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diff --git a/old/55596-0.txt b/old/55596-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e81ea70..0000000 --- a/old/55596-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9910 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Life of Robert Stevenson, by David Stevenson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Life of Robert Stevenson - -Author: David Stevenson - -Release Date: September 21, 2017 [EBook #55596] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIFE OF ROBERT STEVENSON *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -LIFE OF ROBERT STEVENSON. - - - - -Edinburgh University Press: - -THOMAS AND ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE, PRINTERS TO HER MAJESTY. - -[Illustration: - - J. SYME DELINEAVIT. J. HORSBURGH SCULPSIT. - -ROBERT STEVENSON F.R.S.E. - -CIVIL ENGINEER. - -_From a bust by Joseph, placed in the Library of the Bell Rock -Lighthouse by the Commissioners of the Northern Lighthouses_] - - - - - LIFE - OF - ROBERT STEVENSON - - CIVIL ENGINEER - - FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH; FELLOW OF THE GEOLOGICAL - SOCIETY OF LONDON; FELLOW OF THE ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF - LONDON; MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF SCOTTISH ANTIQUARIES, - OF THE WERNERIAN NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, AND OF - THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. - - ENGINEER TO THE COMMISSIONERS OF NORTHERN LIGHTHOUSES AND TO - THE CONVENTION OF ROYAL BURGHS OF SCOTLAND, ETC. - - - BY - DAVID STEVENSON - - CIVIL ENGINEER - - VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH; - MEMBER OF COUNCIL OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, ETC. - - - ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH - E. AND F. N. SPON, LONDON AND NEW YORK - 1878. - - - - -PREFACE - - -The addresses made to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and the -Institution of Civil Engineers, at the opening meetings of the -session--1851, contained obituary notices of Robert Stevenson. The -late Alan Stevenson, his eldest son, also wrote a short Memoir of his -father, which was printed for private circulation. - -But Robert Stevenson’s long practice as a Civil Engineer--the -important works he executed--and the valuable contributions he made to -Engineering and Scientific literature, seem to me to require a fuller -notice of his life than has hitherto been given. - -This has been attempted in the following Memoir, which will be found -to consist of extracts from Mr. Stevenson’s Professional Reports--of -notes from his Diary--and of communications to Scientific Journals and -Societies, between the years 1798 and 1843, when he retired from active -practice. - -These papers embrace a wide field of Engineering, including -Lighthouses, Harbours, Rivers, Roads, Railways, Ferries, Bridges, and -other cognate subjects. - -Some of them describe Engineering practice which is now obsolete, but -not on that account, I think, uninteresting to such modern Engineers as -have regard for the antiquities of their Profession. - -Some of them, I am aware, can only be appreciated by those who are -specially interested in the city of Edinburgh. - -All of them will, I venture to think, be found worthy of preservation -as interesting Engineering records of an era that has passed away. It -formed no part of my duty to criticise them, in the light of modern -Engineering, and, unaltered in form of expression or statement of -opinion, they are now reproduced as they came from my father’s pen. - -I offer no apology for presenting these Extracts as the outlines of the -life of one who occupied a prominent place among the Civil Engineers -who practised during the beginning of the present, and end of the -last century, shortly after British Engineering, with Smeaton as its -founder, may be said to have had its origin. - - D. S. - -EDINBURGH, JULY 1878. