west, new lessons are constantly learned -from them in the school of duplicity and immorality. The Chinese of this -class are no fitting type of the race. It is an accepted fact that the -great seaports of the world, where international trade holds sway, are -the worst centers of vice, and no estimate of a people formed from these -cities can be just. - -The Chinese as a race are of a phlegmatic and impassive temperament, and -physically less active and energetic than European and American nations. -Children are not fond of athletic and vigorous sports, but prefer -marbles, kite flying, and quiet games of ball or spinning tops. Men take -an easy stroll for recreation, but never a rapid walk for exercise and -are seldom in a hurry or excited. They are also characteristically timid -and docile. But while the Chinese are deficient in active courage and -daring, they are not in passive resistance. They are comparatively -apathetic as regards pain and death, and have great powers of physical -endurance as well as great persistency and obstinacy. Physical -development and strength and longevity vary in different parts of the -empire. In and about Canton, as well as in most parts of the south, from -which we have derived most of our impressions of China, the people are -small in stature; but in the province of Shan-tung in the north, men -varying in height from five feet eight inches to six feet are very -common, while some of them are considerably taller. In this part of -China too, one frequently finds laborers more than seventy years of age -working daily at their trades, and it is not unusual to hear of persons -who have reached the age of ninety or more. - -The intellectuality of the Chinese is made evident by so many obvious -and weighty facts, that it seems strange that persons of ordinary -intelligence and information should ever have questioned it. We have -before us a system of government and code of laws which will bear -favorable comparison with those of European nations, and have elicited a -generous tribute of admiration and praise from the most competent -students. The practical wisdom and foresight of those who constructed -this system are evidenced by the fact that it has stood the test of -time, enduring longer than any other which man has devised during the -world’s history; that it has bound together under one common rule, a -population to which the world affords no parallel, and given a degree of -prosperity and wealth which may well challenge our wonder. It is -intelligent thought which has given China such a prominence in the east -and also in the eyes of Christendom. She may well point with pride to -her authentic history reaching back through more than thirty centuries; -to her extensive literature, containing many works of sterling and -permanent value; to her thoroughly elaborated language possessed of a -remarkable power of expression; to her list of scholars, and her -proficiency in belles-lettres. If these do not constitute evidences of -intellectuality, it would be difficult to say where such evidences could -be found, or on what basis we ourselves will rest our claim of -intellectual superiority. - -China has been so arrogant and extravagant in her assumptions of -pre-eminence, that we have perhaps for this very reason been indisposed -to accord to her the position to which she is fairly entitled. It should -be remembered, that ignorant until recently of western nations, as they -have been of her, she has compared herself simply with the nations -around her, and a partial excuse for her overweening self conceit may be -found in the fact that she only regarded herself as the nations with -which she is acquainted have regarded her. She has been for ages the -great center of light and civilization in eastern Asia. She has given -literature and religion to Japan, to Corea, and to Manchooria, and has -been looked up to by these and other smaller nations as their -acknowledged teacher. The Japanese have produced no great teachers or -sages which they would presume to compare with those of China; and it is -clearest evidence of their acknowledgment of the literary superiority of -the Chinese that they use Chinese classics as text books in their -schools much as we do those of Greece and Rome. It is true that the -Chinese know hardly anything of the modern arts and sciences and that -there is no word in their language to designate some of them; but how -much did our ancestors know two hundred years ago of chemistry, geology, -philosophy, anatomy, and other kindred sciences. What did we know fifty -years ago of the steamboat, the railroad, and the telegraph? And is our -comparative want of knowledge a few years ago and that of our ancestors -to be taken as evidence of inferiority of race and intellect? -Furthermore, if we go back a few hundred years we are apt to find many -things to establish the claims of the Chinese as a superior rather than -inferior race. There are excellent grounds to credit the Chinese with -the invention or discovery of printing, the use of the magnetic needle, -the manufacture and use of gunpowder, of silk fabrics, and of chinaware -and porcelain, and there seems no doubt that the Chinese discovered -America from the westward, long before the discoveries of Europeans. - -Intellectual power manifests itself in a variety of ways, and glaring -defects are often found associated in the same individual with -remarkable powers and capabilities, as particular faculties both of mind -and body are often cultivated and developed at the expense of others. -Chinese education has very little regard to the improvement of the -reasoning powers, and Chinese scholars are deficient in logical acumen -and very inferior to the Hindoos in this respect; but in developing and -storing the memory they are without a rival. Again their system of -training effectually discourages and precludes freedom and originality -of thought, while it has the compensating advantages of creating a love -of method and order, habitual subjection to authority, and a remarkable -uniformity in character and ideas. Perhaps the results which they have -realized in fusing such a vast mass of beings into one homogeneous body, -could have been reached in no other way. - -The morality of the Chinese presents another subject about which there -is a wide difference of opinion. It may be a matter of interest and -profit to turn for a moment to the views which the Chinese generally -entertain of our morality, and their reasons for these views. They are -all familiar with the fact that foreigners introduced opium into China, -in opposition to the earnest and persistent remonstrances of the Chinese -government; that out of the opium trade grew the first war with China; -and that when the representatives of Christian England urged the Chinese -government to legalize the trade and make it a source of revenue, the -Chinese emperor replied that he would not use as a means of revenue that -which brought suffering and misery upon his people. - -The Chinese form their opinions of western morality to a great extent -from the sailors on shore-leave at the open ports, and these men are -proverbially vicious under such circumstances. For years foreigners of -this class have commanded many of the piratical fleets on the coasts of -China, and foreign thieves and robbers have infested many of the inland -canals and rivers. In business dealings with strangers from western -lands the natives find that duplicity and dishonesty are not confined to -their own people. Replying to our criticism of the system of -concubinage, the Chinese point to the numerous class of native women in -the foreign communities, fostered and patronized by foreigners alone, -who appear in the streets with an effrontery which would be regarded as -utterly indecent and intolerable in most Chinese cities. The large -importation from Europe of obscene pictures which are offered at every -hand, is another fact which the educated Chinese cites in answer to -criticisms of his people’s morality. - -On the general subject of morality and Chinese moral teaching, two -quotations from the writings of eminent Englishmen who lived in China -for many years are pertinent. Sir John Davis says: “The most commendable -feature of the Chinese system is the general diffusion of elementary -moral education among the lower orders. It is in the preference of moral -to physical instruction that even we might perhaps wisely take a leaf -out of the Chinese book, and do something to reform this most mechanical -age of ours.” The opinion of Thomas Taylor Meadows is thus expressed: -“No people whether of ancient or modern times has possessed a sacred -literature so completely exempt as the Chinese from licentious -descriptions and from every offensive expression. There is not a single -sentence in the whole of their sacred books and their annotations that -may not when translated word for word be read aloud in any family in -England.” - -It must be acknowledged that the Chinese give many evidences, not only -in their literature, but also in their paintings and sculpture, of a -scrupulous care to avoid all indecent and immoral associations and -suggestions. In referring to the above peculiarity of Chinese views and -customs, these remarks are not, of course, concerning the private lives -and practices of the people, but of their standard of propriety and of -what the public taste requires, in objects which are openly represented -to be seen and admired by the young and old of both sexes. - -The government of the empire is modeled on the government of a -household, and at the root of all family ties, says one of the Chinese -classics, is the relation of husband and wife, which is as the relation -of heaven and earth. Chinese historians record that the rite of marriage -was first instituted by the Emperor Fuh-he, who reigned in the -twenty-eighth century B.C. But before this period there is abundant -evidence to show that as amongst all other peoples the first form of -marriage was by capture. At the present day marriage is probably more -universal in China than in any other civilized country in the world, for -it is regarded as something indispensable and few men pass the age of -twenty without taking to themselves a wife. To die without leaving -behind a son to perform the burial rites and to offer up the fixed -periodical sacrifices at the tomb, is one of the most direful fates that -can overtake a Chinaman, and he seeks to avoid it by an early marriage. - -Like every other rite in China that of marriage is fenced in with a host -of ceremonies. In a vast majority of cases the bridegroom never sees his -bride until the wedding night, it being considered a grave breach of -etiquette for young men and maidens to associate together or even to see -one another. Of course it does occasionally happen that either by -stealth or chance a pair become acquainted; but whether they have thus -associated, or whether they are perfect strangers, the first formal -overture must of necessity be made by a professional go-between, who -having received a commission from the parents of a young man, proceeds -to the house of the young woman and makes a formal proposal on behalf of -the would-be bridegroom’s parents. If the young lady’s father approves -the proposed alliance, the suitor sends the lady some presents as an -earnest of his intentions. - -The parents next exchange documents which set forth the hour, day, -month, and year when the young people were born, and the maiden names of -their mothers. Astrologers are then called in to cast the horoscopes, -and should these be favorable the engagement is formally entered into, -but not so irrevocably that there are not several orthodox ways of -breaking it off. But should things go smoothly, the bridegroom’s father -writes a formal letter of agreement to the lady’s father, accompanied by -presents, consisting in some cases of sweetmeats and a live pig, and in -others of a goose and gander, which are regarded as emblems of conjugal -fidelity. Two large cards are also prepared by the bridegroom, and on -these are written the particulars of the engagement. One is sent to the -lady and the other he keeps. She in return now makes a present to the -suitor according to his rank and fortune. Recourse is then again had to -astrologers to fix a fortunate day for the final ceremony, on the -evening of which the bridegroom’s best man proceeds to the house of the -lady and conducts her to her future home in a red sedan chair, -accompanied by musicians who enliven the procession by wedding airs. At -the door of the house the bride alights from her sedan, and is lifted -over a pan of burning charcoal laid on the threshold by two “women of -luck,” whose husbands and children must be living. - -In the reception room the bridegroom awaits his bride on a raised dais, -at the foot of which she humbly prostrates herself. He then descends to -her level, and removing her veil gazes on her face for the first time. -Without exchanging a word they seat themselves side by side, and each -tries to sit on a part of the dress of the other, it being considered -that the one who succeeds in so doing will hold rule in the household. -This trial of skill over, the pair proceed to the hall, and there before -the family altar worship heaven and earth and their ancestors. They then -go to dinner in their apartment, through the open door of which the -guests scrutinize and make their remarks on the appearance and demeanor -of the bride. This ordeal is the more trying to her, since etiquette -forbids her to eat anything, a prohibition which is not shared by the -bridegroom, who enjoys the dainties provided as his appetite may -suggest. The attendants next hand to each in turn a cup of wine, and -having exchanged pledges, the wedding ceremonies come to an end. In some -parts of the country it is customary for the bride to sit up late into -the night answering riddles which are propounded to her by the guests; -in other parts it is usual for her to show herself for a time in the -hall, whither her husband does not accompany her, as it is contrary to -etiquette for a husband and wife ever to appear together in public. For -the same reason she goes to pay the customary visit to her parents on -the third day after the wedding alone, and for the rest of her wedded -life she enjoys the society of her husband only in the privacy of her -apartments. - -[Illustration: DISCIPLINE ON THE MARCH, IN THE CHINESE ARMY.] - -The lives of women in China, and especially of married women, are such -as to justify the wish often expressed by them that in their next state -of existence they may be born men. Even if in their baby days they -escape the infanticidal tendencies of their parents, they are regarded -as secondary considerations compared with their brothers. The -philosophers from Confucius downward have all agreed in assigning them -an inferior place to men. When the time comes for them to marry, custom -requires them in nine cases out of ten, as we have seen, to take a leap -in the dark, and that wife is fortunate who finds in her husband a -congenial and faithful companion. - -There is but one proper wife in the family, but there is no law against -a man’s having secondary wives or concubines; and such connections are -common enough wherever the means of a family are sufficient for their -support. The concubine occupies in the family an inferior position to -the wife, and her children, if she has any, belong by law to the wife. - -There are seven legal grounds for divorcing a wife: disobedience to her -husband’s parents; not giving birth to a son; Dissolute conduct; -jealousy; talkativeness; thieving, and leprosy. These grounds however -may be nullified by “the three considerations:” If her parents be dead; -if she has passed with her husband through the years of mourning for his -parents; and if he has become rich from being poor. - -So many are the disabilities of married women, that many girls prefer -going into nunneries or even committing suicide to trusting their future -to men of whom they can know nothing but from the interested reports of -the go-between. - -The re-marriage of widows is regarded as an impropriety, and in wealthy -families is seldom practiced. But among the poorer classes necessity -often compels a widow to seek another bread winner. Some, however, -having been unfortunate in their first matrimonial venture, refuse to -listen to any proposal for a re-marriage, and like the young girls -mentioned above seek escape by death from the importunities of relatives -who desire to get them off their hands. A reverse view of matrimonial -experiences is suggested by the practice of wives refusing to survive -their husbands, and putting a voluntary end to their existence rather -than live to mourn their loss. Such devotion is regarded by the people -with great approbation and a deed of suicide is generally performed in -public and with great punctiliousness. - -The picture here given of married life in China has been necessarily -darkly shaded, since it is, as a rule, only in its unfortunate phases, -that it affords opportunity for remark. Without doubt there are many -hundreds of thousands of families in China which are entirely happy. -Happiness is after all a relative term, and Chinese women, knowing no -higher status, are as a rule content to run the risk of wrongs which -would be unendurable to an American woman, and to find happiness under -conditions which are fortunately unknown in western countries. - -The family tie in China is strong and the people are clannish. They -seldom change their place of residence and most of them live where their -ancestors have lived for many generations. One will frequently find the -larger portion of a small village bearing the same name, in which case -the village often takes its name from the family. Books on filial piety -and the domestic relations recommend sons not to leave their parents -when married, but to live together lovingly and harmoniously as one -family. This theory is carried out in practice to some extent, in most -instances. In the division of property some regard is had to -primogeniture, but different sons share nearly equally. The eldest -simply has a somewhat larger portion and certain household relics and -valuables. - -The position of woman is intermediate between that which she occupies in -Christian and in other non-Christian countries. The manner in which they -regard their lot may be inferred from the fact related on a previous -page, that the most earnest desire and prayer in worshipping in Buddhist -temples is, generally, that they may be men in the next state of -existence. In many families girls have no individual names, but are -simply called No. One, Two, Three, Four, etc. When married they are Mr. -So-and-so’s wife, and when they have sons they are such-and-such a boy’s -mother. They live in a great measure secluded, take no part in general -society, and are expected to retire when a stranger or an acquaintance -of the opposite sex enters the house. The claim of one’s parents and -brothers upon his affections is considered to be paramount to that of -his wife. A reason given for this doctrine in a celebrated Chinese work -is that the loss of a brother is irreparable but that of a wife is not. -Women are treated with more respect and consideration as they advance in -years; mothers are regarded with great affection and tenderness, and -grandmothers are sometimes almost worshipped. It must be further said -that the Chinese have found the theory of inferiority of women a very -difficult one to carry out in practice. There are many families in which -the superiority of her will and authority is sufficiently manifest, even -though not cheerfully acknowledged. - -The rules and conventionalities which regulate social life are -exceedingly minute and formal. Politeness is a science, and gracefulness -of manners a study and discipline. The people are hospitable and -generous to a fault, their desire to appear well in these respects often -leading them to expenditures entirely disproportionate to their means. - -When under the influence of passion, quarrels arise, the women resort to -abuse in violent language, extreme in proportion to the length of time -during which the feelings which prompted them have been restrained. Men -bluster and threaten in a manner quite frightful to those unaccustomed -to it, but seldom come to blows. In cases of deep resentment the injured -party often adopts a mode of revenge which is very characteristic. -Instead of killing the object of his hate, he kills himself on the -doorstep of his enemy, thereby casting obloquy and the stigma of murder -on the adversary. - -In matters of dress, with one or two exceptions, the Chinese must be -acknowledged to have used a wise discretion. They wear nothing that is -tight fitting, and make a greater difference between their summer and -winter clothing than is customary among ourselves. The usual dress of a -coolie in summer is a loose fitting pair of cotton trousers and an -equally loose jacket; but the same man in winter will be seen wearing -quilted cotton clothes, or if he should be an inhabitant of the northern -provinces a sheepskin robe, superadded to an abundance of warm clothing -intermediate between it and his shirt. By the wealthier classes silk, -satin, and gauze are much worn in the summer, and woolen or handsome fur -clothes in the winter. Among such people it is customary except in the -seclusion of their homes, to wear both in summer and winter long tunics -coming down to the ankles. - -In summer non-official Chinamen leave their heads uncovered, but do not -seem to suffer any inconvenience from the great heat. On the approach of -summer an edict is issued fixing the day upon which the summer costume -is to be adopted throughout the empire, and again as winter draws near, -the time for putting on winter dress is announced in the same formal -manner. Fine straw or bamboo forms the material of the summer hat, the -outside of which is covered with fine silk. At this season also the -thick silk robes and the heavy padded jackets worn in winter are -exchanged for light silk or satin tunics. The winter cap has a turned-up -brim and is covered with satin with a black cloth lining, and as in the -case of the summer cap a tassel of red silk covers the entire crown. - -The wives of mandarins wear the same embroidered insignia on their -dresses as their husbands, and their style of dress as well as that of -Chinese women generally bears a resemblance to that of the men. They -wear a loose fitting tunic which reaches below the knee, and trousers -which are drawn in at the ankle after the bloomer fashion. On state -occasions they wear a richly embroidered petticoat coming down to the -feet, which hangs square both before and behind and is pleated at the -sides like a Highlander’s kilt. The mode of doing the hair varies in -almost every province. At Canton the women plaster their back hair into -the shape of a teapot handle, and adorn the sides with pins and -ornaments, while the young girls proclaim their unmarried state by -sutting their hair in fringe across their foreheads after a fashion not -unknown among ourselves. In most parts of the country, flowers, natural -when obtainable and artificial when not so, are largely used to deck out -the head dresses, and considerable taste is shown in the choice of -colors and the manner in which they are arranged. - -[Illustration: A TYPHOON.] - -Thus far there is nothing to find fault with in female fashions in -China, but the same cannot be said of the way in which they treat their -faces and feet. In many countries the secret art of removing traces of -the ravages of time with the appliances of the toilet table has been and -is practised; but by an extravagant and hideous use of pigments and -cosmetics, the Chinese girl not only conceals the fresh complexion of -youth, but produces those very disfigurements which furnish the only -possible excuse for artificial complexions. Their poets also have -declared that a woman’s eyebrows should be arched like a rainbow or -shaped like a willow leaf, and the consequence is that wishing to act up -to the idea thus pictured, China women with the aid of tweezers remove -all the hairs of their eyebrows which straggle the least out of the -required line, and when the task becomes impossible even with the help -of these instruments, the paint brush or a stick of charcoal is brought -into requisition. A comparison of one such painted lily with the natural -healthy complexion, bright eyes, laughing lips, and dimpled cheeks of a -Canton boat girl, for example, is enough to vindicate nature’s claim to -superiority over art a thousand fold. - -[Illustration: BANDAGING THE FEET.] - -But the chief offense of Chinese women is in their treatment of their -feet. Various explanations are current as to the origin of the custom of -deforming the women’s feet. Some say that it is an attempt to imitate -the peculiarly shaped foot of a certain beautiful empress; others that -it is a device intended to restrain the gadding-about tendencies of -women; but however that may be, the practice is universal except among -the Manchoos and the Hakka population at Canton, who have natural feet. -The feet are first bound when the child is about five years old and the -muscles of locomotion have consequently had time to develop. A cotton -bandage two or three inches wide is wound tightly about the foot in -different directions. The four smaller toes are bent under the foot, and -the instep is forced upward and backward. The foot therefore assumes the -shape of an acute triangle, the big toe forming the acute angle and the -other toes, being bent under the foot, becoming almost lost or absorbed. -At the same time, the shoes worn having high heels, the foot becomes -nothing but a club and loses all elasticity. The consequence is that the -women walk as on pegs, and the calf of the leg having no exercise -shrivels up. Though the effect of this custom is to produce real -deformity and a miserable tottering gait, even foreigners naturally come -to associate it with gentility and good breeding, and to estimate the -character and position of women much as the Chinese do, by the size of -their feet. The degree of severity with which the feet are bound differs -widely in the various ranks of society. Country women and the poorer -classes have feet about half the natural size, while those of the -genteel or fashionable class are only about three inches long. - -Women in the humbler walks of life are therefore often able to move -about with ease. Most ladies on the other hand are practically debarred -from walking at all and are dependent on their sedan chairs for all -locomotion beyond they own doors. But even in this case habit becomes a -second nature and fashion triumphs over sense. No mother, however keen -may be her recollection of her sufferings as a child, or however -conscious she may be of the inconveniences and ills arising from her -deformed feet, would ever dream of saving her own child from like -immediate torture and permanent evil. Further there is probably less -excuse for such a practice in China than in any other country, for the -hands and feet of both men and women are naturally both small and finely -shaped. The Chinese insist upon it that the custom of compressing -women’s feet is neither in as bad taste nor so injurious to the health -as that of foreign women in compressing the waist. - -The male analogue of the women’s compressed feet in the shaven forepart -of the head and the braided queue. The custom of thus treating the hair -was imposed on the people by the first emperor of the present dynasty, -in 1644. Up to that time the Chinese had allowed the hair to grow long, -and were in the habit of drawing it up into a tuft on the top of the -head. The introduction of the queue at the bidding of the Manchoorian -conqueror was intended as a badge of conquest, and as such was at first -unwillingly adopted by the people. For nearly a century the natives of -outlying parts of the empire refused to submit their heads to the razor -and in many districts the authorities rewarded converts to the new way -by presents of money. As the custom spread these bribes were -discontinued, and the converse action of treating those who refused to -conform with severity, completed the conversion of the empire. At the -present day every Chinaman who is not in open rebellion to the throne, -shaves his head with the exception of the crown where the hair is -allowed to grow to its full length. This hair is carefully braided, and -falls down the back forming what is commonly known as the “pig tail.” -Great pride is taken, especially in the south, in having as long and as -thick a queue as possible, and when nature has been niggardly in her -supply of natural growth, the deficiency is supplemented by the -insertion of silk in the plait. - -The staff of life in China is rice. It is eaten and always eaten, from -north to south and from east to west, on the tables of the rich and -poor, morning, noon, and night, except among the very poor people in -some of the northern non-rice producing provinces where millet takes its -place. In all other parts the big bowl of boiled rice forms the staple -of the meal eaten by the people, and it is accompanied by vegetables, -fish and meat, according to the circumstances of the household. Among -many people, however, there is a disinclination to eat meat, owing to -the influence of Buddhism. The difference in the quality and expense of -the food of the rich from that of the poor, consists principally in the -concomitants eaten with the rice or millet. The poor have simply a dish -of salt vegetables or fish, which costs comparatively little. The rich -have pork, fowls, eggs, fish and game prepared in various ways. - -Before each chair is placed an empty bowl and two chop-sticks, while in -the middle of the table stands the dishes of food. Each person fills his -basin from the large dishes, or is supplied by the servants, and holding -it up to his chin with his left hand he transfers its contents into his -mouth with his chop-sticks with the utmost ease. The chop-sticks are -held between the first and second, and the second and third fingers, and -constant practice enables a Chinaman to lift up and hold the minutest -atoms of food, oily and slippery as they often are, with the greatest -ease. To most foreigners their skillful use is well nigh impossible. To -the view of the Chinese the use of chop-sticks is an evidence of -superior culture; and the use of such barbarous instruments as knives -and forks, and cutting or tearing the meat from the bones on the table -instead of having the food properly prepared and severed into edible -morsels in the kitchen, evidences a lower type of civilization. - -The meats most commonly eaten are pork, mutton, and goat’s flesh, beside -ducks, chickens, and pheasants, and in the north deer and hares. Beef is -never exposed for sale in the Chinese markets. The meat of the few -cattle which are killed is disposed of almost clandestinely. There is a -strong and almost universal prejudice against eating beef, and the -practice of doing so is declaimed against in some of the moral tracts. -Milk is hardly used at all in the eighteen provinces, and in many places -our practice of drinking it is regarded with the utmost disgust. - -It must be confessed that in some parts of the country less savory -viands find their place on the dinner table. In Canton, for example, -dried rats have a recognized place in the poulterers’ shops and find a -ready market. Horse flesh is also exposed for sale, and there are even -to be found dog and cat restaurants. The flesh of black dogs and cats, -and especially the former is preferred as being more nutritive. Frogs -form a common dish among the poor people and are, it is needless to say, -very good eating. In some parts of the country locusts and grasshoppers -are eaten. At Tien-tsin men may commonly be seen standing at the corners -of the streets frying locusts over portable fires, just as among -ourselves chestnuts are cooked. Ground-grubs, silkworms and water-snakes -are also occasionally treated as food. The sea, lakes, and rivers abound -in fish, and as fish forms a staple food of the people the fisherman’s -art has been brought to a great degree of perfection. The same care as -in the production of fish is extended to that of ducks and poultry. Eggs -are artificially hatched in immense numbers, and the poultry markets and -boats along the river at Canton are most amazing in their extent. - -[Illustration: THE SEAT OF THE WAR.] - -The funerals of grown persons, and especially of parents, are as -remarkable for burdensome ceremonies, extravagant manifestations of -grief and lavish expense, as those of children are for their coldness -and neglect. Candles, incense and offerings of food are placed before -the corpse, and a company of priests is engaged to chant prayers for the -departed spirit. An abundance of clothing is deposited with the body in -the coffin and various ceremonies are performed during several days -immediately after that, and on every subsequent seventh day, closing -with the seventh seven. When the coffin is carried out for burial, men -and women follow in the procession clothed in coarse white garments, -white being used for mourning. - -Inasmuch as the coffin must remain in the hall for forty-nine days, -naturally they are prepared with a great deal of care. Very thick planks -are used in its construction, cut from the hardest trees, caulked on the -outside and cemented on the inside, and finally varnished or lacquered. -Sometimes a coffin containing a body is kept in the house for a -considerable length of time after the forty-nine days have expired, -while arrangements are being made for a burying place and other -preliminaries are attended to. The lids being nailed down in cement they -are perfectly air-tight. - -The notions which Chinamen entertain concerning the future life rob -death of half its terrors and lead them to regard their funeral -ceremonies and the due performance of the proper rites by their -descendants as the chief factors of their future well being. Among other -things the importance of securing a coffin according to the approved -fashion is duly recognized, and as men approach old age they not -infrequently buy their own coffins, which they keep carefully by them. -The present of a coffin is considered a dutiful attention from a son to -an aged father. - -The choice of a site for the grave is determined by a professor of the -“Fung Shuy” superstition, who, compass in hand, explores the entire -district to find a spot which combines all the qualities necessary for -the quiet repose of the dead. When such a favored spot has been -discovered a priest is called in to determine a lucky day for the -burial. This is by no means an easy matter and it often happens that the -dead remain unburied for months or even years on account of the -difficulties in the way of choosing either fortunate graves or lucky -days. The ceremonies of the interment itself and of mourning that -follows are most elaborate in character, and too much involved for -detailed description here. - -[Illustration: THE PUNISHMENTS OF HELL.—_From Chinese Drawings._] - -But universal as the practice of burying may be said to be in China -there are exceptions to it. The Buddhist priests as a rule prefer -cremation, and this custom, which came with the religion they profess -from India, has at times found imitators among the laity. In Formosa the -dead are exposed and dried in the air; and some of the Meaou-tsze tribes -of central and southern China bury their dead, it is true, but after an -interval of a year or more, having chosen a lucky day, they disinter -them. On such occasions they go accompanied by their friends to the -grave, and having opened the tomb they take out the bones and having -brushed and washed them clean they put them back wrapped in cloth. - -The necessity in the Chinese mind that their bones must rest in the soil -of their native land with their ancestors, has made to exist some -peculiar practices among the colonizing Chinese in the United States and -other countries. The bones of those who die thus far away from home are -carefully preserved by their countrymen and shipped back, sometimes -after many years, to find a resting place in the Middle Kingdom. - -It is a curious circumstance that in China where there exists such a -profound veneration for everything old, there should not be found any -ancient buildings or old ruins. That there is an abundant supply of -durable materials for building is certain, and for many centuries the -Chinese have been acquainted with the art of brick making, yet they have -reared no building possessing enduring stability. Not only does the -ephemeral nature of the tent, which would indicate their original -nomadic origin and recollection of old tent homes, appear in the slender -construction of Chinese houses, but even in shape they assume a -tent-like form. Etiquette provides that in houses of the better class a -high wall shall surround the building, and that no window shall look -outward. Consequently streets in the fashionable parts of cities have a -dreary aspect. The only breaks in the long line of dismal wall are the -front doors, which are generally closed, or if not, movable screens bar -the sight of all beyond the door. Passing around one such screen one -finds himself in a court-yard which is laid out as a garden or paved -with stone. From this court-yard one reaches, on either side, rooms -occupied by servants, or directly in front, another building. Through -this latter another court-yard is reached, in the rooms surrounding -which the family live, and behind this again are the women’s apartments, -which not infrequently give exit to a garden at the back. - -Wooden pillars support the roofs of the buildings, and the intervals -between these are filled up with brick work. The window-frames are -wooden, over which is pasted either paper or calico, or sometimes pieces -of talc to transmit the light. The doors are almost invariably folding -doors; the floors either stone or cement; and ceilings are not often -used, the roof being the only covering to the rooms. Carpets are seldom -used, more especially in southern China, where also stoves for warming -purposes are known. In the north, where in the winter the cold is very -great, portable charcoal stoves are employed and small chafing dishes -are carried about from room to room. Delicate little hand-stoves, which -gentlemen and ladies carry in their sleeves, are very much in vogue. In -the colder latitudes a raised platform or dais is built in the room, of -brick and stone, under which a fire is kindled with a chimney to carry -off the smoke. The whole substance of this dais becomes heated and -retains its warmth for several hours. This is the almost universal bed -of the north of China. But the main dependence of the Chinese for -personal warmth is on clothes. As the winter approaches garment is added -to garment and furs to quilted vestments, until the wearer assumes an -unwieldy and exaggerated shape. Well-to-do Chinamen seldom take strong -exercise, and they are therefore able to bear clothes which to a -European would be unendurable. - -Of the personal comfort obtainable in a house, Chinamen are strangely -ignorant. Their furniture is of the hardest and most uncompromising -nature. Chairs made of a hard black wood, angular in shape, and equally -unyielding divans, are the only seats known to them. Their beds are -scarcely more comfortable, and their pillows are oblong cubes of bamboo -or other hard material. For the maintenance of the existing fashions of -female head dressing, this kind of pillow is essential to women at -least, as their hair, which is only dressed at intervals of days, and -which is kept in its shape by the abundant use of bandoline, would be -crushed and disfigured if lain upon for a moment. Women, therefore, who -make any pretension of following the fashion, are obliged to sleep at -night on their backs, resting the nape of the neck on the pillow and -thus keeping the head and hair free from contact with anything. - -The ornaments in the houses of the well-to-do are frequently elaborate -and beautiful. Their wood carvings, cabinets, and ornamental pieces of -furniture, and the rare beauty of their bronzes and porcelain, are of -late years well known and much sought for in our own country. Tables are -nearly uniform in size, furnishing a seat for one person on each of the -four sides, and tables are multiplied sufficiently to accommodate -whatever number requires to be served. When guests are entertained, the -two sexes eat separately in different rooms, but in ordinary meals the -members of the family of both sexes sit down together with much less -formality. - -The streets in the towns differ widely in construction in the northern -and southern portions of the empire. In the south they are narrow and -paved, in the north they are wide and unpaved, both constructions being -suited to the local wants of the people. The absence of wheel traffic in -the southern provinces makes wide streets unnecessary, while by -contracting their width the sun’s rays have less chance of beating down -on the heads of passers and it is possible to stretch awnings from roof -to roof. It is true that this is done at the expense of fresh air, but -even to do this is a gain. Shops are all open in front, the counters -forming the only barrier. The streets are crowded in the extreme, and -passage is necessarily slow. - -This inconvenience is avoided in the wide streets of the cities of the -north, but these streets are so ill kept that in wet weather they are -mud and in dry they are covered inches deep in dust. Of the large cities -of the north and south Peking and Canton may be taken as typical -examples and certainly, with the exception of the palace, the walls, and -certain imperial temples, the streets of Peking compare very unfavorably -with those of Canton. The walls surrounding Peking are probably the -finest and best kept in the empire. In height they are about forty feet -and the same in width. The top, which is defended by massive -battlements, is well paved and is kept in excellent order. Over each -gate is built a fortified tower between eighty and ninety feet high. - -[Illustration: CHINESE CART.] - -The power of a Chinese father over his children is complete except that -it stops short with life. The practice of selling children is common, -and though the law makes it a punishable offense, should the sale be -effected against the will of the children, the prohibition is -practically ignored. In the same way a law exists making infanticide a -crime, but as a matter of fact it is never acted upon; and in some parts -of the country, more especially in the provinces of Chiang-hsi and -Fu-chien, this most unnatural offense prevails among the poorer classes -to an alarming extent. Not only do the people acknowledge the existence -of the practice, but they even go the length of defending it. It is only -however abject poverty which drives parents to this dreadful expedient, -and in the more prosperous and wealthy districts the crime is almost -unknown. Periodically the mandarins inveigh against the inhumanity of -the offense and appeal to the better instincts of the people to put a -stop to it; but a stone which stands near a pool outside the city of -Foochow bearing the inscription, “Girls may not be drowned here,” -testifies with terrible emphasis to the futility of their endeavors. - -[Illustration: SCHOOL BOY.] - -The large number of cast-a-way bodies of dead infants seen in many parts -of China is often regarded, though unjustly, as evidence of the -prevalence of this crime. In most instances, however, it really -indicates only the denial of burial to infants. This is due, at least in -many places, to the following superstition: When they die it is supposed -that their bodies have been inhabited by the spirit of a deceased -creditor of a previous state of existence. The child during its sickness -may be cared for with the greatest tenderness, but if it dies parental -love is turned to hate and resentment. It is regarded as an enemy and -intruder in the family who has been exacting satisfaction for the old -unpaid debt; and having occasioned a great deal of anxiety, trouble, and -expense, has left nothing to show for it but disappointment. The uncared -for and uncoffined little body is cast away anywhere; and as it is -carried out of the door the house is swept, crackers are fired, and -gongs beaten to frighten the spirit so that it may never dare enter the -house again. Thus do superstitions dry up the fountains of natural -affection. - -The complete subjection of children to their parents is so firmly imbued -in the minds of every Chinese youth, that resistance to the infliction -of cruel and even unmerited punishment is seldom if ever offered, and -full-grown men submit meekly to be flogged without raising their hands. -The law steps in on every occasion in support of parental authority. -Filial piety is the leading principle in Chinese ethics. - -[Illustration: CHINESE SCHOOL.] - -School life begins at the age of six, and among the wealthier classes -great care is shown in the choice of master. The stars having indicated -a propitious day for beginning work, the boy presents himself at school, -bringing with him two small candles, some sticks of incense, and some -paper money, which are burnt at the shrine of Confucius, before which -also the little fellow prostrates himself three times. There being no -alphabet in Chinese the pupil has to plunge at once into the middle of -things and begins by learning to read. Having mastered two elementary -books, the next step is to the “Four Books.” Then follow the “Five -Classics,” the final desire of Chinese learning. A full comprehension of -these Four Books and Five Classics, together with the commentaries upon -them, and the power of turning this knowledge to account in the shape of -essays and poems, is all that is required at the highest examination in -the empire. This course of instruction has been exactly followed out in -every school in the empire for many centuries. - -[Illustration: CHINESE ENGINEERS LAYING A MILITARY TELEGRAPH.] - -The choice of a future calling, which is often so perplexing in our own -country, is simplified in China by the fact of there being but two -pursuits which a man of respectability and education can follow, namely -the mandarinate and trades. The liberal professions as we understand -them are unknown in China. The judicial system forbids the existence of -the legal profession except in the case of official secretaries attached -to the mandarins’ courts; and medicine is represented by charlatans who -prey on the follies of their fellowmen and dispense ground tiger’s -teeth, snake’s skins, etc., in lieu of drugs. A lad, or his parents for -him, has therefore practically to consider whether he should attempt to -compete at the general competitive examinations to qualify him for -office, or whether he should embark in one of the numerous mercantile -concerns which abound among the moneymaking and thrifty Chinese. - -[Illustration: SCHOOL GIRL.] - -The succession of examinations leading up to the various honorary -degrees and official positions, are complicated and exacting. The -successful candidates have great honor attached to them, and are the -prominent and successful people of the empire. These examinations are -open to every man in the empire of whatever grade, unless he belong to -one of the following four classes, or be the descendant of one such -within three generations; actors, prostitutes, jailers, and executioners -and servants of mandarins. The theory with regard to these people is -that actors and prostitutes being devoid of all shame, and executioners -and jailers having become hardened by the cruel nature of their offices, -are unfit in their own persons or as represented by their sons to win -posts of honor by means of the examinations. - -The military examinations are held separately, and though the literary -calibre of the candidates is treated much in the same way as at the -civil examinations, the same high standard of knowledge is not required; -but in addition skill in archery and in the use of warlike weapons is -essential. It is illustrative of the backwardness of the Chinese in -warlike methods, that though they have been acquainted with the use of -gunpowder for some centuries, they revert in the examination of military -candidates to the weapons of the ancients, and that while theoretically -they are great strategists, strength and skill in the use of these -weapons are the only tests required for commissions. - -[Illustration: CHINESE ARTIST.] - -Persons of almost every class and in almost every station of life make -an effort to send their boys to school, with the hope that they may -distinguish themselves, be advanced to high positions in the state, and -reflect honor upon their families. Of those who compete for literary -honors a very small proportion are successful in attaining even the -first degree, though some strive for it for a lifetime. These -unsuccessful candidates and the graduates of the first and second -degrees, form the important class of literary men scattered throughout -the empire. The large proportion of this class are comparatively poor, -and their services may be obtained for a very small remuneration. They -are employed to teach the village schools. Rich families in different -neighborhoods often assist in keeping up the school for the credit of -the village, and opportunities for obtaining an education are thus -brought within the reach of all. Graduates of the first and second -degrees, generally have the charge of more advanced pupils, and many are -engaged as tutors in private families, commanding higher wages. They are -also employed as scribes or copyists, and to write letters, family -histories, genealogies, etc. In the larger cities schools are -established by the government, and in many places free schools are -supported by wealthy men, but these institutions do not seem to be -popular and are not flourishing. - -[Illustration: CHINESE BARBER.] - -Though trade practically holds its place as next in estimation to the -mandarinate, in theory it should follow both the careers of husbandry -and of the mechanical arts. All land is held in free-hold from the -government, and principally by clans or families, who pay an annual tax -to the crown, amounting to about one-tenth of the produce. As long as -this tax is paid regularly the owners are never dispossessed, and -properties thus remain in the hands of clans and families for many -generations. In order that farming operations shall be properly -conducted, there are established in almost every district agricultural -boards, consisting of old men learned in husbandry. By these veterans a -careful watch is kept over the work done by the neighboring farmers, and -in the case of any dereliction of duty or neglect of the prescribed -modes of farming, the offender is summoned before the district -magistrate, who inflicts the punishment which he considers proportionate -to the offense. The appliances of the Chinese for irrigating the fields -and winnowing the grain are excellent, but those for getting the largest -crops out of the land are of a rude and primitive kind. - -Among their artisans the Chinese number carpenters, masons, tailors, -shoemakers, workers in iron and brass, and silversmiths and goldsmiths, -who can imitate almost any article of foreign manufacture; also workmen -in bamboo, carvers, idol makers, needle manufacturers, barbers, -hair-dressers, etc. Business men sell almost every kind of goods and -commodities wholesale and retail. Large fortunes are amassed very much -in the same way and by the same means as are now in our own country. The -wealth of the rich is invested in lands or houses, or employed as -capital in trade or banking, or is lent out on good security, and often -at a high rate of interest. - -[Illustration: FEMALE TYPES AND COSTUMES.] - -Traveling in China is slow and leisurely, and the modes of it vary -greatly in different parts of the empire. In many of the provinces, -especially along the coast and in the south, canals take the place, for -the most part, of roads. In the vicinity of Ningpo the country is -supplied with a complete network of them, often intersecting each other -at distances of one or two miles or less. Farmers frequently have short -branch canals running off to their houses, and the farm boat takes the -place of the farm wagon. Heavy loaded passage or freight boats ply in -every direction. The ordinary charge for passage is less than one-half a -cent per mile. The boats are admirably adapted to the people and -circumstances, being built for comfort, rather than for speed. These -water courses then, with the rivers which are so numerous, furnish the -most general way of traveling throughout the empire. - -In the north, where the country is level and open, the existence of -broad roads enables the people to use rude carts for the conveyance of -passengers and freight. Mules are used for riding purposes, and -palanquins borne by two horses, or sedan chairs carried by two coolies, -are popular ways of traveling. The sea-going junks are very much larger -than the river craft, and different in construction. The best ones are -divided into water tight compartments and are capable of carrying -several thousand tons of cargo. They are generally three-masted and -carry huge sails made of matting. - -[Illustration: PORTER'S CHAIR.] - -Although the Chinese have the compass, they are without the knowledge -necessary for taking nautical observations, so they either hug the land -or steer straight by their compass until they reach some coast with -which they are familiar. In these circumstances it is easy to understand -why the loss of junks and lives on the Chinese coast every year is so -great. The immense number of people who live in boats on the rivers in -southern China, render the terrible typhoons which sweep the sea and -land especially destructive. For the most part these boat-people are not -of Chinese origin but are remnants of the aborigines of the country. -That the race has ever survived is a constant wonder, seeing the hourly -and almost momentary danger of drowning in which the children live on -board their boats. The only precaution that is ever taken, even in the -case of infants, is to tie an empty gourd between their shoulders, so -that should they fall into the water they may be kept afloat until help -comes. They are born in their boats, they marry in their boats, and die -in their boats. - -The Chinese calendar and the festivities that accompany different -seasons and anniversaries, are peculiarly interesting and different from -our own, but space forbids any detailed account of them. The four -seasons correspond to ours, and in addition to the four seasons the year -is divided into eight parts called “joints,” or divisions, and these are -again subdivided into sixteen more called “breaths,” or sources of life. -There are forty festivals of China which are celebrated with observances -generally throughout the empire and are considered to be important. They -do not occur at regular intervals, and there is no periodical day of -rest and recreation corresponding at all to our Sunday. The festivities -of the new year exceed all others in their prominence and continuance, -and in the universality and enthusiasm with which they are observed. -“The Feast of Lanterns” and “The Festival of the Tombs” are two of the -most interesting of Chinese festivals. The ninth day of the ninth month -is a great time for flying kites. On that day thousands of men enjoy the -sport and immense kites of all grotesque shapes fill the air. Theaters -are very common in China, but the character and associations of the -stage are very different from those of western lands and are very much -less respected. Actors are regarded as an inferior class. Females do not -appear upon the stage, but men act the part of female characters. -Gambling is very common in China and is practiced in a variety of ways. -Its ill effects are acknowledged, and there are laws prohibiting it, but -they are a dead letter. There are many kinds of stringed and reed -instruments used by the musicians of China. Bells, also, are very -numerous, and excellent sweet toned bells are made. A careful watch is -kept over the efforts of composers by the imperial board of music, whose -duty it is to keep alive the music of the ancients and to suppress all -compositions which are not in harmony with it. It is difficult for -western ears to find anything truly beautiful in Chinese music. - -The medical art of China is not of a sort to win much admiration from -us. The Chinese know nothing of physiology or anatomy. The functions of -the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, and brain are sealed books to them and -they recognize no distinction between veins and arteries and between -nerves and tendons. Their deeply rooted repugnance to the use of a knife -in surgery or to post-mortem examinations prevents the possibility of -their acquiring any accurate knowledge of the position of the various -organs. They consider that from the heart and pit of the stomach all -ideas and delights proceed, and that the gall bladder is the seat of -courage. Man’s body is believed to be composed of the five elements, -fire, water, metal, wood, earth. The medical profession in China is an -open one, for there are no medical colleges and no examination tests to -worry the minds of would-be practitioners. Some doctors have -prescriptions as valuable and of the same sort as those prepared from -herbs and vegetables by many an old woman in our own country -settlements. On the other hand, some of the most ridiculous remedies are -given, such as tiger’s teeth, gold and silver leaf, and shavings of -rhinoceros horns, or ivory. Fortunately for the people inflammatory -diseases are almost unknown in China, but small-pox, consumption, and -dysentery rage almost unchecked by medical help; skin diseases are very -prevalent, and cancer is by no means uncommon. Of late the practice of -vaccination has begun to make its way among the people. - -There are hosts of superstitions among the Chinese people, and their -beliefs regarding spirits and the influence of the dead, of sorcerers, -and of devils, are myriad. These superstitions pervade every rank of -society, from the highest to the lowest. The general term applied to the -whole system of superstition and luck is fung-shwuy, and the -practitioners and learned men in this science are called upon to -determine what action shall be taken in all sorts of circumstances. - -There are benevolent societies in China corresponding in variety and -almost in number to those of Christian lands. There are orphan asylums, -institutions for the relief of widows, and for the aged and infirm, -public hospitals and free schools, together with other kindred -institutions more peculiarly Chinese in their character. In some parts -of China schools for girls exist, taught by female teachers. In most -places, however females are seldom taught letters, and schools for their -benefit are not known. Foreigners in establishing them invariably give a -small sum of money or some rice for each day’s attendance, and it is -thought that these schools could not be kept together in any other way. - -The Chinese describe themselves as possessing three religions, or more -accurately three sects, namely, Joo keaou, the sect of scholars; Fuh -keaou, the sect of Buddha; and Tao keaou, the sect of Tao. Both as -regards age and origin, the sect of scholars, or as it is generally -called, Confucianism, represents pre-eminently the religion of China. It -has its root in the worship of Shang-te, a deity associated with the -earliest traditions of the Chinese race. This deity was a personal god, -who ruled the affairs of men, rewarding and punishing as appeared just. -But during the troublous times which followed the first sovereigns of -the Chow dynasty, the belief in a personal deity grew dim, until when -Confucius began his career there appeared nothing strange in his -atheistic teachings. His concern was with man as a member of society, -and the object of his teaching was to lead him into those paths of -rectitude which might best contribute to the happiness of the man, and -to the well-being of the community of which he formed a part. Man, he -held, was born good and was endowed with qualities, which when -cultivated and improved by watchfulness and self-restraint, might enable -him to acquire godlike wisdom. In the system of Confucius there is no -place for a personal god. Man has his destiny in his own hands to make -or mar. Neither had Confucius any inducement to offer to encourage men -in the practice of virtue, except virtue itself. He was a -matter-of-fact, unimaginative man, who was quite content to occupy -himself with the study of his fellow men, and was disinclined to grope -into the future. Succeeding ages, recognizing the loftiness of his aims, -eliminated all that was impracticable and unreal in his system, and held -fast to that part of it that was true and good. They clung to the -doctrines of filial piety, brotherly love, and virtuous living. It was -admiration for the emphasis which he laid on these and other virtues, -which has drawn so many millions of men unto him and has adorned every -city of the empire with temples built in his honor. - -[Illustration: CHINESE EMPEROR, KING OF COREA, AND CHINESE OFFICIALS.] - -Side by side with the revival of the Joo keaou, under the influence of -Confucius, grew up a system of a totally different nature, which when -divested of its esoteric doctrines and reduced by the practically minded -Chinamen to a code of morals, was destined in future ages to become -affiliated with the teachings of the sage. This was Taoism, which was -founded by Lao-tzu, who was a contemporary of Confucius. The object of -his teaching was to induce men, by the practice of self-abnegation, to -reach absorption in something which he called Tao, and which bears a -certain resemblance to the Nirvana of the Buddhists. The primary meaning -of Tao is “the way,” “the path,” but in Lao-tzu philosophy it was more -than the way, it was the way-goer as well. It was an eternal road; along -it all beings and things walked; it was everything and nothing, and the -cause and effect of all. All things originated from Tao, conformed to -Tao, and to Tao at last returned. It was absorption into this “mother of -all things” that Lao-tzu aimed at. But these subtilties, to the common -people were foolishness, and before long the philosophical doctrine of -the identity of existence and non-existence assumed in their eyes a -warrant for the old Epicurean motto, “Let us eat and drink, for -to-morrow we die.” The pleasures of sense were substituted for the -delights of virtue, and to prolong life the votaries began a search for -elixirs of immortality, and charms. Taoism quickly degenerated into a -system of magic. To-day the monopoly which Taoist priests enjoy as the -exponents of the mysteries of nature, inherited from the time when they -sought for natural charms, makes them indispensably necessary to all -classes, and the most confirmed Confucianist does not hesitate to -consult the shaven followers of Lao-tzu on the choice of the site for -his house, the position of his family graveyard, or a fortunate day for -undertaking an enterprise. Apart from the practice of these magical -arts, Taoism has become assimilated with modern Confucianism and is -scarcely distinguishable from it. - -The teachings of Lao-tzu bore a sufficient resemblance to the musings of -Indian sages, that they served to prepare the way for the introduction -of Buddhism. A deputation of Buddhists arrived in China in the year 216 -B.C., but were harshly treated, and returned to their homes without -leaving any impress of their religion. It was not until some sixty years -after Christ, in the reign of the Emperor Ming Ti, that Buddhism was -actually introduced. One night the emperor dreamed that a monster golden -image appeared and said, “Buddha bids you to send to the western -countries to search for him and to get books and images.” The emperor -obeyed, and sent an embassy to India which returned after an absence of -eleven years bringing back images, the sacred writings, and missionaries -who could translate these scriptures into Chinese. Thus was introduced -into China the knowledge of that system which in purity and loftiness of -aim takes its place next to Christianity among the religions of the -world. From this time Buddhism grew and prevailed in the land. - -[Illustration: BUDDHIST TEMPLE.] - -The Buddhism of China is not, however, exactly that of India. The -Chinese believe in a material paradise, which is obviously inconsistent -with the orthodox belief in Nirvana. Like the other faiths of China, -orthodox Buddhism could not entirely satisfy the people. Like the Jews -of old they were eager after signs, and self interest made their -spiritual rulers nothing loth to grant them their desire. From the -mountains and monasteries came men who claimed to possess the elixir of -immortality, and proclaimed themselves adepts in witchcraft and sorcery. -By magic incantations they exorcised evil spirits, and dissipated -famine, pestilence, and disease. By the exercise of their supernatural -powers they rescued souls from hell, and arrested pain and death. In the -services of the church they added ritual to ritual. By such means they -won their way among the people, and even sternly orthodox Confucianists -make use of their services to chant the liturgies of the dead. But while -superstition compels even the wise and the learned to pay homage to this -faith, there is scarcely an educated man who would not repudiate a -suggestion that he is a follower of Buddha; and though the common people -throng the temples to buy charms and consult astrologers, they yet -despise both the priests and the religion they profess. But Buddhism has -after all been a blessing rather than a curse in China. It has to a -certain extent lifted the mind of the people from the too exclusive -consideration of mundane affairs, to the contemplation of a future -state. It has taught them to value purity of life more highly; to -exercise self-constraint and to forget self; and to practise charity -towards their neighbors. - -It will be seen that no clearly defined line of demarcation separates -the three great sects of China. Each in its turn has borrowed from the -others, until at the present day it may be doubted whether there are to -be found any pure Confucianists, pure Buddhists, or pure Taoists. -Confucianism has provided the moral basis on which the national -character of the Chinese rests, and Buddhism and Taoism have supplied -the supernatural element wanting in that system. Speaking generally -then, the religion of China is a medley of the three great sects which -are now so closely interlaced that it is impossible either to classify -or enumerate the members of each creed. The only other religion of -importance in China is Mohammedanism, which is confined to the -south-western and north-western provinces of the empire. In this faith -also the process of absorption in a national mixture of beliefs is -making headway. And since the suppression of the Panthay rebellion in -Yun-nan, there has been a gradual decline in the number of the followers -of the prophet. - -The speech and the written composition of the Chinese differ more than -those of any other people. The former addresses itself, like all other -languages, to the mind through the ear; the latter speaks to the mind -through the eye, not as words but as symbols of ideas. All Chinese -literature might be understood and translated though the student of it -could not name a single character. The colloquial speech is not -difficult of acquisition, but the written composition is slow of -learning by foreigners. “Pidgin English” is a mixed Chinese, Portuguese -and English language, which is a creation of the necessities of -communication between Chinese and foreigners at the open ports, while -neither party had the time or means or wish to acquire an accurate -knowledge of the language of the other. “Pidgin” is a Chinese attempt to -pronounce our word business, and the materials of the lingo are nearly -all English words similarly represented or misrepresented. The idiom on -the other hand is entirely that of colloquial Chinese. Foreigners master -it in a short time so as to carry on long conversations by means of it, -and to transact important affairs of business. This jargon is passing -away. Chinese who know English and English who know Chinese are -increasing in number from year to year. - -In the first two chapters, containing a sketch of Chinese history, -mention has been made of the greater literary works produced in the -early centuries of the empire; and the calamity of the burning of the -books has been described. Of the famous classics which are yet cherished -we will not speak again here. After the revival of literature, and the -encouragement given to it by the successors of the emperor who destroyed -the libraries of the empire, the tide has flowed onward in an -ever-increasing volume, checked only at times by one of those signal -calamities often overtaking the imperial libraries of China. It is -noteworthy that however ruthlessly the libraries and intellectual -centers have been destroyed, one of the first acts of the successful -founders of succeeding dynasties has been to restore them to their -former completeness and efficiency. - -The Chinese divide their literature into four departments, classical, -philosophical, historical and belles lettres. The “nine classics,” of -which we have already spoken as being the books studied by every Chinese -student, form but the nucleus of the immense mass of literature which -has gathered around them. The historical literature of China is the most -important branch of the national literature. There are works which -record the purely political events of each reign, as well as those on -chronology, rites and music, jurisprudence, political economy, state -sacrifices, astronomy, geography, and records of the neighboring -countries. On drawing, painting, and medicine much has been written. -Poems, novels, and romances, dramas, and books written in the colloquial -style, are frequent in the Chinese literature. There is no more pleasant -reading than some of their historical romances, and some of the best -novels have been translated into European languages. There is, however, -considerable poverty of imagination, little analysis of character, and -no interweaving of plot in the fiction. - -[Illustration: TEMPLE OF FIVE HUNDRED GODS, AT CANTON.] - -The glance that we have taken at the habits and customs of life among -the Chinese people, shows that while they lack many of the things that -we have been taught to believe essential to civilization, they -nevertheless are equipped with many good things. They have the same -human instincts, and are ready and able to absorb learning with great -rapidity, when once they become convinced of the value of it. It is -their conservatism and their belief that they are the only truly -civilized people in the world, while all others are barbarians, that has -made them so slow to adopt any of the better things of western -civilization. The war which this work records may prove to be the most -effective means that could possibly have been devised to awaken China -from the sleep of centuries, and convince her of the value and efficacy -of western methods. If this prove true, a description of China written a -generation in the future may have to describe the things here related as -existing conditions, to be historical facts after twenty years. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - _JAPAN_ - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -[Illustration: JAPANESE MUSICIAN.] - -[Illustration: THE MIKADO AND HIS PRINCIPAL OFFICERS.] - - - - - HISTORICAL SKETCH OF JAPAN FROM THE EARLIEST - TIMES TO FIRST CONTACT WITH - EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION. - - -------------- - -The Oldest Dynasty in the World and its Records—The First Emperor of -Japan—Some of the Famous Early Rulers—Invasion and Conquest of Corea by -the Empress Jingo—How Civilization Came from Corea to Japan—The Rise of -the Dual System of Government—Mikado and Shogun—Expulsion of the Hojo -Dynasty of Shoguns—The Invasion of the Mongol Tartars—Annihilation of -the Armada—Corruption of the Shogun Rule—Growth of the Feudal -System—Another Conquest of Corea—Founding of the Last Dynasty of -Shoguns—Advance of Japan in the Age of Hideyoshi. - - -In a historical sketch of the life of a nation which counts twenty-five -centuries of recorded history, but the briefest outline can be given. -The scope of such a work as this does not admit of minute historical -details. When it is said that traditions exist carrying back the history -for a number of years which requires several hundred ciphers to measure, -the effort to relate even an outline becomes almost appalling. Until the -twelfth century of our era, Europe did not know even of the existence of -Japan; and the reports which were then brought by Marco Polo, who had -learned of the island empire of Zipangu from the Chinese were as vague -as they were enticing. The successes of the Jesuit missionaries led by -Xavier, and the commercial intercourse established by the Portuguese in -the latter part of the 16th century, and by the Dutch somewhat later, -promised to disclose the mysteries of the far Pacific empire; but within -a few generations these were more hopelessly than ever sealed against -foreign intrusion. Only forty years ago the United States of America -knocked at the door of Japan, met a welcome under protest, and the -country began to open to western civilization. Even yet the great mass -of the people of our own country have far from a right conception of the -ancient civilization which has for ages prevailed in these islands of -the Pacific. - -The Japanese imperial dynasty is the oldest in the world. Two thousand -five hundred and fifty-four years ago in 660 B.C., the sacred histories -relate that Jimmu Tenno commenced to reign as the first Mikado, or -Emperor of Japan. The sources of Japanese history are rich and solid, -historical writings forming the largest and most important divisions of -their voluminous literature. The period from about the ninth century -until the present time is treated very fully, while the real history of -the period prior to the eighth century of the Christian era is very -meagre. It is nearly certain that the Japanese possessed no writing -until the sixth century A.D. Their oldest extant composition is the -“Kojiki,” or “Book of Ancient Traditions.” It may be called the Bible of -the Japanese. It comprises three volumes, composed A.D. 711-712, and is -said to have been preceded by two similar works about one hundred years -earlier, but neither of these have been preserved. The first volume -treats of the creation of the heavens and earth, the gods and goddesses, -and the events of the holy age or mythological period. The second and -third give the history of the mikados from the year I (660 B.C.) to the -year 1280 of the Japanese era. It was first printed in the years A.D. -1624-1642. The “Nihongi” completed A.D. 720 also contains a Japanese -record of the mythological period, and brings down the annals of the -mikados to A.D. 699. These are the oldest books in the language. They -contain so much that is fabulous, mythical or exaggerated, that their -statements especially in respect of dates cannot be accepted as true -history. A succession of historical works of apparent reliability -illustrate the period between the eighth and the eleventh centuries, and -still better ones treat of the mediæval period from the eleventh to the -sixteenth century. The period from 1600 to 1853 is less known than -others in earlier times, because of mandates that existed forbidding the -production of contemporary histories. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE GOD OF THUNDER.] - -Whatever may be the actual fact, Jimmu Tenno is popularly believed to -have been a real person and the first emperor of Japan. He is deified in -the Shinto religion, and in thousands of shrines dedicated to him the -people worship his spirit. In one official list of mikados he is named -as the first. The reigning Emperor refers to him as his ancestor, from -whom he claims unbroken descent as the 123rd member of this dynasty. The -seventh day of April is fixed as the anniversary of his ascension to the -throne and that day is a national holiday on which the birth, the -accession and death of this national hero are still annually celebrated. -Then one may see flags flying from both public and private buildings, -and hear the reverberations of a royal salute fired by the ironclad navy -of modern Japan from Krupp guns, and by the military in French uniforms -from Remington rifles. The era of Jimmu is the starting point of -Japanese chronology, and the year 1 of the Japanese era is that upon -which he ascended the throne at Kashiwavara. - -In the beginning there existed, according to one interpretation of the -somewhat perplexing Shinto mythology, chaos, which contained the germs -of all things. From this was evolved a race of heavenly beings and -celestial “Kami” of whom Izanagi, a male, and Izanami, a female, were -the last individuals. Other authorities on Shinto maintain that infinite -space and not chaos existed in the beginning; others again that in the -beginning there was one god. However, all agree as to the appearance on -the scene of Izanagi and Izanami, and it is with these we are here -concerned; for by their union were produced the islands of Japan, and -among their children were Amaterasu, the sun goddess, and her younger -brother, Susanoo, afterward appointed god of the sea. On account of her -bright beauty the former was made queen of the sun, and had given to her -a share on the government of the earth. To Ninigi-no-mikoto, her -grandson, she afterward consigned absolute rule over the earth, sending -him down by the floating bridge of heaven upon the summit of the -mountain Kirishima-yama. He took with him the three Japanese regalia, -the sacred mirror, now in one of the Shinto shrines of Ise; the sword, -now treasured in the temple of Atsuta, near Nagoya; and the ball of rock -crystal in possession of the emperor. On the accomplishment of the -descent, the sun and the earth receded from one another, and -communication by means of the floating bridge ceased. Jimmu Tenno, the -first historic emperor of Japan, was the great grandson of -Ninigi-no-mikoto. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE GOD OF RIDING.] - -According to the indigenous religion of Japan, therefore, a religion -which even since the adoption of western civilization has been -patronized by the state, the mikados are directly descended from the sun -goddess, the principal Shinto divinity. Having received from her the -three sacred treasures, they are invested with authority to rule over -Japan as long as the sun and moon shall endure. Their minds are in -perfect harmony with hers; therefore they cannot err and must receive -implicit obedience. Such is the traditional theory as to the position of -the Japanese emperors, a theory which was advanced in its most elaborate -form, as recently as the last century, by Motoori, a writer on Shinto, -which of late years has no doubt been much modified or even utterly -discarded by many of the more enlightened among the people. Even yet, -however, it is far from having been abandoned by the masses. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE PEASANTRY.] - -The mikados being thus regarded as semi-divinities, it is not surprising -that the very excess of veneration showed them tended more and more to -weaken their actual power. They were too sacred to be brought much into -contact with ordinary mortals, too sacred even to have their divine -countenances looked upon by any but a select few. Latterly it was only -the nobles immediately around him that ever saw the mikado’s face; -others might be admitted to the imperial presence, but it was only to -get a glimpse from behind a curtain of a portion of the imperial form, -less or more according to their rank. When the mikado went out into the -grounds of his palace in Kioto, matting was spread for him to walk upon; -when he left the palace precincts he was borne in a sedan chair, the -blinds of which were carefully drawn down. The populace prostrated -themselves as the procession passed, but none of them ever saw the -imperial form. In short, the mikados ultimately became virtual -prisoners. Theoretically gifted with all political knowledge and power, -they were less the masters of their own actions than many of the -humblest of their subjects. Although nominally the repositories of all -authority, they had practically no share in the management of the -national affairs. The isolation in which it was deemed proper that they -should be kept, prevented them from acquiring the knowledge requisite -for governing, and even had that knowledge been obtained, gave no -opportunity for its manifestation. - -From the death of Jimmu Tenno to that of Kimmei, in whose reign Buddhism -was introduced, A.D. 571, there were thirty mikados. During this period -of one thousand three hundred and thirty-six years, believed to be -historic by most Japanese, the most interesting subjects are the reforms -of Sujin Tenno, the military expeditions to eastern Japan by -Yamato-Dake, the invasion of Corea by the Empress Jingo Kogo, and the -introduction of Chinese civilization and Buddhism. - -Sujin—or Shujin, B.C. 97-30, was a man of intense earnestness and piety. -His prayers to the gods for the abatement of a plague were answered, and -a revival of religious feeling and worship ensued. He introduced many -forms in the practices of religion and the manners of life. He appointed -his own daughter priestess of the shrine and custodian of the symbols of -the three holy regalia, which had hitherto been kept in the palace of -the mikado. This custom has continued to the present time, and the -shrines of Uji in Ise, which now hold the sacred mirror, are always in -charge of a virgin princess of imperial blood. - -The whole life of Sujin was one long effort to civilize his half savage -subjects. He regulated taxes, established a periodical census, and -encouraged the building of boats. He may also be called the father of -Japanese agriculture, since he encouraged it by edict and example, -ordering canals to be dug, water courses provided, and irrigation to be -extensively carried on. - -The energies of this pious mikado were further exerted in devising a -national military system whereby his peaceably disposed subjects could -be protected, and the extremities of his realm extended. The eastern and -northern frontiers were exposed to the assaults of the wild tribes of -Ainos, who were yet unsubdued. Between the peaceful agricultural -inhabitants and the untamed savages a continual border war existed. A -military division of the empire into four departments was made, and a -shogun or general appointed over each. The half subdued inhabitants in -the extremes of the realm needed constant watching, and seem to have -been as restless and treacherous as the indians on our own frontiers. -The whole history of the extension and development of the mikado’s -empire is one of war and blood, rivalling that of our own country in its -early struggles with the Indians. This constant military action and life -in a camp resulted, in the course of time, in the creation of a powerful -and numerous military class, who made war professional and hereditary. -It developed that military genius and character which so distinguish the -modern Japanese and mark them in such strong contrast with other nations -of eastern Asia. - -Towards the end of the first century A.D., Yamato-Dake, son of the -emperor Keiko, reduced most of the Ainos of the north to submission. -These savages fought much after the manner of the North American Indian, -using their knowledge of woodcraft most effectually, but the young -prince with a well equipped army embarked on a fleet of ships and -reaching their portion of the island, fought them until they were glad -to surrender. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE GOD OF WAR.] - -It was in the third century that the Empress Jingo invaded and conquered -Corea. In all Japanese tradition or history, there is no greater female -character than this empress. She was equally renowned for her beauty, -piety, intelligence, energy and martial valor. To this woman belongs the -glory of the conquest of Corea, whence came letters, religion and -civilization to Japan. Tradition is that it was directly commanded her -by the gods to cross the water and attack Corea. Her husband, the -emperor, doubting the veracity of this message from the gods, was -forbidden by them any share in the enterprise. - -Jingo ordered her generals and captains to collect troops, build ships, -and be ready to embark. She disguised herself as a man, proceeded with -the recruiting of soldiers and the building of ships, and in the year -201 A.D. was ready to start. Before starting, Jingo issued these orders -for her soldiers: “No loot. Neither despise a few enemies nor fear many. -Give mercy to those who yield but no quarter to the stubborn. Rewards -shall be apportioned to the victors, punishments shall be meted to the -deserters.” - -It was not very clear in the minds of these ancient filibusters where -Corea was, or for what particular point of their horizon they were to -steer. They had no chart or compass. The sun, stars and the flight of -birds were their guide. None of them before had ever known of the -existence of such a country as Corea, but the same gods that had -commanded the invasion protected the invaders, and in due time they -landed in southern Corea. The king of this part of the country had heard -from his messengers of the coming of a strange fleet from the east, and -terrified exclaimed, “We never knew there was any country outside of us. -Have our gods forsaken us?” - -It was a bloodless invasion, for there was no fighting to do. The -Coreans came holding white flags and surrendered, offering to give up -their treasures. They took an oath to become hostages and be tributary -to Japan. Eighty ships well laden with gold and silver, articles of -wealth, silks and precious goods of all kinds, and eighty hostages, men -of high families, were given to the conquerors. The stay of the Japanese -army in Corea was very brief, and the troops returned in two months. -Jingo was, on her arrival, delivered of a son, who in the popular -estimation of gods and mortals holds even a higher place of honor than -his mother, who is believed to have conquered southern Corea through the -power of her yet unborn illustrious offspring. The motive which induced -the invasion into Corea seems to have been mere love of war and -conquest, and the Japanese still refer with great pride to this, their -initial exploit on foreign soil. - -[Illustration: TOKIO—TYPES AND COSTUMES.] - -[Illustration: JAPANESE MUSICIAN.] - -[Illustration: JAPANESE SILK SPINNER.] - -The son Ojin, who became the emperor, was, after his death, deified and -worshipped as the god of war, Hachiman, and down through the centuries -he has been worshiped by all classes of people, especially by soldiers, -who offer their prayers and pay their vows to him. Ojin was also a man -of literary tastes, and it was during his reign that Japan began to -profit from the learning of the Coreans, who introduced the study of the -Chinese language, and indeed the art of writing itself. During the -immediately succeeding centuries various emperors and empresses were -eminent for their zeal in encouraging the arts of peace. Architects, -painters, physicians, musicians, dancers, chronologists, artisans and -fortune tellers were brought over from Corea to instruct the people, but -not all of these came at once. Immigration was gradual, but the coming -of so many immigrants brought new blood, ideas, methods and -improvements. Japan received from China, through Corea, what she has -been receiving from America and Europe for the last forty years—a new -civilization. The records report the arrival of tailors in 283 and -horses in 284 from Corea to Japan. In 285 a Corean scholar came to -Japan, and residing at the court, instructed the mikado’s son in -writing. In 462 mulberry trees were planted, together with the silk -worm, for whose sustenance they were implanted, from China or Corea. And -this marks the beginning of silk culture in Japan. When in 552 the -company of doctors, astronomers and mathematicians came from Corea to -live at the Japanese court, they brought with them Buddhist -missionaries, and this may be called the introduction of continental -civilization. Beginning with Jingo, there seems to have poured into the -island empire a stream of immigrants, skilled artisans, scholars and -teachers, bringing arts, literature and religion. This was the first of -three great waves of foreign civilization in Japan. The first was from -China, through Corea, in the sixth; the second from western Europe in -the fifteenth century; the third was from America, Europe and the world, -in the decade following the advent of Commodore Perry. - -In the eighth century, during the greater part of which the capital of -the country was the city of Nara, about thirty miles from Kioto, Japan -had largely under the government of empresses reached a most creditable -stage of progress in the arts of peace. Near the close of the eighth -century the emperor Kuwammu took up his residence at Kioto, which until -1868 remained the capital of the country, and is even now dignified with -the name of Saikiyo, or “Western Capital.” Here he built a palace very -unlike the simple dwelling in which his predecessors had been content to -live. It had a dozen gates, and around it was reared a city with twelve -hundred streets. The palace, he named “the Castle of Peace,” but for -years it proved the very centre of the feuds which soon began to -distract the country. This did not happen however until some centuries -after the death of Kuwammu. But even after his time there were not -wanting indications that the control of affairs was destined to slip -into the hands of certain powerful families at the imperial court. - -The first family to rise into eminence was that of Fujiwara, a member of -which it was that got Kuwammu placed upon the throne. For centuries the -Fujiwaras controlled the civil affairs of the empire, but a more -important factor in bringing about the reduction of the mikado’s power -and the establishment of that strange system of government which was -destined to be so characteristic of Japan, was the rise into power of -the rival houses of Taira and Minamoto, otherwise called respectfully -Hei and Gen. This system of government has almost always been -misunderstood in America and Europe. Two rulers in two capitals gave to -foreigners the impression that there were two emperors in Japan, an idea -that has been incorporated into most of the text books, and -encyclopedias of Christendom. Let it be clearly understood however that -there never was but one emperor in Japan, the mikado, who is and always -was the only sovereign, though his measure of power has been very -different at different times. Until the rise and domination of the -military classes, he was in fact, as well as by law, supreme. - -With the feuds of Hei and Gen commences an entirely new era in the -history of the country, an era replete with tales alike of bloodshed, -intrigue and chivalry. We see the growth of a feudal system at least as -elaborate as that of Europe, and strangely enough, assuming almost -identical forms, and that during the same period. - -The respective founders of the Taira and Minamoto families were Taira -Takamochi and Minamoto Tsunemoto, two warriors of the tenth century. -Their descendants were for generations military vassals of the mikado, -and were distinguished by red and white flags, colors which suggest the -red and white roses of the rival English houses of Lancaster and York. -For years the two houses served the emperor faithfully; but even before -any quarrel had arisen between them, the popularity of the head of the -Minamoto clan, with the soldiers with whom he had been placed, so -alarmed the emperor Toba (1108-1124, A.D.) that he issued an edict -forbidding the Samurai, the military class, of any of the provinces, -from constituting themselves the retainers of either of these two -families. - -It was in the year 1156 that the feuds between the two houses broke out, -and it arose in this way. At the accession of Go-Shirakawa to the throne -in that year, there were living two ex-emperors who would seem to have -voluntarily abdicated; one of them, however, Shutoku, was averse to the -accession of the heir, being himself anxious to resume the imperial -power. His cause was espoused by Tameyoshi, the head of the Minamoto -house, while among the supporters of Go-Shirakawa was Kiyomori, of the -house of Taira. In the conflict which followed, Go-Shirakawa was -successful, and immediately thereafter we find Taira Kiyomori appointed -Daijo-Daijin, or prime minister, with practically all political power in -his hands. On the abdication within a few years of the mikado, the prime -minister was able to put whatever member of the imperial house he willed -upon the throne; and being himself allied by marriage to the imperial -family, he at length saw the accession of his own grandson, a mere babe. -Thus, to use the term connected with European feudalism of the same -period, the mayor of the palace virtually, though not nominally, usurped -the imperial functions. The emperor had the name of power but Kiyomori -had the reality. - -But this state of matters was not destined to last long. The Minamotos -were far from being finally quieted. The story of the revival of their -power is a romantic one, but we cannot dwell upon it. It was in the -battle of Atiji that Kiyomori seemed at length to have quelled his -rivals. Yoshitomo, the head of the Minamoto clan was slain in the fight, -but his beautiful wife Tokiwa succeeded in escaping with her three -little sons. Tokiwa’s mother, however, was arrested. This roused the -daughter to make an appeal to Kiyomori for pardon. She did so, -presenting herself and children to the conqueror, upon whom her beauty -so wrought that he granted her petition. He made her his concubine, and -not withstanding the remonstrances of his retainers, also spared the -children who were sent to a monastery, there to be trained for the -priesthood. Two of these children became famous in the history of Japan. -The eldest was Yoritomo the founder of the Kamakura dynasty of shoguns, -and the babe at the mother’s breast was Yoshitsune, one of the flowers -of Japanese chivalry, a hero whose name even yet awakens the enthusiasm -of the youth of Japan and who so impressed the Ainos of the north whom -he had been sent to subdue, that to this day he is worshiped as their -chief god. A Japanese has even lately written a book in which he seeks -to identify Yoshitsune with Genghis Khan. - -It is unnecessary to dwell on the circumstances which brought Yoritomo -and Yoshitsune into note; how the two brothers raised the men of the -eastern provinces, and after a temporary check at the pass of Hakone, -succeeded in utterly routing the Taira forces in a dreadful battle, half -by land and half by sea, at the straits of Shimonoseki. Suffice it to -say, that Yoshitsune having been slain soon after a famous victory, -through the treachery of his brother Yoritomo, who was jealous of his -fame and popularity, that warrior was left without a rival. Yoritomo -received from the emperor the highest title which could be conferred -upon him, that of Sei-i-tai-shogun, literally “Barbarian-subjugating -great general.” This title is generally contracted to shogun, which -means simply general. Thus appointed generalissimo of all the imperial -forces, he looked about for a city which he might make the center of his -power. This he found in Kamakura about fifteen miles westward of the -site of the modern Yokohama. - -Thus before the close of the twelfth century was founded that system of -dual government which lasted with little change until the year 1868. The -Mikado reigned in Kioto with the authority of his sacred person -undisputed; but the shogun in his eastern city had really all the public -business of the country in his own hands. It was he who appointed -governors over the different provinces and was the real master of the -country; but every act was done in the name of the emperor whose nominal -power thus remained intact. - -Yoritomo virtually founded an independent dynasty at Kamakura, but it -was not destined to be a lasting one. His son Yoriye succeeded him in -1199, but was shortly afterwards deposed and assassinated; and the power -though not the title of shogun passed to the family of Yoritomo’s wife, -that of Hojo, different members of which swayed the state for more than -a century. - -After a checkered career of various shoguns of the Hojo family, their -tyranny became supreme. None of the family ever seized the office of -shogun, but in reality they wielded all and more of the power attaching -to the office. The political history of these years is but that of a -monotonous recurrence of the exaltation of boys and babies of noble -blood to whom was given the semblance of power, who were sprinkled with -titles and deposed as soon as they were old enough to be troublesome. In -an effort made by the ex-emperor Gotoba to drive the usurping Hojo from -power the chains were riveted tighter than ever. The imperial troops -were massacred by the conquering Hojo. The estates of all who fought on -the emperor’s side were confiscated and distributed among the minions of -the usurpers. The exiled emperor died of a broken heart. The nominal -Mikado of Kioto and the nominal shogun at Kamakura were set up, but the -Hojo were the keepers of both. The oppression, the neglect of public -business and the carousals of the usurpers became intolerable. Armies -were raised spontaneously to support the emperor and the Ashikaga leader -in their revolt against the existing evils. All over the empire the -people rose against their oppressors and massacred them. The Hojo -domination which had been paramount for nearly one hundred and fifty -years was utterly broken. - -[Illustration: COLOSSAL JAPANESE IMAGE FIFTY FEET HIGH.] - -The Hojo have never been forgiven for their arbitrary treatment of the -Mikados. Every obloquy is cast upon them by Japanese historians, -dramatists, poets and novelists, and yet there is another side to the -story. It must be conceded that the Hojos were able rulers and kept -order and peace in the empire for more than a century. They encouraged -literature and the cultivation of the arts and sciences. During their -period the resources of the country were developed, and some branches of -useful handicraft and fine arts were brought to a perfection never since -surpassed. To this time belongs the famous image carver, sculptor and -architect, Unkei, and the lacquer artists who are the “old masters” in -this branch of art. The military spirit of the people was kept alive, -tactics were improved, and the methods of governmental administration -simplified. During this period of splendid temples, monasteries, -pagodas, colossal images and other monuments of holy zeal, Hojo Sadatoki -erected a monument over the grave of Kiyomori at Hiogo. Hojo Tokimune -raised and kept in readiness a permanent war fund so that the military -expenses might not interfere with the revenue reserved for ordinary -government expenses. To his invincible courage, patriotic pride, and -indomitable energy are due the vindication of the national honor and the -repulse of the Tartar invasion. - -During the early centuries of the Christian era, Japan and China kept up -friendly intercourse, exchanging embassies on various missions, but -chiefly with the mutual object of bearing congratulations to an emperor -upon his accession to the throne. The civil disorders in both countries -interrupted these friendly relations in the twelfth century, and -communication ceased. When the acquaintance was renewed in the time of -the Hojo it was not on so friendly a footing. - -In China the Mongol Tartars had overthrown the Sung dynasty and had -conquered the adjacent country. Through the Coreans the Mongol emperor, -Kublai Khan, at whose court Marco Polo and his uncles were then -visiting, sent letters demanding tribute and homage from Japan. Chinese -envoys came to Kamakura, but Hojo Tokimune, enraged at the insolent -demands, dismissed them in disgrace. Six embassies were sent, and six -times rejected. An expedition from China consisting of ten thousand men -was then sent against Japan. They landed, were attacked, their commander -was slain, and they returned, having accomplished nothing. The Chinese -emperor now sent nine envoys to announce their purpose to remain until a -definite answer was returned to their master. They were called to -Kamakura, and the Japanese reply was given by cutting off their heads. -The Japanese now began to prepare for war on land and sea. Once more -Chinese envoys came to demand tribute. These were decapitated. Meanwhile -the armada was preparing. Great China was coming to crush the little -strip of land that refused homage to the invincible conqueror. The army -numbered one hundred thousand Chinese and Tartars, and seven thousand -Coreans in ships that whitened the sea. They numbered three thousand -five hundred in all. It was in July, 1281, that the sight of the Chinese -junks greeted the watchers on the hills of Daizaifu. Many of the junks -were of immense proportion, larger than the natives of Japan had ever -seen, and armed with the engines of European warfare which their -Venetian guests had taught the Mongols to construct and work. The naval -battle that ensued was a terrible one. The Japanese had small chance of -success in the water, owing to the smallness of their boats, but in -personal valor they were much superior, and some of their deeds of -bravery are inspiringly interesting. Nevertheless the Chinese were -unable to effect a landing, owing to the heavy fortifications along the -shore. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE FEMALE TYPES.] - -The whole nation was now roused. Re-enforcements poured in from all -quarters to swell the hosts of defenders. From the monasteries and -temples all over the country went up unceasing prayer to the gods to -ruin their enemies and save the land of Japan. The emperor and -ex-emperor went in solemn state to the chief priest of Shinto, and -writing out their petitions to the gods sent him as a messenger to the -shrines of Ise. It is recorded as a miraculous fact that at the hour of -noon as the sacred envoy arrived at the shrine and offered a prayer, the -day being perfectly clear, a streak of cloud appeared in the sky that -soon overspread the heavens, until the dense masses portended a storm of -awful violence. One of those cyclones called by the Japanese tai-fu, of -appalling velocity and resistless force, such as whirl along the coast -of Japan and China during late summer and early fall of every year, -burst upon the Chinese fleet. Nothing can withstand these maelstorms of -the air. We call them typhoons. Iron steamships of thousands of horse -power are almost unmanageable in them. The helpless Chinese junks were -crushed together, impaled on the rocks, dashed against the cliffs or -tossed on land like corks on the spray. Hundreds of the vessels sank. -The corpses were piled on the shore or floating on the water so thickly -that it seemed almost possible to walk thereon. The vessels of the -survivors in large numbers drifted or were wrecked upon Taka island, -where they established themselves and cutting down trees began building -boats to reach Corea. Here they were attacked by the Japanese, and after -a bloody struggle, all the fiercer for the despair on the one side and -the exultation on the other, were all slain or driven to the sea to be -drowned except three, who were sent back to tell their emperor how the -gods of Japan had destroyed their armada. - -[Illustration: SHINTO TEMPLE.] - -This was the last time that China ever attempted to conquer Japan, whose -people boast that their land has never been defiled by an invading army. -They have ever ascribed the glory of the destruction of the Tartar fleet -to the interposition of the gods of Ise, who thereafter received special -and grateful adoration as the guardian of the seas and the winds. Great -credit and praise were given to the Lord of Kamakura, Hojo Tokimune, for -his energy, ability and valor. The author of one native history says, -“The repulse of the Tartar barbarians by Tokimune and his preserving the -dominions of our Son of Heaven were sufficient to atone for the crimes -of his ancestors.” - -Nearly six centuries afterward when “the barbarian” Perry anchored his -fleet in the bay of Yeddo, in the words of the native annalist, “Orders -were sent by the imperial court to the Shinto priest at Ise to offer up -prayers for the sweeping away of the barbarians.” Millions of earnest -hearts put up the same prayers their fathers had offered fully expecting -the same result. - -To this day the Japanese mother hushes her fretful infant by the -question, “Do you think the Mongols are coming?” This is the only -serious attempt at invasion ever made by any nation upon the shores of -Japan. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE GOD OF THE WIND.] - -The internal history of Japan during the period of time covered by the -actual or nominal rule of the Ashikaga family, from 1336 until 1573, -except the very last years of it, is not very attractive to a foreign -reader. It is a confused picture of intestinal war. It was by foul means -that Ashikaga Takugi, one of the generals who overthrew the Hojos, -attained the dignity of shogun, and a period of more than two centuries, -during which his descendants held sway at Kamakura, was characterized by -treachery, bloodshed and almost perpetual warfare. The founder of this -line secured the favor of the mikado Go-Daigo, after he was recalled -from exile, upon the overthrow of the military usurpation. Ashikaga soon -seized the reins in his own hands. The mikado fled in terror, and a new -mikado was declared in the person of another of the royal family. Of -course this man was willing to confer upon Ashikaga, his supporter the -title of shogun. Kamakura again became a military capital. The duarchy -was restored, and the war of the northern and southern dynasties began, -to last fifty-six years. - -[Illustration: DAIMIOS OF JAPAN.] - -The act by which more than any other the Ashikagas earned the curses of -posterity, was the sending of an embassy to China in 1401, bearing -presents, acknowledging in a measure the authority of China, and -accepting in return the title of Nippon O, or king of Japan. This which -was done by Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, the third of the line, was an insult to -the national dignity for which he has never been forgiven. It was a -needless humiliation of Japan to her arrogant neighbor and done only to -exalt the vanity and glory of the usurper, who, not content with -adopting the style and equipage of the mikado, wished to be called a -king and yet dared not usurp the imperial throne. - -Japan of all the Asiatic nations seems to have brought the feudal system -to the highest state of perfection. While in Europe the nations were -engaged in throwing off the feudal yoke and inaugurating modern -government, Japan was riveting the fetters which stood intact until -1871. The daimios were practically independent chieftains, who ruled -their own provinces as they willed; and the more ambitious and powerful -did not hesitate to make war upon the neighboring clans. There were on -all sides struggles for pre-eminence in which the fittest survived, -annexing to their own territories those of the weaker class which they -had subdued. Nor was it merely rival clans that were disturbing the -country. The Buddhist clergy had acquired immense political influence, -which they were far from scrupulous in using. Their monasteries were in -many cases castles, from which themselves living amid every kind of -luxury, they tyrannized over the surrounding country. The history of -these often reads strikingly like that of the corresponding institutions -in Europe during the middle ages; indeed the hierarchical as well as the -feudal development of Europe and Japan have been wonderfully alike. - -[Illustration: - - SKETCH SHOWING DEVELOPMENT OF THE JAPANESE ARMY - FROM 1867 TO THE PRESENT. -] - -Probably the three names most renowned in Japan are Nobunaga, Hideyoshi -and Iyeyasu. The second and third of these were generals subordinate to -the first, who deposed the Ashikaga shoguns, persecuted the Buddhists, -encouraged the Jesuits, and restored to a great extent the supremacy of -the mikado. The Buddhists look on this leader as an incarnate demon sent -to destroy their faith. He was a Shintoist, with bitter hatred for the -Buddhists, and never lost an opportunity to burn property of his enemies -or butcher priests, women, and children of that faith. These who have -just been named, by their prowess and the strength of their armies, rose -to highest positions among the daimios. - -[Illustration: BUDDHIST PRIESTS.] - -When these three great men appeared, the country was in a most critical -state. The later Ashikaga shoguns had become as powerless as the mikado -himself in the management of affairs. Nobunaga first rose into note. By -successive victories, he became ruler of additional provinces, and his -fame became so great that the emperor committed to him the task of -tranquilizing the country. He deposed first one usurping shogun and then -another, and thus came an end to the domination of the Ashikagas. -Nobunaga was now the most powerful man in the country, and was virtually -discharging the duties of shogun though he never obtained the title. -Hideyoshi became virtual lord of the empire, after the assassination of -Nobunaga. He rose from the ranks of the peasants to the highest position -in Japan under the emperor. Having in connection with Nobunaga and -Iyeyasu reduced all the Japanese clans into subjection, he looked abroad -for some foreign power to subdue. - -The immoderate ambition of Hideyoshi’s life was to conquer Corea, and -even China. Under the declining power of Ashikaga, all tribute from -Corea had ceased and the pirates who ranged the coasts scarcely allowed -any trade to exist. We have seen how it was from Corea that Japan -received Chinese learning and the arts of civilization, and Coreans -swelled the number of Mongol Tartars who invaded Japan with the armada. -On the other hand Corea was more than once overrun by Japanese armies, -even partly governed by Japanese officials, and on different occasions -had to pay tribute to Japan in token of submission. Japanese pirates too -were for six hundred years as much the terror of the Chinese and Corean -coasts as were the Danes and Norsemen of the shores of the North Sea. -The discontinuance of the embassies and tribute from Corea, thus -afforded the ambitious general a pretext for disturbing the friendly -relations with Corea, by the dispatch of an embassador to complain of -this neglect. The behavior of this embassador only too clearly reflected -the swagger of his overbearing lord, and the consequence was an invasion -of Corea. - -Hideyoshi promised to march his generals and army to Peking, and divide -the soil of China among them. He also scorned the suggestion that -scholars versed in Chinese should accompany the expedition. Said he, -“This expedition will make the Chinese use our literature.” Corea was -completely overrun by Hideyoshi’s forces, although the commander himself -was unable to accompany the expedition, owing to his age and the grief -of his mother. Further details of this invasion will be found later in -the historical sketch of Corea. It may be said here however, that the -conquest terminated ingloriously, and reflects no honor on Japan. The -responsibility of the outrage upon a peaceful nation rests wholly upon -Hideyoshi. The Coreans were a mild and peaceable people, wholly -unprepared for war. There was scarcely a shadow of provocation for the -invasion, which was nothing less than a huge filibustering scheme. It -was not popular with the people or the rulers, and was only carried -through by the will of the military leader. The sacrifice of life on -either side must have been great, and all for the ambition of one man. -Nevertheless, a party in Japan has long held that Corea was by the -conquests of the third and sixteenth centuries a part of the Japanese -empire, and the reader will see how 1772 and again in 1775 the cry of -“On to Corea” shook the nation like an earthquake. - -After the deaths of Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, Tokugawa Iyeyasu was left -the virtual ruler of Japan. At first he governed the country as regent, -but his increasing popularity awoke the jealousy of the partisans of -Hideyori, the son of Hideyoshi, who was nominated as his successor, as -well as of Nobunaga’s family. These combined to overthrow him, and the -consequence was the great battle of Sekigahara, fought in 1600, in which -Iyeyasu came off completely victorious. Three years later, he was -appointed by the emperor shogun. Like Yorotomo he resolved to select a -city as the center of his power, and that which seemed to him most -suitable was not Kamakura, which ere this had lost much of its glory, -but the little castle town of Yeddo, about thirty-five miles farther -north. Here he and his successors, and the dynasty he founded, swayed -the destinies of Japan from 1603 until the restoration in 1868. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE JUNK.] - -It is not difficult to account for the tone of admiration and pride with -which a modern Japanese speaks of “The age of Taiko.” There are many who -hold that Hideyoshi, or Taiko, was the real unifier of the empire. -Certain it is that he originated many of the most striking forms of -national administration. In his time the arts and sciences were not only -in a very flourishing condition, but gave promise of rich development. -The spirit of military enterprise and internal national improvement was -at its height. Contact with the foreigners of many nations awoke a -spirit of inquiry and intellectual activity; but it was on the seas that -genius and restless activity found their most congenial field. - -[Illustration: OLD TIME JAPANESE FERRY.] - -This era is marked by the highest production in marine architecture, and -the extent and variety of commercial enterprise. The ships built in this -century were twice the size and vastly the superior in model of the -junks that now hug the Japanese shores or ply between China and Japan. -The pictures of them preserved to the present day, show that they were -superior in size to the vessels of Columbus, and nearly equal in sailing -qualities to the contemporary Dutch and Portuguese galleons. They were -provided with ordnance, and a model of a Japanese breech-loading cannon -is still preserved in Kioto. Ever a brave and adventurous people, the -Japanese then roamed the seas with a freedom that one who knows only of -the modern bound people would scarcely credit. Voyages of trade -discovery or piracy have been made to India, Siam, Birmah, the -Philippine Islands, Southern China, the Malay Archipelago and the -Kuriles, even in the fifteenth century, but was more numerous in the -sixteenth. The Japanese literature contains many references to these -adventurous sailors, and when the records of the far east are thoroughly -investigated, and this subject fully studied, very interesting results -are apt to be obtained showing the widespread influence of Japan at a -time when she was scarcely known by the European world to have -existence. - -[Illustration: SCENES OF INDUSTRIAL LIFE. (_From a Japanese Album._)] - - - - - HISTORICAL SKETCH FROM THE COMING OF THE - FIRST EUROPEAN TRAVELERS TO THE - PRESENT TIME. - - -------------- - -A New Dynasty of Shoguns—Mendez Pinto’s Visit—Arrival of the Jesuit -Missionaries—Kind Reception of Christianity—Quarrels Between the -Sects—Beginning of Christian Persecution—Expulsion of the -Missionaries—Torture and Martyrdom—The Massacre of Shimabara—Expulsion -of all Foreigners—Closing the Door of Japan—History of the Last -Shogunate—Arrival of Commodore Perry’s Fleet—The Knock at the Door of -Japan—An Era of Treaty Making—Rapid Advance of Western Manners and Ideas -in Japan—Attacks on Foreigners—The Abolition of the Shogunate—Japan’s -Last Quarter Century. - - -Hitherto we have seen two readily distinguishable periods in the history -of Japan, the period during which the mikados were the actual as well as -the nominal rulers of the empire; and the period during which the -imperial power more and more passed into the hands of usurping mayors of -the palace, and the country was kept in an almost constant ferment with -the feuds of rival noble families which coveted this honor. Successively -the power, although not always the title, of shogun, had been held by -members of the Minamoto, Hojo, Ashikaga, Ota and Toyotomi families. With -Iyeyasu we pass into a third period, like the second in that the dual -system of feudal government still prevailed, but unlike it in that it -was a period of peace. Much strife had accompanied the erection of the -fabric of feudalism, but it now stood complete. The mikado in Kioto and -the daimios in their different provinces, alike ceased to protest -against the dual administration. Within certain limits they had the -regulation of their own affairs; the mikado was ever recognized as the -source of all authority, and the daimios in their own provinces were -petty kings; but it was the shogun in Yeddo who, undisputed, at least in -practice, whatever some of the more powerful daimios may have said, -swayed the destinies of the empire. - -Let us now note the policy which the Shoguns adopted towards the -foreigners who as missionaries or merchants had found their way to -Japan, and the course of settlement and trade of foreigners. - -It seems now certain that when Columbus set sail from Spain to discover -a new continent, it was not America he was seeking, but the land of -Japan. Marco Polo, the Venetian traveler, had spent seventeen years, -1275-1292, at the court of the Tartar emperor Kublai Khan, and while in -Peking had heard of a land lying to the eastward, called in the language -of the Chinese, Zipangu, from which our modern name Japan has been -corrupted. Columbus was an ardent student of Polo’s book, which had been -published in 1298. He sailed westward across the Atlantic to find this -kingdom. He discovered not Japan, but an archipelago in America on whose -shores he eagerly inquired concerning Zipangu. Following this voyage, -Vasco de Gama and a host of other brave Portuguese navigators sailed -into the Orient and came back to tell of densely populated empires -enriched with the wealth that makes civilization possible, and of which -Europe had scarcely heard. Their accounts fired the hearts of the -zealous who longed to convert the heathen, aroused the cupidity of -traders who thirsted for gold, and kindled the desire of monarchs to -found empires in Asia. - -Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese adventurer, seems to have been the first -European who landed on Japanese soil. On his return to Europe he told so -many wonderful stories that by a pun on his Christian name he was dubbed -“the mendacious.” His narrative was, however, as we now know, -substantially correct. Pinto while in China had got on board a Chinese -junk, commanded by a pirate. They were attacked by another corsair, -their pilot was killed, and the vessel was driven off the coast by a -storm. They made for the Liu Kiu Islands, but unable to find a harbor, -put to sea again. After twenty-three days’ beating about, they sighted -the islands of Tanegashima and landed. The name of the island, “island -of the seed,” was significant. The arrival of these foreigners was a -seed of troubles innumerable. The crop was priestcraft of the worst -type, political intrigue, religious persecution, the inquisition, the -slave trade, the propagation of Christianity by the sword, sedition, -rebellion, and civil war. Its harvest was garnered in the blood of -sixty-thousand Japanese. - -The native histories recount the first arrival of Europeans in 1542, and -note that year as the one in which fire-arms were first introduced. The -pirate trader who brought Pinto to Japan cleared twelve hundred per -cent. on his cargo, and the three Portuguese returned to China loaded -with presents. The new market attracted hundreds of Portuguese -adventurers to Japan, who found a ready welcome. The missionary followed -the merchant. Already the Portuguese priests and Franciscan friars were -numerous in India. Two Jesuits and two Japanese who had been converted -at Goa, headed by Xavier, landed at Kagoshima in 1549. Xavier did not -have great success, and in a short time left Japan disheartened. He had, -however, inspired others who followed him, and their success was -amazingly great. - -The success of the Jesuit missionaries soon attracted the attention of -the authorities. Organtin, a Jesuit missionary in Kioto, writing of his -experiences, says that he was asked his name and why he had come to -Japan. He replied that he was the Padre Organtin and had come to spread -religion. He was told that he could not be allowed at once to spread his -religion, but would be informed later on. Nobunaga accordingly took -counsel with his retainers as to whether he would allow Christianity to -be preached or not. One of these strongly advised not to do so, on the -ground that there were already enough religions in the country, but -Nobunaga replied that Buddhism had been introduced from abroad and had -done good in the country, and he therefore did not see why Christianity -should not be granted a trial. Organtin was consequently allowed to -erect a church and to send for others of his order, who, when they came, -were found to be like him in appearance. Their plan of action was to -care for the sick, and so prepare the way for the reception of -Christianity, and then to convert every one and make the thirty-six -provinces of Japan subject to Portugal. In this last clause we have an -explanation of the policy which the Japanese government ultimately -adopted towards Christianity and all foreign innovations. Within five -years after Xavier visited Kioto, seven churches were established in the -vicinity of the city itself, while scores of Christian communities had -sprung up in the south-west. In 1581 there were two hundred churches and -one hundred and fifty thousand native Christians. - -In 1583 an embassy of four young noblemen was dispatched by the -Christian daimios to the pope to declare themselves vassals of the Holy -See. They returned after eight years, having had audience of Phillip II. -of Spain, and kissed the feet of the pope at Rome. They brought with -them seventeen Jesuit missionaries, an important addition to the list of -religious instructors. Spanish mendicant friars from the Philippine -Islands, with Dominicans and Augustinians, also flocked into the -country, teaching and zealously proselyting. The number of “Christians” -at the time of the highest success of the missionaries in Japan was, -according to their own figures six hundred thousand, a number that seems -to be no exaggeration if quantity and not quality are considered. The -Japanese less accurately set down a total of two million nominal -adherents to the Christian sects. Among the converts were several -princes, large numbers of lords, and gentlemen in high official -positions, and beside generals of the army and admirals of the navy. -Churches and chapels were numbered by the thousand, and in some -provinces crosses and Christian shrines were as numerous as the kindred -evidences of Buddhism had been before. The methods of the Jesuits -appealed to the Japanese, as did the forms and symbols of the faith, but -the Jesuits began to attack most violently the character of the native -priests, and to incite their converts to insult their gods, burn the -idols and desecrate the old shrines. - -As the different orders, Jesuits, Franciscans and Augustinians -increased, they began to clash. Political and religious war was almost -universal in Europe at the same time, and the quarrels of the various -nationalities followed the buccaneers, pirates, traders and missionaries -to the distant seas of Japan. All the foreigners, but especially -Portuguese, then were slave traders, and thousands of Japanese were -bought and sold and shipped to China and the Philippines. The sea ports -of Hirado and Nagasaki were the resorts of the lowest class of -adventurers of all European nations, and the result was a continuous -series of uproars, broils and murders among the foreigners. Such a -picture of foreign influence and of Christianity as the Japanese saw it -was not calculated to make a permanently favorable impression on the -Japanese mind. - -Latterly Nobunaga had somewhat repented of the favor he had shown to the -new religion, though his death occurred before his dissatisfaction had -manifested itself in any active repression. Hideyoshi had never been -well disposed to Christianity, but other matters prevented him from at -once meddling with the policy of his predecessors. In 1588 he ventured -to issue an edict commanding the missionaries to assemble at Hirado, an -island off the west coast of Kiushiu and prepared to leave Japan, and -the missionaries obeyed, but as the edict was not enforced they again -returned to the work of evangelization in private as vigorously as ever, -averaging ten thousand converts a year. The Spanish mendicant friars -pouring in from the Philippines, openly defied Japanese laws. This -aroused Hideyoshi’s attention and his decree of expulsion was renewed. -Some of the churches were burned. In 1596 six Franciscan and three -Jesuit priests with seventeen Japanese converts were taken to Nagasaki -and there burned. - -When Hideyoshi died, affairs seemed to take a more favorable turn, but -only for a few years. Iyeyasu was as much opposed to Christianity as -Hideyoshi, and his hatred of the new religion was intensified by his -partiality for Buddhism. The new daimios, carrying the policy of their -predecessors as taught them by the Jesuits, but reversing its direction, -began to persecute their Christian subjects, and to compel them to -renounce their faith. The native converts resisted, even to blood and -the taking up of arms. The idea of armed rebellion among the farmers was -something so wholly new that Iyeyasu suspected foreign instigation. He -became more vigilant as his suspicions increased, and resolving to crush -this spirit of independence and intimidate the foreign emissaries, met -every outbreak with bloody reprisals. - -Iyeyasu issued a decree of expulsion against the missionaries in 1600, -but the decree was not at once carried into effect. The date of the -first arrival in Japan of Dutch merchants was also 1600. They settled in -the island of Hirado. In 1606 an edict from Yeddo forbade the exercise -of the Christian religion, but an outward show of obedience warded off -active persecution. Four years later the Spanish friars again aroused -the wrath of the government by defying its commands and exhorting the -native converts to do likewise. In 1611 Iyeyasu obtained documentary -proof of what he had long suspected, the existence of a plot on the part -of the native converts and the foreign emissaries to reduce Japan to the -position of a subject state. Fresh edicts were issued, and in 1614 -twenty-two Franciscan, Dominican and Augustinian friars, one hundred and -seventeen Jesuits and hundreds of native priests were embarked by force -on board junks and sent out of the country. The next year the shogun -pushed matters to an extreme with Hideyori, who was entertaining some -Jesuit priests, and laid siege to the castle of Ozaka. A battle of -unusual ferocity and bloody slaughter raged, ending in the burning of -the citadel and the total defeat and death of Hideyori and thousands of -his followers. The Jesuit fathers say that one hundred thousand men -perished in this brief war. - -The exiled foreign friars kept secretly returning, and the shogun -pronounced sentence of death against any foreign priest found in the -country. Iyemitsu, the next shogun, restricted all foreign commerce in -Nagasaki and Hirado; all Japanese were forbidden to leave the country on -pain of death. Any European vessel approaching the coast was at once to -be referred to Nagasaki, whence it was to be sent home; the whole crew -of any junk in which a missionary should reach Japanese shores were to -be put to death; and the better to remove all temptation to go abroad, -it was decreed that no ships should be constructed above a certain size -and with other than the open sterns of coasting vessels. - -Fire and sword were used to extirpate Christianity and to paganize the -same people who in their youth were Christianized by the same means. -Thousands of the native converts fled to China, Formosa and the -Philippines. The Christians suffered all sorts of persecutions and -tortures that savage ingenuity could devise. Yet few of the natives -quailed or renounced their faith. They calmly let the fire of wood, -cleft from the crosses before which they once prayed, consume them. -Mothers carried their babes to the fire or the edge of the precipice -rather than leave them behind to be educated in pagan faith. If any one -doubt the sincerity and fervor of the Christian converts of to-day, or -the ability of the Japanese to accept a higher form of faith, or their -willingness to suffer for what they believe, he has but to read the -accounts of various witnesses to the fortitude of the Japanese -Christians of the seventeenth century. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE BELL TOWERS.] - -The persecution reached its climax in the tragedy of Shimabara in 1637. -The Christians arose in arms by tens of thousands, seized an old castle, -repaired it and fortified it, and raised the flag of rebellion. The -armies of veterans sent to besiege it expected an easy victory, and -sneered at the idea of having any difficulty in subduing these farmers -and peasants. It took two months by land and water, however, of constant -attack before the fort was reduced, and the victory was finally gained -only with the aid of Dutch cannon furnished under compulsion by the -traders of Deshima. After great slaughter the intrepid garrison -surrendered, and then began the massacre of thirty-seven thousand -Christians. Many of them were hurled into the sea from the top of the -island rock of Takaboko-shima, by the Dutch named Pappenberg, in the -harbor of Nagasaki. - -[Illustration: IMAGE OF BUDDHA.] - -The result of this series of events was that the favorable policy -adopted by Iyeyasu in regard to foreign trade was completely reversed. -No foreigners were allowed to set foot on the soil of Japan, except -Chinese and a few Dutch merchants. The Dutch gained the privilege of -residing in confinement on the little island of Deshima, a piece of made -land in the harbor of Nagasaki. Here under degrading restrictions and -constant surveillance lived less than a score of Hollanders, who were -required every year to send a representative to Yeddo to do homage to -the shogun. They were allowed one ship per annum to come from the Dutch -East Indies for the exchange of the commodities of Japan for those of -Holland. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE SAMURAI OR WARRIOR OF THE OLD TIME.] - -Says Doctor Griffis in his study of this era of Japanese history, “After -nearly a hundred years of Christianity and foreign intercourse, the only -apparent results of this contact with another religion and civilization -were the adoption of gunpowder and fire-arms as weapons, the use of -tobacco and the habit of smoking, the making of sponge cake, the -naturalization into the language of a few foreign words, the -introduction of new and strange forms of disease, among which the -Japanese count the scourge of the venereal virus, and the permanent -addition to that catalogue of terrors which priest and magistrate in -Asiatic countries ever hold as welcome, to overawe the herd. For -centuries the mention of that name would bate the breath, blanch the -cheek and smite with fear as with an earthquake shock. It was the -synonym of sorcery, sedition, and all that was hostile to the purity of -the home and the peace of society. All over the empire, in every city, -town, village and hamlet; by the roadside, ferry or mountain pass; at -every entrance to the capitol, stood the public notice boards on which -with prohibitions against the great crimes that disturbed the relations -of society’s government was one tablet written with a deeper brand of -guilt, with a more hideous memory of blood, with a more awful terror of -torture, than when the like superscription was affixed at the top of a -cross that stood between two thieves on a little hill outside Jerusalem. -Its daily and familiar sight startled ever and anon the peasants who -clasped hands and uttered a fresh prayer; the Bonze, or Buddhist priest, -to add new venom to his maledictions; the magistrate to shake his head; -and to the mother a ready word to hush the crying of her fretful babe. -That name was Christ. So thoroughly was Christianity or the “corrupt -sect” supposed to be eradicated before the end of the seventeenth -century, that its existence was historical, remembered only as an awful -scar on the national memory. No vestiges were supposed to be left of it, -and no knowledge of its tenets was held save by a very few scholars in -Yeddo, trained experts who were kept as a sort of spiritual blood hounds -to scent out the adherents of the accursed creed. It was left to our day -since the recent opening of Japan, for them to discover that a mighty -fire had been smoldering for over two centuries beneath the ashes of -persecutions. As late as 1829 seven persons, six men and an old woman, -were crucified in Ozaka on suspicion of being Christians and -communicating with foreigners. When the French brethren of the Mission -Apostolique of Paris came to Nagasaki in 1860, they found in the -villages around them over ten thousand people who held the faith of -their fathers of the seventeenth century.” - -The Portuguese were not the only race to attempt to open a permanent -trade with Japan. Captain John Saris, with three ships, left England in -April, 1611, with letters from King James I. to the “Emperor” (shogun) -of Japan. Landing at Hirado he was well received, and established a -factory in charge of Richard Cocks. The captain and a number of the -party visited Yeddo and other cities and obtained from the shogun a -treaty defining the privileges of trade, and signed Minamoto Iyeyasu. -After a tour of three months Saris arrived at Hirado again, having -visited Kioto, where he saw the splendid Christian churches and Jesuit -palaces. After discouraging attempts to open a trade with Siam, Corea -and China, and hostilities having broken out between them and the Dutch, -the English abandoned the project of permanent trade with Japan, and all -subsequent attempts to reopen it failed. - -[Illustration: - - JAPANESE GENERAL OF THE OLD TIME. - (_From a Native Drawing._) -] - -Will Adams, who was an English pilot, and the first of his nation in -Japan, arrived in 1607 and lived in Yeddo till he died thirteen years -later. He rose into favor with the shoguns and the people by the sheer -force of a manly, honest character. His knowledge of shipbuilding, -mathematics, and foreign affairs made him a very useful man. Although -treated with kindness and honor, he was not allowed to leave Japan. He -had a wife and daughter in England. Adams had a son and daughter born to -him in Japan, and there are still living Japanese who claim descent from -him. One of the streets of Yeddo was named after him, and the people of -that street still hold an annual celebration on the fifteenth of June in -his honor. - -The history of the two centuries and a half that followed the triumphs -of Iyeyasu is that of profound peace and stern isolation. We must pass -rapidly in review of them. This great shogun took pains to arrange the -empire after the appointment to the office, in such a way that the -shoguns of the Tokugawa family, the dynasty which he founded, should -have strictest power and most certain descent. His sons and daughters -were married where they would be most powerful in influence with the -great families of daimios. It must not be forgotten that Iyeyasu and his -successor were both in theory and in reality vassals of the emperor, -though they assumed protection of the imperial person. Neither the -shogun nor the daimios were acknowledged at Kioto as nobles of the -empire. The lowest kuge, or noble, was above the shogun in rank. The -shogun could obtain his appointment only from the mikado. He was simply -the most powerful among the daimios, who had won that pre-eminence by -the sword, and who by wealth and power and a skillfully wrought plan of -division of land among the other daimios was able to rule. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE BRIDGE.] - -In 1600 and the years following, Iyeyasu employed an army of three -hundred thousand laborers in Yeddo improving and building the city. -Before the end of the century, Yeddo had a population of more than half -a million, but it never did have, as the Hollanders guessed and the old -text books told us, two million five hundred thousand souls. Outside of -Yeddo the strength of the great unifier was spent on public roads and -highways, post stations, bridges, castles and mines. He spent the last -years of his life engaged in erasing the scars of war by his policy of -conciliation, securing the triumphs of peace, perfecting his plans for -fixing in stability a system of government, and in collecting books and -manuscripts. He bequeathed his code of laws to his chief retainers, and -advised his sons to govern in the spirit of kindness. He died on the -eighth of March, 1616. - -The grandson of Iyeyasu, Iyemitsu, was another great shogun, and it was -he who established the rule that all the daimios should visit and reside -in Yeddo during half the year. Gradually these rules became more and -more restrictive, until the guests became mere vassals. Their wives and -children were kept as hostages in Yeddo. During his rule the Christian -insurrection and massacre at Shimabara took place. Yeddo was vastly -improved, with aqueducts, fire watch towers, the establishment of mints, -weights and measures. A general survey of the empire was executed; maps -of various provinces and plans of the daimios’ castles were made; the -councils called Hiojo-sho (discussion and decision), and Wakadoshiyori -(assembly of elders), were established and Corean envoys received. The -height of pride and ambition which this shogun had already reached, is -seen in the fact that in a letter of reply to Corea he is referred to as -Tai Kun, (“Tycoon”), a title never conferred by the mikado on any one, -nor had Iyemitsu any legal right to it. It was assumed in a sense -honorary or meaningless to any Japanese, unless highly jealous of the -mikado’s sovereignty, and was intended to overawe the Coreans. The -approximate interpretation of it is “great ruler.” - -Under the strong rule of the Tokugawa shoguns, therefore, the long -distracted Japanese empire at length enjoyed two-and-a-half centuries of -peace and prosperity. The innate love of art, literature, and education, -which almost constant warfare had prevented from duly developing among -the people, had now an opportunity of producing fruit. And as it had -shown itself in former intervals of rest, so was it now. Under the -patronage of Iyeyasu was composed the Dai Nihon Shi, the first detailed -history of Japan. Tsunayoshi, his successor, 1681 to 1709, founded at -Seido a Confucian university, and was such an enthusiast for literature -that he used to assemble the princes and high officials about him and -expound to them passages from the Chinese classics. Yoshimune, another -shogun, was much interested in astronomy and other branches of science, -beside doing much to improve agriculture. Legal matters also engaged his -attention; he altered Iyeyasu’s policy so far as to publish a revised -criminal code, and improved the administration of the law, forbidding -the use of torture except in cases where there was flagrant proof of -guilt. He built an astronomical observatory at Kanda and established at -his court a professorship of Chinese literature. - -Iyenori, shogun from 1787 to 1838, threw the classes of the Confucian -university open to the public. Every body from the nobility down to the -masses of the people began to appreciate literary studies. Maritime -commerce within the limits of the four seas was encouraged by the -shogun’s government, regular service of junks being established between -the principal ports. Nor must it be forgotten that to the Tokugawas is -due the foundation of the great modern city of Yeddo with its vast -fortifications and its triumphs of art in the shrines of Shiba and -Uyeno. It was at this period too that the matchless shrines of Nikko -were reared in memory of the greatness of Iyeyasu and Iyemitsu. The -successors of the former, the shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty, fourteen -in all, were with one exception buried alternately in the cemeteries of -Zozoji and Toyeizan, in the city districts of Shiba and Uyeno. - -But throughout all this period of peace and progress the light of the -outer world was excluded. The people made the best use of the light they -had, but after all it was but dim. The learning by rote of thousands of -Chinese characters, and the acquisition of skill in the composition of -Chinese and Japanese verse, were little worthy to be the highest -literary attainments possible to the most aspiring of the youth of -Japan. In the domain of art there was more that was inviting, but -scientific knowledge was tantalizingly meagre and that little was -overlaid with Chinese absurdities. When we consider that the isolation -of the country was due to no spirit of exclusiveness in the national -character, that indeed it was the result of a policy that actually went -against the grain of the people, how many restless spirits must there -have been during these long years, who kept longing for more light. -Fortunately there was one little chink at Deshima, in the harbor at -Nagasaki, and of this some of the more earnest were able to take -advantage. Many instances are recorded and there must be many more of -which we can know nothing, of Japanese students displaying the truest -heroism in surmounting the difficulties that lay in the way of their -acquiring foreign knowledge. Let us now see how there came at length an -unsettled dawn, and after the clouds of this had cleared, a dazzling -inpouring of the light. - -It was the American Union which opened the door of Japan to western -civilization. It had been desired by all of the European nations, as -well as by the United States, to obtain access to Japanese ports. -Supplies were frequently needed, particularly water and coal, but no -distress was ever considered a sufficient excuse for the Japanese to -permit the landing of a foreign vessel’s crew. Shipwrecked sailors -frequently passed through seasons of great trial and danger, before they -were restored to their own people. Even Japanese sailors who were -shipwrecked on other shores, or carried out to sea, were refused -re-admission to their own country when rescued by foreigners. - -Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry of the American navy, urged upon -President Millard Fillmore the necessity and possibility of making some -sort of a treaty with the exclusive empire. It was decided that the most -effective way to advance this desire was to sail into the bay of Yeddo -with a squadron sufficient to command respect. A fleet was assigned to -the undertaking, under the command of Perry, and the American vessels -sailed away to the Orient to rendezvous at the chief city of the Liu Kiu -islands, Napha. From Napha the fleet sailed for Japan, the Susquehanna, -the flagship, the advance of the line of the ships of seventeen nations. - -[Illustration: BAPTISM OF BUDDHA.] - -It was on the seventh day of July, 1853, under a sky and over a sea of -perfect calm, that the four American warships appeared off Uraga in the -Bay of Yeddo. Without delay the officials of Uraga emphatically notified -the “barbarian” envoy that he must go to Nagasaki, where all business -with foreigners had to be done. The barbarian refused to go. He informed -the messengers that he was the bearer of a letter from the President of -the United States to the Emperor of Japan; that he had sailed as near as -possible to the destination of the letter and would now deliver it and -continue it on its way by land, but he would not retrace his path until -the letter was delivered. The shogun Iyeyoshi on receiving information -of such decision, was exceedingly troubled and called his officials to a -council. Alarm was wide spread, and it was ordered that strict watch -should be kept along the shore to prevent the barbarian vessels from -committing acts of violence. During the eight days while Commodore -Perry’s fleet was waiting in the Bay of Yeddo, the boats of his ships -were busily engaged in taking soundings and surveying the shores and the -anchorage. No sailors were permitted to land, and no natives were -molested. Every effort was made to indicate to the Japanese the desire -for a peaceful friendship. - -A learned Chinese scholar was sent by the shogun to Uraga, who acted as -an official and eminent interpreter in an interview with the American -envoy. Continued councils were called by the shogun, not only of his -chief officers but of the daimios, the nobles, and the retired nobles of -Yeddo. The citizens of Yeddo and the surrounding villages were in great -tumult, fearing that there would be a war, for which the country was -totally unprepared. Meanwhile the envoy was impatiently demanding an -answer. At last, after eight days, the patience and the impatience, -combined with the demonstrations made by the vessels of the fleet, which -were highly impressive to the Japanese who had never seen a steamboat, -won success for Commodore Perry’s message. A high Japanese commissioner -came to Uraga, prepared a magnificent pavilion for the ceremonies, and -announced himself ready to receive the letter to the emperor. With great -pomp and ceremony the Americans landed and in this pavilion with proper -formalities, delivered the letter and presents from the president. Then -having, for the first time in history, gained several important points -of etiquette in a country where etiquette was more than law or morals, -the splendid diplomat and warrior Perry sailed away with his fleet July -17, 1853. - -It was in response to a temporizing policy on the part of Japan, and to -the good judgment and careful decision of Commodore Perry, that the -fleet sailed away without demanding an immediate reply to his letter. -The American envoy was informed that in a matter of so much importance a -decision could not be at once reached, and that if he now left, he would -on his return get a definite answer. No wonder there was commotion. The -nineteenth century had come suddenly into contact with the fourteenth. -The spirit of commerce and the spirit of feudalism, two great but -conflicting forces, met in their full development, and the result was -necessarily a convulsion. We are hardly surprised to hear that the -shogun died before Commodore Perry’s return, or that during the next few -years the land was harassed by earthquakes and pestilences. - -Perry’s second appearance was in February, 1854, this time with a much -larger fleet. A hot debate took place in the shogun’s council as to the -answer that should be given. The old daimio of Mito, the head of one of -the three families, which, forming the Tokugawa clan, furnished the -occupants of the shogunate, wanted to fight and settle the question once -for all. “At first,” he said, “they will give us philosophical -instruments, machinery and other curiosities; will take ignorant people -in; and trade being their chief object they will manage to impoverish -the country, after which they will treat us just as they like, perhaps -behave with the greatest rudeness and insult us, and end by swallowing -up Japan. If we do not drive them away now we shall never have another -opportunity.” - -Others gave contrary advice, saying, “If we try to drive them away they -will immediately commence hostilities, and then we shall be obliged to -fight. If we once get into a dispute we shall have an enemy to fight who -will not be easily disposed of. He does not care how long he will have -to spend over it, but he will come with myriads of men-of-war and -surround our shores completely; however large a number of ships we might -destroy, he is so accustomed to that sort of thing that he would not -care in the least. In time the country would be put to an immense -expense and the people plunged into misery. Rather than allow this, as -we are not the equals of foreigners in the mechanical arts, let us have -intercourse with foreign countries, learn their drill and tactics, and -when we have made the nation as united as one family, we shall be able -to go abroad and give lands in foreign countries to those who have -distinguished themselves in battle.” - -The latter view carried and a treaty with the United States was signed -on the thirty-first of March, 1854. Now be it observed that the shogun -did this without the sanction of the mikado, whom indeed he had never -yet consulted on the matter, and that he subscribed himself Tai Kun, -(“Tycoon,”) or great ruler, a title to which he had no right and which -if it meant anything at all involved an assumption of the authority of -supreme ruler in the empire. This was the view naturally taken by Perry -and by the ambassadors from European countries who a few years later -obtained treaties with Japan. They were under the impression that they -were dealing with the emperor; and hearing of the existence of another -potentate living in an inland city, surrounded with a halo of national -veneration, they conceived the plausible but erroneous theory that the -tycoon was the temporal sovereign, and this mysterious mikado the -spiritual sovereign of the country. They little dreamed that the -so-called tycoon was no sovereign at all, and that consequently the -treaties which he signed had no legal validity. - -The shogun could ill afford thus to lay himself open to the charge of -treason. From the first there had been a certain class of daimios who -had never heartily submitted to the Tokugawa administration. The -principal clans which thus submitted to the regime under protest against -what they considered a usurpation, an encroachment on the authority of -the mikado, whom alone they recognized as the divinely appointed ruler -of Japan, were those of Satsuma, Choshiu, and Tosa. As the years of -peace cast their spell over the nation, making the people forgetful of -war and transforming the descendants of Iyeyasu into luxurious idlers, -much more like impotent mikados than successors of the energetic soldier -and law-giver, their hopes more and more arose that an opportunity would -be given them to overthrow the shogunate and bring about the unification -of the empire at the hands of the mikado. Their time had now come. The -shogun was enervated and he had so far forgotten himself as to open the -country to foreign trade, without the sanction of the “Son of Heaven.” -It was this illegal act of the shogun that precipitated the confusion, -violence and disaster of the next few years, reaching ultimately in 1868 -to the complete overthrow of his own power and the restoration of the -mikado to his rightful position as actual as well as nominal ruler of -the empire. - -Fearing the consequences of the illegal act into which he had been -driven, the shogun lost no time in sending messengers to Kioto to inform -the mikado of what had happened and seek his sanction to the policy -adopted. It was plead in excuse for the course of conduct, that affairs -had reached such a condition that the shogun was driven to sign the -treaty. The emperor in great agitation summoned a council. The decision -was unanimous against the shogun’s action, and the messengers were -informed that no sanction could be given to the treaty. The next -important step was not taken until July, 1858, when Lord Elgin arrived -with propositions on the part of Great Britain for a treaty of amity and -commerce. He was unaccompanied by any armed force, and brought a steam -yacht as a present from Queen Victoria to the tycoon of Japan. - -A few months later treaties were entered into with all the leading -powers of Europe, but if there was a political lull between 1854 and -1858, the poor Japanese had distractions of a very different kind. From -a violent earthquake and consequent conflagration, one hundred and four -thousand of the inhabitants of Yeddo lost their lives. A terrific storm -swept away one hundred thousand more, and in a visitation of cholera -thirty thousand persons perished in Yeddo alone. Moreover, just when the -treaties were being signed, the shogun Iyesada died, “as if,” says Sir -R. Alcock, “a further victim was required for immolation on the altar of -the outraged gods of Japan.” - -The political tempest that had been gathering now swept over the nation. -For the next ten years there was so much disorder, intrigue, and -bloodshed, that Japan became among the western nations a byword for -treachery and assassination. Defenseless foreigners were cut down in the -streets of Yeddo and Yokohama and even in the legations. Twice was the -British legation attacked, on one of the occasions being taken by storm -and held for a time by a band of free-lances. No foreigner’s life was -safe. Even when out on the most trivial errand, every foreign resident -was accompanied by an armed escort furnished by the shogun’s government. -It is needless to give an account of all the different assassinations, -successful or attempted, which darkened the period. The secretary to the -American legation was cut down near Shiba, Yeddo, when returning from -the Prussian legation with an armed escort; a Japanese interpreter -attached to the British legation was fatally stabbed in broad daylight -while standing at the legation flagstaff; one of the guard at the same -legation murdered two Englishmen in the garden and then committed -suicide; an Englishman was cut down on the highway between Yokohama and -Yeddo by certain retainers of the daimio of Satsuma, whose procession he -had unwittingly crossed on horseback; and these were not all. - -It is not a satisfactory answer to say that hatred of foreigners was the -leading motive that inspired all these acts of violence. This was no -doubt more or less involved, but the true explanation is to be found in -the hostility of the mikado’s partisans to the shogun’s government. All -possible means were taken to thwart the shogun and bring him into -complications with the ambassadors at his court. Every attack on a -foreigner brought fresh trouble upon the Yeddo government and hastened -its collapse. Long before foreigners arrived, the seeds of revolution -had sprouted and their growth was showing above the soil. It is to the -state of political parties and of feudalism at this epoch in Japanese -history, and not to mere ill will against foreigners, that this policy -of intrigue and assassination must be ascribed. - -It would take too long to discuss all the complications of this period -and to inquire, for instance, how far when the Japanese government -failed to arrest and execute the murderer of Mr. Richardson, the British -were justified in demanding an indemnity of $500,000 from the shogun and -$125,000 from the daimio of Satsuma, or in enforcing their demands with -a threatened bombardment of Yeddo and an actual bombardment of -Kagoshima. It is out of our scope here to inquire into the shelling of -the batteries of the daimio of Choshiu, at Shimonoseki, in turn by the -Americans, British, French and Dutch, the men of Choshiu having fired -upon some Dutch, American, and French vessels that had entered the -straits against the prohibition of the Japanese. An indemnity of -$3,000,000 was also exacted and distributed among these nations. - -Such stern measures doubtless appeared to the foreign ambassadors -necessary to prevent the expulsion or even the utter extermination of -foreigners. Whether their policy was mistaken or not, certain it is that -they can have had no adequate conception of the difficulties with which -the shogun had to contend. The position of that ruler was one of such -distraction as might well evoke for him the pity of every disinterested -onlooker. Do as he would, he could not escape trouble; on the one side -were the mikado’s partisans ever growing in power and in determination -to crush him, and on the other were the equally irresistible foreigners -with their impatient demands and their alarming threats. He was as -helpless as a man between a wall of rock and an advancing tide. - -The internal difficulties of the country were increased by dissensions -which broke out in the imperial court. The clans of Satsuma and Choshiu -had been summoned to Kioto to preserve order. For some reason the former -were relieved of this duty, or rather privilege, and it therefore -devolved exclusively upon the Choshiu men. Taking advantage of their -position, the Choshiu men persuaded the mikado to undertake a progress -to the province of Yamato, there to proclaim his intention of taking the -field against foreigners; but this proposal roused the jealousy of the -other clans at the imperial court, as they feared that the men of -Choshiu were planning to obtain possession of the mikado’s person and -thus acquire pre-eminence. The intended expedition was abandoned, and -the men of Choshiu, accompanied by Sanjo, afterward prime minister of -the reformed government, and six other nobles who had supported them, -were banished from Kioto. - -The ill feeling thus occasioned between Choshiu and Satsuma, was -fomented by an unfortunate incident which occurred at Shimonoseki early -in 1864. The former clan recklessly fired upon a vessel, which being of -European build they mistook for a foreign one, but which really belonged -to Satsuma. Thus Choshiu was in disfavor both with the shogun and with -the mikado, and in this year we have the strange spectacle of these two -rulers leaguing their forces together for its punishment. August 20, -1864, the Choshiu men advanced upon Kioto, but were repulsed with much -slaughter, only however after the greater part of the city had been -destroyed by fire. The rebellion was not at once quelled; indeed the -Choshiu samurai were proving themselves more than a match for the troops -which the shogun had sent against them, when at length the imperial -court ordered the fighting to be abandoned. Simultaneously with the -Choshiu rebellion the shogun had to meet an insurrection by the daimio -of Mito, in the east. His troubles no doubt hastened his death, which -took place at Osaka in September, 1866, shortly before the war against -Choshiu terminated. Then there succeeded Keiki, the last of the shoguns. - -It should be noted, however, that before this the mikado’s sanction had -been obtained to the foreign treaties. In November, 1865, British, -French, and Dutch squadrons came to anchor off Hiogo, of which the -foreign settlement of Kobe is now a suburb, and sent letters to Kioto -demanding the imperial consent. The nearness of such an armed force was -too great an argument to be withstood, and the demand was granted. -Little more than a year after his accession to the shogunate Keiki -resigned. In doing so he proved himself capable of duly appreciating the -national situation. Now that foreigners had been admitted, it was more -necessary than ever that the government should be strong, and this, it -was seen, was impossible without the abolition of the old dual system. -He had secured the mikado’s consent to the treaties, on the condition -that they should be revised, and that Hiogo should never be opened as a -port of foreign commerce. - -But the end had not yet come. On the same day when the shogunate was -abolished, January 3, 1868, the forces friendly to the Tokagawas were -dismissed from Kioto, and the guardianship of the imperial palace was -committed to the clans of Satsuma, Tosa, and Geishiu. This measure gave -Keiki great offense, and availing himself of a former order of the court -which directed him to continue the conduct of affairs, he marched with -his retainers and friends to Ozaka and sent a request to the mikado that -all Satsuma men who had any share in the government should be dismissed. -To this the court would not consent, and Keiki marched against Kioto -with a force of thirty thousand men, his declared object being to remove -from the mikado his bad counselors. A desperate engagement took place at -Fushimi, in which the victory was with the loyalists. But this was only -the beginning of a short but sharp civil war, of which the principal -fighting was in the regions between Yeddo and Nikko. - -The restoration was at last complete. Proclamation was made “to -sovereigns of all foreign nations and their subjects, that permission -had been granted to the shogun Yoshinobu, or Keiki, to return the -governing power in accordance with his own request;” and the manifesto -continued: “henceforward we shall exercise supreme authority both in the -internal and external affairs of the country. Consequently the title of -emperor should be substituted for that of tycoon which had been hitherto -employed in the treaties.” Appended were the seal of Dai Nippon, and the -signature of Mutsuhito, this being the first occasion in Japanese -history on which the name of an emperor had appeared during his -lifetime. - -With the triumph of the imperial party one might have expected a return -to the old policy of isolation. There can be no doubt that when the -Satsuma, Choshiu, and other southern clans commenced their agitation for -the abolition of the shogunate, their ideas with regard to foreign -intercourse were decidedly retrogressive. But after all, the leading -motive which inspired them was dissatisfaction with the semi-imperial -position occupied by the upstart Tokugawas; to this their opposition to -foreigners was quite secondary. It so happened that the Tokugawa shoguns -got involved with foreigners, and it was so much the worse for the -foreigners. To go deeper, what was at the bottom of this desire was the -overthrow of the shogunate. Doubtless their patriotism, what they had at -heart, was the highest welfare of their country, and this they believed -impossible without its unification. Their primary motive then, being -patriotism, we need not be surprised that they were willing to entertain -the notion that perhaps after all the prosperity of their country might -best be insured by the adoption of a policy of free foreign intercourse. -This idea more and more commended itself, until it became a conviction; -and when they got into power they astonished the world by the -thoroughness with which they broke loose from the old traditions and -entered upon a policy of enlightened reformation. To the political and -social revolution which accompanied the restoration of the mikado in -1868, there has been no parallel in the history of mankind. - -[Illustration: WOMAN OF COURT OF KIOTO.] - -One of the first acts of the mikado after the restoration, was to -assemble the kuges and daimios and make oath before them “that a -deliberative assembly should be formed, and all measures be decided upon -by public opinion; that impartiality and justice should form the basis -of his action; and that intellect and learning should be sought for -throughout the world in order to establish the foundations of the -empire.” In the mid-summer of 1868, the mikado, recognizing Yeddo as -really the center of the nation’s life, made it the capital of the -empire and transferred his court thither; but the name Yeddo, being -distasteful on account of its associations with the shogunate, was -abolished, and the city renamed Tokio, or “Eastern Capital.” At the same -time the ancient capital Kioto, received the new name of Saikio or -“Western Capital.” For the creation of a central administration, -however, more was necessary than the abolition of the shogunate and the -establishment of the mikado’s authority. The great fabric of feudalism -still remained intact. Within his own territory each daimio was -practically an independent sovereign, taxing his subjects as he saw fit, -often issuing his own currency, and sometimes even granting passports so -as to control intercourse with neighboring provinces. Here was a -formidable barrier to the consolidation of the empire. But the reformers -had the courage and the tact necessary to remove it. - -The first step towards the above revolution was taken in 1869, when the -daimios of Satsuma, Choshiu, Hizen, and Tosa addressed a memorial to the -mikado requesting his authorization for the resignation of their fiefs -into his hands. Other nobles followed their example, and the consequence -was the acceptance by the mikado of control over the land and revenues -of the different provinces, the names of the clans however being still -preserved, and the daimios allowed to remain over them as governors, -each with one-tenth of the former assessment of his territory as rental. -By this arrangement the evil of too suddenly terminating the relation -between the clans and their lords was sought to be avoided, but it was -only temporary; in 1871 the clan system was totally abolished, and the -country redivided for administrative purposes, with officers chosen -irrespectively of hereditary rank or clan connection. - -But the payment of hereditary pensions and allowances of the ex-daimios -and ex-samurai proved such a drain upon the national resources that in -1876 the reformed government found it necessary to compulsorily convert -them into capital sums. The rate of commutation varied from five years’ -purchase in the case of the largest pensions, to fourteen years’ in that -of the smallest. The number of the pensioners with whom they had thus to -deal was three hundred and eighteen thousand four hundred and -twenty-eight. The act of the daimios in thus suppressing themselves -looks at first sight like a grand act of self-sacrifice, as we are not -accustomed to see landed proprietors manifesting such disinterestedness -for the patriotic object of advancing their country’s good. But the vast -majority of daimios had come to be mere idlers, as the greater mikado -had been. Their territories were governed by the more able and energetic -of their retainers, and it was a number of these men that had most -influence in bringing about the restoration of the mikado’s authority. -Intense patriots, they saw that the advancement of their country could -not be realized without its unification, and at the same time they -cannot but have preferred a larger scope for their talents, which -service immediately under the mikado would give them. From being -ministers of their provincial governments, they aspired to be ministers -of the imperial government. They were successful; and their lords, who -had all along been accustomed to yield to their advice quite cheerfully, -acquiesced when asked for the good of the empire to give up their fiefs -to the mikado. One result of this is that while most of the ex-daimios -have retired into private life, the country is now governed almost -exclusively by ex-samurai. Such sweeping changes were not to be -accomplished without rousing opposition and even rebellion. The -government incurred much risk in interfering with the ancient privileges -of the samurai. It is not surprising that several rebellions had to be -put down during the years immediately succeeding 1868. - -Dr. William Elliot Griffis, in his exhaustive and interesting work, “The -Mikado’s Empire,” discusses at length the change of Japan from feudalism -to its present condition, the abolition of the shogunate, and the -rebellions that followed that event. He declares that popular impression -to be wrong which suggests that the immediate cause of the fall of the -shogun’s government, the restoration of the mikado to supreme power, and -the abolition of the dual and feudal systems, was the presence of -foreigners on the soil of Japan. The foreigners and their ideas were the -occasion, not the cause, of the destruction of the dual system of -government. Their presence served merely to hasten what was already -inevitable. - -The history of Japan from the abolition of feudalism in 1871 up to the -present time, is a record of advance in all the arts of western -civilization. The mikado, Mutsuhito, has shown himself to be much more -than a petty divinity, a real man. He has taken a firm stand in advocacy -of the introduction of western customs, wherever they were improvements. -The imperial navy, dockyards, and machine shops have been a pride to -him. He has withdrawn himself from mediæval seclusion and assumed -divinity, and has made himself accessible and visible to his subjects. -He has placed the empress in a position like to that occupied by the -consorts of European monarchs, and with her he has adopted European -attire. In the latter part of June, 1872, the mikado left Tokio in the -flagship of Admiral Akamatsu, and made a tour throughout the south and -west of his empire. For the first time in twelve centuries the emperor -of Japan moved freely and unveiled among his subjects. - -[Illustration: CHINESE COOLIE.] - -Again in the same year Japan challenged the admiration of Christendom. -The coolie trade, carried on by Portuguese at Macao, in China, between -the local kidnappers and Peru and Cuba, had long existed in defiance of -the Chinese government. Thousands of ignorant Chinese were yearly -decoyed from Macao and shipped in sweltering shipholds, under the name -of “passengers.” In Cuba and Peru their contracts were often broken, -they were cruelly treated, and only a small portion of them returned -alive to tell their wrongs. The Japanese government had with a fierce -jealousy watched the beginning of such a traffic on their own shores. In -the last days of the shogunate, coolie traders came to Japan to ship -irresponsible hordes of Japanese coolies and women to the United States. -To their everlasting shame, be it said some were Americans. Among the -first things done by the mikado’s government after the restoration, was -the sending of an official who effected the joyful delivery of these -people and their return to their homes. - -So the Japanese set to work to destroy this nefarious traffic. The -Peruvian ship Maria Luz, loaded with Chinese, entered the port of -Yokohama. Two fugitive coolies in succession swam to the English war -ship Iron Duke. Hearing the piteous story of their wrongs, Mr. Watson, -the British chargé d’affaires, called the attention of the Japanese -authorities to these illegal acts in their waters. A protracted enquiry -was instituted and the coolies landed. The Japanese refused to force -them on board against their will, and later shipped them to China, a -favor which was gratefully acknowledged by the Chinese government. This -act of a pagan nation achieved a grand moral victory for the world and -humanity. Within four years the coolie traffic, which was but another -name for the slave trade, was abolished from the face of the earth, and -the coolie prisons of Macao were in ruins. Yet the act of freeing the -Chinese coolies in 1872 was done in the face of clamor and opposition, -and a rain of protests from the foreign consuls, ministers, and a part -of the press. Abuse and threats and diplomatic pressure were in vain. -The Japanese never wavered, but marched straight to the duty before -them, the liberation of the slaves. The British chargé and the American -consul, Colonel Charles O. Shepherd, alone gave hearty support and -unwavering sympathy to the right side. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE GYMNASTS—KIOTO.] - -During the same year, 1872, two legations and three consulates were -established abroad, and from that time forward the number has been -increasing until the representatives of Japan’s government are found all -over the world. Scores of daily newspapers and hundreds of weeklies have -been furnishing the country with information and awakening thought. The -editors are often men of culture or students returned from abroad. - -The Corean war project had, in 1872, become popular in the cabinet and -was the absorbing theme of the army and navy. During the Tokugawa period -Corea had regularly sent embassies of homage and congratulation to -Japan; but not relishing the change of affairs in 1868, disgusted at the -foreignizing tendencies of the mikado’s government, incensed at Japan’s -departure from Turanian ideals, and emboldened by the failure of the -French and American expeditions, Corea sent insulting letters taunting -Japan with slavish truckling to the foreign barbarians, declared herself -an enemy, and challenged Japan to fight. About this time a Liu Kiu junk -was wrecked on eastern Formosa. The crew was killed by the savages, and, -it is said, eaten. The Liu Kiuans appealed to their tributary lords at -Satsuma, who referred the matter to Tokio. English, Dutch, American, -German, and Chinese ships have from time to time been wrecked on this -cannibal coast, the terror of the commerce of Christendom. Their war -ships vainly attempted to chastise the savages. Soyejima, with others, -conceived the idea of occupying the coast, to rule the wild tribes, and -of erecting light houses in the interests of commerce. China laid no -claim to eastern Formosa, all trace of which was omitted from the maps -of the “Middle Kingdom.” In the spring of 1873, Soyejima went to Peking -and there, among other things granted him, was an audience with the -Chinese emperor. He thus reaped the results of the diplomatic labors of -half a century. The Japanese ambassador stood upright before the “Dragon -Face” and the “Dragon Throne,” robed in the tight black dress-coat, -trousers, and linen of western civilization, bearing the congratulations -of the young mikado of the “Sunrise Kingdom” to the youthful emperor of -the “Middle Kingdom.” In the Tsung-li Yamen, Chinese responsibility over -eastern Formosa was disavowed, and the right of Japan to chastise the -savages granted. A Japanese junk was wrecked on Formosa, and its crew -stripped and plundered while Soyejima was absent in China. This event -piled fresh fuel on the flames of the war feeling now popular even among -the unarmed classes. - -[Illustration: FORMOSAN TYPE.] - -Japan at this time had to struggle with opposition within and without, -to every move in the direction of advancement in civilization. Says -Griffis, “At home were the stolidly conservative peasantry backed by -ignorance, superstition, priestcraft, and political hostility. On their -own soil they were fronted by aggressive foreigners who studied all -Japanese questions through the spectacles of dollars and cents and -trade, and whose diplomatists too often made the principles of Shylock -their system. Outside the Asiatic nations beheld with contempt, jealousy -and alarm the departure of one of their number from Turanian ideas, -principles, and civilization. China with ill-concealed anger, Corea with -open defiance taunted Japan with servile submission to the ‘foreign -devils.’ - -“For the first time the nation was represented to the world by an -embassy at once august and plenipotentiary. It was not a squad of petty -officials or local nobles going forth to kiss a toe, to play the part of -figure-heads, or stool-pigeons, to beg the aliens to get out of Japan, -to keep the scales on foreign eyes, to buy gun-boats, or to hire -employees. A noble of highest rank, and blood of immemorial antiquity, -with four cabinet ministers, set out to visit the courts of the fifteen -nations having treaties with Dai Nippon. They were accompanied by -commissioners representing every government department, sent to study -and report upon the methods and resources of foreign civilizations. They -arrived in Washington February 29, 1872, and for the first time in -history a letter signed by the mikado was seen outside of Asia. It was -presented by the ambassadors, robed in their ancient Yamato costume, to -the President of the United States on the 4th of March, Mr. Arinori Mori -acting as interpreter. The first president of the free republic, and the -men who had elevated the eta to citizenship stood face to face in -fraternal accord. The one hundred and twenty-third sovereign of an -empire in its twenty-sixth centennial saluted the citizen ruler of a -nation whose century aloe had not yet bloomed. On the 6th of March they -were welcomed on the floor of Congress. This day marked the formal -entrance of Japan upon the theater of universal history.” - -In its subordinate objects the embassy was a signal success. Much was -learned of Christendom. The results at home were the splendid series of -reforms which mark the year 1872 as epochal. But in its prime object the -embassy was an entire failure. One constant and supreme object was ever -present, beyond amusement or thirst for knowledge. It was to ask that in -the revision of the treaties the extra-territoriality clause be stricken -out, that foreigners be made subject to the laws of Japan. The failure -of the mission was predicted by all who knew the facts. From Washington -to St. Petersburg point-blank refusal was made. No Christian governments -would for a moment trust their people to pagan edicts and prisons. While -Japan slandered Christianity by proclamations, imprisoned men for their -beliefs, knew nothing of trial by jury, of the habeas corpus writ, or of -modern jurisprudence; in short while Japan maintained the institutions -of barbarism, they refused to recognize her as a peer among nations. - -At home the watchword was progress. Public persecution for conscience' -sake vanished. All the Christians torn from their homes and exiled and -imprisoned in 1868 were set free and restored to their native villages. -Education advanced rapidly, public decency was improved, and the -standards of Christendom attempted. - -While in Europe Iwakura and his companions in the embassy kept cognizant -of home affairs. With eyes opened by all that they had seen abroad, -mighty results, but of slow growth, they saw their country going too -fast. Behind the war project lay an abyss of ruin. On their return the -war scheme brought up in a cabinet meeting was rejected. The -disappointment of the army was keen and that of expectant foreign -contractors pitiable. The advocates of war among the cabinet ministers -resigned and retired to private life. Assassins attacked Iwakura, but -his injuries did not result fatally. The spirit of feudalism was against -him. - -On the 17th of January, the ministers who had resigned sent in a -memorial praying for the establishment of a representative assembly in -which the popular wish might be discussed. Their request was declined. -It was officially declared that Japan was not ready for such -institutions. Hizen, the home of one of the great clans of the coalition -of 1868, was the chief seat of disaffection. With perhaps no evil -intent, Eto, who had been the head of the department of justice, had -returned to his home there and was followed by many of his clansmen. -Scores of officials and men assembled with traitorous intent, and raised -the cry of “On to Corea.” The rebellion was annihilated in ten days. A -dozen ringleaders were sent to kneel before the blood pit. The national -government was vindicated and sectionalism crushed. - -[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO NAGASAKI HARBOR.] - -The Formosan affair was also brought to a conclusion. Thirteen hundred -Japanese soldiers occupied the island for six months, conquering the -savages wherever they met, building roads and fortifications. At last -the Chinese government in shame began to urge their claims on Formosa -and to declare the Japanese intruders. For a time war seemed inevitable. -The man for the crisis was Okubo, a leader in the cabinet, the master -spirit in crushing the rebellion, and now an ambassador at Peking. The -result was that the Chinese paid in solid silver an indemnity of -$700,000 and the Japanese disembarked. Japan single-handed, with no -foreign sympathy, but with positive opposition, had in the interests of -humanity rescued a coast from terror and placed it in a condition of -safety. In the face of threatened war a nation having but one-tenth the -population, area, or resources of China, had abated not a jot of its -just demands nor flinched from battle. The righteousness of her cause -was vindicated. - -The Corean affair ended happily. In 1875 Kuroda Kiyotaka with men of war -entered Corean waters. Patience, skill, and tact were crowned with -success. On behalf of Japan a treaty of peace, friendship, and commerce -was made between the two countries February 27, 1876. Japan thus -peacefully opened this last of the hermit nations to the world. - -The rebellions which we have mentioned were of a mild type compared with -that which in 1877 shook the government to its foundations. In the -limits of our space it is impossible to enter deeply into the causes of -the Satsuma rebellion. Its leader, Saigo Takamori, was one of the most -powerful members of the reformed government until 1873 when he resigned -as some of his predecessors had done, indignant at the peace policy -which was pursued. A veritable Cincinnatus, he seems to have won the -hearts of all classes around him by the Spartan simplicity of his life -and the affability of his manner, and there was none more able or more -willing to come to the front when duty to his country called him. It is -a thousand pities that such a genuine patriot should have sacrificed -himself through a mistaken notion of duty. Ambition to maintain and -extend the military fame of his country seems to have blinded him to all -other more practical considerations. The policy of Okubo and the rest of -the majority in the cabinet, with its regard for peace and material -prosperity, was in his eyes unworthy of the warlike traditions of old -Japan. But we cannot follow out the story of this famous rebellion—how -Saigo established a private school in his native city of Kagoshima for -the training of young Shizoku in military tactics, how the reports of -the policy of the government more and more dissatisfied him, until a -rumor that Okubo had sent policemen to Kagoshima to assassinate him -precipitated the storm that had been brewing. This report was not -supported by satisfactory evidence, although the Kagoshima authorities -extorted a so-called confession from a policeman. Okubo was too noble to -be guilty of such an act. It was only after eight months of hard -fighting, during which victory swayed from one side to another, and the -death of Saigo and his leading generals when surrounded at last like -rats in a trap, and the expenditure of over forty million yen, that the -much tried government could freely draw breath again. The people of -Satsuma believe that Saigo’s spirit has taken up its abode in the planet -Mars, and that his figure may be seen there when that star is in the -ascendant. - -By this time railways, telegraphs, lighthouse service, and a navy were -well under construction in native works. Two national exhibitions were -held, one in 1877 and the second in 1881; the latter particularly was a -pretentious one and a great success. In 1879 Japan annexed the Liu Kiu -islands, bringing their king to Tokio, there to live as a vassal, and -reducing the islands to the position of a prefecture in spite of the -warlike threats of China. In the same year occurred the visit to Japan -of General Grant while he was on his tour around the world. The famous -American was entertained most enthusiastically by the citizens of Tokio -for some two weeks in July. The enthusiasm awakened by his visit among -the citizens was remarkable. Arches and illuminations were on every hand -for miles. The entertainment provided by the Japanese for their -distinguished guests at any time is so unique when seen by western eyes -that it is always impressive and delightful. - - - - - LIMITS AND POSSESSIONS OF THE JAPANESE EMPIRE. - - -------------- - -The Islands and their Situation—The Famous Mountain Fuji-yama—Rivers and -Canals—Ocean Currents and Their Effect on the Japanese Climate—Japan not -a Tropical Country—Flora and Fauna—The Important Cities—Strange History -of Yokohama—Commerce—Mining—Agricultural Products—Ceramic Art—Government -of the Realm. - - -The empire of Japan is a collection of islands of various dimensions, -numbering nearly four thousand, and situated to the east of the Asiatic -continent. Only four of these however, are of size sufficient to entitle -them to considerable fame, and around these a sort of belt of defense is -formed by the thousands of islets. Dai Nippon is the name given by the -natives to their beautiful land, and from this expression, which means -Great Japan, our own name for the empire has been taken. Foreign writers -have very often blundered in calling the largest island Nippon or -Niphon. This more properly applies to the entire empire, while the main -island is named in the military geography of Japan, Hondo. This word -itself means main land. The other three important islands are Kiushiu, -the most southeasterly of all; Shikoku, which lies between the latter -and Hondo; and Yesso, which is the most northerly of the chain. - -Japan occupies an important position on the surface of the globe, -measured by political and commercial possibilities. Its position is such -that its people may not unreasonably hope to form a natural link between -the Occident and the Orient. Lying in the Pacific Ocean, in the -temperate zone and not in the torrid, as many have the thought, it bends -like a crescent off the continent of Asia. In the extreme north, near -the island of Saghalien, the distance from the main land of Asia is so -short that it is little more than a day’s sail in a junk. At the -southern extremity, where Kiushiu draws nearest to the Corean peninsula, -the distance to the main land is even less. Between this crescent of -islands and the Asiatic main land is enclosed the Sea of Japan. For more -than four thousand miles eastward stretches the Pacific Ocean, with no -stopping point for steamers voyaging to San Francisco unless they -diverge far from their course for a call at Honolulu. - -The island connections of Japan are numerous. To the south are the Liu -Kiu islands, which have been annexed to Japan, and still farther the -great island of Formosa. To the north are the Kurile islands, which -extend far above Yesso and were ceded to Japan by Russia in return for -Saghalien, over which rule was formerly disputed. The chain is almost -continuous, although broken and irregular, to Kamtchatka, and thence -prolonged by the Aleutian islands in an enormous semicircle to Alaska -and our own continent. - -The configuration of the land is that resulting from the combined -effects of volcanic action and wave erosion. The area of the Japanese -islands is about one hundred and fifty thousand square miles, or nearly -as great as the New England and Middle States. But of this surface -nearly two-thirds consists of mountain land, much of it still lying -waste and uncultivated though apparently capable of tillage. On the main -island a solid backbone of mountainous elevations runs through a great -portion of its length, with subordinate chains extending at right angles -and rising again in the other islands. The mountains decrease in height -towards the south and there are few highlands along the sea coast. The -range is reached by a gradual rise from the sea, until the backbone of -the great island chain is reached. Japan rises abruptly from the sea, -and deep water begins very close to the shore, indicating that the -entire range of islands may be properly characterized as an immense -mountain chain thrown up from the bottom of the ocean. The highest peak -is Fuji-yama, which rises to a height of more than twelve thousand feet -above the sea. It is a wonderfully beautiful mountain, and is the first -glimpse that one has of land in approaching Yokohama from the Pacific -Ocean. Of the position which this mountain occupies in the affections -and traditions of the Japanese, mention will be made in a later chapter. - -The islands forming the empire of Japan are comprehended in these -limits; between twenty-four degrees and fifty-one degrees north -latitude, and one hundred and twenty-four degrees and one hundred and -fifty-seven degrees east longitude. That is, speaking roughly, it lies -diagonally in and north of the subtropical belt, and has northern points -corresponding with Paris and Newfoundland, and southern ones -corresponding with Cairo and the Bermuda islands; or coming nearer home, -it corresponds pretty nearly in latitude with the eastern coast line of -the United States, added to Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and the -contrasts of climate in the latter island and in Florida are probably -not more remarkable than those which are observed in the extreme -northern and southern regions of Japan. - -[Illustration: FUJI-YAMA.] - -The most striking geographical feature of Japan is the Inland Sea, which -is one of the beauties of the world. It is a long, irregularly shaped -arm of the sea, with tides and rapid currents, of variable width and no -great depth, studded with innumerable thickly wooded islands. It is the -water area which separates Hondo from Shikoku and Kiushiu, and is often -spoken of as the Japanese Mediterranean. - -One or two of the rivers of Japan, such as the Sumida, on the banks of -which Tokio, the capital, lies, and which is about as broad as the East -River between New York and Brooklyn, are worthy of note. Here at the -present time are situated several ship yards, and many modern craft -built in the American fashion may be seen along the shore. Here it may -be mentioned that any particular appellation given to a river in Japan -holds good only for a limited part of its course, so that it changes its -name perhaps four or five times in flowing a few hundred miles. Indeed -the river which passes through the city of Ozaka changes its name four -times within the city limits. Most of the larger rivers in the main land -run a course tending almost north and south. The general contour of the -land is such that they must be short, but this direction gives them the -greatest length possible. There are brief periods of excessively heavy -rain, and they are often then in fierce flood, carrying everything -before them and leaving great plains of water-worn stones and gravel -around their mouths. There are many picturesque waterfalls which attract -travelers and command the admiration of native artists and poets. The -rivers at a short distance from their outlets are rendered navigable -chiefly by the courage and expertness of the boatmen,—who are among the -most daring and skillful in the world. - -Till recently little has been done to deepen river channels or protect -their banks, except in the interest of agriculture. In the lower -courses, where broad alluvial plains of great fertility have been -formed, they are frequently intersected by numerous shallow canals, for -the most part of comparatively recent excavation, but some of them are -many centuries old and these have been of immense service in keeping up -communication throughout the country. In spite of their shallowness and -rapid silting, some of the rivers of Japan are capable of being improved -so as to admit of the passage of steam vessels of the largest size, and -there are fine natural inlets and spacious bays which form harbors of -great excellence. - -The Japanese coast is usually steep and even precipitous. Its chief -natural features, such as sunken rocks, capes, straits, entrances to -bays and harbors and the mouths of rivers are now well marked with -beacons or lighthouses of modern construction. The tides are not great, -and in Yeddo bay the rise is only about four feet on an average. In -spring tides it rarely exceeds six feet, and in general the height of -the flood tide is never very great. Navigation in summer is somewhat -dangerous and difficult, owing to the mists and fogs which are deemed by -its sailors to be the great scourge of Japan. Indeed these malarious -cloud banks are probably as dangerous to the health of the landsmen as -they are to the safety of the mariner. While a large area of land lying -under shallow water, during rice cultivation, may have some share in the -formation of these dangerous mists, there is the more general cause -which is readily to be found in the ocean currents. - -Japan occupies a striking position in these currents which flow -northward from the Indian ocean and the Malay peninsula. That branch of -the great Pacific equatorial current called the Kuro Shiwo, or dark tide -or current, on account of its color, flows in a westerly direction past -Formosa and the Liu Kiu islands, striking the south point of Kiushiu and -sometimes in summer sending a branch up the Sea of Japan. With great -velocity it scours the east coast of Kiushiu and the south of Shikoku; -thence with diminished rapidity it envelopes the group of islands south -of the Bay of Yeddo; and at a point a little north of Tokio it leaves -the coast of Japan and flows northeast towards the shores of America, -ultimately giving to our own Pacific coast states a far milder climate -than the corresponding latitudes on the Atlantic coast. - -The yearly evaporation at the tropics, of fully fourteen or fifteen feet -of ocean water, causes the great equatorial current of the Pacific to -begin its flow. When the warm water reaches the colder waters to the -northward, condensation of the water-laden air takes place, with the -resulting formation of great cloud banks. The water appears to be of a -deep, almost indigo-blue color, whence the name given to the current by -the Japanese. Fish occur in great numbers where the Arctic current of -fresher, lighter, and cooler water meets the warm salt stream from the -south, amidst great commotion. The analogy of this great current to the -Gulf stream of the Atlantic is apparent, and there can be no doubt as to -its great influence on the climate of Japan. A difference of from twelve -to sixteen degrees may be observed in passing from its waters to the -cold currents from the north, and the effect of this on the atmosphere -is very marked. The sudden and severe changes of temperature are often -noticed on the southern coast of Japan and even in Yeddo bay. They are -evidently due to eddies or branch currents from the great streams of -cold and warm water which interweave themselves in the neighborhood. - -In the island of Yesso, the most northerly of the large ones, the -extremes of temperature are nearly as great as in New England. In the -vicinity of Tokio the winter is usually clear and mild, with occasional -sharp frosts and heavy falls of snow. In summer the heat is oppressive -for nearly three months. Even at night the heat remains so high that -sleep becomes almost impossible, the air being oppressive and no breeze -stirring. The greatest heat is usually from the middle of June to early -in September. The cold in winter is much more severe on the northwestern -coast, and the roads across the main island are often blocked with snow -for many months. In Yokohama the snow fall is light, not often exceeding -two or three inches. The ice seldom exceeds an inch in thickness. -Earthquake shocks are frequent, averaging more than one a month, but of -late years there have been none of great severity. - -The winds of Japan are at all seasons exceedingly irregular, frequently -violent, and subject to sudden changes. The northeast and easterly winds -are generally accompanied by rain, and are not violent. The southwest -and westerly winds are generally high, often violent, and accompanied -with a low barometer. It is from the southwest that the cyclones or -typhoons almost invariably come. On clear and pleasant days, which in -the neighborhood of Yokohama prevail in excess of foggy ones, there is a -regular land and sea breeze at all seasons. The rainfall is above the -average of most countries, and about two-thirds of the rainfalls during -the six months from April to October. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE IDOLS.] - -The flora of Japan is exceedingly interesting, not only to botanists and -specialists, but to casual travelers and readers. The useful bamboo -flourishes in all parts of the land; sugar cane and the cotton plant -grow in the southern part; tea is grown almost everywhere. The tobacco -plant, hemp, corn, mulberry for silkworm food, rice, wheat, barley, -millet, buckwheat, potatoes, and yams are all cultivated. The beech, the -oak, maples, and pine trees in rich variety; azaleas, camelias, etc., -grow in the forests. Some of the more characteristic plants are -wisteria, cryptomeria, calceolaria and chrysanthemums. Various varieties -of evergreens are grown, and the Japanese gardeners are peculiarly -expert in cultivating these trees in dwarf forms of great beauty. Many -familiar wild flowers can be gathered, such as violets, blue-bells, -forget-me-nots, thyme, dandelions, and others. The woods are rich in -ferns, among which the royal fern is conspicuous, and in orchids, ivies, -lichens, mosses and fungi. The beautiful locusts, though imported, may -now fairly be considered as naturalized. There are many water lilies, -reeds and rushes, some of which are of great beauty and others of -utility. - -The mammalia of Japan are not numerous. In ancient times, before the -dawn of history, two species of dwarf elephants existed in the plains -around Tokio. There are many monkeys in some parts, even in the extreme -northern latitudes. Foxes abound and are regarded with reverence. Wolves -and bears are destructive in the north. There are wild antelopes, red -deer, wild boars, dogs, raccoons, badgers, otters, ferrets, bats, moles, -and rats; while the sea is specially rich in seals, sea-otters, and -whales. The country has been found quite unsuitable for sheep, but goats -thrive well, although they are not much favored by the people. Oxen are -used for draught purposes. Horses are small but are fair quality, and -the breed is being improved. The cats are nearly tailless. The dogs are -of a low, half-wolfish breed. There are some three hundred varieties of -birds known in Japan. Few of them are what we call song-birds, but the -lark is one brilliant exception. Game birds are plentiful, but are now -protected. - -Insects are very numerous, as no traveler will dispute, and Japan is a -great field for investigation by entomologists. Locusts are often -destructive, and mosquitoes are a great pest. Bees, the silk worm and -the wax-insect are highly appreciated. - -There are several kinds of lizards, a great variety of frogs, seven or -eight snakes, including one deadly species, and two or three kinds of -tortoise. The crustaceans are numerous and interesting, and of fish -there is extraordinary variety, especially those found in salt water. -Oysters and clams are excellent and plentiful. - -Let us now turn to the temporal affairs of the people who dwell in this -island empire, their cities, their industries, and to their government. - -Japan like its oriental companion, China, is a country of great cities, -although the smaller empire has not so many famous for their size as has -China. With scarcely an exception these greater cities are situated at -the heads of bays, most of them good harbors and accessible for -commerce. The largest of these cities, of course, is the capital Tokio, -which doubtless passes a million inhabitants, although it is impossible -that it should justify the American tradition of not many years ago, -that its numbers were twice a million. Tokio, or the old city of Yeddo, -is situated near the head of Yeddo Bay, but a few miles from Yokohama, -and but little farther from Uraga where the first reception to Commodore -Perry was given. Among the other more important cities on the sea coast -are Nagasaki, Yokohama, Hakodate, Hiogo, Ozaka, Hiroshima, and Kanagawa. - -Nagasaki is situated on the southwest coast of the island of Kiushiu, -and is built in the form of an amphitheater. The European quarter in the -east, stands upon land reclaimed from the sea at considerable labor and -expense. Desima, the ancient Dutch factory, lies at the foot, and behind -it is the native part of the town. The whole is sheltered by high wooden -mountains. The city of Nagasaki was almost the first which attracted the -attention of foreigners, partly from its being already known by name -from the Dutch colony established there; partly because it was the -nearest point to China and a port of great beauty; and also because -before the political revolution which overthrew the power of the -shogunate, the daimios of the south were there enabled, owing to its -distance from Yeddo, to transact foreign affairs in their own way -unmolested. This comparative importance did not last long, for affairs -soon began to be concentrated in Yokohama, and the opening of the ports -of Hiogo and Ozaka further reduced it to a secondary rank among -commercial towns. It is still, however, a busy place and a great portion -of the navigation of the Japanese seas passes by its beautiful port. But -it is not a town of the future, and will be supplanted in prosperity to -considerable extent by the more northern cities. - -Yokohama, situated on the Gulf of Yeddo, owes its rise and importance to -the merchants who came to seek their fortunes in the empire of the -rising sun immediately after the signature of the treaties which threw -open the coasts of Japan to adventurous foreigners. When Perry, with his -augmented fleet, returned to Japan in February, 1854, the Japanese found -him as inflexibly firm as ever. Instead of making the treaty at Uraga he -must take it nearer Yeddo. Yokohama was the chosen spot, and there on -the 8th of March, 1854, were exchanged the formal articles of convention -between the United States and Japan. - -By the treaty of Yokohama, Shimoda was one of the ports opened to -Americans. Before it began to be of much service the place was visited -by an earthquake and tidal wave, which overwhelmed the town and ruined -the harbor. The ruin of Shimoda was the rise of Yokohama. By a new -treaty Kanagawa, three miles across the bay from Yokohama, was -substituted for Shimoda. The Japanese government decided to make -Yokohama the future port. Their reasons for this were many. Kanagawa was -on the line of the great highway of the empire, along which the proud -Daimios and their trains of retainers were continually passing. With the -antipathy to foreigners that existed, had Kanagawa been made a foreign -settlement, its history would doubtless have had many more pages of -assassination and incendiarism than did Yokohama. Foreseeing this, even -though considered by the foreign ministers a violation of treaty -agreements, the Japanese government immediately set to work to render -Yokohama as convenient as possible for trade, residence and espionage. - -They built a causeway nearly two miles long across the lagoons and -marshes to make it of easy access. They built granite piers, custom -house and officers’ quarters, and dwellings and store houses for the -foreign merchants. After a long quarrel over which should be the city, -the straggling colony of diplomats, missionaries, and merchants of -Kanagawa finally pulled up their stakes and joined the settlement of -Yokohama. Yokohama was settled in a squatter-like and irregular manner, -and the ill effects of it are seen to this day. When compared with -Shanghai, the foreign metropolis of China, it is vastly inferior. - -The town grew slowly at first. Murders and assassinations of foreigners -were frequent during the first few years. Diplomatic quarrels were -constant, and threats of bombardment from some foreign vessel in the -harbor of frequent occurrence. A fire which destroyed nearly the whole -foreign town seemed to purify the place municipally, commercially, and -morally. The settlement was rebuilt in a more substantial and regular -manner. As the foreign population grew, banks, newspaper offices, -hospitals, post-offices, and consulate buildings reappeared in a new -dignity. Fire and police protection were organized. Steamers began to -come from European ports and from San Francisco. Social life began as -ladies and children came, and houses became homes. Then came the rapid -growth of society and the finer things. Churches, theaters, clubs, -schools were organized in rapid succession. Telegraph connection with -Tokio, and thence around the globe, was accomplished, and the railway -system increased rapidly. Within the thirty-five years of the life of -Yokohama, it has grown from a fishing village of a few hundred to a city -of fifty thousand people. Its streets are lighted with gas and -electricity; its stores are piled full of rare silks, bronzes and -curios. At present the foreign population of Yokohama numbers about two -thousand residents. In addition to these the foreign transient -population, made up of tourists and officers and sailors of the navy, -and the merchant marine, numbers between three thousand and six -thousand. Several daily newspapers, beside weeklies and monthlies, -printed in English, furnish mediums of communication and news. Yokohama -has become and will remain the great mercantile center of American and -European trade in Japan. - -Hiogo, or rather Kobe, as the foreign part has been called since the -concession, is near Ozaka, both towns being situated on the inland Sea -of Japan, near the south end of the Island of Niphon. Kobe is a -considerable foreign settlement, with many fine houses and spacious -warehouses. Ozaka, which contains more than half a million inhabitants, -is one of the chief trading cities of Japan, and an immense proportion -of the merchandise imported into the empire passes through it. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE JUGGLERS.] - -The commerce between Japan and western nations, European and American, -increases year by year. England enjoys the profits from more than half -of the total interchange, the United States is second, with a large -portion of the remainder, and the rest of the commerce is divided among -Germany, France, Holland, Norway, and Sweden. It is impossible to obtain -figures recent enough to be a satisfactory index of the total volume of -commerce annually, but it is now very many millions of dollars a year. -Japan exports tobacco, rice, wax, tea, silks, and manufactured goods, -such as curios, bronzes, lacquer ware, etc. The principal imports of -Japan are cotton goods, manufactures of iron, machinery of all sorts, -woolen fabrics, flour, etc. - -Mining in Japan is seldom carried on by modern methods, and the mineral -wealth has not been developed as it will be within a few years. In -almost every portion of Japan are found ores of some kind and there is -scarcely a district in which there are not traces of mines having been -worked. No mines can be worked without special license of the -government, and foreigners are excluded from ownership in any mining -industry. Japan seems to be fairly well, though not richly, provided -with mineral wealth. The mines include those for gold, silver, copper, -lead, iron, tin, plumbago, antimony, arsenic, marble, sulphur, alum, -salt, coal, petroleum, and other minerals. - -The annual export of tea amounts to nearly thirty million pounds, of -which considerably more than half is shipped from Yokohama. All Japanese -tea is green and the United States is the chief customer for it. - -The exact area of Japan is not known, though it is computed at nearly -one hundred and fifty thousand square miles, with a population of more -than two hundred persons to a square mile. The number of acres under -cultivation is about nine million, or one-tenth of the entire area. Not -one-fourth of the fertile portion of Japan is yet under cultivation. -Immense portions of good land await the farmers’ plow and seed to return -rich harvests. For centuries the agricultural art has been at a -standstill. Population and acreage have increased, but the crop in bulk -and quantity remains the same. The true wealth of Japan consists in her -agricultural and not in her mineral and manufacturing resources. The -government and intelligent classes seem to be awakening to this fact. -The islands are capable of yielding good crops and adapted to support -the finest breeds of cattle. With these branches of industry increased -to the extent that they deserve, the prosperity of the empire will show -constant increase. - -The ceramic art of Japan and the art of the lacquer worker are two that -have helped to make Japanese wares famous in the western world. The -various wares of porcelain and faience are made in Japan in quality and -art inferior to none in the world. - -Since the restoration to power of the mikado in 1868, the government of -Japan has been growing nearer and nearer into the forms of western -monarchical governments. In a prior chapter the promise of the young -mikado to advance the freedom of his people, and ultimately to adopt -constitutional forms of rule, has been quoted. In the later years he has -been aiming for the fulfillment of this promise. Supporting him, the -party of progressionists, largely influenced by contact with European -and American civilization, urge on every reform. The present government -is simply the modernized form of the system established more than a -thousand years ago, when centralized monarchy succeeded simple -feudalism. After the emperor comes the Dai Jo Kuan, which is practically -a supreme cabinet, and following this, three other cabinets of varying -powers and duties. The council of ministers is made up of the heads of -departments, the foreign office, home office, treasury, army, navy, -education, religion, public works, judiciary, imperial household, and -colonization. The Dai Jo Kuan directs the three imperial cities and the -sixty-eight ken or prefectures. The provinces are now merely -geographical divisions. - -In the course of the efforts to bring the Japanese forms of government -more into harmony with those of Europe and America, many important -changes have been made. A system of nobility was devised, and titles -were granted to those who were considered to be entitled to them, -whether by birth or achievement. The four or five ranks included in this -system closely follow the English models. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE COURT DRESS, OLD STYLE.] - -The judiciary, too, has been remodeled in many details to make it -approach the western system. The methods of procedure are gradually -conforming nearer and nearer to our own, as well as the names and -jurisdiction of the courts. The Japanese people have been exceedingly -anxious of late years to expunge the extraterritoriality clause which -appears in the treaties with all western nations. It provides, in -effect, that offenses by a foreigner against a Japanese shall be judged -in a consular court presided over by the consul of that country whence -the foreigner comes. In other words, Japanese courts have no -jurisdiction over the doings of foreigners having consuls in that -country. This provision has become very obnoxious to the Japanese -people, placing them on a level, as it does, with barbaric and -semi-barbaric countries, where like provisions hold. This has been one -of the potent factors in influencing Japan to adopt western legal -methods. Recent treaties which have been drawn with the United States -and with England provide that this clause shall be expunged, and if they -are finally agreed upon we may soon see Japan more absolutely -independent than she has yet been. - -In 1890 a constitution was granted to Japan by the emperor, and a few -months later legislative bodies for the first time began deliberation in -Tokio. The powers of this parliament are constantly increasing. The war -between China and Japan has been a strong influence to weld the people -of opposing political faiths into harmony, and in parliament -conservatives and radicals alike have risen in patriotism, and have been -glad to cast votes for every measure that would hold up the hands of -those who were bearing the battles. With a government drawing for itself -lines parallel with those of enlightened western nations, increasing the -freedom of its people, the power of the people’s legislators, and the -honesty of the people’s courts, Japan has every right to name herself as -worthy of a place in full brotherhood with the family of civilized -nations. - -[Illustration: - - COUNCIL OF WAR ON A JAPANESE BATTLE SHIP. - (From a Drawing by a Japanese Artist.)] -] - - - - - PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE. - - -------------- - -Difference of Opinion as to the True Significance of Their Rapid -Adoption of Western Civilization—Physique of Man and Woman—Two Great -Classes of the Population—The Samurai—The Agricultural Laborer—Wedding -Ceremonies—Elopements—Japanese Babies—Sports of Childhood and of -Age—Dress of Man and Woman—Food—Homes of the People—Family Life—Art, -Science, Medicine, Music—Language and Literature—Religion. - - -In such a state of transition are the Japanese people themselves, as -truly as the government, that it is difficult to describe their personal -characteristics. Different observers reach different conclusions as to -their personality. One affirms that great quickness of imitation and -judgment in discovering what is worth imitating, seem to be the -prominent characteristics of the Japanese. They want originality and -independence of thought, and character which accompanies it. The -Japanese are not slow in adopting the inventions of modern civilization, -and even in modifying them to suit their own convenience, but, says -another observer, that they will ever add anything of importance to them -may be doubted. The same is true in a political point of view. The more -enlightened of the Japanese are already beginning to recognize the -superiority of the European forms of government. The upper classes are -all sedulously imitating Paris and London fashions of dress. In our own -country we have seen the prevalence of an offensive Anglomania among -certain classes of society in the larger cities, but in Japan a -corresponding mania for the forms of western civilization has become -almost universal, and is reaching the real bulk of the nation. Such -extraordinary capacity for change may mark a versatile but unreliable -race; for it seems hard to believe that a people who are parting with -their ancestral notions with such a total absence of any pangs of -sorrow, will be likely to adhere with much steadfastness to a new order -of things. On the other hand, other students of this movement take it to -be only a most gratifying indication that Japan was a nation which had -outgrown its narrow limits of thought and learning, ready to adopt -whatever was good, and yearning for it when the opportunity came, with a -strength that made rapid assimilation of ideas entirely proper, and no -sign of instability. It is to be hoped that the latter interpretation is -the right one. - -In moral character the average Japanese is frank, honest, faithful, -kind, gentle, courteous, confiding, affectionate, filial, and loyal. -Love of truth for its own sake, chastity, and temperance are not -characteristic virtues. A high sense of honor is cultivated by the -Samurai. In spirit the average artisan and farmer is lamblike. In -intellectual capacity the actual merchant is mean, and his moral -character low. He is beneath the Chinaman in this respect. The male -Japanese is far less overbearing and more chivalrous to woman than any -other Asiatic. In political knowledge, or gregarious ability, the -countryman is a baby and the city artisan a boy. The peasant is a -pronounced pagan, with superstition ingrained into his inmost nature. In -reverence to elders and to antiquity, obedience to parents, gentle -manners, universal courtesy, and generous impulses the Japanese are the -peers of any and superior to many peoples of Christendom. The idea of -filial obedience has been developed into fanaticism and is the main blot -of paganism and superstition. - -The Japanese in physique are much of the same type as the Spaniards, and -inhabitants of the south of France. They are of middle or low stature. -The men are about five feet six inches in height or a trifle less on an -average, while the women rarely exceed five feet. When dressed the -Japanese look strong, well proportioned men, but when in the exceedingly -slight costumes which they very often are pleased to adopt, it is then -apparent that though their bodies are robust their legs are short and -slight. Their heads are somewhat out of proportion to their bodies, -being generally large and sunk a little between the shoulders, but they -have small feet and delicate hands. The resemblance the Japanese bear to -the Chinese is not nearly as marked as popular opinion would have it. -The faces of the former are longer and more regular, their noses more -prominent, and their eyes less sloped. The men are naturally very -hirsute, but they never wear beards. Their hair is glossy, thick, and -always black. Their eyes are black, their teeth white and slightly -prominent. The shade of their skin is totally unlike the yellow -complexions of the Chinese; in some cases it is very swarthy or copper -colored, but the most usual tint is an olive brown. Children and young -people have usually quite pink complexions. - -[Illustration: DRESSING THE HAIR.] - -The women follow the Chinese type a little closer. The eyes are narrower -and sloped upward, and the head is small. Like the men their hair is -glossy and very black, but it never reaches the length of American -women’s hair. They have clear, sometimes even perfectly white skin, -especially among the aristocracy, oval faces, and slender, graceful -forms. Their manners are peculiarly artless and simple. But the harmony -of the whole is spoiled in many instances by an ugly depression of the -chest, which is sometimes observed in those who are otherwise handsomest -and best formed. - -About the end of the eighth century a reform was instituted in the -military system of the empire, which had become unsatisfactory and -defective. The court decided that all those among the rich peasants who -had capacity and were skilled in archery and horsemanship, should -compose the military class, and that the remainder, the weak and feeble, -should continue to till the soil and apply themselves to agriculture. -This was one of the most significant of all the changes in the history -of Japan. Its fruits are seen to-day in the social constitution of the -Japanese people. Though there are many classes, there are but two great -divisions of the Japanese, the military and the agricultural. - -This change wrought a complete severance of the soldier and the farmer. -It lifted up one part of the people to a plane of life on which travel, -adventure, the profession and pursuit of arms, letters, and the -cultivation of honor and chivalry were possible, and by which that -brightest type of Japanese men, the Samurai was produced. This is the -class which for centuries has monopolized arms, polite learning, -patriotism, and intellect of Japan. They are the men whose minds have -been open to learn, from whom sprung the ideas that once made and later -overthrew the feudal system, which wrought the mighty reforms that swept -away the shogunate in 1868, and restored the mikado to ancient power, -who introduced those ideas that now rule Japan, and sent their sons -abroad to study the civilization of the west. To the Samurai Japan looks -to-day for safety in war and progress in peace. The Samurai is the soul -of the nation. In other lands the priestly and the military castes were -formed, in Japan one and the same class held the sword and the pen; the -other class, the agricultural, remained unchanged. - -Left to the soil to till it, to live and die upon it, the Japanese -farmer has remained the same to-day that he was then. Like the wheat, -that for successive ages is planted as wheat, sprouts, beards and fills -as wheat, the peasant with his horizon bounded by his rice fields and -water courses or the timbered hills, his intellect laid away for safe -keeping in the priest’s hands, is the son of the soil. He cares little -who rules him unless he is taxed beyond the power of flesh and blood to -bear, or an overmeddlesome official policy touches his land to transfer, -sell or divide it. Then he rises to rebel. In time of war he is a -disinterested and a passive spectator and he does not fight. He changes -masters with apparent unconcern. Amidst all the ferment of ideas induced -by the contact of western civilization with Asiatic within the last four -decades, the farmer stolidly remains conservative. He knows not nor -cares to hear of it and hates it because of the heavier taxes it imposes -upon him. - -The domestic solemnities of the Japanese, marriage especially, are made -the subjects of deep and careful meditation. In the upper classes -marriage is arranged between two young people when the bridegroom has -reached his twentieth and the bride her sixteenth year. The will of the -parents is almost without exception the dominating power in the -matrimonial arrangements, which are carried out according to agreement -among the relatives, but love affairs of a spontaneous kind form a large -element in the romantic literature of Japan. The wedding is preceded by -a betrothal, which ceremony offers an occasion for the members of both -families to meet one another; and it not unfrequently happens that the -future couple then learn for the first time the wishes of their parents -respecting their union. If perchance the bridegroom elect is not -satisfied with the choice, the young woman returns home again. With the -introduction of other western ideas, this inconvenient custom is little -by little falling into disuse. Nowadays, if a young man wishes to marry -into a family of good position or one which it would be advantageous to -his prospects to enter, he endeavors first to see the young lady, and -then if she pleases him he sends a mediator, chosen usually from amongst -his married friends, and the betrothal is arranged without any further -obstacle. Even more American-like than this, however, there are many -instances, and the number is constantly increasing, in which the match -is the result of mutual affection, and sometimes elopements are known to -occur among the best families. - -When things are carried through conventionally, the betrothal and -wedding are usually solemnized on the same day and without the -assistance of any minister of worship. The customary ceremonies are all -of a homely nature, but at the same time are extremely complicated and -numerous. Upon the day fixed, the trousseau of the young bride and all -the presents she has received, are brought to the home of the -bridegroom, where the ceremony is to be performed, and arranged in the -apartments set apart for the affair. The bride arrives soon afterward, -dressed in white and escorted by her parents. The groom, arrayed in gala -costume, receives her at the entrance of the house, and conducts her -into the hall where the betrothal takes place. Here grand preparations -have been made. The altar of the domestic gods has been decorated with -images of the patron saints of the family and with different plants, -each having its symbolical meaning. - -When all have taken their places according to the recognized form of -precedence, the ceremony is begun by two young girls, who hand around -unlimited quantities of saki to the guests. These two damsels are -surnamed the male and female butterfly, the emblems of conjugal -felicity, because according to popular notion butterflies always fly -about in couples. The decisive ceremony is tinged with a symbolism which -has a considerable touch of poetry in it. The two butterflies, holding -between them a two-necked bottle, approach and offer it to the engaged -couple to drink together from the two mouths of the bottle till it is -emptied, which signifies that husband and wife must drain together the -cup of life whether it contain nectar or gall; they must share equally -the joys and sorrows of existence. - -The Japanese is the husband of one wife only, but he is at liberty to -introduce several concubines under the family roof. This is done in all -classes of society, especially amongst the daimios. It is asserted that -in many of the noble families the legitimate wife not only evinces no -jealousy, but has even a certain pleasure in seeing the number of her -household thus augmented, as it supplies her with so many additional -servants. In the middle classes, however, the custom is often the cause -of bitter family dissentions. - -The heavy expenses of the marriage ceremonies often occasion -considerable domestic strife and misery, at least if they are celebrated -according to all the established conventionalities. Debts are then -incurred which perhaps the young couple are unable to meet, so that when -other expenses grow, and trouble or misfortune overtake them, they are -speedily plunged into the deepest distress and indigence. The natural -consequence of these arbitrary customs is the increase of runaway -matches. The elopement, however, is usually wisely winked at by the -parents, who feign great lamentation and anger, then finally assemble -their neighbors, pardon their recreant children, and circulate the -inevitable saki, and the marriage is considered as satisfactory as if -performed with all the requisite formalities. - -The birth of a child is another occasion for the meeting of the whole -circle of relations, and the consumption of a great many more bumpers of -saki. The baptism of the young Japanese citizen takes place thirty days -later, when the infant is taken to the temple of the family divinity to -receive its first name. The father has previously written three -different names upon three separate slips of paper, which are handed -over to the officiating bonze or priest. The latter throws them into the -air, and the piece of paper which in falling first touches the ground -contains the name which is to be given to the child. There are no -godparents, but several friends of the family declare themselves the -infant’s protectors and make it several presents, among which is a fan -if it be a boy, or a pot of rouge if a girl. - -[Illustration: CHILD CARRYING BABY.] - -The Japanese child is early taught to endure hardships, and is subjected -from its infancy to all the small miseries of life, so far as may be -thought wise for its training. The mother nurses it till it is two years -of age, and carries it continually about with her attached to her back -for convenience. The children are daintily pretty, chubby, rosy, -sparkling-eyed. The children’s heads are shaved in all curious fashions, -some with little topknots, and others with bald spots. The way the -babies are carried is an improvement upon the Indian fashion. He is -lugged on the back of his mother or his sister, maybe scarcely older -than himself, either strapped loosely but safely, with his head just -peering above the shoulder of the bearer, or else enclosed in a fold of -the garment she wears. It is a popular belief among travelers that -Japanese babies are the best in the world and never cry, but the -Japanese themselves claim no such distinction for the little ones, very -proud of them though they are, and affirm that they have their fits of -temper as well as American babies. - -Education is not forced too early upon the children, but nature is -allowed its own way during the first years of childhood. Toys, -pleasures, fetes of all kinds, are liberally indulged in. One writer has -said that Japan is the paradise of babies; not only is this true but it -is also a very delightful abode for all who love play. The contrast -between the Japanese and Chinese character in this respect is radical. -The whole character, manners, and even the dress of the sedate and -dignified Chinaman, seems to be in keeping with that aversion to -rational amusement and athletic exercises which characterize that adult -population. In Japan, on the contrary, one sees that children of the -larger growth enjoy with equal zest, games which are the same or nearly -the same as those of the little ones. Certain it is that the adults do -all in their power to provide for the children their full quota of play -and harmless sports. - -A very noticeable change has passed over the Japanese people since the -recent influx of foreigners, in respect of their love of amusements. -Their sports are by no means as numerous or elaborate as formerly, and -they do not enter into them with the enthusiasm that formerly -characterized them. The children’s festivals and sports are rapidly -losing their importance, and some are rarely seen. There is no country -in the world in which there are so many toy shops for the sale of the -things which delight children. Street theatrical shows are common. Sweet -meats of a dozen strange sorts are carried by men who do tricks in -gymnastics to please the little ones. In every Japanese city there are -scores if not hundreds of men and women who obtain a livelihood by -amusing the children. There are indoor games and outdoor games, games -for the day time and games for the evening. Japanese kite flying and top -spinning are famous the world over, and experts in these sports come to -exhibit their adeptness in our own country. In the northern provinces, -where the winters are severe, Japanese boys have the same sports with -snow and ice, coasting, sliding, fighting mimic battles with snowballs, -that are known to our own American boys. Dinners, tea parties, and -weddings, keeping store, and playing doctor, are imitated in Japanese -children’s games. - -On the third day of the third month is held the wonderful “Feast of -Dolls” which is the day especially devoted to the girls, and to them it -is the greatest day in the year. The greatest day in the year for the -boys is on the fifth day of the fifth month, when they celebrate what is -known as the “Feast of Flags.” - -[Illustration: THE CHINESE FLEET AT WEI-HAI-WEI.] - -A Japanese attains his majority at fifteen years of age. As soon as this -time has arrived he takes a new name, and quietly discards the pleasures -of infancy for the duties of a practical life. His first care, if he -belong to the middle classes, is the choice of a trade or profession. -The opportunities for this choice are much greater than in China, just -as the scope of Japanese learning and life has increased in the last -quarter century. Practically all of the businesses and trades that we -know in our own country are to-day known in Japan, those which were not -there before, having crept in with the advent of the foreigners. The -Japanese young man, if he is to be a merchant or to learn a trade, -serves an apprenticeship for a period sufficient to fit him for the -mastery of his work, and then it is he provides himself with a wife. - -The dress of the Japanese is changing in harmony with the introduction -of other foreign habits. Custom has always obliged married women to -shave their eyebrows and blacken their teeth, but of late years the -practice has been decreasing and now it does not prevail among the -better classes and in the larger cities. They have also made a most -immoderate use of paint, covering their brow, cheeks, and neck with -thick coats of rouge and white. Some have even gone so far as to gild -their lips, but the more modest have been content to color them with -carmine, and the excessive use of paints is diminishing. - -The kirimon, a kind of long, open dressing gown, is worn by every one, -men and women alike. It is a little longer and of better quality for the -women, who cross it in front and confine it by a long wide piece of -silk, or other material tied in a quaint fashion at the back. The men -keep theirs in its place by tying a long straight scarf around them. The -Japanese use no linen, the women alone wearing a chemise of silk crepe, -but it must be remembered that they bathe daily or even oftener, and -that simplicity of dress is affected by all. - -The middle classes wear in addition to the kirimon, a doublet and -pantaloons. These are also worn in winter by men of the lower orders, -the pantaloons fitting tightly, and made of checked cotton. The peasants -and porters usually wear a loose overall in summer, made of some light -paper material, and in winter not unfrequently consisting of coarse -straw. The women also envelop themselves in one or several thickly -wadded mantles. Linen gloves with one division for the thumb are very -generally worn. Sandals are made of plaited straw, and in bad weather -are discarded for wooden clogs, raised from the ground by means of two -bits of wood under the toe and heel. As might naturally be expected, -locomotion under such circumstances is performed with difficulty, and -the hobbling gate which these props necessitate has often been commented -on. This peculiarity is most noticeable among the women, whose naturally -easy gait is almost as much diverted from its normal movement by these -small stilts as that of their sisters in the west by their high heeled -shoes. The costume of the country is exactly alike for both the lower -and higher classes, with the difference that the latter always wear silk -material. The costumes worn by officials, and those of the nobility, are -distinguished by the amplitude of the folds and the richness of the -texture. Wide flowing pantaloons are often substituted for the kirimon, -which trail on the ground, completely concealing the feet, and give the -wearer the appearance of walking on his knees, which indeed is the -delusion it is intended to produce. A kind of overcoat with wide sleeves -reaching to the hips completes the costume. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE BATH.] - -The dwelling houses of the Japanese are well adapted to their manners of -life, except that they are not always sufficient protection against -severe cold. Rich and poor live side by side, although in Tokio there -are still traces of the castes of the feudal age, and there are also -growing tendencies in the rising mercantile and moneyed classes to -separate themselves from the common mass. There are now great portions -of the capital densely populated by the working classes only, and quite -destitute of any open spaces of practical value for health and -recreation. - -The proverb “Every man’s house is his castle,” might very readily be -appropriated by the Japanese, whose home, however humble it may be in -all other respects, is always guarded by a moat. In a feudal mansion the -moat was usually deep enough to prove a genuine obstacle. While it is -still almost universally retained, the muddy water is hidden in summer -time by the leaves of the lotus, and the bridges are not drawn. The -smaller gentry imitate the grandeur of those above them, and when at -last we come down to the lowest level we still find a miniature moat -which is often dry, of a foot or so in breadth, and at most about two -inches deep. - -In houses of some pretensions there is an enbankment behind the moat, -with a hedge growing above it. Behind this there is either a wall or -fence of bamboo, tiles, or plaster. As the name of the street is not to -be found at the street corner as with us, it is repeated on every -doorway. The towns are divided into wards and blocks, and the numbers of -the houses are often confused and misleading. A slip of white wood is -nailed on one of the posts of the gate, and is inscribed with the name -of the street or block, the number, name of house holder, numbers and -sexes of household. The gates of the larger houses are heavy, adorned -with copper or brass mountings, and often studded with large nails. - -When one enters by the gate there is generally found a court, from the -sides of which the open verandas of the building may be reached. The -verandas are high and there is a special entrance by heavy wooden -stairs. The court is sometimes paved with large stones, and sometimes it -is left bare or covered with turf. The gardens even of somewhat humble -mansions are graced with carved stone lanterns. The well placed near the -kitchen often has a rim of stone around it, and the bucket is raised by -a beam or a long bamboo. - -In front of the doorway there is a small space unfloored called the -doma, where one takes off his shoes after announcing himself by calling, -or by striking a gong suspended by the door post. There is often only -one story in Japanese houses, and very rarely more than two. Almost all -of them are built of wood; the ground floor is raised about four feet -above the ground, the walls are made of planks covered with coarse mats; -and the roof is supported by four pillars. In a two-storied house the -second story is generally built more solidly than the first; experience -having shown that the edifice can thus better resist the shock of an -earthquake. Sometimes the walls are plastered with a coating of soft -clay or varnish, and are decorated with gildings and paintings. The -stair to the second story is very steep. The ceilings are composed of -very thin, broad planks, and are lower than we are accustomed to, but it -must be remembered that the people do not sit on chairs and have no high -beds or tables. Doorways, or rather the grooved lintels in which the -screen doors slide, are very low and the Japanese, who are always -bowing, seem to enjoy having an unusual number of them to pass through -in extensive houses. No room is completely walled in, but each one opens -on one or more sides completely into the garden, the street, or the -adjoining room. Sliding shutters, with tissue paper windows, the -carpentry of which is careful and exact, move in wooden grooves almost -on a level with the floor, which is covered with padded woven mats of -rushes. As a protection against the severities of the weather rain -shutters are also used. - -All Japanese dwellings have a cheerful, well-cared-for appearance, which -in a great measure is the result of two causes; first, that every one is -bound constantly to renew the paper coverings of the outside panels, and -next that the frequent fires which each time make immense ravages often -render it necessary to reconstruct an entire district. In the interior -the houses are generally divided into two suites of apartments, the one -side being apportioned to the women as private rooms, and the other side -being used for the reception rooms. These apartments are all separated -from one another by partitions made of slight wooden frames, upon which -small square bits of white paper are pasted, or else a kind of screen is -used which can be moved at pleasure and the room enlarged or contracted -according as the occasion requires. Towards nightfall these screens are -usually folded up so as to allow a free passage of air throughout the -house. - -The mats of rushes or rice straw which carpet the floors are about three -inches thick, and are soft to the touch. They are of uniform size, about -six feet by three, and this fact dominates all architecture in Japan. -Estimates for building houses and the cutting of wood rest upon this -traditional custom. The inhabitants never soil them with their boots but -always walk barefooted about the house. The mat in Japan answers the -purpose of all ordinary furniture, and takes the place of our chairs, -tables, and beds. For writing purposes only do they use a low round -table about a foot high, which is kept in a cupboard and only brought -out when a letter has to be written. This they do kneeling before the -table, which they carefully put away again when the letter is finished. -The meals are laid upon square tables of very slender dimensions, around -which the whole family gather, sitting on their heels. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE COUCH.] - -In the walls are recesses with sliding doors into which the bedding is -thrust in the daytime. At bedtime out of these recesses are taken the -soft cotton stuffed mattresses and the thick coverlets of silk or cotton -which have been rolled up all day, and these are spread upon the mats. -The Japanese pillows are of wood, with the upper portions stuffed or -padded, and in form something like a large flat iron. Sometimes each one -contains a little drawer in which the ladies put their hairpins. When a -Japanese has taken off his day garments he rests his head on this wooden -pillow and composes himself to sleep. Everything is put away in the -morning, all the partitions are opened to give air, the mats are -carefully swept, and the now completely empty chamber is transformed -during the day into an office, sitting room, or dining room, to become -again the sleeping apartment the following night. - -Clothes are kept in plaited bamboo boxes usually covered with black or -dark green waterproof paper. The furniture is very simple, and there are -often in the best houses no chairs, no tables, no bedsteads. There may -be some low, short-legged side tables of characteristic Japanese pattern -and one or two costly vases or other ornaments, a few pictures which are -changed in deference to guests and seasons, some flowers or dwarf trees -in vases and a lamp or two. There are, however, two pieces of furniture -which are to be found in the houses of every class. These are the -brazier and the pipe box, for the Japanese is a great tea drinker and a -constant smoker. Every hour in the day his hot water must be ready for -him, and the brazier kept burning both day and night both in summer and -winter. - -The principal meal takes place about the middle of the day, and after it -the family indulge themselves with several hours’ sleep, so that at this -time the streets are almost deserted. In the evening they have another -meal, and then devote the rest of the time till bedtime to all kinds of -amusements. In the highest Japanese circles the dinner hour is sometimes -enlivened by music from an orchestra stationed in an adjoining room. - -In summer a well-planned Japanese house is the very ideal of coolness, -grace and comfort. In winter it is the extreme of misery. There are no -fire-places and there is unmitigated ventilation. People keep themselves -warm by holding themselves close over some morsels of red hot charcoal -in a brazier, and frost bite is very common. At night, when cold winds -blow, a heating apparatus is put beneath the heavy cotton coverlets. It -often gets overturned; a watchman from his ladder-like tower sees afar -off a dull red glow, bells begin to clang, and soon the city is in an -uproar of excitement over another conflagration. In a few hours a great -fan-shaped gap has appeared in the city. One goes at day-break to find -the scene of destruction, but it has already almost disappeared. Crowds -of carpenters have rushed in, and have already done much to erect on the -hot and smoking ruins wooden houses nearly as good as those swept away -by the fire of the night before. - -The yashikis or palaces in which the people of rank reside, are nothing -more than ordinary houses grouped together and surrounded by whitewashed -outhouses, with latticed windows of black wood. These outhouses serve a -two-fold purpose, as habitations for the domestics, and as a wall of the -enclosure. Always low, and usually rectangular, they look very much like -warehouses or barracks. The palace of the sovereign has, however, a -certain character of its own. It is a perfect labyrinth of courts and -streets formed by the many separate houses, pavilions, and corridors or -simple wooden partitions. The roofs are supported by horizontal beams -varnished white, or gilded at the extremities, and decorated with small -pieces of sculpture, many of which are very beautiful works of art. The -ancient palace of the Tycoons is remarkable for boldness and richness of -outline. Everything breathes a spirit of the times when the power and -prosperity of the shogunate was at its height. Upon the ceilings of -gold, sculptured beams cross each other in squares, the angles where -they meet being marked by a plate of gilt bronze of very elegant design. - -The greatest novelties in the eyes of foreigners are the gardens -attached to every house. The smallest tradesman has his own little plot -of ground where he may enjoy the delights of solitude, take his siesta, -or devote himself to copious potations of tea and saki. These gardens -are often of exceedingly small size. They consist of a quaint collection -of dwarf shrubs, miniature lakes full of gold fish, lilliputian walks in -the middle of diminutive flower beds, tiny streams over which are little -green arches to imitate bridges, and finally arbors or bowers beneath -which a rabbit might scarcely find room to nestle. - -The Japanese are as strict in the observance of etiquette at a funeral -as at their marriage ceremonies. The rites take place both at the time -of the actual interment, and afterwards at the festivals celebrated in -honor of the gods on these occasions. There are two kinds of funerals, -interment and cremation. Most of the Japanese make known during life -either to the heir or to some intimate friend their wishes respecting -the mode of the disposal of their remains. When the father or mother in -a family is seized with a mortal illness and all hope of recovery is -past and the end approaching, the soiled garments worn by the dying -person are removed and exchanged for perfectly clean ones. The last -wishes of the dying one are then recorded on paper. As soon as life has -departed all the relations give way to lamentations; the body is carried -into another room, covered with a curtain and surrounded by screens. In -the higher classes the body is watched for two days, but in the lower it -is buried a day after death. - -Contrary to the customs at marriage ceremonies, the bonzes or priests -preside over all the funeral rites. It is they who watch beside the dead -until the time for interment. This is usually carried out by men who -make it their profession. The corpse is placed in a coffin, somewhat of -the shape of a round tub, in a squatting position, with the head bowed, -the legs bent under, and the arms crossed; the lid of the coffin is then -fastened down by wooden pegs. The funeral procession proceeds to the -temple, the bonzes marching first, some carrying flags, others different -symbols, such as little white boxes full of flowers, others wringing -small hand-bells. Then follows the corpse, preceded by a long tablet -upon which is inscribed the new name given to the deceased. The eldest -son follows, and then the family, intimate friends, and domestics. The -nearest relations are dressed in white which is the color worn for -mourning. - -When the procession arrives at the temple the coffin is placed before -the image of the god and then various ceremonies commence, the length of -which is regulated by the rank of the deceased, as with us. After that -all the friends and acquaintances return home, whilst the relations turn -to the place where the body is to be laid. If the deceased has expressed -the desire that his body should be burned, the coffin is carried from -the temple to a small crematory a short distance away. It is there -placed upon a kind of stone scaffold, at the base of which a fire is -kept burning until the body is consumed. The men employed in this work -draw out the bones from the ashes by means of sticks, the remaining -ashes are placed in an urn, and carried to the tomb by the relations. -The burials of the poor outcasts from society are very simple. The body -is interred at once without entering in the temple, or else it is burnt -in some waste spot. - -[Illustration] - - SKETCHES IN JAPAN AND COREA. - - 1. JAPANESE PRIVATE ON GUARD OVER STORES. - 2. COREAN FARMER AND COOLIE. - - 3. JAPANESE OFFICER. - 4. LANDING PLACE AT CHEMULPO. - -Japanese cemeteries are most carefully cherished spots, and are always -bright with verdure and flowers. Each family has its own little -enclosure, where several simple commemorative stones stand. Once a year -a festival for the dead is held. It is celebrated at night. The cemetery -is illuminated by thousands of colored fires, and the whole population -resort there, and eat, drink, and enjoy themselves in honor of their -dead ancestors. - -Their incapacity for conceiving sorrow is one of the most characteristic -features of the Japanese. Perhaps this psychological phenomenon is due -to the influences amidst which this happy people have the privilege of -living. It is an indisputable fact that where nature is bright and -beautiful the inhabitants themselves of that particular spot, like the -scenery, seem to expand under its sweet influence and to become bright -and happy. Such is the case with the Japanese, who while yielding almost -unconsciously to these influences, deepen them by their eager pursuit of -all things gay and beautiful. - -Japan is progressive enough that it has a compulsory system of -education, which is sure to be ultimately fatal to idolatrous religions. -There are more than three million children in the elementary schools, -not to mention those in the higher institutions. The ability to read and -write is almost universal among the people. Steady improvement is -observed from year to year, in the attendance and quality of the -government schools. The various schools in connection with the -protestant and Roman missions, which are numerous and influential are -also well attended and constantly growing. A large number also of the -wealthier classes have their children taught privately at home. The -average attendance of the Japanese children at the schools is nearly -one-half the total number of school age. Education is very highly -esteemed by every class, and all are willing to make genuine sacrifices -to obtain it for their children. - -Penmanship is laid great stress upon, and there are many different -styles in use. The blackboard is used in all schools now, and the -artistic tendencies of the people are often well displayed on it. The -Arabic numerals are fast displacing the old Chinese system. A great many -of the methods of European and American teaching have been introduced -into Japan, and their use is constantly on the increase. - -Universities and academies supported by the government have been chiefly -under the direction of American and European professors, and the western -languages are taught everywhere. In addition to this educational element -introduced into the country, there is that brought in by the large -number of Japanese young men who have been sent to the universities of -the United States, Germany, France, and England to complete their -education. In our own colleges these young men have ranked with the -highest as linguists, scientists, and orators. The influence that they -have exerted in Japan, where they have invariably taken a high position, -either officially or educationally, has been most beneficial to the -advance of learning in the island empire. - -The excessive cleanliness of the Japanese, the simplicity of their -apparel, which allows their bodies to be so much exposed to the open -air, added to the salubrity of their country, might reasonably lead one -to imagine that they enjoy excellent health. Such however is not the -case. Diseases of the skin, and chronic and incurable complaints are -very prevalent. The hot baths are the great remedies for everything, but -in certain cases the aid of the physicians is enlisted. These form a -class of society which has existed from a very early date, and enjoy -certain privileges. They are divided into three classes, the court -physicians, who are not permitted to practice elsewhere, the army -physicians, and lastly the common physicians, not employed by the -government, who attend all classes of the community. As no formalities -used to be required for the practice of medicine, each member entered on -the career at his pleasure and practiced according to his own theories -on the subject. It is a profession often handed down from father to son, -but it is not a lucrative one, and is looked upon as an office of little -importance or consideration. - -Medical men nevertheless abound in Japan, and in addition to recognized -practitioners, there is a class of quacks exactly answering to those of -our own country. Their science principally partakes of the nature of -sorcery. Where hot baths fail to produce the desired effect, they have -recourse to acupuncture and cauterisation. Acupuncture consists in -pricking with a needle the part affected, a mode of healing which has -been practiced from time immemorial in the east. After the skin has been -stretched sufficiently tight, the needle is thrust in perpendicularly -either by rolling between the fingers or by a direct gentle pressure, or -else by striking it lightly with a small hammer made for the purpose. - -[Illustration: GÉISHA GIRLS PLAYING JAPANESE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.] - -Cauterisation is performed with little cones called moxas, formed of -dried wormwood leaves, and prepared in such a manner as to consume -slowly. One or more of these is applied to the diseased part and set -alight. The mode of cauterising wounds has frequently the effect of -strongly exciting the nervous system, but does not seem to improve the -general health of the patient materially. The national university of -Tokio has a medical department in connection with it, which teaches -medical science according to our own western methods. Hospitals exist in -the large cities of Japan which are similarly equipped to those of our -own country, and are under the direction of physicians and surgeons, -most of whom are either Europeans and Americans, or Japanese who have -been educated in medical colleges abroad. Many young women of Japan have -come to America to take courses in nursing in our great hospitals and -training schools, and on their return to Japan are spreading the -knowledge they have thus gained. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE ALPHABET, NEW.] - -Music is one of the most cultivated of the fine arts of Japan, and -Japanese tradition accords it a divine origin. The Japanese have many -stringed, wind, and percussion instruments, but the general favorite is -the sam-sin or guitar with three strings. There are also the lutes, -several kinds of drums and tambourines, fifes, clarionets, and -flageolets. The Japanese have no idea of harmony. A number of them will -often perform together, but they are never in tune. They are not more -advanced in melody; their airs recall neither the savage strains of the -forest nor the scientific music of the west. In spite of this their -music has the power of charming them for hours together, and it is only -among the utterly uneducated classes that a young girl is to be found -unable to accompany herself in a song on the sam-sin. - -In the department of jurisprudence great progress has been made. -Scarcely any nation on earth can show a more revolting list of horrible -methods of punishment and torture in the past, and none can show greater -improvement in so short a time. The cruel and blood-thirsty code was -mostly borrowed from China. Since the restoration, revised statutes and -regulations have greatly decreased the list of capital punishments, -reformed the condition of prisons, and made legal processes more in -harmony with mercy and justice. The use of torture to obtain testimony -is now entirely abolished. Law schools have also been established and -lawyers are allowed to plead, thus giving the accused the assistance of -counsel for his defense. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE ALPHABET, OLD.] - -The Japanese tongue has for a long time been regarded merely as an -offshoot of the Chinese language, or at any rate as being very nearly -connected with it. Study however, and the comparison of the two -languages has rectified this error. Japanese understand Chinese writing -because the Chinese characters form part of the numerous kinds in use in -Japan. This is easily understood when it is remembered that Chinese -characters represent neither letters nor meaningless sounds, which are -only the constituent parts of a word, but are words themselves, or -rather the ideas that these words express; consequently the same ideas -can be communicated although expressed by different words to any one who -is acquainted with the signification of the characters. The Japanese -language is very soft and agreeable to the ear, but travelers declare -that no one born out of the country could possibly pronounce some of the -words. They have a system of forty-eight syllabic signs, which can be -doubled by means of signs added to the consonants, which modify the -sound, and render it harder or softer. This system, it is said, dates -from the eighth century and can be written in four different series of -characters. - -Japanese literature comprises books on science, biography, geography, -travels, philosophy, and natural history, as well as poetry, dramatic -works, romances, and encyclopedias. The latter seem to be little more -than picture books, with explanatory notes, arranged like other Japanese -dictionaries, sometimes alphabetically, but more often quite fancifully -and without any attempt at scientific classification. The poets of Japan -strive to express the most comprehensive ideas in the fewest possible -words, and to employ words with double meanings for the sake of typical -allusions. They also delight in descriptions or similes furnished by the -scenery, or the rich variety of natural productions with which they are -surrounded. - -Of their older books on science none are of any value but those which -treat of astronomy. The proof of their progress in this science is -afforded by the fact that almanacs, which were at first brought from -China, have now become very general and are composed in Japan. The -Japanese, until western education began to have its influence over them, -had only a slight knowledge of mathematics, trigonometry, mechanics, or -engineering. History and geography are very fairly cultivated. Reading -is the favorite recreation of both sexes in Japan. The women confine -themselves to the perusal of romances, and those works on etiquette and -kindred subjects prepared for them. Every young girl who can afford it -has her subscription to a library, which for the sum of a few copper -coins per month furnishes her with as many books, ancient and modern, as -she can devour. Except for their titles, these productions seem all -formed on one pattern. In the choice of their characters and their -subjects the authors seem by no means desirous of breaking through the -narrow limits within which prejudice and custom have confined them. - -[Illustration: SHINTO PRIEST.] - -The ancient religion of the Japanese is called “Kami no michi,” way, or -doctrine of the gods. The Chinese form of the same is Shinto, and from -this foreigners have called it Shintoism. In its purity the chief -characteristic of this religion is the worship of ancestors and the -deification of emperors, heroes, and scholars. The adoration of the -personified forces of nature enters largely into it. It employs no -idols, images, or effigies in its worship, and teaches no doctrine of -the immortality of the soul. Shinto has no moral code, and no accurately -defined system of ethics or belief. The leading principle of its -adherents is imitation of the illustrious deeds of their ancestors, and -they are to prove themselves worthy of their descent by the purity of -their lives. The priests of Shinto are designated according to their -rank. Sometimes they receive titles from the emperor, and the higher -ranks of the priesthood are court nobles. Ordinarily they dress like -other people, but are robed in white when officiating, or in court dress -when in court. They marry, rear families, and do not shave their heads. -The office is usually hereditary. - -After all the research of foreign scholars, many hesitate to decide -whether Shinto is a native Japanese product or whether it is not closely -allied with the ancient religion of China which existed before the -period of Confucius. The weight of opinion inclines to the latter -belief. The Kojiki is the Bible of Shintoism. It is full of narrations, -but it lays down no precepts, teaches no morals or doctrines, prescribes -no ritual. Shinto has very few of the characteristics of a religion as -understood by us. The most learned native commentators and exponents of -the faith expressly maintain the view that Shinto has no moral code. -Motoori, the great modern revivalist of Shinto, teaches with emphasis -that morals were invented by the Chinese because they were an immoral -people, but in Japan there was no necessity for any system of morals, as -every Japanese acted aright if he only consulted his own heart. The duty -of a good Japanese, he says, consists in obeying the commands of the -mikado without questioning whether these commands are right or wrong. It -was only immoral people like the Chinese who presumed to discuss the -character of their sovereign. The opinion of most scholars from America -and Europe, studying Shinto on its own soil, has been that the faith was -little more than an influence for reducing the people to a condition of -mental slavery. Its influence is weakening every year. - -The outlines of Buddhism in its Chinese forms have been indicated in a -foregoing chapter. It is well, however, to take another glance at it -here in connection with its Japanese significance. This religion reached -the Japanese empire about the middle of the sixth century after Christ, -twelve centuries after its establishment. Buddhism originated as a pure -atheistic humanitarianism, with a lofty philosophy and a code of morals -higher perhaps than any heathen religion had reached before or has since -attained. First preached in India, a land accursed by secular and -spiritual oppression, it acknowledged no caste and declared all men -equally sinful and miserable, and all equally capable of being freed -from sin and misery through knowledge. It taught that the souls of all -men had lived in a previous state of existence and that all the sorrows -of this life are punishments for sins committed in a previous state. -After death the soul must migrate for ages through stages of life -inferior or superior, until perchance it arrived at last in Nirvana or -absorption in Buddha. The true estate of the human soul, according to -the Buddhist, was blissful annihilation. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE TROOPS LANDING AT CHEMULPO. SEPTEMBER 9TH.] - -The morals of Buddhism are superior to its metaphysics. Its commandments -are the dictates of the most refined morality. Such was Buddhism in its -early purity. Beside its moral code and philosophical doctrines it had -almost nothing. But in the twelve centuries which passed while it swept -through India, Birmah, Siam, China, Thibet, Manchooria, Corea, and -Siberia, it acquired the apparel with which Asiatic imagination and -priestly necessity had clothed and adorned the original doctrines of -Buddha. The ideas of Buddha had been expanded into a complete -theological system, with all the appurtenances of a stock religion. -Japan was ready for the introduction of any religion as attractive as -Buddhism, for prior to that time nothing existed except Shinto, of which -there was little but the dogma of the divinity of the mikado, the duty -of all Japanese to obey him implicitly, and some Confucian morals. - -Buddhism came to touch the heart, to fire the imagination, to feed the -intellect, to offer a code of lofty morals, to point out a pure life -through self-denial, to awe the ignorant, and to terrify the doubting. -With this explanation of the field which Buddhism found and what it -offered, it is sufficient to say that the faith spread with marvelous -rapidity until the Japanese empire was a Buddhist land. This did not -necessarily exclude Shinto from the minds of the same people, and the -two faiths have existed side by side in harmony. Of late years, however, -the Japanese have not only been losing faith in their own religions but -in all others, and to-day they are said by many to form a nation of -atheists. This does not apply to the common people so truly as to the -educated ones, and of course is not nearly as general a truth as has -been often assumed. In no country of Asia has Christianity made such -rapid and permanent advance as in Japan. It is the only oriental country -having a government of its own in which there is absolute freedom in -religious belief and practice, and in which there is no state religion -and no state support. - -[Illustration: STREET SCENES.—_From a Japanese Album._] - -It has been for years the prophetic declaration of missionaries in the -east that the first nation to extend full liberty of conscience in -religion would be the dominant power of Asia. That Japan has fulfilled -this condition is not more remarkable than are her rapid strides to -political power since that country opened its doors to Christianity. -That Japan is sincere in its treatment of an alien religion is attested -by the fact that native Christian chaplains accompany her armies in -their marches against China, and these are representative men of the -Methodist, Congregational, and Presbyterian churches in Japan. There is -no doubt that the whole Christian element in Japan, foreign and native, -has been loyal to the country and in thorough sympathy with the -aggressive movement made by Japan. The sympathy between Corea and Japan -has been greatly strengthened by the active support rendered -Presbyterian missionaries in Corea by the whole Christian body in Japan. -The work of Mr. Johnson, a Presbyterian missionary in Corea, made him an -adviser of the king, and this assisted in leading the latter rather -towards Japan than towards China. The corner stone of Japan’s position -to-day is religious toleration. All that the Christian missionaries have -asked in Asia is equal privilege with other religions, and these they -have had in Japan. History is only repeating itself, and the results of -religious toleration in Europe centuries ago are being duplicated in -Asia in 1895. - -The student of Asiatic life, on coming to Japan, is cheered and pleased -on contrasting the position of women in Japan with that in other -countries. He sees them treated with respect and consideration far above -that observed in other quarters of the Orient. They are allowed greater -freedom, and hence have more dignity and self-confidence. The daughters -are better educated and the national annals will show probably as large -a number of illustrious women as those of any other country in Asia. In -these last days of enlightenment public and private schools for girls -are being opened and attended. Furthermore, some of the leaders of new -Japan, braving public scandal, and learning to bestow that measure of -honor upon their wives which they see is enthusiastically awarded by -foreigners to theirs, and are not ashamed to be seen in public with -them. No women excel the Japanese in that innate love of beauty, order, -neatness, household adornment and management, and the amenities of dress -and etiquette as prescribed by their own standard. In maternal -affection, tenderness, anxiety, patience, and long suffering, the -Japanese mothers need fear no comparison with those in other climes. As -educators of their children, the Japanese women are peers to the mothers -of any civilization in the care and minuteness of their training, and -their affectionate tenderness and self-sacrificing devotion within the -limits of their knowledge. The Japanese maiden is bright, intelligent, -interesting, modest, ladylike, and self-reliant. What the American girl -is in Europe the Japanese maiden is among Asiatics. - -So far our attention has been devoted exclusively to the Japanese -proper, that is, to those people inhabiting Hondo and the other islands -to the south of it. But a few words remain to be said about a people, -who, while forming part of the empire of Japan, yet differ essentially -from the great majority of the population. They are the Ainos, or the -original inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago, now only to be found -in the island of Yesso. These people are decreasing in numbers year by -year, and will soon be named with those extinct races of whom it is only -known that they have once existed. The Ainos, however, have had their -day of glory. In olden times, several centuries before our era, they -were masters of all the north part of the island of Hondo, and their -power equalled that of the Japanese; but little by little their -influence diminished, and they were driven before the Japanese, and -finally confined to the island of Yesso. There the Japanese pursued them -and a long war ensued, but finally reduced them to complete submission -about the fourteenth century. Since then the state of servitude in which -their conquerors have held them has been such as to stifle even the -instinct of progress within them, so that in the nineteenth century they -offer the image of a people hardly past its first infancy. - -[Illustration: GROUP OF AINOS.] - -The origin of the Ainos is unknown. They themselves are perfectly -ignorant of their own history, and they have no written documents -existing which could throw light upon their past. It is most probable -that they originally came from the far interior of the Asiatic -continent, for they bear not the slightest resemblance to any of their -neighbors in the tribes scattered along the eastern coasts of the north -of Asia. The Ainos are generally small, thick-set, and awkwardly formed; -they have wide foreheads and black eyes, not sloping; their skin is fair -but sunburnt. Their distinguishing feature is their hairiness, and they -never dress their heads or trim their beards. The little children have a -bright, intelligent look, which, however, gradually wears away as they -grow older. The dwellings are of the simplest construction, and only -contain a few implements for hunting and fishing, and some cooking -utensils. They are built in small groups or hamlets, never containing -more than a hundred individuals. They are a gentle, kindly, hospitable, -and even timid people. Fishing is their chief occupation, and hunting is -another profitable pursuit. There is no sign of agriculture, nor is any -breed of cattle to be found among these people. Dogs are utilized to -draw their sledges in winter. Their organization is quite patriarchal. -They have neither king, princes nor lords, but in every hamlet the -affairs of the community are vested in the hands of the oldest and most -influential member. Although the intelligence of the Ainos is very -little developed, they evince great aptitude for knowledge and eagerly -seize every opportunity for acquainting themselves with Japanese laws -and customs. - -[Illustration: RATS AS RICE MERCHANTS.—_From a Japanese Album._] - -The London Times, in 1859, predicted that “The Chinaman would still be -navigating the canals of his country in the crazy old junks of his -ancestors when the Japanese was skimming along his rivers in high -pressure steamers, or flying across the country behind a locomotive.” -The railway is now in fact stretching its iron tracks in every direction -over the islands; the telegraph spreads its web all over the country; -street car lines are in every city; the printing press rattles merrily -in every moderate sized country town; and the Japanese who have always -read much, now read ten times more than they ever did before. Technical -education of the higher kind is telling upon the people, and many works -are now undertaken from which the authorities would have shrunk a few -years ago as being impossible for them to grapple with. Original -investigation in many lines has been pursued, and particularly in the -study of earthquake phenomena has Japan given to the world results of -extreme value. The influence of the modern scientific spirit is immense -and ever growing. Western influence in its better nature is constantly -on the increase. It appears to-day as if Japan were to be the civilizing -influence in the east of Asia. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - _COREA_ - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -[Illustration: COREAN LANDSCAPE.] - -[Illustration: RAW LEVIES FOR THE CHINESE ARMY.] - - - - - HISTORICAL SKETCH OF COREA, THE HERMIT NATION. - - -------------- - -Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Land—Founding the Kingdom of -Cho-sen—The Era of the Three Kingdoms—Dependence on China and -Japan—Period of Peace and Prosperity—Invasion of Corea by the -Japanese in the Sixteenth Century—Introduction of Christianity—The -Modern History of Corea—Breaking down the Walls of Isolation—The -French Expedition—American Relations with Corea—Ports Opened to -Japanese Commerce—The Year of the Treaties—A Hermit Nation no -Longer. - - -Until recent years our knowledge of the remarkable country of Corea, -known indeed to the general public by little more than its name, has -been limited to the meagre and scanty information imparted to us by -Chinese and Japanese sources. After having been for several thousands of -years the scene of sanguinary and murderous feuds between the various -races and tribes who peopled the peninsula, and of the intrigues and -wars of conquest of its rapacious neighbors, Corea succeeded after its -final union under the sway of one ruler, but with considerable loss of -territory, in driving back the invaders behind its present frontiers, -enforcing since that time with an iron rule, that policy of exclusion -which effectually separated it from the whole outer world. Corea, though -unknown even by name in Europe until the sixteenth century, was the -subject of description by Arab geographers of the middle ages. The Arab -merchants trading to Chinese ports crossed the Yellow Sea, visited the -peninsula, and even settled there. The youths of Shinra, one the Corean -states, sent by their sovereign to study the arts of war and peace at -Nanking, the mediæval capital of China, may often have seen and talked -with the merchants of Bagdad and Damascus. - -As has been said, nearly all that the western world was able to learn -about Corea until recent years, has been collected from Chinese and -Japanese sources, which confine themselves mainly to the historical and -political connection with these countries. The meagre early accounts -owed to Europeans on this interesting subject, originate either from -shipwrecked mariners who have been cast upon the inhospitable shores of -Corea and there been kept imprisoned for some time, or from navigators -who have extended their voyages of discovery to these distant seas and -who have touched a few prominent points of the coast. - -Like almost every country on earth, Corea is inhabited by a race that is -not aboriginal. The present occupiers of the land drove out or conquered -the people whom they found upon it. They are the descendants of a stock -who came from beyond the northern frontier. It may not be a wrong -conjecture, which is corroborated by many outward signs, to look for the -origin of the people in Mongolia, in a tribe which finally settled down -in Corea after roaming about and fighting its way through China. We may -also take those who bear the unmistakable stamp of the Caucasian race to -have come from Western Asia whence they had been driven by feuds and -revolutions. At the conclusion of the long wars which have at last led -to the union of the different states founded by various tribes, a -partial fusion had taken place, which, though it has not succeeded in -eradicating the outer signs of a different descent, at least caused the -adoption of one language and of the same manners and customs. - -Most of the Coreans claim to be in complete darkness and ignorance of -their own origin; some declare quite seriously that their ancestors have -sprung from a black cow on the shores of the Japan sea, while others -ascribe their origin to a mysterious and supernatural cause. - -The first mention of the inhabitants of Corea we find in old Chinese -chronicles about 2350 B.C., at which period some of the northern tribes -are reported to have entered into a tributary connection with China. The -first really reliable accounts, however, commence only with the twelfth -century B.C., at which time the north-westerly part of the peninsula -first stands out from the dark. - -The last Chinese emperor of the Shang dynasty was Chow Sin, who died -B.C. 1122. He was an unscrupulous tyrant, and one of his nobles, Ki -Tsze, rebuked and remonstrated with his sovereign. His efforts were -hopeless, and the nobles who joined him in protest were executed. Ki -Tsze was cast into prison. A revolt immediately ensued against the -tyrant; he was defeated and killed, and the conqueror Wu Wang released -the prisoner and appointed him prime minister. Ki Tsze however refused -to serve one whom he believed to be an usurper and exiled himself to the -regions lying to the north-east. With him went several thousand Chinese -immigrants, most the remnant of the defeated army, who made him their -king. Ki Tsze reigned many years and left the newly founded state in -peace and prosperity to his successors. He policed the borders, gave -laws to his subjects, and gradually introduced the principles and -practices of Chinese etiquette and polity throughout his domain. -Previous to his time the people lived in caves and holes in the ground, -dressed in leaves, and were destitute of manners, morals, agriculture -and cooking. The Japanese pronounce the founder’s name Kishi, and the -Coreans Kei-tsa or Kysse. The name conferred by the civilizer upon his -new domain was that now in use by the modern Coreans, “Cho-sen,” or -“Morning Calm.” - -The descendants of Ki Tsze are said to have ruled the country until the -fourth century before the Christian era. Their names and deeds are alike -unknown, but it is stated that there were forty-one generations, making -a blood line of eleven hundred and thirty-one years. The line came to an -end in 9 A.D., though they had lost power long before that time. - -This early portion of Cho-sen did not contain all of the territory of -the modern Corea, but only the north-western portion of it. While the -petty kingdoms of China were warring among one another, the nearest to -Cho-sen encroached upon it and finally seized the colony. This was not -to be permanent however, and there ensued a series of wars, each force -becoming alternately successful. The territory of Cho-sen grew in area -and the kingdom increased in wealth, power and intelligence under the -rule of King Wie-man, who assumed the authority 194 B.C. Thousands of -Chinese gentry fleeing before the conquering arms of the Han usurpers -settled within the limits of the new kingdom, adding greatly to its -prosperity. In 107 B.C., after a war that had lasted one year, a Chinese -invading army finally conquered the kingdom of Cho-sen and annexed it to -the Chinese empire. The conquered territory included the north half of -the present kingdom of Corea. - -Things remained in this condition until about 30 B.C., at which time a -part of Cho-sen taking advantage of the disorders which had broken out -afresh in China, separated itself from the empire and again formed a -state by itself, but still remained tributary; while the other portions -of the old kingdom for some time longer remained under Chinese rule, -until they also joined the portion that had been freed. Up to this -period Cho-sen forming the north-west of the present Corea, had been the -only part of that country that had become more closely connected with -China. The tracts to the north-east, south-west and south were occupied -by different independent tribes, and little more is known of them than -that they were ruled by chiefs of their own clan. In course of time -three kingdoms, Korai, Hiaksai, and Shinra, were formed out of these -various elements, subsisting by the side of Cho-sen, at a later date -fighting either beside or against China, and almost incessantly at feud -with each other, until Shinra gained the predominance about the middle -of the eighth century A.D. and kept the same up to the sixteenth -century. It was then supplanted in the leading position by Korai, which -united under its supremacy all those parts of Corea which had hitherto -been separate, and constituted the whole into a single state. Like the -three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Wales, these Corean states were -distinct in origin, were conquered by a race from without, received a -rich infusion of alien blood, struggled in rivalry for centuries, and -were finally united under one nation with one flag and one sovereign. - -Hiaksai was for a while the leading state in the peninsula. Buddhism was -introduced from Thibet in 384 A.D. And to this state more than any other -part of Corea, Japan owes her first impulses towards the civilization of -the west. The kingdom prospered until the decade from 660 to 670, when -it was overrun and practically annihilated by an army of Chinese, -despite the aid of four hundred junks and a large body of soldiers sent -from Japan to the aid of Corea. - -Korai of course took its turn in struggling with the Dragon of China. -Early in the seventh century China had been defeated, and for a -generation peace prevailed. But the Chinese coveted Koraian territory -and again an invading fleet attacked the country. It took years to -complete the conquest, but finally all Korai with its five provinces, -its one and seventy-six cities and its four or five millions of people, -was annexed to the Chinese empire. - -Shinra, in the south-west of the peninsula, was probably the most -advanced of all of the states. It was from this kingdom that the -tradition reached Japan which tempted the Amazonian queen of Japan, -Jingo, to her invasion and conquest. The king of Shinra submitted and -became a declared vassal of Japan, but in all probability Shinra was far -superior to the Japan of that early day in everything except strength. -From this kingdom came a stream of immigrants which passed into Japan -carrying all sorts of knowledge and an improved civilization. It is well -to remember from this point that the Japanese always laid claim to the -Corean peninsula and to Shinra especially as a tributary nation. They -supported that claim not only whenever embassies from the two nations -met at the court of China, but they made it a more or less active part -of their national policy. - -During this period Buddhism was being steadily propagated, learning and -literary progress increased, while art, science, architecture were all -favored and improved. Kion-chiu, the capital of Shinra, was looked upon -as a holy city, even after the decay of Shinra’s power. Her noble -temples, halls and towers stood in honor and repair, enshrining the -treasures of India, Persia, and China, until the ruthless Japanese torch -laid them in ashes in 1596. - -From the year 755 A.D. up to the beginning of the tenth century, Shinra -maintained its undisputed rule over the other countries of the -peninsula, but about this time successive revolts occurred, Shinra was -conquered, and the three kingdoms now united were called Korai, a name -which was retained to the end of the fourteenth century. The kingdoms -now thoroughly subdued, never recovered their old position and -independence, and composed from that time forward the undivided kingdom -of Corea, such as it has been maintained until the present day. In 1218 -A.D. the king of Corea promised allegiance to the Chinese emperor -Taitsou who was the Mongol Genghis Khan. - -Here we find explanation for some features of the war now in progress -between China and Japan. Corea has at various times acknowledged its -dependence upon both of these countries. The Japanese laid claim to -Corea from the second century until the 27th of February, 1876. On that -day the mikado’s minister plenipotentiary signed the treaty recognizing -Cho-sen as an independent nation. Through all the seventeen centuries, -which according to their annals elapsed since their armies first -completed the vassalage of their neighbor, the Japanese regarded the -states of Corea as tributaries. Time and again they enforced their claim -with bloody invasion, and when through a more enlightened policy the -rulers voluntarily acknowledged their former enemy as an equal, the -decision cost Japan almost immediately afterward seven months of civil -war, twenty thousand lives, and $50,000,000 in treasury. The mainspring -of the “Satsuma rebellion” of 1877 was the official act of friendship by -treaty, and the refusal of the Tokio government to make war on Corea. It -seemed until 1877 almost impossible to eradicate from the military mind -of Japan the conviction that to surrender Corea was cowardice and a -stain upon the national honor. - -From the ninth century onward to the sixteenth century, the relations of -the two countries seem to be unimportant. Japan was engaged in -conquering northward her own barbarians. Her intercourse, both political -and religious, grew to be so direct with the court of China, that Corea -in the Japanese annals sinks out of sight except at rare intervals. -Nihon increased in wealth and civilization, while Cho-sen remained -stationary or retrograded. In the nineteenth century the awakened -“Sunrise Kingdom” has seen her former self in the “Land of Morning -Calm,” and has stretched forth willing hands to do for her neighbor now -what Corea did for Japan in centuries long gone by. It must never be -forgotten that Corea was the bridge on which civilization crossed from -China to the archipelago. - -About 1368 the reigning King of Corea refused vassalage to China. His -troops refused to repel the invasion that threatened, and under their -General Ni Taijo, deposed the king. Taijo himself was nominated king. He -paid homage to the Chinese emperor and revived the ancient name of -Cho-sen. The dynasty thus established is still the reigning family in -Corea, though the direct line came to an end in 1864. The Coreans in -their treaty with Japan in 1876, dated the document according to the -four hundred and eighty-fourth year of Cho-sen, reckoning from the -accession of Ni Taijo to the throne. One of the first acts of the new -dynasty was to change the location of the national capital to the city -of Han Yang, situated on the Han river about fifty miles from its mouth. -The king enlarged the fortifications, enclosed the city with a wall of -masonry, and built bridges, renaming the city Seoul or “capital.” He -also redivided the kingdom into eight provinces which still remain. An -era of peace and flourishing prosperity ensued, and in everything the -influence of the Chinese emperors is most manifest. Buddhism, which had -penetrated into every part of the country, and had become in a measure -at least the religion of the state, was now set aside and -disestablished. The Confucian ethics were diligently studied and were -incorporated into the religion of the state. From the early part of the -fifteenth century, Confucianism flourished, until it reached the point -of bigotry and intolerance, so that when Christianity was discovered to -be existing among the people, it was put under the ban of extirpation, -and its followers thought worthy of death. - -[Illustration: PAGODA AT SEOUL.] - -[Illustration: COREAN SOLDIERS.] - -At first the new dynasty sent tribute regularly to the shogun of Japan, -but as intestinal war troubled the Island Empire and the shoguns became -effeminate, the Coreans stopped their tribute and it was almost -forgotten. The last embassy from Seoul was sent in 1460. After that they -were never summoned, so they never came. Under the idea that peace was -to last forever, the nation relaxed all vigilance; the army was -disorganized and the castles were fallen into ruin. It was while the -country was in such a condition that the summons of Japan’s great -conqueror came to them, and the Coreans learned for the first time of -the fall of Ashikaga and the temper of their new master. - -As the Mongol conquerors issuing from China had used Corea as their -point of departure to invade Japan, so Hideyoshi resolved to make the -peninsula the road for his armies into China. He sent an envoy to Seoul -to demand tribute, and then, angered at the utter failure of his -mission, commanded the envoy and all his family to be put to death. A -second ambassador was sent with more success, and presents and envoys -were exchanged. Hideyoshi, however, became enraged at the indifference -of the Coreans to assist him in his dealings with China, and resolved to -humble the peninsular kingdom, and China, her overlord. - -[Illustration: FIGHTING BEFORE THE GATE OF SEOUL.] - -The invasion of Corea was made as related in the earlier chapters on -Japan. The Coreans were poorly prepared for war, both as to leaders, -soldiers, equipments and fortifications. The Japanese swept everything -like a whirlwind before them, and entered the capital within eighteen -days after their landing at Fusan. The accounts of the war are preserved -in detail, and are exceedingly interesting, but the limits of this -volume compel their omission to provide space for the war of 1894-5. At -first Chinese armies coming to reinforce the Coreans were defeated and -turned back, but another effort of the allies was more effective and the -Japanese troops found advance turned to retreat. The Japanese armies -concentrated at Seoul to receive the advance of the allies numbering -some two hundred thousand. The capital was burned by the Japanese, -nearly every house being destroyed, and hundreds of men, women, and -children, sick and well, living quietly there, were massacred. The -allied troops were beaten back in a ferocious battle, but hunger reached -both armies, pestilence entered the Japanese camp, and both sides were -utterly tired of war and ready to consider terms of peace. - -[Illustration: OLD MAN IN COREA.] - -Konishi, the general of the Japanese army, had been converted to -Christianity by the Portuguese Jesuits. During this period of tiresome -waiting he sent to the superior of the missions in Japan asking for a -priest. In response to this request came Father Gregorio de Cespedes and -a Japanese convert. These two holy men began their labors among the -Japanese armies, preaching from camp to camp, and administering the -right of baptism to thousands of converts, but their work was stopped by -the jealousy of the Buddhist power. The Jesuits in Japan were then being -expelled for their political machinations, and the chaplains in Corea -were brought under the same ban. Konishi was called back to Japan with -the priest and was unable to convince the shogun of his innocence. A few -Corean converts were made during this time, and one of them a lad of -rank, was afterward educated in the Jesuit seminary at Kioto. He -endeavored to return to Corea as a missionary, but the condition of -affairs in Japan interrupted his intentions and in 1625 he was martyred -during the prosecutions of the Christians. Of the large number of Corean -prisoners sent over to Japan, many became Christians. Hundreds of others -were sold as slaves to the Portuguese. Others rose to positions of honor -under the government or in the households of the daimios. Many Corean -lads were adopted by the returned soldiers or kept as servants. When the -bloody persecution broke out, by which many thousand Japanese found -death, the Corean converts remained steadfast to their Christian faith, -and suffered martyrdom with fortitude equal to that of their Japanese -brethren. But by the army in Corea, or by the Christian chaplain -Cespedes, no trace of Christianity was left in the land of Morning Calm, -and it was two centuries later before that faith was really introduced. - -The fortunes of the war alternated, and finally, after deeds of heroism -on both sides, a period of inaction ensued, the result of exhaustion. At -this time Hideyoshi fell sick and died, September 9, 1598, at the age of -sixty-three years. Almost his last words were, “Recall all my troops -from Cho-sen.” The orders to embark for home were everywhere gladly -heard. It is probable that the loss of life in the campaigns of this war -was nearly a third of a million. Thus ended one of the most needless, -unprovoked, cruel, and desolating wars that ever cursed Corea. More than -two hundred thousand human bodies were decapitated to furnish the -ghastly material for the “ear-tomb” mound in Kioto. More than one -hundred and eighty-five thousand Corean heads were gathered for -mutilation, and thirty thousand Chinese, all of which were despoiled of -ears and noses. It is probable that fifty thousand Japanese left their -bones in Corea. - -Since the invasion the town of Fusan, as before, had been held and -garrisoned by the retainers of the Daimio of Tsushima. At this port all -the commerce between the two nations took place. From an American point -of view, there was little trade done between the two countries, but on -the strength of even this small amount Earl Russell in 1862 tried to get -Great Britain included as a co-trader between Japan and Corea. He was -not, however, successful. A house was built at Nagasaki by the Japanese -government which was intended as a refuge for Coreans who might be -wrecked on Japanese shores. Wherever the waifs were picked up, they were -sent to Nagasaki and sheltered until a junk could be dispatched to -Fusan. - -The possession of Fusan by the Japanese was, until 1876, a perpetual -witness of the humiliating defeat of the Coreans in the war of -1592-1597, and a constant irritation to their national pride. Yet with -all the miseries inflicted on her, the humble nation learned rich -lessons, and gained many an advantage even from her enemy. The embassies -which were yearly dispatched to yield homage to their late invaders were -at the expense of the latter. The Japanese pride purchased the empty -bubble of homage by paying all the bills. - -The home of the Manchoos was on the north side of the Ever-white -mountains. From beyond these mountains was to roll upon China and Corea -another avalanche of invasion. By the sixteenth century the Manchoos had -become so strong that they openly defied the Chinese. Formidable -expeditions previous to the Japanese invasion of Corea kept them at bay -for a time, but the immense expenditure of life and treasure required to -fight the Japanese drained the resources of the Ming emperors, while -their attention being drawn away from the north, the Manchoo hordes -massed their forces and grew daily in strength. To repress the rising -power in the north, and to smother the life of the young nation, the -Peking government resorted to barbarous cruelties and stern coercion. -Unable to protect the eastern border of Liao Tung the entire population -of three hundred thousand souls, dwelling in four cities and many -villages, were removed westward and resettled on new lands. Fortresses -were planned in the deserted land to keep back the restless cavalry -raiders from the north. Thus the foundation of the neutral strip of -fifty miles was unconsciously laid, and ten thousand square miles of -fair and fertile land west of the Yalu were abandoned to the wolf and -tiger. What it soon became it remained until yesterday—a howling -wilderness. - -In 1615 the king of the Manchoo tribes was assassinated as the result of -a plot by the Ming emperor. This exasperated the tribes to vengeance and -they began hostilities. China now had to face another great invasion. -Calling on her vassal, Corea, to send an army of twenty thousand men, -she ordered them to join the imperial army about seventy miles west of -the Yalu River. In the battle which ensued the Coreans were the first to -face the Manchoos. The imperial legions were beaten, and the Coreans -seeing which way the victory would turn, deserted from the Chinese side -to that of their enemy. This was in 1619. Enraged by alternate treachery -to both sides from the Coreans, the Manchoos invaded Corea in 1627, to -which time the war had been prolonged. They crossed the frozen Yalu in -February, and at once attacked and defeated the Chinese army. They then -began the march to Seoul. Town after town was taken as they pressed -onward to the capital, the Coreans everywhere flying before them. -Thousands of dwellings and stores of provisions were given to the flames -and their trail was one of blood and ashes. After the siege of Seoul -began, the king sent tribute offerings to the invaders, and concluded a -treaty of peace, by which Corea again exchanged masters, this time -confessing subjection to the Manchoo sovereign. As soon as the invading -army had withdrawn, the Corean king, confident that the Chinese would be -ultimately successful over the Manchoos, annulled the treaty. No sooner -were the Manchoos able to spare their forces for the purpose than they -again marched into Corea and overran the peninsula. - -The king now came to terms, and in February, 1637, utterly renounced his -allegiance to the Ming emperor, gave his two sons as hostages, and -promised to send an annual embassy with tribute to the Manchoo court. -After the evacuation of Corea the victors marched into China, where -bloody civil war was raging. The imperial army of China had been beaten -by the rebels. The Manchoos joined their forces with the imperialists -and defeated the rebels, and then demanded the price of their victory. -Entering Peking they proclaimed the downfall of the house of Ming. The -son of the late king was set upon the dragon throne, and as we have seen -in a foregoing chapter the royal house of China came to be a Manchoo -family. - -When, as it happened the very next year, the shogun of Japan demanded an -increase of tribute to be paid in Yeddo, the court of Seoul plead in -excuse their wasted resources, consequent upon the war with the -Manchoos, and their heavy burdens newly laid upon them in the way of -tribute to their conqueror. Their excuse was accepted. Twice within a -single generation had the little peninsula been devastated by mighty -invasion that laid waste the country. - -[Illustration: COAST NEAR CHEMULPO.] - -In 1650 a captive Corean maid, taken prisoner in their first invasion, -became sixth lady in rank in the imperial Manchoo household. Through her -influence her father, the ambassador, obtained a considerable reduction -of the annual tribute that had been fixed by treaty. Other portions of -the tribute had been remitted before, so that by this time the tax upon -Corean loyalty became very slight, and the embassy became one of -ceremony rather than a tribute bringing. - -In the seventeenth century some information about Corea began to reach -Europe, first from the Jesuits in Peking, who sent home a map of the -peninsula. There is also a map of Corea in a work by the Jesuit Martini, -published in 1649 in Amsterdam. The Cossacks who overran northern Asia -brought reports of Corea to Russia, and it was from Russian sources that -Sir John Campbell obtained the substance of his history of Corea. In -1645 a party of Japanese crossed the peninsula, and one of them on his -return wrote a book descriptive of their journey. In 1707 the Jesuits in -Peking began their great geographical enterprise, the survey of the -Chinese empire, including the outlying vassal kingdoms. A map of Corea -was obtained from the king’s palace at Seoul and sent to Europe to be -engraved and printed. From this original most of the maps and supposed -Corean names in books published since that time have been copied. - -The first known entrance of any number of Europeans into Corea was that -of Hollanders belonging to the crew of the Dutch ship Hollandra which -was driven ashore in 1627. Coasting along the Corean shores, John -Wetterree and some companions went ashore to get water, and were -captured by the natives. The magnates of Seoul probably desired to have -a barbarian from the west, as useful to them as was the Englishman Will -Adams to the Japanese in Yeddo, where the Corean ambassadors had often -seen him. This explains why Wetterree was treated with kindness and -comparative honor, though kept as a prisoner. When the Manchoos invaded -Corea in 1635, his two companions were killed in the war, and Wetterree -was left alone. Having no one with whom he could converse he had almost -forgotten his native speech, when after twenty-seven years of exile, in -the fifty-ninth year of his age, he met some of his fellow Hollanders, -and acted as interpreter to the Coreans. - -In the summer of 1653 the Dutch ship Sparwehr was cast on shore on -Quelpaert island, off the southwest coast of Corea. The local magistrate -did what he could for the thirty-six members of the crew who reached the -shore alive, out of the sixty-four on board. On October 29th the -survivors were brought by the officials to be examined by the -interpreter Wetterree. The latter was very rusty in his native language, -but regained it in a month. Of course the first and last idea of the -captives was how to escape. They made one effort to reach the sea shore, -but were caught and severely punished, after which they were ordered to -proceed to the capital. Wherever they went the Dutchmen were like wild -beasts on exhibition. When they once reached the palace they were well -treated, and were assigned to the body guard of the king as petty -officers. Each time that the Manchoo envoy made his visit to the capital -the captives endeavored to enlist his sympathy and begged to be taken to -Peking, but all such efforts resulted in failure and punishment. The -suspicions of the government were aroused by the studies which the -Dutchmen pursued, of the climate, the topography, and the products of -the country, and by their attempts to escape, and in 1663 they were -separated and put into three different towns. By this time fourteen of -the number were dead and twenty-two remained. - -Finally, early in September 1667, as their fourteenth year of captivity -was drawing to a close, the Dutchmen escaped to the seacoast, bribed a -Corean to give them his fishing craft, and steered out into the open -water. A few days later, they reached the northwestern islands in the -vicinity of Kiushiu, Japan, and landed. The Japanese treated them kindly -and sent them to Nagasaki, where they met their countrymen at Desima. -The annual ship from Batavia was then just about to return, and in the -nick of time the waifs got on board, reached Batavia, sailed for -Holland, and in July, 1668, stepped ashore at home. Hendrik Hamel, the -supercargo of the ship, wrote a book on his return recounting his -adventures in a simple and straightforward style. It has been translated -into English and is a model work of its sort. - -The modern introduction of Christianity in Corea dates little more than -a hundred years ago. Some Corean students studying with the famous -Confucian professor Kwem, during the winter of 1777, entered into -discussion of some tracts on philosophy, mathematics, and religion just -brought from Peking. These were translations of the writings of the -Jesuits in the imperial capital. Surprised and delighted, they resolved -to attain if possible to a full understanding of the new doctrines. They -sought all the information that they could from Peking. The leader in -this movement was a student named Stonewall. As his information -accumulated, he gave himself up to fresh reading and meditation, and -then began to preach. Some of his friends in the capital, both nobles -and commoners, embraced the new doctrines with cheering promptness and -were baptized. Thus from small beginnings, but rapidly, were the -Christian ideas spread. - -But soon the power of the law and the pen were invoked to crush out the -exotic faith. The first victim was tried on the charge of destroying his -ancestral tablets, tortured, and sent into exile, in which he soon after -died. The scholars now took up weapons, and in April, 1784, the king’s -preceptor issued the first public document officially directed against -Christianity. In it all parents and relatives were entreated to break -off all relations with Christians. The names of the leaders were -published, and the example of Thomas Kim, the first victim, was cited. -Forthwith began a violent pressure upon the believers to renounce their -faith. Then began an exhibition alike of steadfast faith and shameful -apostasy, but though even Stonewall lapsed, the work went on. The next -few years of Christianity were important ones. The leaders formed an -organization and as nearly as they could on the lines of the Roman -Catholic church. Instructions were sent from Peking by the priests -there, and the worship in Corea became quite in harmony with that of the -Western church. But the decision that the worship of ancestors must be -abolished, was, in the eyes of the Corean public, a blow at the -framework of society and state, and many feeble adherents began to fall -away. December 8, 1791, Paul and Jacques Kim were decapitated for -refusing to recant their Christian faith. Thus was shed the first blood -for Corean Christianity. Martyrdom was frequent in this early history of -the Christian church in Corea, but in the ten years following the -baptism of Peter in Peking in 1783, in spite of persecution and -apostasy, it is estimated that there were four thousand Christians in -the peninsula. - -The first attempt of a foreign missionary to enter the Hermit Kingdom -from the west was made early in 1791. This was a Portuguese priest who -endeavored to cross the Yalu River to join some native Christians, but -was disappointed in meeting them and returned to Peking. Two years later -a young Chinese priest entered the forbidden territory, and was hidden -for three years in the house of a noble woman, where he preached and -taught. Three native Christians who refused to reveal his whereabouts -were tortured to death and were thrown into the Han River. From the -beginning of this century the most bitter general persecutions against -Christians was enforced. The young Chinese priest, learning that he was -outlawed, surrendered himself to relieve his friends of the -responsibility of protecting him, and was executed. The woman also who -had so long sheltered him was beheaded. Four other women who were -attendants in the palace, and an artist who was condemned for painting -Christian subjects were beheaded near the “Little Western Gate” of -Seoul. The policy of the government was shown in making away with the -Christians of rank and education who might be able to direct affairs in -the absence of the foreign priests, and in letting the poor and humble -go free. - -It is impossible to catalogue the martyrs and the edicts against -Christianity. The condition of the Christians scattered in the mountains -and forests, suffering poverty, hunger, and cold, was most deplorable. -In 1811 the Corean converts addressed letters to the Pope begging aid in -their distress. These however could not be answered in the way they -desired, for the Pope himself was then a prisoner at Fontainebleau and -the Roman propaganda was nearly at a standstill. - -[Illustration: COREAN MANDARINS.] - -In 1817 the king and court were terrified by the appearance off the west -coast of the British vessels Alceste and Lyra, but beyond some surveys, -purchases of provisions, and interviews with some local magistrates, the -foreigners departed without opening communication with them. Fifteen -years later the British ship Lord Amherst passed along the coasts of -Chulla, seeking commercial connections. On board was a Protestant -missionary, a Prussian. He landed on several of the islands and -attempted to gain some acquaintance with the people, but made little -progress. The year 1834 closed the first half century of Corean -Christianity. It is not strange that persecutions resulted from the -advance of Roman Catholic strength in Corea, for the Corean Christians -assumed naturally the righteousness of the Pope’s claim to temporal -power as the vicar of heaven. The Corean Christians not only deceived -their magistrates and violated their country’s laws, but actually -invited armed invasion. Hence, from the first, Christianity was -associated in patriotic minds with treason and robbery. - -After the restoration of the Bourbons in France and the strengthening of -the Papal throne by foreign bayonets, the missionary zeal in the church -was kindled afresh, and it was resolved to found a mission in Corea. The -first priest to make entrance was Pierre Philibert Maubant, who reached -Seoul in 1836, the first Frenchman who had penetrated the Hermit Nation. -A few months later another joined him, and in December, 1838, Bishop -Imbert ran the gauntlet of wilderness, ice, and guards at the frontier, -and took up his residence under the shadow of the king’s palace. Work -now went on vigorously, and in 1838 the Christians numbered nine -thousand. At the beginning of the next year the party in favor of -extirpating Christianity having gained the upper hand, another -persecution broke out with redoubled violence. To stay the further -shedding of blood, Bishop Imbert and his two priests came out of their -hiding places and delivered themselves up. They were horribly tortured, -and decapitated September 21, 1839. Six bitter years passed before the -Christians again had a foreign pastor. - -Since 1839 the government had tripled its vigilance and doubled the -guards on the frontier. The most strenuous efforts to pass the barriers -repeatedly failed. Andrew Kim is a name to be remembered in the history -of Christianity in Corea. Year after year he worked to enter Corea, or -once in, to advance the cause, or when rejected to help others in the -work. He was ordained to the priesthood in Shanghai, and finally in -company with two French priests, in September, 1845, sailed across the -Yellow Sea, and landed on the coast of Chulla, to make his final effort -to spread Christianity among the Coreans. During July of the same year, -the British ship Samarang was engaged in surveying off Quelpaert and the -south coast of Corea. Beacon fires all over the land telegraphed the -news of the presence of foreign ships, and the close watch that was kept -by the coast magistrates made the return of Andrew Kim doubly dangerous. - -These records of perseverance, of distress, of martyrdom, from the pages -of missionary work in Corea, written in the blood of native converts, -who bore their cross with equal bravery to that of the Roman fathers, -may be surprising to some who have been unfamiliar with the history of -the Corean peninsula. But they are convincing testimony to controvert -the assertions of some incredulous ones who affirm that the “heathen” -are never really Christianized, but are always ready to return to their -idols in times of trial. There is no country that can show braver -examples of fortitude, in enduring trial for the support of the faith, -than the “Hermit Nation.” - -Three priests in disguise were now secretly at work in Corea, Andrew -Kim, a native convert, and the Frenchmen, Bishop Ferreol, and his -companion Daveluy. Kim was captured and in company with half a dozen -others was executed September 16th. While he was in prison the Bishop -heard of three French ships which were at that time vainly trying to -find the mouth of the Han River and the channel to the capital. Ferreol -wrote to Captain Cecile, who commanded the fleet, but the note arrived -too late and Kim’s fate was sealed. The object of the fleet’s visit was -to demand satisfaction for the murder of the two French priests in 1889, -but after some coast surveys were made and a threatening letter was -dispatched the ships withdrew. - -During the summer of 1845, two French frigates set sail for the Corean -coast, and August 10th went aground, and both vessels became total -wrecks. The six hundred men made their camp at Kokun island, where they -were kindly treated and furnished with provisions, although rigidly -secluded and guarded against all communication with the main land. An -English ship from Shanghai rescued the crews. During the ensuing eight -years repeated efforts were made by missionaries and native converts to -enter Corea and advance the work there, and the labor of propagation -progressed. A number of religious works in the Corean language were -printed from a native printing press and widely circulated. In 1850 the -Christians numbered eleven thousand, and five young men were studying -for the priesthood. Regular mails sewn into the thick cotton coats of -the men in the annual embassy were sent to and brought from China. The -western nations were beginning to take an interest in the twin hermits -of the east, Corea and Japan. In 1852, the Russian frigate Pallas traced -and mapped a portion of the shore line of the east coast, and the work -was continued three years later by the French war vessel Virginie. At -the end of this voyage the whole coast from Fusan to the Tumen was known -with some accuracy and mapped out with European names. - -It was in the intervening years, 1853 and 1854, that Commodore Perry and -the American squadron were in the waters of the far east, driving the -wedge of civilization into Japan. The American flag, however, was not -yet seen in Corean waters, though the court of Seoul was kept informed -of Perry’s movements. - -A fresh reinforcement of missionaries reached Corea in 1857. When three -years later the French and English forces opened war with China, took -the Peiho forts, entered Peking, and sacked the summer palace of the Son -of Heaven, driving the Chinese emperor to flight, the loss of Chinese -prestige struck terror into all Corean hearts. For six centuries China -had been in Corean eyes the synonym and symbol of invincible power. -Copies of the treaties made between China and the allies, granting -freedom of trade and religion, were soon read in Corea, causing intense -alarm. But the most alarming thing was the treaty between China and -Russia, by which the Manchoo rulers surrendered the great tract watered -by the Amoor river and bordered by the Pacific, to Russia. It was a rich -and fertile region, with a coast full of harbors, and comprising an area -as large as France. The boundaries of Siberia now touch Corea. With -France on the right, Russia on the left, China humbled, and Japan opened -to the western world, it is not strange that the rulers in Seoul -trembled. The results to Christianity were that within a few years -thousands of natives fled their country and settled in the Russian -villages. At the capital, official business was suspended and many -families of rank fled to the mountains. In many instances people of rank -humbly sought the good favor and protection of the Christians, hoping -for safety when the dreaded invasion should come. In the midst of these -war preparations, the French missionary body was reinforced by the -arrival of four of their countrymen who set foot on the soil of their -martyrdom, October, 1861. - -The Ni dynasty, founded in 1392, came to an end January 15, 1864, by the -death of King Chul-chong, who had no child, before he had nominated an -heir. Palace intrigues and excitement among the political parties -followed. The widows of the three kings who had reigned since 1831 were -still living. The eldest of these, Queen Cho, at once seized the royal -seal and emblems of authority, which high-handed move made her the -mistress of the situation. A twelve-year-old lad was nominated for the -throne, and his father, Ni Kung, one of the royal princes, became the -actual regent. He held the reins of government during the next nine -years, ruling with power like that of an absolute despot. He was a rabid -hater of Christianity, foreigners, and progress. - -The year 1866 is phenomenal in Corean history. It seemed to the rulers -as if the governments of many nations had conspired to pierce their -walls of isolation. Russians, Frenchmen, Englishmen, Americans, Germans, -authorized and unauthorized, landed to trade, rob, kill, or what was -equally obnoxious to the regent and his court, to make treaties. This -and the rapid progress of Christianity now excited the anti-Christian -party, which was in full power at the court, to clamor for the -enforcement of the old edict against the foreign religion. - -Vainly the regent warned the court of the danger from Europe. Forced by -the party in power, he signed the death warrants of bishops and priests -and promulgated anew the old laws against the Christians. Within a few -weeks fourteen French priests and bishops were tortured to death, and -twice as many native missionaries and students for the priesthood -suffered like fate. Scores of native Christians were put to death, and -hundreds more were in prison. In a little over a month, all missionary -operations came to a standstill. The three French priests who remained -alive escaped from the peninsula in a Chinese junk, and finally reached -Chefoo October 26. Not one foreign priest now remained in Corea, and no -Christian dared openly confess his faith. Thus after twenty years of -nearly uninterrupted labors, the church was again stripped of her -pastors, and at the end of eighty-two years of Corean Christianity the -curtain fell in blood. - -With Bishop Ridel as interpreter and three of his converts as pilots, -three French vessels were sent to explore the Han River and to make -effort to secure satisfaction for the murder of the French bishops and -priests in the previous March. They entered the river September 21, and -two of the vessels advanced to Seoul, leaving one at the mouth of the -river. One or two forts fired on the vessels as they steamed along, and -in one place a fleet of junks gathered to dispute their passage. A -well-aimed shot sunk two of the crazy craft, and a bombshell dropped -among the artillerists in the redoubt, silenced it at once. On the -evening of the 25th, the two ships cast anchor and the flag of France -floated in front of the Corean capital. The hills were white with gazing -thousands, who for the first time saw a vessel moving under steam. The -ships remained abreast of the city several days, the officers taking -soundings and measurements, computing heights, and making plans. Bishop -Ridel went on shore in hopes of finding a Christian and hearing some -news but none dared to approach him. While the French remained in the -river not a bag of rice nor a fagot of wood entered Seoul. Eight days of -such terror, and a famine would have raged in the city. Seven thousand -houses were deserted by their occupants. When the ships returned to the -mouth of the river two converts came on board. They informed Ridel of -the burning of a “European” vessel, the General Sherman, at Ping-Yang, -of the renewal of the persecution, and of the order that Christians -should be put to death without waiting for instructions from Seoul. -Sailing away, the ships arrived at Chefoo, October 3. - -The regent, now thoroughly alarmed, began to stir up the country to -defense. The military forces in every province were called out, and the -forges and blacksmith shops were busy day and night in making arms of -every known kind. Loaded junks were sunk in the channel of the Han to -obstruct it. Word was sent to the tycoon of Japan informing him of the -trouble, and begging for assistance, but the Yeddo government had quite -all it could do at that time to take care of itself. Instead of help two -commissioners were appointed to go to Seoul and recommend that Corea -open her ports to foreign commerce as Japan had done, and thus choose -peace instead of war with foreigners. Before the envoys could leave -Japan the tycoon had died, and the next year Japan was in the throes of -civil war, the shogunate was abolished, and Corea was for the time -utterly forgotten. - -Another fleet of French vessels sailed from China to Corea, consisting -of seven ships of various kinds, and with six hundred soldiers. The -force landed before the city of Kang-wa on the island of the same name, -and captured the city without difficulty on the morning of October 16. -Several engagements in the same vicinity followed, all of them -successful to the French until they came to attack a fortified monastery -on the island some ten days later. Here they were repulsed with heavy -loss to themselves and to the foe. The next morning to the surprise of -all and the anger of many, orders were given to embark. The troops in -Kang-wa set fire to the city which in a few hours burned to ashes. The -departure of the invaders was so precipitate that Corean patriots to -this day gloat over it as a disgraceful retreat. - -In the palace at Seoul the resolve was made to exterminate Christianity, -root and branch. Women and even children were ordered to the death. -Several