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - EARLY LIFE. - PAGE - Birth--Mr. Smith’s improvements in Lighthouse illumination-- - Origin of the Scottish Lighthouse Board--Acts as Assistant - to their Engineer--Student at Andersonian Institution, - Glasgow, and University of Edinburgh--Succeeds Mr. Smith - as Engineer to the Northern Lighthouse Board--Tour of - inspection of English lights in 1801--Is taken for a - French spy 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE. - - Resolves to practise as a Civil Engineer--Journals--Reports-- - Design for the Bell Rock Lighthouse--Improvements on Smeaton’s - design--Application to Parliament for Act in 1802--Act of - Parliament passed in 1806--Works begun in 1807--Tender breaks - adrift--Life in the floating light--Boating between the - lightship and the rock--Anxiety for workmen--Sunday work--Life - in the Barrack or Beacon--Visits the Eddystone in 1813 and - 1818--Sir Walter Scott’s visit to the Bell Rock 12 - - - CHAPTER III. - - LIGHTHOUSE ILLUMINATION. - - Early modes of illumination--Facet reflectors and lamps--Silvered - copper reflectors and Argand lamps--Isle of May coal light-- - Improvements in catoptric lights--Distinctions for lighthouses - invented by Mr. Stevenson, viz., flashing, intermittent, and - double lights--Floating light lantern--Lighting of stage of - Covent Garden Theatre--Dioptric system of lighthouse - illumination 48 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - ROADS. - - Early roads and road-making--Edgeworth and M’Adam’s systems of - roads--Stevenson’s system of roads--Cast iron and stone tracks 64 - - - CHAPTER V. - - IMPROVEMENT OF EDINBURGH. - - Design for approaches to Edinburgh from the East by Regent and - London Roads, and opening up access to the Calton Hill--Sites - for the new Jail and Court of Justiciary, and buildings - in Waterloo Place--Regent Bridge--Feuing Plan for Eastern - District of Edinburgh--Improvement of accesses to Edinburgh - from the West and North, and from Granton--Removal of old - “Tolbooth” Prison--Removal of University Buildings 74 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - FERRIES. - - Ferry Engineering--Extracts from Report on the Tay Ferries-- - Reports on various Ferries--Orkney and Shetland Ferry, etc. 101 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - RAILWAYS. - - Canals and Railways on one level--Haulage on Railways--Railways - in Scotland--Edinburgh and Midlothian, Stockton and - Darlington, and Edinburgh and London Railways--Uniform gauge - proposed--Notes on Railways for the Highland and Agricultural - Society--Letter from George Stephenson 111 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - HARBOURS AND RIVERS 130 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - PRESERVATION OF TIMBER 155 - - - CHAPTER X. - - BRIDGES. - - Marykirk, Annan, Stirling, and Hutcheson stone bridges-- - High-level bridge for Newcastle--Timber bridge of built - planks--Winch Chain Bridge--American bridges of suspension-- - Runcorn Bridge--Menai Chain Bridge--New form of suspension - bridge 160 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - WOLF ROCK LIGHTHOUSE 168 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - CARR ROCK BEACON 177 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - CRANES 181 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - FISHERIES 184 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - MARINE SURVEYING 196 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - CONTRIBUTIONS ON ENGINEERING AND SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS. - - Contributions to _Encyclopædia Britannica_ and _Edinburgh - Encyclopædia_--The alveus or bed of the German ocean--Sectio - planography--Wasting effects of the sea at the Mersey and - Dee--Density of fresh and salt water--The Hydrophore 203 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - EXTRACTS FROM EARLY REPORTS. - - Wide range of subjects on which Mr. Stevenson gave advice-- - Reports on ruins of Aberbrothock Abbey--St. Magnus Cathedral, - and Earl’s Palace, Kirkwall--St. Andrews Cathedral--Montrose - Church Spire--Melville Monument, Edinburgh--Lipping of joints - of masonry with cement--Provision for flood waters in bridges - --Hydraulic mortar--Protection of foreshores--Cycloidal sea - wall--Checking drift sand--Night signal lamps--Cause of heavy - seas in Irish Channel--Sea routes across Irish Channel--Build - of Ships--Prospective increase of population--Tidal scour-- - Unscrewing of bolts by the waves--Cement Rubble cofferdams-- - Buoyage system--Observations on fog signals--Regulations for - steam vessels--Notes on shipwrecks 236 - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - RETROSPECT OF MR. STEVENSON’S LIFE 264 - - - APPENDIX 274 - - - INDEX 277 - - - - -LIST OF PLATES. - - - FRONTISPIECE, _To face Title-page._ - - _To face page_ - - I. ELEVATION OF BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, 25 - - II. SECTION OF BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, 25 - - III. VIGNETTE OF BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, WITH FACSIMILE OF LINES - WRITTEN IN BELL ROCK ALBUM BY SIR WALTER SCOTT, 47 - - IV. PLAN OF APPROACHES TO EDINBURGH BY REGENT AND LONDON ROADS, - 1814, 77 - - V. DESIGN FOR BUILDING ON THE CALTON HILL, EDINBURGH, 90 - - VI. ELEVATIONS OF ANNAN AND MARYKIRK BRIDGES, 160 - - VII. ELEVATIONS OF HUTCHESON AND STIRLING BRIDGES, 160 - - VIII. DESIGN FOR HIGH LEVEL ROAD BRIDGE AT NEWCASTLE ON TYNE, - 161 - - IX. DESIGN FOR WOLF ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, 174 - - X. CARR ROCK BEACON, 179 - - XI. MOVEABLE JIB AND BALANCE CRANES, 182 - - XII. CHART OF THE NORTH SEA OR GERMAN OCEAN, WITH SECTIONS OF - THE DEPTHS OF WATER, 1820, 207 - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -EARLY LIFE. - -1772-1798. - - Birth--Mr. Smith’s improvements in Lighthouse illumination--Origin - of the Scottish Lighthouse Board--Acts as Assistant to their - Engineer--Student at Andersonian Institution, Glasgow, and - University of Edinburgh--Succeeds Mr. Smith as Engineer to the - Northern Lighthouse Board--Tour of inspection of English lights - in 1801--Is taken for a French spy. - - -Robert Stevenson, maltster in Glasgow, was born in 1720, and, as stated -on his tombstone, in the burial-ground of the Cathedral, died in 1764. - -His fourth son, Alan, was partner in a West India house in Glasgow, and -died of fever in the island of St. Christopher, in 1774, while on a -visit to his brother, who managed the foreign business of the house at -that place. - -The only son of Alan Stevenson was Robert, the subject of this Memoir, -who was born at Glasgow on the 8th of June 1772. - -When his father died, Robert Stevenson, then an infant, was left in -circumstances of difficulty, for the same epidemic fever which deprived -him of his father carried off his uncle also, at a time when their loss -operated most disadvantageously on the business which they conducted; -and, strange to say, on account of legal difficulties, nearly half a -century elapsed before any patrimonial funds in which my father had an -interest were realised. - -Under these circumstances his mother (Jean Lillie, daughter of David -Lillie, builder in Glasgow, who died, as stated on his tombstone, in -the Cathedral burying-ground, in 1774) resolved to go to Edinburgh to -reside with a married sister, and when her son reached the age of being -able for school she wisely took advantage of one of the hospitals in -that city for his education; and the spirit of the man is well brought -out by the fact that he devoted his first earnings in life, at the -Cumbrae Lighthouse, to making a _contribution_ to the funds of the -Orphan Hospital in payment of what he regarded as a _debt_. - -It appears from “Memoranda” left by my father for the information -of his family, that his mother was a woman of great prudence and -remarkable fortitude, based on deep convictions of religion; and, -even in their time of trial, which lasted over his school days, -he says,--“My mother’s ingenuous and gentle spirit amidst all her -difficulties never failed her. She still relied on the providence of -God, though sometimes, in the recollection of her father’s house and -her younger days, she remarked that the ways of Providence were often -dark to us. The Bible, and attendance on the ministrations, chiefly of -Mr. Randall of Lady Yester’s Church, afterwards Dr. Davidson of the -Tolbooth,[1] and at other churches, where I was almost always her -constant attendant, were the great sources of her comfort. - -“Her intention was that I should be trained for the ministry, with a -view to which I had been sent, after leaving my first school, to Mr. -Macintyre, a famous linguist of his day, where I made the acquaintance -of Patrick Neill, afterwards the well-known printer, and still better -known naturalist, who remained my most intimate friend through life, -and of William Blackwood, the no less celebrated publisher.” - - * * * * * - -Circumstances, however, occurred which entirely changed my father’s -prospects and pursuits. Soon after he had attained his fifteenth year -his mother was married to Mr. Thomas Smith--son of a shipowner, and -member of the Trinity House of Dundee,--who himself was, my father -says, a “furnishing iron-merchant, shipowner, and underwriter” -in Edinburgh, and who being also a lamp-maker and an ingenious -mechanician, appears at a very early date to have directed his -attention to the subject of lighthouses, and endeavoured to improve the -mode of illumination then in use, by substituting lamps with mirrors, -for the open coal-fires which were at that early time the only beacons -to guide the mariner. - -Mr. Smith’s improvements attracted the notice of Professor Robison, -Sir David Hunter Blair, and Mr. Creech, the publisher and honorary -secretary to the Chamber of Commerce. I find from the minutes of that -body, that in 1786, a complaint was made to them by shipmasters as to -the defective state of the coal light on the Isle of May, which was a -“private light” belonging to the family of the Duke of Portland. - -The Chamber sent a deputation of their number to inquire into the truth -of the objections that had been made, who fully confirmed the justice -of the complaints. - -When the result of the examination was reported to the Chamber of -Commerce, Mr. Smith submitted to them “a plan for improving the light -by dispensing with the coal-fire,” and after fully considering his -suggestions, the Chamber, at their meeting of 24th May 1786, resolved -“that while they allowed much ingenuity to Mr. Smith’s plan of -reflectors, they were of opinion that a coal light should be continued.” - - * * * * * - -The Board of Northern Lighthouses was constituted by Act of Parliament -in 1786; its members were the Lord Advocate and Solicitor-General, -the chief magistrates of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Inverness, and -Campbeltown, and the Sheriffs of the maritime counties of Scotland. -These Commissioners, happily for the interests of navigation, took a -more enlightened view of their duties than the Chamber of Commerce of -Edinburgh, and after hearing and considering Mr. Smith’s proposals, -formally appointed him their Engineer. - -The preamble of the Act constituting the Northern Lighthouse Board, -states that it would greatly conduce to the security of navigation and -the fisheries if _four_ lighthouses were erected in the north part of -Great Britain. Such, it would seem, was the limited state of trade in -Scotland, that the erection of these four lighthouses was all that was -contemplated, on a coast, extending to about 2000 miles, of perhaps -the most dangerous navigation in Europe. It is now marked by sixty -lighthouse stations for the guidance of the sailor, but new claims -continue to be made, and new lighthouses are still admitted to be -required. - -The newly established Lighthouse Board at once entered on its important -duties, and the first light they exhibited was Kinnaird Head, which was -designed by Mr. Smith and lighted in 1787. - - * * * * * - -These pursuits being very congenial to my father’s mechanical turn of -mind, he had rendered himself useful to Mr. Smith in carrying them -out, and was intrusted, at the early age of nineteen, to superintend -the erection of a lighthouse on the island of Little Cumbrae, in the -river Clyde, according to a design which Mr. Smith had furnished to the -Cumbrae Light Trustees. This connection soon led to his adoption as Mr. -Smith’s partner in business, and, in 1799, to his union with his eldest -daughter by a former marriage. - -During the cessation of the works at Cumbrae in winter, my father, who -had determined to follow the profession of a Civil Engineer, applied -himself, as appears from class note-books in my possession, with great -zeal to the practice of surveying and architectural drawing, and to the -study of mathematics at the Andersonian Institution at Glasgow. Of the -kindness of Dr. Anderson, who presided over that Institution, he ever -entertained a most grateful remembrance, and often spoke of him as one -of his best advisers and kindest friends, and in the Memoranda already -noticed he records his obligations to him in the following words:--“It -was the practice of Professor Anderson kindly to befriend and forward -the views of his pupils; and his attention to me during the few years -I had the pleasure of being known to him was of a very marked kind, -for he directed my attention to various pursuits, with the view to my -coming forward as an engineer.” - -After completing the Cumbrae Lighthouse he was further engaged, under -Mr. Smith, in erecting two lighthouses on the Pentland Skerries in -Orkney, where, in