Christian nobles were executed. One Christian who was betrayed -in the capital by his pagan brother, and another fellow believer, were -taken to the river side in front of the city, near the place where the -two French vessels had anchored. At this historic spot, by an innovation -unknown in the customs of Cho-sen, they were decapitated and their -headless trunks held neck downward to spout out the hot life blood, that -it might wash away the stain of foreign pollution. Upon the mind of the -regent and court the effect was to swell their pride to the folly of -extravagant conceit. Feeling themselves able almost to defy the world, -they began soon after to hurl their defiance at Japan. The results of -this expedition were disastrous all over the east. Happening at a time -when relations between foreigners and Chinese were strained, the -unexpected return of the fleet filled the minds of Europeans in China -with alarm. The smothered embers of hostility to foreign influence, -steadily gathered vigor as the report spread through China that the -hated Frenchmen had been driven away by the Coreans. The fires at length -broke out in the Tien-tsin massacre of 1870. - -It was this same year, 1866, that witnessed the marriage of the young -king, now but fourteen years old, to Min, the daughter of one of the -noble families. Popular report has always credited the young queen with -abilities not inferior to those of her royal husband. The Min or Ming -family is largely Chinese in blood and origin, and beside being -preëminent among all the Corean nobility in social, political, and -intellectual power, has been most strenuous in adherence to Chinese -ideas and traditions with the purpose of keeping Corea unswerving in her -vassalage and loyalty to China. - -American associations with Corea have been peculiarly interesting. The -commerce carried on by American vessels with Chinese and Japanese ports -made the navigation of Corean waters a necessity. Sooner or later -shipwrecks must occur, and the question of the humane treatment of -American citizens cast on Corean shores came up before our government -for settlement, as it had long before in the case of Japan. Within one -year the Corean government had three American cases to deal with. June -24, 1866, the American schooner Surprise, was wrecked off the coast of -Wang-hai. The approach of any foreign vessel was especially dangerous at -this time, as the crews might be mistaken for Frenchmen and killed by -the people from patriotic impulses. Nevertheless, the captain and his -crew, after being well catechised by the local magistrate and by a -commissioner sent from Seoul, were kindly treated and well fed and -provided with the comforts of life. By orders of Tai-wen Kun, the -regent, they were escorted on horseback to Ai-chiu and after being -feasted there were conducted safely to the border gate. Thence after a -hard journey via Mukden they got to Niuchwang and to the United States -consul. - -The General Sherman was an American schooner that had the second -experience with the Coreans. The vessel was owned by a Mr. Preston who -was making a voyage for health. At Tien-tsin the schooner was loaded -with goods likely to be salable in Corea, and she was dispatched there -on an experimental voyage in the hope of thus opening the country to -commerce. The complement of the vessel was five white foreigners and -nineteen Malay and Chinese sailors. The white men were Mr. Hogarth, a -young Englishman, Mr. Preston, the owner, and Messrs. Page and Wilson, -the master and mate of the vessel, and the Rev. Mr. Thomas, a -missionary, who were Americans. From the first the character of the -expedition was suspected, because the men were rather too heavily armed -for a peaceful trading voyage. It was believed in China that the royal -coffins in the tombs of Ping-Yang were of solid gold, and it was broadly -hinted that the expedition had something to do with these. - -The schooner, whether merchant or invader, sailed from Chefoo and made -for the mouth of the Tatong River. There they met the Chinese captain of -a Chefoo junk who agreed to pilot them up the river. He stayed with the -General Sherman for two days, then leaving her he returned to the -river’s mouth, and sailed back to Chefoo. No further direct intelligence -was ever received from the unfortunate party. According to one report -the hatches of the schooner were fastened down after the crew had been -driven beneath, and set on fire. According to another, all were -decapitated. The Coreans burned the woodwork for the iron and took the -cannon for models. - -The United States steamship Wachusett, dispatched by Admiral Rowan to -inquire into the matter, reached Chefoo January 14, 1867, and took on -board the Chinese pilot of the General Sherman. Leaving Chefoo they cast -anchor two days later at the mouth of the large inlet next south of the -Tatong River, thinking that they had reached their destination. A letter -was dispatched to the capital of the province demanding that the -murderers be produced on the deck of the vessel. Five days elapsed -before the answer arrived, during which the surveying boats were busy. -Many natives were met and spoken with, who all told one story, that the -Sherman’s crew were murdered by the people and not by official -instigation. In a few days an officer from one of the villages appeared. -He would give neither information nor satisfaction, and the gist of his -reiteration was “go away as soon as possible.” Commander Shufeldt, bound -by his orders, could do nothing more, and being compelled also by stress -of weather came away. - -[Illustration: COLOSSAL COREAN IDOL—UN-JIN MIRIOK.] - -Later in the year Dr. Williams, Secretary of the United States Legation -at Peking, succeeded in obtaining an interview with a member of the -Corean embassy, who told him that after the General Sherman got aground -she careened over as the tide receded, and her crew landed to guard or -float her. The natives gathered around them, and before long an -altercation arose. A general attack began upon the foreigners, in which -every man was killed by the mob. About twenty of the natives lost their -lives. Dr. Williams’ comment is, “The evidence goes to uphold the -presumption that they invoked their sad fate by some rash or violent act -towards the natives.” - -The United States steamship Shenandoah was sent to make further -investigation, and this version of the story was given to the commander. -The Coreans said that when the Sherman arrived in the river, the local -officials went on board and addressed the two foreign officers of the -ship in respectful language. The latter grossly insulted the native -dignitaries. The Coreans treated their visitors kindly, but warned them -of their danger and the unlawfulness of penetrating into the country. -Nevertheless, the foreigners went up the river to Ping-Yang where they -seized the ship of one of the city officials, put him in chains, and -proceeded to rob the junks and their crews. The people of the city -aroused to wrath, attacked the foreign ship with firearms and cannon; -they set adrift fire rafts and even made a hand to hand fight with -knives and swords. The foreigners fought desperately, but the Coreans -overpowered them. Finally the ship caught fire and blew up with a -terrible report. This story was not, of course, believed by the American -officers, but even the best wishers and friends of the Sherman -adventurers cannot stifle suspicion of either cruelty or insult to the -natives. Remembering the kindness shown to the crew of the Surprise it -is difficult to believe that the General Sherman’s crew was murdered -without cause. - -In 1884 Lieutenant J.B. Bernadon, of the United States navy, made a -journey from Seoul to Ping-Yang, and being able to speak Corean, secured -the following information from native Christians: The governor of -Ping-Yang sent officers to inquire the mission of the Sherman. To -gratify their curiosity large numbers of the common people set out also -in boats which the Sherman’s crew mistook for a hostile demonstration -and fired guns in the air to warn them off. When the river fell the -Sherman grounded and careened over, which being seen from the city -walls, a fleet of boats set out with hostile intent and were fired upon. -Officers and people now enraged, started fire rafts, and soon the -vessel, though with white flag hoisted, was in flames. Of those who -leaped into the river most were drowned. Of those picked up one was the -Rev. Mr. Thomas, who was able to talk Corean. He explained the meaning -of the white flag, and begged to be surrendered to China. His prayer was -in vain. In a few days all the prisoners were led out and publicly -executed. - -In the spring of 1867 an expedition was organized by a French Jesuit -priest who spoke Corean, having been a missionary in the country; a -German Jew named Ernest Oppert; and the interpreter at the United States -consulate in Shanghai, a man named Jenkins. These worthies, it is said, -conceived a plan to steal the body of one of the dead Corean monarchs, -and hold it for ransom. With two steam vessels and a crew of sailors, -laborers, and coolies, the riffraff of humanity, such as swarm in every -Chinese port, they left Shanghai the last day of April, steamed to -Nagasaki, and then to the west coast of Corea, landing in the river -which flows into Prince Jerome Gulf. The steam tender which accompanied -the larger vessel took an armed crowd up the river as far as possible, -and from this point the march across the open country to the tomb was -begun. Their tools were so ineffective that they could not move, the -rocky slab which covered the sarcophagus, and they were compelled to -give up their task. During their return march they were attacked by the -exasperated Coreans, but were able to protect themselves without great -difficulty. During the remainder of their buccaneering trip, which -lasted ten days, they had various skirmishes and two or three of their -party were killed. On their return to Shanghai the American of the party -was arrested and tried before the United States consul, but it was -impossible to prove the things with which Jenkins was charged, and he -was dismissed. A few years later Oppert published a work in which he -told the story of his different voyages to Corea, including this last -one. In writing of the last he takes pains to gloss over the intentions -of his journey and to explain the good motives behind it. - -The representations made to the department of state at Washington by the -United States diplomatic corps in China concerning these different -attempts to enter Corea, directed the attention of the United States -government to the opening of Corea to American commerce. The state -department in 1870 resolved to undertake the enterprise. Frederick F. -Low, minister of the United States to Peking, and Rear Admiral John -Rodgers, commander in chief of the Asiatic squadron, were entrusted with -the delicate mission. The American squadron consisted of the flagship -Colorado, the corvettes Alaska and Dimitia, and the gunboats Monocacy -and Palos. In spite of the formidable appearance of the navy, the -vessels were either of an antiquated type, or of too heavy a draft, with -their armament defective. All the naval world in Chinese waters wondered -why the Americans should be content with such old fashioned ships -unworthy of the gallant crews who manned them. - -The squadron anchored near the mouth of the Han River May 30, 1871. -Approaching the squadron in a junk, some natives made signs of -friendship and came on board without hesitation. They bore a missive -acknowledging the receipt of the letter which the Americans had sent to -Corea some months before, by a special courier from the Chinese court. -This reply announced that three nobles had been appointed by the regent -for a conference. The next day a delegation of eight officers of the -third and fifth rank came on board, evidently with intent to see the -minister and admiral to learn all they could and gain time. They had -little authority and no credentials, but they were sociable, friendly -and in good humor. Neither of the envoys would see them, because they -lacked rank and credentials and authority. The Corean envoys were -informed that soundings would be taken in the river and the shores would -be surveyed. - -The best judges of eastern diplomacy think that this mission was very -poorly managed. These envoys were sent ashore, and at noon on the 2nd of -June the survey fleet moved up the river. The fleet consisted of four -steam launches abreast, followed by the Palos and Monocacy. But a few -minutes passed until from a fort on the shore a severe fire was opened -on the moving boats. The Americans promptly returned the fire, with the -result that the old Palos injured herself by the cannon kicking her -sides out. The Monocacy also struck a rock and began to leak badly, but -after hammering at the forts until they were all silenced, the squadron -was able to return down the river and not greatly injured. Strange to -say only one American was wounded and none were killed. It was a strong -evidence of the poor marksmanship of Corean gunners. - -Ten days were now allowed to pass before further action was taken, then -the same force started up the river again, enlarged by twenty boats -conveying a landing force of six hundred and fifty men. These were -arranged in ten companies of infantry and seven pieces of artillery. The -squadron proceeded up the river on the morning of the 10th of June, and -soon after noon, having demolished and emptied the first fort, the -troops were landed. The next day they began the march and soon reached -another fortification which was deserted. Here all of the artillery was -tumbled into the river and the fort was named Monocacy. In another hour, -another citadel was reached, attacked, and conquered by the united -efforts of the troops on shore and the vessels in the stream. The final -charge of the American troops up a steep incline met a terrible -reception. The Coreans fought with furious courage in hand to hand -conflict. Finally the enemy was completely routed, some three hundred -and fifty of them being killed. On the American side three were killed, -and ten wounded. Before the day was over two more forts were captured. -The result of the forty-eight hours on shore, of which only eighteen -were spent in the field, was the capture of five forts, probably the -strongest in the kingdom, fifty flags, and four hundred and eighty-one -pieces of artillery. The work of destruction was carried on and made as -thorough as fire, ax and shovel could make it, and this was all on -Sunday, June 11. - -Early on Monday morning the whole force was re-embarked in perfect -order, in spite of the furious tide. The fleet moved down the stream -with the captured colors at the mast heads, and towing the boats laden -with the trophies of victory. Later in the day the men slain in the -fight were buried on Boisee Island, and the first American graves rose -on Corean soil. - -Admiral Rodgers, having obeyed to the farthest limit the orders given -him, and all hope of making a treaty being over, the fleet sailed for -Chefoo on the 3rd of July, after thirty-five days’ stay in Corean -waters. - -“Our little war with the heathen,” as the New York Herald styled it, -attracted slight notice in the United States. In China the expedition -was looked upon as a failure and a defeat. The popular Corean idea was -that the Americans had come to avenge the death of pirates and robbers, -and after several battles had been so surely defeated that they dare not -attempt the task of chastisement again. - -When the mikado was restored to supreme power in Japan, and the -department of foreign affairs was created, one of the first things -attended to was to invite the Corean government to resume ancient -friendship and vassalage. This summons, coming from a source -unrecognized for eight centuries, and to a regent swollen with pride at -his victory over the French and his success in extirpating the Christian -religion, was spurned with defiance. An insolent and even scurrilous -letter was returned to the mikado’s government. The military classes, -stung with rage, formed a war party, but the cabinet of Japan vetoed the -scheme and in October, 1873, Saigo, the leader of the war party, -resigned and was returned to Satsuma to brood over his defeat. - -In 1873 the young king of Corea attained his majority. His father -Tai-wen Kun, the Regent, by the act of the king was relieved of office -and his bloody and cruel lease of power came to an end. The young -sovereign proved himself a man of some mental vigor and independent -judgment, not merely trusting to his ministers, but opening important -documents in person. He was ably seconded by his wife, to whom was born -in the same year an heir to the throne. - -The neutral belt of land, long inhabited by deer and tigers, had within -the last few decades been overspread with squatters, brigands, and -outlaws. The depredations of these border ruffians had become -intolerable both to China and Corea. In 1875 Li Hung Chang sending a -force of picked Chinese troops with a gunboat to the Yalu broke up the -nest of robbers and allowed settlers to enter the land. Two years later -the Peking government shifted its frontier to the Yalu River, and Corean -and Chinese territory was separated only by flowing water. The neutral -strip was no more. - -In 1875 some sailors of one of the Japanese ironclads, landing near -Kang-wa for water, were fired on by Corean soldiers under the idea that -they were Americans or Frenchmen. The Japanese before this time had -adopted uniforms of foreign style for their navy. Retaliating, the -Japanese two days later stormed and dismantled the fort, shot most of -the garrison, and carried the spoils to the ships. The news of this -affair brought the wavering minds of both the peace and the war party of -Japan to a decision. An envoy was dispatched to Peking to find out the -exact relation of China to Corea, and secure her neutrality. At the same -time another was sent with the fleet to the Han River, to make if -possible a treaty of friendship and open ports. General Kuroda having -charge of the latter embassy, with men of war, transports, and marines, -reached Seoul February the 6th, 1876. About the same time a courier from -Peking arrived in the capital, bearing the Chinese imperial -recommendation that a treaty be made with the Japanese. The temper of -the young king had been manifested long before this by his rebuking the -district magistrate of Kang-wa for allowing soldiers to fire on -peaceably disposed people, and ordering the offender to degradation and -exile. Arinori Mori in Peking had received a written disclaimer of -China’s responsibility over Corea, by which stroke of policy the Middle -Kingdom freed herself from all possible claims of indemnity from France, -the United States, and Japan. - -After several days of negotiation the details of the treaty were -settled, and on February 27 the treaty in which Chosen was recognized as -an independent nation was signed and attested. The first Corean embassy -which had been accredited to the mikado’s court since the Twelfth -century, sailed from Fusan in a Japanese steamer, landing at Yokohama, -May 29. By railroad and steam cars they reached Tokio, and on the first -of June the envoy had audience of the mikado. For three weeks the -Japanese amused, enlightened and startled their guests by showing them -their war ships, arsenals, artillery, torpedoes, schools, buildings, -factories, and offices, equipped with steam and electricity, the ripened -fruit of the seed planted by Perry in 1854. All attempts of foreigners -to hold any communication with them were firmly rejected by the Coreans. -Among the callers with diplomatic powers from the outside world in 1881, -each eager and ambitious to be the first in wresting the coveted prize -of a treaty, were two British captains of men-of-war and a French naval -officer, all of whom sailed away with rebuffs. - -Under the new treaty Fusan soon became a bustling place of trade with a -Japanese population of some two thousand. Public buildings were erected -for the Japanese consulate, chamber of commerce, bank, steamship -company, and hospitals. A newspaper was established, and after a few -years of mutual contact at Fusan the Coreans, though finding the -Japanese as troublesome as the latter discovered foreigners to be after -their own ports were opened, with much experience settled down to endure -them for the sake of a trade which was undoubtedly enriching the -country. Gensan was opened May 1, 1880. An exposition of Japanese, -European, and American goods was established for the benefit of trade -with the Coreans. - -Russia, England, France, Italy, and the United States all made efforts -in the next few months to make treaties with Corea, and all were -politely rejected. Early in 1881 Chinese and Japanese influence began to -be enlisted in favor of the United States in the effort to make a -treaty. Li Hung Chang, China’s liberal statesman, wrote a letter to a -Corean gentleman in which he advised the country to seek the friendship -of the United States. The Chinese secretary of legation at Tokio also -declared to the Coreans that Americans were the natural friends of -Asiatic nations, and should be welcomed. It began to look more hopeful -for the United States to secure her treaty through the influence of the -Chinese than that of the Japanese, on whom we had previously depended. -One of the most important moves in the advancement of Corea’s -civilization was the sending of a party of thirty-four prominent men to -visit Japan, and further study the problem of how far western ideas were -adapted to an oriental state. The leader of this party, after his return -from Japan, was dispatched on a mission to China, where his conference -was chiefly with Li Hung Chang. He had now a good opportunity of judging -the relative merits of Japan and China. The results of this mission were -soon apparent, for shortly after, eighty young men were sent to -Tien-tsin where they began to diligently pursue their studies of western -civilization as it had impressed itself on China in the arsenals and -schools. - -The spirit of progress made advance from the beginning of 1882, but -discussion reached fever heat in deciding whether the favor of Japan or -China should be most sought, and which foreign nation should be first -admitted to treaty rights. An event not unlooked-for, increased the -power of the progressionists. Kozaikai urged the plea of expulsion of -foreigners in such intemperate language that he was accused of -reproaching the sovereign. At the same time a conspiracy against the -life of the king was discovered. Kozaikai was put to death, many of the -conspirators were exiled, and the ringleaders were sentenced to be -broken alive on the wheel. The progressionists had now the upper hand, -and early in the spring two envoys went to Tien-tsin to inform Americans -and Chinese that the Corean government was ready to make a treaty. -Meanwhile Japanese officers were drilling the Corean soldiers in Seoul. - -The American diplomatic agent, Commodore R.W. Shufeldt, arrived in the -Swatara off Chemulpo May 7. Accompanied by three officers he went six -miles into the interior, to the office of the Corean magistrate, to -formulate the treaty. Two days afterward the treaty document was signed, -in a temporary pavilion on a point of land opposite the ship. Both on -the American and Corean side this result had been brought about only -after severe toil and prolonged effort. - -[Illustration: MAP SHOWING JAPAN, COREA AND PART OF CHINA.] - -Four days after the signing of the American treaty, the crown-prince, a -lad of nine years old, was married in Seoul. This year will be forever -known as the year of the treaties. Within a few months treaties were -signed by Corea with Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy and China. -Within a week there appeared in the harbor of Chemulpo two American, -three British, one French, one Japanese, one German and five Chinese -armed vessels; all of them except the French had left by June 8, to the -great relief of the country people, many of whom had fled to the hills -when the big guns began to waste their powder in salutes. - -The Japanese legation in Seoul now numbered about forty persons. They -seemed to suspect no imminent danger, although the old fanatic and -tyrant Tai-wen Kun was still alive and plotting. He was the centre of -all the elements hostile to innovation, and being a man of unusual -ability, was possessed of immense influence. During the nine years of -his nominal retirement from office, this bigoted Confucianist who -refused to know anything of the outer world waited his opportunity to -make trouble. Just then the populace was most excited over the near -presence of the foreigners at Chemulpo, the usual rainfall was withheld, -and in the consequent drought the rice crop was threatened with total -failure. The sorcerers and the anti-foreign party took advantage of the -situation to play on the fears of the superstitious people. The spirits -displeased at the intrusion of the western devils were angry, and were -cursing the land. - -While the king was out in the open air praying for rain July 23, a mob -of sympathizers with the old regent attempted to seize him. The king -escaped to the castle. Some mischief-maker then started the report that -the Japanese had attacked the royal castle and had seized the king and -queen. Forthwith the mob rushed with frantic violence upon the legation, -murdering the Japanese policemen and students whom they met on the -streets, and the Japanese military instructors in the barracks. Not -satisfied with this, the rioters, numbering four thousand men, attacked -and destroyed the houses of the ministers favoring intercourse. Many of -the Mins and seven Japanese were killed. The Japanese legation attaches -made a brave defence to the night attack which was made on them. Armed -only with swords and pistols, the Japanese formed themselves into a -circle, charged the mob, and cut their way through it. After an all -night march through a severe storm, the little band fighting its way for -much of the time, reached In-chiun at three o’clock the next day. The -governor received them kindly and supplied food and dry clothing, then -posting sentinels to watch so that the Japanese could get some rest. In -an hour the mob attacked them there, and they were again compelled to -cut their way out. They now made for Chemulpo, the seaport of the city, -and about midnight, having procured a junk, they put to sea. The next -morning they were taken on board a British vessel which was surveying -the coast, and a few days later were landed at Nagasaki. - -Without hesitation the Japanese government began preparations for a -military and naval attack. Hanabusa, the minister to Corea and his suite -were sent back to Seoul, escorted by a military force. He was received -with courtesy in the capital whence he had been driven three weeks ago. -The fleet of Chinese war ships was also at hand, and everything was -apparently under the control of Tai-wen Kun, who now professed to be -friendly to foreigners. At his audience with the king, Hanabusa -presented the demands of his government. These were nominally agreed to, -but several days passing without satisfactory action, Hanabusa having -exhausted remonstrance and argument left Seoul and returned to his ship. -This unexpected move, a menace of war, brought the usurper to terms. On -receipt of Tai-wen Kun’s apologies, the Japanese envoy returned to the -capital and full agreement was given to all the demands of Japan by the -Corean government. The insurgents were arrested and punished, the heavy -indemnity was paid, and an apology was sent by a special embassy to -Japan. Within the next few days Tai-wen Kun was taken on board a Chinese -ship at the orders of Li Hung Chang and taken to Tien-tsin. It is -generally believed that this action was practically a kidnapping, but -whether to rescue Tai-wen Kun from the dangers which threatened him or -to maintain China’s old theory of sovereign control over Corean rulers -it is hard to know. - -The treaty negotiated with the United States was duly ratified by our -senate, and Lucius H. Foote was appointed minister to Corea. General -Foote reached Chemulpo in the United States steamship Monocacy May 13, -and the formal ratifications of the treaty were exchanged in Seoul six -days later. The guns of the Monocacy, the same which shelled the Han -forts in 1870, fired the first salute ever given to the Corean flag. The -king responded by sending to the United States an embassy of eleven -persons led by Min Yong Ik and Hong Yong Sik, members respectively of -the conservative and liberal parties. - -Their interview with President Arthur was in the parlors of the Fifth -Avenue Hotel, New York, on September 17. All the Coreans were dressed in -their national custom, which they wore habitually while in America. -After spending some weeks in the study of American Institutions in -several cities, part of the embassy returned home by way of San -Francisco, leaving one of their number at Salem, Mass., to remain as a -student; while Min Yong Ik and two secretaries embarked on the United -States steamship Trenton, and after visiting Europe, reached Seoul in -June, 1884. - -We have now reached a point in Corean history from which a continuance -can be better made in a later chapter. Almost from the time of the -return of the Corean embassy from the United States, the political -ferment increased, until a few months after began the disorders which -culminated ten years later in the present Japanese-Chinese war. These -events will therefore be related in the chapter which is to follow, -descriptive of the causes of the war, and the relations of the three -oriental nations at the outbreak of hostilities. - - - - - GEOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT, CLIMATE AND PRODUCTS OF COREA. - - -------------- - -Geographical Limits of Corea—Characteristics of the Coast Line—The -Surface Configuration of the Country—Isolation Made Easy by the -Character of its Boundaries—Rivers of the Peninsula—The Climate—Forests, -Plants, and Animals—Products of the Soil and of the Mine—Extent of -Foreign Trade—The Eight provinces of Corea, Their Extent, Cities, and -History—Government of the Corean Kingdom—The Dignitaries and their -Duties—Corruption in the Administration of Official Duties—Buying and -Selling Office—The Executive and the Judiciary. - -For many a year the country of Corea has been known in little more than -name. Its territory is a peninsula on the east coast of Asia, between -China on the continent, and the Japanese islands to the eastward. It -extends from thirty-four degrees and thirty minutes to forty-three -degrees north latitude, and from one hundred and twenty-four degrees and -thirty minutes to one hundred and thirty degrees and thirty minutes east -longitude, between the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea. The Yellow Sea -separates it from the southern provinces of China, while the Sea of -Japan and the Strait of Corea separate it from the Japanese islands. It -has a coast line of about one thousand seven hundred and forty miles, -and a total area of about ninety thousand square miles. The peninsula, -with its outlying islands, is nearly equal in size to Minnesota or to -Great Britain. In general shape and relative position to the Asiatic -continent it resembles Florida. Tradition and geological indications -lead to the belief that anciently the Chinese promontory and province of -Shan-tung, and the Corean peninsula were connected, and that dry land -once covered the space filled by the waters joining the Gulf of Pechili -and the Yellow Sea. These waters are so shallow that the elevation of -their bottoms but a few feet would restore their area to the land -surface of the globe. On the other side also, the Sea of Japan is very -shallow and the Straits of Corea at their greatest depth have but -eighty-three feet of water. - -The east coast is high, mountainous, and but slightly indented, with -very few islands or harbors. The south and west shores are deeply and -manifoldly scooped and fringed with numerous islands. From these -island-skirted shores, especially on the west coast, mud banks extend -out to sea beyond sight. While the tide on the east coast is very -slight, only two feet at Gensan, it increases on the south and west -coasts in a north direction, rising to thirty-three feet at Chemulpo. -The rapid rise and fall of tides, and the vast area of mud left bare at -low water, cause frequent fogs, and render the numerous inlets little -available except for native craft. On the west coast the rivers are -frozen in winter, but the east coast is open the whole winter through. - -Quelpaert, the largest island, forty by seventeen miles, lies sixty -miles south of the main land. Port Hamilton, between Quelpaert and -Corea, was for a time an English possession, but in 1886 was given to -China. The Russians are generally believed to have an overweening desire -for the magnificent harbor of Port Lazaref on the east coast of the -Corean mainland. In its policy of exclusion of all foreigners, the -government has had its tasks facilitated by the inaccessible and -dangerous nature of the approaches to the coast. The high mountain -ranges and steep rocks of the east coast, and the thousands of islands, -banks, shoals and reefs extending for miles into the sea on the western -and southern shores, unite to make approach exceedingly difficult, even -with the best charts and surveys at hand. - -In the middle of the northern boundary of Corea, is the most notable -natural feature of the peninsula. It is a great mountain, the colossal -Paik-tu or “ever white” mountain, as it is known from the snow that -rests upon its summit. When the Manchoorians pushed the Coreans farther -and farther back, they reached this mountain, which marked the natural -barrier which they were able to make their permanent boundary line. -According to native account, which in Corea is seriously believed, the -highest peak of this mountain reaches the moderate elevation of -forty-four miles. It is famous as the birthplace of Corean folk lore, -and a great deal that is mythical hangs about it still. On the top of -the peak is a lake thirty miles in circumference. From this lake flow -two streams, one to the north-east, the Tumen, which enters the Sea of -Japan; and the other to the south-west, the Yalu river, which flows into -the Corean bay at the head of the Yellow Sea. Corea is therefore in -reality an island. These two rivers and the lake forming the northern -boundary are about four hundred and sixty miles from the ocean at the -southern end of the peninsula. The greatest width of the country is -three hundred and sixty miles and its narrowest about sixty miles. - -The Tumen river separates Corea from Manchooria, except in the last few -miles of its course, when it flows by Russian territory, the -south-eastern corner of Siberia. The Yalu river also divides Corea from -Manchooria. The rivers of Corea are not of great importance except for -drainage and water supply, being navigable but for short distances. On -the west coast the chief rivers are the Yalu, the Ching-chong, the -Tatong, the Han, the Kum; the Yalu is navigable for about one hundred -and seventy miles and is by far the greatest of all in the peninsula. -The Han is navigable to a little above Seoul, eighty miles; the Tatong -to Ping-Yang, seventy-five miles; and the Kum is navigable for small -boats for about thirty miles. In the south-eastern part of the peninsula -the Nak-tong is navigable for small boats to a distance of one hundred -and forty miles. The Tumen river, which forms the north-eastern boundary -between Corea and Siberia, is not navigable except near the mouth. It -drains a mountainous and rainy country. Ordinarily it is shallow and -quiet, but in spring its current becomes very turbulent and swollen. - -Occupying about the same latitude as Italy, Corea is also, like Italy, -hemmed in on the north by mountain ranges, and traversed from north to -south by another chain. The whole peninsula is very mountainous, some of -the peaks rising to a height of eight thousand feet. - -The climate of the country is excellent, bracing in the north, with the -south tempered by the ocean breezes in summer. The winters in the north -are colder than those of American states in the same latitude, and the -summers are hotter. The heat is tempered by sea breezes, but in the -narrow enclosed valleys it becomes very intense. The Han is frozen at -Seoul for three months in the year, sufficiently to be used as a cart -road, while the Tumen is usually frozen for five months. - -[Illustration: COREAN BULL HARROWING.] - -Various kinds of timber abound, except in the west, where wood is scarce -and is sparingly used; and in other parts the want of coal has caused -the wasteful destruction of many a forest. The fauna is very -considerable and besides tigers, leopards, and deer, includes pigs, wild -cats, badgers, foxes, beavers, otters, martens, bears, and a great -variety of birds. The salamander is found in the streams as in western -Japan. The domestic animals are few. The cattle are excellent, the bull -being the usual beast of burden, the pony very small but hardy, fowls -good, the pigs inferior. - -Immense numbers of oxen are found in the south, furnishing the meat diet -craved by the people, who eat much more of fatty food than the Japanese. -Goats are rare. Sheep are imported from China only for sacrificial -purposes. The dog serves for food as well as for companionship and -defense. Of birds the pheasants, falcons, eagle, crane, and stork are -common. - -Among the products are rice, wheat, beans, cotton, hemp, corn, sesame, -and perilla. Ginseng grows wild in the Kange mountains and is also much -cultivated about Kai-seng, the duties upon it, notwithstanding much -smuggling, yielded about half a million dollars annually. - -[Illustration: COREAN CITY WALL.] - -Iron ore of excellent quality is mined; and there are copper mines in -several places. The output of the silver mines is very small, but the -customs returns for 1886 show the value of gold exported that year to be -$503,296. The principal industries are the manufacture of paper, mats -woven of grass, split bamboo blinds, oil paper, and silk. The total -value of the foreign imports in 1887 was $2,300,000, two-thirds -representing cotton goods; the native exports reached about $700,000, -chiefly beans and cow hides. The foreign vessels entering the treaty -ports yearly number about seven hundred and fifty, of some two hundred -thousand tons burden. Three-fourths of the trade is with Japan and more -than one-fifth with China; British goods go by way of these countries. -Until 1888 business was done chiefly by barter, imports being exchanged -largely for gold dust, and Japanese silk piece goods being a current -exchange for trade inland. In that year the mint at Seoul was completed, -and a beneficial effect on commerce resulted from the introduction of a -convenient and sufficient coinage. Seoul is connected by telegraph with -Taku, Port Arthur, Chemulpo, Gensan, and Fusan. - -Corea is divided into eight provinces, three on the east coast and five -on the west coast. These eight provinces are divided into sixty -districts with about three hundred and sixty cities, only sixty of which -however are entitled to the name, the remainder distinguishing -themselves from the larger hamlets and villages merely by the walled-in -residence of the chief government official. Only a portion of each real -city is walled in; but it must not be thought that these walls are in -any way similar to those to be found in China, where even second and -third rate cities are protected by high and strong fortifications with -moats. Corean walls are usually about six feet high, miserably -constructed, of irregular and uneven stone blocks, and nearly every one -of them would tumble down at the first shock of a ball fired from a -modern gun. - -[Illustration: - - CHINESE PROTECTED CRUISER CHIH-YUEN. - Sunk at the Battle of the Yalu. -] - -Corea has for centuries successfully carried out the policy of -isolation. Instead of a peninsula, her rulers strove to make her an -accessible island, and insulate her from the shock of change. She has -built, not a great wall of masonry, but a barrier of sea and -river-flood, of mountain and devastated land, of palisade and cordon of -armed sentinels. Frost and snow, storm and winter, she hailed as her -allies. Not content with the sea border, she desolated her shores lest -they should tempt the foreigner to land. In addition to this, between -her Chinese neighbor and herself she placed a neutral space of -unplanted, unoccupied land. This strip of forest and desolated plain -twenty leagues wide, has stretched for three centuries between Corea and -Manchooria. To form it, four cities and many villages were suppressed -and left in ruins. The soil of these former solitudes is very good, the -roads easy, and the hills not high. The southern boundary of this -neutral ground has been the boundary of Corea, while the northern -boundary has been a wall of stakes, palisades and stone. Two centuries -ago, this line of walls was strong, high, guarded and kept in repair, -but year by year at last, during a long era of peace, they were suffered -to fall into decay, and except for their ruins exist no longer. For -centuries only the wild beasts, fugitives from justice, and outlaws from -both countries have inhabited this fertile but forbidden territory. -Occasionally borderers would cultivate portions of it, but gathered the -produce by night or stealthily by day, venturing on it as prisoners -would step over the dead line. Of late years the Chinese government has -respected the neutrality of this barrier less and less. Within a -generation large portions of this neutral strip have been occupied; -parts of it have been surveyed and staked out by Chinese surveyors, and -the Corean government has been too feeble to prevent the occupation. -Though no towns or villages are marked on the map of this neutral -territory, yet already a considerable number of small settlements exist -upon it, and it was through them that the overland marches of the -Japanese army from Corea into Manchooria had to be made. - -The province which borders this neutral territory, is that of Ping-Yang -or “Peaceful Quiet.” It is the border land of the kingdom, containing -what was for centuries the only acknowledged gate of entrance and outlet -to the one neighbor which Corea willingly acknowledged as her superior. -The battle of Ping-Yang recently fought, is only one of many which have -interrupted the harmony of the province of “Peaceful Quiet.” The town -nearest the frontier and the gateway of the kingdom is Wi-ju. It is -situated on a hill overlooking the Yalu river, and surrounded by a wall -of light colored stone. The annual embassy always departed for its -overland journey to China through its gates. Here also are the custom -house and vigilant guards, whose chief business it was to scrutinize all -persons entering or leaving Corea. Nevertheless most of the French -missionaries have entered the mysterious peninsula through this -loop-hole, disguising themselves as wood cutters, crossing the Yalu -river on the ice, creeping through the water drains in the grand wall, -and passing through this town, or they have been met by friends at -appointed places along the border, and thence have traveled to the -capital. Further details as to the political condition of this neutral -strip will be included in a succeeding chapter, preliminary to the -outbreak of the war. The Tatong river, which forms the southern boundary -of the province, is the Rubicon of Corean history. At various epochs in -ancient times it was the boundary river of China or of the rival states -within the peninsula. About fifty miles from its mouth is the city of -Ping-Yang, the metropolis and capital of the province and the royal seat -of authority from before the Christian era to the tenth century. Its -situation renders it a natural stronghold. It has been many times -besieged by Chinese and Japanese armies, and near it many battles have -been fought. - -The next province to the south is that of Hwanghai or the “Yellow Sea” -province. This is the land of Corea that projects into the Yellow Sea -directly opposite the Shan-tung promontory of China, on which are the -ports of Chefoo and Wei-hai-wei. Tien-tsin, the seaport of Peking, is a -little farther east. From these ports since the most ancient times, the -Chinese armadas have sailed and invading armies have embarked for Corea. -Over and over again has the river Tatong been crowded with fleets of -junks, fluttering the dragon banners at their peaks. To guard against -these invasions signal fires were lighted on the hill-tops which formed -a cordon of flame and sped the alarm from coast to capital in a few -hours. This province has been the camping ground of the armies of many -nations. Here, beside the border forays which engaged the troops of the -rival kingdom, the Japanese, Chinese, Mongols, and Manchoos have -contended for victory again and again. The principal cities of this -province are Hai-chiu the capital, Hwang-ju an old baronial walled city, -and the commercial city of Sunto or Kai-seng. Rock salt, flints, -ginseng, varnish, and brushes made of the hair of wolf tails, are the -principal products of the province. - -[Illustration: GATE OF SEOUL.] - -Kiung-kei is the province which contains the national capital, although -it is the smallest of all. The city of Han Yang, or Seoul, is on the -north side of the river, forty or fifty miles from its mouth. The name -Han Yang means “the fortress on the Han river,” while the common term -applied to the royal city is Seoul, which means “the capital.” The -population of the city is between two hundred thousand and two hundred -and fifty thousand. The natural advantages of Seoul are excellent, as it -is well protected by surrounding mountains, and its suburbs reach the -navigable river. The scenery from the city is magnificent. The walls are -of masonry, averaging about twenty feet in height, with arched stone -bridges over the water courses. The streets are narrow and tortuous. The -king’s castle is in the northern part. The islands in the river near the -capital are inhabited by fishermen. - -Four great fortresses guard the approaches to the royal city, all of -which have been the scene of siege and battle in time past. The -fortresses in succession are Suwen to the south, Kwang-chiu to the -south-east, Sunto to the north and Kang-wa to the west. On the walls of -the first three have been set the banners of the hosts of Ming from -China and of Taiko from Japan, in the wars at the close of the sixteenth -century. The Manchoo standard in 1637 and the French eagles in 1866 were -planted on the ramparts of Kang-wa. Beside these castled cities there -are forts and redoubts along the river banks crowning most of the -commanding headlands. Over these the stars and stripes floated for three -days in 1871 when the American forces captured the strongholds. - -Sunto is one of the most important, if not the chief commercial city in -the kingdom, and from 960 to 1392 it was the national capital. The chief -staple of manufacture and sale is the coarse cotton cloth which forms -the national dress. Kang-wa on the island of the same name, at the mouth -of the Han river, is the favorite fortress to which the royal family are -sent for safety in time of war, or are banished in case of deposition. - -The province Chung Chong or “Serene Loyalty” is the next one to the -southward facing the Yellow Sea. In the history of Corean Christianity -this province will be remembered as the nursery of the faith. Here were -made the most converts to the teachings of the French missionaries, and -here persecutions were most violent. When the Japanese armies of -invasion reached the capital in 1592, it was over the great highways -from Fusan which cross this province. Chion-Chiu, the fortress on whose -fate the capital depended, lies in the north-east of the province. The -province contains ten walled cities, and like all its fellows it is -divided into departments, right and left. - -The most southern of the eight provinces, Chulla or “Complete Network” -is also the warmest and most fertile. It is nearest to Shanghai and to -the track of foreign commerce. Considerable quantities of hides, bones, -horns, leather, and tallow are exported to Japan. The beef supplied from -the herds of cattle in the pastures of Chulla is famous, and troops of -horses graze on the pasture land. The province is well furnished with -ports and harbors. Christianity had quite a hold in this province, and -when Corea was partly opened to the world there were many believers -found in the north who were descendants of Christian martyrs. The -capital is Chon-chiu. The soil of the province was the scene of many -battles during the Chinese invasions of 1592-97. - -[Illustration: - - NAVAL ATTACK ON THE CHEN-YUEN BEFORE CHEMULPO. - Japanese Drawing. -] - -The island of Quelpaert is about sixty miles south of the mainland. It -is mountainous, with one peak called Han-ra more than six thousand five -hundred feet high. On its top are three extinct craters within each of -which is a lake of pure water. Corean children are taught to believe -that the three first created men of the world still dwell on these lofty -heights. - -The most south-easterly province of Corea, and therefore the nearest to -Japan, is Kiung-sang or the “Province of Respectful Congratulation.” It -is one of the richest of the eight provinces as well as the most -populous, and the seat of many historical associations with Japan. The -city of Kion-chiu was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Shinra, and -from here to Kioto, from the third to the tenth century, the relations -of war and peace, letters and religion were continuous and fruitful. The -province has always been the gateway of entrance and exit to the -Japanese. Fusan, the port which was held by the Japanese from very -ancient times, is well at the south-eastern extremity of the peninsula. -Its fortifications are excellent, and its harbor well protected. -Populous cities encircle the bay on which Fusan stands, and from this -point extend two great roads to Seoul. The influence of centuries of -close intercourse with their neighbors, the Japanese, is strongly marked -in this province. - -The “River Meadow,” or Kang-wen province fronts Japan from the middle of -the eastern coast directly north of Kiung-sang. It is a province of -beautiful scenery and precipitous mountains. The capital is Wen-chiu. -The women of the province are said to be the most beautiful in Corea. - -Ham-kiung, or complete view, is that part of Corean territory adjoining -the boundary of Russia. The south-eastern boundary of Siberia, which has -been pushed farther south after every European war with China, touched -the Tumen river, the northern boundary of Corea, in 1858. It is but a -little ways from the mouth of the Tumen river to the forts of -Vladivostok and Possiet in Russian territory. From these cities extends -a telegraph across Siberia to the cities of European Russia, and here -will be the terminus of the great Trans-Siberian railway now under -construction. Possiet is connected with Nagasaki by an electric cable. -In the event of a war between China and Russia, the Czar would most -probably make Corea the basis of operations. Thousands of Coreans have -left their own country to dwell in the neighboring portions of Siberia, -and most of them are from the province of Ham-kiung. Persecuted -Christians from all over the Corean peninsula have however escaped to -Russia for protection for many years. The port of Gensan near Port -Lazaref, fronting Broughton’s Bay has been opened for trade since May 1, -1880, and has been an important strategic and commercial point ever -since. The capital city of this province is Ham-hung and there are -fourteen other walled cities within its limits. Until the Russians -occupied the adjoining territory, an annual fair was held at the Corea -city of Kion-wen which lies close to the border. Here the Manchoo and -Chinese merchants bartered their wares for those of Corean, the traffic -lasting but two or three days and sometimes only one day. At the end of -the fair any lingering Chinese not soon across the border was urged over -at the point of a spear. Foreigners found within the Corean limits at -any other time were apt to be ruthlessly murdered. - -The government of Corea, since the amalgamation of the different tribes -and union of the various states five hundred years ago, has devolved -upon an independent king, an hereditary monarch whose rule was absolute -and supreme. Next in authority to the king are the three Chong, or high -ministers. The chief of these is the greatest dignitary of the kingdom, -and in time of minority or inability of the king wields royal authority. -The father of the present king ruled as regent up to the time when his -son reached his majority in 1874. After the king and the three prime -ministers, come the six heads of departments of government which rank -next. These six department ministers are assisted by two other -associates, the Cham-pan and the Cham-e. These four grades and -twenty-one dignitaries constitute the royal council of Dai-jin, though -the actual authority is in the three ministers. All of the department -ministers make daily reports of their affairs, and refer matters of -importance to the supreme council. There are also three chamberlains who -record every day the acts and words of the king. A daily government -gazette called the Cho-po is issued for information on official matters. -The general cast and method of procedure in the court and government -were copied in the beginning after the great model in Peking. The rule -of the king in Corea is absolute, and his will alone is law. There has -always existed, indeed, the office of a high functionary whose special -duty consists in watching and controlling the royal actions. Formerly -this office really had some significance, but of late years it has -possessed none whatever. Another very curious institution has been that -of the declared or official favorite, a position generally filled by -some member of a noble family, or by one of the ministers whose -influence for good or for evil was paramount with his royal master. - -[Illustration: COREAN MAGISTRATE AND SERVANT.] - -The titles of the prime ministers are Chief of The Just Government, The -Just Governor of the Left, and The Just Governor of the Right. The six -department ministers are those of the interior, or office and public -employ, finance, war, education, punishments or justice, and public -works. The duties of the minister of foreign affairs devolve on the -minister of education. - -Each of the eight provinces is under the direction of a Kam-sa or -governor. The cities are divided into six classes, and are governed by -officers of corresponding rank. Towns are given in charge of the petty -magistrates, there being twelve ranks or dignities in the official -class. In theory, any male Corean able to pass the government -examination is eligible to office, but the greater number of the best -positions are secured by the nobles and their friends. The terms of -office in these posts, from that of provincial governorship down to the -lowest are only for two or three years. At the end of that time the -incumbent pays purchase money and is removed to another place. The -natural result of this system is that the officials take little interest -in their offices except to extort as much profit as possible from the -people whom they are governing. With offices and honors sold to the -highest bidder, the high officers sell justice and plunder their -subordinates, while these again try to indemnify themselves by further -extortion. - -The magistrates lay great stress on the trifles of etiquette, and -sumptuary laws exist referring to all sorts of the small things of life. -The rule of the local authorities is very minute in all its -ramifications. The system of making every five houses a social unit is -universal. Every subject of the sovereign except nobles of rank must -possess a passport testifying to his personality and must show his -ticket on demand. - -Civil matters are decided by the ordinary civil magistrate, while -criminal cases are tried by the military commandant. Very important -cases are referred to the governor of the province, and thence appealed -to the high court in the capital. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE NAVAL ATTACK ON THE FORTS AT WEI-HAI-WEI, AUGUST -17TH.] - - - - - COREAN CHARACTERISTICS AND MANNERS OF - LIFE. - - -------------- - -Physique of the People—Rigid Caste System—Slavery—Guilds and Trade -Unions—Position of Women—Nameless and Oppressed—Marriage and Family -Life—Burial and Mourning Customs—Dress and Diet—Homes—Home -Life—Children—Education—Outdoor Life—Music—Literature—Language—Religion. - - -The Corean people are mainly of a Mongolian type, though there is some -evidence that there is a Caucasian element in the stock. They are a -little larger and steadier of physique than the Japanese, or the Chinese -of the south, more nearly approaching to the northern Chinese and even -to the tribes in the northeast of Asia. Frequently individuals are met, -with hair not quite black, and even blue eyes and an almost English -style of face. The characteristics of the people are distinguished to -advantage from that of their Chinese neighbors by the openness and -frankness of their demeanor. The Coreans, even of the lower classes, are -grave and sedate by nature, which, however, does not exclude a spirit of -frank gayety shown on nearer acquaintance. They are thoroughly honest, -faithful and good natured, and attach themselves with an almost -childlike confidence even to strangers and foreigners, when once they -begin to trust in their sincerity. - -Firm, sure, and quick in his walk, the Corean possesses greater ease and -a freer motion than the Chinese, to whom they are superior in height and -bodily strength. On the other hand it cannot be denied that the Coreans -rank considerably below the Chinese in cultivation of good manners, and -they are wanting in that little polish which is not absent even among -the lower classes of China and Japan. - -The peculiarity of the Corean race and the difference between the same -and the neighboring nations, shows itself mainly in the strict and rigid -division of the castes which part the various ranks of the population of -the peninsula from each other, showing some analogy to the caste -institutions prevailing among the Hindus in India. There exists, -however, this notable difference between the two, that while with the -latter this separation is based upon religious principles and customs, -no religious movement appears as its cause in Corea, where its origin -seems solely attributable to political reasons, which have been -maintained and kept up to our times by the government for reasons of its -own. The forms of Corean society to this day are derived from feudal -ranks and divisions. The fruit and legacy of feudalism are seen in the -serfdom or slavery which is Corea’s peculiar domestic institution. - -Speaking in general terms, society has four grades, following the king. -These are the nobles and the three classes which come after them, in the -last of which are “the seven low callings.” In detail the grades may be -counted by the scores. In the lowest grade of the fourth class are “the -seven vile callings,” that is, the merchant, boatman, jailer, postal or -mail slave, monk, butcher, and sorcerer. The first and foremost rank, -immediately after the king and the members of the royal family, who -stand absolutely above and beyond these castes, is taken up by the -so-called nobles, descendants of the old families of chieftains, who are -again subdivided into two degrees, the civil and the military nobility. -These two classes of nobles, in the course of time, had possessed -themselves of the exclusive right of occupying public office. Following -upon these we find the caste of the half nobles, numerically a very weak -class, which forms the transition from the nobility to the civic -classes. These also enjoy the right to fill certain offices from their -ranks, principally those of government secretaries and translators of -Chinese. After these come the civic caste, which consists of the better -and wealthier portion of the city inhabitants. This class counts amongst -its numbers the merchants, manufacturers, and most kinds of artisans. -Next follows the people’s caste, which comprising the bulk of the people -is naturally the most numerous of all and includes all villagers, -farmers, shepherds, huntsmen, fishermen, and the like. - -[Illustration: STATESMAN ON MONOCYCLE.—_Native Drawing._] - -The nobles are usually the slave holders, many of them having in their -households large numbers whom they have inherited along with their -ancestral chattels. The master has a right to sell or otherwise dispose -of the children of his slaves if he so choose. Slavery or serfdom in -Corea is in a continuous state of decline, and the number of slaves -constantly diminishing. The slaves are those who are born in a state of -servitude, those who sell themselves as slaves, and those who are sold -to be such by their parents in times of famine or for debt. Infants -exposed or abandoned that are picked up and educated become slaves, but -their offspring are born free. The serfdom is really very mild. Only the -active young men are held to field labor, the young women being kept as -domestics. When old enough to marry, the males are let free by an annual -payment of a sum of money for a term of years. Outside of private -ownership of slaves, there is a species of government slavery which -illustrates the persistency of one feature of the ancient kingdom of -Korai perpetuated through twenty centuries. It is the law that in case -of the condemnation of a great criminal, the ban shall fall upon his -wife and children, who at once become the slaves of the judge. These -unfortunates do not have the privilege of honorably serving the -magistrate, but usually pass their existence in waiting on the menials -in the various government offices. Only a few of the government slaves -are such by birth, most of them having become so through judicial -condemnation in criminal cases; but this latter class fare far worse -than the ordinary slaves. They are chiefly females, and are treated -little better than beasts. Nothing can equal the contempt in which they -are held. - -[Illustration: COREAN BRUSH CUTTER.—_Native Drawing._] - -By union and organization it has come to pass that the common people and -the serfs themselves in Corea have won a certain degree of social -freedom that is increasing. The spirit of association is spread among -the Coreans of all classes, from the highest families to the meanest -slaves. All those who have any kind of work or interest in common, form -guilds, corporations or societies which have a common fund contributed -to by all for aid in time of need. Very powerful trade unions exist -among the mechanics and laborers, such as hat-weavers, coffin-makers, -carpenters, and masons. These societies enable each class to possess a -monopoly of trade which even a noble vainly tries to break. Sometimes -they hold this right by writ purchased or obtained from government, -though usually it is by prescription. Most of the guilds are taxed by -the government for their monopoly enjoyed. They have their chief or head -man who possesses almost despotic power, even in some guilds of life and -death. - -One of the most powerful and best organized guilds is that of the -porters. The interior commerce of the country being almost entirely on -the backs of men and pack horses, these people have the monopoly of it. -They number about ten thousand, and are divided by provinces and -districts under the orders of chiefs and inspectors. They have very -severe rules for the government of their guild, and crimes among them -are punished with death at the order of their chief. They are so -powerful that they pretend that even the government dare not interfere -with them. They are honest and faithful in their business, delivering -packages with certainty to the most remote places in the kingdom. When -they have received an insult, or injustice, or too low wages, they -“strike” in a body and retire from the district. This puts a stop to all -travel and business until the grievances are settled, or submission to -their own terms is made. Owing to the fact that the country at large is -so lacking in the shops and stores common in other countries, and that -instead fairs on set days are so numerous in the towns and villages, the -guild of peddlers and hucksters is very large and influential. This -class includes probably two hundred thousand able bodied persons who in -the various provinces move freely among the people, and are thus useful -to government as spies, detectives, messengers, and in time of need, -soldiers. - -[Illustration: PORTERS WITH CHAIR.—_Native Drawing._] - -The Corean woman has little moral existence. She is an instrument of -pleasure or of labor, but never man’s companion or equal. She has no -name. In childhood she receives indeed a surname by which she is known -in the family and by near friends, but as she grows up none but her -father and mother employ this appellation; to all others she is “the -sister” of such a one or “the daughter” of so and so. After her marriage -her name is buried, and she is absolutely nameless. Her own parents -allude to her by employing the name of the district or ward in which she -is married. When she bears children she is “the mother” of so and so. -When a woman appears for trial before a magistrate, in order to save -time and trouble she receives a special name for the time being. - -In the higher classes of society etiquette requires that the children be -separated after the age of eight or ten years. After that time the boys -dwell entirely in the men’s apartments to study and even to eat and -drink; the girls remain secluded in the women’s quarters. The boys are -taught that it is a shameful thing even to set foot in the female part -of the house. The girls are told that it is disgraceful even to be seen -by males, so that gradually they seek to hide themselves when any of the -male sex appear. These customs, continued from childhood to old age, -result in destroying the family life. A Corean of good taste only -occasionally holds conversation with his wife, whom he regards as being -far beneath him. The men chat, smoke, and enjoy themselves in the outer -rooms, and the women receive their parents and friends in the inner -apartments. The men seek the society of their male neighbors, and the -women on their part unite together for local gossip. In the higher -classes, when a young woman has arrived to marriageable age none even of -her own relatives except those nearest of kin, is allowed to see or -speak to her. After their marriage women are inaccessible. They are -nearly always confined to their apartments, nor can they even look out -into the streets without permission from their lords. - -There is, however, another side. Though counting for nothing in society, -and nearly so in their family, they are surrounded by a certain sort of -exterior respect. They are always addressed in the formulas of the most -polite language. The men always step aside in the street to allow a -woman to pass, even though she be of the poorer classes. There is also a -peculiar custom which exists in Seoul which exhibits deference to the -comfort of the women. A bell in the castle is struck at sunset, after -which male citizens are not allowed to go out of their houses even to -visit their neighbors. Women, on the contrary are permitted the freedom -of the streets after this time, consequently, as they are assured of -safety, from seeing men or being seen by them, they take their exercise -and enjoy the outdoors most heartily and freely at night. - -Marriage in Corea is a thing with which a woman has little or nothing to -do. The father of the young man communicates with the father of the girl -he wishes his son to marry. This is often done without consulting the -tastes or character of either, and usually through a middleman or -go-between. The fathers settle the time of the wedding, and a favorable -day is appointed by the astrologers. Under this aspect marriage seems an -affair of small importance, but in reality it is marriage only that -gives one any civil rank or influence in society. Every unmarried person -is treated as a child. He may commit all sorts of foolishness without -being held to account. His capers are not noticed, for he is not -supposed to think or act seriously. Even the unmarried young men of -twenty-five or thirty years of age can take no part in social reunions -or speak on affairs of importance. But marriage is emancipation. Even if -mated at twelve or thirteen years of age, the married are adults. The -bride takes her place among the matrons and the young man has a right to -speak among the men and to wear a hat. - -The badge of single or married life is the hair. Before marriage the -young man who goes bareheaded, wears a simple tress hanging down his -back. In wedlock the hair is bound up on the top of the head and is -cultivated on all parts of the scalp. Young persons who insist on -remaining single, or bachelors who have not yet found a wife, sometimes, -however, secretly cut off their hair or get it done by fraud in order to -pass for married folks and avoid being treated as children. Such a -custom however is a gross violation of morals and etiquette. - -On the evening before the wedding the young lady who is to be married -invites one of her friends to change her virginal coiffure to that of a -married woman. The bridegroom-to-be, also invites one of his -acquaintances to do up his hair in manly style. On the marriage day in -the house of the groom a platform is set up and richly adorned with -decorative cloths. Parents, friends, and acquaintances assemble in a -crowd. The couple to be married, who may never have seen or spoken to -each other, are brought in and take their places on the platform face to -face. There they remain for a few minutes. They salute each other with -profound obeisance but utter not a word. This constitutes the ceremony -of marriage. Each then retires upon either side; the bride to the -female, and the groom to the male apartments, where feasting and -amusement after fashions in vogue in Chosen take place. The expense of a -wedding is considerable and the bridegroom must be unstinting in his -hospitality. Any failure in this particular may subject him to -unpleasant practical jokes. On her wedding day the young bride must -preserve absolute silence both on the marriage platform and in the -nuptial chamber. Etiquette requires this at least among the nobility. -Though overwhelmed with questions and compliments, silence is her duty. -She must rest mute and impassive as a statue. - -It is the reciprocal salutation before witnesses on the wedding dais -that constitutes legitimate marriage. From that moment a husband may -claim a woman as his wife. Conjugal fidelity, obligatory on the woman, -is not required of the husband, and a wife is little more than a slave -of superior rank. Among the nobles the young bridegroom spends three or -four days with his bride, and then absents himself from her for a -considerable time to prove that he does not esteem her too highly. To -act otherwise would be considered in very bad taste and highly -unfashionable. - -[Illustration: - - JAPANESE WAR SHIP “YOSHINO.” - (During the Attack on Wei-hai-wei, August 17th, 1894.) -] - -Habituated from infancy to such a yoke and regarding themselves as of an -inferior race, most women submit to their lot with exemplary -resignation. Having no idea of progress or of an infraction of -established usage they bear all things. They become devoted and obedient -wives, jealous of the reputation and well-being of their husbands. The -woman who is legally espoused, whether widow or slave, enters into and -shares the entire social estate of her husband. Even if she be not noble -by birth she becomes so by marrying a noble. It is not proper for a -widow to remarry. - -The fashion of mourning, the proper time and place to shed tears, and -express grief, according to regulations, are rigidly prescribed in an -official treatise, or “Guide to Mourners,” published by the government. -The corpse must be placed in a coffin of very thick wood, and preserved -during many months in a special room prepared and ornamented for this -purpose. It is proper to weep only in this death chamber, but this must -be done three or four times daily. Before entering it the mourner must -don a special suit of mourning clothes. At the new and full moon all the -relatives are invited and expected to assist in the ceremonies. These -practices continue more or less even after burial, and at intervals -during several years. Often a noble will go out to weep at the tomb, -passing days and nights in this position. Among the poor, who have not -the means to provide a death chamber and expensive mourning, the coffin -is kept outside their houses covered with mats until the time for its -burial. - -Though cremation is known in Corea, the most usual form of disposing of -the dead is by burial. Children are wrapped up in the clothes and -bedding in which they die and are thus buried. As all unmarried persons -are reckoned as children their shroud and burial are the same. With the -married the process is more costly, and more detailed and prolonged. The -selection of a proper site for their tomb is a matter of profound -solicitude, time, and money; for the geomancers must be consulted with a -fee. The tombs of the poor consist only of a grave and a low mound of -earth. With the richer class monuments are of stone, sometimes neat or -even imposing, sometimes grotesque. - -Mourning is of many degrees and lengths, and is betokened by dress, -abstinence from food and business, visits to the tomb, offerings, -tablets, and many visible indications detailed even to absurdity. Pure -or nearly pure white is the mourning color, as a contrast to red, the -color of rejoicing. When noblemen don the peaked hat which covers the -face as well as the head, they are as dead to the world, not to be -spoken to, molested, or even arrested, if charged with crime. This -Corean mourning hat proved the helmet of salvation to Christians and -explains the safety of the French missionaries who lived so long in -disguise under its shelter, unharmed in the country where the police -were ever on their track. The Jesuits were not slow to see the wonderful -protection promised for them, and availed themselves of it at once and -always, both while entering the well-guarded frontier and while residing -in the country. - -Corean architecture is in a very primitive condition. The castles, -fortifications, temples, monasteries, and public buildings cannot -approach the magnificence of those of Japan or China. The dwellings are -tiled or thatched houses, almost invariably one story high. In the -smaller towns these are not arranged in regular streets but are -scattered here and there. Even in the cities the streets are narrow and -tortuous. In the rural parts the houses of the wealthy are surrounded by -beautiful groves, with gardens circled by hedges or fences of rushes or -split bamboo. The cities show a greater display of red-tiled roofs, as -only the officials and nobles are allowed this honor. Shingles are not -much used. The thatchings are rice or barley straw. A low wall of -uncemented stone five or six feet high, surrounds the dwellings. The -foundations are laid on stone set in the earth, and the floor of the -humble is the ground itself. The people one grade above the poorest, -cover the hard ground with sheets of oiled paper which serve as a -carpet. For the better class a floor of wood is raised a foot or so -above the earth. - -Bed clothes are of silk, wadded cotton, thick paper, and furs. Cushions -or bags of rice-chaff form the pillows of the rich. The poor man uses a -smooth log of wood or slightly raised portion of the floor to rest his -head upon. In most families of the middle class, the “kang” forms the -vaulted floor, bed, and stove. It is as if we should make a bedstead of -bricks and put foot-stoves under it. The floor is bricked over or built -of stone, over flues which run from the fireplace at one end of the -house to the chimney at the other. The fire which does the cooking is -thus used to warm those sitting or sleeping in the room beyond. - -Three rooms are the rule in an average house, and these are for cooking, -eating, and sleeping. In the kitchen the most notable articles are the -large earthen jars for holding rice, barley or water. Each of them is -big enough to hold a man easily. The second room, containing the “kang,” -is the sleeping apartment, and the next is the best room or parlor. -Little furniture is the rule. Coreans, like the Japanese, sit not -cross-legged but on their heels. Among the well-to-do, dog skins cover -the floor for a carpet, or tiger skins serve as rugs. Matting is common. - -[Illustration: COREAN BOAT.—_Native Drawing._] - -The meals are served on the floor on small low tables, usually one for -each guest, but sometimes one for a couple. The best table service is of -porcelain and the ordinary sort of earthenware with white metal or -copper utensils. The tablecloths are of fine glazed paper and resemble -oiled silk. No knives or forks are used; but instead chopsticks and what -is more common than in China or Japan, spoons are used at every meal. -The walls range in quality of decoration from plain mud to colored -plaster and paper. Pictures are not known. The windows are square and -latticed without or within, covered with tough oiled paper, and moving -in grooves. The doors are of wood, paper, or plaited bamboo. Glass was -till recently a nearly unknown luxury in Corea. - -The Corean liquor by preference is brewed or distilled from rice, -millet, or barley. These alcoholic drinks are of various strength, -color, and smell, ranging from beer to brandy. No trait of the Coreans -has more impressed their numerous visitors than their love of all kinds -of strong drink. No sooner were the ports of Corea opened to commerce -than the Chinese established liquor stores, while European wines, -brandies and whiskeys have entered to increase the national drunkenness. -Although the Corean lives between the two great tea-producing countries -of the world, he scarcely knows the taste of tea and the fragrant herb -is little used on the peninsula. - -The staple diet has in it much more of meat and fat than that of the -Japanese, and the average Corean can eat twice as much as the Japanese. -Beef, pork, fowls, venison, fish, and game are consumed without much -waste and rejected material. Dog flesh is on sale among the common -butchers’ meat. The women cook rice beautifully, and other well-known -dishes are barley, millet, beans, potato, lily-bulbs, seaweeds, acorns, -radishes, turnips, macaroni, vermicelli, apples, pears, plums, grapes, -persimmons, and various kinds of berries. All kinds of condiments are -much relished. - -One striking fault of the Coreans at the table is their voracity. In -this respect there is not the least difference between the rich and -poor, noble or plebeian. To eat much is an honor, and the merit of a -feast consists not in the quality but in the quantity of the food -served. Little talking is done while eating, for each sentence might -lose a mouthful. Hence, since a capacious stomach is a high -accomplishment, mothers use every means to develop as elastic a capacity -as possible in their children from very infancy. The Coreans equal the -Japanese in devouring raw fish, and uncooked food of all kinds is -swallowed without a wry face. Fish bones do not scare them. These they -eat as they do the small bones of fowls. - -[Illustration: - - THE BATTLE AT GAZAN. - Japanese Drawing. -] - -[Illustration: COREAN EGG-SELLER.—_Native Drawing._] - -Nationally and individually the Coreans are very deficient in -conveniences for the toilet. Bath tubs are rare, and except in the -warmer days of summer, when the river and sea serve for immersion, the -natives are not usually found under water. The need of soap and hot -water has been noticed by travelers and writers of every nation. The men -are very proud of their beards, and honor them as a distinctive glory -and mark of their sex. Women coil their glossy black tresses into -massive knots and fasten them with pins, or gold and silver rings. - -Corea is famous as the land of big hats. Some of these head-coverings -are so immense that the human head encased in one of them seems as but a -hub in a cart wheel. In shape the gentleman’s hat resembles a flowerpot -inverted in the center of a round table. Two feet is a common diameter, -and the top, which rises in a cone nine inches higher, is only three -inches wide at the apex. The usual material is bamboo, split to the -fineness of a thread and woven. The fabric is then varnished or -lacquered, and becomes perfectly weatherproof. The prevalence of cotton -clothing, easily soaked and rendered uncomfortable, requires the ample -protection for the back and shoulders which these umbrella-like hats -furnish. - -The wardrobe of the upper classes consists of the ceremonial and the -house dress. The former as a rule is of fine silk, and the latter of -coarser silk or cotton. They are of pink, blue, and other rich colors. -The official robe is a long garment like a wrapper, with loose baggy -sleeves. There are few tailors’ shops, the women of each household -making the family outfit. The underdress of both sexes is a short jacket -with tight sleeves, which for men reaches to the thighs, and for women -only to the waist, and a pair of drawers reaching from waist to ankle. -The females wear a petticoat over this garment, so that the Coreans say -they dress like western women, and foreign-made hosiery and -undergarments are in demand. Their general style of costume is that of -the wrapper, stiff, wide, and inflated, with abundant starch in summer, -but clinging and baggy in winter. The white dress of the Corean makes -his complexion look darker than it really is. Footgear is either of -native or of Chinese make. The laborer contents himself with sandals -woven from rice-straw, which usually last but a few days. Small feet do -not seem to be considered a beauty, and the foot binding of the Chinese -is unknown in Cho-sen. - -Judging from a collection of the toys of Corean children, and from their -many terms of affection, and words relating to games and sports, -festivals and recreation, and nursery stories, the life of the little -ones must be pleasant. In the capital and among the higher classes, -children’s toys are very handsome, ranking as real works of art. They -have many games played by the little ones quite similar to those of our -own babies, and they delight in pets, such as monkeys and puppies. - -At school the pupils study out loud and noisily, according to the method -all over Asia. Besides learning the Chinese characters and the -vernacular alphabet, the children master arithmetic and writing. The -normal Corean is fond of his children, especially of sons, who in his -eyes are worth ten times as much as daughters. Such a thing as exposure -of children is little known. The first thing inculcated in a child’s -mind is respect for his father. All insubordination is immediately and -sternly repressed. Far different is it with the mother. She yields to -her boy’s caprices, and laughs at his faults and vices without rebuke, -while the child soon learns that a mother’s authority is next to -nothing. - -Primogeniture is the rigid rule. Younger sons at the time of their -marriage, or at other important periods of life receive paternal gifts, -but the bulk of the property belongs to the oldest son, on whom the -younger sons look as their father. He is the head of the family, and -regards his father’s children as his own. In all eastern Asia the bonds -of family are much closer than among Caucasian people of the present -time. All the kindred, even to the fifteenth or twentieth degree, -whatever their social position, rich or poor, educated or illiterate, -officials or beggars, form a clan or more properly one single family, -all of whose members have mutual interests to sustain. The house of one -is the house of the other, and each will assist to his utmost, another -of the clan to get money, office, or advantage. The law recognizes this -system by levying on the clan the taxes and debts which individuals of -it cannot pay, holding the clan responsible for the individual. To this -they submit without complaint or protest. Instead of the family being a -unit, as with us, it is only the fragment of a clan, a segment in the -great circle of kindred. The Coreans are fully as clannish as the -Chinese, and in this lies one great obstacle to Christianity or to any -kind of individual reform. - -China gave her culture to Corea and Corea passed it on to Japan. If we -may believe Corean tales, then the Coreans have possessed letters and -writing during three thousand years. It is certain that since the -opening of the Christian era the light of China’s philosophy has shone -steadily among Corean scholars. In spite of their national system of -writing, the influence of the finished philosophy and culture of China -has been so great that the hopelessness of producing a copy equal to the -original became at once apparent to the Corean mind. The culture of -their native tongue has been neglected by Corean scholars. The -consequence is that after so many centuries of national life Corea -possesses no literature worthy of the name. - -At present Corean literary men possess a highly critical knowledge of -Chinese. Most intelligent scholars read the classics with ease and -fluency. Penmanship is an art as much prized and as widely practiced as -in Japan, and reading and writing constitute education. Corea has most -closely imitated her teacher, China, in the use of education. She -fosters education by making scholastic ability as tested in the literary -examination, the basis of appointment to office. This civil service -reform was established by the now ruling dynasty early in the fifteenth -century. The Corean child, neglecting his own language, literature, and -history, studies those of China and the philosophy of Confucius, so that -his education is practically that of the young man in China. The same -classics are studied and the same attention is paid to memory -cultivation. The competitive examinations too are very similar to those -of China, and corresponding degrees are granted. The system of literary -examinations, which for two or three centuries after its establishment -was vigorously maintained with impartiality, is at present in a state of -decay, bribery and official favor being the causes of its decline. - -The special schools of languages, mathematics, medicine, art etc., are -under the patronage of the government, but amount to very little. The -school of astronomy and the choice of fortunate days for state occasions -is for the special service of the king. There is also a school of -interpreters, charts, law, and horology. - -Although the Chinese language, writing and literature form the basis of -education and culture in Chosen, yet the native language is distinct in -structure from the Chinese, having little in common with it. The latter -is monosyllabic, while the Corean is polysyllabic, as is the Japanese -which the Corean closely resembles. No other language is so nearly -affiliated to the Japanese as is the Corean. The Corean alphabet, one of -the most simple and perfect in the world, consists of twenty-five -letters, eleven vowels and fourteen consonants. They are made with easy -strokes in which straight lines, circles, and dots only are used. - -[Illustration: - - JAPANESE SOLDIERS DESCENDING FROM THE CASTLE AT FUNG-HWANG. - Japanese Drawing. -] - -As in Japan, so in Corea three styles of languages prevail, and are used -as follows: Pure Chinese without any admixture of Corean, in books and -writings on science, history and government, and in the theses of the -students and literary men; in the books composed in the Corean language -the vernacular syntax serves as the framework, but the vocabulary is -largely Chinese; the Corean book style of composition which is written -in the pure Corean language. Every one in Corea speaks the vernacular -and not Chinese. - -The books which have been written in Corean, are chiefly primers or -manuals of history, books on etiquette and ritual, and geography. There -are also a few works of poetry written in the vulgar dialect. - -[Illustration: COREAN BAND OF MUSICIANS.—_Native Drawing._] - -In passionate fondness for music the Coreans decidedly surpass all other -Asiatic nations. Their knowledge is indeed primitive, however, not -superior to that of their neighbors, and their instruments are of rude -workmanship and construction. The principal of these instruments are the -gong, the flute, and the two-stringed guitar, combining to make a music -anything but harmonious. They always sing in falsetto, like the Chinese, -in a monotonous and melancholy manner. The Coreans however possess a -musical ear, and they know how to appreciate and like to listen to -foreign music very much, while the Chinese have not the slightest idea -of harmony, and placing our music far below their own, look down upon -our art with something like a feeling of pity. - -The fibres of Corean superstition, and the actual religion of the people -of to-day, have not radically changed during twenty centuries in spite -of Buddhism. The worship of the spirits of nature and the other popular -gods is still reflected in superstition and practice. The Chinese Fung -Shuy, which in Corean becomes Pung-siu, is a system of superstition -concerning the direction of the everyday things of life, which is nearly -as powerful in Corea as in the parent country. Upon this system, and -perhaps nearly equal in age with it, is the cult of ancestral worship -which has existed in Chinese Asia from unrecorded time. Confucius found -it in his day and made it the basis of his teachings, as it had already -been of the religious and ancient documents of which he was the editor. -The Corean system of ancestral worship presents no feature radically -different from the Chinese. Confucianism, or the Chinese system of -ethics, holds about the same position that it does in China. Taoism -seems to be little studied. - -In Corean mouths Buddha becomes Pul and his “way” or doctrine Pul-to or -Pul-chie. The faith from India has made thorough conquest of the -southern half of the peninsula, but has only partially leavened the -northern portion where the grosser heathenism prevails. The palmy days -of Corean Buddhism were during the era of Korai, 905 to 1392 A.D. In its -development, Corean Buddhism has frequently been a potent influence in -national affairs, and the power of the bonzes has at times been so great -as to practically control the court and nullify decrees of the king. As -in Japan the frequent wars have developed the formation of a clerical -militia, able to garrison and defend their fortified monasteries, and -even to change the fortune of war by the valor of their exploits. There -are three distinct classes or grades of the bonzes or priests. The -student monks devote themselves to learning and to the composition of -books and to Buddhist rituals. Then there are the mendicant and -traveling bonzes who solicit alms and contributions for the erection and -maintenance of the temples and monastic establishments. Finally the -military bonzes act as garrisons, and make, keep in order, and are -trained to use weapons. Even at the present day Buddhist priests are -made high officers of the government, governors of provinces, and -military advisers. In the nunneries are two kinds of female devotees, -those who shave the head and those who keep their locks. The vows of the -latter are less rigid. Excepting in its military phases, the type of -Corean Buddhism approaches that of China rather than of Japan. - -The great virtue of the Coreans is their innate respect for and daily -practice of the laws of human brotherhood. Mutual assistance and -generous hospitality among themselves are distinctive national traits. -In all the important events of life, such as marriages and funerals, -each person makes it his duty to aid the family most directly -interested. One will charge himself with the duty of making purchases; -others with arranging the ceremonies. The poor, who can give nothing, -carry messages to friends and relatives in the near or remote villages, -passing day and night on foot and giving their labors gratuitously. When -fire, flood or other accident destroys the house of one of their number, -neighbors make it a duty to lend a hand to rebuild. One brings stone, -another wood, another straw. Each in addition to his gifts in material -devotes two or three days’ work gratuitously. A stranger coming into a -village is always assisted to build a dwelling. Hospitality is -considered as one of the most sacred duties. It would be a grave and -shameful thing to refuse a portion of one’s meal to any person, known or -unknown, who presents himself at eating time. Even the poor laborers at -the side of the roads are often seen sharing their frugal nourishment -with the passer-by. The poor man making a journey does not need -elaborate preparations. At night, instead of going to a hotel, he enters -some house whose exterior room is open to any comer. There he is sure to -find food and lodging for the night. Rice will be shared with the -stranger, and at bedtime a corner of the floor mat will serve for a bed, -while he may rest his head on the long log of wood against the wall, -which serves as a pillow. Even should he delay his journey for a day or -two, little or nothing to his discredit will be harbored by his hosts. - -It is evident after this glance at the history, the conditions, and the -customs of the Coreans, that they have many excellent qualities, which -require but the leavening influence of Christianity and western -civilization to make them worthy members of the family of nations. It is -quite possible that the influence of the Japanese-Chinese war, in its -ultimate results, may reach this desirable consummation. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - _THE WAR_ - - - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - -[Illustration: JAPANESE COOLIES FOLLOWING THE ARMY.] - - - - - CAUSES OF THE WAR BETWEEN JAPAN AND CHINA. - - -------------- - -Inception Must be Sought Far Back in History—Old Time Animosity Between -the two Nations Chiefly Responsible—Formal Recognition of Corean -Independence by Japan—The Riots of 1882 and Their Result—Return of the -Corean Embassy from a Trip Around the World—Advance of American Ideas -and Influence—Plots of the Progressionists—The Coup d'Etat and Its Fatal -Results—Flight of the Conspirators to Japan and America—Decoying of -Kim-ok-Kiun to Shanghai—Assassination of Kim—Rebellion in Northern -Corea—Aid Asked From China—China Sends Troops—Violation of Treaty with -Japan—Army from Japan Arrives—Japanese in the Capital—Scheme of Reform -Proposed by Japan and Rejected by China—A Diplomatic Campaign. - - -In its broadest sense no war between nations can be ascribed to a single -cause, defined by exact limits of time and place. A cause of war always -suggests the question as to what has made it such; and so we find that -for an intelligent understanding of the present war we have to go back, -beyond the Corean rebellions of the early spring of 1894, and take in -the whole range of the relations of China and Japan to Corea and to each -other. An understanding of the history of the three nations is necessary -to a proper understanding of the war. - -The first formal recognition of Corean independence is found in the -earliest treaty between Japan and Corea, that of 1876, by which the -Coreans agreed to pay indemnity for an unwarranted attack which had been -made upon a Japanese vessel, and to open several ports to Japanese -traders. It was through this treaty that Corea was first introduced to -the comity of nations. One of the professed objects of Japan during the -war, has, therefore, been to establish the independence of Corea, which -she has recognized in her treaties, against the Chinese claim of -suzerainty. Sooner or later a war between Japan and China was -inevitable. The hereditary animosities between the two nations have been -aggravated by the marked differences which have arisen of late years -between their civilizations; by the impatience under which Japan has -struggled against an anomalous position among the powers, forced upon -her by foreign treaties, while she has beheld her mediæval rival holding -precedence and predominance; and by the jealousy and fanatic contempt -with which the subjects of the “Son of Heaven” have watched the growing -political aspirations of Japan, her conciliatory attitude towards -foreigners, and her apostate abandonment of the manners and customs of -oriental life. - -For years, moreover, an excuse for a collision has been developing in -the relations of the two states to Corea. In spite of the liberal -sympathies of the Corean king himself, the ascendant force in the -government has long been the Ming faction, to which family the queen -belongs, which is pro-Chinese in its sympathies, foe to everything -savoring of western liberal progress. Under the sway of this faction, -which has monopolized the highest magistracies, government in Corea has -been nothing more nor less than systematic plunder of the masses, for -the benefit of a few privileged nobles. The admitted misgovernment of -the country, which has always jeopardized the lives and property of -aliens; the suzerain claims of China; the vast commercial interests of -Japan in the peninsula and her large colonies; and finally the -complicated treaty arrangements which have grown up between Tokio and -Peking with regard to the “Hermit Kingdom”—these have long constituted a -source of friction, in the knowledge of which the present conflict -between the mandarins and the daimios is more readily understood. It is -significant that while China has never formally given up her claim to -lordship over Corea, she has refused to stand by her vassal on certain -occasions, and has encouraged the latter to conduct negotiations on her -own account. This was indeed the action of China in 1876, when the -treaty with Japan was made, and the latter seized the opportunity to -recognize the king of Corea as an independent sovereign prince. The -immediate cause of the war is centered around the disputed question of -the right of both parties to keep troops on Corean soil, a right which -both have exercised more than once. It is the origin of this right and -the complications that have arisen from it, that we must now trace with -reference to the outbreak of the war. - -[Illustration: - - JAPANESE ARMY AT CHIN-LIEN-CHENG. - Japanese Drawing. -] - -Corea for ages has been the pupil of China, whence nearly everything -that makes up civilization has been borrowed. Of patriotism in its -highest sense, of pure love of country, of willingness to make -sacrifices for native land, there have been little in the kingdom. Such -things are new thoughts nourished by a few far-seeing patriots. But -leavening the multitude of Confucian fanatics and time-servers of the -men in power at Peking, there are also men who have drunk at other -fountains of thought, entered new worlds of knowledge, and seen the -light of modern science, of Christianity, and of western civilization in -other lands. The numbers of enlightened men are increasing who believe -in national progress, though to their demands there has ever been the -defiance of vigilant conservation. Even within the two broadly defined -parties, there are factional and family differences. Against the craft -of the Ming clan the other noble families, Ni, So, Kim, Hong, and -others, have been able to make headway only by adroit combination. - -In 1875 the two noblemen Kim-ok-Kiun and So Kwang Pom secretly left -Corea and went to Japan, being the first men of rank in recent times to -travel in lands beyond China. On their return they sought the king and -boldly told him what they had seen. Other noblemen followed their -example, but the brother-in-law of the king, Pak Hong Hio, was the first -who at risk of reputation and life openly advocated the adoption of -western civilization. In 1882 Kim and So in earnest consideration of the -opening of their country to modern ideas, endeavored to persuade Min -Yong Ik to join them and also win over his powerful Ming relatives to a -liberal policy. When this came to the ears of the Tai-wen Kun the young -men were forthwith charged with intent to introduce Christianity, and -the two liberals narrowly escaped being put to death by the old regent -who had already shed the blood of thousands. - -[Illustration: THE COREAN REGENT.] - -The men of the Ming faction held aloof from treaty negotiations with the -United States until China gave the nod. When at last Li Hung Chang -advised Corea to treat with Admiral Shufeldt, the Ming nobles obeyed and -exhibited so much energy in the matter as to seem to foreigners to be -the leaders of the party of progress. The old regent at once felt it his -duty to overthrow both the Mings and the treaty. His opportunity came in -July, 1882, the year of the treaties. When on account of the short rice -crop the soldiers’ rations were cut down by the father of Min Yong Ik, -the artful politician directed their revolt against this pro-Chinese -family, and after destroying, as he imagined, the queen and the leading -men of the Ming clan, he seized the government itself and for a few days -enjoyed full power. When the news of the usurpation reached China and -Japan there were in Tien-tsin three Corean nobles, Cho Yong Ha, Kim Yun -Sik, and O-Yun Chung; and in Tokio Kim-ok-Kiun and So Kwang Pom. The -former, notified by telegram from the Chinese consul at Nagasaki of the -movements of the Japanese, obtained a Chinese military and naval force, -and the ships of these two foreign nations met at Chemulpo. Before -either the Chinese or Japanese troops were disembarked, the two groups -of Corean noblemen had a conference, and after a long and warm -discussion it was agreed to submit the question whether the Chinese -should land and proceed to Seoul, to the king himself. Accordingly -Kim-ok-Kiun in disguise penetrated to the capital, but only to find the -royal person in possession of his old and chief enemy Tai-wen Kun, his -friends driven away, and approach to the palace impossible. On learning -the failure of Kim’s mission the Chinese force at once landed, marched -to Seoul, abducted the regent, built forts to command the river against -the Japanese, and established their camp inside the walls. This act of -China gave her a new lien on Corea. The father of Min Yong Ik, Min Thai -Ho, who had been supposed to have been mortally wounded, recovered and -resumed office. Min Yong Ik, who after fleeing to the mountains, shaved -his head and in the disguise of a priest had fled to Japan, returned -smiling after temporary defeat. The queen, for whom a palace maid had -suffered vicarious death, re-entered the capital and palace, and the -star of the Mings was again in the ascendant. - -Two years later, in June, 1884, Min Yong Ik and So Kwang Pom, the first -Coreans to go around the world, reached home followed by Kim-ok-Kiun and -the Tokio students from Japan. After an enthusiastic reception of the -returned envoys and the American officers of the Trenton in Seoul, the -public opinion in favor of progress was greatly stimulated. Min Yong Ik -was made vice-president of the Foreign Office and the others of the -embassy were elevated in rank. The Chinese military instructors were -dismissed by the king. A model farm sown with American seeds, and for -which California live stock was ordered, Edison electric lights, -American rifles and Gatling guns, Japanese artisans to establish -potteries and other industries, gave indications of the new path of -national progress upon which Corea had entered. - -Min Yong Ik while abroad has passed for an enlightened man, susceptible -to modern ideas and in favor of opening Corea to commerce. Yet falling -under the influence of his clan he had been home but a few weeks when he -came to open rupture with Hong Yong Sik. Resigning from the foreign -office he assumed command of the palace guard battalion and restored -Chinese drill masters, the military students from Japan being left to -gain their support as subordinates in the proposed postal department. By -autumn the late envoy to the United States had surrounded himself with -Chinese and pro-Chinese conservatives, the progressive men had been -hampered in their action, and the revenues for the promised enterprises -and industries had been diverted to warlike preparations, that looked as -if Corea, as a vassal, was to help China against France in the Tonquin -complication. - -The situation in Seoul became alarming. A state of hostility existed -between the leaders of the two political parties, one of which had at -their call a rabble of rapacious militia, eager to try their new tools -upon their hereditary enemies, the Japanese, while the other knew full -well the sterling quality of the little body of Japanese infantry. -Fifteen hundred Chinese soldiers were still in the camp under General -Yuen. In such a situation, the government being in the hands of their -rivals and committed to the pro-Chinese policy, the liberals felt that -their heads were likely to remain on their shoulders only so long as it -pleased their enemies to bring no charge against them. In nations -without representative institutions, revolutions and outbreaks must be -expected when a change of policy is decided upon. - -Let us see how the Corean liberals attempted, when beset and thwarted, -to save their own lives and reverse the policy of the government. On -October 25, one of the liberal leaders intimated to an American that -“for the sake of Corea” about ten of the prominent conservatives “would -have to be killed.” The idea was to remove their rivals by removing the -heads of the same, seize the government, inaugurate new schemes of -progress, open new ports, and otherwise commit Corea to the same course -as that upon which Japan had entered. They supposed that the treaty -powers would condone and approve their action, make further favorable -treaties, and loan money for national improvement. Further, they claimed -to have had the royal sanction. The autumn passed by and the moment -seemed ripe for the plot. China, pressed by France, had withdrawn half -her troops from Seoul, and Japan, with a view to strengthening her -influence in the peninsula, had a few days before remitted $400,000 of -the indemnity exacted for the riot of 1882. The time to strike a blow -for Corean independence and to break the shackles of China forever -seemed to have come. - -On the evening of December 4, the foreign envoys and several high -officers of the government were invited to a banquet to celebrate the -inauguration of the postal service. When it was nearly over, an alarm of -fire was given from the outside, according to arrangement of the -conspirators, and Min Yong Ik, going out to look, was set upon by -assassins, but instead of being killed as was intended, was only -wounded. Thereupon the liberal leaders hastened to the palace, and -assuring the king that he was in great danger, in his name sent to the -Japanese minister for the Japanese legation guard. At the same time the -conservative leaders were summoned, as they supposed by the king; as -fast as they stepped out of their sedan chairs at the palace gates, they -were relieved of their heads. Meanwhile the Japanese infantry commanded -the inner gates of the palace, and during the next day the new ministers -of government, the liberals whose names have already become familiar to -us, prepared edicts to be issued by the king reforming ancient abuses -and customs, and instituting new and radical measures of national -policy. The city was in a state of commotion, but despite the surging -crowd no actual outbreak occurred. - -[Illustration: COREAN NATIVES VIEWING JAPANESE SOLDIERS.] - -On the morning of the 6th the cry was raised “death to the Japanese,” -and then began a wild revelry of outrage, butchery, and incendiarism, in -which the newly-trained militia were conspicuous. The white foreigners -in Seoul, nine in number, of whom three were ladies, had gathered at the -American legation, which under Lieutenant Bernadon’s directions was put -in a state of defense. In it twenty-two Japanese also found refuge. - -That afternoon the Chinese troops, six hundred strong, commanded by -General Yuen and backed by three thousand Coreans, moved upon the palace -to drive out the Japanese. With superb discipline and skill Captain -Murakami and his little band drove off their assailants, and through the -narrow streets reached the legation at 8:00 P.M. after forty-eight -hours’ absence. The score of soldiers left behind, aided by the hundred -or so of civilians who had gathered within, had successfully defended -the enclosure from the mob. Provisions being exhausted, the Japanese -with admirable coolness, discipline, and success began the march to the -sea on the afternoon of the next day. Despite hostile soldiery with -rifles and cannon, armed men firing from roof and wall, barred city -gates, and a mob following them to the Han river, they crossed with -their wounded and reached Chemulpo on the morning of the 8th. There they -were fed by the sailors of the men-of-war, while a Japanese steamer -carried the news to Nagasaki. - -The short-lived liberal government came to an end after an existence of -less than forty-eight hours. Hong Yong Sik, refusing to leave the king, -was taken with him to the Chinese camp and there beheaded. The other -conspirators fled to Japan, whence they were demanded by the Corean -ministerial council, which demand was by the Japanese promptly refused. -The torture and trial of twelve persons implicated in the affair was -concluded January 27, 1885, and eleven were executed in the usual -barbarous manner. Their bodies were chopped in pieces and the flesh and -bones distributed in fragments through the streets of the city and the -different provinces. The refugees ultimately reached America, except -Kim-ok-Kiun who settled in Japan. - -Count Inouye of Japan and Kim Hong Chip of Corea on January 9; and -Inouye and Li Hung Chang, of China, on May 7 concluded conventions by -which the troubles were settled. The chief points in the diplomacy were -the payment of indemnity by Corea to Japan, and a joint agreement -between China and Japan to withdraw their troops. Both camps were -emptied on the 20th, and on the 21st of May the troops left Chemulpo for -their respective countries. October 5 the Tai-wen Kun, now sixty-eight -years old, but fresh as a man of forty and able as ever to be a -disturbing element, returned from China and re-entered Seoul under a -guard of Chinese warriors and many thousands of Coreans. - -The affair was in its origin an anti-Chinese uprising of radical -progressives, but in its ending an anti-Japanese demonstration. About -three hundred lives were lost by battle and murder. The conduct of the -American minister, General Foote, during this trying occasion, was most -admirable, and the legation, which sheltered all the foreigners and many -Japanese, was kept open and the American flag was never lowered. - -Even in these troublous times a way was opened for the entrance of -western science and reformed Christianity. Dr. Henry N. Allen, a -missionary physician from Ohio, was called upon to attend Min Yong Ik -and the wounded Chinese soldiers. The superiority of modern methods -being at once manifest, the government became interested, and the -dwelling occupied by Hong Yong Sik, who had been beheaded, was set aside -as a hospital under Dr. Allen’s charge. From that time forward several -missionaries from American churches have entered active work in Corea, -and three American young men engaged by the Corean government as -teachers have begun to devise an educational system for the kingdom. -There are now native Christian churches in Seoul, a hospital, schools, -orphanages, and a college. Americans were chosen as advisers and -assistants of the nation. Three military officers to organize her army, -naval officers to inaugurate a navy, commissioners of customs, and a -counsellor in the foreign office were among these. - -Renouncing the idea of the suzerainty of China over Corea, the king and -government sent embassies to Japan, Europe, and the United States, to -establish permanent legations. This movement was opposed by the Chinese, -and especially by the Minister Yuen in an active, impudent, and even -villainous manner. Yuen, who led the Chinese troops during the riot of -December, 1884, and who escorted the Tai-wen Kun to Corea, is believed -to have plotted to dethrone the king and set up another son of the old -regent as a pro-Chinese partisan on the throne. Expecting to make use of -the Corean military, whom he had drilled in person, his plot was exposed -by Min Yong Ik. To checkmate any design of China, to prevent the -departure of the envoys, or to convert her nominal authority into -assertions of sovereignty or suzerainty, the Honorable Hugh N. Densmore, -our minister, by the orders of the United States government, invited the -embassy to take passage from Chemulpo in the United States Steamship -Omaha, which was done. In charge of Dr. H.N. Allen, Pak Chung Yang, a -noble of the second rank, envoy extraordinary and minister -plenipotentiary of the king of Corea, arrived in Washington and had -audience of President Cleveland in January, 1888. - -When Kim-ok-Kiun, the leader of the insurrection of 1884, fled to Japan, -he was welcomed by the Japanese and received as a protege of the -emperor. Repeated demands were made by Corea upon the mikado to -surrender him, and the demands were as repeatedly refused. In the spring -of 1894 he was lured by means of a dummy draft on a non-existing bank in -China, to Shanghai, where on March 28, at the Japanese hotel, and in the -absence of his Japanese attendant, he was foully murdered by his -pretended friend, Hong Tjyong On, a tool of the Ming faction. This man -had been in the employ of the Ming faction of the Corean government with -the mission of the assassination entrusted to him, and if the crime was -not committed by order of the king of Corea, as was popularly believed, -it was surely by order of the queen, who has been strong in her -influence. The murderer was arrested; but instead of being tried by the -Chinese was handed over to a Corean official, who, with the assassin and -the corpse, was sent to Corea. There in spite of the protestations of -foreign representatives, the body of Kim was horribly mutilated, parts -of it being sent to the different provinces, while the murderer was -rewarded with high official honor. - -This murder of a Corean by another Corean in a port under Chinese -jurisdiction, though coupled with the subsequent brutalities at Seoul, -could not be made a subject of diplomatic remonstrance; but it served in -Japan to rouse the deepest public indignation and intense disgust. The -Japanese government was not only outraged by the assassination of Kim, -but by the conduct of Yu, the Corean minister at Tokio. Two brothers -named Ken, at the time of Kim’s murder, attempted to bring the same fate -upon Boku Eiko, Kim’s fellow conspirator. Their plot having been -discovered, they fled to Yu for protection. For three days he refused to -give them up, but finally surrendered them and took a hasty and -undignified departure from the country. The Japanese foreign office, -having in vain sought an explanation of the motives of the king of Corea -in connection with Kim’s assassination, and of the precipitate and -undiplomatic flight of the Corean representative, was glad to seize the -first opportunity which arose before long, when other events occurred -which gave Japan occasion to act. - -[Illustration: SINKING OF THE KOW-SHING.] - -For some time past the peninsular kingdom has been in a disturbed -condition, owing to the spread of rebellious confederacies among the -people. There was now quite a general uprising of Coreans, caused by -their want of sympathy with the government, and focussed by their -indignation at the horrible fate of Kim. In May, a formidable peasant -uprising occurred in northern Corea, caused mainly by the official -extortion practiced by tax-gatherers, but having in it elements of -remonstrance against the assassination of Kim. The government troops -were defeated May 16 at Reisan; and on May 31 Zenshu fell into the hands -of the insurgents. Later Chung Jui was captured, and Seoul, the capital, -was in a state of great commotion. The discovery of a plot to blow up -the government building during the annual official meeting of the king -and his ministers caused immense excitement. The plot was confessed by -one of the conspirators, and warrants were issued for the arrest of one -thousand persons implicated or suspected. - -In alarm the government appealed to China for assistance, and early in -June an armed Chinese force numbering about two thousand was dispatched, -from Chefoo to Asan, a port lying a little southwest of Seoul, where it -encamped. - -In the treaty of Tien-tsin, both Japan and China agreed to withdraw -their troops from the peninsula, neither power to send soldiers thither -again, without giving to the other power preliminary notice of the -intended action. In the present struggle, Japan has declared from the -beginning that she intended to carry her action into Corea no further -than the treaty of 1885 allowed, and the necessity for restoring order -and stability required her to do. When these troops were sent, the -stipulated notification to Japan it is declared, was delayed until after -their departure. Actuated by distrust of Chinese motives, and looking to -the protection of her commercial interests and the safety of the -Japanese residents and traders in Corea, the authorities at Tokio -quickly followed by landing a force of six thousand troops on the -western coast. A strong force was soon stationed in Seoul, for the -protection of the Japanese legation, and the approaches to the capital -were securely occupied. - -[Illustration: MR. OTORI BEFORE THE COMMISSIONERS.] - -Then began the diplomatic campaign, Japan seizing the opportunity -offered to insist on a final understanding with both China and the -Corean government, regarding the matters which had long been the source -of friction, and a constant menace to tranquility in the peninsula. On -June 28 a communication passed between Mr. Otori, the Japanese minister, -and the Corean foreign office, regarding the tributary relations between -Corea and China. To this the Corean government returned an evasive -reply. July 3, Mr. Otori laid before the Corean government in a -courteously worded note, the draft of a scheme of reforms which Japan -proposed, as a remedy for the disorders of the country, under the -following five general heads: - -1. The civil government in the capital and in the provinces to be -thoroughly reformed, and the departments arranged on a new basis under -proper responsible heads. - -2. The resources of the country to be developed, mines opened, railways -constructed, etc. - -3. The laws of the country to be radically reformed. - -4. The military establishments to be reorganized under competent -instructors, so as to render the country secure alike from internal -disorder and external attack. - -5. Education to be thoroughly reformed on modern lines. - -Mr. Otori asked for the appointment of a commission to discuss details, -and on July 10, unfolded before the three commissioners, in twenty-five -proposals, the details of the contemplated reforms. They were of such a -character as to weaken greatly the influence of the queen and the -dominant Ming party. Personages of too great influence were to be -removed; the foreign customs establishment to be abolished; all foreign -advisers to be dispensed with; the resources of the country to be -developed; railways, telegraphs and a mint to be established; the legal -and judicial systems to be radically reformed, and a school system to be -adopted, beginning with primary schools and culminating in universities, -with provisions for sending pupils abroad. - -These reforms were declared to be as essential to the true welfare of -Corea and China, as to the interests of Japan. It being impossible, -however, for the Coreans to effect them themselves, Japan proposed joint -action on the part of herself and China with a view to the desired -object. This proposal however, China curtly refused even to discuss, so -long as any Japanese troops remained in Corea. She assured Japan that -the peasant rebellion had been quieted, which was true in a sense, for -the insurgents, after the landing of the Chinese regulars, had -temporarily stayed their onward progress; but the cause of the trouble -still remained. From the moment of this deadlock we may date the -unofficial beginning of the war. The formal declaration was not made -until about two weeks later. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE ARMY ON THE MARCH.] - - - - - THE BEGINNINGS OF HOSTILITIES. - - -------------- - -Japan Decides to Reform Corea without China’s Aid—Corean Palace Guards -Fire on the Japanese Escort of Minister Otori—Momentous Result of the -Skirmish—Announcement of Corean Independence—Tai-wen Kun as Prime -Minister—The First Collision at Sea—Sinking of the Kow-shing—Fighting -Around Asan—Defeat of the Chinese—Li Hung Chang Declares that the War -Will Be Fought to the Bitter End—Japan’s Formal Declaration of -War—China’s Response—The Conflict Begun. - - -Failing to secure China’s co-operation, Mr. Otori told the officials at -Seoul that the government was now determined of her own accord to see -the needed reforms carried out. The Corean government still showing no -disposition to acquiesce in his proposals, the Japanese minister -determined to have a personal interview with the king, of whose sympathy -with the policy of the Ming party, there was some doubt. The minister -had regarded the reply of the Corean government to his demands as -insolent, and knowing that its substance had been made known to the -Corean officers, he felt an apprehension of violence toward himself and -the members of the legation. He therefore insisted on being accompanied -by a strong escort of Japanese on the occasion of any further visits to -the palace. - -On the morning of July 23, attended by this escort of Japanese guards, -and accompanied by the father of the king, Mr. Otori set out from the -legation for the purpose of having another interview with the Corean -monarch. As the minister with his fully armed escort approached the -palace, they were fired upon by troops in the service of the Ming -ministry, some of whom were stationed within the palace walls. The fire -was promptly returned by the Japanese, and a sharp skirmish ensued which -lasted twenty minutes. One Japanese cavalryman and two foot-soldiers -were wounded; while the Corean loss was seventeen killed and seventy -wounded. When quiet was restored, the Japanese were in possession of the -palace. The result of the fight was momentous—the complete overthrow of -the Ming, or pro-Chinese faction in the Corean government. - -On the same day the Corean king formally announced his independence of -China. One of his first acts was to request an interview with Mr. Otori, -and before the interview had ended that day the Japanese ministers saw -the Tai-wen Kun, father of the king, and formerly regent during the -latter’s minority, formally installed as prime minister and instructed -to introduce administrative reforms such as Japan had proposed. A -written pledge was signed by the king, guaranteeing that the remedying -of social and political abuses should begin as soon as the proper -machinery could be put in operation; the old counsellors of the king -were replaced by men believed to be in sympathy with progressive -principles. Japan on her part made herself responsible for the execution -of these pledges. The part taken by the king in the reforms is somewhat -uncertain. One of the most eminent authorities on Corean affairs has -declared that the king himself cannot be looked upon as a potent factor -in the struggle; that he is a weak, amiable, nervous man, whose only -importance consists in the fact that he is a king and in the sanction -that his presence, and authority, and seal may be considered to lend to -the party with which he sides. He has not been on good terms with his -father, and when the Japanese placed the latter in charge there was -considerable uncertainty as to the results that would follow. - -The same day that this skirmish at the palace occurred between Corean -and Japanese troops, a report was sent out which might have involved -Great Britain in the eastern war. It was alleged that ill-treatment had -been offered by the Japanese troops to the British consul-general at -Seoul, Mr. Gardner and his wife. The assertion was that the Japanese -troops forbade their passing the line of sentries which had been drawn -around an encampment, and that unnecessary force had been used to -accomplish this. The falsity of the charges, or the fact that they were -very much overdrawn, was proved upon the first investigation, no -regulations being in force except those natural and proper in such -times. - -The situation in Corea developed very slowly. The ways of the east are -not as the ways of the west, and one of the most deeply-rooted and -highly-prized instincts which oriental diplomatists have inherited from -a long line of their ancestors is a profound belief in the merits of -procrastination. - -The first important collision at sea occurred in Prince Jerome gulf, -about forty miles off Chemulpo, on July 25, one week before the formal -declaration of war. Up to the night of July 19, the highest authorities -at Tien-tsin did not anticipate war, but as a matter of watchful policy -the war-office chartered the British steamers Irene, Fei Ching, and -Kow-shing, belonging to the Indo-Chinese Steam Navigation company, and a -number of Chinese merchant steamers, for the transportation of troops. -The object was to transport the second division from Taku to Asan, to -reinforce the Chinese army in that Corean city. The Irene was the first -to leave Taku, July 21, with one thousand one hundred and fifty troops, -with one of the owners and his wife on board; the other two vessels were -to leave on the 22nd and 23rd. - -[Illustration: PROCESSION IN SEOUL.] - -The Kow-shing was an iron vessel, schooner-rigged, of one thousand three -hundred and fifty tons, built at Barrow and belonging to the port of -London. She sailed from Taku July 23, with no cargo, but with one -thousand two hundred Chinese troops on board. All went well with the -transport until the second morning, July 25, when about nine o’clock the -vessel was sighted by a Japanese man-of-war, the Naniwa Kan. The Naniwa -was accompanied by two other men-of-war, one of which was the Matsusima, -on board of which was the Japanese admiral. The Kow-shing was ordered by -signal, “Stop where you are or take the consequences.” She promptly -anchored. Then the Naniwa steamed up and sent a boarding party to the -Kow-shing. - -The officers in command made a strict scrutiny of the ship’s papers, and -after some hesitation as to his course of action, peremptorily ordered -the Kow-shing to follow. This caused great excitement amongst the -troops, who said to the English officers of the ship, “We refuse to -become prisoners and would rather die here. If you move the ship, except -to return to China, we will kill you.” The Japanese having returned to -their own vessel, the European officers on the Kow-shing argued with the -Chinese to convince them that it would be wiser to surrender, thus -saving the life of all and the ship itself. These arguments had no -effect on the Chinese, and the Kow-shing then signalled to the Naniwa to -send another boat. - -Captain Von Hannecken explained the situation to the Japanese boarding -officer, pointing out that there had been no declaration of war, that -the Kow-shing was a British ship under the British flag, and that owing -to the position taken by the Chinese it was physically impossible for -the officers of the vessels to obey the Naniwa’s order. He claimed that -the flag should be respected, and that the ship should be escorted back -to the Chinese coast. The boarding party then returned to the Naniwa, -which thereupon signalled “Quit the ship as soon as possible.” The -Kow-shing officers replied that it was impossible to quit the ship, -owing to the threats of the Chinese. The Naniwa threw an answering -pennant, and steamed quickly into position, broadside on, at a distance -of about two hundred yards. Mr. Tamplin, the chief officer of the -Kow-shing, tells a graphic story of the scene that followed. - -[Illustration: - - AFTER THE BATTLE. - From a Sketch by a Japanese Artist. -] - -“The Chinese were greatly excited, and kept drawing their fingers across -their throats in order to show us what we might expect. The British -officers, and Captain Von Hannecken, were anxiously gathered on the -bridge, and the bodyguards were at the bottom of the ladder watching us -like cats. Two executioners fully armed were told off to follow the -captain and myself, and they dogged us everywhere with drawn scepters. -About one o’clock the Naniwa opened fire, first discharging a torpedo at -the Kow-shing, which did not strike her. The man-of-war then fired a -broadside of five heavy guns, and continued firing both heavy and -machine guns from deck and tops until the Kow-shing sank about an hour -later. The Kow-shing was first struck right amidships, and the sound of -the crashing and splintering was almost deafening. To add to the danger, -the Chinese rushed to the other side, causing the ship to heel over more -than ever. As soon as the Kow-shing was struck the soldiers made a rush. -I rushed from the bridge, got a life-belt, and jumped overboard forward. -While in the wheel house selecting a life-belt I passed another -European, but I had no time to see who it was. It was a regular _sauve -qui peut_. Mr. Wake, our third officer, said it was no use for him to -take to the water, as he could not swim, and he went down with the ship. - -“After jumping into the water I came foul of the chain, down which the -Chinese were swarming. As I came to the surface the boiler exploded with -terrific noise. I looked up and saw Captain Von Hannecken striking out -vigorously. Captain Galsworthy, the master of the vessel, was also close -by, his face perfectly black from the explosion. All of us went in the -direction of the island of Shotai-ul, which was about a mile and a half -to the northeast, swimming through the swarm of dead and dying Chinamen. -Bullets began to strike the water on every side, and turning to see -whence they came, I saw that the Chinese herding around the only part of -the Kow-shing that was then out of water, were firing at us. I was -slightly hit on the shoulder, and in order to protect my head covered it -with the life-belt until I got clear of the sinking vessel. When I -succeeded in doing this, and got away from the swarms of Chinamen, I -swam straight for the Naniwa. I had been in the water nearly an hour -when I was picked up by one of the Naniwa’s boats. While in the water I -passed two Chinese warriors clinging to a sheep which was swimming -vigorously. As soon as I was on board the Naniwa’s boat, I told the -officer in which direction the captain had gone, and he said that he had -already sent another boat to pick him up. By this time only the -Kow-shing’s masts were visible. The water was however covered with -Chinese, and there were two lifeboats from the Kow-shing crowded with -soldiers. The Japanese officer informed me that he had been ordered by -signal from the Naniwa to sink these boats. I remonstrated, but he fired -two volleys from the cutter, turned back, and steamed for the Naniwa. No -attempt was made to rescue the Chinese. The Naniwa steamed about until -eight o’clock in the evening, but did not pick up any other Europeans.” - -The Irene, which had been the first vessel to leave Taku, herself had a -narrow escape from an attack. She sighted a war vessel at eleven o’clock -on the night of July 23, but by at once putting out all her lights was -enabled to escape, and reached Asan early the next morning. The Chinese -cruisers Chih Yuen and Kwang Kai, and the training ship Wei Yuen were at -anchor. The troops were at once disembarked, and about nine o’clock the -same morning the Irene left for Chefoo, arriving at four o’clock the -afternoon of the 25th. Being under orders to proceed to Chemulpo to -bring back refugees, she sailed at noon the next day in company with the -British ship Archer. When some distance from Chefoo, the Irene was -hailed by the Fei Ching, and informed that the troop ship Kow-shing had -been sunk by Japanese war vessels. It was decided to take the Irene into -Wei-hai-wei and confer with Admiral Ting as to the advisability of her -going to Chemulpo; he advised her return to Chefoo. - -The same morning, July 26, the cruiser Chih Yuen arrived at Wei-hai-wei -from Asan, and reported that shortly after leaving that port, the new -Japanese cruiser Yoshino fired on her and her consort, the Kwang Kai, -unexpectedly, and a shell, piercing the bow turret, exploded, killing -the entire crew serving one gun, and disabling the turret. As soon as -the Chih Yuen got a little sea-room, her steering-gear having been -disabled, she maneuvered and fought with her stern gun, one shell from -which swept away the entire bridge of her opponent. A second shell -striking the same place, the Japanese ceased firing and hoisted a white -flag over a Chinese ensign, but Captain Hong, of the Chih Yuen, having -his bow guns and his steering gear disabled, and other Japanese coming -up, decided to make for Wei-hai-wei and report to the admiral. The first -lieutenant of the Chih Yuen was speaking through the tube, directing the -men, when a shot struck him and he fell dead. Twelve of the crew were -killed and thirty wounded. The Japanese vessel suffering somewhat less. - -The Kow-shing affair caused a complete change in the attitude of the -Chinese government and in the foreign mind. The viceroy, Li Hung Chang, -declared in an interview that if war was once provoked, China would -fight to the bitter end. Japan was attacked in the European press for -having sent a British ship to the bottom, even though it were loaded -with Chinese soldiers, inasmuch as war had not been declared. The -Japanese government at once instructed the minister in London to -apologize to Great Britain for firing on the British flag, which was -floating over the Kow-shing, and it was talked in every quarter that a -heavy indemnity would be required from Japan. As further details became -known, however, European and American sentiment began to shift. A -British consular court of inquiry called to investigate the matter, -decided that inasmuch as the two nations were virtually in a state of -war at the time, though no formal declaration had been made, the -Japanese commander was justified in his action on the ground that the -Kow-shing was violating neutrality. The demand for an indemnity was -practically abandoned on account of a clause contained in the ship’s -charter to the effect that in the event of an outbreak of hostilities -between China and Japan, the Kow-shing should be considered Chinese -property. The case was therefore ended, so far as the action of nations -outside of China and Japan was concerned. Less than two hundred were -saved, out of nearly twelve hundred souls who were on board the vessel. -French, German, and Italian gunboats which were cruising near, brought -to Chefoo the few Chinese survivors, and several of the European -officers were saved by the Japanese. Captain Von Hannecken was rescued -by a fisherman’s boat, and made his way back to China. - -Immediately following the date of these sea battles, hard fighting began -at and around Asan, where the body of Chinese troops was intrenched. -Early on the morning of July 29 the Chinese troops, who had left their -fortifications at Asan, were attacked by General Oshima, the commander -of Japanese armies in Corea, at Seikwan. The Japanese gained a decisive -victory. After a hard fought battle in which one hundred Chinese were -killed and five hundred wounded, out of twenty-eight hundred troops -engaged, while the Japanese lost less than one hundred, the Chinese were -forced back towards Asan, their entrenchment at Chan Hon having been -captured. During the night the Chinese evacuated Asan, abandoning large -quantities of ammunition and some guns, and fled in the direction of -Koshu. When the Japanese reached Asan early in the morning of the 30th -they found the trenches deserted. Many flags, four cannon, and a -quantity of other munitions of war were captured, and the victorious -troops took possession of the enemy’s headquarters. - -Elated by the results of the actions which had occurred, Japan was now -hurrying troops into the field. Thousands of soldiers were shipped in -transports and stationed in Chemulpo, in Seoul, along the Great Northern -road in Fusan, and finally around Asan, sixty miles south of Chemulpo, -out of which the Chinese had just been driven. Three attempts at -mediation had been made with a desire to avert war by diplomatic -interference, first by Russia, then by England, and lastly by England -supported by all the powers, but Japan was ready and anxious to prove -her prowess over her ancient enemy, and to show to western nations the -strength that she had acquired; while there were ample and strong -reasons which appeared to the Japanese worthy ones why they should wage -war upon China. They asserted that the best interests of civilization -and humanity demanded this action and the time had come to begin. -Belligerent acts had multiplied and formal action became necessary, -without further delay. August 3 was the important date which marked the -formal beginning of warlike operations. - -The announcements to the world that an oriental war was actually to be -waged, were in every way characteristic of the people and the habits of -the two belligerent nations. Each one took pains to declare its power -and the age of the reigning dynasty. Japan however took its greatest -pride, very evidently, in the advance of its civilization, and the -introduction of western methods in diplomacy as well as elsewhere. -China, on the other hand, was more verbose, and at the same time very -scornful of the fighting strength of the ancient rival. Each of course -took pains to justify her own actions and cast all the odium of the war -on the other. - -[Illustration: - - THE ATTACK ON PING-YANG. - (Japanese Entering at the Gate of the Tai-Dong River Bridge.) -] - -Japan’s formal declaration of war appeared in the “Official Gazette,” -and in substance was as follows: - -“We, by the grace of heaven, Emperor of Japan, seated on a throne -occupied by the same dynasty from time immemorial, do hereby make -proclamation to all our loyal and brave subjects as follows: We hereby -declare war against China, and we command each and all of our competent -authorities, in obedience to our wish, and with a view to the attainment -of the national aim, to carry on hostilities by sea and land against -China, with all the means at their disposal, consistently with the law -of nations. - -“Over twenty years have now elapsed since our accession to the throne. -During this time we have consistently pursued a policy of peace, being -deeply impressed with a sense of the undesirability of being in strained -relations with other nations, and have always directed our officials -diligently to endeavor to promote friendship with all the treaty powers. -Fortunately our intercourse with the nations has continued to increase -in intimacy. - -“We were therefore unprepared for such a conspicuous want of amity and -of good faith, as has been manifested by China in her conduct towards -this country in connection with the Corean affairs. Corea is an -independent state. She was first introduced into the family of nations -by the advice and under the guidance of Japan. It has however, been -China’s habit to designate Corea as her dependency, and both openly and -secretly to interfere with her domestic affairs. At the time of the -recent civil insurrection in Corea, China dispatched troops thither, -alleging that her purpose was to afford succor to her dependent state. -We, in virtue of the treaty concluded with Corea in 1882, and looking to -possible emergencies, caused a military force to be sent to that -country, wishing to procure for Corea freedom from the calamity of -perpetual disturbance, and thereby to maintain the peace of the east in -general. Japan invited China’s co-operation for the accomplishment of -that object; but China, advancing various pretexts, declined Japan’s -proposal. - -“Thereupon Japan advised Corea to reform her administration, so that -order might be preserved at home, and so that the country might be able -to discharge the responsibilities and duties of an independent state -abroad. Corea has already consented to undertake the task, but China has -insidiously endeavored to circumvent and thwart Japan’s purpose. She has -further procrastinated and endeavored to make warlike preparations, both -on land and at sea. When these preparations were completed, she not only -sent large re-enforcements to Corea with a view to the attainment of her -ambitious designs, but even carried her arbitrariness and insolence to -the extent of opening fire upon our ships in Corean waters. - -“China’s plain object is to make it uncertain where the responsibility -resides for preserving peace and order in Corea, and not only to weaken -the position of that state in the family of nations—a position obtained -for Corea through Japanese efforts—but also to obscure the significance -of the treaties recognizing and confirming that position. Such conduct -on the part of China is not only a direct injury to the rights and -interests of this empire, but also a menace to the permanent peace and -tranquility of the Orient. Judging from her action, it must be concluded -that China from the beginning has been bent upon sacrificing peace to -the attainment of her sinister objects. In this situation, ardent as our -wish is to promote the prestige of the country abroad by strictly -peaceful methods, we find it impossible to avoid a formal declaration of -war against China. It is our earnest wish that by the loyalty and valor -of our faithful subjects, peace may soon be permanently restored, and -the glory of the empire be augmented and completed.” - -China promptly accepted the issue thus formally raised, and published a -declaration in substance as follows: - -“Corea has been our tributary for the last two hundred odd years. She -has given us tribute all of this time, which is a matter known to the -world. For the last dozen years or so Corea has been troubled by -repeated insurrections; and we in sympathy with our small tributary have -as repeatedly sent succor to her aid, eventually placing a resident in -her capital to protect Corea’s interests. In the fourth moon (May) of -this year, another rebellion was begun in Corea, and the king repeatedly -asked again for aid from us to put down the rebellion. We then ordered -Li Hung Chang to send troops to Corea, and they having barely reached -Asan, the rebels immediately scattered, but the 'Wojen' (the ancient -epithet for the Japanese expressive of contempt translated ‘pigmies’ or -more strictly according to usage ‘vermin’), without any cause whatever -sent their troops to Corea and entered Seoul, the capital of Corea, -re-enforcing them constantly until they have exceeded ten thousand men. - -“In the meantime the Japanese forced the Corean king to change his -system of government, showing a disposition in every way of bullying -Coreans. It was found a difficult matter to reason with the ‘Wojen.’ -Although we have been in the habit of assisting our tributaries, we have -never interfered with their internal government. Japan’s treaty with -Corea was as one country with another. There is no law for sending large -armies to bully a country in this way and to tell it to change its -system of government. Various powers are united in condemning the -conduct of the Japanese, and can give no reasonable name to the army she -now has in Corea. Nor has Japan been amenable to reason, nor will she -listen to an exhortation to withdraw her troops and confer amicably upon -what should be done in Corea. On the contrary, Japan has shown herself -belligerent without regard to appearances, and has been increasing her -forces there. Her conduct alarmed the people of Corea as well as our -merchants there, and so we sent more troops over to protect them. Judge -of our surprise then, when half way to Corea a number of the ‘Wojen’ -ships suddenly appeared, and taking advantage of our unpreparedness -opened fire on our transports at a spot on the sea coast near Asan, and -damaged them, thus causing us to suffer from their treacherous conduct -which could not be foretold by us. - -“As Japan has violated the treaties and not observed the international -laws, and is now running rampant with her false and treacherous actions, -beginning hostilities herself, and laying herself open to condemnation -by the various powers at large, we, therefore, desire to make it known -to the world that we have always followed the paths of philanthropy and -perfect justice throughout the whole complications, while the ‘Wojen’ -and others have broken all the laws of nations and treaties which it -passed our patience to bear with. Hence we command Li Hung Chang to give -strict orders to our various armies to hasten with all speed to root the -‘Wojen’ out of their lairs. He is to send successive armies of valiant -men to Corea, in order to have the Coreans freed from bondage. We also -command Manchoo generals, viceroys, and governors of the maritime -provinces, as well as the commanders in chief of the various armies to -prepare for war and to make every effort to fire on the ‘Wojen’ ships if -they come into our ports, and utterly destroy them. We exhort our -generals to refrain from the least laxity in obeying our commands, in -order to avoid severe punishment at our hands. Let all know this edict -as if addressed to themselves individually.” - -Immediately following China’s declaration of war, the Chinese Imperial -Foreign Office addressed an important circular letter to the ministers -of the various European countries, and of the United States, to be -forwarded to their respective governments. The message began abruptly -with the announcement that some time ago a rebellion broke out in the -district of Chung in Corea, and the king of that country sent a written -application for Chinese assistance through Li Hung Chang, Viceroy of the -North. - -“Our Imperial Majesty,” the message continued, “considering that on -previous occasions rebellion in Corea had been suppressed by our -assistance, dispatched troops, which did not however enter Seoul, but -went direct to the scene, with a view to exterminating the rebellion. At -the first rumor of their approach the rebels dispersed, and our army, -having brought merciful relief to the distressed people, meditated a -victorious retirement. To our astonishment Japan also dispatched troops -to Corea, pretending that it was for the purpose of assisting to quell -the rebellion, but their real object being to occupy Seoul, which they -did, posting themselves at all the important passes. They continued to -re-enforce themselves, until the number of their troops rose to upwards -of ten thousand, when they demanded that Corea should repudiate her -allegiance to China, and declare herself independent. Japan further drew -up many rules and regulations for the alteration of the Corean -government, which they required the king to conform to in every detail. -That Corea has been a dependency of China from time immemorial is known -to all the world, and therefore when your different respective -governments established treaties with that nation, such treaties were -approved and recorded by ourselves. For Japan to ignore this in so high -handed a manner, is an offense against the dignity and authority of -China, and a grave breach of the pre-existing harmonious relations.” - -[Illustration: - - OPENING THE GATES AT PING-YANG. - Japanese Drawing. -] - -The message comments upon the doubtful right of any country to interfere -with the internal administration of the affairs of the neighboring -states, and adds that while friendly counsel and exhortation may -sometimes be permissible, the enforcement of suggestions of reform by -direct and strenuous coercion and armed invasion cannot be tolerated. It -is impossible, the message declares, for China to submit to such -ignominious treatment, which would be equally intolerable to any of the -respective governments to which the message is addressed. Reference is -next made to the efforts of the British and Russian governments through -their representatives to induce Japan to withdraw her forces from Seoul, -thus making possible the peaceful negotiation of Corean affairs. - -“This,” says the circular, “was an extremely fair and just proposal, but -Japan stubbornly refused to take it into consideration, and on the -contrary strengthened her forces to such an extent that the people of -Corea and resident Chinese merchants there became daily more alarmed and -disturbed. China, out of consideration for the commendable efforts of -the different governments to effect a peaceful solution of the Corean -question, rigidly abstained from any act of bloodshed, which would have -led to great suffering and serious injury to commerce, and though it -became necessary to send further forces for the protection of the -country, we placed them at a careful distance from Seoul, studiously -avoiding a collision with the Japanese troops, which would have -occasioned the commencement of hostilities. Notwithstanding all this, -and by a most unexpected and treacherous scheme, the Japanese on July -25, collected a number of their war vessels outside the port of Asan, -and began hostilities by firing on our transports and attacking and -sinking the British steamer Kow-Shing, flying the English flag. Thus, -therefore, the commencement of the war on their part was beyond all -justification, and China, having done her utmost hitherto to preserve -the good fellowship of nations, can carry forbearance no further, but -feels constrained to adopt different counsels and to take effectual -measures for the management of affairs. - -“We anticipate,” says the message in conclusion, “that the various -governments of the world will hear of these extraordinary proceedings -with wonder and surprise, but they will know where to lay the entire -blame attaching to them. This full statement of the circumstances under -which Japan has iniquitously and unlawfully commenced war, is presented -to your excellency for communication to your respected government for -its inspection.” - -The two great nations of the orient were now at war, one with forty -millions of inhabitants, the other with four hundred millions, fighting -on the soil of their helpless neighbor, a nation which was to act as -little more than a buffer for the shock of war from either side to -strike. - - - - - FROM ASAN TO PING-YANG. - - -------------- - -Preparations for War in the Two Nations—Activity to Provide Defense for -Southern China—Chinese Arsenals—War Spirit Among the Japanese—Armies of -China, Their Organization and Administration—Burdens Upon Li Hung -Chang—Manner of Campaign Followed by Chinese Armies—Seeking a Commander -for the Chinese Troops in Corea—Complications with European and American -Interests—Trade Relations—The Chung king Affair—Arrest of Japanese -Students in Shanghai—Efforts of American Representatives to Save Their -Lives—Delivered to the Chinese by Order from Washington—Tortured to -Death—Operations in Corea—The Masterly Retreat from Asan—Engagements in -the North—The Lines of the Japanese Drawing Around Ping-Yang. - - -As soon as the formal declaration of war was made public in the rival -nations, the preparations for aggression and defense which had been in -progress in China for a few weeks, and in Japan for several months, -began to be multiplied with unceasing activity. The conditions which -existed in the two nations were very different, and required different -treatment. - -Immediately following the outbreak of hostilities, the viceroy at -Canton, Li Han Chang, brother of Li Hung Chang, began to make great -efforts to put the southern part of the empire in something like an -efficient state of defense. The first definite word of warning that -reached him, through an official channel, was a cipher telegram from -Peking informing him of the sinking of the Kowshing and the other -engagements on sea and land, immediately prior to July 30. Li Han Chang -was mainly responsible for the series of indignities which led to the -resignation of the last British officers remaining in the Chinese naval -service in 1891, so that China’s defeat at sea was to a certain extent -his fault. For this reason he was placed in a position to be peculiarly -anxious to make a good showing now. It was incumbent upon him to send -forces to Formosa, the favorite point of attack in every important war -that has been waged against China, and also to guard practically the -whole southern coast, of which Canton with the naval station and arsenal -at Whampoa, forms the principal point. - -In times of peace the defenses of Canton consist of the southern -squadron, the river forts, and the Manchoo or Tartar garrison, supposed -to number four thousand, but really of very indefinite strength. The -squadron at this time, however, was in the north, except about a dozen -river gunboats, belonging to the navy and various revenue offices. The -forts were in fairly satisfactory state, although insufficiently -supplied for war, and the army sought recruits to increase its numbers -as rapidly as possible. The investigation of the Whampoa arsenal, -however, was highly unsatisfactory as to its results. When orders were -given to the various arsenals to get to work building ships and making -guns, the Shanghai and Nanking stations were found in readiness, and the -Foochow arsenal, the largest and only one that had ever done any -shipbuilding on a serious scale, was also in reasonably good condition. -But Whampoa arsenal was in a lamentable state of unfitness, and all that -remained of it was its naval training college, torpedo depot, and -warehouse for guns and ammunition. The responsible officials whose -negligence and dishonesty had resulted in this unfortunate condition, -had good cause to anticipate severe punishment. - -In the north of China, where the administration had been more closely -under the eye of Li Hung Chang, things were in somewhat better -condition, although still not what they ought to be to meet a great war. - -The Japanese nation at the same moment presented a rare spectacle. To a -man, ay, to a woman, the whole people were for war to the knife. They -scarcely knew, nor did they greatly care, for what, but having been -without the luxury of a serious foreign war for two hundred or three -hundred years, their military and patriotic spirits were raised over the -invasion of Corea and the prospective conflict with China. Never was a -stronger antithesis than that between Japanese and Chinese at the -beginning of this conflict. It was the perfection of order and of -precision against slovenliness and carelessness; the pitting of a -trained athlete against a corpulent brewer who hated fighting. China has -in her history had good soldiers, but her system does not produce nor -encourage them. Despised by the literary class, which has been in -absolute control of everything, the soldier, having little chance of -fame, and feeling himself as belonging to a degraded class, has taken -naturally to pillage. If he has hoped to succeed to honors, it has been -as likely to be by corrupt interest as by meritorious service, for the -Chinese have had no appreciation of military excellence. Of course an -army, however numerous, composed of such unkindly material, is but a -mob, and if the Chinese had the spirit of soldiers they lacked the arms, -for in a service built up on corruption it was natural to expect that -the funds allotted for equipment would find other destinations. - -After the war broke out, immense efforts were made by Japan in -mobilizing troops and transporting them across the straits to Corea. The -reserve was called out, and from every house and every shop some one was -drafted to serve with the colors. So perfect, however, was the machine, -that all this was accomplished without the least visible disturbance to -the internal business of the country, and with such secrecy that it was -only through reports of trains full of troops passing at night, and -occasional train loads of war material, that any inkling was obtained of -what was going on. The embarkation was kept equally secret, even when -whole fleets of transports were engaged. - -One was constrained more and more to admire the organization of the -Japanese, and the perfect order which everywhere prevailed. In a country -so strictly policed, the police need never be called on to quell a -disturbance, and the force itself constituted another military reserve, -drilled and disciplined for any service. So complete was their network -of armed watchmen, that a sparrow could hardly cross the road without -its name and destination being recorded in the archives of the -prefecture. Everything about every individual, whether foreign or -native, was known to this intelligent government. Every foreigner’s -house was frequented by spies, in the guise of peddlers or servants, who -reported minutely to their official employers. It was the same abroad. -Japanese spies had examined every Chinese ship and fort, had measured -the fighting power of every Chinese regiment. Japan knew the rottenness -of Chinese naval and military administration better perhaps than the -Chinese themselves. Japan was, in short, one great intelligence -department, and it began to prove in a most unexpected way that -“knowledge is power.” - -Coming fresh from Japan to Tien-tsin, the port of Peking, whence the -direction of the war was to be carried on, one would be astounded at the -aspect of China. The Celestial Empire in war times contrasted so -completely with its hostile neighbor that one might imagine oneself in -another planet. The silent, stolid action of the one country and the -confused bustle of the other were the strongly evident contrasts. Coming -from war ministries, marine ministries, finance ministries, an executive -as elaborate and perfect as the machinery of a gun factory, every -individual knowing and doing his duty without hurry and without -friction, into China where there were none of these things at all, one -would be puzzled to conceive how any war could be carried on between -these countries except one of ultimate subjugation. China was in a sense -full of troops, mostly disbanded without pay, but in such loose fashion -as to enable them even to carry off the honors of war, in the shape of -their rifles and accoutrements. Some of these had sought and found an -honest living, but many had gone to swell the ranks of brigandage. The -troops in active service belonged to the great system of sham in which -China revelled. The levies on paper and on pay rolls bore no direct -correspondence with either the men or the arms. Neither the army nor the -navy was a fighting service, but a means of living; and while generals, -colonels and captains practically absorbed the naval and military -expenditure, the custom of the country permitted the ranks to be robbed -and starved, while those officials grew rich. - -Vast as were the numbers of the fighting men of China on paper, they -were but a very small proportion to the huge population of that empire. -The old Chinese army in its three divisions of Manchoo, Mongol, and -native Chinese did not exceed the nominal strength of one million, and -all the efforts of military reformers have been devoted to increasing -the efficiency and not the size of that force. The Green Flag, or -Luh-ying corps, still represented the bulk of the army, furnishing on -paper a total of six hundred and fifty thousand men scattered through -the nineteen provinces, excluding the new province of Manchooria. It has -been controlled by the local viceroys and governors who may in some -instances have attempted to improve its efficiency, but as a general -rule the force has had little or no military value. - -When the Tai-Ping rebellion was finally crushed, the Ever Victorious -army was disbanded, and the Viceroy Li Hung Chang, took into his pay a -considerable number of these disciplined and experienced soldiers who -had taken their part in a succession of remarkable achievements. When he -was transferred to Pechili he took with him these men as a sort of -personal bodyguard, and with the avowed intention of organizing an army -that would bear comparison with European troops. He was engaged on this -task for nearly twenty-five years. At the commencement this force -numbered about eighteen thousand men. In 1872 the viceroy took into his -service several German officers, who devoted themselves with untiring -energy to the conversion of what was not unpromising material into a -regular army of the highest standard. The training of this force was -carried on with the greatest possible secrecy, and no European officers -except those serving with it had any opportunity of forming an opinion. -But it was known at the beginning of the war that the Black Flag army, -as it was called, numbered about fifty thousand men. - -After Li Hung Chang’s army, and scarcely inferior to it in strength and -importance, came the two branches of the old Tartar army, both of which -were recently subjected to some military training, and more or less -equipped with modern weapons. These were the old Banner army, and the -army of Manchooria, the total strength of the former being some three -hundred thousand. Up to a comparatively recent time nothing had been -done to make this force efficient. Many of the troops were armed with -nothing but bows and arrows, and a kind of iron flail. In the last -fifteen years, however, part of the Banner army, called the Peking Field -force, was organized by the late Prince Chun, father of the reigning -emperor and raised to a fair degree of efficiency. The second Tartar -force, the army of Manchooria, contained some eighty thousand men who -had received training and approximately modern weapons. Out of these, -thirty thousand men, all armed with rifles, have made their headquarters -at Mukden, the old capital of the Manchoos. - -The Japanese reproached the Chinese with having no commissariat. Neither -had they telegraphs, ambulance, or hospital services. Their habit was to -live on the country in which they happened to be, and make it a desert. -The Corean campaign was expected to form no exception to this rule, and -the plains in the northwest, in the region first occupied by the Chinese -after the abandonment of Asan, were early deserted by their inhabitants. -Yet there were exceptions to this method of procedure. The force that -was sent under General Yeh to Asan to quell the insurrection there, -treated the natives with kindness and were consequently much liked. The -general had funds entrusted to him, to distribute among the poor people -who were suffering from want, and miraculous to say he did not steal the -money, but spent all, and even, it is said, some of his own, in -benevolence to the Coreans. - -At the opening of the war the functions of a war ministry, marine -ministry, finance ministry, with their staff of experts, were in China -discharged by one old man, without any staff, who had stood for thirty -years between the living and the dead. The emperor issued edicts without -providing the means of carrying them out; all the rest, whether in gross -or in detail, devolved on Li Hung Chang, who like another Atlas was -bearing the whole rotten fabric of Chinese administration on his -shoulders. - -The supreme command of the Corean expeditions was first offered to Liu -Ming-Chuan, who defended Formosa in 1884, but that astute old soldier -declined on the ostensible ground of age and defective sight, but really -because, as he said, peace would be made before he could reach -Tien-tsin. The command was next offered to Liu Kin-tang, the real -conqueror of Kashgar, for which the Governor-General Tso obtained the -credit. He also declined, but was overruled by the emperor, and started -from his home in the interior. His journey in the height of the summer -heat was too much to endure, and he died in his boat before reaching the -coast. The command was then entrusted to a civilian, Wu Ta-cheng, who -distinguished himself in closing a great breach on the Yellow River some -years ago, and who has lately been governor of Hu-nan. This promising -official was therefore chosen to go to Corea as imperial commissioner to -command the generals, no one of whom had been in authority over another. - -[Illustration: - - FIGHTING AT FOO-CHOW. - Japanese Drawing. -] - -It was natural to expect that complications would arise between the -belligerent nations and the European and American nations having -commercial interests in the orient. Japan and China had not been long -enough acquainted with the rules of international comity and -international war to be familiar with the exactions that would be made -by the other nations which might be affected. The diplomatic -representatives from the west lost no time in stipulating the neutrality -of the more important treaty ports where foreigners were settled, and in -arranging that certain branches of commerce should not be interfered -with. Trade, however, was seriously affected and the price of coal -doubled at one leap. China prohibited the export of rice from its own -ports whence large quantities are usually shipped to Japan. Chinese -lighthouses were darkened, and pilots were specifically warned not to -assist Japanese vessels. - -The term contraband was found to apply to many articles the transport of -which in time of peace gave employment to many steamers, mainly coal, -rice, and materials for building and repairing ships. The British -government published a declaration that rice would not be recognized as -contraband, and the prices of grain and rates for freight and insurance -ruled high. The whole trade was, therefore, dislocated, for the -Yang-tsze is the chief granary for the far east. - -The British steamer Chungking suffered an aggression from the Chinese -that drew upon them a severe rebuke and punishment. The vessel was at -anchor in the harbor of Tongku, and among its passengers were sixty -Japanese, many of them women and children, who were leaving China to -return to Japan for safety during the impending troubles. While the -vessel lay in the harbor a large number of Chinese soldiers forced their -way on board with hostile intent. They began chasing the Japanese with -threats of punishment, and the women and children fled to hide -themselves. Many were found and were dragged from their places of -concealment with violence. When they were found, their feet were tightly -fastened together and their hands were tied behind their backs. They -were then thrown upon the wharf, where they lay helpless, and several of -them fainted under the severe treatment. As soon as the report of the -outrage reached the superior officer commanding the district, he -commanded the release of the victims, and the ship moved on to Shanghai -where it arrived August 7. Viceroy Li Hung Chang tendered a most humble -apology to the British consul for the aggression, the soldiers who -committed the outrage were severely punished, and the officers who were -responsible for it were degraded and sent into the interior. - -The Japanese who were living in various Chinese treaty ports, engaged in -business or connected with the various foreign concessions, took pains -during the early period of the war to keep themselves as much as -possible sequestered from Chinese view, to avoid giving offense to the -people. Many of them had for years worn Chinese dress, and others now -adopted the same costume, thinking thus to lessen the danger to which -they were undoubtedly exposed. The Chinese authorities of Shanghai -became convinced that the Japanese remaining there, under the protection -of various foreign flags, constituted so many menaces to the national -security. The precaution which the Japanese took in adopting Chinese -costume, was made the pretext for a demand upon the consuls for the -arrest of all who had resorted to it, but in each instance the demand -was refused. - -The first complication of American diplomatic interests with those of -China came in this connection. On the morning of August 18, two Japanese -who were walking within the limits of the French concession were pounced -upon by Chinese guards and carried off to prison, charged with being -spies in the service of the Japanese government. The accused were young -men of good position and repute, and it seemed without the opportunity -of spying, even if they were prepared to take the risk. They were placed -in prison, however, pending, it was explained, the appointment of a -proper tribunal to try them, and it was alleged by the Chinese -authorities that there were found concealed about their clothes, plans -of Chinese fortifications and cipher notes on Chinese movements. The -following day the Japanese residing in Shanghai moved from the Chinese -quarters into the American concession, where they placed themselves -formally under the protection of the United States. The two who were -arrested were immediately handed over to the American consul-general at -his demand, he agreeing to keep them until charges should be formulated -and presented. After a careful examination of the merits of the case, -the consul, Mr. Jernigan, and the United States minister to China, Mr. -Denby, became convinced that the charges were groundless, and that the -young men were innocent of any guilt or evil intent. They were mere -boys, students at the schools maintained in the American and French -concessions, where they had resided for many years. The fact that they -were dressed in Chinese costume proved nothing, inasmuch as they had -worn that costume for many years. The charges that plans and notes had -been found upon them, were also discredited by the American -representatives. Americans in private life in Shanghai, as well as -Europeans, both in official and private position, united to sustain the -position taken by the American representatives. These representations -were submitted to the state department at Washington, where Secretary -Gresham gave them careful and painstaking review. He lost no time in -deciding that the opinions of the diplomatic representatives of the -United States, who were on the ground and able to make a personal -investigation of the merits of the case, were worthless, and that the -allegations of the Chinese officials were those which were to be -accepted in their entirety. The result was that the United States -consul-general at Shanghai was commanded by the state department at -Washington to surrender to the Chinese officials these students, without -delay. He did, however, delay sufficiently to make a strenuous protest -against this action, offering further explanations why it should not be -done, and in all he was sustained by the other diplomats in Shanghai. He -declared that the surrender of these young men to China would be the -signal for the torture, and that the only true wisdom and kindness would -be to send them back to Japan. His protests were unavailing, and he was -again instructed to deliver them at once, only exacted from the Chinese -a promise that they should have fair trial and kind treatment. - -To the distress of every friend of civilization in China, these two -students were therefore surrendered to the Chinese, and two days later, -after a trial which would be considered a mockery among ourselves, -without the semblance of judicial fairness, they were condemned to -death. The sentence was executed by means of the most shocking tortures -which Chinese fiendish barbarity has been able to devise, to the horror -of all foreigners living in that dark empire. The blot thus placed on -American state-craft as exemplified in its first test during this war, -can never be eradicated from the minds of those familiar with the -circumstances of the sad case. - -The surrender of the two Japanese to the Chinese officials, by the -United States consul-general, threw the Japanese of Shanghai into a -state of the greatest consternation, as they had hitherto believed -themselves to be perfectly secure under the protection of the American -government. Their dismay was doubled a month later, when on October 8, -the two students were tortured to death, in spite of the promise which -had been made to Secretary Gresham by the Chinese minister at -Washington, that they should be properly treated. The pledge given by -the Chinese government was that these students should be treated as -prisoners of war, and tried by a competent court, after the manner of -civilized countries; and that their trial would be postponed until -Colonel Denby, the United States minister, could be present. Information -furnished to the American state department at Washington, its -representative in China, the American minister and the American -consul-general at Shanghai, was to the effect that the young men were -not spies, but were students in a commercial school established in Tokio -with a branch at Shanghai, the chief object of which was to impart a -knowledge of the commerce of China and Japan, and promote the trade -relations between the two countries. Under date of September 1, Colonel -Denby wrote to the secretary of state as follows: - -“To give up these boys unconditionally is generally believed to be to -give them up to death. The viceroy of Nanking has, I am informed, -already demanded of the taotai of Shanghai why the heads of the two -spies have not been sent to him. They are judged and condemned in -advance. The governor of Formosa has posted a proclamation offering -prizes for Japanese heads. In a country where such a thing is possible, -it is needless to inquire what chance a Japanese accused as a spy would -have for his life. This case has attracted much attention in Japan. The -American minister at Tokio telegraphed this legation that these men were -innocent. Should any harm befall them, retaliation is inevitable. These -young men have the fullest sympathy of all foreigners in China, and the -advice of the high officials of all nationalities has been not to give -them up without conditions.” - -[Illustration: CAPTURE OF PING-YANG, SEPTEMBER 16TH.] - -Mr. Jernigan, the United States consul-general at Shanghai, wrote as -follows: - -“Had it been known to the Chinese authorities that the limits of my -power as a protector of Japanese interests extended only to an inquiry -after arrest, all the students, fifty, would have been summarily -arrested, and it is believed here, as summarily dealt with as were their -two fellow students. I do not hesitate to conclude that the delay caused -by the course of this consulate general in the case of the two Japanese -students, prevented the arrest of as many as two hundred Japanese upon -mere suspicion, and has probably saved many from being executed and -others from being held for ransom.” - -With this sort of a warning before them, the remaining Japanese -residents in Shanghai, who numbered about seven hundred persons, -consequently determined to quit the place at the earliest possible -moment. The Yokohama Specie bank transferred its business for the time -to a French bank and closed its doors. The Japanese storekeepers sold -off their stocks with all speed, and prepared to leave in the first -steamer for their native country. - -Let us turn now to the hostile operations in Corea involving the rival -forces. In the last chapter the operations were related up to July 30, -on which date the Japanese drove the Chinese troops out of their -intrenched position at Asan. Five days later, on the 4th of August, the -conquerors re-entered Seoul in triumph, leaving the retreating Chinese -to make their way to their friends far to the northward. Barbarous as it -might have been in the Chinese to have no commissariat, they had in such -an encounter the advantage in marching, and were able to make a retreat -so successfully as to win the admiration of those who can recognize even -that sort of merit. - -To understand the movements of forces from this period of the war, it -must be remembered that we have to do with a single Japanese force, -landing at Chemulpo and commanding and occupying Seoul, from which -center the movements were carried on. There were, however, two Chinese -forces, the original garrison of Asan, a port forty miles south of -Seoul, and a large force advancing by the road which enters Corea at its -northwest corner at Wi-ju. China anxious to meet and annihilate at one -blow if possible her despised foe, threw the latter body of troops, -drawn largely from the Manchoo garrisons, into the Corean peninsula, -where they advanced about one hundred and seventy miles inside the -border to the banks of the Tatong River at Ping-Yang. The Japanese were -awaiting the shock a little to the north of Seoul, and such was the -strength of their position that the Chinese, instead of advancing upon -them, halted at the capital city of the province, Ping-Yang, assuming -the defensive there and strongly fortifying it. One week after the -capture of Asan and the beginning of the retreat of the Chinese, the van -of the victorious army started from Seoul, marching towards Ping-Yang, -one hundred and forty miles distant, whence they were destined five -weeks later to be once more victorious in expelling the Chinese. - -General Yeh, with his four thousand Chinese, made, as has been said, a -masterly retreat. Accompanied by many Coreans who joined his standard -when he was compelled to abandon his untenable position, he struck -northeastward and after twenty-five days effected a junction with the -Chinese main body at Ping-Yang, August 23. His column kept to the -mountains, where travel was difficult, and it was harassed by the enemy -all along the route. Nevertheless, the troops marched three hundred and -fifty miles through this almost impassable country, breaking through the -Japanese lines at Chong-ju, and reaching their friends at last. - -The Japanese army, advancing on Ping-Yang at the same time, was -approaching that position by a course parallel with that of the Chinese, -but to the westward of it. The opposing forces were near enough to one -another that detached bodies frequently met in conflict, and the -skirmishes resulting were reported by whichever band happened to be -victorious, as a brilliant victory for the army. Because of this -condition of affairs, many battles were reported from one side or the -other that were scarcely mentioned by the opponents, whichever force it -might be, and the war spirit was thus constantly fed in China and Japan -without anything of considerable importance really happening. - -About the middle of August the Japanese scouts pressing forward from -Pongsan came across an advance guard of the Chinese, who had seized the -telegraph line. A brisk skirmish ensued and the scouts fell back. A few -days later the Chinese advance guard, numbering five thousand men, -encountered the Japanese troops guarding the Ping-Yang passes, and drove -them out. Two days later an advance was made on the Japanese skirmish -lines, and the Japanese were again defeated, this time being turned back -as far as Chung-hwa, some twenty miles south of Ping-Yang. - -[Illustration: FIRST SIGHT OF PING-YANG.] - -When the Japanese troops started from Chemulpo and Seoul to advance on -Ping-Yang, a force of thirteen transports, protected by a strong convoy -of war vessels, also started for Ping-Yang, carrying some six thousand -troops who were intended to co-operate with the forces advancing by -land. On the 18th of August these troops were landed in Ping-Yang inlet, -and they immediately began their march up the cultivated valley of the -Tatong River in the direction of the city. When the force had proceeded -some distance, it was suddenly attacked by one thousand Chinese cavalry, -who succeeded in dividing the column into two parts. The Chinese -artillery at the same time caused great havoc among the Japanese. The -latter were thrown into complete disorder, and considerably reduced in -numbers they fled to the seashore, pursued by the cavalry who cut down -many of the fugitives. As they reached the coast the Japanese came -within the shelter of the guns of their war vessels, and the Chinese -were consequently compelled to desist from further pursuit. - -The land skirmishes of which mention has been made, involved none except -the extreme van of the Japanese forces and the outposts of the Chinese. -The main body of the Japanese troops, some fifteen thousand strong, -found that the daily rate of progress northward did not exceed six -miles, so broken was the road by mountains and streams, the passage of -which presented great obstacles. This being the rate of advance, the -army had pushed some ninety miles from Seoul, when it was decided that a -change of military plan must be made. The Chinese assembling in such -great force at Ping-Yang, by the union of the two armies, threatened -Gensan, on the east coast of Corea. At Gensan there was an important -Japanese colony, and from there a trunk road led southward to Seoul. The -destruction of the colony, a flanking movement against the Japanese -army, and an irruption of Chinese troops into the Corean capital, might -have been the result of not including Gensan in the Japanese program of -operations. A force of ten thousand men was accordingly transported to -Gensan by sea, with instructions to move westward against Ping-Yang, -timing its advance and attack with those of the army from Seoul, whose -progress northward was suspended to allow time for the passage and -disembarkation of this column, and of the column which had been sent -from Chemulpo into the Ping-Yang inlet. - -[Illustration: BATTLE OF THE YALU—SINKING OF THE CHIH-YUEN.] - -While these land operations were going on, there were also some naval -movements under way, but the latter brought no very definite results. A -fleet of Japanese vessels, including a few iron clads and some merchant -steamships transformed into cruisers, made a reconnoissance of -Wei-hai-wei and Port Arthur about the 10th of August. A few shots were -exchanged at long range between the vessels and the forts at each of -these places, and the fleet then withdrew. The operations were of little -more importance than a mere ruse to draw fire and ascertain the position -and strength of the enemy’s guns. No submarine mines were exploded, or -torpedoes launched. At the request of the British admiral, Sir Edmund -Fremantle, the Japanese promised not to renew the attack upon -Wei-hai-wei or to bombard Chefoo without giving forty-eight hours’ -notice to him, so that measures might be taken to protect the lives of -foreign residents. - -The emperor of China, taking personal interest in affairs to greater -extent than had been his custom, insisted on a full daily report of the -warlike operations and plans. He studied special official reports of the -naval attack, and then wanted to know why his commanders allowed the -enemy’s vessels to escape. All this time the Japanese fleet was -patrolling the China sea, the Gulf of Pechili and the Corean Bay, trying -to reach a conflict with the enemy, and to prevent the tribute of rice -from going north. Torpedoes were placed in the entrance to Tokio Bay and -Nagasaki harbor, to guard against an attack by Chinese war vessels. The -war spirit in Japan lost none of its warmth. The detachments sent across -the straits into Corea in August numbered nearly fifty thousand men, and -early in September the total number of Japanese troops available for -activity in the peninsula was nearly one hundred thousand. A war loan of -$50,000,000 was desired by the government, and so anxious were Japanese -capitalists to subscribe for it that foreign subscriptions were refused -and more than $80,000,000 were offered. - -Chinese efforts continued also in great degree, but the results were -scarcely as happy. Troops to the same number could not be sent into -Corea. A very long land march was required before the forces could reach -the seat of war by way of Manchooria and it was useless to attempt -transporting them by water, so carefully did the Japanese cruisers -patrol the sea routes. - -[Illustration: BRINGING IN THE WOUNDED.] - -Just at this time, when the lines were drawing closer and closer for a -decisive battle, the relations between Japan and Corea were more closely -defined by a formal treaty of alliance signed at Seoul on August 26. The -preamble of the treaty declared it to be the desire of the emperor of -Japan and the king of Corea to determine definitely the mutual relations -of Japan and Corea, and to elucidate the relations between Japan and -China with respect to the peninsula. The body of the treaty consisted of -three articles: - -“The object of the alliance is the strengthening and perpetuation of the -independence of Corea as an autonomous state, and the promotion of the -mutual interests of Corea and Japan, by compelling the Chinese forces to -withdraw from Corea, and by obliging China to abandon her claims to the -right to dominate the affairs of Corea. - -“Japan is to carry on warlike operations against China both offensive -and defensive; and the Corean government is bound to afford every -possible facility to the Japanese forces in their movements, and to -furnish supplies of provisions to them at a fair remuneration, so far as -such supplies may be needed. - -“The treaty shall terminate when a treaty of peace is concluded by Japan -with China.” - -At this very time, however, the feeling of the Corean people against the -Japanese was very intense and they were everywhere welcoming the Chinese -as their friends. Except the strongly guarded positions in the provinces -of Seoul and Hwanghai and the country around the treaty ports which were -under Japanese influence, the peninsula was in the possession of armed -Coreans and Chinese. The Japanese Marquis Saionji landed at Chemulpo, -August 28, to congratulate the Corean monarch on his declaration of -independence, and the king showed every disposition to co-operate with -the Japanese in their efforts to introduce reforms into his country. His -Majesty appointed a commissioner to visit Japan and thank the mikado for -his promises to restore peace, and to establish a stable government in -Corea. He further issued a decree introducing several reforms, including -religious freedom, the establishment of a diplomatic service, the -abolition of slavery, economies in the public service, the abrogation of -the law whereby the whole family of a criminal is punished, and the -granting of permission to widows to marry again. - -Early in September the mikado established headquarters in Hiroshima with -the ministers of war and marines and the general staff, deciding to -direct the war operations from that city in the future. This had already -been the place of assembly and embarkation for the troops ordered to the -seat of war. At the same time Field Marshal Count Yamagata left for -Corea to assume sole command of the Japanese army, which had now been -augmented till its numbers were approximately one hundred thousand. -Lines were drawing about the Chinese forces nearer and nearer. The -indecisive battle which they had fought with the Japanese on August 16 -had availed them nothing, and all their available troops were now massed -together in Hwang-ju and Sing-chuen. - -As the three advancing columns of Japanese drew nearer to the lines of -the enemy, engagements multiplied and scarcely a day passed without some -sort of a skirmish. The three divisions struck the Chinese -simultaneously on September 5 and 6. The troops from Chemulpo struck the -Chinese center at Chung-Hwa; those from Gensan came up with their -enemies at Sing-chuen, where the left flank of the Chinese was strongly -intrenched; and the detachment from the mouth of the Tatong struck the -right flank of the Chinese at Hwang-ju. The results from all of these -engagements were favorable to the Japanese, and the Chinese were forced -back in confusion upon Ping-Yang where they united to give final battle. -In the retreat, the column advancing from the Tatong again caught up -with the Chinese on the 7th and another stubborn engagement was fought. -The Chinese did not give way until they were in danger of being -surrounded, when they fled in redoubled haste towards Ping-Yang. - -[Illustration: THE MIKADO REVIEWING THE ARMY.] - -With the Chinese forces in Corea thus surrounded by the Japanese, after -the sharp campaign; and the Chinese fleet of warships in perfect -fighting trim collected at Wei-hai-wei, the time was now at hand for the -two important conflicts, one on land and one at sea, which resulted in -mid-September in the entire victory of the Japanese. - - - - - THE FIRST GREAT BATTLES OF THE WAR. - - -------------- - -Concentration of Japanese Troops to Threaten Ping-Yang—Plan of -Attack—Poor Defenses in the Rear of the Chinese Position—Night advance -on the Enemy—Swift and Effective Victory—Chinese Commander -Killed—Thousands of Prisoners Taken—Rejoicings in Japan—Honors for the -Dead Chinese Commander—Second Great Conflict in a Week—The Naval Battle -of the Yalu River—Another Victory for the Japanese Fleet—Many War Ships -Destroyed—Hundreds of Sailors Drowned in Sinking Vessels—Carnage and -Destruction—Elation of the Japanese over two Successive -Victories—Depression in the Chinese Capital and Criticism of the Chinese -Viceroy, Li Hung Chang. - - -[Illustration: COREAN POLICE AGENT.] - -The first serious engagement between the Chinese and the Japanese forces -in Corea resulted, as competent judges foresaw all along, in the -complete victory of the latter. The great battle was fought and won. The -Chinese were utterly routed. The strong position of Ping-Yang lying just -north of the Tatong river, on the road from Seoul to the frontier at the -mouth of the Yalu river, was carried by assault in the small hours of -Sunday morning, September 16. The Chinese troops who held it were -utterly defeated, with a loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, -estimated at nearly four-fifths of their entire force. - -On Thursday morning, September 13, began the attacks which resulted two -days later in the brilliant victory. Three columns of Japanese troops -had been centering for this attack for some weeks. The first of these -came from Gensan, threatening a flank attack. The column marched from -this port on the Sea of Japan almost directly west, approaching -Ping-Yang by way of the mountain passes. The center column came from -Pongsan almost directly south of Ping-Yang. The third column landed at -Hwang-ju near the mouth of the Tatong river, and occupied a position to -the westward of Ping-Yang on the right flank of the Chinese troops. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE KITCHEN IN CAMP.] - -The infantry and artillery of the Japanese were in a high state of -efficiency. The men themselves were hardy, active, brave and -intelligent. Their drill and discipline had been carefully adapted from -the best European models. Their arms were of the latest and most -destructive patterns that science has been able to devise, and every -detail in their equipment and accoutrements had been thoroughly thought -out and carefully provided. The officers who had the skill and the -energy to create such a force were of course worthy to lead it. All of -them had made scientific study of their profession, and some of them had -spent years in close investigation of the more famous European military -systems, under the guidance of distinguished strategists. But while it -was generally anticipated that such an army, so led, would have an easy -task in defeating and dispersing any force which the Chinese were likely -to assemble against it at short notice in Corea, it was by no means -certain that the Japanese could force an engagement before the Corean -winter made serious operations impracticable. The Japanese commander -showed that he had mastered the great secret of modern warfare. He knew -how to move his troops with rapidity and with decision, and doing so he -succeeded in dealing a heavy blow to China with trifling loss to -himself. - -The position held by the Chinese was one of great natural strength. -Doubtless on this account it was protected by old works, which the -Chinese had supplemented by new defenses. True, however, to the -extraordinary practice so often adopted by the Chinese armies, they -neglected to secure their rear to any adequate degree. The Japanese, who -had fought the Chinese before, foresaw that this would be the case, and -planned their measures accordingly. - -Thursday the Japanese column from Pongsan, the centre, made a -reconnoissance in force, drawing the fire from the Chinese fort, and -ascertaining accurately the location of the defenses and the disposition -of the troops. This having been accomplished, the Japanese forces fell -back in good order and with very little loss, none of the other troops -having entered the engagement. - -Friday was spent by the Japanese in taking up their final position, and -by that evening all the Japanese forces were in position for the -combined attack, the Pongsan column facing the Chinese centre to bear -the brunt, as in the preliminary fighting, and the others arranged as -heretofore described. The Hwang-ju column had been re-enforced the day -before by marines and blue jackets from the fleet at the mouth of the -Tatong river. - -The battle opened Saturday morning at daybreak by a direct cannonade -upon the Chinese works. This continued without cessation until the -afternoon, the Chinese fighting their guns well and making good -execution. At two o’clock in the afternoon a body of infantry was thrown -forward, and these troops kept up a rifle fire upon the Chinese until -dusk. The Japanese gained some advanced positions, but they mainly -occupied the same ground as when the attack opened. Firing continued at -intervals throughout the night. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE SOLDIER SALUTING A FIELD CEMETERY.] - -Neither of the flanking columns took any part in the heavy fighting -during Saturday, and thus no opportunity was given to the Chinese of -measuring the real number of the forces opposed to them or of -ascertaining the real plans of the enemy. Throughout the day the Chinese -held their own without much loss except to their defenses, and they -retired to rest with the satisfied feeling of men who have not -unsuccessfully opposed a formidable adversary. - -They had a rude awakening. During the night the two flanking columns -drew a cordon around the Chinese forces, and at three o’clock on Sunday -morning the attack was delivered simultaneously and with admirable -precision. The Gensan and Hwang-ju columns were the ones who devoted -themselves to the rear of the Chinese position, and the entrenched -troops suddenly found themselves exposed to attacks from the force they -had fought during the day and from new forces of fresh troops of unknown -numbers. - -The Chinese lines which were so strong in front, were found -comparatively weak in the rear. The unsuspicious soldiers, taken -completely by surprise, fell into panic and were cut down by hundreds. -They were surrounded and at every point where they sought safety in -flight they met the foe. It was of course a disgrace to the Chinese -leaders to be completely outmanœuvred and surprised, but it was no -disgrace to the Chinese soldiers to flee with but slight resistance when -the surprise had been accomplished by an enemy outnumbering them nearly -three to one. - -[Illustration: CROWD IN TOKIO LOOKING AT PICTURES OF THE WAR.] - -[Illustration: JAPANESE AMBULANCE OFFICER.] - -The greatest Manchoo general, and some of the troops disciplined under -Li Hung Chang’s directions on the European system, fought stoutly, stood -their ground to the last, and were cut down to a man. But their stand -was useless. The Pongsan column, swarming over the damaged defenses in -the front, completed the discomfiture of the Chinese. Half an hour after -the night attack opened, the splendid position of Ping-Yang was in the -possession of the Japanese. - -The Japanese victory was brilliant and complete. They captured the whole -of the immense quantities of stores, provisions, arms and ammunition in -the camp, besides hundreds of battle flags. The Chinese loss was about -two thousand seven hundred killed and more than fourteen thousand -wounded and prisoners. Less than a fourth of the Chinese army succeeded -in escaping. The Japanese loss was thirty killed and two hundred and -sixty-nine wounded, including eleven officers. - -Among the officers of the Chinese killed was General Tso-pao-kwei, -Manchoorian commander-in-chief of the army, who fought desperately to -the last and was wounded twice. In this battle also, General Wei -Jink-woi, and General Sei Kinlin were captured and these practically -comprise the effective Chinese staff. - -Within ten hours of the great battles of Ping-Yang, the engineers had -completed the military field telegraph between that place and Pongsan, -and had messages on the wires to Seoul. The number of troops engaged in -the battle on the side of the Japanese was about sixty thousand, and of -the Chinese about twenty thousand, which in a measure explains and -justifies the result of the conquest. - -The news of this battle was welcomed most enthusiastically in Japan, and -rejoicings were held in Tokio and the other large cities. Bells were -rung and salutes fired. Field Marshal Count Yamagata, in command of the -Japanese troops, received congratulations by telegraph from the emperor -of Japan. - -[Illustration: CHINAMAN MUTILATING REMAINS OF JAPANESE SOLDIERS.] - -The emperor of China had occasion to take different measures. An -imperial edict was promulgated in which he expressed his profound regret -at the death of General Tso, who was killed while gallantly leading the -Chinese troops. The emperor ordered that posthumous orders should be -paid to the deceased, befitting his rank as a provincial commander of -the Chinese Empire. The edict bestowed imperial favors upon the sons and -family of the late general. After he had been severely wounded in the -shoulder by a bullet, General Tso persisted in remaining at the head of -his troops, and it was while leading his men in an unsuccessful charge -that he was struck by another bullet and killed. - -Just one day after the rout of the Chinese from their defenses at -Ping-Yang, another meeting between Japanese and Chinese took place not -may miles from the same point, but the second battle was on sea instead -of land, and its results were not as definitive as those of the battle -of Ping-Yang. There remained room for each contestant to lay claim to -certain phases of the victory. But the opinion of independent and -impartial authorities, naval and military, has been that in the indirect -results as well as the immediate lesson, Japan was well justified in -claiming the contest to be hers. - -[Illustration: THE PING-YUEN.] - -Admiral Ting and his fleet were at Tien-tsin awaiting the orders of the -Chinese war council which was sitting at that place. He was instructed -to convoy a fleet of six transports to the Yalu river and protect them -while landing troops, guns and stores at Wi-ju, from which base China -intended to renew operations in Corea. The transports were ready Friday, -September 14, and the following vessels escorted them to sea: Chen-Yuen -and Ting-Yuen, speed fourteen knots, tonnage seven thousand four hundred -and thirty; King-Yuen and Lai-Yuen, sixteen and one-half knots, two -thousand eight hundred and fifty tons; Ping-Yuen, ten and one-half -knots, two thousand eight hundred and fifty tons; Chih-Yuen and -Ching-Yuen, eighteen knots, two thousand three hundred tons; Tsi-Yuen, -fifteen knots, two thousand three hundred and fifty-five tons; Chao Yung -and Yang Wei, sixteen and one-half knots, one thousand three hundred and -fifty tons; Kwang Kai and Kwang Ting, sixteen and one-half knots, one -thousand and thirty tons. The first five vessels named were armored -battle ships, the first two built in 1881.2, the third and fourth in -1887, and the fifth in 1890. The seven following were cruisers with -outside armor, all of them built since 1881 and some as late as 1890. -There were also in the fleet six torpedo boats and two gun boats. It is -evident that the fleet was of modern construction, and without going -into details as to the armament it may be said that the guns were -equally modern in pattern. - -This splendid fleet arrived off the eastern entrance to the Yalu river -on the afternoon of Sunday, September 16, and remained ten miles outside -while the transports were to be unloaded. There were about seven -thousand troops to be disembarked, composing the second Chinese army -corps, which consisted almost entirely of Hunanese. The war council had -realized that it was impossible to get the necessary re-enforcements to -Corea with sufficient promptitude if they were marched overland, so the -risk of sending them by transports was assumed. - -The work of disembarking troops and discharging stores proceeded rapidly -until about ten o’clock Monday morning, September 17. Very soon after -that hour, the sight of a cloud of smoke upon the horizon indicated the -approach of a large fleet. The enemy was at hand, and the battle was -impending. Admiral Ting immediately weighed anchor and placed his ships -in battle array. His position was a difficult one. If he remained near -the shore, his movements were cramped. If he steamed out for sea room he -ran the risk of a Japanese cruiser or torpedo boat running in amongst -his transports. He chose the least of two evils and decided to remain -near the shore. - -By noon it was possible to distinguish twelve ships in the approaching -Japanese squadron. The Chinese fleet steamed in the direction of the -enemy and at a distance of five miles was able to distinguish the ships -according to their types. Admiral Ting signalled his ships to clear for -action and then brought them into a V-shaped formation, with the -flagship at the apex of the angle. The Japanese had at first approached -in double line, but when Admiral Ito saw the formation adopted by his -opponent he changed his fleet into single line and so went into action. - -The Ting-Yuen opened firing about twelve thirty P.M. at a range of five -thousand seven hundred yards. The concussion of the first discharge -threw every one off the bridge. As they came nearer, the Japanese -appeared to form in quarter lines, to which the Chinese replied by -turning two points to starboard, thus keeping their bows directed -towards the enemy. Approaching within four thousand four hundred yards, -the whole Japanese fleet seemed to turn eight points to port, thereby -forming a single line ahead, and steaming across the Chinese line they -turned its starboard wing. - -The Japanese manœuvred swiftly throughout the battle, and the Chinese -scarcely had a chance for effective firing from beginning to end. When -the Japanese were firing at the starboard section of the Chinese -squadron, the ships of the port section were practically useless, and -could not fire without risk of hitting their own ships. The Japanese -cruisers attacked first one section and then the other. As soon as the -Chinese on the port side had brought their guns to bear and had attained -the range accurately, the Japanese would work around and attack the -starboard side. At times as many as five Japanese vessels would bring -the whole weight of their armament to bear upon one Chinese ship, their -consorts keeping the attention of the other vessels of that line fully -engaged, while the ships of the diverging line lay looking on almost as -useless as hulks in the water. - -As compared with that of the Japanese, the fire of the Chinese was very -feeble and ineffective. The men fought bravely, however, and there -appeared to be no thought of surrendering on either side, but a constant -intention to fight to the end. - -While the fleet was getting into its formation the Chao Yung and Yang -Wei, which were slow in taking up stations, were disastrously exposed to -the Japanese fire, and one of them in consequence began to burn. On the -port wing the Tsi-Yuen and Kwang Kai, occupied a similar position behind -the Chinese line. The Japanese steamed around by the stern at a distance -of five thousand yards and cut off the Tsi-Yuen. The Kwang Kai, which -was as yet keeping touch with the fleet, soon fell back. Nothing more -was seen of these two during the action, and they escaped unhurt. - -The Chinese, unable to keep pace with the enemy, endeavored to follow -their movements by keeping bow on to them, as they circled around, -maintaining a heavy bombardment. The Chinese fleet that kept in the -thick of the fight consisted of six ships of the Yuen class, including -the ironclads. The Japanese, having completed one circle, hauled off to -a distance of eight thousand yards, and went through an evolution with -the object of separating in two divisions, the first consisting of the -seven best known cruisers, and the second of five inferior ships which -stood off to some distance. - -The Japanese gunners were making much better practice than their enemy. -Very few of the Chinese shots reached their mark, while the Japanese -were constantly hitting the opposing vessels most effectively. After a -time the Chinese admiral apparently became desperate. His formation was -broken, and two or three of his ships advanced at full speed. The -fighting became furious, but the weight of metal told and one of his -ships, the Lai-Yuen, was crippled in this venture. Then for some unknown -reason the Japanese ceased firing and cleared off, while the Chinese -retired nearer the shore. The respite was a brief one, for the Japanese -returned in about fifteen minutes, renewing the battle with great vigor -and upon the same effective plan. - -Late in the afternoon the Chinese cruiser Chih-Yuen, the captain of -which had several times shown a disposition to disregard the admiral’s -signals, deliberately steamed out of line and, although again ordered to -remain in the place assigned to her, went full speed at a Japanese -cruiser. The latter received a slanting blow which ripped her up below -the water line and it was believed she would founder. She succeeded -however, in pouring several broadsides into her enemy at close quarters, -and the Chih-Yuen was so injured by her fire and by the effects of the -collision that she herself sank. - -When the Chinese resumed their line formation, the Japanese guns were -directed upon the disabled ships, particularly the Lai-Yuen. She had -been riddled by shot and shell, and it was evident that she was sinking. -The Chinese gunners worked their weapons to the last. Finally she went -down slowly, stern first. Her bows rose clear out of the water and she -remained in this position for a minute and a half before she disappeared -in one last plunge. The Japanese had used no torpedoes upon her, but -sunk her by fair shot and shell fire. It spurred all the men to -additional effort, and the officers were naturally exultant. They -regarded the sinking of a double bottomed ship like the Lai-Yuen by gun -fire alone as no mean achievement. - -The battle then arranged itself into two great groups, the four Chinese -cruisers becoming engaged with the second division, while the ironclads -attacked the first division. The fighting of the second division was -irregular and difficult to follow, and ended in the Japanese -disappearing in the direction of the island of Hai-yung-tao. - -The first Japanese division carried on the fighting with the Chinese -ironclads by circling round at a distance of four thousand five hundred -yards. The Ping-Yuen and Chen-Yuen keeping together, followed the -enemies’ movements in a smaller circle, the whole evolution taking a -spiral form. Occasionally the distance between the opposing ships was -reduced to two thousand yards, and once to one thousand two hundred -yards. The Japanese aimed at keeping a long distance away, so as to -avail themselves of their superior speed, and make the most of their -quick firing guns, in which armament they vastly excelled the Chinese. -The object of the Chinese was to come into close quarters, so as to use -their slow firing guns of large caliber with full effect. - -Other Chinese vessels endangered were the King-Yuen, which was badly -injured by fire, the Chao Yung, which foundered in shallow water, and -the Yang Wei, which was partially burned, and afterwards destroyed by a -torpedo. - -[Illustration: THE YOSHINO.] - -On the Japanese side, in addition to the vessel which was rammed by the -Chih-Yuen, the Yoshino and the Matsusima were badly injured by fire. The -former of these two, after receiving a series of volleys from two -Chinese vessels, was enveloped in a cloud of white smoke which lay -heavily on the water and completely covered the ship. The Chinese -vessels waited for the cloud to clear away and got their port guns -ready, but before the Yoshino became visible their fire was diverted by -a Japanese ship of the Matsusima type which came on the port quarter. -The guns which had been laid for the Yoshino were fired at this newcomer -with the result that she too began to burn. - -In the latter part of the battle the Chinese ironclads ran short of -common shell, and continued the action with steel shot, which proved -ineffective. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE ADVANCE AT THE CROSSING OF THE YALU RIVER.] - -An officer of the Japanese navy who was on one of the vessels in the -engagement, was sent to make a verbal report to the mikado, and related -some interesting details of the battle. He says that the fleet consisted -of eleven war ships and a steam packet, Saikio Maru, which had been -fitted up with guns as a cruiser, conveying Admiral Kabayama, the head -of the naval command bureau, on a tour of inspection. Here is what he -says about the latter boat: “It was our own turn next to suffer. The -Saikio Maru had worked her deck guns to the best of her ability, but she -was scarcely adapted for fighting in line against ironclads. Frequently -she was in imminent danger, the Chinese quickly perceiving that she was -a weak ship. A well placed shell from the Ting-Yuen pierced her side, -and exploding made a complete wreck of the steering gear as well as -doing other damage. She was put out of action, and pointed the best -course she could by means of her screws. But this was a poor makeshift, -and in trying to get away, she ran to within eighty metres distance of -the Ting-Yuen and Chen-Yuen, both these ships having starred in pursuit -of her at full speed. The two Chinese commanders evidently thought that -the Saikio Maru intended to ram them, for they sheered off and thus left -her room to escape. She went away southward at her best speed. The -Chinese discharged two fish torpedoes after her, but the projectiles -either passed underneath the ship’s keel or missed their direction. The -fire which had slackened during this incident, recommenced with -redoubled energy, but we still made better practice with our guns. The -Chao Yung was partially disabled, though she still fought on against two -of our cruisers who were closing upon her. The doomed vessel went astern -and settled down in shallow water. She was covered, but two-thirds of -her masts were visible, and the rigging was soon crowded with scores of -Chinese crying loudly to be saved. It was a pitiful sight, but the -fighting was too hot to allow us to help them. At the same moment the -Yang Wei was reported disabled. She retired slowly from the fighting -line rolling heavily, masses of dense smoke emerging from her. We had -suffered on our side, but not nearly to such an extent. A shell had -burst upon the flagship Matsusima, dismounting the forward quickfiring -gun, and killing a number of men. The gun too was flung violently -against the ship, doing considerable damage. The Matsusima had received -a great part of the Chinese fire throughout and this last disaster had -rendered her useless for further fighting. Her commander and first -lieutenant had been killed. One hundred and twenty of her men had been -killed or wounded; but the ship still floated. Admiral Ito and his staff -were transferred to the Hasidate and in a few minutes they were again in -the thick of the fight. - -[Illustration: THE MATSUSIMA.] - -[Illustration: H. SAKOMOTO, _Commander of the Akagi_.] - -“The Hiyei in the mean time had been receiving the fire of two powerful -Chinese vessels. She was manœuvered skillfully and returned their -fire, until a shell bursting within her set the woodwork in flames. A -second shell exploded in the sick-bay, killing a surgeon and his -assistant, and some of those who had been wounded earlier. The captain -was compelled to run her out of action, to extinguish the flames, and -this having been accomplished his wounded men were transferred to -another ship, and he steamed once more into line. The Yoshino had been -fought throughout in a magnificent manner. She steamed in advance of the -Hiyei when the latter was disabled and was backing out of line. She took -the enemy’s fire, and replied with the greatest spirit. She was hit -frequently, and her forward barbette was damaged, but her injuries can -soon be repaired. The Chinese used their torpedo boats at times and -incessant care was necessary to avoid their projectiles. On our war -ship, the Akagi, the captain was aloft in the tops watching especially -for torpedo movements and signalling by flags directly they were -detected. He was in this position when the mast was shot away, and the -top-hamper fell with a crash upon the deck. The captain and two lookout -men were killed. The first lieutenant took command and fought the ship -till darkness stopped the action. Towards the close of the day dense -smoke was seen issuing from the war ships Ting-Yuen, King-Yuen, and -Ping-Yuen, and it was believed by us that all were on fire. Great -confusion prevailed on board them, but they did not retire from action. -Firing was still kept up intermittently on the Chinese side, though the -guns of many of their ships were silenced. At sundown the Chinese -squadron was in full retreat. We took a parallel course intending to -renew the battle in the morning. The night was dark, the speed was only -equal to that of our slowest damaged ship, and we were compelled to keep -at some distance from their course on account of their torpedo flotilla, -which might have attempted a night attack. We lost sight of the enemy -during the night. At dawn we endeavored to discover their position, but -failed. The Chinese squadron must have reached protected shelter. Then -we returned to the scene of the action, and found that the war ship Yang -Wei, which had been disabled when the battle was half over, had been run -ashore. Her crew had abandoned her. We fired one fish torpedo and -completed her destruction. This was the only torpedo fired by the -Japanese either in the action or after it.” - -From a concensus of the opinions of eye witnesses, it appears that the -Chinese were at least as anxious to continue the fight as were the -Japanese. Before five o’clock the Japanese ceased firing. It was -observed that the distance between the fleets was rapidly increasing and -the Chinese failed to diminish it. The Chinese then saw the Japanese -change course in a westerly direction towards the islands of Yang-tao -and Hai-yung-tao. The Celestials followed them for an hour, and saw the -course changed again to a southerly direction, while some of the ships -of the second Japanese division that had vanished earlier in the fight -now joined those of the first. By this time nothing but the smoke of the -withdrawing fleet was visible and the Chinese returned. They were joined -by the ships which had been partially disabled but were still in -condition to proceed, and altogether withdrew towards Port Arthur. A -message was sent to the transports from which the troops had disembarked -on the banks of the Yalu river, ordering them to weigh anchor and follow -the fleet. - -It is evident that there remained room for each side to claim the -victory in this naval battle. The Chinese succeeded in disembarking the -troops, which was the avowed object of their expedition. They fought -brilliantly, inflicting considerable damage upon their opponents, and -assert that the battle was terminated against their will by the -withdrawal of the Japanese vessels. - -The Mikado’s men on the other hand, destroyed several of the best battle -ships in the Chinese navy with great loss of life to the crews, and -plead that the Chinese withdrew from them. The truth probably is that -each fleet was so damaged and the men so exhausted with the long contest -that they were mutually willing to quit. Inasmuch as casual spectators -of impartial mind are not in a position to observe the details of a -battle royal of this sort, it seems that the decision must be left -unsettled except as the destruction of so many Chinese vessels may be -certainly credited as a victory for the Japanese. The withdrawal of the -Chinese fleet towards Port Arthur, and its previous inactivity seem to -be partially responsible for the handing over of Corea to the Japanese, -giving them first the advantage of possession in the invaded country. - -The peculiar constitution of the Chinese navy is partially an -explanation of the discipline prevailing. The navy is not properly an -imperial or even a national force. The four fleets are provincial -squadrons raised, equipped, and maintained by the viceroys or governors -of the maritime provinces to which they are attached. No arrangement -could possibly be more unsuited for the purpose of naval war, and to it -may be partially attributed the previous inaction of the Chinese fleet -while their numerically inferior antagonists were using the sea at will. -Stirred up at length, doubtless by peremptory orders from Peking, the -Chinese admiral, in place of throwing his whole strength into a decisive -operation, seems to have committed himself to a subsidiary objective. -Naval history teems with examples of the drawbacks that inevitably -result from being thus led away. To have attacked the Japanese when -convoying troops to Chemulpo, or to have fought a naval battle at -Chemulpo or Ping-Yang inlet might have led to important results. In -place of adopting such a course, the Chinese utilized their fleet for -the first time in convoying troops to the mouth of the Yalu river in the -north-east corner of the bay of Corea. The great difficulty experienced -in advancing overland from Manchooria doubtless suggested this plan, but -the object at best was purely secondary. And with the fleet scattered -and partially destroyed it would seem that the troops, both artillery -and infantry, with their stores landed at the mouth of the Yalu river, -would be practically helpless so far from support or a base of supplies. - -The Japanese fleet which met that of China in the battle of the Yalu -river was composed as follows: The Matsusima, Itsukusima and the -Hasidate, each of four thousand two hundred and seventy-seven tons -displacement and seventeen and one-half knots; the Takachiho and the -Naniwa, each of three thousand six hundred and fifty tons, and eighteen -and seven-tenths knots; the Akitsushima, of three thousand one hundred -and fifty tons, and Chiyoda, of two thousand four hundred and fifty -tons, and each nineteen knots; the Yoshino, of four thousand one hundred -and fifty tons and twenty-three knots; the Fuso, three thousand seven -hundred and eighteen tons, and the Hiyei, two thousand two hundred tons, -each thirteen knots; the Akagi six hundred and fifteen tons, and twelve -knots; beside the Saikio Maru, a steam packet fitted as a cruiser and -four torpedo boats. It will be seen that in numbers the fleets were -about equal. But in tonnage the Chinese fleet was superior, having -several vessels larger than any of the Japanese, while on the other hand -the speed of the Japanese vessels averaged very much above that of the -Chinese. The armament too of the Japanese fleet was superior to that of -the Chinese, being composed more largely of quickfiring guns. In type -the vessels of the opposing squadrons differed considerably. While six -of the Chinese ships had side armor, only one Japanese vessel was thus -protected; and while ten Chinese ships had protection of some form, only -eight Japanese carried any armor. - -The Japanese had the advantage of their opponents in speed, but to a -less extent than might be expected. The number of knots shown for each -ship in the lists was of course the best possible, and is equally -delusive for both sides. Notwithstanding, the Japanese had so much the -greater speed that they were able to steam around their opponents to -some extent. There are some lessons to be drawn from this battle by -those who have wondered what the result of a contest between the modern -war ships would be. The Chinese made one attempt to ram, and discharged -one torpedo from a ship and three from a boat. The attempt to ram -resulted in desperate damage, though not in destruction to the ship -attacked. The rammer herself was afterwards sunk, it was believed by gun -fire. All the torpedoes discharged were ineffective. The Japanese tried -to use neither the ram nor the torpedo. Beside the Chih-Yuen, the -Lai-Yuen and Chao Yung were sunk by shot and the Yang Wei was run -aground to avoid foundering in deep water. The Japanese flag ship -Matsusima was so severely injured that Admiral Ito had to shift his flag -to the Hasidate. The Hiyei was forced out of action for a time, and the -armed packet steamer Saikio Maru had to go out of action altogether. The -mast of the Akagi was shot away, and by the fall killed the captain and -two men, all of whom were on the top. Such being the variety of the -ships engaged, important lessons are forthcoming from this first great -modern naval battle. Many theories fondly beloved and eagerly proclaimed -have had to be abandoned for their holders to fall back upon the old and -well tested principles of naval war. The gun has maintained its position -as a weapon to which all others are merely accessories. The best -protection, as Farragut pointed out, is a powerful and well directed -fire. Stupendous losses, unimaginable destruction, have been confidently -predicted as a necessary result of a naval battle fought with modern -weapons. This did not prove to be the case, and the damage inflicted in -the five or six hours’ fighting at the mouth of the Yalu might have -occurred in the days of the '74s. Allowance must be made for the -probable defects in the Chinese gunnery practice, but their seamen -fought like heroes, and greater endurance than was shown on either side -can never be expected. The accuracy of naval fire is always -over-estimated in time of peace. The disablement of the heavy guns of -the Chen-Yuen and her continued fighting with her light armament are a -useful object lesson. This vessel like many others was built solely with -a view to carry her four thirty-seven ton guns. The remaining armament -was doubtless distributed promiscuously as space offered. Both barbettes -were quickly disabled, and machinery gave place to man power. On board -ship, as on land, it is the man who ultimately counts, even though in -time of peace he is often forgotten. - -From this survey of the characteristics of the two fleets, it may be -perceived that each fairly represented a different principle. The -principle represented by the Chinese was that advocated by the school -which puts matter above mind, for their fleet contained the biggest -ships, the less numerous but heaviest guns, and the most extensive -torpedo armament. The principle of which the Japanese may be taken as -the representative is that of a school which appeals to history and -experience, and not to theories evolved out of the inner consciousness -of people without practical knowledge of the sea, and which maintains -that the human factor is both the most important and the unchanging -factor in war, which must in its broader features remain much what it -has always been. - -Whatever the claims of victory made by the opposing forces, the fact -remains that Admiral Ito stayed at sea with the Japanese fleet and that -the damages were repaired as fast as possible on board the ships; while -the Chinese went into port, where their repairs could be made in safety -and at leisure. Japan unquestionably had command of the sea. The menace -which operated successfully in the early stages of the war was changed -for the prestige of a great moral and material victory. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE INFANTRY ATTACKING A CHINESE POSITION.] - - - - - JAPAN'S FORWARD MOVEMENT IN COREA. - - -------------- - -Effects of the Battles of Ping-Yang and the Yalu River—How the Two -Nations Received the News—Withdrawal of the Chinese Fleet—Armies Moving -North to the Boundary—Li Hung Chang Losing His Rank and -Influence—Possible Destination of the New Japanese Army—Prince -Kung—Chinese Driven out of Several Positions in the North of -Corea—Abandoning the Peninsula—Danger to Foreigners in China—Captain Von -Hannecken—The Japanese Advance into Manchooria. - - -The effects of the battles of Ping-Yang and the Yalu River upon the -governments and peoples of the two belligerent nations were -characteristic. Japan was the scene of rejoicings most hearty in every -city and village of the empire. Congratulations were sent from the -emperor to the commanders of the military and naval forces, and -memorials complimentary to them were voted by the Japanese parliament. -Additional levies of troops were made and hurried into Corea, with the -intention that the war should be prosecuted with renewed vigor. - -In China, on the other hand, the dazed government was scarcely able to -realize what had happened. Reports were made to the emperor which caused -him to declare that the defeat was merely the result of the cowardice of -his commanders, and that they must be punished for the losses. The -emperor at once began to contemplate a change of counsellors, and the -dismissal of all mandarins and others who had been concerned in the -conduct of the war. Li Hung Chang’s position in imperial favor began to -waver. The captain of the cruiser Kwang Kai was beheaded for cowardice. -At the battle of the Yalu River he saw one of the enemy’s ships -approaching to attack him, and immediately turned and fled with his -vessel as rapidly as possible. He intended to escape to Port Arthur, but -as he was endeavoring to shape a course thither which would keep him out -of range of the enemy’s guns, he ran the vessel ashore and she became a -total wreck. - -The Coreans, except those under the immediate influence of the home -government, were not yet willing to accept the Japanese influence for -that of China, which had been so strong throughout their lives. A body -of two thousand Japanese left Fusan just before the battle of Ping-Yang, -to march to Seoul. Their advance was, however, opposed by the Coreans, -who harassed them continually by a guerilla warfare. The Japanese lost -heavily, and were compelled to return to Fusan, having lost nearly half -of their number. Two thousand fresh troops were immediately sent to that -port from Japan to guard the neighboring settlements, where some three -thousand Japanese permanently resided. Another uprising of the armed -Tonghaks, whose rebellion had been one of the first features of the war, -was apprehended. - -The remnant of the Chinese fleet sought refuge after the battle of the -Yalu river under the protection of the Port Arthur forts, where they -were soon locked up by Japanese ships which patrolled the neighboring -waters, preventing the exit of Chinese vessels. The Chinese army -defeated at Ping-Yang fled to Wi-ju, at the apex of the most northerly -angle of the Bay of Corea, on the Corean side of the mouth of the Yalu -River. About seven thousand Chinese troops had been landed there from -the transports which were escorted by the Chinese squadron engaged in -the battle at the mouth of the river. The governor of Manchooria began -to concentrate all the troops raised in that province upon Mukden and -the route between that city and Wi-ju, and extensive earthworks were -thrown up along the road. - -It was believed by the Chinese that Mukden would be the scene of the -next great battle of the war. This famous Manchoo city possessed a -political and dynastic importance, which might easily render its -downfall decisive for the war, irrespective of all strategic -considerations. It was the sacred city of the royal house, the ancestral -home of the reigning family of China. It contained the tomb of many of -the emperor’s august ancestors, and accordingly was invested in the eyes -of all good Chinamen with a halo of sanctity reflected on the Lord of -the Dragon Throne himself. The capture of the city in which so many sons -of heaven had found sepulchres would be accepted throughout the empire -as an omen that the present occupant of the royal seat was not worthy of -divine protection, and such omens, in days of disastrous wars, are often -fulfilled with remarkable celerity. As the politicians about the court -were perfectly aware of what the consequences of the fall of Mukden -would be, it was natural that they should take every precaution to -prevent such a catastrophe. Furthermore, in Mukden the Chinese emperor -was supposed to have gold and silver accumulated in the course of two -centuries, to the amount of $1,200,000,000. - -Mukden is only one hundred and fifty miles from Wi-ju, with which place -the Manchoo city was connected by a road, comparatively good for China, -as it had been the main route to Peking, and even the Chinese recognized -its strategic importance by running telegraph wires along it. It is easy -to see why the Chinese began to increase the fortifications of the -sacred city, and why they made a stand at Wi-ju in the hope of -interrupting the Japanese advance. - -[Illustration: PRINCIPAL STREET OF MUKDEN.] - -The levies of troops concentrating upon Wi-ju, Mukden, and the -intervening territory were hardy men from the north, of excellent -material to be worked into soldiers, but they were badly armed. Only -about four thousand had good rifles, but further supplies were being -hurried up from the southern arsenals. The Chinese force intrenched upon -the Yalu River was about thirty-eight thousand, including the troops -that had escaped from the Ping-Yang defeat to fall back upon Wi-ju. Many -of the forces which they found there were also raw levies, badly armed. -The loss of field guns, rifles, and ammunition at Ping-Yang greatly -embarrassed the Chinese war department. It was recognized that a battle -must be fought at the river, and it was earnestly desired to retrieve -the disaster of Ping-Yang. - -It was immediately after the series of defeats in Corea that the effort -began to be made by the enemies of Li Hung Chang to find a means for his -degradation. Even two weeks before the battle of Ping-Yang, the -government at Peking appointed two officers to act as censors of his -proceedings, and especially of his conduct of the war. One of these -officials was a notorious enemy of the viceroy. The censors at first -contented themselves with taking note of Li Hung Chang’s actions and -movements. Immediately after the news of the disaster at Ping-Yang -reached Peking, the emperor was persuaded that the defeat of his army -was due to the mismanagement of the viceroy. The intrigue was completely -successful, and on the morning of September 18, an imperial edict was -issued depriving Li Hung Chang of his three-eyed peacock feather, the -reason assigned for the disgrace being incapacity and negligence in -making preparations for the war. Much sympathy was expressed for the -viceroy, who was thus made the scapegoat for the disasters. The real -responsibility rested with the Tsung-li Yamen, which had been making war -with an inadequate force inefficiently organized and hampered by -tradition. Li was not a member of the Grand Council, but it was sought -to make him responsible for its blunders. - -[Illustration: CHINESE TROOPS FLYING TO SAVE THEIR ARTILLERY.] - -Within a few days after the Corean engagements, another Japanese army -was mobilized at Hiroshima for service in the field. The destination of -this fresh expeditionary force of thirty thousand men was kept a secret, -nothing being known except that another effective blow was contemplated -by General Kawakami, the Von Moltke of Japan. The sea-going fleet of -China was practically paralyzed for the time, and the Japanese were free -to transport a force in any direction. The island of Hai-yung-tao, in -Corea Bay, had been made a coaling station for the Japanese fleet, thus -enabling the Japanese torpedo boats to keep a constant watch at the -mouth of the Gulf of Pechili and secure advance warning of offensive or -defensive operations. It was believed that Count Yamagata favored an -attack upon Niuchwang from the sea. This city in the possession of the -Japanese would form a base for a movement upon Mukden or upon Peking -itself, and the forces landed there could co-operate with the army -advancing from Corea. A second possible destination for the new force -was Peking itself. It was believed that an army of that size could reach -the capital by disembarking at a point on the coast about half way -between Taku, the city at the mouth of the Peiho River, on which Peking -is situated, and Niu-chwang. - -[Illustration: TRANSPORTING CHINESE TROOPS.] - -The third alternative was an expedition to Formosa. The island had -hitherto remained outside the sphere of operations, and Chinese troops -from the southern provinces had been transported there in considerable -number. This movement of forces had been interrupted only by the wreck -of one steamer, and the necessary caution required to avoid a collision -with Japanese cruisers, which at times patrolled that portion of the -China sea. There were probably fifteen thousand men in the island, drawn -in part from the Black Flags, and excellent in quality, but lacking in -military training and even arms and equipment. The natural wealth of -Formosa was known to be considerable, and its geographical position from -a commercial point of view immensely important, so that there were good -reasons to believe this a possible destination for the forces. - -It is interesting to note the general order issued by the Japanese -minister of war September 22, to the troops which were about to take the -field, and to the others which were already in active service. It went -far to prove to the civilized world, whose eyes were upon the operations -of the war, that it was the desire of the Japanese authorities to -conduct their hostilities with as much consideration for the humanities -as is ever possible in war. The order was as follows: - -“Belligerent operations being properly confined to the military and -naval forces actually engaged, and there being no reason whatever for -enmity between individuals because their countries are at war, the -common principles of humanity dictate that succor and rescue should be -extended, even to those of the enemy’s forces who are disabled either by -wounds or disease. In obedience to these principles, civilized nations -in time of peace enter into conventions to mutually assist disabled -persons in time of war, without distinction of friend or foe. This human -union is called the Geneva convention, or more commonly the Red Cross -association. Japan became a party to it in June, 1886, and her soldiers -have already been instructed that they are bound to treat with kindness -and helpfulness such of their enemies as may be disabled by wounds or -disease. China not having joined any such convention, it is possible -that her soldiers, ignorant of these enlightened principles, may subject -diseased or wounded Japanese to merciless treatment. Against such -contingencies, the Japanese troops must be on their guard. But at the -same time they must never forget that however cruel and vindictive the -foe may show himself, he must nevertheless be treated in accordance with -the acknowledged rules of civilization, his disabled succored, his -captured kindly and considerately protected. It is not alone to those -disabled by wounds or sickness that merciful and gentle treatment should -be extended. Similar treatment is also due to those who offer no -resistance to our arms; even the body of a dead enemy should be treated -with respect. We cannot too much admire the course pursued by a certain -western nation which in handing over the body of an enemy’s general, -complied with all the rites and ceremonies suitable to the rank of the -dead man. Japanese soldiers should always bear in mind the gracious -benevolence of their august sovereign, and should not be more anxious to -display courage than to exercise charity. They have now an opportunity -to afford practical proof of the value they attach to these principles.” - -[Illustration: JAPANESE MILITARY HOSPITAL.] - -At the very time that these actions were occurring in Japan, measures of -increased severity were being taken in China to punish those who were -supposed to be responsible for the defeat. The emperor and his -counsellors were in a state of alternate terror and indignation, at the -break down of the war arrangements and the possibility of a Japanese -invasion. The emperor declared that the recent defeats could only have -been caused by incompetence, or corruption, or both, among those charged -with the conduct of the war, and the enemies of Li Hung Chang sedulously -encouraged this mood. The viceroy himself remained to all appearances -entirely unmoved. He made no preparation to proceed to the headquarters -of the army in the field as it had been reported he would do, and it was -believed that he would not leave Tien-tsin as long as his enemy had the -ear of the emperor. - -As Chinese fortunes went down, and admirals and generals and princes -lost their high standing in the good graces of the emperor, other -officials rose in favor to take their place. The personality of some of -these men is peculiarly interesting because of the intimate connection -and high authority they had from this time in the conduct of the war. - -On the 30th of September an imperial decree was issued, appointing -Prince Kung, the emperor’s uncle, and the presidents of the Tsung-li -Yamen and the Admiralty, as a special committee to conduct the war -operations in co-operation with Li Hung Chang. - -Prince Kung, whose proper title was Kung-tsin-wang, or the Reverend -Kindred Prince, whom the emperor of China brought back to honor from -retirement and disgrace by appointing him co-director with Li Hung Chang -of the war arrangements, was a man who in the past had played a very -important part in the history of China. At the outbreak of the war he -was some sixty-three years of age, having been born about 1831. He was a -man of great vigor and determination of character, and was possessed of -abilities of a very high order. Prince Kung was the sixth son of Emperor -Tankwang, who died in 1850. His personal name, which was used only by -his family, was Yih-hu, while the people called him Wu-ako, or the Fifth -Elder Brother. Prince Kung came to the front first in 1860, when Emperor -Hien Feng the son of Tankwang fled from Peking, on the advance of the -allied armies of Great Britain and France. At this critical moment the -former returned to the capital, assumed the reins of government, and -entered into negotiations with the allies. Having accepted their -ultimatum, he surrendered the northeast gate, which commanded the city, -on October 13, and eleven days later the treaty of Peking was signed by -him and Lord Elgin. - -[Illustration: REVIEW OF CHINESE TROOPS AT PORT ARTHUR.] - -The following year Emperor Hien Feng died, leaving a son as heir, whose -age was only five years. Four of Prince Kung’s elder brothers were -already dead, and the fifth had lost his position in Emperor Tankwang’s -household by being adopted into the family of another emperor. There was -thus no one to claim precedence of him as the first prince of blood -royal, during the minority of Tung-chi, the new emperor. A conspiracy -had, however, been formed against him, with which he found it necessary -to grapple immediately. The late emperor had left the administration of -affairs practically in the hands of a council of eight, of whom Prince I -was at the head. This council had decided upon a plan of action for -seizing the reins of power. They proposed to obtain possession of the -emperor’s person, to put the empress-regents out of the way, and to kill -Prince Kung and his two surviving brothers. Prince Kung, however, was -not to be found napping. Having received news of the plot, he at once -took measures to prevent its successful accomplishment, by carrying off -the young emperor to Peking. The conspirators were then arrested and -brought to trial. The Princes I and Chin, being of the blood royal, were -permitted to take the “happy dispatch.” The rest of the conspirators -were either beheaded or banished. Thus did Prince Kung save from -destruction the reigning dynasty of China. - -For his great services he was at once proclaimed “Regent Prince,” and in -conjunction with the two empress-regents assumed the government of -China. He immediately adopted a vigorous policy in dealing with the -Tai-Ping rebels, which was crowned with success. After Colonel Gordon’s -capture of Suchow, at the head of his ever victorious army, Prince Kung -bestowed upon him a medal and ten thousand taels, which were refused. -Prince Kung also successfully put down the Mohammedan rising in Yun-nan -and Kan-pu, and opened up diplomatic intercourse with European powers. -Prince Kung’s determination not to accept the gunboats purchased in 1861 -nearly led to serious results, and cost England $5,000,000. This crucial -period was followed by another in 1870 when the Tien-tsin massacre -occurred. In all these events Prince Kung showed that he possessed the -gifts of a great statesman. When Emperor Tung-chi died childless in -1875, the choice of a successor to the dragon throne lay between -Tsai-ching, the son of Prince Kung, and Tsai-tien, the son of Prince -Chun, his younger brother. As the election of the former would have -compelled the retirement of Prince Kung from active participation in the -government of China, and as a continuance of his services was a matter -of absolute necessity for his country, Tsai-ching was passed over in -favor of Tsai-tien, a child of only four years of age, who adopted the -name of Kwang-Su, or illustrious successor. Prince Kung, however, -continued to act as regent of the country. The present emperor assumed -the reigns of power in 1887, and subsequently he dismissed with disgrace -the man whom he was afterwards pleased to honor, and who had rendered to -China and the reigning dynasty such services as ought never to be -forgotten. - -When the Chinese fled from Ping-Yang towards Wi-ju they left behind them -nearly a million dollars in treasure, thirty-six guns, two thousand -tents, one thousand three hundred horses, and a considerable quantity of -rice and other stores. Hard pressed by the pursuing Japanese, they -abandoned their remaining four guns at An-ju, a town some seventy-five -miles north of Ping-Yang. Thirty miles farther on, at Chong-ju, an -important provincial town, they made a temporary halt, having received -orders to hold the place pending the arrival of large reinforcements -from the north. But the pursuit was too hot, and Chong-ju was evacuated -without fighting. The next stand attempted to be made was at Ngan, where -the troops were reinforced by orders from Shin-King, the province in -which Mukden is situated. For a few days it was prophesied that the -decisive battle of the war would be fought there, but the Chinese again -abandoned their position and fell back upon Kaichan. - -The Japanese army, while pushing forward towards Manchooria, showed the -greatest consideration in their dealings with the Coreans, and any -attempt at robbery or outrage on the part of the soldiery was most -severely punished. The private soldiers were under the strictest orders -to pay cash for everything that they obtained from the natives, and -pains were taken to see that they should carry out their instructions. -The result was that the Coreans began to appreciate that the Japanese -were better friends to them than were the Chinese. The latter had been -very severe in their exactions of supplies from the populace, and even -though the Corean sympathies had been with the Chinese, the common -people objected to the expense of quartering the army without -recompense. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE SOLDIERS DIGGING A WELL.] - -On the 4th of October the main portion of the advance Japanese column -reached Yong-chon, a little to the south of Wi-ju, after the difficult -march from Ping-Yang, retarded by an extensive commissariat department -and many guns. No sign of the enemy was reported at this place. Four -days later, scouts reported that a small Chinese force still occupied -Wi-ju, and a detachment of Japanese infantry and cavalry was thrown -forward, supported by light artillery, to dislodge them. The Chinese -offered but a slight resistance and fled precipitately before the smart -attack, finally succeeding in getting across the Yalu. The larger body -of Chinese troops had withdrawn across the river before this time, so -that the forces remaining in Corea numbered not more than two thousand. -Their loss in killed and wounded probably did not exceed one hundred. -Wi-ju was occupied by the Japanese on the same day, and on the day after -they began a reconnoissance which revealed the fact that the Chinese -were still in force in the northern bank of the river. Eight intrenched -batteries were discovered, and the enemy were rapidly throwing up fresh -earthworks and building new batteries. Obviously the next fight was to -be expected at this place, and if the Chinese held their grounds it -would be a sanguinary one. - -Marshal Yamagata still maintained his base at Ping-Yang, as being more -convenient for securing his supplies by sea, while General Nodzu -remained in advance with the forces. The Japanese line of communication -was now complete throughout Corea, a sufficient number of troops being -scattered through the peninsula at Fusan, Asan, Chemulpo, Seoul, Gensan, -and Ping-Yang to guard against any hostilities on the part of the -natives, and to make reinforcement by land safe. The government of Wi-ju -was placed in the hands of a Japanese officer acting as special -commissioner. The field telegraph was established in working order -within two days after the capture of the place, and a regular courier -service to the rear was inaugurated at once. - -At the same time two or three detached revolts were in progress, the -most important one being that of the Togakuto rebels in the province of -Kiung-sang. These rebels were still in arms and in the mountain -fastnesses it was hard to get near them. They had with them fifty -Chinese soldiers who escaped when the Chinese were defeated at Asan and -then joined the rebels. Those who had taken up arms against the corrupt -Corean officials in the Province of Chung-chong had been dispersed, -however, and the more formidable ones were now being gradually hemmed -in. - -When the middle of October came, the two armies were still facing each -other on the banks of the Yalu. The Chinese had not yet fired a shot but -kept at work night and day improving the natural advantages of their -position. On the Japanese side there was no desire unduly to hurry the -fighting, Marshal Yamagata choosing to wait for his heavier artillery -and supplies before attacking. Spies kept him admirably informed as to -the movements of the enemy, their defenses, and their artillery. They -estimated the total strength of the Chinese massed along the north bank -of the Yalu as between twenty-five and thirty thousand. - -While the two armies are thus facing one another across the Yalu River, -the Chinese having been driven from their last foothold in Corea, let us -turn to the condition of affairs in the capitals of the two nations. The -enemies of Li Hung Chang in Peking were busy in their efforts to cast -disgrace upon him. Sheng, the taotai or chief magistrate of Tien-tsin, -fell into disgrace and it was immediately alleged that he was a nephew -of Li Hung Chang’s and that the latter was probably a sharer in the -results of his dishonesty. Just before the war broke out Sheng was -commissioned to purchase arms and ammunition for the imperial troops, to -be distributed to them as they arrived from the interior on the way to -Corea. Rifles and cartridges were duly purchased, and nearly all were -served out to the troops. As soon as they were put to the test of actual -service they were found to be almost worthless, and strong complaints -were sent to Peking and Tien-tsin. Li Hung Chang himself conducted an -inquiry, and learned therefrom that Sheng bought from German agents -three hundred thousand rifles of obsolete pattern, part of the discarded -weapons, in fact, of more than one European army. The contract price of -these rifles as between Sheng and the German sellers was two taels each, -but the price charged by Sheng to the imperial treasury was nine taels -each. The cartridges were of very inferior quality and of various -pattern, and Sheng made a large profit on them also. After Sheng’s guilt -was proven upon him by the viceroy, he retired to his palace and for a -time was seen no more in public. It was stated semi-officially that he -applied for and was granted leave of absence on the ground of ill -health. But a few days later it was reported that he was again enjoying -the authority of his office, having been sustained against Li’s wishes -by some of the viceroy’s enemies. Li’s enemies became bolder and bolder. -Placards denouncing him as the cause of China’s troubles were posted on -the walls of Tien-tsin and children in the streets sang doggerel songs -ridiculing and insulting the great viceroy. - -The foreigners resident in Peking and Tien-tsin became very restless -under the impending invasion of China by the Japanese. Assaults on -foreigners in Peking and its environs, which have been of constant -occurrence during the last ten years, increased in frequency and -gravity. Several English and American families withdrew to Shanghai -because of the prevalence of street rowdyism. Tien-tsin was full of -troops from the interior, but nearly all of them were the merest rabble, -wretchedly clad, mutinous through lack of pay and insufficient rations, -and useless for real war because of their antiquated weapons. Their -continued presence in Tien-tsin was a distinct danger alike to Chinese -and Europeans. An imperial edict published in Peking assumed full -responsibility for the protection of foreign residents, denounced -rowdyism, and ordered the punishment of certain culprits who had -assaulted travelers. It assured the strangers the protection of their -persons and their property, and was especially favorable to -missionaries. The whole tone of the edict was considered highly -satisfactory, and yet the government had failed to punish those who were -responsible for the assaults and had taken no cognizance of the murder -of a missionary, except to permit the governor of the province where the -crime was committed to retain his high position. - -A rebellion broke out in the district of Jeho, in the province of Chihli -early in October, consequent on the rumored invasion of the Japanese. -The imperial summer residence was in this city. Another Chinese -rebellion broke out in the province of Hoopih about one hundred miles -from Hankow. The local authorities attempted to quell the first rising -but failed. Some of their soldiers were killed and others joined the -rebels. Two mandarins lost their lives. In consequence of the urgent -demands of the imperial authorities the province had been quite denuded -of troops and there was practically no means at the command of the -authorities to keep them in check. The Europeans at Hankow were -seriously alarmed and many of them withdrew to Shanghai. - -The emperor of China, early in October, began to take the initiative, -attempting to infuse new energy into the national defense. It was indeed -reported that he had disguised himself, and in person visited Tien-tsin, -accompanied only by a few trusted servants, in order to see for himself -what was going on, and particularly to learn the truth as to the alleged -incapacity of Li Hung Chang to carry on the arrangements for the war. It -was not, however, the emperor who made the journey in disguise, but his -former tutor and trusted adviser Weng Toung Ho, the President of the -Board of Revenue, or Finance Department. He also went to Port Arthur, -Wei-hai-wei, and other places, and thoroughly informed himself of the -state of affairs, civil, naval, and military. On returning to Peking he -made an exhaustive report to the emperor, upon which the latter -immediately began to take more interest in public affairs. He declined -to sign documents until they had been previously read and explained to -him, and called for special reports from the naval and military -commanders. His next act was to summon to Peking the viceroys and -governors of provinces, to receive from them accounts of the steps taken -to comply with the demands of the imperial government, and to obtain -from them their views as to the state of affairs. It was believed -however by foreigners most able to judge that throughout all these -actions the dowager empress of China was the active power in control. It -was also believed that she was really a friend to Li Hung Chang, and -that he would not suffer ultimate destruction unless she turned against -him. - -[Illustration: CONSTANTINE VON HANNECKEN.] - -Another important action taken by the emperor was to confer the highest -grade of the Order of the Double Dragon upon Captain Von Hannecken for -his services at the naval battle of the Yalu River and to place him -under practically sole control of the naval forces of China. - -Constantine von Hannecken, the German officer who was put in supreme -control of what was left of the Chinese navy, had already seen a great -deal of service in the war with Japan before his promotion to that post. -He was on board the Kow-shing when she was overhauled and sunk by the -Japanese cruiser Naniwa-Kan, with a loss of more than a thousand Chinese -soldiers. Von Hannecken was left struggling in the water when the -Kow-shing sank, but had the rare good fortune to be picked up by a boat. -Still more recently he was high in command of the Chinese fleet at the -disastrous battle of the Yalu River. He was slightly wounded but was -soon ready for action again. This brave man was born in Wiesbaden, -Germany, in 1854, and was a son of the late Lieutenant-General von -Hannecken. He served the usual term in the German army, and in 1879 went -to China, where he was soon high in favor with Li Hung Chang. He -mastered the Chinese language in a single year. His technical military -knowledge, amiability, and tact, gained for him the position of personal -adjutant to Li Hung Chang, with a large salary. He devoted much of his -time to the construction of bridges and forts, and the fortifications at -Port Arthur and Wei-hai-wei were built under his personal direction. He -was rapidly promoted to the highest military places within the gift of -Li Hung Chang and the government, and received buttons, feathers, and -jackets galore. - -About a year before the outbreak of the war, having grown rich in the -service of the dragon throne, he resigned from the Chinese army and -returned to his home in Germany. After a stay of a few months he sailed -again for China with the intention of settling his affairs there and -retiring to Germany. The war with Japan changed this plan, and he -promptly reëntered the service of China. - -[Illustration: - - THE ATTACK ON PORT ARTHUR. - Japanese Drawing. -] - -Admiral Ting and Captain Von Hannecken visited Wei-hai-wei to examine -its defenses, and satisfied themselves that the harbor was practically -impregnable from the sea. Japanese war vessels continually patrolled all -parts of the Gulf of Pechili, and were frequently seen from Port Arthur, -Chefoo and Wei-hai-wei. The Japanese fleet was also sighted several -times ten miles off Shan-hai-kwan, less than two hundred miles from -Peking. - -The main body of the Chinese army was now entrenched in a strong -position protected by a line of rectangular forts newly constructed -across the northeast border of the province of Chihli. The Manchoos were -held in reserve nearer Tien-tsin than Peking. Sung Kwei, the emperor’s -father-in-law, was in command of five thousand picked Manchoo soldiers -at Shan-hai-kwan, which was a city of great strategic importance, the -starting point of a great highroad to Peking from the coast. - -General Sung, formerly commander of Port Arthur, was appointed to be -Generalissimo of the Pei-Yang army corps in manchooria and Chief -Commander of the Manchoo levies, with the exception of the Kirin -division, which remained under the command of the Tartar general. The -Chinese headquarters were established at Chiu-lien-tcheng. Generals Yeh -and Wei were degraded by imperial edict. - -On the 15th of October the newly-elected Japanese Diet met for a short -preliminary session at Hiroshima, where the mikado had established his -headquarters. The election of officers was immediately proceeded with, -Mr. Kusumoto being chosen president, and Mr. Shimada vice-president. The -formal opening of the Parliament took place two days later. The mikado -in his speech announced that he had decided to convene an extraordinary -session, and had given direction to his ministers to submit for the -deliberation of the Diet a bill providing for increased expenditure for -the army and navy, which was an important matter. His Majesty declared -that he was greatly pained that China should have forgotten her duties -in regard to the maintenance of peace in the east in conjunction with -Japan, she having brought about the present state of affairs. “However,” -proceeded the emperor, “as hostilities have begun we shall not stop -until we have obtained our utmost objects.” In conclusion, His Majesty -expressed the hope that all subjects of the empire would co-operate with -the government, in order to promote the restoration of peace by means of -the great triumph of the Japanese arms. - -The president of the two chambers of the Diet presented an address in -reply to the speech from the throne, thanking the mikado for advancing -the imperial standard and for personally assuming the direction of the -war. The victories which had been secured by the Japanese arms by land -and sea were the natural result. The address in conclusion said: “His -Majesty rightly considers China the enemy of civilization. We will -comply with the imperial desire to destroy the barbarous obstinacy of -that power.” - -In the House of Peers, on October 19, Count Ito, the premier, made an -elaborate speech in support of the government measures for meeting the -expenses of the war, and defended Japan against the charge of having -precipitated the hostilities. He narrated in detail the circumstances -which had led up to the war, and read the correspondence which had -passed between the mikado’s government and the authorities at Peking, -before the rupture of diplomatic relations. The premier’s statement made -a great impression, and intensified the keenly patriotic feeling -manifested by the members of the Diet, not a dissenting voice being -raised against the ministerial bills. The following day the war budget -of 150,000,000 yen passed both houses unanimously. This was the most -important part of the proceedings of Parliament. The two houses fully -demonstrated that they desired to hold up the hands of the government, -and grant everything which might be asked to insure the success of the -Japanese arms. - -Simultaneously with the opening of Parliament an important diplomatic -move was made by the Japanese. Now that Japan was practically in -undisputed possession of Corea, the moment was considered opportune for -the carrying out of those thorough reforms in the internal government of -the country, to which Japanese statesmen looked forward as the best -guarantee against foreign influence in the future. In order to -strengthen the hands of Mr. Otori, the Japanese minister at Seoul, the -emperor selected Count Inouye, minister of the interior, to proceed to -the Corean capital to act as special adviser to Mr. Otori. - -The Japanese Parliament had occasion to welcome an important Corean -messenger. The second son of the peninsular monarch left Chemulpo on the -day the session began, as a special envoy to the mikado, returning the -visit made to the king by the Marquis Sainonji. The young prince and his -embassy, consisting of eight leading nobles, were received by the mikado -and his principal ministers, being welcomed most cordially. - -Just prior to the opening of the session, the British government -addressed a circular note to the ministers of the great powers, -suggesting intervention in the affairs of the east. The Chinese were in -readiness to make terms of peace, conscious of the enormous sacrifices -and risks which would have to be incurred before she could bring her -immense reserves of strength into action, and being devoid of military -ambition. The British cabinet council which decided upon this letter met -on October 4, and three days later it was generally known, in spite of -government denials, that the action had been taken. The reception of it -was not cordial. In reply to the proposals put forward by England, the -German government formally intimated that it was not prepared to join in -any measures for circumscribing the political results of the conflict -between China and Japan. The French government shared the same view, and -the United States was earnest in the same expression. Russia, too, -decided to avoid interference in connection with other nations, -preferring to retain the opportunity of individual interference. On the -part of Russia, the military commanders in the Amoor province were -ordered to hold troops in readiness, in view of the fact that the -situation in China might make intervention necessary. There seems to be -good ground for believing true the rumor, oft repeated after the battle -of the Yalu, that China had made to Japan overtures for peace, on the -basis of an acknowledgment of Corea’s independence, and payment of an -indemnity for the losses and expenses of the war. The proposal was -rejected by Japan as inadequate. Altogether it seemed that the -initiative taken by the British foreign office was premature to say the -least. - -The mikado, in his address to Parliament, made no allusion to the -proposals for peace, but seemed rather to look on the prosecution of the -war to the end as the sole means of insuring lasting tranquility. With -England’s effort for European intervention in mind, Parliament adopted a -resolution that, “No foreign interference will be suffered to obstruct -the great object of the national policy, to secure a guarantee of -permanent peace in the orient.” A renewed offer of mediation in the -interest of peace was made to China and Japan in the name of some of the -European powers, after the adjournment of Parliament. China declared her -willingness to conclude an armistice or a peace on any reasonable terms; -Japan refused to consider the proposal until it should be made directly -at Hiroshima “From a quarter formally accredited and empowered to offer -it.” - -The movements of troops, both Japanese and Chinese, were now multiplying -to such an extent, that except for one familiar with the geography of -eastern Asia, they were very confusing. Almost every day it was reported -that some Japanese force had made a landing on the Chinese coast, rumor -after rumor of this sort being circulated and denied. Chinese troops -massed in the vicinities already named, their numbers constantly -increasing. An army of five thousand Japanese was taken by transports -along the east coast of Corea to Possiet harbor, near the boundary of -Siberia, and five thousand Russian troops were posted on the other side, -facing them, to guard the Siberian frontier. Corea was being steadily -cleared of Chinese stragglers, deserters from the late army and others, -who if allowed to be at large might develop into bandits or spies. The -restlessness of the natives in the province of Chulla was difficult to -restrain, and a combined force of Japanese and Corean troops was -despatched to the district to quell the outbreak. Rumors of land battles -in the north of Corea, on the lower Yalu, were circulated every day, but -for a time were foundationless. Towards the end of October, troops began -to pour into Tien-tsin in large numbers daily, and were disposed for the -defense of the capital. Most of the new arrivals were infantry, the bulk -of the cavalry being sent to the Manchoorian provinces to the northeast. - -[Illustration] - -SURRENDER OF CHINESE GENERAL AND STAFF. - -The fleets of the two nations were now again in fighting condition, -although the loss of many vessels suffered by the Chinese at the Yalu -had left them in strength far inferior to the Japanese. The Chinese -fleet was concentrated at Port Arthur and Wei-hai-wei, where it was -believed to be safe from attack or favorably situated for offensive -operations. The Japanese squadron under Admiral Ito was concentrated at -Ping-Yang. On October 18 the last of the transports carrying the second -Japanese army steamed out of the harbor of Ujina on their way to -Hiroshima, where they were held in readiness for active operations. - -The extraordinary session of the Japanese diet at Hiroshima was closed -October 22, all the bills submitted by the government having passed -unanimously. Before separating, the Diet voted a memorial urgently -requesting the officers of the government to execute the desires of the -Mikado, in order that Japan might achieve a complete victory over the -Chinese, whereby peace would be restored in the east and the glory of -the Japanese nation increased. A resolution was passed unanimously, -placing upon record the thanks of the nation to the army and navy, for -the gallantry and patriotism displayed by all ranks, and for the -splendid success which had attended the Japanese arms. - -[Illustration: MAP OF TERRITORY ADJACENT TO THE MOUTH OF THE YALU.] - -On October 24 Count Yamagata, commander-in-chief of the Japanese forces -in Corea, threw a small force across the Yalu, thus invading Chinese -territory. In order to understand the subsequent operations, a brief -topographical explanation is here necessary. At a little distance below -Wi-ju, the Yalu, flowing west, receives a tributary, the Ai, coming from -the northeast. Chiu-lien lies in the western, or obtuse-angled corner -formed by the junction of the two rivers, some distance back from their -banks. Within the eastern, or acute-angled corner the land rises to an -eminence called Hu-shan. A traveler by the main road from Wi-ju to -Chiu-lien, having crossed the Yalu, must pass on the left or to the west -of Hu-shan, which overlooks the highway, and thus reaching the Ai must -cross it also to Chiu-lien. The Chinese had intrenched Hu-shan, and -posted there a force estimated by the Japanese at three thousand five -hundred, but subsequently alleged by prisoners to have aggregated seven -or eight thousand. - -The plan pursued by Field-Marshal Count Yamagata was to occupy a long -stretch of the Yalu River, so that his point of passage would remain to -the last uncertain, and any flanking movement on the east by the -cavalry, of which the enemy possessed a large force, was rendered -impossible. Having rested his troops and completed his arrangement for a -final advance, he threw a battalion across the river under Colonel Sato, -at Shai-ken-chau, a place ten miles up stream from Wi-ju. The passage -was made by wading and was unopposed. The detachment was composed -entirely of riflemen, no cavalry or artillery accompanying them. A -Chinese earthwork had been thrown up at this point to oppose a landing, -but a slight deviation enabled the detachment to cross without -interference. An attack was immediately opened on the Chinese position, -which was garrisoned only by a few artillerymen and infantry. They fled -after the first two or three rounds had been fired, and the Japanese -captured the works with a rush. A regiment of Manchoorian cavalry -arrived as the little garrison fled, and covered their retreat. The -Chinese made for the batteries constructed lower down the river, the -infantry throwing away their arms in their flight. The Chinese loss was -about twenty killed and wounded, while on the Japanese side not a man -was hit. The Japanese force now moved down the river and captured the -Chinese fortifications at the Suckochi ferry, where they passed the -night. The Japanese engineers had pontoons in readiness for passage -across the river. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE ARMY CROSSING THE YALU, ON A PONTOON BRIDGE.] - -During the night of the 24th, the Japanese pontoon men threw a bridge -across the Yalu at the ferry, and at dawn the main body of the army, -having passed over unopposed, commenced an attack against Hu-shan, -Colonel Sato’s brigade coming into action simultaneously from the other -side. The battle began at 6:30 A.M., and lasted until a few minutes past -10. At first the Chinese held their ground with tolerable firmness, but -presently, finding their position swept by rifle and artillery fire from -a hill on their right flank, of which possession had been taken by a -brigade under Major-General Osako, they broke and fled across the Ai to -Chiu-lien. The reserves, however, did not join the rout. Posted -advantageously, they preserved their formation and maintained a resolute -fire, until thrown into confusion by a flanking movement, which placed a -large force under Major-General Tachimi to the rear of their left. Then -they too gave way, and retreated in confusion across the Ai, so hotly -pursued that they had to abandon ten pieces of artillery. The Japanese -had lost twenty killed and eighty-three wounded; the Chinese two hundred -and fifty killed and a somewhat large number of wounded. Two divisions -of the army then crossed the Ai and encamped on the east of Chiu-lien, -the brigades of Major-General Tachimi and Colonel Sato posting -themselves on the same side of the Ai, but further north, so as to -menace the same road from Chiu-lien northward to Feng-hwang. Field -Marshal Yamagata and Lieutenant-General Nodzu took up their quarters in -a farmer’s house to the northeast of Hu-shan. Thus with all the -advantages of elevated ground, a position fortified at leisure, and a -force ample for defensive purposes, the feebleness and faulty strategy -of the Chinese converted into a mere skirmish what ought to have been a -sanguinary battle. - -The following morning, October, 26, before dawn, a general advance was -commenced against Chiu-lien. It was supposed that the enemy would make -an obstinate stand there, since after Feng-hwang the fortified town of -Chiu-lien ranks as a position of eminent importance in the defense of -southwestern Manchooria. Moreover, throughout the night a cannonade had -been kept up from the town against the Japanese camp, and though the -invading columns were posted so that the enemy’s missiles passed -harmlessly over them, this resolute service of guns seemed to promise -stout fighting on the following day. But in truth the artillery was -employed merely in the vain hope of intimidating the assailants, or in -order to cover the flight of the garrison. The Japanese encountered no -resistance whatever. At eight o’clock in the morning they entered -Chiu-lien. The enemy had decamped in the direction of Feng-hwang before -dawn, leaving behind him almost everything, twenty-two guns, three -hundred tents, large stores of ammunition and quantities of grain and -forage. - -The series of defeats following the crossing of the Yulu River by the -Japanese seemed to complete the Chinese demoralization in that vicinity. -The defeated forces probably numbered more than twenty thousand men, the -victorious army was considerably inferior in numbers, the batteries were -well built, and the position was a strong one. The continuous loss of -artillery, and throwing away of muskets and rifles wherever the Chinese -made retreat, was gradually depleting the stores of arms possessed by -the forces in Manchooria, leaving them unable to fight even if they had -desired to. A little fighting evidently went a long way with them. Did -they carry away their artillery and stores, these precipitate retreats -might possess some strategical character, but they simply saved their -own lives, leaving all their material of war behind them. The troops at -Chiu-lien were not ill-disciplined or badly armed from a Chinese point -of view. Coming from Port Arthur, from Taku, and from Lu-tai, they -ranked among the best soldiers China could put into the field. If such -men proved themselves so conspicuously invertebrate, it was to be -questioned whether or not the addition to their number of a few thousand -Tartars would make them stand more stiffly in a subsequent conflict. It -seemed even to the friends of China that her capacity for resisting the -invasion of Manchooria in the face of well-organized and resolute -attack, was simply contemptible. - -[Illustration: THE JAPANESE AT PORT ARTHUR.] - -The second invasion of Chinese territory was made by the second Japanese -army corps, twenty-two thousand strong, under the command of General -Count Oyama. These forces sailed in transports from Hiroshima, and on -October 24 commenced landing in a little cove northeast of Talien-wan -Bay and protected by the Elliot islands from the open sea. Talien-wan -Bay was avoided because the Chinese were known to have made some -preparations to resist a landing there. The peninsula which juts out -southwestward between the Gulf of Liao-Tung and Corea Bay is known -variously as the Liao-Tung peninsula and the Kwang Tung peninsula. Every -yard of it was familiar to the Japanese military staff, and had been -included in their system of minute cartography, so that whatever point -they selected was well chosen. Up to the last moment it had been -supposed by the general public that Port Adams, on the west of the -peninsula, would be the port of debarkation, but as that would have -involved the passing of a great flotilla of transports into Pechili -Gulf, it was considered too hazardous an operation. The last of the -flotilla of fifty transports left Hiroshima October 18, and the fleet -having assembled at Shimonoseki, steamed westward on the morning of the -19th. A distance of eight hundred miles had to be traversed, and in this -case as in all previous operations everything worked with smoothness and -success. On the evening of the 23rd the great flotilla reached its -destination, and on the following morning the landing was commenced. - -There was no resistance. The Pei-yang squadron did not show. Had there -been any ordinary exercise of vigilance on the part of Admiral Ting’s -war ships they must have sighted the Japanese flotilla in ample time to -strike at it. That they would have effected nothing in the face of the -convoying squadron may be taken for granted, but if the prospect of -failure deterred them from making any effort to protect their own -headquarters, China’s only dockyard and really important naval station -in the north, they certainly deserved the indifference with which the -Japanese treated them. From the time of the naval battle of September -17, the Pei-yang squadron played no part in the war. Many attempts were -made to prove that it had not been vitally hurt in the encounter, and -that a few days would suffice to put it in a thorough state of repair. -But whether repaired or not it disappeared from the scene, and the -Japanese cruisers thenceforth roamed at will along the Chinese coasts. - -With the move towards the investment of Port Arthur, and the crossing of -the Yalu, the war entered upon a new phase. In selecting Port Arthur as -an objective point, the Japanese were well advised. By such an attack a -dockyard of the first importance was threatened, and full advantage of -naval superiority could be taken. The Kwang Tung peninsula, or “Regent’s -Sword,” was peculiarly inaccessible by land, while a power in command of -the sea could land men at pleasure at several points within a short -distance of Port Arthur, and with a small force only could isolate it -from the mainland. - -Two days after the landing of troops on the peninsula, the collection of -a third army at Hiroshima commenced. This force was to number -twenty-four thousand, and be under the command of Lieutenant-General -Viscount Takashima. At the same time another revolt of some little -magnitude arose in the south of Corea, and two thousand rebels attacked -the quarters of the Japanese commissary at Anpo. The malcontents were -afterwards dispersed by a military force though not without difficulty. - -We have now reached the end of October. The first Japanese army is -safely installed on the north bank of the Yalu River in Manchoorian -territory, threatening the road to Mukden, Niuchwang and the intervening -cities. The second army is safe on shore on the Kwang Tung peninsula, -threatening China’s proudest naval station. The next month will see the -fall of Port Arthur and the practical destruction of all Chinese hopes -of ultimate success. - - - - - REVIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF THE WAR TO THE - FIRST OF NOVEMBER. - - -------------- - -Characteristics of the two Nations in War—China’s Ignorance of the -Coasts of Corea—Japan’s Knowledge of Chinese Topography and -Climate—Patriotism in the Two Countries—Bad Judgment of China in Methods -of Conducting the War—The Governmental Weather-Vane and its -Revolutions—No Commander-in-Chief for the Chinese Army—Official -Corruption in Civil as Well as Military Officials—The Battles of -Ping-Yang and the Yalu River—Handling the Forces of the Enemies. - - -At this period in the war, occurs a lull which makes it possible and -wise to take a glance at the whole course of affairs during the -hostilities, since the declaration three months earlier. The war has -advanced far enough to prove the mettle of both combatants, and to -furnish data for judging of the probable issue of the struggle, at least -from a purely military point of view. At the beginning of November, -prophets were quite well equipped with material for predictions that -were surely not to be disappointed, and it is from the aspect at this -date that the present chapter takes its view. On the one side there is -little but praise to be offered. The Japanese have proved themselves -assiduous students of all modern armaments, and have in many points -bettered their European instruction. They have made good their claim to -be the rising power of the Orient. - -Of the Chinese a diametrically opposite account must be given. From a -military standpoint nothing favorable can be said of them, and the only -palliation of their failure is that they were wholly unprepared for an -unexpected aggression. The course of the war has brought out in strong -relief what has not always been clearly recognized, the essential -differences between the two belligerent nations. A stronger contrast is -scarcely imaginable than that between China and Japan, though they are -so near and have been nursed on a common literature. With passionate -effort the Japanese have ransacked the western world for its treasures -of knowledge, and have vigorously applied what they have learned. The -Chinese, on the other hand, have set their faces against the science of -other nations, and with an unhappy mixture of apathy and contempt have -rejected the teaching which has pressed upon them. In the same spirit -they have spurned the knowledge of their own country and of their own -forces, while the Japanese have been for years making a minute study of -both, and possess maps and details which the Chinese themselves have not -and do not care for. The Chinese have carried on a large trade with the -Yalu river, but the government knew nothing of the coast. Captain Calder -of Port Arthur made a holiday expedition to the Manchoo-Corean coast, -found the country beautiful, and recommended the naval authorities to -let the cadets go and improve themselves by surveying it. Nothing was -done, the sole reason being that the incidental expenses of the ships -would be increased by being at sea, and the captains would not save so -much of their monthly allowance. Now the only survey the Chinese admiral -possesses even of the scene of the late naval battle, is the outline -made by Captain Calder himself. The Japanese navy has complete charts -both of the Corean and the Chinese coasts. In the summer of 1893 a small -expedition of Japanese disguised as Chinese, in a native boat surveyed -the islands and coasts of the Gulf of Pechili, spending eight days in -the immediate neighborhood of Port Arthur. The topography and -physiography of North China have been their study for years. - -A Japanese physician even devoted a whole year to the climate and -pathology. With his headquarters in Tien-tsin, where he plied the -foreign doctors incessantly with queries, this Japanese investigator -thoroughly explored the province of Chihli, and probably knows more of -the climatic conditions of North China than any other living man. He -pretended he had the intention of practicing among the Chinese, as -possibly he may in the not distant future. The Chinese have started -exotic medical schools, but they have not overcome the elementary -difficulty about dissection, and the enterprise is but half hearted. As -for employing competent men to gather knowledge, the whole idea is -foreign to the Chinese official mind, and they only accept ungraciously -as a gift the results of the explorations of enthusiasts for science. It -is not, therefore, the accident of being a little earlier in the field, -or quicker in movement to seize the benefit of an opportunity, that -gives the Japanese such crushing advantages over the Chinese, but rather -a deep-seated, congenital love of improvement on one side and hatred of -it on the other. - -Another essential difference between the people is their exhibition of -patriotism. The Japanese are saturated with it, while the Chinese have -none. The instinct of loyalty is there, and it can be called out by any -man, native or foreign, who is worthy of it, but in the sense of -nationality the Chinese have no capacity for enthusiasm, and the people -as a whole are indifferent as to who rules them, so long as they are -left to cultivate their gardens. For want of a patriotic focus, what -would elsewhere be treachery is in China a commonplace of official -practices; every man to the limit of his small ability selling his -country for his private benefit, and no one able to cast a stone at his -neighbor. In Japan it would be impossible to get a man to betray his -fatherland; in China where is the man who would not? From the same root -springs the incredible difference between the peoples in their treatment -of soldiers and sailors. In the one country they are made heroes of, the -people at home send delicacies to the troops abroad, honor the dead, and -nurse the wounded. In the other the men are treated worse than dogs, -robbed of their small pay, deserted, discarded, or grossly neglected by -their leaders whenever they can be dispensed with and their monthly pay -saved. Attachment between men and officers in China is a rare, though -not an unknown thing, for the Chinese are, after all, human at heart, if -one can but penetrate the pile of hereditary corruption which has -covered up the divine spark. - -The foregoing are but examples which might be multiplied indefinitely, -of the antitheses of Chinese and Japanese character and mode of action. -If to all this is added the fact that the Japanese are a people who -delight in war, while the Chinese abominate it, no further search is -needed for explanation of the actual result. It is simply ignorance -overcome by science, indifference by energy. - -The Chinese have conducted the campaign in the manner those best -acquainted with them would have predicted, doing on most occasions the -utterly wrong thing, or stumbling on the right thing at the wrong time -in the wrong way. But the most pessimistic prophet could hardly have -predicted the utter inaptitude of the Chinese military movements. It is -not only that they have failed to learn the modern art of war, but that -they have forgotten the old methods. It was thought that Chinese troops, -though deficient in enterprise, might at least make a respectable -defense. They were advised never to risk a pitched battle, but to -retreat slowly, giving trouble to the enemy by night attacks on his -baggage, and compelling him to use up an army corps to keep open his -line of communication. They failed in every point, and allowed -themselves to be chased and caught like sheep, losing stores, guns, and -munitions. When all else failed, it was said that winter would come to -their assistance, as the Japanese could never stand the cold, while the -Chinese and Manchoos were inured to it. But when the cold came it was -found that it was not the Japanese but the Chinese who suffered, having -abandoned their warm clothing in precipitate flight. Their heart was -never in the business, and nothing therefore could go right with the -Chinese conduct of the war. - -While the war was incubating, China had to make up her mind how she was -to meet the aggression of the Japanese in Corea. Candid friends, who -knew well that her inchoate forces could never be a match for any -organized army whatsoever, commended strictly defensive strategy. She -was caught in the false position—in a military sense, though it was -politically correct—of having a small force isolated in southern Corea, -while the Japanese were occupying the capital in strength. The fighting -value of the respective fleets was as yet an unknown quantity, but on -the Japanese side there was confidence in their own superiority, and on -the part of the Chinese a tacit acquiescence in that estimate. Under -such circumstances an over-sea campaign was an absurdity for China, and -the commonest prudence dictated that the small garrison at Asan be -withdrawn before the outbreak of war. - -[Illustration: SINKING OF THE KOW-SHING. (_Drawn by a Chinese Artist._)] - -This crisis in affairs was met, as crises usually are in China, by -divided counsels; moral cowardice on the part of those who knew, blind -rage on the part of those who did not know, and the submission of the -judgment of the informed to the arbitrary decrees and even the insidious -advice of the uninformed. To speak plainly, Li Hang Chang, on whom the -burden of the war would in all cases rest, and who knew something, -though very little, of the power of discipline and organization, and who -from the first was strongly opposed to the intervention in Corea, which -was forced on him by pressure applied from Peking, was for withdrawing -the garrison from Asan. In answer to his memorials to the throne, he had -obtained the imperial authority and had hired transports to bring the -troops over into Chinese territory. But other counsels supervened, and -Li Hung Chang refrained from giving effect to his own views. As the -Japanese were by imperial fiat to be driven out of Corea, it followed -that the garrison at Asan must be strengthened, and China committed -herself to the conditions of war dictated by the enemy, an offensive war -oversea, which was entirely beyond China’s capacity. - -[Illustration: NAVAL SKIRMISH, JULY 25TH. (_Drawn by a Chinese -Artist._)] - -There were still discussions and hesitations up to the moment of -dispatching troops by sea to Corea. When the expedition of troops was -seen to be inevitable, the Chinese were advised to take at least the -precaution of having the transports escorted by a strong naval squadron. -This was decided to be done, and the ill-fated Kow-shing left Taku on -the clear understanding that an escort of warships would join her -outside Wei-hai-wei, which was two hundred and twenty miles distant, and -roughly half way to Asan. But before the transport had got so far on her -voyage, the official weathercock had set in another direction. The -diplomatic Yuan-si-Kai, former resident in Corea, where he had done so -much to irritate the Japanese, now advised that the appearance of -warships with the transports might give umbrage to the Japanese, and in -deference to this opinion, before the pendulum had time to swing back, -the Kow-shing with twelve hundred men on board, was sent unprotected to -the Bay of Asan. The Japanese consular establishment, with its -wonderfully organized intelligence department, was still in Tien-tsin, -perfectly informed of everything that was being said and done in the -most secret places, and making free use of the telegraph wires. - -[Illustration: ROUTED CHINESE FLYING BEFORE THE VICTORIOUS ENEMY.] - -With the tragic destruction of the Kow-shing, the war was begun most -disadvantageously to the Chinese. Being by one and the same stroke -deprived of the expected re-enforcements and cut off from the sea, the -small force at Asan had either to fight to the death, surrender, or make -good their retreat by a long and dangerous flank march. This last course -was adopted, and after making sufficient stand to cover their retreat, -not without inflicting loss on the enemy, they succeeded in joining the -Chinese army which had entered Corea from the north-west. The numbers of -the retreating force were given as four thousand, but they were -certainly less. - -[Illustration: SKIRMISH ON JULY, 27TH. (_Drawn by a Chinese Artist._)] - -The simultaneous engagements by land and sea on the same day, July 25, -proved that the Japanese had determined to begin the war in earnest. The -naval action in which two Chinese ships were waylaid as they were -leaving the Corean coast, served to prove that the Chinese ships could -both fight and run away, and that the Japanese ships were very ably -manœuvred, but the affair had little other significance. - -Enraged by the sinking of the transport in time of nominal peace, the -emperor of China ordered the fleet, over the head of Li Hung Chang, to -pursue the enemy to destruction. In obedience to the imperial mandate, -the Pei-yang squadron, in the early days of August, steamed for the -Corean coast, but before sighting it steamed back again. The viceroy Li -then interested himself to obtain a modification of the decree, and the -fleet was commanded to remain on the defensive for the special -protection of the Gulf of Pechili, which instruction held good until the -middle of September, when the fleet was forced to accept battle off the -Yalu river. - -[Illustration: BEFORE THE WALL OF SEOUL. (_Drawn by a Chinese Artist._)] - -August 1st, troops were ordered to enter Corean territory from the -Manchoorian side, and in the course of the month a considerable force -had filtered its way to the city of Ping-Yang, the strongest strategical -point in western Corea, and even to a considerable distance beyond. The -massing of these troops was conducted in the old rough-and-tumble, -half-hearted Chinese fashion. There was no head, but separate and rival -commands, each general looking only to the viceroy, Li Hung Chang for -orders and supplies, and receiving more of the former than of the -latter. - -These Chinese generals are an old world curiosity, scarcely conceivable -in our age. They might be described as army contractors rather than -fighting agents, for like the civil mandarins they buy their posts as an -investment. The battalion or camp is farmed, as regards its expenses, by -the general, who draws from government a lump sum for the maintenance of -the force, and makes his economies according to his conscience, by -falsifying his muster roll and defrauding his men. At the battle or rout -of Ping-Yang there were soldiers who were three, four, and even five -months in arrears of pay, some generals deliberately calculating on the -casualties of war to reduce the number of eventual claimants on the pay -fund. The most notorious offender, General Wei of Ping-Yang notoriety, -who had less than half the troops he drew pay for, and these mostly -untrained coollies, hustled into the ranks to take the place of unpaid -deserters, and in whose program fighting had no place, had paid certain -influential persons liberally for his command. Desertion, it may be -observed in passing, is not regarded as a calamity by an avaricious -Chinese general. - -Chinese officers are however by no means all abandoned to money making. -Some are liberal with their funds, just as some are brave and loyal, and -are backed by equally brave and loyal soldiers. The efficiency of a -force depends altogether on the personality of the general, and as in -feudal times in Europe, it is to their chief rather than to any -government or country that the troops feel the ties of allegiance. As -the leader is, therefore, so are the men. General Tso-pao-kwei for -example, who bore to his grave the honors of the fight at Ping-Yang, was -a man well known to many foreigners of different classes, missionary and -others, and the unanimity of good opinion of him is quite remarkable. He -was not only brave, but a courteous and kindly gentleman who gained the -affections of all around. A Mohammedan himself, all his soldiers were of -the same faith, and they stood shoulder to shoulder like heroes in the -face of overpowering odds. - -During the month of August, while the Japanese forces were advancing -upon Ping-Yang in three columns, there were outpost skirmishes in which -the Japanese were frequently worsted. These affairs were naturally -enough reported by the Chinese commanders concerned, according to their -lights, as victories, and when it is remembered how the view of each is -bounded by the horizon of his own camp, it is easy to see how they could -deceive themselves as to the significance of such apparent success. The -truth seems to be that the Chinese commanders in and about Ping-Yang did -not realize that they were surrounded, each perhaps thinking it was the -other’s business. They had sent out no scouts, nor posted videttes to -watch the mountain passes to the north of them. These elementary -military precautions had been pressed on Li Hung Chang, who sent -repeated orders to the front to have them seen to; but nothing was done, -for according to the vicious tradition of the Chinese service, the word -is taken for the deed, and orders which are either impracticable or -inconvenient are simply ignored or forgotten, without the delinquent -being ever called to account. Spacious but wholly fictitious excuses -would in any case serve the turn in a system whose fetich is universal -sham. Perhaps, as there was no commander-in-chief, but a number of -independent commands, duties which concerned the army at large fell -within the sphere of no one in particular. But in whatever manner it -came about, the result was that the Chinese remained in comatose -ignorance of the intentions of the enemy, until the only thing left was -precipitate retreat. - -The affair of Ping-Yang was observed by one military expert, a Russian, -who speaks in high terms of the precision and completeness of the -Japanese equipment and organization, but the opposition had been so -contemptible throughout the war that the military qualities of the -Japanese have not been seriously put to the proof. They remain a -theoretical quantity. So far as the campaign had gone, to November 1, -the chief obstacles encountered had been bad roads, standing crops, and -sickness. - -The second day after the flight from Ping-Yang, September 17, the naval -battle off the Yalu River was fought. The collision of the fleets seems -to have been somewhat unpremeditated. The Chinese were engaged in -disembarking troops for the re-enforcement of the army at Ping-Yang, and -it is a characteristically haphazard proceeding that they should have -been landing troops one hundred and twenty miles from the front, to -strengthen a position already abandoned. The battle which ensued, and -which raged for five hours, has been described with as much fullness as -the limits of this volume permit, but the ultimate truth about it will -perhaps never be fully known except of course to the Japanese -government. From the Chinese side it will be impossible to obtain a -consistent account, not because of intentional concealment, but because -of the simple reason that no one in the Chinese fleet was able to -observe accurately what was going on, except near his own vessel. -Nevertheless the salient points of the battle stand out clear enough. -The sea fight was but a repetition of the land fight, with two important -differences. The first of these was that as the nature of the cause -rendered it impossible to sail modern ships of war at all by -two-thousand-year-old tactics, the mere possession of a fleet required a -European organization. But the organization was imperfect, and would -have been unable to sustain itself in action, but for the presence of -another element in which the Chinese land forces were entirely lacking, -competent foreign direction. This factor also was most imperfect. The -foreign officers had been extemporized hastily, the leader of them being -not even a seaman. They were of various nationalities and were enlisted -about the middle of August. Three engineers, two German, one English; -two gunnery officers, one English, one German; had been for some years -in the fleet, and volunteered for war service. One American engaged for -many years in the Chinese naval college also volunteered for active -service during the war. Captain Von Hannecken, bearing now the rank of -Chinese general, commissioned as Inspector General of Fortifications, -was entrusted with the anomalous office of adviser of the admiral, thus -giving him the real command of the fleet. An English civilian with naval -training also joined. - -On entering on their duties, these officers found the fleet honeycombed -with abuses requiring patient reform, but they set themselves to make -the best of things as they were, and to get the ships as quickly as -possible into action, as the thing most needful in order to brace up -officers and men. Von Hannecken urged unceasingly an offensive policy. -He would seek out the Japanese and attack them wherever found, fall on -their convoys, and generally assert the supremacy of China in Corean -waters, from the Yalu eastward. In particular he urged the occupation of -Ping-Yang inlet, so important for the support of the army which held the -city of that name, and, if necessary, to fight to the death for the -possession of a harbor at once so valuable and so easily defended. His -prescience was indicated in the sequel, but to all such suggestions -Admiral Ting replied with the imperial edict which forbade him to move -out of Chinese waters. The convoying service for which the fleet was -eventually told off in the middle of September was a sort of compromise, -which, without transgressing too flagrantly the imperial restrictions, -yet committed the fleet to an engagement on conditions not of its own -choosing. - -The handling of the respective fleets showed the great superiority of -the Japanese professional training, and critics have commented on the -weakness of the Chinese manœuvring, but the first consideration was -to get the Chinese to fight at all. The government had satisfied itself -that without foreigners to lead them, the Chinese commanders would -rather lose their ships in trying to escape than stand up to the enemy. -The man, the only man available, who possessed the requisite qualities, -personal and professional, including a competent knowledge of Chinese, -happened to be a soldier, but he at least made the fleet fight, not as a -trained admiral would have done with a trained fleet, but in a manner to -inspire the Chinese with some confidence in themselves, in which till -then they were greatly lacking. That is perhaps the most important -result of the baptism of fire of the Chinese navy. - -As regards the technical bearings of the action off the Yalu, the -Chinese admiral and captains adopted the formation which they said had -been taught them by Captain Lang as the most advantageous for attack. -But obviously a plan communicated four years ago by an officer whom -these same men had intrigued out of their navy, when he had taken it -through only half its course of training, could not be considered an -infallible weapon with which to meet the thoroughly efficient navy of -Japan. - -The fight brought out several of the weak points of the Chinese naval -organization, and taught the officers many lessons. Most conspicuously -was the fatuous economy of ammunition exposed. The most formidable ships -for offense and defense were of course the two iron clads Ting-Yuen and -Chen-Yuen, with their twelve and one-half inch guns. These guns throw a -shell three and one-half calibres long, charged with forty pounds of -powder. It is a projectile of low initial velocity, but a most -destructive explosive, as the Japanese have testified. There were but -four of these shells in the fleet, all being on board the Chen-Yuen. Of -a smaller, and of course cheaper shell for the same guns two and -one-half calibres long, used for target practice, there were in all -fourteen in the two iron clads, and they were fired off in the first -hour and a half of the engagement, after which only steel shot was left -with which to continue the fight. From the condition of the flag ship -and her consort, may be inferred that of the other vessels in the fleet. -They were at once however, after the battle, well supplied with shell -except of the larger size. - -The Chinese fleet was at a disadvantage in manœuvring from inferior -speed, but a greater difficulty even than that was the perversity of the -personnel. Even on board the flag ship orders were not carried out, but -varied or suppressed at the discretion of the officers. In telegraphing -from the conning tower to the engine room, the plans of the admiral were -frustrated, by the officer who moved the telegraph signalling a low -speed when the admiral was ordering a high speed, in order to close with -the enemy. This trick was only discovered after the battle, by comparing -notes with the German engineer who was below. How many other ways of -cheating the commanding officer were resorted to during those critical -hours, no one can tell. As for the other ships of the fleet, it is -acknowledged that after the first round they kept no formation, each -ship fighting her own battle, except the two ironclads with the foreign -officers on board, which kept moving in concert till the close. The -flagship lost all her signal halyards and a number of signal men in the -beginning of the action, and thereby lost touch with the rest of the -squadron. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE CAVALRYMAN.] - -From the capture of Ping-Yang, to the first of November, the progress of -the war attested the circumspection of the Japanese, who from first to -last resolved to risk nothing by land or sea. There was practically no -resistance, and the Chinese government was tolerably aware that there -would be none, either at the Yalu or at Feng-hwang-tcheng. What the -government reckoned on, if they can be said to have made any reckoning -at all, was that the forces assembled at Chiu-lien-tcheng would delay -the advance of the enemy till something turned up, or till the winter -should come to the aid of the invaded. Well, winter came, and lo it was -the Chinese and not the Japanese who were its first victims. Poor -General Sung, driven out of Kiu-lien-tcheng, and falling back on -Feng-hwang-tcheng, was followed up so sharp that, with the remnant of -his force, he had to retreat to the mountains, without extra clothing or -baggage. The cold set in, and snow was falling on these shivering -wretches, while the enemy was enjoying the comparative luxury of the -towns and villages. - -By this time in the history of the war, it seemed certain that in such a -conflict as was to be anticipated, China would not entrust the ultimate -defense of the empire to such loose levies as had been in the field. -From the time of their organization, these troops under arms have -constituted a danger to the peace of China, whether in victory or -defeat, and perhaps there was a certain cynical calculation in the -release by the Japanese of prisoners, that they might swell the ranks of -brigands. It was believed by many friends of China that the dispersion -of these troops would make room for an army built up on a different -system, should the government be at last aroused to a sense of the -necessity for military reform. - -[Illustration: PORT ARTHUR—TRANSPORTS ENTERING THE INNER HARBOR.] - -Until this time, the government of China properly so called, had not -been able to bring its intelligence to bear on the question of imperial -defense. That had been left in the hands of the imperial viceroy Li Hung -Chang, who has for many years conducted the foreign as well as the naval -and military affairs of the empire. But during the fall the Peking -government was gradually gathering the reins into its own hands. The -return of Prince Kung to the counsels of the emperor was a marked -expression of the new resolution. The summoning of Von Hannecken by -imperial edict to Peking was another indication of the suspension of Li -Hung Chang’s function of general middleman between the empire and the -world. Whether this new born energy for affairs was to have staying -power sufficient to launch the government on the unknown sea of foreign -science, and save the empire from disruption was problematical, but the -war still raged on, and out of its immediate issues, it was predicted by -many, was to arise a state of thing which would mock the slow progress -of mere evolutionary reform, by a cataclysm which might do in one day -what a century of deliberation could not accomplish. - -[Illustration: LIEUT. GEN. VISCOUNT NODZU.] - - - - - THE ADVANCE UPON PORT ARTHUR. - - -------------- - -Landing of the Second Japanese Army at Kwa-yuen-ken—Capture of -Kinchow—Taking of Talien-wan—Flight of the Chinese to Port -Arthur—General Nodzu’s Force and its Action—Pekin Authorities -Despondent—Prince Kung Asks Foreign Intervention—Propositions for Peace -Fail—Contractors Want to Destroy Japanese Fleet—Foreigners in Chinese -Service—The Emperor Receives Visitors—Drawing Near to Port Arthur—People -of the Peninsula—Skirmishes on the Way—The Night Before the Battle. - - -The troops of the second Japanese army landed at a place called -Kwa-yuen-ken near the mouth of the Pili River, northeast of Talien-wan -Bay. From the mouth of the Pili to Kinchow, the principal town in the -peninsula, the distance is fifty-four miles. The debarkation was -completed without interruption, and the march southwestward began. The -capture of Kinchow, at the narrowest point in the Adams Isthmus, was -made without difficulty, and the victorious forces continued on their -way. November 7 the Japanese occupied Talien-wan. The more the captured -Chinese position here was examined, the greater became the astonishment -at the poor defense made. The defensive works were excellent in design. -Six large and strongly constructed forts commanded Talien-wan bay, -mounting all together eighty guns of various sizes and patterns. Many of -them were comparatively modern and excellent of their kind. All of these -guns, as well as large stores of ammunition, fell into the hands of the -Japanese. - -Beside the forts on the bay, the Chinese had constructed across the -narrow neck of the peninsula, which was here about seven miles wide, a -series of earthworks of an elaborate kind. The whole system had -evidently been planned by an engineer of high skill. It was completely -fitted with telephones and other modern appliances for communication. -The works had been designed to facilitate a concentration of troops at -any threatened point in the shortest possible time. The batteries were -powerfully constructed and well armed. The greatest strength of the -forts on the bay was on the side facing the sea. Some successful -reconnoitering revealed weakness upon the land side. An intimation was -conveyed to Count Ito that the seaward forts were of such strength that -a bombardment from the Japanese fleet would assuredly result in serious -damage to some of the ships. Marshal Oyama informed his colleague that -he believed a land attack would be attended with success, and that idea -was therefore put into effect. - -The Japanese fleet took a station off the bay, and opened a tremendous -bombardment of the forts on the 6th of November. For many hours the -firing scarcely ceased, and on the following day it was resumed. On the -7th, covered by the bombardment, the land force attacked Talien-wan at -daybreak by a general assault, and the success was complete. The -Chinese, taken by surprise, fled panic-stricken towards Port Arthur. - -[Illustration: CHINESE EARTHWORKS.] - -The losses in the capture of these two fortifications, Kinchow and -Talien-wan, were not great on either side. The Chinese garrison at the -former place consisted of one thousand infantry and one hundred cavalry. -They fled to Talien-wan, which was defended by three thousand infantry -and one hundred and eighty cavalry, and all together retreated thence -towards Port Arthur. On the Japanese side the losses were only ten -killed and wounded, and the losses of the Chinese, who offered -practically no resistance, were not much greater. As in previous -retreats, the Chinese threw away their arms in their flight, and reached -Port Arthur with nothing but the clothes they wore. - -During these days of action by the force under Oyama, General Nodzu’s -troops had not been idle. Immediately after the capture of Chiu-lien, -the Japanese headquarters’ staff moved there from Wi-ju. Two columns -were sent after the fleeing Chinese. Colonel Sato moved upon An-tung, -which was taken without fighting. General Tachimi, with the first -division, moved upon Feng-hwang on October 27, and on the 31st the town -surrendered. No prisoners were taken by the Japanese. The orders were to -disarm and scatter the enemy wherever found, and this was done with -vigor. By Marshal Yamagata’s orders, the peaceable inhabitants were -treated with the utmost consideration. All food purchased was paid for -and laborers were paid for any extra help required. As a result the -Japanese camp was thronged with Chinese peasants offering produce, and -more Chinese laborers asked for work than could be engaged. - -[Illustration: VIEW OF TALIEN-WAN BAY.] - -The enemy divided in flight from Feng-hwang, some going to Mukden, -others to Hai-tcheng, and others to Taku-shan. Most of the generals fled -to Mukden. As the last fugitives left Feng-hwang it was set on fire, and -the flames wrecked the village before the Japanese could extinguish -them. Cold had set in among the Manchoorian hills by this time and some -snow had fallen. The victorious army therefore took pains to make itself -as comfortable as possible, advancing slowly, living off the country, -and driving all enemies before it. - -In Peking at this time the authorities were busy attempting to devise -means of safety for their armies, and to provide for their own escape -from threatening danger. Li Hung Chang was deprived of all his -decorative honors. Liu Kunyi, viceroy of Nanking, was made viceroy of -Tien-tsin. Chang Chi Stung, viceroy of Wu-chang, was appointed viceroy -of Nanking. Hu Yuff, a judge of Kwang-hsi, and Captain Von Hannecken -were ordered to enlist and equip a force of troops after the German -model, as the nucleus of a new grand army of China. Finally Prince Kung -was appointed Chief Controller of Military Affairs, with Prince Chung to -assist him, thus further centralizing the power. - -Another imperial edict gave executive effect to the sentence passed by -the military courts upon General Wei. It declared that by his withdrawal -from the battle of Ping-Yang he caused the defeat of the entire army. -Furthermore, he was adjudged guilty of embezzling public funds entrusted -to him for the specific purpose of paying his soldiers, and of gross -incompetence and violation of duty in that he permitted the troops with -whom he retreated to maltreat and rob the people along the line of -route, thereby lowering the national character. For these offenses -General Wei was degraded from military rank and deprived of all his -honors. It was also announced that Admiral Ting kept from the knowledge -of the throne many important matters connected with the naval battle of -the Yalu, and that while losing some ships and getting others crippled -he inflicted scarcely any damage upon the enemy. The admiral was -therefore deprived of all the honors recently bestowed upon him under a -misapprehension of the facts. - -How despondent was the view of the situation held by the Chinese -authorities may be judged by the first action taken by Prince Kung after -his promotion. On Sunday, November 4, before the news of the Japanese -success at Talien-wan had reached the Chinese, owing to the cutting of -the telegraph wires, he invited the representatives all the powers to -assemble at the Tsung-li Yamen to hear what the Chinese government had -to say respecting the critical situation. At this audience Prince Kung -calmly avowed the complete impotence of his country to withstand the -Japanese attack, and appealed to the powers to intervene. He made an -appeal for their assistance in bringing about some agreement for the -termination of the war, indicating as a basis of negotiation a -willingness of China to abandon her claim to the suzerainty of Corea, -and to pay a war indemnity to Japan. This appeal was made formally and -officially, and marked for the first time the fact that China recognized -her utter defeat. - -Having concluded his speech, Prince Kung handed to each minister a note -embodying his remarks. The ministers were favorably impressed, and they -applauded the frankness of China’s confession. They promised to support -her appeal to their respective governments, with a view to the -restoration of peace, and in order to avert the dangers threatening all -interested. Simultaneously with this action of Prince Kung, the Chinese -minister to Great Britain and France endeavored to enlist the assistance -of the foreign offices of those countries, but again the effort to -secure peace for China by the intervention of western nations met with -little encouragement. - -A diplomatic complication arose between Japan and France early in -November which had an element of comedy in it and is of interest here. -Two American citizens, John Brown and George Howie, of British -extraction, offered their services to the Chinese government in the -capacity of torpedo experts. They claimed to be in possession of an -invention capable of most destructive effects in naval warfare, and -having succeeded in convincing a Chinese agent of the validity of their -claim, they were engaged to employ the invention against the Japanese -navy, in consideration of a payment of $100,000 down, $1,000,000 for -each naval squadron destroyed, and a proportion of the value of each -merchantman sent to the bottom. With their contract in their pocket, -they sailed from San Francisco, and at Yokahama transferred themselves -to the French steamer Sydney. Meanwhile the Japanese authorities, having -obtained intelligence of the two men’s proceedings, telegraphed -instructions to Kobe, and in that port the alleged inventors were taken -off the ship, together with their Chinese companions. The French -minister inclined to push the case in their favor, but diplomacy and -international law was so clearly on the side of the Japanese that he -withdrew his efforts. After their arrest however, the two men signed a -stringent guarantee binding themselves not to assist the Chinese during -the present war, and this with the representation of the American -minister secured their release. - -The Japanese forces occupying Talien-wan used their time to advantage in -strengthening their positions, completing the telegraph line along the -north shore of Corea Bay, to a junction with the line which had already -been built across the Yalu River from Corea, and in preparing for their -investment of Port Arthur. Admiral Ito’s sailors and marines destroyed -all the torpedoes placed by the enemy in the bay and its approaches. -They also captured several torpedo boats and apparatus. The fleet and -the transports all entered the bay, and there remained to act in harmony -with the land forces. A few days after the occupation of Talien-wan, the -advance column of the first Japanese army, pursuing from Feng-hwang that -portion of the divided fugitive Chinese who were seeking Port Arthur, -met the outposts of the second invading army, and communication was -thereby established, both by telegraph and by messenger service, through -Japanese garrisons, in a chain extending the full length of the Corean -peninsula and around Corea Bay to Talien-wan. - -Consternation was caused in Peking by the discovery, which one would -have supposed not difficult, that the Pei-yang squadron was caught in a -trap at Port Arthur. Li Hung Chang had made efforts to bring all the -damaged war ships out of that harbor, ordering the squadron to keep -within range of the guns of Wei-hai-wei. But on account of somebody’s -violation of orders, a dozen Chinese vessels of war were now within the -Port Arthur harbor, hemmed in by the neighboring Japanese fleet. The -responsible Chinese officials appeared to be callous to the fate of the -empire, giving their chief attention to matters of personal interest and -gain. - -[Illustration: PORT ARTHUR—JAPANESE COOLIES REMOVING CHINESE DEAD.] - -Port Arthur was now effectively invested and threatened, and to provide -for their personal safety, Kung, the taotai of the place, together with -several military leaders, abandoned Port Arthur as hastily as possible. -The effort made by one Englishman, anxious to preserve some Chinese -dignity, to save Port Arthur, was received with considerable surprise -and not by any means appreciated. - -The position of foreigners in the employ of the Chinese government has -always been anomalous, but the exigencies of the war have shown up the -relationship between Chinese and foreigners in a vivid and highly -instructive light. Their rooted aversion to foreigners, which springs -from fear, does not withhold the Chinese from flying to seek foreign aid -in their extremity. On these occasions they betray a superstitious -feeling towards the foreigners, regarding him as a sort of medicine man -who can see through a millstone or work any other miracle. Their idea is -to hire him by the job, and when the job is done cast him off as any -other laborer. When war came upon them, the Chinese fleet was in a -quandary, scuttling about from one snug harbor to another, the officers -knowing nothing of their enemy, his movements, or his capacities. Though -they were told they had the strongest fleet, they would have preferred -not to put its presumed superiority to too severe a test, yet they had -the imperial order to destroy the enemy unconditionally. In this -extremity, the authorities cast about for extemporized foreigners to -help them. - -A hardy Scandinavian came first to the rescue, offering to scout, pilot, -or fight for them, run a torpedo boat, or do anything that youthful -daring might legitimately venture. Only he stipulated for a twenty-knot -steamer, performing, however, in the meantime, the emergency service in -a common tugboat of less than half that speed. The promise of a fast -steamer was broken, as every promise of every Chinese official, with few -exceptions, from the beginning of time has been broken, and until the -end of the war the hardy Norseman had to content himself on the deck of -that same wet and lively tugboat. Comical indeed were the adventures he -had with his convoys of troops, munitions, and stores, which never would -follow the program laid down for them, sometimes bolting from the smoke -of their own escort, and he chasing them back into their own ports whose -forts would open fire on him. This was the uniform experience of -Europeans who served the Chinese. The zeal and loyalty were all on the -side of the aliens, whose hearts were broken in hopeless efforts to make -the Chinese do their duty to their own country. Every foreigner who -served China, no matter in what capacity, unless he belonged to the -class which is content to draw pay and say nothing, had the same -strenuous battle with his employers to compel them to interest -themselves in their own service. The Chinese, on their part, failed to -comprehend the folly of the foreigner who was not content to draw his -pay and keep quiet. - -At Port Arthur there were some half dozen rival generals, but no one in -command, each caring only for his own camp, and all at loggerheads with -the others. The head of the port, the poor taotai, of the literary -graduate order, was a brother of the present minister to England. There -was also the admiral of the Pei-yang squadron, the most likely man to -assume the responsibility of a general command; but for fear of getting -himself disliked by Taotai Kung or the generals, he kept his hands out -of mischief. Finally, the English harbor master at Port Arthur went to -Tien-tsin, and showed the condition of affairs to the viceroy. The -result was that the viceroy sent instructions to Kung, which the latter -ignored, flying from Port Arthur at the first chance. The collapse of -Chinese resistance was proceeding at a rate which more than astonished -the Japanese themselves. With Kinchow and Talien-wan captured almost -without a blow, although amply supplied with the means of making a -vigorous and protracted defense, and all the soldiers joining in an -ignominious rush for Port Arthur, it seemed that the Chinese were -exhibiting all that reluctance to make trouble which characterized -Crockett’s famous 'coon, demonstrating their willingness to come down to -any required extent if Marshal Oyama would only consent not to shoot. - -The force under Yamagata, advancing from Feng-hwang in two divisions, -one towards Port Arthur and one on the road to Mukden, met no resistance -that was strong enough to intercept their advance, although there was -some fighting at two or three stands. The right division advanced -northwestward and entered the Manchoorian highlands by the Mo-thien-ling -pass where a force was gathered to oppose it. The left division marched -towards Siu-Yen where another Chinese force was encamped. It was the -outpost of this division, pursuing the Chinese fugitives through -Taku-shan, which made junction with the second army and completed the -chain of communication. - -On the 9th of November the Japanese advanced and attacked Namquan pass, -a strongly fortified neck between Society Bay and Talien-wan. There was -no concerted defense, and each Chinese detachment was separately routed. -Some thousands of refugees from Kinchow, who were flying towards -villages in the vicinity, were mistaken for the enemy and were fired -upon from the rear of the defenses, many being killed. - -Again the Chinese authorities in Peking decided to seek peace through -the influence and intervention of western powers between herself and -Japan. On the morning of November 15 the emperor gave an audience to the -diplomatic representatives in Peking, and all the ministers were -present. His Majesty’s action in thus receiving the diplomatists caused -considerable stir in high Chinese circles, such a violation was it of -imperial Chinese etiquette. This audience was granted on the occasion of -the presentation of letters of congratulation by the ministers, on the -sixtieth birthday of the dowager empress. For the first time in Chinese -history the audience was held in the imperial palace itself. As an -especial mark of courtesy the foreign ministers entered by the central -gate, the gate through which the emperor only is usually allowed to -pass. - -The ministers had audience with the emperor separately, and the -reception was of a distinctly formal character, lasting but a few -minutes. The audience took place in the hall where His Majesty was -accustomed to hear the Confucian classics expounded. He was seated -cross-legged on the Dragon Throne, surrounded by a numerous body of -princes and officials. In front of His Majesty was placed a small table -covered with yellow satin, which concealed the lower half of his person. -In the short interviews with each minister, who stood some ten feet from -His Majesty, Prince Kung and Prince Ching acted alternately as masters -of the ceremonies, and interpreted the speeches. The emperor spoke -entirely in the Manchoo tongue. He appeared small and delicate, -possessing a fine forehead, with expressive brown eyes, and an -intellectual countenance. The emperor’s position, surrounded as he was -by the dignitaries of his court, gave him an imposing appearance, -although to a close observer he looked and spoke like a lad of sixteen -or seventeen years. His Majesty did not indulge in any social -conversation with the visitors, but spoke formally to all. The interview -was granted in the hope that western sympathy would be secured for the -threatened orientals. - -Now that the approach to Port Arthur has brought the Japanese army -almost to the walls, let us take a brief retrospect of the operations of -the month. On the 24th of October the debarkation of the second army on -the Liao-Tung peninsula began, to the northwest of the Elliot islands, -at Kwa-yuen. No opposition of any kind was encountered, but natural -difficulties such as shallow beaches and great range of tides impeded -the operation, so that all the stores were not landed until the evening -of the 30th. The troops however were put in motion at once, and on -October 28th the advance guard reached Pitszwo, a place of some -importance at the junction of the Niuchwang, Port Arthur, and Taku-shan -road. This place was twenty-five miles from the port of debarkation. -Forty-five miles farther southwest, the troops came upon Kinchow, at the -point where the two post roads of the peninsula met. On November 6 the -Japanese captured this town without difficulty, and the next day Field -Marshal Oyama’s troops, pressing close on the heels of the flying enemy, -reached the formidable isthmus a couple of hours after them, and to the -accompaniment of a thunderous bombardment from the fleet, seized the -defenses without a struggle. After such a singular display of blundering -and cowardice on the part of the Chinese, what followed was not -astonishing. The troops passing the isthmus, found themselves on the -shore of Talien-wan Bay, one of the best harbors in North China. Ample -preparations for defense had indeed been made, but they were not -utilized by the cowardly soldiers. The Japanese themselves were taken by -surprise. They had not contemplated such a fiasco. - -Meanwhile the army had continued its march towards Port Arthur. Their -line of communication to the rear, both by land and sea, was perfect. -The commissariat was in the best condition for service. The hospital -corps was active and modern in its manner of work. Nurses of the Red -Cross Society, both men and women, accompanied the army and were -provided with everything in the power of the commander to grant, being -shown every courtesy. On the other hand, efforts made by hospital corps -to reach the Chinese wounded from the Chinese side of the lines, met -with utter failure. Two Red Cross nurses were turned back by the Chinese -authorities at Tien-tsin, they declining to be responsible for the -safety of non-combatants. The Taotai Sheng said, “We do not want to save -our wounded. A Chinaman cheerfully accepts the fates that befall him.” - -More than a fortnight had Marshal Oyama’s army been marching in two -divisions, eastern and western, down the peninsula to Port Arthur. The -distance was less than fifty miles, but the country was a difficult one, -there being practically no roads available except in the cultivated -valleys. As the army approached the objective point, there were -occasional brushes with the enemy. At Ye-jo-shu on November 18, the army -was more than half way from Kinchow to Port Arthur, and almost within -sight of the goal. The next day’s march was expected to bring the forces -to camp on the safe side of the hills, within an hour’s ride of Port -Arthur, unless the Chinese should prevent. The next day was to be -devoted to rest and to making sure that everything was properly arranged -and ready for the fray; and it was confidently asserted that on the -evening of the day after, November 21, the Japanese army would sleep -peacefully in Port Arthur with Dragon Flags for bed quilts. - -On the morning of the 18th the Chinese made a reconnoissance in force, -but retired without discovering much except a Japanese scouting party, -which had a narrow escape. The army was moving along steadily with -General Nishi leading the vanguard, General Yamaji, his staff, and the -war correspondents all with the main body, and General Nogi bringing up -the rear. The field marshal and his staff were also behind, and General -Hasegawa was on the left wing, with his forces practically covering the -country down to the south coast. In front and on the right as far as the -not very distant north coast, small bodies of cavalry and infantry were -thrown out along the valleys. The country was magnificent for defensive -purposes, studded with moderately steep hills, ranging from low -undulations up to huge crags two thousand feet high, with hundreds of -rocky ravines and gulleys; broad fertile valleys never very level, -intersected by winding water courses, like a labyrinth, almost dry at -this season. - -Every two or three miles there were small villages roughly built of -stone, nestling in hollows, with a few trees here and there. In and -about the villages scores of natives crowded, curious to see the -foreigners they feared; on the hilltops were the more timorous ones, -watching awhile and then hurrying away perhaps to tell the Chinese army -what they had seen, but no attempt was ever made to stop them, except -occasionally to ask a question or two. The road was the military road -connecting Port Arthur with Kinchow, Niuchwang and Peking. There was not -the least sign of anything having been done to keep it in repair since -it was first cut a quarter of a century ago, the soft parts were deep -rutted, and would be well-nigh impassable after heavy rain, while the -rocky parts were jagged and strewn with stones of all sizes and shapes. -Over the plains dust drove in black clouds which enveloped the column, -suggesting the great dust storms of North China. There was bright sunny -weather, but the nights were cold during the march down the peninsula. - -The day’s march which had begun at seven in the morning, was to end at -Ye-jo-shu, a big village near the sea, about ten miles northeast of Port -Arthur. Before entering the village General Yamaji was met by an -aid-de-camp with news of fighting ahead, half way to Port Arthur. After -a little hesitation the general granted the request of two of the -correspondents to permit them to go forward, and they galloped off to -the left in a southwesterly direction. Five miles away, among the -hilltops, they caught a glimpse of a small, square, stone building, like -a fort or watchtower, and all around it could be discerned figures -moving amidst clouds of smoke. The road was lined many yards on either -side with men and animals, all racing in the same direction, spurting to -be first at a ford or a narrow defile, urging and helping each other, -and only afraid the enemy might retire too soon. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE SKIRMISHERS BEFORE PORT ARTHUR.] - -It was an hour after midday, and Nishi’s force had just begun to pitch -camp south of Ye-jo-shu, when a courier arrived and announced that the -outer pickets were being forced and cut off. Firing had begun at eleven -o’clock, but did not become serious until an hour later. Cavalry were -rushed to the front, then infantry, then artillery and ammunition trains -as they could be mustered and got away. The correspondents galloped hard -where the land allowed, past soldiers looking to their rifles and -pouches as they ran, past lumbering guns and kicking mules, past panting -coolies and Red Cross men, threading their way through the throng, -cheering the wounded as they were taken to the rear, smiling bravely in -spite of pain. Progress was delayed in the narrow lanes of a picturesque -village, in a little wooded hollow where the artillery stuck in a broad, -shallow stream. But by eager efforts it was got clear, and went on -scrambling up the bank, splashing and stumbling through half dried -ditches, plunging in the soft sand, and bumping over boulders, sparing -neither man nor beast in the rush up the glen to the top of the hill. -There stood Brigadier-General Nishi, watching a “strategic rearward” -movement of the Chinese in the plain beyond, and directing operations -intended to cut them off if possible. Two strong columns were pushed out -right and left, like the horns of a crescent among the hills encircling -the valley, towards the sea northwest and Port Arthur southwest. The -artillery was already on the spot, but was not used yet; there was no -need to let the Chinese know how much strength was massing before Port -Arthur. - -The engagement originated simply in a surprise meeting of opposing -scouts. The Chinese had been creeping all over the valley and -surrounding hills, along the ravines and behind the ridges; Japanese had -been striking out in twos and threes, reconnoitering many miles into the -enemy’s country. Suddenly shots were heard, and a general move was made -on both sides for the main road in the center. The Japanese seeing no -great force in front, and knowing how quickly help could be brought from -behind them, stood their ground at first. About noon however three -strong columns of Chinese with cavalry and artillery, probably three -thousand in all, filed out through the hills from main roads and -by-paths leading from Port Arthur. The Japanese were in great danger of -being surrounded before the advance guard could arrive. Only a score of -cavalry and about two hundred infantry, they had to fight their way back -at pretty close quarters, hand to hand at one point. The Chinese -advanced with an immense display of banners almost to the foot of the -hill where Nishi stood; but the small force of three hundred Japanese -cavalry sent out to draw them on, seemed to scare them off, for by half -past one they were in full retreat, in good order, over the same paths -by which they had come, only just in time to escape the consummation of -the Japanese flank movements. It was no use trying to pursue them into -the hills about Port Arthur; for as the full force of Nishi’s brigade -was collecting about the old stone monument the Chinese army was -disappearing through the passes six miles away. - -[Illustration: RETREAT OF CHINESE SOLDIERS AFTER THE FALL OF PORT -ARTHUR.] - -A cavalry patrol of seven went forward and followed cautiously along the -main road until dusk, turning back at a village just under the hills. -They saw the bodies of the seven Japanese who had been left dead on the -field, hacked, stripped, beheaded, and in two cases minus the right -hand; they saw the cavalryman’s horse lying partly flayed with the skin -turned back where two large pieces of flesh had been carved out and -carried away. They saw traces of the Chinese every few yards, but no -bodies; they must have been removed, for the men of Satsuma had not died -for nothing. They saw no signs of life except the patrols and men with -stretchers for the dead, as they rode back slowly into camp at -Ye-jo-shu, over ten miles of wretched roads, the horses nearly dead with -the fatigue of a long day’s work, stumbling at every step, and finally -having to be left with the coolies while the riders walked most of the -way. These coolies were simply wonderful in their endurance; after the -helter-skelter race for the monument they came up smiling only a few -minutes behind, in spite of their forty pound pack on their shoulders. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE SOLDIERS REMOVING DEAD BODIES.] - -The advance was slow during the 19th and 20th, the desire being to give -the soldiers as much rest as possible before the hard work of the -assault. On arriving at Dojoshu, a village at the foot of the hills near -Port Arthur, about noon on the 20th, the troops were halted. Oyama had -gone around to survey the field, and was expected back every minute, so -the time of waiting was passed in a hurried midday meal. Suddenly the -boom of heavy guns was heard, and the Chinese were seen advancing in two -columns, the right one by Suishiyeh, under the eyes of the troops who -held the hill where the army had halted, and the left by way of the west -side of the valley, out of sight behind the foot hills. They had at last -learned that the invading armies had almost surrounded them, and must be -dislodged if possible. But it was not possible now. It was too late. - -As soon as the advancing left column got within a mile, a portion of the -Japanese artillery opened with shrapnel. The forts replied as soon as -the positions were revealed. About 3:00 o’clock the Chinese column got -within short range of the Japanese batteries, and was struck fairly in -the center by the first two shells. The foolish banners dropped at once, -and the column lay down. Bravely the line was reformed twice, but the -shelling was too hot and too accurate. The Chinese got their field guns -into position but could do nothing for practically none of the Japanese -were exposed to them or to the forts. There was a little musketry fire -on both sides, but of no importance. The artillery settled the affair, -and by 5:00 o’clock the whole of the Chinese army had marched back into -camp. The forts away on the sea-front got into action before dusk, and -dropped a few 12-inch shells uselessly on the hilltops a mile beyond the -Japanese; but when the last streak of daylight had disappeared, all was -quiet. During the rest of the night there was no sound nor sign on -either side. - - - - - THE CAPTURE OF PORT ARTHUR AND THE MASSACRE. - - -------------- - -Description of the Great Chinese Naval Station—Strength of its -position—The Defenses—Arrangement of Japanese Troops, and Plan of -Attack—The First Assault—Attack and Counter-Attack—Fall of the Chinese -Forts—Action of the Fleet—The Japanese in the Streets of Port -Arthur—Massacre of Fugitives—Japanese Red Cross Society and Its Previous -Good Work—Shocking Details of the Atrocities Committed After the Taking -of the Town—Four Days of Violence and Cruelty—Stories of -Eyewitnesses—Japanese Explanations and Excuses—Effects of the Capture of -Port Arthur on the War. - - -Port Arthur, or to give it its native name, Lu-shun-kou, was the largest -naval station possessed by the Chinese. Situated at the extreme southern -end of the Liao-Tung peninsula, Port Arthur in its earlier days afforded -convenient shelter for winter-bound junks employed in carrying timber -from the Yalu River to the ports westward. At that period it was merely -a small village consisting of less than one hundred mud houses, an -occasional shop, and three or four inns. The prosperity of the town -began with the determination of the authorities in 1881 to establish a -naval dockyard at the port. At first the work was entrusted to native -contractors, who however proved to be quite incapable of carrying out so -extended an undertaking, and in 1887 a French company took up the -contract, completing the work in three years. The port then boasted of a -large basin with a depth of twenty-five feet at low water. Spacious -wharves and quays bordered this basin, and were connected with the -workshops by a railroad. Two dry-docks were built ready for repairing -ships of all sizes, from iron clads to torpedo vessels. Foundries and -workshops were constructed on the most improved models, and containing -the best modern machinery. The fact that the harbor was always free from -ice, even in the coldest of winter, added to its value. By the time of -the beginning of the war, the number of houses had multiplied until they -were able to contain a population of about six thousand, exclusive of -the garrison. There were also two large temples, two theatres, and -several banks, besides the necessary stores and warehouses. - -Such land defenses as this important dockyard possessed when the war -broke out, were limited to nine small redoubts, connected by mud walls -in some cases, on the north and northeast, and three redoubts on the -southwest. On the north side a range of hills from three hundred and -fifty to six hundred and fifty feet high, running from the sea to a -shallow inlet of the harbor, enclosed the position. The tops of these -hills were not more than two thousand five hundred yards from the -dockyard and town. The original line of defenses was still closer to the -town, and on the northern side was only about one thousand yards in -advance of the vital point. The strongest part of the position was a -group of three coast batteries surrounded by a continuous mud wall, and -crowning a hill on the right of the entrance to the harbor. The works -all appeared to be designed for the protection of the narrow harbor -mouth, which at the entrance was only a few hundred yards wide. - -Upon the outbreak of the war, much additional fortification was carried -out. The normal garrison of four thousand was greatly increased, and the -troops who were drilled on the European model garrisoned the -fortifications, and were to be further assisted in the defense of the -port by submarine mines and a fleet of torpedo boats. The forts were -armed with heavy Krupp guns, and the artillery men were especially -trained by a German officer. Within the defenses there were all of the -most recent scientific appliances, electric search lights, torpedo -factories, etc., and the forts were connected by telephone. - -The Japanese army broke camp at Dojoshu village before Port Arthur at -1:00 A.M. on November 21, and marching by circuitous and very difficult -routes over the outlying hills, sometimes quite close to the sea at -Pigeon Bay, got into line of battle before daylight. The moon was in the -last quarter, and gave very little light; the sky was quite clear, and -the weather dry and cool. The positions were as heretofore described. - -The key of the position was the northwest triple fort on Table Mountain, -and there the whole weight of the opening attack was concentrated. The -field marshal and his staff were mostly near the center of the line, and -the heavy siege artillery was planted on the best position available -near the center, and north to northeast of Port Arthur, five or six -miles away, with Suishiyeh and the forts right opposite and well in -range. The first division under General Yamaji occupied the right wing, -and had the roughest and most broken country to traverse. Nine batteries -of field and mountain guns were got into fine positions, on lofty -ridges, nearly on the same level and almost within rifle shot of the -forts; while behind the artillery lay large bodies of infantry ready for -a rush. Brigadier-General Nishi had charge of the extreme right, and -Brigadier-General Nogi the right center, near the field marshal. On the -left, Brigadier-General Hasegawa had his mixed brigade rather wider -apart, as the hills were not near enough to aid greatly in an assault on -the forts; nor were the hills very good as artillery positions. Hasegawa -had only two batteries, but the flying column under Lieutenant-Colonel -Masamitsu, that had moved from San-ju-li Ho on the south shore road was -with him, and had a mountain battery beside two battalions of infantry -and a thousand cavalry. - -The first shot was fired within two or three minutes of seven o’clock, -from a battery of thirty guns, just as the day was becoming light enough -for gun practice. Then for an hour the Japanese guns blazed into the -Table-Top forts, which with their guns of all sizes kept up a spirited -reply. In the forts, and in the rifle pits on the hillside under the -walls, were about one thousand infantry; near the Japanese batteries -trenches had been dug in the stony ground during the night, and -sheltered ravines had been carefully selected, where practically the -whole of the first division, at least ten thousand men, lay in wait. The -Chinese shells came close by their ears in dozens, bursting or burying -themselves on the other side of the little ravine behind. Many of the -boulders about were struck, but strange to say not a man was killed. In -the first half hour there must have been three hundred shells over an -area of as many yards, but the average elevation was slightly too high, -and no damage was done. - -Meantime the Japanese were getting to work all along the line. Each -battery had a telescope fixed to bear on the desired target, though the -dense morning mist and the thick clouds of smoke frequently made it -quite impossible to see for a time. It was easy enough to tell that the -Japanese had got the reins from the very first. The opening shot of the -day, which all watched with intense interest, had struck within five -yards short of a Krupp gun in the nearest of the three forts. The -closeness of this shot, in semi-darkness, at an unknown range estimated -to be one thousand yards, was a fair indication of what followed. One by -one the Chinese guns ceased fire towards eight o’clock, and suddenly a -great shouting came across the valley from the fort. The Japanese -infantry were singing a march song as they charged the forts, and in a -few minutes a huge cheer ran all along the line over the hilltops and In -the valleys where the rest of the Japanese were, and great cries of -“Kot-ta—Victory!” The Chinese emptied their guns and small arms as the -Japanese swarmed up on three sides, firing every few yards and then -rushing forward. The enemy, not numerous enough for hand-to-hand combat, -waited no longer but fled over the edge of the hill, down to the -fortified camps before the town, and the Table Mountain forts displayed -the flag of the Rising Sun. - -After this first success, the rest of the battle was practically little -more than a question of time, although there was still a great deal of -hard fighting to follow. Neither side had yet lost more than fifty or -sixty in killed and wounded, and there were still many thousand Chinese -soldiers to be considered. Had the forts been fully manned with plenty -of picked marksmen, they should have cost the invaders several hundreds -if not thousands and should have held out longer. And if the Chinese -artillery had been as accurate and steady as the Japanese, the vast -difference in position and shelter should have more than compensated for -the disparity in numbers. Careful planning, rapidity of attack, and -individual bravery were all on the Japanese side. The Chinese did not, -indeed, run at the sound of shooting, as has been said. They stood their -ground manfully and tried their best to shoot straight up to the last -minute; but they never attempted to face the foe hand to hand to “Die in -the last ditch.” - -Only one definite counter-attack was made; a large force, probably near -two thousand of Chinese infantry with a few cavalry, marched out around -the hills westward, north of the Port Arthur lagoon, to turn the -Japanese right flank. General Yamaji, who never showed fatigue all day -but kept near the front calmly and resolutely at every move, detected -the attempt at once, and dispatched Brigadier-General Nishi with the -third regiment and the mountain battery to meet it. The extremely rough, -broken country rendered movement slow, and this part of the battle -dragged on until the afternoon. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE ATTACK ON PORT ARTHUR.] - -The second regiment had occupied the Isusen forts shortly after eight -o’clock, and the artillery was then ordered forward. The guns had come -on late from Talien-wan, by forced marches night and day, over a very -difficult route, and only arrived at Dojoshu on the night of the 20th, -after the enemy’s attempt to dislodge the field and mountain guns. The -same night twenty of these large guns had been taken into position for -the fight north and west of Suishiyeh, and from one to three kilometers -from the nearest forts. They were supported by the whole of the first -division, fifteen thousand men less twenty-four hundred men detailed to -garrison Kinchow and Talien-wan. Deducting also the regiment of -twenty-four hundred sent to head off the flank movement in the west, -there were ten thousand left before the Table Mountain forts. Not more -than a third actually took part in the storming. The rest were waiting -ready for use if needed, all along the line from the advance guard under -Nishi, near the lagoon, to the center under Nogi, about Peh-ka-shu -village, where the skirmish was on the 19th. Here, midway between the -camp at Dojoshu and the large village of Suishiyeh, Field Marshal Oyama -and his staff remained during the first part of the day, communicating -his orders by aides-de-camp, never by flag, or flash signal, or bugle, -to Yemaji and Hasegawa on the left. - -Peh-ka-shu was about a kilometer north of Suishiyeh, and Suishiyeh about -five kilometers north of Port Arthur town, and one kilometer from Table -Mountain fort on the east, and Pine Tree fort on the west. About half -way between Peh-ka-shu and the sea, southeastward, was So-tai-shu where -Hasegawa faced the line of eight forts along a wall of five or six -kilometers. Of course this brigade did not cover all the country; he had -about five thousand men near the center and two thousand near the sea. -The five thousand were about equally divided between Shoju and Niryo, -each one regiment of two thousand four hundred with artillery. In -attacking, two battalions of eight hundred each formed the front, and -one was held behind until within range. Then the whole opened out in -skirmishing order and charged, and the Chinese exploded several mines, -but without effect, as the fuses were not well timed. Some electric -mines were also used but wrongly timed. - -[Illustration: - - THE ATTACK ON KINCHOW. - Japanese Drawing. -] - -While Yamaji was attacking the northwest forts, Hasegawa engaged the -attention of the northeast forts, in order to prevent them from -concentrating fire on the Japanese right. No serious attack was made by -the mixed brigade until the first division had made the winning move. -Thus the Chinese right wasted their energy on almost bare country, while -the weight of the Japanese attack fell on the almost entirely isolated -Chinese left. The strategy succeeded completely, for by the time the -Chinese discovered their mistake it was too late. The Shoju, or Pine -Tree Hill forts opened a heavy fire across Suishiyeh plain, on the hills -occupied by the Japanese; but Isu was already finished and the whole -weight of Japanese artillery was centered on the largest Shoju fort. -Thus the Japanese right wing, which had been briefly threatened by the -forts on its left and the Chinese column on its right, was never really -in any danger, for while the third regiment under Nishi was storming -Isu, the second regiment with its back to the third beat off the enemy’s -infantry, and the mountain, field, and siege batteries gave Shoju far -more than it could face. - -It was surprising how the Chinese stood to their guns; they worked like -heroes and aimed their guns well. But what could a fort or a half-dozen -of forts do, against fifty guns hidden in the mountains, moving to get -better positions when possible, and firing systematically and -simultaneously at one point. - -A furious fusillade was maintained by both sides for nearly two hours; -but the Chinese shots got wilder and wilder as the Japanese improved, -until finally the Shoju magazine blew up and set fire to the sheds -inside of the forts. Then shortly after eleven o’clock, Hasegawa charged -all along the line, and took all the eight forts one by one. The big -Shoju fort, which had done such determined work was, of course, -evacuated as soon as it caught fire, and for two hours afterward the -ruined wood-work burned and the piles of ammunition continued to -explode. The second largest fort, Liang Leong, or Double Dragon, held -out longest. Twice the Japanese advancing along a ravine tried to break -cover and rush up the hill, but were met by bombs from the mortars, and -had to get back into shelter and try musketry again. Again they came up -magnificently at their officers’ call, and scrambled up the mountain -side in the teeth of a galling cross fire. At the ramparts, not a -Chinaman remained. They fled from fort to fort along the high wall, -firing as they went, and making a stand at every point till too close -for rifles. All over the hills they were chased and for many miles -around hardly a hundred yards could be passed without sight of a Chinese -corpse. Those who escaped got down into the town with the main body of -the Chinese army. - -Meanwhile there had been heavy firing, chiefly infantry, between -Suishiyeh, Isu and Port Arthur. There was a flat tract about three miles -square, with low ridges of mud and stones across, behind which the -Chines riflemen lay. They had tried to make a stand about the walled -camps below Isu, but shells and shrapnel soon cleared them out. The -Japanese then mustered in the same place about two thousand men from the -right wing and right center, increasing in number every minute, and -ready to force the town itself. Between these camps and the big drill -ground at the entrance to Port Arthur were some three thousand Chinese -in skirmishing order, making the most of every bit of cover and firing -desperately. Behind them the Chinese field guns, some dozen in number, -tried to locate the enemy and occasionally succeeded; one shell -shattered the corner of the largest camp, where a dense body of Japanese -stood behind the wall waiting for orders, and killed several of them. -Still farther back, a big hill which threatened the town swarmed with -riflemen, who were sheltered by piles of stones and abundantly supplied -with ammunition. Last of all the shore forts were firing a little, but -could not aid much in the melee. - -Steadily the Japanese crept forward from cover to cover, assisted by -artillery from Suishiyeh, until the parade ground and the general’s -pavilion overlooking it had been mastered and cleared, and nothing -remained but the trenches of Boulder hill, or Hakugoku, the town itself, -and the shore forts. Along the south of the parade ground ran a broad, -shallow stream that came down the Suishiyeh valley, flowing into a creek -west of Hakugoku. Three times the Japanese came out from behind the -parade ground wall, to cross the bridge, but were driven back by a -withering hail of bullets. At last they forced it and rushed across with -a cheer, and spread out over the face of the hill pursuing the Chinese -up to the town itself. The Second Regiment fired volleys as it advanced -to the town. Not a shot was fired in reply. The battle was over as far -as Port Arthur was concerned. - -The Japanese fleet was not inactive during the assault by the land -forces. At 10:30 A.M. the Japanese vessels, comprising the Matsusima, -Chiyoda, Itsukusima, Hasidate, Yoshino, Naniwa, Akitsushima, Takachiho, -Fuso, Hiyei, and Kongo steamed past Port Arthur, rounding the -promontory. The Chiyoda here began to fire shells over the forts at a -very long range. A tugboat from Taku was searched by the Japanese, but -was allowed to proceed. At 4:00 o’clock the fleet returned, passing Port -Arthur again, at a distance of about six miles, and one of the big forts -fired at the Chiyoda but failed to hit her. The admiral did not respond -to the fire nor alter his course but steamed slowly on. A few minutes -later, as the Chinese troops were hurrying down to the harbor, ten -torpedo boats dashed from the fleet, separating in pairs and firing -three-pounder Hotchkiss guns at the exposed soldiers. The fire was -briskly responded to by one fort to the left of the harbor, but not a -single shot told. A steamer which had towed a junk out of Port Arthur -with Taotai Kung in it, making his escape, was cut off on her return and -ran ashore, where the crew deserted her and took to the hills. - -[Illustration: PORT ARTHUR FROM THE BAY.] - -As the Japanese troops reached the edge of the town, driving the Chinese -before them, a halt was called before the army marched in, as the force -was not yet assembled in strength. This delay enabled the Chinese to -take to boats, and scores of sampans and junks were soon moving off, -some over the lagoon to the mountain fastnesses of Lao-tieh-shan -promontory in the southwest, and some out to sea, in full view of the -Japanese fleet. When the first division was all assembled before the -town, with the left wing to the northeast in case the enemy should rally -and try to dash out, the order was given to enter the town and storm the -inner fort, Golden Hill. The Second Regiment led, firing volleys file by -file through the streets, past the docks, and the burning army stores, -up the hill, and into Ogunsan, which was practically abandoned without -an effort at defense. - -During the evening Hasegawa’s brigade went over the hills, and occupied -the two eastern shore forts called the “Mule’s Jaws.” The following -morning Yamaji’s first regiment marched around the lagoon and occupied -the peninsula forts, which had been deserted during the night. Where the -Chinese all vanished to, appeared rather a mystery to the victors. It -was found that most of them got away along the beach past Hasegawa, and -the rest westward in small parties under cover of darkness. In such a -wide stretch of hilly country, it was easy for them to conceal -themselves if they once escaped the vicinity of their foes. Port Arthur -was in full possession of Marshal Oyama, with the fleet under Admiral -Ito safe in the harbor. - -Now comes the most painful recital of the war. It is difficult to -reconcile in any one’s mind the pretensions to enlightened civilization -which the Japanese had claimed, with the horrible atrocities committed -by the victorious army during the days following the capture of Port -Arthur. Let us glance at what had been the history of Japanese treatment -of the wounded in previous battles. - -It will be remembered that in a foregoing chapter of this work, the -proclamation of the Japanese minister of war enjoining humanity upon all -his soldiers was quoted, and that it was stipulated that the ignorance -of the Chinese as to the true meaning of humanity would cause them to -commit atrocities no doubt, which must not be imitated in retaliation by -Japanese troops. At Hiroshima, the military headquarters of Japan during -the war, was the principal military hospital and the establishment of -the Red Cross society, which to investigators were a remarkable -revelation after all that had been said about Japanese inhumanity and -indifference to suffering. As long ago as 1877, when the Satsuma clan -raised the standard of rebellion, a benevolent society was founded to -aid and care for the sick and wounded, enemies as well as friends, after -the manner of the European Red Cross societies. Subscriptions at once -began to pour in, the emperor and empress helping greatly, and -throughout the Satsuma war the young organization distinguished itself -admirably. From that time special efforts were made to bring the society -up to the high standard of its western models in every way; and when the -government of Japan in 1886 declared its adhesion to the Geneva -convention, the “Hakuaisha” was reorganized and formally enrolled on the -international list of Red Cross societies. Since then it had made rapid -progress, its membership reaching nearly thirty thousand in 1893, with -funds liberally augmented by the emperor, and an annual income before -the war with China of $70,000. Since 1887, a large number of women, -including members of the royal family and of the nobility, have become -qualified nurses of the order and have taken instruction in the making -of articles for use in its work. The objects of the society, as set -forth in the rules, are to help the sick and wounded in time of war, and -to prepare for the same by organizing a trained staff in time of peace. -The last activity of the Red Cross society prior to the war in 1891, was -when the central provinces of Japan were devastated by an earthquake -which caused the loss of more than seven thousand lives, besides untold -suffering. - -With the object of training a staff properly, the society in 1886 -established a hospital of its own in Tokio, and three years later, when -this one was outgrown, a new one was erected on a splendid site provided -by the emperor and empress. The hospital itself covers some two acres, -and the grounds about ten. After the war began, the membership funds and -operations of the society were all multiplied about three times above -normal. All the working staff was under the control of the army medical -staff, and operated in conjunction with the army corps. At Hiroshima in -the permanent military hospital, Chinese wounded by the scores and -hundreds were received and treated with the same care that was given to -the Japanese. For order, cleanliness, and convenience these institutions -would reflect credit on any country. Just prior to the battle of Port -Arthur, the female nurses of the Red Cross societies in Hiroshima -numbered eighty-eight and more were soon to come from Tokio. Like the -men they had uniforms of European pattern, and all wore the badge of -membership. Many had other badges representing special qualifications or -services. - -In Corea there were two hospitals managed by the Red Cross society, one -near Chemulpo and the other near Ping-Yang. At the seat of war the -society had a staff of forty, consisting of a chief manager, a -secretary, a treasurer, five doctors, two pharmacists in charge of the -drug supplies and thirty male nurses. - -To those who love contrasts, it will be startling to note the difference -between the spirit of the Japanese Red Cross society, which was doing -everything that humanity and science could suggest for wounded Chinamen, -and that of the victorious army at Port Arthur in its atrocious butchery -of unarmed fugitives. - -The execrable deeds which followed the taking of the place pushed into -the background the question of how many hundreds on one side or the -other fell in the battle. The massacre of the whole remaining population -of Port Arthur, between two and three thousand, without distinction of -age or sex, and that by the soldiers of Marshal Oyama’s army, for a time -passed practically without mention in the newspapers of England and the -United States. Three of the famous correspondents who entered the town -with the Japanese army were Creelman of the New York _World_, Villiers -of the London _Standard_, and Cowan of the London _Times_. The first -detailed description of the atrocities witnessed by these correspondents -was that made by Creelman, and for a time after his story was published, -other leading American journals denounced it as false. One month later -it was found that Creelman’s shocking story was true in every essential -particular. No words except those from the lips of men who saw the acts -of inhuman barbarity can justly describe the scenes. Said Cowan, in a -letter dated at Kobe twelve days after the taking of Port Arthur: - -“What happened after Port Arthur fell into Japanese hands, it would have -been impossible and even dangerous to report while on the spot. At the -earliest possible moment, every foreign correspondent escaped from the -horrifying scene to a place where freedom of speech would be safe; and -as we sailed away from Port Arthur on the Nagoto Maru eight days ago, -almost astonished to find ourselves escaping alive from the awful -epidemic of incredible brutality, the last sounds we heard were those of -shooting, of wanton murder, continued the fifth day after the great -battle. When the Japanese army entered Port Arthur on the 21st, -beginning a little after two o’clock in the afternoon, the Chinese had -resisted desperately till the last, retreating slowly from cover to -cover, until they got back among the buildings on the outskirts of the -town. Then at last all resistance ceased; they were thoroughly defeated, -and made a stampede through the streets trying to hide or to escape, -east or west as best they might. I was on the brow of a steep hill -called “White Boulders,” in Japanese Hakugoku, commanding a close view -of the whole town at my feet. When I saw the Japanese march in, firing -up the streets and into the houses, chasing and killing every live thing -that crossed their path, I looked hard for the cause. I saw practically -every shot fired, and I swear positively that not one came from any but -Japanese. I saw scores of Chinese hunted out of cover, shot down, and -hacked to pieces, and never a man made any attempt to fight. All were in -plain clothes, but that meant nothing for the soldiers flying from death -got rid of their uniforms how they might. Many went down on their knees, -supplicating with heads bent to the ground in kowtow, and in that -attitude were butchered mercilessly by the conquering army. Those who -fled were pursued and sooner or later were done to death. Never a shot -came from a house as far as I could see, and I could hardly believe my -eyes, for, as my letters have shown, the indisputable evidence of -previous proceedings had filled me with admiration of the gentle -Japanese. So I watched intensely for the slightest sign of cause, -confident that there must be some, but I saw none whatever. If my eyes -deceived me, others were in the same plight; the military attaches of -England and America were also on Boulder Hill and were equally amazed -and horrified. It was a gratuitous ebullition of barbarism they -declared, a revolting repudiation of pretended humanity. - -“Gun shots behind us turned our attention to the north creek leading -into the broad lagoon. Here swarms of boats were moving away to the -west, loaded to twice their normal limit with panic-stricken fugitives, -men, women, and children, who had stayed too late in the beleaguered -town. A troop of Japanese cavalry with an officer, was at the head of -the creek, firing seaward, slaughtering all within range. An old man and -two children of ten and twelve years had started to wade across the -creek; a horseman rode into the water and slashed them a dozen times -with his sword. The sight was more than mortal man could stand. Another -poor wretch rushed out at the back of a house as the invaders entered -the front door, firing promiscuously. He got into a back lane, and a -moment later found himself cornered between two fires. We could hear his -cry for quarter as he bowed his head in the dust three times; the third -time he rose no more, but fell on his side, bent double in the posture -of petition for the greatly vaunted mercy of the Japanese, who stood ten -paces off and exultantly emptied their guns into him. - -“More of these piteous deaths we saw, unable to stay the hands of the -murderers; more and more, far more than one can relate, until sick and -saddened beyond the power of words to tell, we slowly made our way in -the gathering gloom down the hill, picking a path through rifle-pits -thick with Chinese cartridge cases, and back to headquarters. There at -the Chinese general’s pavilion, facing a spacious parade ground, Field -Marshal Oyama and all his officers assembled, amid the strains of -strange music from the military band, now a weird, characteristic -Japanese march, now a lively French waltz, and ending with the -impressive national anthem, “Kaminoga,” and a huge roar from twenty -thousand throats, “Banzai Nippon!” All were overflowing with -enthusiastic patriotism and the delight of a day’s work done, a splendid -triumph after a hard fought fight; none of the Japanese dreamed that -their guests from the west were filled with horror, indignation, and -disgust. It was a relief to get away from that flood of fiendish -exultation, to escape from the effusive glee of our former friends, who -would overwhelm us with their attention which we loathed like caresses -from the ghouls of hell. To have to remain among men who could do what -we had seen was little short of torture. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE SOLDIERS MUTILATING BODIES.] - -“Robbed of our sleep on the eve of the battle, and utterly exhausted, we -lay long next morning until the sound of shooting roused us. To our -surprise and dismay we found that the massacre of Wednesday, which might -have been explained though certainly not excused on the ground of -excitement in the heat of battle, the flush of victory, and the -knowledge of dead comrades mutilated, was being continued in cold blood -now. Thursday, Friday, Saturday, and Sunday were spent by the soldiery -in murder and pillage from dawn to dark, in mutilation, in every -conceivable kind of nameless atrocity, until the town became a ghastly -Inferno to be remembered with a fearsome shudder until one’s dying day. -I saw corpses of women and children, three or four in the streets, more -in the water; I stooped to pick some of them out to make sure that there -could be no possibility of mistake. Bodies of men strewed the streets in -hundreds, perhaps thousands, for we could not count—some with not a limb -unsevered, some with heads hacked, cross-cut, and split lengthwise, some -ripped open, not by chance but with careful precision, down and across, -disemboweled and dismembered, with occasionally a dagger or bayonet -thrust in private parts. I saw groups of prisoners tied together in a -bunch with their hands behind their backs, riddled with bullets for five -minutes, and then hewn in pieces. I saw a junk stranded on the beach, -filled with fugitives of either sex and of all ages, struck by volley -after volley until—I can say no more. - -“Meanwhile every building in the town was thoroughly ransacked, every -door burst open, every box and closet, every nook and cranny looted. -What was worth taking was taken, and the rest destroyed or thrown into -the gutter. Even Mr. Hart, Reuter’s war correspondent on the Chinese -side, whom we found when we entered Port Arthur, was robbed of -everything but the clothes he had on, while his cook and two scully boys -in the same house were shot at their kitchen stove, while doing nothing -but their regular work. Mr. Hart himself had told the Chinese hotel -keeper before the battle not to leave the town, because the Japanese -would certainly do no harm to citizens or property. So thoroughly had -been the discipline maintained, and so perfect the show of civilized -methods in warfare, that the present outburst of cold-blooded brutality -was the very last thing to have been thought possible. - -“The Japanese alleged that the populace of the town had been armed with -guns and express ammunition, and that the army when entering the town -had been attacked from the houses. I did afterward find cartridges such -as these lying about; but I never saw one fired. I never saw any attack -from the houses. I saw the Japanese firing before they entered, and as -they entered, without intermission. - -“The Japanese who had been wounded and killed or captured in several -skirmishes before the day of the battle, had been horribly mutilated by -the Chinese. We saw several bodies along the line of march, and it is -said others were found in the town, with hands and heads cut off, -stomachs opened, etc. And some were burnt at Kinchow, and one said to be -burnt in Port Arthur. Moreover, placards have been found offering -rewards and stating prices, for heads, hands, or prisoners. So the -Japanese soldiers swore revenge, and they carried out their vow -thoroughly in barbarous eastern style. All that can be said is that the -Chinese committed nameless atrocities which the Japanese repaid a -hundred fold. - -“It is unavoidable that innocent persons must be killed in war. I do not -blame the Japanese for that alone; Chinese soldiers dress as peasants -and retain their weapons, and attack when they can under cover of -disguise. It therefore becomes excusable to some extent to regard all -Chinese as enemies, with or without uniform; in that the Japanese are -plainly justified. But regarding them as enemies, it is not humanity to -kill them; they should be taken alive. I saw hundreds killed after being -captured and tied. Perhaps that is not barbarity; at any rate it is the -truth. On the day of the battle, soldiers fresh from the excitement of a -hard struggle cannot help being somewhat bloodthirsty, perhaps. At any -rate their nerves are tense, their blood is up, they are violently -excited. Not that it is right to be so, but it is usual. But the battle -was on the 21st, and still on the 25th, after four nights’ sleep, the -slaughter was continued. Some allowance must be made for the intense -indignation of the soldiers whose comrades had been mutilated by the -Chinese. Indignation is perfectly justifiable; the Japanese were quite -right to feel incensed. But why should they express themselves in the -very same barbarous manner? Is it because they are also barbarous at -heart like the Chinese? Of course they say ‘No.’ Then they will have to -prove it, for the fact remains that a dozen white men saw these Japanese -commit these savageries for four clear days after the day of the fight.” - -Creelman’s story was as graphic and as shocking in its details, and -included many of the same sights which were related by Cowan. He says in -part: “The story of the taking of Port Arthur will be one of the -blackest pages in history. An easy victory over a Chinese mob, and the -possession of one of the most powerful strongholds in the world, was too -great a strain upon the Japanese character, which relapsed in a few -hours back to the state from which it awakened a generation ago. Almost -the entire population found in Port Arthur have been massacred, and the -work of butchering unarmed and unresisting inhabitants has continued day -after day until the streets are choked with corpses. The march upon -helpless Peking or a surrender of China to her foe is a small matter in -its vital significance compared with this appalling crime against the -nineteenth century, at a moment when Japan asks to be admitted as an -equal into the family of civilized nations. The Japanese lost about -fifty dead and two hundred and fifty wounded in carrying a fortress that -would have cost them ten thousand men had it been occupied by European -or American troops, and yet the sense of uncontrolled power which let -loose the savagery which had been pent up in the Japanese under the -external forms of civilization, has proved the utter incapability of the -nation to stand the one sure test. Japan stands disgraced before the -world. She has violated the Geneva convention, dishonored and profaned -the Red Cross, and banished humanity and mercy from her councils. -Victory and a new lust for dominion have set her mad. - -“All attempts to justify the massacre of the wretched people of Port -Arthur and the mutilation of their bodies, are mere afterthoughts. The -evidence is clear and overwhelming that it was the sudden breaking down -of Japanese civilization under the stress of conscious power. The -tremendous facts revealed by the war so far are, that there is -practically no Chinese army in existence; that Japan has been arraying -herself in the outward garb of civilization, without having gone through -the process of moral and intellectual development necessary to grasp the -ideas upon which modern civilization is founded; that Japan at heart is -a barbarous nation, not yet to be trusted with sovereign power over the -lives and property of civilized men. Up to the moment Port Arthur was -entered I can bear witness that both of her armies now in the field were -chivalrous and generous to the enemy. There was not a stain on her flag. -But it was all blind sentiment. The Japanese were playing with the Red -Cross as with a new toy and their leaders were never weary of calling -the attention of other nations to the spectacle. - -“When Port Arthur fell, not even the presence of the horrified British -and American military attaches and of foreign newspaper correspondents -served to check the carnival of murder. I have again and again tried to -save helpless men from slaughter by protest and entreaty, but in vain. -The sign of the Red Cross was jeered at, and in the midst of the orgies -of blood and rapine, with troops tramping over the bodies of unarmed -victims who lost their homes, the fat field marshal and his generals -paced smiling, content at the sound of rifle shots mingling with the -music of the national hymn and the clink of wine glasses. I am satisfied -that not more than one hundred Chinamen were killed in fair battle at -Port Arthur and that at least two thousand unarmed men were put to -death. It may be called the natural result of the fury of troops who -have seen the mutilated corpses of their comrades, or it may be called -retaliation, but no civilized nation could be capable of the atrocities -I have witnessed in Port Arthur. Every scene I have described I have -looked upon myself, either in the presence of the American and British -military attaches, or in the company of Mr. Cowan or Mr. Villiers. The -field marshal and all his generals were aware that the massacre was -being continued day after day. - -[Illustration: MARSHAL OYAMA.] - -“We watched the Second regiment as it marched into town, firing volleys -as it advanced. Not a shot was fired in reply. The soldiers had made -their escape, and the frightened inhabitants were cowering in the -streets. As the troops moved on they saw the heads of their slain -comrades hanging by cords with the noses and ears gone. There was a rude -arch in the main street decorated with bloody Japanese heads. A great -slaughter followed. The infuriated soldiers killed every one they saw. I -can say as an eyewitness that the wretched people of Port Arthur made no -attempt to resist the invaders. Just below me was a hospital flying the -Red Cross flag, but the Japanese fired upon the unarmed men who came out -of the doorway. A merchant in fur cap knelt down and raised his hands in -entreaty. As the soldiers shot him he put his hands over his face. I saw -his corpse the next day, slashed beyond recognition. Women and children -were hunted and shot at as they fled to the hills with their protectors. -All along the streets I could see the bleeding store keepers shot and -sabered. A junk was discovered in the harbor crowded with fugitives. A -platoon was stretched across the end of a wharf, and fired into the boat -until every man, woman and child was killed. The torpedo boats outside -had already sunk ten junks filled with terror stricken people. - -“The Japanese had tasted blood, and the work went on the second day. I -saw four men walking peaceably along the edge of the town, one man in -the street carried a naked infant in his arms. As he ran he dropped the -baby. I found it an hour later, dead. The third, the father of the baby -tripped and fell. In an instant a soldier had pounced upon his back with -a naked bayonet in his hand. I ran forward and made the sign of the Red -Cross on the white non-combatant’s bandage around my arm, but the appeal -was useless. The bayonet was plunged three or four times into the neck -of the prostrate man, and then he was left to gasp his life out on the -ground. I hurried back to my quarters and awakened Frederick Villiers, -who went with me to the spot where I left the dying man. He was dead, -but his wounds were still smoking. - -“While we were bending over the corpse we heard shooting a few yards -around a road, and went forward to see what it was. We saw an old man -standing with his hands tied behind his back. On the ground beside him -were the writhing bodies of three other pinioned men who had just been -shot. As we advanced a soldier shot the old man down. This was the third -day after the battle. Next day I went in company with Mr. Villiers to -see a courtyard filled with mutilated corpses. As we entered we -surprised two soldiers bending over one of the bodies. They had ripped -open the corpse. When they saw us they cowered and tried to hide their -faces.” - -It is but fair to the Japanese to relate what they had to offer in -contravention of these shocking reports so well substantiated. The -Japanese minister to Great Britain, Mr. Takaki Kato, while passing -through New York some weeks after the taking of Port Arthur, offered -these explanations. - -“Port Arthur, while vastly important as a strategic point, was scarcely -more than a village as far as the number of its inhabitants was -concerned. These, which at the outside could not have numbered more than -two or three thousand, consisted of a few petty merchants, laborers, and -workmen in the docks, their families, and the wives and children of some -of the soldiers. This was all that Port Arthur consisted of, as far as -population was concerned in times of peace, except the military forces -that manned the forts. Second, it had long been known that the Japanese -forces were advancing on the fort. All the non-combatants, women and -children, were removed to places of safety long before the battle began; -indeed the exodus was begun fully a month beforehand. Third, in the face -of these reports of wholesale slaughter, how do you account for the fact -that between three and four hundred Chinese soldiers were taken -prisoners in and about the town of Port Arthur immediately after its -occupation? - -“The victorious army was compelled before entering the town to pass -through a narrow defile which was strewn with the mutilated bodies of -their advance troops. There lay their comrades in arms, not only dead, -but with every evidence that they had been tortured to death by the most -revolting and brutal methods. Picture such a scene of horror, and you -will have a faint conception of the sight that greeted our victorious -soldiers as they marched through that narrow pass. These were their -comrades, their companions, that lay before them as ghastly evidences of -inhuman brutality. Can you appreciate the low murmur of horror that -passed along the line? Can you understand how each man then and there in -his heart determined to avenge such fiendishness, and then can you blame -our men for killing every Chinese soldier found hidden in the town when -they first entered? Yes, there were excesses, regrettable but surely -exhonorable excesses, after the battle of Port Arthur. But these wild -tales of the wholesale slaughter of innocent women are fiction pure and -simple. A few women may have been killed in the general melee that -followed the first entrance into the town, but that was accident, not -intention, if it occurred at all. With a very few exceptions all the men -killed proved to be Chinese soldiers who had discarded their arms and -uniforms. - -“What our troops saw of Chinese barbarity did not begin with Port Arthur -nor did it end there. The most atrocious cruelties were the rule at -Ping-Yang, Kinchow, and indeed every engagement. Before accepting this -reported wantonness of our troops at Port Arthur we must take into -consideration what the Japanese troops did before and what they have -done since. Nowhere has there been butchery or cruelty, but kindness, -moderation and nobility. This in spite of all that our soldiers saw of -the fate of their unhappy companions; this in the face of new -barbarities that were revealed almost daily. Is this not a credit to our -soldiers worthy of national pride and international appreciations?” - -The variety of explanations offered to excuse the atrocities was -considerable. It was reported from Port Arthur a few days after the -charges had been made, that the capture of the place was indeed marked -by regrettable excesses, but the offenders were not regular soldiers. It -was said that the night after the capture of the stronghold, a number of -coolies attached to the army as laborers came into the town from the -camps. These men carried swords, in order to obviate the necessity of -always having regular troops told off for their protection. -Unfortunately they obtained access to some Chinese stores of liquor, and -became intoxicated. While in this condition they were reminded of the -atrocious cruelties committed by the Chinese upon defenseless Japanese -prisoners, and became frenzied. All the coolies practically ran amock, -and no Chinamen whom they met was spared. It was declared that some of -the coolies were at once arrested, and that Marshal Oyama was already -investigating the affair, when he received instructions from imperial -headquarters at Hiroshima to institute a rigorous inquiry. - -The barbarities practised by the Chinese against the Japanese, which -resulted in the atrocious retaliation, were fully corroborated from many -sources. A correspondent of the American Bible Society wrote thus from -Shanghai: - -“The reported inhuman atrocities of the Chinese are fully confirmed. -They were guilty of barbarities too revolting to mention. A scouting -party of Japanese, including an interpreter, were captured by the -Chinese near Port Arthur just before the attack on the fortress. They -were fastened to stakes by nails through their shoulders, burned alive, -and then quartered and their ghastly remains stuck up on poles by the -roadside. Some Japanese members of the Red Cross society were captured -by the Chinese soldiers and flayed alive. During the attack on Port -Arthur the defenders used explosive bullets. Is it any wonder that the -Japanese generals issued the order that no quarter should be shown? The -track of the retreating army has been marked by pillage, rapine, wanton -destruction and outrage, so that the people welcome the Japanese.” - -Japanese diplomats in Washington did not take kindly to the civilized -censure of Japanese atrocities. They had read up on Andersonville, Libby -Prison, Fort Pillow, Wounded Knee, the British cruelties in India and -Africa, the Russian record, and they were ready to compare notes with -civilized armies on the subject of cruelty in war. They also brought -forward native Japanese papers which described the taking of Port -Arthur, and declared that those who were killed after the assault -suffered only because of the frenzy of a few Japanese, shocked by what -they had seen of the cruelties to their own comrades. It was declared -that the Japanese officers and the body of the troops did all in their -power to stop the bloodshed. Furthermore, the Japanese government asked -for a suspension of judgment until the merits of the case could be -investigated. - -The savage massacres which marked the capture of Port Arthur were not -the first, nor will they be the last which will disgrace the conduct of -troops calling themselves civilized. English troops were guilty of -similar massacre in the Peninsular campaign, at least one time in the -Crimea, and repeatedly in suppressing rebellion in India. Our own troops -in the west have been stung to ruthless massacre by the discovery of -their tortured dead in Indian villages. Fort Pillow gave ghastly proof -of the readiness to butcher in our war. French troops in Algeria, New -Zealand colonists in suppressing a Maori rising, and Boers in South -Africa have slaughtered without mercy. These occasions neither palliate -nor excuse barbarity. It is wrong in all races, and in all races from -time to time it will come to the surface. The amazing fact about Japan -is that it is the first Asiatic nation in all history which has fought -any battles and conducted any military operations without massacre. The -slaughter or slavery of surrendered troops has been the unbroken rule of -Asiatic warfare for centuries. Japan has actually been able to reverse -the practice and habit of generations, to school its soldiers to mercy, -and even in the present instance it has been followed, as Wellington’s -massacres in the Peninsula never were, by investigation and an attempt -at repressing like disorder in the future. - -As an indication of the trend of thought of Chinese newspapers, and of -ignorance of the Chinese people concerning the truth of the war, it is -amusing to note the report of one of the vernacular papers on the fall -of Port Arthur. This paper editorially says:—“In allowing the Japanese -to take Port Arthur, General Tso was actuated by motives of the deepest -strategy, and the able manner in which he attained his end, without -allowing his opponents to penetrate his designs, stamps him as one of -the greatest military commanders China has ever seen. Knowing Peking to -be the ultimate goal of the Japanese, General Tso was satisfied that -should a too obstinate resistance be offered at any point, the Japanese -would leave the Chinese unconquered in his rear, and would push on to -the capital; whereas, if an important place like Port Arthur should fall -into their hands, the little men would enjoy the sensation as they would -a new toy, and it would delay them in their march while the road to -Peking was rendered impregnable. General Tso, therefore, inflicted all -the loss possible upon the Japanese, without allowing them to be -absolutely discouraged, and then when defeat was staring his opponents -in the face, gave the signal to his troops to retreat, which they did in -good order. So great was the loss of the Japanese, that it was not until -some hours after the last Chinese soldier had departed, that they -ventured to enter the forts. - -“General Tso displayed marked military skill in his defensive tactics, -and by ordering half-charges of powder to be used in the big guns, and -filling the shell and torpedoes with sand, deluded the innocent -commander of the Japanese fleet into the belief that the defenses and -sea forts of Port Arthur were innocuous. As a result the Japanese fleet -boldly ventured close to the forts and within the line of the torpedo -defenses, and before they discovered their mistake three men-of-war, -seven transports, and twenty-one torpedo boats were sunk by the Chinese -fire and submarine mines. The result of General Tso’s actions prove, as -we have always maintained, that it is inadvisable for China to employ -other than native commanders in the present war. In hand-to-hand combats -the savage and flesh-eating Fanquoi is physically superior to our men, -but no man other than one conversant with the military wisdom of our -enlightened race could have planned and brought to a successful -conclusion the train of events which ended in the offering of Port -Arthur as a bait to our diminutive opponents.” - -From a military point of view, the capture of Port Arthur by the -Japanese was an event of the first importance, while its moral effect -and its consequent influence upon the diplomatic situation was very -great. It transferred from one side to the other all the advantages of a -fully equipped arsenal and dockyard, occupying a commanding strategical -position, and therefore modified all the conditions, naval as well as -military, of the campaign. It made the defense more hopeless than ever, -and extended the chain of Chinese disaster. - -[Illustration: - - CHANG YEN HOON. - Envoy sent by China to Japan to negotiate terms of peace before the - despatch of - Li Hung Chang.—See pages 623 and 655. -] - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - FROM PORT ARTHUR TO WEI-HAI-WEI. - - -------------- - -China Makes Another Attempt towards Peace—The Envoy Rejected Because of -lack of Credentials and Rank—President Cleveland Offers to Help Create -Peace—Chinese and Manchoos at War—Japanese Victories Immediately after -the Taking of Port Arthur—More Corean Politics—The Third Japanese -Army—Preparing for a Descent on the Chinese Mainland—Wei-hai-wei and Its -Capture. - - -Even before Port Arthur had fallen, China was making another attempt to -secure peace through the intervention of foreign nations. As this seemed -slow in coming, however, it was decided that an informal effort to stop -hostilities would be made, one indeed of such a sort that it might be -disavowed if criticism seemed to demand. Consequently, Mr. Gustav -Detring, the Chinese Commissioner of Customs under Sir Robert Hart, was -sent to Japan to feel the way in preliminary negotiations. In its -perplexity and distress, the Chinese government took the step which only -extremity could have driven it to take. It swallowed the pill which was -of all things most bitter. The emperor, on the advice of his council and -at the instigation of Prince Kung and Li Hung Chang, appointed a -foreigner as envoy to Japan. The office was not one which timid Chinamen -would envy, because none of them were ambitious to hand down their names -to posterity in connection with the humiliation of their country. The -wisest man in office was Prince Kung, but he was not the dictator which -he was supposed to be. He was thwarted by other influences, among them -the Grand Council, of which he was not but ought to have been a member. - -In this confusion, the grand imperial effort towards centralization of -authority had partially at least failed, and the failure had the effect -of rehabilitating for the moment the Viceroy Li Hung Chang, who once -more stood out as the only possible practical man. This aged statesman -had many faults, which those who were nearest to him saw most clearly, -but if we compare even his faults with the wisdom of his compeers, he -was still the one-eyed man among the blind, the only man at the time in -the empire who was capable of anything, and whose removal from the scene -would have been regarded with grave apprehension by all who were -interested in the maintenance of order against chaos. - -Mr. Detring, with his suite, left Tien-tsin November 22 by rail to -Tung-ku, embarked there on a steamer, under the German flag, called the -Li-yu, and steamed down the Gulf of Pechili past Chefoo and Wei-hai-wei. -Not until the vessel reached Japan did they know of the fall of Port -Arthur. The vessel proceeded to Kobe, where no one was permitted to land -at first. The envoy at once sought communication with Count Ito, and -applied to the local authorities to inform His Excellency thereof. The -result was not an invitation to Mr. Detring to visit Hiroshima, but the -dispatch of the Secretary-General of the cabinet, Mr. Ito Moiji, to -confer with him at Kobe. From this point there is a difference of -statement as to what occurred. The Chinese declare that before the -arrival of the secretary, Mr. Detring had been recalled by his -government, and having taken leave of the governor he left at daylight -on the 29th without waiting to see Mr. Ito, who had arrived the previous -night. The Japanese, on the contrary, assert that they refused to -entertain any proposals from Mr. Detring, as he was not properly -accredited and had no authority whatever to make peace negotiations. -However that may be, it is certain that he returned to China without -having an audience with any Japanese officials, and that the peace -negotiations were never even begun. - -The next surprise was that whereas the United States had declined to -entertain England’s proposal for a coalition of powers to restore peace -to the orient, President Cleveland subsequently tendered to Japan his -good offices as mediator. He hoped that by his aid peace might be -restored, and restored in such a manner as to secure to Japan the just -fruits of her victories. A reply declining his proposal, couched in duly -grateful terms, was conveyed to the president by Japan, and he having -learned in the interval that the European powers would not agree to -intervene conjointly, ceased his own activity. It was still hoped -however that Minister Denby at Peking and Minister Dun at Tokio would be -able to use their good offices in advancing peace. Japan was holding out -the insistence that China must speak for herself if she wanted peace. -Japan however did go so far as to say that if China had any propositions -of peace to make, they might be transmitted in the beginning through the -United States ministers in Japan and China. It was still evident -however, that China would hold off as long as possible, in the hope that -something would turn up to relieve her of the necessity of suing for -peace. - -The Manchoo princes feared and mistrusted the Chinese, who seemed to be -indifferent to the issue of the war, and intent only on obtaining -individual advantage. It was reiterated again and again, that the -Chinese secret societies desired Japanese success in order that the -Manchoo dynasty be overthrown and the Chinese restored to power. Captain -Von Hannecken, at the request of the Tsung-li Yamen, submitted a -comprehensive scheme of military reorganization. This was approved by -the emperor and the Manchoo statesmen, but was frustrated by the -strategem of certain wealthy taotais, on the alleged ground of economy. -The question was then referred from Peking to Tien-tsin. Thus the -central and provincial governments reduced each other to impotence. -Genuine reform in China appeared to be hopeless, owing to the invincible -ignorance of the rulers. There was much popular discontent at the -imbecility of the government. - -Let us now return to the other forces of Chinese and Japanese, whose -movements, comparatively unimportant, have been neglected for the -advance on Port Arthur. A considerable portion of the Chinese fleet was -still in the harbor at Wei-hai-wei, sometimes cruising out for a little -while, but usually safe at anchor. Several of the Chinese vessels had -slipped out of Port Arthur harbor when Japanese backs were turned, and -steamed across to supposed safety at Wei-hai-wei. On November 22 the -Chen-Yuen, the largest and most formidable battle ship remaining to the -Chinese, ran ashore while entering Wei-hai-wei harbor, and trying to -avoid the torpedoes placed in the channel. She was somewhat damaged by a -torpedo, and was finally beached and rendered useless for the time. -Commodore Liu Taitsan, who was in command of the vessel, anticipated -official condemnation by committing suicide. - -The fall of Port Arthur was followed immediately by a succession of -victories for the Japanese arms in Manchooria, the first Japanese army -continuing its success. The advance of this army towards Mukden -terrorized the people of Manchooria, and the abandonment of the sacred -city by its inhabitants began. The country around was in a state of -desolation. The wounded mostly remained in villages between Niuchwang -and Mukden, the state of the country preventing the Chinese medical -staff and foreign volunteers from proceeding thither. Mukden was -evacuated in the beginning of November by the foreign residents, who -remained at Niuchwang. The Roman Catholic fathers remained at their -station in Manchooria, but the Protestant missionaries returned to safer -regions. - -At Jeh-ho the Mongols rose in rebellion, in revenge for the -assassination of six Mongolian princes. Troops had to be called to put -down the insurrection, as had so often occurred before during the war. - -On the day of the taking of Port Arthur, a large body of Chinese troops -under General Sung attacked Talien-wan and Kinchow, where Japanese had -been left to guard baggage trains and provisions. The conflicts were -sharp, and a number was killed on both sides, but the Chinese were -finally forced to retire. The day after Port Arthur’s fall, the greater -portion of Count Oyama’s army turned and marched northward through the -Laio-Tung promontory, in the direction of Niuchwang. Ten thousand troops -were left behind to guard Japanese interests at Port Arthur. - -November 25, sharp fighting took place near the Mo-thien-ling pass, -between a portion of General Sung’s army and the Japanese under Count -Yamagata. After the Chinese troops had retired from Chiu-lien, they -concentrated north of Mo-thien-ling, and the engagement was an attempt -to turn the Japanese right flank at Tsokow. The conflict opened with a -sharp fusillade, and the Chinese fought with considerable stubbornness -for a time, losing heavily before they finally retired. The attack was -the most determined effort that the Chinese had made since Ping-Yang. -The alarm which existed among the residents of Manchooria, causing their -exodus to Niuchwang, was caused quite as much by Chinese soldiery -retreating or disbanded, as by the Japanese army’s advance. Many -deserters had joined the bands of robbers and brigands to raid the -country in every direction. - -The first army, under Field Marshal Yamagata, finding the country in the -direction of Mukden wasted and deserted, while guerrilla troops harassed -them continually, now abandoned the march to Mukden and joined the -second army, which had turned north, near Niuchwang, Field Marshal Oyama -had sent his transports and a portion of his fleet around the Liao-Tung -peninsula, to move towards Niuchwang, paralled with his army. General -Techimi’s division met the enemy December 10, and after a pitched battle -defeated them with heavy loss. It being reported that a large force of -Chinese under General I was encamped near Kinkua-hu, General Techimi was -ordered to advance upon that place. His scouts reported the Chinese to -be in considerable force, and to consist of cavalry as well as infantry. -General Techimi separated his division into two columns, and delivered a -simultaneous attack early in the morning. The Chinese offered a stout -resistance, and severe fighting ensued. The superior shooting and -discipline of the Japanese soon told. The enemy were gradually driven -back, and finally they broke and fled in disorder, the Japanese pursuing -them for several miles. The majority of the Chinese escaped in the -direction of Tso-hun-kou. The Japanese lost about forty killed and -wounded, and their opponents one hundred. - -Field Marshal Yamagata, who had been in command of the first army since -its organization, at last broke down in health under the strain of his -responsibility and labor, and was compelled to return home in the hope -of restoring his health. He was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Nodzu, -his friend and adviser with the troops. The news of Yamagata’s illness -caused much distress in Japan, and he was welcomed with the highest -honors, both from the government and the people. - -In China the position of the government seemed to be precarious. -Dissatisfaction was rife in Peking and Tien-tsin over the conduct of the -war, and every one in turn was accused of responsibility in the matter. -The Manchoo and Chinese elements were bitterly opposed, and an anti-war -which advocated peace at any price was increasing rapidly. The court of -inquiry which sat at Peking to inquire into the circumstances connected -with the loss of Kinchow and Talien-wan, held that Kinchow was strong -and well-garrisoned and ought never to have been surrendered. The -commandant was therefore sentenced to degradation from military ranks -for allowing the Japanese to take the place. The foreign residents in -Peking, Tien-tsin, and Chefoo were by this time getting nervous over -their own prospects for safety, owing to the disorder and rioting that -prevailed, enhanced by the threatened invasion of the Japanese army. -Marines were sent to Peking from the war ships of all western nations in -Japanese waters, and attached to the legation for the protection of -their countrymen in China. Anti foreign feeling in the capital was on -the increase, and the blue jackets were welcomed most heartily when they -landed. - -Early in December Corea suffered another political crisis, owing to the -duplicity of the government. All the Corean ministers professed -gratitude to Japan, for giving them the opportunity of undertaking the -administrative and social regeneration of their country. They promised -Count Inouye, the Japanese resident, faithfully to follow his advice and -to carry out with the least possible delay the program of reforms -recommended by him. Count Inouye however discovered, that while making -these professions, the ministers were plotting to obstruct his policy of -reform, and had even gone so far as to send messengers to various parts -of the country to incite the people to rise against the Japanese. He -therefore informed the Corean government that Japan would give no -further assistance to the king in suppressing the Tonghak rebellion. The -minister of the interior at once resigned, and the king promised to make -inquiry and punish those guilty of treachery. In a private audience, -Count Inouye sharply remonstrated with His Majesty, explained that -reforms were necessary to save the country from barbarism, complained of -the encouragement given to the plotters and repeated his threat to -recall the Japanese troops sent out against the Tonghaks. The king -promised that matters would be put right. The following day the -ministers called in a body upon Count Inouye. They admitted that they -had behaved in a deceitful manner, begged that he would pardon their -duplicity and assured him that they would in future give faithful -consideration to his suggestions and his schemes of internal reform. - -There is a little confusion in the names of towns around the Gulf of -Liao-Tung, owing to the duplication of names. Kinchow is a village to -the north of Talien-wan Bay, and was one of the first points of attack -by the Japanese when they landed on the promontory. At the extreme -northern point of the gulf is a city of the same name, and several -reports that were made as to the capture of Kinchow were discredited -because of this confusion. The first Kinchow was indeed occupied by -Japanese troops from the time of its capture. The other one, however, -was not threatened at all. Unless mention is made here to the contrary, -references to troop movements around Kinchow refer to the village at the -head of the promontory. - -The bulk of the second Japanese army moved to Kinchow, on its way -northward after the capture of Port Arthur, and the Chinese force which -attacked the Japanese garrison at Kinchow on November 22, fell back to -Foochow, a little to the northward of Port Arthur, on the road to -Niuchwang. About the 1st of December General Nogi’s brigade left -Kinchow, with orders from Marshal Oyama to attack Foochow. The garrison -of the city was reported to number five thousand, and the position was -favorable for defense. The brigade moved forward very rapidly, as there -was no organized opposition to its advance. On the 4th, General Nogi -heard that the Chinese were retreating, and on the following day the -Japanese entered Foochow without firing a shot. The Chinese had -evacuated the city and had retreated northward towards Niuchwang. - -The first Japanese army continued clearing the country north of the -Yalu. Large bodies of Chinese were in the triangle formed by lines drawn -between Chiu-lien, Niuchwang, and Mukden. The mountains around about -Feng-hwang, which constituted a strong strategic position, had been in -the hands of the Japanese since October, and now General Tatsumi -attacked the highest pass, Lien-shan-kuan, from the east. On December 12 -a strong Japanese scouting party from Feng-hwang sighted a large force -of Chinese advancing from the west. The Japanese, who consisted entirely -of cavalry, sent word back to Feng-hwang, and keeping the Chinese in -sight fell back upon the main body. The Chinese pushed on as far as -Yih-man-shan, where they encamped for the night. The Japanese force set -out to attack the Chinese position, and at dawn the next morning the -fight began. The Chinese were fully four thousand strong, and while the -fight was in progress two more regiments joined them. The Japanese fell -back to a stronger position, and adopted defensive tactics. The Chinese -forces, emboldened by their temporary success, made repeated efforts to -break through the Japanese lines, but each attack was repulsed. Seeing -that the Chinese were in such force, General Nodzu ordered one battalion -of the fifth division to reinforce the garrison of Feng-hwang. This -reinforced garrison then started on Thursday night, December 13, to -strengthen the Japanese advance posts at Yih-man-shan. Colonel Tomayasu -was in command of the Japanese force, which numbered one thousand four -hundred men with six field guns. - -At daybreak an attack was made upon the Chinese left flank. The enemy -was well posted, and fought better than any troops heretofore -encountered by the Japanese in Manchooria. The struggle was a severe -one, but the Chinese left wing gave way before the Japanese charge, and -threw the center into confusion. A hot and continuous fire prevented the -Chinese from recovering their formation, and a second charge drove them -into a disorderly retreat. The contents of the camp and thirty prisoners -fell into the hands of the Japanese. The Chinese lost some two hundred -and fifty killed and wounded and the Japanese about one hundred. - -It is difficult to convey a clear idea of the various operations in -Manchooria, for no map accessible to general readers is sufficiently -accurate to afford trustworthy indications, and the field of fighting -extended over a considerable area among places too small in many -instances to be recorded on a map. There were in fact, at this time, -December, three Japanese and three Chinese armies operating in -Manchooria. The Japanese forces consisted of the second army under -Oyama, in the Liao-Tung peninsula, and the right and left wings of -Yamagata’s force, who had been succeeded by Nodzu. The first army, -Yamagata’s, after passing the Yalu and capturing Chiu-lien, separated -into two parts, the right wing nominally twelve thousand five hundred -strong, moving northward along the Mukden road under the command of -Nodzu, and the left wing of equal strength, under the command of -Katsura, moving westward down the Yalu, its object being ultimately to -establish communication with Oyama’s forces, twenty-two thousand strong, -when the capture of Port Arthur should have freed the latter to advance -northeastward up the peninsula. - -The Chinese armies were also three. One of these armies was massed at -the north, defending the approaches to Mukden. It aggregated about -twenty-five thousand men so far as could be ascertained, but its -fragmentary fashion of fighting rendered a total estimate difficult. The -second army was grouped in the southwest, guarding the coast roads to -China proper, via Niuchwang. This army, according to the accounts, -aggregated about thirty thousand. Its headquarters were at Kai-phing, -where a junction would naturally be effected between Oyama’s forces and -the left wing of Yamagata’s army. The easiest method of obtaining a -clear idea of the situation, is to follow in outline, the operations of -the various armies. - -The southeastern Chinese army was composed of the Amoor frontier forces, -under General I. It was moved down under direct orders from the throne, -the strategical idea being to strike swiftly and secretly at Marshal -Yamagata’s weak point, namely, his long line of communications between -the Yalu River and his outposts, fifty miles north of Feng-hwang. Thus -General I's operations ultimately resolved themselves into an attempt to -recover Feng-hwang. He marched against it from three directions, the -main northerly road, and two easterly roads. The Japanese did not wait -to receive his attack. On December 10, Major-General Techimi, who -commanded the van of the Japanese right wing, launched his battalion at -I's van of three thousand men on the main road, and by consecutive -onsets cut the enemy in two, driving a part of his force into the -mountains eastward, and a part along the main road northward. Two days -later a reconnoissance sent eastward from Feng-hwang found the main body -of I's forces on the Aiyang-pien road, and the following morning a -battalion moved out to attack him. But it having been seen that he -mustered fully six thousand, and that advancing along two roads his -front extended over a distance of more than three miles, the Japanese -plan was modified so as to deliver the chief assault against his left -wing, orders being also forwarded to Techimi, then operating north of -Feng-hwang to move east and south with the object of taking I's right -wing in the rear. December 14 saw the attack on the Tartar general’s -left wing. It was completely rolled back and broken, the Japanese -pursuing its remnants far into the mountains. The Chinese lost one -hundred and fifty killed and sixteen prisoners, and abandoned four Krupp -guns, a number of horses, and a quantity of war material. The Japanese -had twelve killed and sixty-three wounded. I's right wing made no -attempt to hold its ground after the defeat of the left. It retired in a -northeasterly direction and its retreat was subsequently changed into a -route by collision with a Japanese pursuing column sent out from -Techimi’s position. - -The northerly army of China consisted of that portion of General Sung’s -troops that retreated along the main road towards Mukden after the fall -of Chiu-lien and Feng-hwang, together with the Mukden garrison. They -held the pass of Mo-thien-ling against several attacks of the Japanese, -and remained there in force after severe winter set in. They had several -collisions with Techimi’s outposts, but none of importance to the -general conduct of the war. - -The western Chinese army consisted partly of troops originally engaged -in the defense of Chiu-lien and Feng-hwang, partly of the Niuchwang -garrison, and partly of a Mongolian force that had come down to join -them from the northwest. This was the largest force and aggregated -nearly sixty thousand. After the battles around the lower Yalu, these -troops had been driven inland by the Japanese, taking Hai-tcheng as -their objective point, but halting on the way at Siu-Yen. They were -driven out of here by the Japanese, and moved westward to Simu-tcheng, a -town eighteen miles southeast of Hai-tcheng. On December 11, the -Japanese troops under Osako, moving northward from Siu-Yan, reached the -advance posts of the enemy and made an attack. The Chinese force -consisting of three thousand infantry and four hundred cavalry, with -eight guns, was driven back after a brief resistance, and the next day -another body four thousand five hundred strong, with six guns, was -dislodged from a position three or four miles further on. The Japanese, -following up their advantage, took possession of the Simu-tcheng the -same afternoon. This division and the co-operating division which had -taken another road, entered the place almost simultaneously after two -days of unbroken success. They advanced together on the following day, -and at 11:00 A.M. Hai-tcheng was in their possession. Its garrison was -found to consist of only one thousand five hundred men, who after a show -of resistance retired northeastward in the direction of Liao-Yang. The -occupation of Hai-tcheng placed the Japanese on the high road from -Niuchwang to Mukden, some twenty miles from Niuchwang and eighty from -Mukden. This was a position of considerable strategical importance. For -the moment however, Japanese troops turned southward a few miles in the -direction of Kao-Khan, a fortified town not far from the mouth of the -Liao River. This movement was connected with the march of the second -army up the Laio-Tung peninsula, to which reference must now be made. - -After the capture of Port Arthur and the completion of arrangements -relating to the occupation of that place, Marshal Oyama returned to -Kinchow and made preparations to advance northward against Foochow, an -important walled town of twenty-five thousand inhabitants fifty-three -miles to the northward. General Sung, with some six thousand men held -Foochow, and a vigorous resistance was anticipated. But on December 5, -the Japanese van entered the town unopposed. The advance was then -resumed to Kai-phing, a city of still greater importance sixty-three -miles distant. And as this army moved northward, the left wing of the -first army moved southward from Hai-tcheng, as has just been said, -threatening Kai-phing from the other side and cutting off the garrison’s -direct line of retreat. It is interesting to note that wherever Japanese -troops took possession of a city or district, an officer was immediately -appointed to be military governor, the inhabitants were kindly treated, -and every effort was made to preserve peace and free the natives from -annoyance or oppression. - -On the 17th and 18th of December the scouts of General Katsura’s -division brought word to him of important movements of the enemy, who -appeared to be advancing in strong force. All this proved to be nothing -more formidable than the flight of General Sung’s army northward. On the -night of the 18th the Chinese army was ascertained to be passing within -a few miles of the Japanese camp, and Katsura therefore moved against -them with his full strength. The Chinese were overtaken on the following -morning. Osako’s brigade was the first to be engaged. The enemy made a -stand at the village of Kungwasai and severe fighting ensued. While this -was proceeding Oshima’s brigade coming from Hai-tcheng entered the field -and joined hands with Osako. The combined force consisted of four -complete regiments, five batteries of artillery, besides other troops. -The Japanese artillery, which was well placed, played havoc with the -Chinese, who stubbornly stood their ground. The Japanese infantry -charged splendidly and cut their way through the Chinese army, but the -enemy rallied and fired steadily. A desperate hand-to-hand struggle took -place. After five hours’ fighting, the Chinese began to falter and soon -they were in full and disorderly flight, some to the westward and others -north. The Chinese lost probably five hundred killed and wounded and the -Japanese loss, too, was very severe. This was probably the most -obstinate engagement yet fought by the armies in Manchooria. The Chinese -had strongly entrenched themselves at the little village of Kung-wasai, -near Hai-tcheng, and they defended their position most vigorously. The -ground was thick with snow, and the battle was a desperate one. Charge -after charge made by the Japanese was faced and the assaulting troops -driven back. But with a fourth charge the battle ended, the Japanese -rushing into the Chinese works and carrying everything before them. - -The constant succession of defeats of the Chinese forces, made imperial -circles in Peking a nest of nervous uncertainty. Factional fights -existed among the officials, and no one knew when his position or his -head was safe. The empress dowager remained firm in her confidence in Li -Hung Chang, and this fact served to retain him the title of viceroy. All -of his decorative honors had however by this time been stripped from -him, and only the queen’s favor and the fact that it was not wise to -make of him an open enemy saved him from losing his last title. Early in -December Prince Kung was appointed president of the Grand Council. He -lost no time in moving towards severe punishment the military and naval -officers who for being defeated were adjudged traitors. An imperial -decree imperatively ordered the arrest of Taotai Kung the civil -commandant and the four generals who commanded at Port Arthur in order -that they should be sent to Peking to be tried and punished for the loss -of the fortress. Admiral Ting was also arrested for failing to defend -the dockyard. Generals Yeh and Wei of Ping-Yang fame were handed over to -the same board of punishment. The foreign officers serving in the -Chinese fleet sent to Prince Kung a unanimous protest against the -infliction of punishment upon Admiral Ting, declaring that the charges -made against him were unjust and that they would resign if he was -punished. In response to this protest therefore an edict was issued -continuing the admiral in command of the fleet. - -The late viceroy of Nanking, Liu-kun-yi, was now appointed to the chief -command of all the Chinese forces in the field, thus superseding Li Hung -Chang and Prince Kung so far as military command was concerned. He had -made an impression at the palace by his energy and by his plans for -resisting invaders. Immediately upon his appointment Liu petitioned to -be relieved from the office, pleading indisposition, but his request was -refused at the palace. His desire was taken as an indication that he -felt himself incapable of successfully carrying out the arduous task -imposed upon him. In the face of the emperor’s imperative orders Liu -could not avoid accepting the command, and he therefore began making -appointments to his staff and preparing for his immediate departure to -the front. - -At last on December 21, it was given out to the world that peace -negotiations with Japan were to be begun in earnest, in the hope that -the crowning humiliation of a Japanese occupation of Peking might be -averted. The emperor selected Chang Yen Hoon, vice-president of the -Tsung-li Yamen as his peace envoy and, it was said, invested him with -the fullest powers to treat. It was announced that he would proceed -immediately to Japan with an adequate suite and ample credentials. He -was a man of great ability, and great confidence was expressed in the -success of his mission. Mr. Dun, United States minister at Tokio, -learned that the Japanese government would receive the Chinese envoy -with every consideration due to his rank, and with an honest desire to -help him to bring his mission to a successful conclusion. But from the -very beginning there was strong evidence to indicate that China was not -acting in the best of faith, for no authoritative statement was made by -the government at Peking of the appointment of such a plenipotentiary. -This suspicion was only too well corroborated a few weeks later. - -The Chinese government, after deciding to send an envoy to Japan, -addressed a formal request to President Cleveland for the assistance of -a recognized statesman in connection with the forthcoming peace -negotiations in Tokio. The president lost no time in replying. It was -officially announced in Washington December 27, that the Hon. John W. -Foster, Secretary of State in the cabinet of President Harrison, after -the death of secretary Blaine, had been appointed legal adviser to the -Chinese peace plenipotentiary who was about to be sent to the government -of Japan. Before entering President Harrison’s cabinet Mr. Foster had -represented the United States as minister at Madrid and he acted as -agent of the United States in the court of arbitration of the Bering Sea -question at Paris. He was one of the foremost among international -lawyers in the United States, with large experience in Chinese affairs. -His selection by President Cleveland was not an official one, but was -merely in response to a request from China for friendly assistance. Mr. -Foster had no official standing from the United States, but acted simply -as an adviser to the Chinese envoy. - -A curious incident comes well substantiated regarding Mr. Foster’s -preparations for his trip. Shortly before he sailed for China, it is -said, a party of Wall street men went to see him on the subject of the -Chinese indemnity. This indemnity was destined to have an important -bearing upon American politics. Should the indemnity be paid in gold, -our own treasury reserve would be drawn upon rather seriously. Should it -be paid in silver the demand for the white metal would undoubtedly -create an enormous demand for the product of western mines to the great -advantage of the silver producing states. The Wall street men visited -Mr. Foster in a body and urged him to favor a gold settlement. The -diplomat became very much incensed at this. He declared that the -representations of the bankers were a gross violation of diplomatic -ethics, and that he would act as he thought best in the interests of -China. From that time forward the prospective treaty was anticipated -with great interest by American bankers. - -The eighth session of the Japanese parliament was opened at Tokio, -December 24. In the absence of the emperor at Hiroshima his speech was -read by one of the ministers. It took occasion to congratulate the -country for the success of the Japanese arms and declared the need of -further persistence towards the successful conclusion of the war. -Political sentiment, so far as party spirit was concerned, did not run -high in Japan, for nearly all parties were united in support of the war. -The session of parliament therefore awakened no marked interest. - -The collossal nature of the task that devolved upon Japan when she -undertook to reform the Corean administration was becoming daily more -apparent. The first difficulty presenting itself was the fact that all -the high offices of state were occupied by proteges of the queen, -members of the Ming family. The queen was a woman of considerable and -large ambition. She exercised great influence over the king and employed -it to secure preferment and appointment for her own relatives. But the -queen and her friends were indefatigable supporters of China. The -Chinese resident always worked in their interests; they firmly believed -that Chinese supremacy would be re-established sooner or later; and they -were wedded to Chinese systems as affording the widest scope for -self-aggrandizement. Thus they stood in the very forefront of the -opponents of reform. That was recognized from the outset, and the device -was adopted of entrusting the chief powers to the Tai-wen Kun, an -inveterate enemy of the Ming family. But the old prince whose political -record was written in blood cared not one jot for reform. His one idea -was the Tai-wen Kun. Moreover, he too believed in the restoration of -Chinese influence and wishing to enlist it in his own behalf he opened -secret correspondence with the Chinese generals, promising them that the -appearance of their troops before Seoul should be the signal for a -widespread insurrection of the Tonghaks to attack the Japanese -simultaneously. These letters were discovered and placed in the hands of -Count Inouye. He invited the Tai-wen Kun to the Japanese legation and -quietly showed him the incriminating documents. Of course there was no -imperative reason why any Corean subject should prefer Japan to China. -The Tai-wen Kun had a right to choose between the two, but he had no -right to hold the regency under pretext of furthering reforms which he -was secretly working to defeat. It was not difficult to induce him to -resign the regency. He saw that the game was lost and consented to -efface himself from the political arena. At the demand of the Japanese -minister, the Corean king formed a new cabinet more satisfactory to -Japanese influence and the crisis was passed. The revolts of the -Tonghaks, however, seemed to be almost continuous and every day brought -news of a riot engendered by them. - -The Japanese armies which we left in Manchooria near Kai-phing, were -posted on a curve extending from that city near the sea, to Hai-tcheng, -which was strongly fortified, and posts also extended from there to the -Mo-thien-ling hills. They thus occupied a strong position for defensive -and offensive purposes. Very severe weather had set in early in January -and hundreds of Japanese soldiers were suffering from frostbite. The -Chinese forces had withdrawn to Kao-khan near Niuchwang, although the -force occupying Liao-Yang had advanced some distance towards Hai-tcheng, -which the Japanese were occupying. - -Early on the morning of January 10, a brigade under General Nogi marched -against a Chinese force encamped in the vicinity of Kai-phing. The -attack was made at dawn, but the deep snow rendered military movements, -especially the bringing up of guns, a matter of great difficulty. The -Chinese had twelve fieldpieces and two gatlings which were well handled. -Their force numbered about three thousand. The fight lasted four hours, -and consisted mainly of an exchange of shot and shell until the Japanese -were in position on the Chinese flank, when an infantry charge was -ordered and the Chinese fell back before the heavy fire. The final -attack upon the center was splendidly made and by 9:00 o’clock the -Chinese were well beaten. There was some stiff fighting at the last, but -by 10:00 o’clock the Japanese were in full possession of the town. Two -hundred Chinese were found dead in the positions which they had held, -and one hundred and fifty were taken prisoners. The Chinese force was -commanded by General Seh, who expected to be strongly reinforced before -the Japanese attack could be made. On learning this, General Nogi sent -out scouting parties towards Yo-chow. They reported that a Chinese army -estimated to number ten thousand men had been marching upon Kai-phing -but having heard of the defeat of General Seh this large force had -immediately retired towards Ying-tsu, the port of Niuchwang. - -Either confidence or desperation of the Chinese was exemplified in the -vicinity of Niuchwang a few days later when two Chinese corps marched -against the Japanese advanced lines, and opened an attack. One of these -corps advanced from Liao-Yang, whilst the other marched from the -direction of Niuchwang. They were estimated at from twelve to fourteen -thousand men and they had with them several fieldpieces and gatling -guns. They came in sight of the Japanese lines before noon and continued -their advance until within less than two miles. Then they halted and a -consultation was held amongst their staff. They made no further advance, -much to Japanese disappointment, but simply began a heavy fire from -their artillery. At 2:00 o’clock in the afternoon, General Katsura -ordered the Japanese to reply, and a concentrated fire was opened upon -the Chinese ranks. The total Japanese force concentrated to receive the -Chinese attack consisted of four battalions of infantry and one -battalion of artillery with twelve guns. The artillery fire continued -for an hour, when seeing that the Chinese were being thrown into -confusion by the bursting shells, General Katsura ordered a charge upon -the enemy’s right wing. It proved to be entirely successful. Five guns -which protected the enemy’s right were captured at once, and the whole -force immediately retreated. Another charge upon the center scattered -the Chinese. The majority fled to the north, whilst a portion retreated -in the direction of Niuchwang. The Chinese losses were roughly estimated -at nine hundred, and the Japanese scarcely one-tenth of that number. - -The first army, finding the country in the direction of Mukden wasted -and deserted while guerilla troops harassed them continually, now -virtually abandoned the march to Mukden and formed a junction with the -second army drawing together at the acute angle to which they had been -so long converging. Oyama and Nodzu met and from that time worked with -their forces conjointly. The Chinese were becoming bolder in the -vicinity of Hai-tcheng which made the necessity greater for a union of -forces. At the same time Mukden itself was in a state of riotous -disorder, the Manchoo and Chinese troops continually at conflict with -one another and therefore scarcely needing the attention of the Japanese -to attack either side. Military operations in Manchooria were now -exceedingly difficult owing to the depth of snow and the bitter cold -weather. Both armies were suffering from the rigors of the season, and -neither regretted the opportunity for a cessation of active hostilities. -General Nogi moved forward his headquarters to Huntsai. Cavalry -skirmishes between scouting parties between Niuchwang and Kai-phing, and -between Niuchwang and Hai-tcheng were of daily occurrence and with them -we will consider the season’s campaign of the armies in Manchooria -closed. - -The raising of Li Hung Chang’s enemy, Liu-kun-yi, to the chief military -command in China stirred up more and more trouble for military and naval -officers as the time went by. Half of the generals of the army and the -admirals and commanders of the navy were arrested, charged with various -degrees of guilt, and many of them were sentenced to death. As a matter -of fact, however, not many of these sentences were carried out, although -General Wei was beheaded in Peking, January 16. The influence of Li Hung -Chang could not, however, be destroyed, even though he had been relieved -of all his functions except that of governor-general of his province. -His connections with prominent officials in China had been too intimate -and his strength too great that all could be taken away from him even by -imperial edict. The old viceroy, the Bismarck of Asia quietly bided his -time and waited the results that he felt sure would come. The Chinese -envoy and his suite of fifty-six lingered at Shanghai day after day -delaying their start to Japan with the avowed explanation that further -instructions were expected, but with the understanding frankly held by -every one except themselves that they were really detained in the hope -that something would turn up, that some special providence would -interfere to relieve them of the necessity of presenting China’s suit -for peace to her ancient enemy. - -And now the third Japanese army was ready for its descent upon the -Chinese coasts and another invasion of the Celestial Empire was -impending. - - - - - THE EXPEDITION TO CAPTURE WEI-HAI-WEI AND - ITS SUCCESS. - - -------------- - -Plans for the Third Japanese Army—Description of Wei-hai-wei and its -Defenses—Arrival of the Japanese Troops—Landing of the Forces at -Yung-tcheng Bay—Bombardment of Tengchow—Capture of Ning-Hai—Wei-hai-wei -Forts Taken—Severity of the Weather—Action of the Fleets—The -Torpedo Boats—Continuing the Bombardment—A White Flag From the -Chinese—Surrender—Admiral Ting’s Suicide—After the Surrender. - - -The command of the sea definitely gained by the Japanese at the battle -of the Yalu, now enabled another expeditionary force to be landed on the -shores of China, this time on the Shantung peninsula, which juts out -between the Gulf of Pechili and the Yellow Sea on the south, as the -Liao-Tung peninsula does between the Gulf of Laio-Tung and Corea Bay on -the north. Since that eventful action, the Chinese fleet had remained in -port, and the Japanese had been free to use the water-ways of the east, -as if no enemy’s ships existed. To undertake a new enterprise was merely -a question of men and means. The transports employed at Port Arthur were -available, and a third army twenty-five thousand strong was mobilized at -Hiroshima in December. These troops were embarked for an expeditionary -force to threaten Wei-hai-wei. There were fifty Japanese transports in -the squadron, convoyed by a few war ships, and the fleet sailed away -from Japan just before the middle of January. - -Wei-hai-wei is about twenty-five miles west of the extreme northeastern -point of the Shantung promontory, and fifty miles east of Chefoo, which -was the nearest treaty port. Wei-hai-wei consists of an island some two -miles long, and the adjacent mainland, running in a semi-circle around -the bay. Between the island and the shore is a large and safe harbor, -with an entrance at either end. At both entrances, two rows of submarine -torpedo mines furnished protection against invading squadrons, and on -the island stood the naval and gunnery school of China, and the houses -of the foreign instructors. The island was defended by three forts, one -at the east end, one at the west, and the third on a little island -connected with it. On the hills which rise from the island also six -small batteries with quick firing guns. In one of the forts were four -heavy Krupp guns, in another three, while in the third were two -Armstrong disappearing guns of twenty-five tons, on revolving planes. On -the mainland was a small village, while three forts commanded the -eastern entrance to the harbor, and three the western, armed in the same -way as the forts on the island. Seven men-of-war remaining to the -Chinese fleet were at anchor in the harbor, and would be useful in -defense of the place, though not enough for battle at sea against a -fleet. The fortifications were built under the direction of Captain Von -Hannecken, and several foreigners in the Chinese service had remained -there throughout the war as artillerists and in other capacities. The -Chinese Admiral Ting was also there, against whom the Chinese censors -had been speaking so bitterly. There were strongly equipped forts, a -beautiful harbor, a good naval school, and all was ready to be captured -by the Japanese. - -[Illustration: DISTANT VIEW OF WEI-HAI-WEI AND ITS SURROUNDINGS.] - -The Japanese transports touched at Talien-wan Bay on the way to the -Shantung promontory, and took on board some of the officers who had been -with the army around Port Arthur. Except for these however, the troops -moving on Wei-hai-wei were all new in the field. On the 18th of January -a small reconnoitering party of Japanese naval officers landed from a -boat in Yung-tcheng Bay, having left their ship out of sight around the -eastern headland. They arrived in the night, cut the telegraph lines -connecting Shantung promontory lighthouse with Wei-hai-wei, and -afterward, being of course in disguise and familiar with the Chinese -language, made inquiries of the peasantry. They discovered that the -commander of Wei-hai-wei, having heard of warships off the promontory, -had sent some five hundred troops to defend Yung-tcheng. The Japanese -then decided to land at dawn on the 20th. Yung-tcheng Bay is about four -miles southwest of the northeast promontory lighthouse, and faces nearly -due south. On the east is a bold headland connected by low hills with a -chain of abrupt heights running west. The west headland, enclosing the -bay, is not so high and ends in a spit of sand and rocks, beyond which -are two smaller shallow bays, and Yung-tcheng town about seven miles -away due west. Nestling close under the west slope of the strip is a -small village. Yung-tcheng Bay is about a mile wide, and hemispherical. -The anchorage is good for large vessels to within one hundred yards of -the beach, and the large fleet assembled there for hostile purposes was -well protected. - -The Japanese flotilla was led by five war ships which were two or three -hours ahead of the rest—twenty transports carrying one division of -infantry, with an escort of four war ships. Other war ships were on -patrol duty, with torpedo boats blockading Wei-hai-wei completely. The -transports which came on the 22nd contained another brigade of infantry, -a strong force of artillery, some cavalry, and the large and important -commissariat and transport sections. - -The Chinese troops first took up a position on the sand spit and opened -fire on the ships with four fieldpieces, without effect. Meantime some -two hundred Japanese marines were being landed on the beach under the -eastern bluff. As the boats drew near the shore a few shots came in -their direction, but the Chinese marksmanship was utterly useless. The -Japanese succeeded in getting ashore without any mishaps whatever by -7:00 A.M., while daylight was still faint. The ground was covered with -snow a few inches deep. A shell from one of the war ships set fire to a -small cottage where the Chinese were, and they were forced to retire to -the village behind the knoll. Here planting their guns, four Krupp -fieldpieces, on rising ground, with infantry in the broken ground about -the village, they tried their best to make a stand; but the guns of the -war ship were making the position untenable, and a bayonet charge of -marines put an end to their resistance. They fled to Yung-tcheng, -leaving their cannon. The losses on either side were slight. By eight -o’clock the transports had arrived, and the landing of troops began, -finishing before dusk. The disembarkation of the rear guard, which came -on the second fleet of transports, was also carried on expeditiously on -the 23rd. - -During the afternoon of the 20th a battalion of the newly landed -soldiers pushed on without delay or rest to Yung-tcheng. The Chinese -force of about five hundred made slight resistance; there was a little -firing, but no casualty on either side, and the place was taken. A -detachment of Japanese followed westward in pursuit of the enemy. A -quantity of arms, ammunition, and stores fell into the victor’s hands at -Yung-tcheng. - -The first thing done by the Japanese on landing was to make a small -floating jetty of sampans and planks, from the sandy beach to water deep -enough for launches. Rough sheds were also erected rapidly, so as to -make the place a convenient depot as a subsidiary base of operations. -Here the troops were sheltered as they landed, moving over to -Yung-tcheng as rapidly as possible, so that within a few days they were -almost all quartered in the town and surrounding villages. The -inhabitants went about their business as usual, evincing only a little -timid curiosity towards the invaders. - -Japanese strategy was to be credited, to considerable extent, with the -easy landing granted to their troops in Yung-tcheng Bay. War ships had -been cruising back and forth along the north shore of the promontory, -keeping the commanders of various posts nervously expectant of an -attack. Finally on Saturday, January 19, war vessels drew near to -Tengchow, some thirty miles northwest of Chefoo, and began a bombardment -which lasted throughout the day. The Chinese worked their guns well, but -were not equal to the Japanese gunners either in rapidity or precision -of fire. Many of the Chinese guns were dismounted by the Japanese fire, -and others were rendered useless through absence of sufficient -ammunition. By nightfall all the forts were silenced and the city was at -the mercy of the invaders. Two thousand Japanese landed and kept up an -incessant fire from fieldpieces upon the land side, while the ships were -bombarding the water front. This demonstration was only for the purpose -of creating a diversion, and attracting Chinese attention to Tengchow, -while averting it from Yung-tcheng. - -On January 23, a Japanese force landed at Ning-Hai, midway between -Wei-hai-wei and Chefoo, and the former city was therefore surrounded. -The landing was covered by the guns of a dozen war ships, but there was -no opposition. The troops at once marched upon the city of Ning-Hai, -situated near the point of landing, and the place fell into their hands -after a very feeble resistance. The occupation of Ning-Hai isolated -Wei-hai-wei from Chefoo. The Chinese arsenal was almost exactly half way -between the two Japanese landing places, and the coast road being in -occupation of the Japanese, news from the threatened garrison had to be -carried over mountain paths with considerable difficulty. - -The strong Japanese fleet of war ships, transports, and torpedo boats -was now assured of safety from any possible attack in Yung-tcheng Bay, -and the war ships patrolled back and forth between the two landing -places in constant threat of Wei-hai-wei, and forbidding the exit of the -Chinese vessels which were penned in that harbor. The expeditionary -force had landed all the necessary heavy guns and ammunition, beside -forage, food, and other necessaries. The British and German flagships -were in Yung-tcheng Bay, besides several American war vessels. The two -land forces now moved upon Wei-hai-wei, one from the east and one from -the west. - -The forts on the mainland at Wei-hai-wei were captured by the Japanese -on January 30. The taking of the Chinese stronghold was due to skillful -combined movements on the part of the Japanese land and naval forces, -the main attack, however, being made by the troops on shore. The -resistance, considering the strength of the place, was feeble. Some of -the forts, however, were stubbornly defended, and the loss was heavy on -both sides. The Japanese troops of the sixth division were under arms at -two o’clock in the morning, and the advance was at once ordered. As soon -as it was daylight the assault on the enemy’s defensive lines began, and -by nine o’clock the outlying batteries and intrenchments were almost all -in the hands of the Japanese. - -Meanwhile the second division was delivering a direct assault from the -southwest on the Pai-chih-yaiso line of forts, a position of great -strength, with precipitous sides about one hundred feet in height. The -attack was made under cover of a furious bombardment from the Japanese -men-of-war. The main point of Chinese resistance was here. After the -fighting on this side had been going on for some hours, the sixth -division, having driven in the enemy before it, made a detour, and -advancing behind Mount Ku which concealed the movement, made a strong -attack from that side on the Pai-chih-yaiso forts. By half past twelve -these forts were in possession of the Japanese. By preconcerted -arrangement the signal was at once given to the Japanese fleet, which -proceeded without delay to take possession of the eastern entrance of -the harbor. - -The Japanese fleet had been keeping well off the shore, throwing a few -shots occasionally into the batteries upon Leu-kung-tau island, but the -main attack was upon the eastern forts. The ironclads dropped their long -distance shots into the Chinese position with fair accuracy, but eight -of the smaller Japanese vessels steamed along the shore within easy -range and worked their guns steadily and well. One well placed shell -caused a terrific explosion in Fort Number One, pointing to the -eastward, and that fort took no further part in the fighting. A few -minutes later Japanese troops rushed in and their flag went up. At half -past twelve another deafening roar proclaimed that an explosion had -taken place in Fort Number Two. Whether this was due to Japanese fire, -or whether the Chinese deliberately blew it up, was not known, but the -fort was destroyed. The Chinese firing flagged after this. At last only -one gun in Fort Number Three could be worked, the Chinese fled, and the -Japanese swarmed in. This action evidently discouraged the men in Fort -Number Four for the garrison abandoned the place and joined their -retreating countrymen, while the fort fell into the hands of the -Japanese intact. - -The Chinese fleet had been busy throughout the fight, but kept well -under shelter of the island. Their shell fire was mainly directed upon -the masses of Japanese infantry, advancing against the land forts, and -the batteries upon the island were similarly employed. With the capture -of Number Four fort the Japanese were in a position to turn the guns -upon their enemies, a fact of which they were not slow to take -advantage. They opened fire upon the Chinese fleet and upon the land -batteries, doing more damage in a short time than their fleet had been -able to accomplish during the day. This was too much for the Chinamen, -and abandoning their former tactics, the battleship Ting-Yuen steamed -out from her island shelter, and coming in close to Fort Number Four, -hammered away vigorously for a full half hour. By that time every gun in -the fort had been silenced, and the Japanese were fairly shelled out of -it. - -The resumption of the fight on Thursday, January 31, by the Japanese -fleet was rendered impossible by a severe northerly gale accompanied by -a blinding snowstorm. The decks of the ships, and also the guns were -covered with ice. Seeing that the position was becoming dangerous for -his ships, Admiral Ito ran to Yung-tcheng Bay for shelter and safe -anchorage, leaving a small squadron to keep watch at the entrance to -Wei-hai-wei harbor. On shore the Japanese made great efforts to -strengthen their position, and for the next few days there was desultory -firing, but no continuous bombardment. - -The hardest day’s fighting for the Japanese fleet was Sunday, February -3. The tempestuous weather which prevailed during Friday and Saturday -kept the main squadron in shelter, and while the other ships were -watching the two entrances to the harbor, their work gave greater -opportunities for seamanship than for gunnery. They engaged the island -forts occasionally and exchanged shots with the Chinese war ships, but -the land batteries did most of the firing. Sunday, however, was the -navy’s day although the land batteries were not idle. Almost with -daybreak the fleet opened fire upon the forts of Leu-kung-tau island -which replied vigorously. The bombardment soon became terrific. The -flagship and several other large vessels were in possession outside the -bay, and concentrated their fire upon the eastern island batteries. The -second division rained shell upon Fort Zhih. The bombardment had -scarcely begun when the Chinese fleet joined in very gallantly. The -Ting-Yuen used her thirty-seven ton guns without effect, but succeeded -in drawing some of the Japanese fire to herself. The Lai-Yuen, the -smaller ship, stood towards the Japanese and fought well, suffering -considerable damage and many casualties. Two of the Chinese gunboats -also took an active part in the defense and were not badly damaged. -These four vessels fought with great determination until darkness set in -when the firing ceased on both sides. The bombardment had caused great -damage to the Chinese works, particularly at Zhih, where many men had -been killed and wounded. Several guns were dismounted and towards the -close of the fight the fire from the Chinese batteries slackened in a -marked manner. - -The sea was still rough on Sunday night, but the Japanese ships did not -seek shelter. It was confidently expected that some of the Chinese ships -would endeavor to escape during the night, and the harbor exits were -therefore blocked by the Japanese fleet. Admiral Ting however made no -move, and when morning broke his squadron was seen in its old position, -under the shelter of the island. It was learned from a prisoner taken on -shore that Admiral Ting had issued a general order to his captains that -even if the defenses on the mainland should fall into the enemy’s hands, -the war ships must remain inside the harbor and help the island forts to -destroy the Japanese fleet. Every officer was ordered to remain at his -post until the last, under pain of dishonor and death. - -Monday morning the bombardment was resumed. The Japanese fleet engaged -both forts and ships, and the land batteries bombarded the Chinese -squadron. The fire from Fort Zhih continued weak, and the Chinese -battleships were so repeatedly and so seriously hit that their guns were -handled with difficulty and with less spirit. Finally, towards the close -of the fight, the Ting-Yuen was disabled. It gradually settled down, and -at length foundered amid loud shouts of triumph from the Japanese on -land and sea. The Chen-Yuen, too, was badly damaged. - -When the remaining vessels of the Chinese fleet were captured, they were -in serviceable condition, but badly damaged. The torpedo boats of the -fleet made a rush through the western entrance, of the harbor, to escape -capture. The Japanese flying squadron immediately gave chase, and for -hours maintained a most exciting pursuit. Some of the torpedo boats were -sunk almost before they cleared the harbor, but others managed to get -past the Japanese squadron. They were not however in a condition to make -their best speed, and one by one they were overtaken and either sunk, -driven ashore or captured. The Japanese fleet, on the other hand did not -escape unscathed. The torpedo boat which sank the Ting-Yuen was -destroyed by a hail of shot, eight of her crew being drowned. Another -Japanese torpedo boat had her engineer and all her stokers killed by a -shell bursting in the engine-room, and indeed it was a much damaged -flotilla that returned to Admiral Ito. Only one boat escaped entirely -uninjured. So severe was the cold that on one of the torpedo boats -during the stealthy approach to the bay, a lieutenant and his two -lookout-men were frozen to death at their posts. - -Monday on shore was as busy as on sea and the fighting continued without -cessation throughout the day. The guns in the eastern and western forts -that could be brought to bear upon the Chinese fleet and the forts on -the island were worked all day by Japanese gunners and the Chinese -artillery men fought their guns well in reply. On the land side the -infantry of the sixth division moved against some minor lines to the -west still held by the Chinese. The latter did not wait for the Japanese -onslaught, but fled away westward leaving arms and stores behind them. -By noon there was not a single fortress or battery on the mainland -around Wei-hai-wei that the Japanese had not captured. - -Marshal Oyama meantime had ordered the fourth division to attack the -town of Wei-hai-wei itself. The place however surrendered without a shot -being fired. The Chinese garrison had fled in the early morning, and the -citizens opened the gates to the Japanese forces. No injury was -sustained by the town or inhabitants. As fast as was practicable, fresh -guns were mounted in place of the disabled ones in the captured forts, -and every hour added to the weight of metal thrown against the Chinese -fleet and island forts. But night set in, and the Chinese fleet fought -with as much determination as ever. Search-lights were kept playing by -both belligerents throughout the night. An occasional shot was fired by -one or the other, but the fierce cannonade of Sunday was not resumed -until dawn. Then the large Chinese war ships, sheltering themselves as -much as possible under the island, shelled the various forts in turn. -The smaller Chinese vessels were scattered about the bay, taking little -part in the fighting, and escaping the attention of the Japanese -gunners. The Chinese had burnt or sunk every junk and boat in the harbor -in order to prevent their being used by any large body of Japanese to -make an effectual landing upon the island. The roar of the big guns -during Monday was incessant. Shells were dropped repeatedly into the -island forts, and the Chinese battleships were hit again and again, but -there was no sign of the fleet giving in or of their ammunition giving -out. At night the firing ceased, and again the search-lights illuminated -land and sea. - -On the night of Monday, February 4, the Japanese after many hours’ -exertions succeeded in clearing the entrance to the harbor of -Wei-hai-wei of all the torpedoes and submarine mines that had been laid. -And under cover of the darkness torpedo boats stole in and launched -their projectiles at one of the great Chinese ironclads. The torpedoes -took effect, and the vessel sank. - -Day after day the shore forts at Wei-hai-wei, aided by the Japanese -fleet, continued their bombardment of the Chinese war ships and the -forts on the island, getting a reply which gradually diminished in -strength. The fleet could not escape from the harbor, owing to the -presence of the Japanese flotilla just outside, so they fought on -bravely, doing much damage indeed to the Japanese, but accomplishing no -final results. The timber obstructions at the eastern entrance to the -bay were destroyed by the Japanese to admit their torpedo boats to that -side, as they had already been admitted to the other entrance. With the -Chinese torpedo fleet escaped and destroyed, there was no adequate -defense against this threat. Finally it seemed that there was no use in -further resistance. - -On February 12, a Chinese gunboat flying a white flag came to the -Japanese fleet with a message from Admiral Ting. He proposed to the -Japanese commander-in-chief to surrender all his ships remaining afloat -and all arms and ammunition, and to give possession of the forts still -holding out, upon the sole condition that Admiral Ito would guarantee -the lives of the Chinese sailors and soldiers, and of the European -officers serving under the Chinese flag in the fleet and in the island -forts. Admiral Ito, in reply to the offer, acceded to the terms and -demanded that the naval station should be thrown open. On the morning of -the 13th however, the Chinese messenger returned and informed the -Japanese Admiral that Admiral Ting had committed suicide on the previous -evening, and that his responsibility was transferred to Admiral McClure. -The news was even more startling than that of a single suicide, for -Admiral Ting’s commodore, the general in command of the island forts, -and Captains Liu and Chang had all taken their own lives through grief -and shame at having to surrender. Admiral Ting before committing suicide -wrote a politely worded letter addressed to the Japanese -commander-in-chief explaining his reasons for taking his life and -enclosing letters which he requested might be forwarded to their -destination. - -[Illustration: ADMIRAL McCLURE.] - -The only officer of high rank left on the Chinese war ships was Admiral -McClure, the Scotchman who had been recently appointed to act as second -in command to Admiral Ting. Admiral McClure sent word by the staff -officer that having succeeded to the command by the death of Admiral -Ting, he was prepared to carry out the surrender and to consult Admiral -Ito’s convenience in the matter. He suggested that Admiral Ito should -give his guarantee to the British Admiral or to some other neutral naval -officer, that as soon as the Chinese war ships and island forts had been -handed over, the soldiers and sailors and the Chinese, and foreign -officers should be set free. Admiral Ito replied that no guarantee was -necessary beyond the Japanese word and he peremptorily declined to -furnish one. This decision was accepted without further demur, the -Chinese flags were everywhere lowered and the transfer of ships and -forts was at once proceeded with. - -The soldiers who had held the island first gave up their arms, and then -were put on board Chinese and Japanese boats and taken on shore. -Escorted by Japanese troops, they were marched through the Japanese -lines, out into the open country and there set free. They were treated -with every respect and seemed surprised that their lives were spared. On -the morning of February 15, the officers and sailors of the Chinese -ships were disposed of in similar fashion. The foreign officers, about a -dozen all together waited for a neutral ship to take them away. - -[Illustration: JAPANESE SOLDIERS ESCORTING CHINESE PRISONERS.] - -During the progress of Chinese reverses at Wei-hai-wei, the excitement -in other Chinese cities was intense, increasing as the distance from -Wei-hai-wei decreased. Chefoo, the nearest treaty port and the home of -many foreigners, was in a tremor of fear. A bombardment or an invasion -of the city was dreaded from the victorious troops to the eastward, and -not the least danger was that from the Chinese troops who had been -disarmed and turned loose to make their way to Chefoo after the -surrender. The emperor was so incensed at the loss of Wei-hai-wei that -he took the unusual course of authorizing the governor of the Shantung -province to behead all fugitives without previously reporting to the -throne. - -Wei-hai-wei will be remembered in the history of this war as the only -spot at which the progress of the Japanese was interrupted by serious -and prolonged resistance on the part of the enemy. Admiral Ting’s -bravery could scarcely be questioned, though his strategy might be. His -action in surrendering property was gravely censured, the general -opinion being that if he could no longer hold out he should have found -means to destroy the valuable stores in his control, instead of giving -them up to the conqueror. As a material result of the surrender other -than the strategic and moral effect, the Japanese acquired four large -ships left in serviceable condition, several gunboats and torpedo -crafts, fort artillery, and great stores of ammunition, food and coal. - -The work of taking over the arsenal, island forts, and war ships was -completed by the Japanese without the least confusion. The ships which -needed repairs, including the ironclad Chen-Yuen, were temporarily -repaired at Wei-hai-wei, and then sailed for Japan with Japanese crews, -to go into dockyards for refitting. Marshal Oyama and his staff occupied -the Chinese government building. All of the foreigners who took part in -the defense of Wei-hai-wei, except the American Howie, were paroled and -sent to Chefoo in the steamship Kang Chi. This vessel also carried the -bodies of Admiral Ting and his fellow officers who committed suicide. -The Japanese fleet paid a touching tribute to the memory of their brave -opponents. As the Kang Chi steamed out of the harbor all the vessels had -their flags at half mast, and from Count Ito’s flag ship minute guns -were fired for some time after the vessel sailed. The European war ships -at Wei-hai-wei also lowered their flags, as a testimony to the bravery -exhibited by the late admiral. - -Several junks arrived at Chefoo bringing soldiers from Wei-hai-wei. The -men all expressed astonishment at the consideration which the Japanese -had shown for them, and the tribute which their enemies paid to Admiral -Ting’s body had created a great impression on them. - -It will be remembered that Howie was one of the Americans arrested early -in the war by the Japanese officials at Kobe. He was on his way to -China, under contract to destroy Japanese ships by means of a new -explosive whose secret he possessed. He was released at Kobe at the -intercession of the American minister to Japan, under the promise that -he would not assist the Chinese in the present war. He was detained at -Wei-hai-wei for a trial by court-martial, and it was believed that -unless his government interfered his punishment might be a severe one. - -After the capture of Wei-hai-wei all efforts were directed by the -Japanese towards strengthening the land defenses and those on the -island. Fresh guns were mounted in many places. The island forts were -still manned by marines, while the mainland forts were each held by a -battalion of infantry, as well as by artillery men. The amount of stores -seized was so great that the troops had a superabundance of supplies. -The roads were patrolled for miles around. A civil commissioner was -appointed, and Marshal Oyama issued a proclamation assuring the -inhabitants of kind treatment and of his protection so long as they -followed peaceful pursuits. Inasmuch as no atrocities had been committed -and the Japanese did little looting, the confidence of the people was -retained and they continued their usual vocations. The Japanese withdrew -from the advanced positions east and west of Wei-hai-wei, evacuating the -town of Ning-Hai. A large part of the army then left for Talien-wan Bay. - - - - - THE END OF HOSTILE OPERATIONS. - - -------------- - -The Armies in Manchooria and their Actions in the Cold of -January—Skirmish and Battle—Assault on Niuchwang and Capture of the -City—Desperate Fighting in the Streets—Taking of Ying-kow—A Threat -Towards Formosa—Attack on the Pescadore Islands—Capture of Hai-chow—The -Island of Thao-hua—Peking thought to Be in Danger From the Japanese. - - -We left the Chinese and Japanese troops in Manchooria centered about the -region around Niuchwang, trying to pass the cold weather with the least -suffering possible. There was no considerable interruption of time -between hostile encounters, possibly on the supposition that they could -keep warmer by fighting than by remaining idle. On the morning of the -17th of January the Chinese under General Chang and General Twi began -aggressive movements. Some twelve thousand strong they attacked -Hai-tcheng, but were repulsed after a short struggle. Five days later, -on the morning of the 22nd, the Chinese again attacked the Japanese -position, but were repulsed by two o’clock in the afternoon with heavy -loss. This was rather a long distance battle, with a good deal of -artillery practice in it. The Chinese worked their guns fairly well, but -could not compete with the Japanese gunners, who were the better -protected and suffered little. When the Chinese began the retreat, the -Japanese guns were moved forward and played upon the retiring enemy. The -Chinese then became demoralized, and made speedy retreat towards -Niuchwang. The Japanese loss was very slight. - -On the same day as the last battle, simultaneously with the attack on -Hai-tcheng, General Seh with ten thousand men and a strong force of -artillery advanced from the port of Niuchwang against Kai-phing. An -artillery engagement ensued on the 24th of January, which ended in a -precipitate retreat of the Chinese. - -General Nogi now moved forward his headquarters to Huntsai. The Chinese -army under General Seh was considerably reinforced, chiefly by Tartar -troops with large bodies of cavalry, and skirmishes with the Japanese -scouts were of daily occurrence. The strength of the enemy in the -immediate vicinity of Niuchwang was more than twenty thousand men. On -the 30th of January it was found that the Chinese had occupied Liao-Yang -in force, and that the western contingents were gradually advancing -southward. General Hoi-Pang-Tao was on his way to Ying-kow with a large -force. On the 1st of February the Viceroy Liu arrived at Niuchwang and -assumed the supreme command of the operations in Manchooria. He brought -with him an army said to number nearly twenty thousand, so that his -whole force numbered probably twice that many. It seemed certain that -the viceroy intended to advance against Hai-tcheng in full force. The -Japanese armies were also united, or in close touch with one another, at -Kai-phing and Hai-tcheng, ready for a decisive battle. February 16 a -Chinese army of fifteen thousand men attacked Hai-tcheng from Liao-Yang -and the Niuchwang road. The fighting lasted three hours, and extended -over a considerable tract of country. The attack was successfully -repulsed, one hundred and fifty Chinese being killed and wounded, and -the Japanese loss considerably less than that number. - -The news of the capture of Wei-hai-wei reached the Japanese and Chinese -forces in Manchooria, and the Viceroy Liu was evidently disheartened, -for there was an entire absence of activity during the next ten days. -The incessant drilling in the neighborhood of Niuchwang was stopped, and -the forces were steadily dwindling through desertion. On the last day of -February, after a period of comparative inaction, the Japanese troops -began an advance on Niuchwang and its port Ying-kow. On that day General -Nodzu attacked the Chinese positions between the Liao-Yang and the -Niuchwang roads. The Japanese artillery first opened a heavy fire upon -the Chinese. This lasted over an hour, and then the fifth Japanese -brigade threw itself upon the Chinese right wing with such impetuosity -that the enemy scarcely made a stand in that part of the field, but -broke and fled in disorder. While this was going on, the main Japanese -column under General Nodzu marched against the Chinese center, which -rested on the village of Chang-ho-tai. Position after position was -carried by the Japanese infantry, and the enemy was finally driven in -disorderly retreat northwestward towards Kinchow city, at the northern -extremity of the Gulf of Liao-Tung. - -The sixth brigade had been told off to clear the Chinese out of the -villages along the Laio-Yang road. This it accomplished without loss, -and then by pre-arrangement it joined hands with the main column, the -combined forces thereafter occupying Tung-yeng-tai and all the villages -and heights near that place, in the direction of Liao-Yang. General -Nodzu’s division extended its line southwestward from Hai-tcheng, so -that the army extended through a very wide front. The Chinese forces -engaged numbered about eighteen thousand men with twenty guns. General -Yih was in command. They lost one hundred and fifty men killed, and -about two hundred wounded. The Japanese losses amounted to about half as -many. - -[Illustration: CHINESE SOLDIERS ON THE MARCH.] - -Early the next morning the Japanese resumed their advance, this time -without opposition of any sort. The Chinese retired before them, and -when night fell the Japanese limit extended nearly to Maitzu. Throughout -the advance upon Niuchwang there was no opposition offered worthy the -name, and the annals of the march bring little fame to the Japanese -defense. - -The reconnoissances eastward and northward made by General Nodzu’s -scouts on Friday, March 1st, brought the information that the main body -of the Chinese forces had fled by the northern road, with the evident -intention of rallying and making another stand at Liao-Yang, the only -place of importance between Hai-tcheng and Mukden. Lieutenant-General -Katsura’s brigade was ordered to pursue the enemy. By that evening the -troops had covered about eight miles of difficult ground, and had got -within a mile of Kan-thouan-phu, where several thousand Chinese were -known to be ready to give battle. The Japanese advanced against the town -at daybreak, only to find that the enemy had fled during the night. -After resting his troops Katsura resumed the pursuit. It was thought -that the Chinese would make a stand at Sha-ho-phu, a small town situated -on the river Sha and commanding the high road to Liao-Yang, but the -place was occupied by the Japanese on Sunday, March 3, without serious -opposition. The next morning Katsura moved on until within five miles of -Liao-Yang, which brought him within forty miles of Mukden. - -While Katsura was driving the routed Chinese before him along the Mukden -road, General Nodzu with all the remaining forces at his disposal was -moving towards Niuchwang Old Town. The troops were under arms at dawn on -Monday. The fifth division moved against the town from the southeast, -while the third division came from the north. The movement was admirably -timed, despite the difficulties of the ground. In three hours the men of -both divisions were in position, and at ten o’clock a heavy shell fire -was opened upon the Chinese fortifications. The Chinese appeared to be -confused; their artillery fire was bad, and they kept massing troops at -points which were never threatened. Many of their guns were dismounted, -and after a two hours’ bombardment the Chinese abandoned the walls and -retreated into the town. The Japanese infantry then poured into the -place, both divisions forcing their way into the gates and over the -walls almost simultaneously. - -So far the Japanese had suffered very little loss. The leading brigade -of the first division charged several Chinese regiments still standing -their ground, and they at once fled precipitately towards Ying-kow, -followed by the Japanese cavalry. Meantime, in the town the Japanese -infantry were warmly engaged. The main body of the Chinese, when driven -from the batteries and walls, had taken refuge in the narrow streets and -houses. Every window and every housetop was occupied by sharpshooters. -The fighting was of a desperate character. The Chinese seeing all hopes -of escape cut off, fought until they were shot or cut down. The headway -made by the Japanese was painfully slow. Each street had to be -effectually cleared before an advance could be made to the next. Each -house had to be assaulted and taken. - -Throughout the day the fighting continued, but slowly the Japanese -cordon was brought more closely around the center of the city, and by -eleven o’clock at night all opposition had ceased. Many of the Chinese, -after nightfall broke through the Japanese lines, and made their escape -into the open country, but a large number accepted quarter and remained -in the hands of the Japanese. The Chinese fought with desperate valor. -Repeatedly they charged the Japanese troops in the streets, and -hand-to-hand fighting was frequent. The officers too, encouraged the men -by their own example, and the defense of the streets was conducted with -some military skill. Nearly two thousand Chinese killed and wounded were -found in the houses and streets, and six hundred prisoners were taken. -The Japanese losses exceeded five hundred in killed and wounded. A large -quantity of stores and provisions fell into the hands of the victors, -beside eighteen cannon, and a large quantity of rifles and ammunition. - -After the engagement of the 4th, Lieutenant-General Yamaji’s division of -the second Japanese army advanced upon Peh-mia-totsu, where it had been -reported that the main body of General Sung’s defeated forces had -halted. The enemy, however, did not wait for the Japanese troops, but -fell back upon Ying-kow. General Nogi, following close along the coast -road, came up with the Chinese and attacked them. During the fighting -which ensued the Chinese were reinforced from Ying-kow, but they were -soon driven back under the protection of the town batteries, leaving -many dead upon the field. Most of the Chinese retreated in a -northeasterly direction, but General Sung and troops immediately under -his command made another stand at Ying-kow. The Japanese artillery was -well handled, and the infantry fought with great spirit, driving the -Chinese before them. By the time the town was entered General Sung and -his troops had fled towards Chen-sho-tai. Meanwhile the Japanese -artillery had concentrated their fire upon the shore forts, which -protected the estuary. The Chinese brought their heavy guns to bear upon -the assailants, and held their own for some time, but finally the -Japanese infantry under cover of the fire of their artillery, carried -the forts one after the other, and by nightfall Ying-kow was in -undisputed possession of the invaders. - -As soon as the fort had been captured, guards were placed for the -protection of the foreign settlement, and the streets were strongly -patrolled. Scouts were sent out along the Niuchwang road to meet General -Nodzu’s patrol. On the morning of the 6th, General Nodzu sent a brigade -towards Ying-kow, which the second army was to attack that day. -Tung-kia-thun was found destitute of Chinese troops, and the Japanese -advanced nearly to Kao-khan without seeing anything of the enemy. Here -they camped for the night, and before morning the outposts of the two -forces had met and had exchanged the good news of the success of each. -The retreating Chinese, under Generals Sung and Ma, were reported to -have halted at Chen-sho-tai. - -The occupation of Niuchwang and its port by the Japanese marked a -distinct phase in the interesting campaign in Manchooria. For many weeks -Niuchwang and Ying-kow had sheltered the Chinese army. From them a -succession of feeble attacks upon the Chinese positions had been -delivered. General Sung’s unwieldy forces were now broken up; the -Japanese front was advanced to the river Liao; and the first and second -armies had joined hands. The third important fortified harbor had fallen -into the hands of the Japanese. The defense of Niuchwang was maintained -with vigor, the Chinese fighting most bitterly to the very end, but -uselessly. The coast defenses too at Ying-kow made some show of -resistance, but being attacked in the rear had quickly fallen in -accordance with all established precedents. - -The general situation in Manchooria was now entirely changed. The -Japanese encouraged by the half-hearted attacks to which they had been -subjected, had broken up the forces in their vicinity. The difficulties -of movement in large bodies, combined with the incapacity of commanders, -and general disorganization, had effectually prevented the Chinese from -gaining any advantage from their superior numbers. Niuchwang, a city of -sixty thousand people, a town with an immense annual trade, had fallen -into Japanese hands, and its capture was unquestionably an important -stroke. On the Japanese right Katsura had pushed forward until he was -near Liao-Yang, and after the occupation of Niuchwang relieved some of -the troops there, another brigade moved northward to his support. The -country centering at Niuchwang was practically in undisputed possession -of the Japanese. Thus, after a march of about four hundred miles, the -troops of the first army which landed at Chemulpo were once again on the -sea-board, and in possession of an important port. - -[Illustration: - - CHINESE SOLDIER LADEN WITH PROVISIONS, - SHOWING WINTER DRESS. -] - -On the 9th of March the first division of the first Japanese army -attacked Thien-chuang-thai, on the western side of the river Liao, to -which place General Sung fled after the capture of Ying-kow. A fierce -engagement ensued, lasting three hours and a half. The main body of the -Chinese force numbered seven thousand men with thirty guns, and the -Japanese forces were but few less than that number. General Katsura -commanded the Japanese center, and General Oku the right wing. The left -wing was composed of Yamaji’s troops from Kai-phing. The Chinese fled -towards Kinchow, leaving fourteen hundred dead on the field. For -strategic reasons the village was burned, and the Japanese returned -across the river. - -A proclamation was issued by the Japanese commander at Ying-kow urging -the inhabitants to continue their peaceful pursuits, promising all -law-abiding inhabitants justice and protection, and warning them of the -consequences should they commit any belligerent acts or create any -disorders. The commanders of the foreign war ships in the river called -on the Japanese general, and asked him to telegraph to their respective -admirals that all the foreigners in the town were safe. The general -complied with this request, as well as with that of the consuls who -asked him to telegraph in the same way to their governments. All Chinese -were strictly prohibited from entering the European quarter, unless -employed by or having business with the foreign residents. Six hundred -troops were told off to carry this order into effect and to patrol the -streets. English and American officers united to express their thanks to -the commanding general, for the elaborate precautions taken to insure -the safety of foreigners. - -It will be remembered that from the very beginning of the war a Japanese -descent upon Formosa was one of the operations expected and frequently -reported. To provide against this threatened danger, a large body of the -famous troops from the south of China known as the Black Flags, were -sent to the island to intrench themselves and arrange for its defense. -They were scarcely settled in comfort when they began a series of -outrages on the native population that made them feared and hated by -every one, and justified their name. Early in February they extended -their outrages from the native population to the British residents. -Disturbances on the island increased, and affairs became so bad that -foreign residents became alarmed and left in haste. The British consul -at the chief treaty-port of the island, sent to Hong Kong an urgent call -for assistance, which was furnished without delay. The war ship Mercury -left for the island in haste, and its presence acted strongly to quell -the disturbances and insure safety for the people. A Japanese squadron -too, which was seen patroling the island on several occasions, acted as -a damper upon the spirits of the rioters, and the Chinese authorities -themselves were able to quell the disturbance. Twenty-five of the ring -leaders were arrested and punished, and peace was restored. - -After this time, operations in the south were abandoned until early in -the spring, when a fleet of Japanese transports moved down the west side -of the island of Formosa, to the group of small islands known as the -Pescadores, between Formosa and the mainland. The Chinese feared that an -attack upon Canton was contemplated, but in reality there was at no time -any considerable danger of this. The Japanese desired to be exceedingly -careful of the interest of all foreign nations in the treaty ports, and -so naturally avoided an attack on any city where they might be -endangered. The real point of attack intended by this course, was the -town of Makung, in the southwest of the island of Pong-hu, the largest -of the group. Makung had a large and absolutely safe harbor, capable of -affording accommodations for vessels of large draft, and was protected -by its citadel and a line of defensive works. Admiral Ito was in command -of the squadron, which numbered nine cruisers and two gunboats. -Bombardment was begun March 23, from all the vessels of the fleet, the -fire centering on the east fort, which dominated the others. A thousand -troops from five transports landed simultaneously and attacked the same -fort. The Chinese evacuated the place during the night, and the Japanese -entered at 6:00 o’clock on the morning of the 24th, and turned the guns -upon the other forts. One of the western forts blew up before it was -evacuated. One thousand Chinese prisoners were taken, the rest of the -garrison escaping in junks. Three thousand Japanese troops now -garrisoned Pong-hu, securing a southern base of operations for the -Japanese fleet. Within a few days the Japanese were in entire possession -of the Pescadore Islands. - -South of Yung-tcheng Bay, the Chinese coast line had remained inviolate -up to this period of the war, in spite of frequent rumors from startled -Chinese sources, of the appearance of Japanese squadrons and their -threatened attack. The Japanese fleet had been profitably used to foster -a continual state of nervous terror in all the Chinese coast cities, but -attention was now turned suddenly in a very different direction, and -actively developed towards the southward. Simultaneously with the attack -on Pong-hu, the Japanese on the 24th of March made a descent upon -Hai-chow, on the sea-board of the province of Chiang-su, some two -hundred miles north of Shanghai. It was early in the morning when the -Japanese squadron appeared off Hai-chow and at once opened fire upon the -small forts there. Under cover of the bombardment a force of several -thousand Japanese troops, landed and attacked the Chinese positions. -After a few hours’ fighting, the stout resistance of the Chinese proved -unavailing, and they abandoned their works, having lost some three -hundred killed. The island of Yuchow, which lies off Hai-chow had -already been occupied by the invaders. At Hai-chow the Japanese were -less than fifty miles in a direct line from the Grand Canal connecting -Nanking with Peking, which at this point approaches nearest to the -coast. The canal had been the chief route by which supplies were -conveyed to Peking, and had been of invaluable service for the movement -of troops to the capital and to the front by way of Tien-tsin. The -threatened dash of the Japanese upon this main artery of travel startled -those who realized it. This sudden and unexpected descent upon the -Chinese coast served to bring home the realities of war to a section of -the population which probably had never heard of the Japanese successes. -The Viceroy of Nanking awakened to his danger, and hastily ordered -troops to the front to oppose the Japanese advance and recapture -Hai-chow. - -A third portion of the Japanese fleet, with war ships and transports, -appeared simultaneously with these other operations, sailing past Taku -into the neighborhood of Shan-hai-kwan. Passing the latter city, which -marks the end of the Great Wall of China where it comes down to the -coast, the fleet left terror behind, and moved upon the island of -Thao-hua. This island lies but a few miles off the mainland, and -fifty-five miles northeast of Shan-hai-kwan, at a point where the main -highway from Manchooria to Peking lies close to the coast line. It was -therefore about half way between Niuchwang and Taku, the port of Peking, -and an excellent base for offensive operations against the capital. - -The armies in Manchooria were practically idle during the latter part of -March. The Chinese had nearly all withdrawn to Kinchow, in the north, -while the Japanese contented themselves with restoring order in -Niuchwang and Ying-kow, and in completing the military arrangements -consequent on the junction of the armies. Snowstorms prevented an -intended advanced towards Kinchow. - -[Illustration: GAP IN THE GREAT WALL AT SHAN-HAI-KWAN.] - -The first of April therefore found the Japanese ready to act on the -offensive at several points, spread over a distance of one thousand two -hundred miles, and extending from the Pescadore Islands in the south to -Niuchwang in the north. On the Liao River the combined forces numbered -nearly forty thousand men, with a further strength of some ten thousand -men on the Laio-Tung peninsula at Kinchow, Talien-wan and Port Arthur. -The whole of these troops could be transported to Shan-hai-kwan in -twenty-four hours, as soon as the port of Ying-kow was free from ice. -There were no troops to be spared from the garrisons at Port Arthur or -Wei-hai-wei, but further levies would undoubtedly be brought from -Hiroshima to these places to await transport. The distance to -Shan-hai-kwan from all these ports were short so that the troops could -be closely packed for the short voyage. In a few days therefore, at -least seventy-five thousand men could be concentrated at Shan-hai-kwan -and the transports would be available for maintaining a supply service. -At the same time the possession of the island of Chao-hua would -facilitate the cutting of the line of Chinese communications between -Manchooria and Peking. With Hai-chow held by the Japanese and -threatening the line of communication from south to north by the Grand -Canal and Japanese forces threatening Formosa and the south, the -possibility of the repulse of an advance in force on Peking seemed very -slight. It was the approach of these dangers and the final certainty -that nothing else could be done to avert them that brought the Chinese -at last to humiliate themselves and sue for peace at the hands of the -Japanese. - - - - - THE NEGOTIATIONS FOR PEACE. - - -------------- - -John W. Foster in Japan—Failure of a Peace Embassy—Diplomatic -Discussions—Foolish Pride—Li Hung Chang Again in Favor—His -Journey—The Viceroy Knew China—The Envoy in Japan—Attempted -Murder—The Mikado’s Appeal—What the Assault Indicated—Declaration -of the Armistice—Provisions of the Armistice—Continuing -Negotiations—Signing the Treaty—Its Terms—No Alliance of China and -Japan—The Mikado Proclaims—Peacefulness Enjoined—What of the -Future?—Ultimate Effect of the War. - - -While the war operations during the first three months of 1895 were in -progress, peace negotiations too were actively under way. The annals of -the hostilities which have occupied the last few chapters might have -been interrupted by paragraphs telling of the progress and defeat of -different efforts to secure peace; but it seemed more intelligible to -the prospective reader to place him in full possession of the -particulars of the military affairs as they developed, without -interruption. Not until the end had nearly come did the peace -negotiations for one moment interrupt hostilities, and there was -consequently no need to interrupt the consecutive record. It now remains -a final task to outline the various peace negotiations after those that -have already been described, and follow oriental diplomacy to its -conclusion. - -We left the Chinese peace envoys lingering at Shanghai in January, after -several weeks of idleness resulting from continual postponement of their -departure. At last the imperial government abandoned its hope that -something would intervene to destroy the necessity of a suit for peace, -and the embassy was ordered to start. The Chinese peace envoys arrived -at Kobe January 30, and were received by the Secretary of the Foreign -Department. When the envoys came ashore, a mob greeted them with hostile -demonstrations and they had to be protected by a large force of police. -After consulting with Mr. Foster, their American adviser who had reached -Kobe several days before, the envoys left in a special steamer for -Ujina. The general tenor of Japanese opinion was that the negotiation -would prove fruitless, as China was scarcely ready to accede to the -Japanese demand. It was acknowledged however, that the present embassy -showed a much more sincere desire for peace on the part of China than -did the Detring mission which resulted in such a fiasco. - -Ex-Secretary Foster was treated with especial courtesy during his stay -at Tokio and Kobe. Mr. Foster exchanged many telegrams with the Chinese -government in reference to the power and authority of Chang and Shao, -the Chinese peace commissioners, regarding which the Japanese were all -along very doubtful. The diplomatic contest promised to be stubborn. -China did not seem to realize that Japan would demand a cession of -territory, and it was anticipated that the humiliation of losing any of -her continental domain would be more than she was willing to endure. Mr. -Foster was frankly given to understand that unless ample powers were -guaranteed by their credentials the envoys would not even be admitted to -a hearing. - -Count Ito and Viscount Mutsu who were appointed to treat with the -Chinese peace envoys, received the credentials which were presented them -as coming from the emperor of China, and found them to read as follows: -“By decree we appoint you our plenipotentiaries, to meet and negotiate -the matter with the plenipotentiaries appointed by Japan. You will, -however, telegraph to the Tsung-li Yamen for the purpose of obtaining -our commands, by which you will abide. The members of your mission are -placed under your control. You will conduct the mission in a faithful -and diligent manner, and fulfill the trust reposed in you. Respect -this.” - -It was immediately officially announced that the plenary powers with -which the mikado’s government demanded that the Chinese envoys should be -invested, were found to be utterly defective. The envoys were therefore -refused further negotiations, and were requested to leave Japan without -delay. It was believed by many that the Chinese envoys were quite -ignorant of the trick that had been played upon them by their -government. They supposed that they had been given full powers to treat -for peace, but they found that not only had they no power either to -conclude or sign a treaty, but that their credentials did not even -contain an intimation of the purpose of the mission which they had to -Japan. The ministers, however, told them that Japan was willing to -reopen negotiations with a properly empowered embassy. The envoys -therefore left Hiroshima after two days in the Japanese city, and -returned home via Nagasaki. - -The rebuff sustained by the Chinese envoys created some astonishment -among the highest officials in Peking, but not much apparent concern. -Just at this time, early in February, they were having glowing reports -from General Sung in Manchooria. He claimed to have already beaten the -Japanese on many occasions, and promised if well supplied with men and -stores to drive every invader from Chinese soil. Japan’s excuse for -refusing to treat with the envoys, scarcely satisfied some export -diplomats. It was insisted that it would have been very unusual for any -government to endow its agents with final powers as long as it was able -to communicate with them daily and hourly if necessary by cable. The -Chinese government once gave final powers to one of its ambassadors who -went over to Russia to negotiate a boundary treaty, and his head would -have been amputated when he returned to Peking, had it not been for the -intercession of the Russian ambassador, who suggested that his -government would resent such punishment inflicted upon a person so -recently honored by the Czar. He offered at the same time to consider -the treaty suspended, until the Chinese authorities might have an -opportunity to examine it and suggest any changes they might like to -have made. After this experience it was not likely that the emperor of -China would confer final powers upon any ambassador. It was asserted -that since modern forms of communication had been introduced, it has not -been the custom to give final powers to agents who visit civilized -nations. Therefore it was assumed that the objection raised in Japan to -the credentials of the Chinese envoys was a diplomatic ruse for the -purpose of gaining time for the Japanese generals to reach Peking. This -was disproven by the cessation of efforts, which Japan might have made -to reach Peking, but it may have been true that Japan wished to bring -China into still further distress, so that her demands would be more -surely granted. - -The very important action was now taken by the Chinese emperor of -restoring to Li Hung Chang all his honors which had been taken away, -because of the succession of defeats in the early weeks of the war, and -appointing him imperial commissioner to negotiate for peace with Japan. -China then requested that the Japanese peace commissioners might meet Li -Hung Chang at Port Arthur to conduct the negotiations at that place. A -prompt reply was received from Hiroshima, in which the Japanese -government absolutely declined to treat anywhere but upon Japanese soil. -The Grand Council of the Chinese empire met on Sunday, February 24, and -deliberated for several hours upon the question, “Shall the war with -Japan be prolonged or shall we treat for peace?” It was resolved that -before the council took a final decision, the same question should be -put to all the provincial authorities, from the first to the third rank -inclusive. Their opinion was urgently demanded by telegraph. The replies -received were nearly all to the effect, that although the war was -unjustly provoked by Japan, it was very desirable that peace should be -concluded. Some of the replies, however, declared that the terms of -peace should not be too exacting. China had learned something by her -failures of two peace missions, Detring’s and the last embassy. - -One of the ancient Chinese methods of waging battle was to play “Soft, -voluptuous airs to melt the heart of the enemy.” How far China had -advanced in practical wisdom might be gathered from her latest -diplomatic manœuver which seemed to indicate that the Chinese -diplomacy of the present followed the military usages of antiquity. Ever -since the eventual triumph of the Japanese became a moral certainty, -China had been given vague intimations of a desire to secure peace. -These intimations unaccompanied by any definite terms were steadfastly -ignored by Japan, until the Chinese government gave notice that it had -sent a peace commission to the mikado. When the useless credentials of -these commissioners were examined in Japan, they were turned back -without consideration, and the Chinese pretended surprise at the -treatment, asserting that Japan was simply seeking to further humiliate -the empire. To unbiased observers it seemed quite as reasonable to -believe that the Chinese were playing to gain time, meanwhile assailing -the enemy with the “soft, voluptuous music of peace.” This policy of -antiquated diplomacy was terminated abruptly. - -Li Hung Chang’s star was again in the ascendant. Even as he journeyed -towards Peking his calumniators continued their attacks. In Shanghai it -was positively asserted that he was now given a chance to accomplish -what he had long awaited, the overthrow of the Manchoorian dynasty in -China. It was also declared that Kung, the disgraced Ex-Taotai of Port -Arthur, had made a confession showing the traitorous designs of Li. It -was said that Li had been leagued with the officials of the palace at -Peking for the overthrow of the dynasty, ever since he was deprived of -his yellow jacket, his peacock feather, and his various offices. All -this now had no weight. The privy council heartily supported Li’s -mission to Japan. Prince Kung silenced all opposition to it by -presenting papers showing that the previous failure was due to a -backward policy, for which the council were themselves to blame, and -exonerating the viceroy. The emperor completely vindicated Li Hung -Chang, confessing that he had tried others and found him alone -trustworthy. He therefore granted him the fullest powers to deal with -the Japanese. The central government publicly assumed the entire -responsibility for the condition of the national defense, explaining it -as the result of blindness to the progress of other nations. This placed -future reforms in the hands of Li. - -The American minister at Peking assumed a personal interest in the -matter at this point, and telegraphed to Japan the text of Li Hung -Chang’s proposed credentials. At last, after a tedious exchange of -messages, the credentials were accepted by Japan and arrangements were -made for the journey of the envoy. Li Hung Chang was received in -audience by the emperor and the dowager empress five times within as -many days, and in his conversations with them spoke frankly of the -condition of the empire. His powers to negotiate were made complete, his -commission bore the emperor’s signature, and on the fifth day of March -he left Peking for Japan. - -There were signs at last that the Chinese were beginning to recognize -the imperative necessity of concluding peace with Japan. With their -strongholds in Japanese hands and their fleet practically annihilated, -the sooner they made submission the more easy would be the terms which -they could obtain. It was therefore gratifying to all friends of the -empire to learn that the viceroy had been appointed as envoy to proceed -to Japan to discuss terms of peace. Holding a position second only to -that of the emperor himself, it was impossible that the Japanese should -refuse to treat with him on account of his inferior station, or his -insufficient credentials. His mission was the first genuine attempt that -China had made to open negotiations. It was a proof that Chinese pride -and obstinacy had at length been overcome, and that there was a real -willingness to take steps calculated to bring the disastrous war to a -close. - -But for the messenger himself! Surely history, which delights in setting -at naught the hopes and filling the fears of men, never saw a sadder -faring forth than the journey of Li Hung Chang to Japan. He was old now, -paralytic, his side and arm half useless, his eyesight dim, his family -long since gone, and all the fabric of empire to which his life had been -given in ruins about him. He saved it once before in straits as great. -He of Honan, Honan men about him, all come down from the central hills -of China, sturdy and tall above the men of the plains whom they swept -aside, Gordon and Ward aiding, leading and winning the early battles, -but the work in the end done, and the rich harvest reaped by those sons -of Honan whom Li Hung Chang found poor among their fields of tea and -millet, and raised to half the posts of honor in China. That was thirty -years ago. The great work spread and grew. The old boundaries of the -empire were regained. The Russian advance in Asia retired for the first -time in two centuries. On the Amoor it was halted. France retired -discomfited. England treated Chinese frontiers with a new respect. In -Burmah, in Siam, in Nepaul, Chinese aid was sought. The big empire was -never so big, never looked so strong, never had more deference or outer -respect since the days of the great Tai-Tsung, when China ruled from the -Pacific to the boundary of the Roman empire, and the Roman empire -extended to the Atlantic—two realms between the two oceans. - -Through it all one man knew how hollow it was, Li Hung Chang. He pleaded -for railroads and telegraphs. He bought war ships and ironclads. He -urged that the old policy be reversed and the military and naval forces -of the empire duly organized. For years he had seen the cloud gathering, -and in the great quagmire of Chinese corruption and conservatism sought -to make ready for it. It had been in vain. Army, fleet, and court had -collapsed. Corea and Manchooria were conquered. If Peking was not -occupied it was because Japan wished to leave some semblance of central -authority with which to treat. Any war-fine could be levied by the -victors; any vassalage exacted of the vanquished. Port Arthur could be -made a Gibraltar. The policy of Peking could be controlled by Japan. -Japan would dominate the Asiatic seacoast. The Japanese ambassador at -Peking would be supreme whenever his government chose to speak. - -All this was in the mind of the paralytic old man as he journeyed by -land and sea. For forty years he had greatly ruled, a great empire was -the greater for his work, and it had all come to this. Were the French -tri-color to be near Berlin, and Bismarck wearily seeking peace at -Paris, the tragedy were no less than that with Li Hung Chang as its -central figure in the east. - -Li Hung Chang spent a few days at Tien-tsin, and then passed on down the -river to Taku, whence he sailed with his suite on March 15 for -Shimonoseki. The viceroy sailed in royal state, with a suite of one -hundred and thirty persons in two vessels. On the morning of the 19th -they reached their destination in Japan. Shimoneseki is on the extreme -southwestern coast of Japan and it was here that in the early '60s the -foreign powers forced Japan to assent to certain indemnities demanded of -the empire. Upon arriving, the envoy was immediately visited by the -representatives of the Japanese foreign office, and later Li Hung Chang -accompanied by his American adviser, John W. Foster, visited the -Japanese minister of foreign affairs. This was the first time in his -life that the venerable statesman of China had ever set his foot on -other than Chinese soil. - -The viceroy and his party were escorted to the foreign office by Mr. -Inouye, who cordially greeted the statesman, and placed his services at -his disposal. The party was received on landing by a guard of honor, and -was taken to the foreign office in carriages under escort. The following -day was spent by the peace envoys in examining each other’s credentials -and powers. Both sides devoted much time and thought to this matter and -were assisted by experts in matters of diplomacy and etiquette. - -The Chinese letter of credential proved to be precisely what might have -been expected from Chinese character. The phraseology had been -repeatedly discussed through the ministers of the United States in Tokio -and Peking and a form satisfactory to Japan agreed upon. Whether -intentionally or not the Chinese had given more than one indication of -waywardness in preparing the document. They were very particular in -honoring their emperor with his proper title but they did not insert -that of the emperor of Japan. Moreover they used an expression -signifying that it was in consequence of Japan’s desire for peace that -an ambassador was sent. This was not allowed to pass uncorrected. As -finally amended the paper was virtually in accordance with Japan’s -dictation. - -In the end all the documents were found to be in due form, and polite -notes to this effect were exchanged. Subsequently Li Hung Chang and his -suite went ashore. - -The viceroy was received with a military salute, and all the honors due -to his exalted rank. He proceeded to the chief hotel, where -accommodation had been prepared for him and part of his suite. Further -communications passed on the morning of March 21, and at half past two -in the afternoon the first business conference in connection with the -peace negotiations began, Li Hung Chang, Count Ito, Viscount Mutsu, and -their secretaries, together with the sworn interpreters being present. -The deliberations which were conducted in secret, lasted for an hour and -a half. There was much diplomatic fencing, Li Hung Chang being evidently -anxious to ascertain at the earliest possible moment the terms upon -which an armistice might be granted. Nothing occurred to suggest the -possibility of a break down of the negotiations, and some gratifying -progress was made towards a general understanding. - -It must be remembered that during all this time there was no cessation -in the war operations which were going on in Manchooria and on the -Chinese coast. Fresh troops were being hurried forward from Japan for -active service, and the war spirit gave no sign of subsidence. In -Yokohama the success of the peace negotiations was regarded as doubtful. -The military element, which was all in favor of the continuance of the -war until the victory of the Japanese was made complete by the capture -of Peking, had at that time a predominant voice in Japanese politics, -and this feeling was reflected in parliament. Notice was given in the -house of representatives of a resolution declaring that the time for -peace negotiations had not arrived. - -While negotiations were thus progressing, they were interrupted by an -incident that amazed and shocked the civilized world. As Li Hung Chang -was returning to his lodgings on March 24, after having attended a -conference with the Japanese peace plenipotentiaries, he was attacked by -a young Japanese who sought to murder him. The young man’s name was -Koyama Rokunosuki, and he was but twenty-one years of age. The bullet -struck the Chinese envoy in the cheek, and it was believed that the -result would not be serious. The news of the attempt at assassination -created much excitement in Japan, in China, and in the western world. -The ministers of state and other officials visited Li Hung Chang without -delay, to express their deep sorrow at the occurrence. Every precaution -was taken by the police and military to prevent any trouble. The mikado -was deeply grieved at the affair, and sent his two chief court -physicians, Surgeons Sato and Ishiguro, to attend the Chinese envoy. The -bullet entered the cheek half an inch under the left eye, and penetrated -to a depth of nearly an inch and a half. The Chinese plenipotentiary -strongly objected to undergoing an operation for its removal. The -empress of Japan, to show her own regret, sent two nurses to assume the -care of the old man, and from every side letters and telegrams of regret -and sympathy arrived in great quantities. - -Beside the physicians, the mikado sent the imperial chamberlain to -convey his condolences to the viceroy, and to the public he issued the -following proclamation: - -“A state of war exists between our country and China, but she with due -regard of international forms and usages sent an ambassador to sue for -peace. We therefore appointed plenipotentiaries, instructing them to -meet and negotiate at Shimonoseki. It was consequently incumbent upon -us, in pursuance of international etiquette, to extend to the Chinese -ambassador treatment consistent with the national honor, providing him -ample escort and protection. Hence we issued special commands to our -officials to exercise the utmost vigilance in all respects. It is -therefore a source of profound grief and regret to us, that a ruffian -should have been found base enough to inflict personal injury on the -Chinese ambassador. Our officials will sentence the culprit to the -utmost punishment provided by the law. We hereby command our officials -and subjects to respect our wish, and to preserve our country’s fair -fame from impairment by strictly guarding against a recurrence of such -deeds of violence and lawlessness.” - -The would-be assassin belonged to the class known as the Soshis, or -political bravos, who are always ripe for any acts of riot or violence. -When the attack was made, Li Hung Chang was in a palanquin being -conveyed to his hotel from conference with the Japanese negotiators. He -had nearly reached the house, when a young man rushed out of the crowd, -and seizing the hand of one of the carriers in order to stop the -palanquin fired his pistol almost point blank at the Chinese -plenipotentiary. There was little room for hesitation as to his motives. -He was a fanatic who thought to serve his country by murdering the -Chinese statesman. No delusion, it is hardly necessary to say, could be -more gross than such a one. The criminal had done a grievous injury to -his country and its government. Japan had striven long, earnestly, and -successfully, to earn the reputation of a civilized state. Nobody of -course should be unjust enough to upbraid her with the conduct of an -irresponsible and apparently an isolated malefactor. Individuals with -ferocious passions and ill-balanced minds are to be found in all -countries, and such a crime as this, deplorable and unusual though it -was, might have occurred in any European capital or our own capital city -under similar conditions. Nevertheless, there were those who chose to -take it as an index of national feeling condemning the country for the -act of one. The manner of the expressions of regret that came so -universally from every Japanese voice seemed to offer sufficient -disclaimer against the existence of any such a cruel sentiment. -Resolutions were presented in the Japanese diet expressing deep regret -at the attempt upon the life of the Chinese plenipotentiary, and the -native newspapers were unanimous and sincere in the same expressions. It -had to be recognized, however, that an element existed among such people -as the Soshis, inclined to violence under such circumstances, and -precautions were doubled. No government is adequate to control -fanaticism of the extremer sort, and the attempt upon the life of Li -Hung Chang was a symptom of the frenzy which had been engendered in a -large element of the Japanese people by the war. It was now learned for -the first time that Mr. Detring was attacked by a Soshi in November, but -was defended by the police. He kept silence in order to avoid -embittering the situation. - -The immediate effect on the negotiations of the attempted assassination -of Li Hung Chang was that the emperor of Japan on March 29, declared an -unconditional armistice. This was avowedly done because of the attack on -the Chinese plenipotentiary and was so declared in notifications which -were sent to all countries and to all Japanese legations. The language -of the notification thus sent out was as follows: “On the opening of the -negotiations the Japanese plenipotentiary proposed armistice, which -Japan was willing to accept on certain conditions. While this -negotiation was going on, the untoward event happened on the person of -the Chinese plenipotentiary. His majesty, the emperor, in view of this -unhappy occurrence, commanded the Japanese plenipotentiaries to consent -to a temporary armistice without conditions. This was communicated to -the Chinese plenipotentiary.” - -It was now felt that the power of the Japanese government to execute the -armistice would be put a critical test. The military power of Japan, in -the judgment of many intelligent observers, had almost outstripped the -civil power during the war. This had caused serious concern as it was -feared that the military element backed by the war spirit among the -people would not submit to an armistice even if the civil authorities -ordered one. To meet this emergency a change of army commanders was made -early in March. There had been three army corps operating in different -campaigns and each under a general of supreme authority over his -particular campaign. Prince Komatsu was created commander-in-chief over -all armies in anticipation of an armistice. The purpose of this step was -to concentrate authority in one man in close touch with the imperial -household who could thus execute an armistice by a simultaneous -cessation of hostilities by the three armies. It now remained to be seen -whether Prince Komatsu could execute the important commission given to -him. The splendid discipline shown by the army during the war gave -assurance that there would be immediate acquiescence by the military, -and yet Prince Komatsu had to contend against a war spirit inflamed by -many victories. It had been said that an armistice would be so unpopular -among the people and soldiery that it would insure the political -retirement of Japan’s two chief statesmen, Count Ito and Viscount Matsu, -who had served as peace envoys. - -On the opening of the negotiations, after the arrival of Li Hung Chang -at Shimonoseki, the Japanese plenipotentiaries at first proposed the -following conditions for the conclusion of an armistice:—The occupation -of Shan-hai-kwan, Taku, and Tien-tsin by Japanese troops; Japanese -control of the uncompleted railroad from Shan-hai-kwan to Tien-tsin and -custody of the various forts and fortifications, together with the arms -and ammunition; the payment by China of the war contributions required -for such occupation. - -Li Hung Chang sought to obtain more moderate conditions, but the -Japanese plenipotentiaries refused, and it was then proposed to continue -the negotiations without a suspension of hostilities. This was the stage -which the negotiations had reached at the third conference, when the -attempt was made on the life of Viceroy Li. In view of this circumstance -the emperor of Japan waiving the conditions previously made ordered the -Japanese plenipotentiaries to consent to an armistice until the 20th of -April. The armistice was to apply to the forces in Manchooria and in the -circuit around the Gulf of Pechili, including the two great -promontories, but did not include any operations to the south of that -region. Neither government was to be prevented from making any new -distribution or disposition of their troops not intended to augment the -armies in the field. The movement of troops and the transport of goods -contraband of war by sea were, however, prohibited and if attempted -would be made at the risk of capture. The armistice was to terminate -should the peace negotiation be broken off in the meantime, and a -convention embodying these terms was signed. - -The news of the armistice was received excitedly by the Japanese and -Chinese living in the United States, but only the former found it -possible to concede the truth. A characteristic crowd of excited -Chinamen gathered in front of a Chinese temple in their own quarter of -New York City discussing a flaming red poster, the translation of which -read: “The war between China and Japan has ended and it is time for -every one to rejoice. Our fathers and brothers have fought the old enemy -and those who have not been butchered will be honored at home. China is -a greater country than Japan, and if the war had been allowed to go on -the Japanese would have been whipped out of their boots and China would -have annexed Japan as a colony. It is well for Japan that her people -have been called off by the emperor, but the time will not be long -before the war will be opened again, for it is written in the mystic -language of the shrine that China and Japan cannot dwell forever on the -same earth.” - -During the time of Li Hung Chang’s illness resulting from his wound, his -son, Li Ching Fung, acted as his representative in Japan and continued -the negotiations. On April 7th the wound in Li’s face had completely -healed and the bandages were removed. The young man who had committed -the assault was sentenced to imprisonment for life at hard labor, while -the chief of police and the prefect of Shimonoseki, together will all -their staff, were dismissed in disgrace. - -After three days of obstinate silence the assassin dropped his air of -bravado and made a full confession to Judge Toyama, who conducted a -private examination at the Bakan court. The prisoner declared that he -had long brooded over the causes leading to the disturbance of peace in -the east, and had reached the conclusion that the evil practices of Li -Hung Chang were accountable for all of them, beginning with the -mismanagement of affairs in Corea. He believed that as long as Li lived -peace could not be restored and resolved at one time to go to China and -kill the viceroy. This purpose was defeated by his inability to raise -the necessary money, but when he learned that Li was coming to Japan as -peace ambassador he felt that his opportunity had arrived. He bought a -revolver in Yokohama, March 11, and the next day started for Tokio, -reaching Bakan, March 24. At 4:15 o’clock that afternoon he approached -the sedan chair in which the ambassador was returning from the -conference hall to his lodgings in Shimonoseki and discharged his -weapon, aiming it at the victim’s breast. Although he endeavored to -steady his right arm by clasping it with the left, he missed his aim -inflicting only a slight wound. - -The conditions of the peace which was to be concluded by treaty now -began to interest the civilized world almost as closely as the two -contending nations. The conditions which were demanded by the Japanese -were guessed at by every one who thought himself competent to form an -opinion, and the varying opinions were sent out for discussion in the -press of the world. At one time it was asserted to be arranged that -Japan would conclude on offensive and defensive alliance with China, the -object being to oppose European interests in the far east. This prospect -occasioned considerable excitement among European diplomates. It was -recognized that should China’s numbers and enormous resources be united -to Japanese progression, activity, and administrative ability, the -coalition would be almost impregnable to any assault that might be -delivered upon it, and that it might enjoy excellent success in any -Asiatic aggressions which it cared to attempt. - -It will be unprofitable here to discuss the various conditions of peace -that were supposed to be proposed when we have at our command the -settlement that was actually made. Nor is it worth while to consider the -threatened intervention of Great Britain and Russia and France and -Germany, each to protect her own interests in the east, for as a matter -of fact no such interventions were made unless through the most secret -diplomacy. Inasmuch as Japan’s demands did not encroach upon any rights -possessed by those countries in the east, there was no proper reason why -they should intervene. - -Finally on Monday, April 15th, a peace convention was actually signed at -Shimonoseki by the plenipotentiaries of China and Japan. The -independence of Corea was recognized. It was conceded that Japan should -retain temporarily the important places that she had conquered. Port -Arthur, Wei-hai-wei, and Niuchwang, including all the territory east of -the Liao River. The island of Formosa was ceded permanently to Japan. An -indemnity was provided for to be paid by China to Japan of 200,000,000 -taels in silver, which is equivalent to about $150,000,000 in American -gold. China agreed to no longer impose upon foreigners the odious tax -known as Likin, levied upon all goods and sales, and a uniform standard -tael was required to be adopted by China for her currency. All -foreigners were to be permitted to introduce into China factories and -machinery, and to lease warehouses in the interior. The important -commercial concessions given to Japan were thus extended to all other -treaty nations. The occupation of Port Arthur and Wei-hai-wei and of the -conquered Manchoorian territory were to be temporary, lasting only long -enough to guarantee the payment of the war indemnity by China. The terms -of this payment provided that it should be made in silver in six annual -installments. Japan retained extra-territorial jurisdiction in China, -that is the right to try her own subjects arrested in China on charges -of crime, and on the other hand China gave up the right to -extra-territoriality in Japan. - -The Chinese customs were not placed under Japanese control by the terms -of the treaty as had been alleged, and the stipulations provided that on -the payment of the first two installments of the indemnity to be paid by -China, Wei-hai-wei might be evacuated, provided China pledge her customs -revenue in order to insure the payment of the balance due. This it was -officially announced was optional, and might never take effect, while at -the present time there was no intention of touching the customs revenue -of China. It was understood that China conceded practically everything -required by Japan, except making Peking an open port, and this was -strenuously resisted. At the solicitation of the Chinese envoy too, the -indemnity demanded was reduced from three hundred million to two hundred -million taels. - -So frequently were reports circulated, that Japan and China had -concluded an offensive and defensive alliance, and that the commercial -advantages secured by Japan were to be exclusive, that the government -felt it desirable to deny those statements and issued the following -announcement regarding the matter: - -“Misapprehensions are reported to be current in Europe in regard to the -terms of the Japan-China treaty. It has been represented that Japan has -secured a two per cent ad valorem duty on imports instead of specific -duty and has also formed an offensive and defensive alliance with China. -The commercial concessions obtained by Japan beyond those already -secured by the treaty powers under the favored nation clause comprise -the right to navigate the Yang-tse-Kiang to Chung King, and also the -Woon Sung River and the canals leading to Soo Chow and Hank Chow and the -right to import machinery and certain goods duty free and to establish -factories. These concessions are not exclusive to Japan. They naturally -extended to European powers, in virtue of the favored nation clause. In -securing these privileges for all Japan expects the approval of all the -powers. The reported offensive and defensive alliance does not exist.” - -Li Hung Chang and his suite started home to China escorted to their -vessels by a guard of honor, and Count Ito and Viscount Matsu, the -officers who negotiated the treaty of peace were received in audience by -the emperor on their return to Hiroshima. He expressed himself as -entirely satisfied with the principal points of the treaty which added -much to the glory of the empire, and highly pleased at the signal -service rendered by them. On the afternoon of April 22 the following -proclamation was issued by the Japanese mikado: - -“Through peace, national prosperity is best promoted. Unfortunately, the -rupture of relations with China forced upon us a war which, after a -lapse of ten months, is not yet ended. During this period our ministers, -in concert with the army, navy and diet, have done all in their power to -further our aims in obedience to our instructions. Our ardent desire, -with the assistance of our subjects, in loyalty and sincerity, is to -restore peace and thereby attain our object—the promotion of national -prosperity. Now that peace is negotiated and armistice proclaimed, a -permanent cessation of hostilities is near at hand. The terms of peace -fixed by our minister of state give us complete satisfaction. The peace -and glory thus secured renders the present a fitting time to enlighten -you as to the course of our future policy. - -“We are rejoiced at the recent victories which have enhanced the glory -of our empire. At the same time we are aware that the end of the road -which must be traversed by the empire in the march of civilization is -still far distant and remains yet to be attained. We therefore hope, in -common with our loyal subjects, that we shall always guard against -self-contentedness, but in a spirit of modesty and humility strive to -perfect out military defense without falling into extremes. In short, it -is our wish that the government and the people alike shall work to a -common end and that our subjects of all classes strive each in his -sphere for the purpose of laying the foundation of permanent prosperity. - -“It is hereby definitely made known that no countenance will be given by -us to such as, through conceit at the recent victories, may offer insult -to another state or injure our relations with friendly powers, -especially as regards China. After the exchange of the ratifications of -the treaty of peace, friendship should be restored and endeavors made to -increase more than ever before the relations of good neighborhood. It is -our pleasure that our subjects pay due respect to these expressed -wishes.” - -Let us now take a hasty glance in conclusion at the condition in which -the three countries with which we have dealt are left at the close of -the war, and the prospects for their future. The Japanese government is -in the hands of a progressive and able emperor, supported by a cabinet -composed of the foremost statesmen of the east, and reigning under -constitutional forms. Naturally elated by the wonderful success of their -arms, it is to be fairly expected that they will continue in the -progressiveness which has marked the island empire’s history since Perry -opened the door for western light to shine in. In the east they should -become by virtue of the abilities the dominant power, unless by chance -the Chinese have learned a lesson which they will put into effect. With -the constant impression of western civilization upon them, it is to be -hoped that the Japanese will acquire a firm moral and intellectual basis -for the manners of life that their intelligence and activity have -adopted, and become in the best sense a civilized nation. What they lack -now to reach this point, are the things that can only come by a -succession of generations of civilization. Wonderful record as the last -forty years have made for the empire, they have not given to that realm -yet a complete and rounded civilization. The best friends of Japan hope -and believe that she will not permit her splendid successes of the war -to make her over lordly and conceited. - -China is the enigma of the east. It is certain that the influences of -their defeat will open the Chinese empire very rapidly to modern -civilization and investment. But whether or not China retain her -conservatism and refuse to adopt the things that are interspersed among -her people can scarcely be predicted. The established system has -received a severe shock from the Japanese victory, and surely a new or -civilized and more vigorous one will take its place. It is an actual -fact that so far as can be said by those most familiar with the country, -the knowledge that the war has even been in progress has probably not -yet penetrated to the confines of the empire, so poor are the means of -communication and so indifferent are the people of one region to the -things that are happening to those of another province. An experienced -traveler in China relates that he penetrated from Shanghai southwestward -through China towards India immediately after the destruction of the -summer palace of the emperor by French and English troops, and the -investiture of Peking thirty-five years ago. The expedition was -considered dangerous, as the antagonism of the whole country, smarting -under humiliation and defeat was to be feared. On arriving at Ichang, -eleven hundred miles from the coast, the war news had just come to the -knowledge of the government officials; three hundred miles farther west -there was absolute ignorance that any war had occurred. At the city of -Pingshan, two thousand miles west of the coast, the party heard of a -Mohammedan insurrection of some years’ standing, ranging in the province -of Yun-nan, but the bare fact of such an important disturbance had not -yet reached the coast. Certain it is however, that if China does -assimilate the lesson that she has had a chance to learn, a new power -will exist in the east that will need to be watched by western nations. - -As to Corea it is difficult again to prophesy. Should Japan take -stringent pains to provide for civilizing that hermit kingdom, it is -possible that the work may be done, but so difficult are the political -conditions in that peninsula, and so unsympathetic are the Corean rulers -and chief men with all western ideas of progress, that the task will be -a bitter one. If Japan maintains the independence of Corea in its -purity, that must mean that she will keep her own hands out of Corean -affairs. This is scarcely to be expected, for the energetic empire has -imposed upon herself the task of reforming Corea, and it is sure that -she will make strenuous efforts to do it. - -As one result of the war between China and Japan must be to increase the -points of contact between the eastern and western worlds, the fortune of -parties and the evolution of domestic politics in those countries must, -in future, command to a greater degree than in the past, the attention -of American and European observers. Political evolution has been rapid -in Japan. Changes which in Anglo-Saxon countries have been the slow -product of centuries, are, in this portion of what has been called “the -unchanging east,” crowded into little more than a single generation. -What may be done in Corea and China cannot be told. But the fairest -prophecy would be that the horrors of war will be utilized, by the -influence of time and a better understanding, to improve and modernize -the Orient. - - THE END. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - Transcriber’s Note - -Pages 127 and 128 do not exist, but the text flows from page 126 to 129. - -The image on page 70 is marked as page 71 in the index. - -The image of page 112 is marked as page 111 in the index. - -The image on page 186 is marked as 187 in the index. - -The image appearing between pp. 170 and 171, captioned “Female Types and - Costumes”, does not appear in the index of illustrations. An entry - has been added, delimited in square brackets, as “facing p. 170”. - -A sentence describing the activities of the Red Cross on p. 595 seems to -be missing a verb. The word ‘was’ at 595.17 seems most likely to be -intended. - -It was judged that the word ‘contrabrand’, which appears twice on p. -465, is an error. The proper form appears once (p. 666). The two -erroneous instances were corrected. - -Other errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected, -and are noted here. The references are to the page and line in the -original. - - 7.15 with European Civ[il]ization Added. - - 10.2 Chine[r/s]e Barber, Replaced. - - 25.9 to ann[i]hilate Japan’s influence in Corea Inserted. - - 44.30 bronchial and p[lu/ul]monary complaints Transposed. - - 48.38 established a dynasty, short[-]lived indeed Inserted. - - 62.19 Dante, Petrarch and Boccac[c]io. Inserted. - - 66.31 with his new auxil[l]iaries Removed. - - 66.34 the tro[u/o]ps of the rebel leader Replaced. - - 71.6 England[']s First Embassy to China Inserted. - - 107.1 proper ice for p[er/re]servation Transposed. - - 105.7 roughly paralle[d/l] with its fellow Replaced. - - 146.21 by [sutting] their hair in fringe across _Sic_: putting? - their foreheads cutting? - - 171.5 steer straight by the[m/ir] co[m]pass Repaced. Inserted. - - 173.11 i[m/n]flammatory diseases are almost unknown Replaced. - in China - - 181.8 written in the colloqu[i]al style Inserted. - - 194.25 whereby his peac[e]ably disposed subjects Inserted. - - 217.4 the terror of the Chinese and Corean Inserted. - co[a]sts - - 228.32 before which they once [prayed Comma misplaced. - consume,/prayed, consume] them - - 232.5 It was the syno[myn/nym] of sorcery Transposed. - - 233.3 the “corrupt sect” suppos[o/e]d to be Replaced. - eradicated - - 233.29 their fathers of the seventeenth century.[”] Added. - - 251.14 made it the cap[ti/it]al of the empire Transposed. - - 296.1 bits of wood under the t[h/o]e and heel Replaced. - - 305.7 always bright with ve[n/r]dure and flowers Replaced. - - 333.14 The Confucian ethics were dil[l]igently Removed. - studied - - 343.3 the little peninsula been devast[at]ed by Inserted. - mighty invasion - - 343.21 [In ]1707 the Jesuits in Peking Added. - - 344.25 by their attemp[t]s to escape Inserted. - - 349.2 F[i]fteen years later Inserted. - - 350.10 These records of persever[e/a]nce Replaced. - - 372.1 GEOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT, CLIMATE AND Inserted. - PRO[D]UCTS OF COREA. - - 372.22 or to Great Brit[ia/ai]n Transposed. - - 401.34 Mourning is of many degre[s/e]s and lengths Replaced. - - 414.2 the Chinese have not the sligh[t]est idea Inserted. - - 414.28 has frequently been a potent i[u/n]fluence Inverted. - - 424.37 Min Yon[k/g] Ik, who after fleeing to the Replaced. - mountains, - - 451.1 the Japanese expressive of contemp[t] Restored. - - 458.3 The sq[u]adron at this time, however, was in Inserted. - the north - - 462.24 before he could reach T[ei/ie]n-tsin Transposed. - - 465.13 contrab[r]and Removed. - - 465.17 contrab[r]and Removed. - - 465.22 that drew upo[m/n] them a severe rebuke Replaced. - - 492.38 it was evident that she was sinking[.] Added. - - 493.8 no mean achiev[e]ment Inserted. - - 501.7 seventeen and one-half knots; [T/t]he Replaced. - Takachiho and the Naniwa - - 503.19 the prestige of a grea[l/t] moral and Replaced. - material victory - - 536.22 no ca[lva/val]ry or artillery accompanying Transposed. - them - - 552.30 The efficien[c]y of a force Inserted. - - 571.36 and[ and] he chasing them back into their Removed. - own ports - - 554.2 a[m/n]d they stood shoulder to shoulder Replaced. - - 578.13 three st[r]ong columns of Chinese Inserted. - - 595.17 The last activity of the Red Cross society Missing? - prior to the war in 1891, [was ]when - - 598.20 now a w[ie/ei]rd, characteristic Japanese Transposed. - march - - 604.31 while vastly important as a stra[get/teg]ic Transposed. - point - - 614.2 terrorized the people of Ma[u/n]chooria Transposed. - - 614.22 through the Laio[./-]Tung promontory Replaced. - - 617.3 to the north of Talien-wan Bay[,] Added. - - 620.33 and four hundred ca[lva/val]ry cavalry Transposed. - - 621.10 Jap[a]nese troops turned southward Inserted. - - 622.35 towards severe [punishment the] military and _Sic._ of? for? - naval officers - - 625.28 Mor[e]over, he too believed Inserted. - - 626.1 to hold the regency under pretex[t] Added. - - 636.19 his squadron was seen in its old posit[i]on Inserted. - - 648.36 Th[e/s] coast defenses Replaced. - - 651.6 to the group of small islands know[s/n] as Replaced. - the Pescadores - - 666.15 On the opening of the negot[i]ations Inserted. - - 668.8 he endeavored to st[u/ea]dy his right arm Replaced. - - 670.3 a two per cent ad v[o/a]lorem duty Replaced. - - 671.15 fr[i]endship should be restored Inserted. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The War in the East, by Trumbull White - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WAR IN THE EAST *** - -***** This file should be named 55608-0.txt or 55608-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/6/0/55608/ - -Produced by KD Weeks, Brian Coe and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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