view of what lay before him at the Bell Rock, he had -the useful experience of living four months in a tent on an uninhabited -island, and arranging the landing of the whole of the materials of the -lighthouses in the difficult navigation of the Pentland Firth. But here -also he had a personal experience of God’s overruling Providence, which -clung to him through life, and, as we shall find, proved his stay in -times of danger, when personal resources had ceased to prove availing. -In returning from the Pentland Skerries, in 1794, he embarked in the -sloop ‘Elizabeth’ of Stromness, and proceeded as far as Kinnaird Head, -when the vessel was becalmed about three miles from the shore. The -captain kindly landed my father, who continued his journey to Edinburgh -by land. A very different fate, however, awaited his unfortunate -shipmates. A violent gale came on, which drove the ‘Elizabeth’ back -to Orkney, where she was totally wrecked, and all on board unhappily -perished. - -Notwithstanding my father’s active duties in summer, he was so -zealous in the pursuit of knowledge that he contrived, during several -successive winters, on his return from his practical work, to avail -himself of the Philosophical classes at the University of Edinburgh. -In this manner he attended Professor Playfair’s second and third -Mathematical courses, two sessions of Robison’s Natural Philosophy, -two courses of Chemistry under Dr. Hope, and two of Natural History -under Professor Jameson. To these he added a course of Moral Philosophy -under Dugald Stewart, a course of Logic under Dr. Ritchie, and one -of Agriculture under Professor Low. “I was prevented, however,” he -remarks, in the Memoranda, “from following my friend Dr. Neill for my -degree of M.A. by my slender knowledge of Latin, in which my highest -book was the Orations of Cicero, and by my total want of Greek.” Such -zeal in the pursuit of knowledge, and views so enlarged of the benefits -and value of a liberal education, were characteristics of a mind of no -ordinary vigour; so that, early trained to practical work, and inspired -with a true love of his profession, it was not unnatural that on the -resignation of Mr. Smith the Board should have appointed Mr. Stevenson -to succeed him as their Engineer. - -The first annual report made by him to the Board is dated June 1798, -and he continued annually to prepare one up to the time of his -resignation in 1843. - -The first occasion on which he was sent by the Board on a special -mission was in 1801, when he was deputed by the Commissioners to visit -and report on the Lighthouses on the coasts of England, Wales, and the -Isle of Man. The report he submitted to the Board is a most elaborate -and valuable document. After describing upwards of twenty Public, -Private, and Harbour lights which he had examined, he proceeds fully to -discuss the different systems of management in use, and particularly -to compare the system adopted by the Scotch Board with that practised -in England by the Trinity House, most readily advising the adoption -of what seemed improvements in the administration of the Southern -Board. In reporting as to the Isle of Man he takes occasion to suggest -that the lighting of that island should be taken up by the Northern -Commissioners--a proposal which was acted on in 1815. He says:-- - - “I had several communications with William Scott, Esq., - Receiver-General of the Customs, upon the subject of Lighthouses. - At his request I went to the Point of Langness, and to the Calf - of Man; the former a very dangerous point of land, the latter a - situation that seems every way answerable to the general purposes - of a site for a lighthouse. - - “As this island occupies a middle situation between Great Britain - and Ireland, and is not included in any of these Acts of Parliament - which relate to the erecting or maintaining of Lights, on either - side of the Channel, perhaps it might answer to include the Isle of - Man under the same Act which refers to the Northern Lighthouses; - and by extending your powers this island might no longer stand a - monument of darkness, and a great obstruction to the navigation of - St. George’s Channel, particularly from the want of a light upon - the Calf of Man. - - “Such a light, together with the late improvement of the Copeland - light, and the erection of the Kilwarlin light upon the Irish - coast, would in an eminent degree improve the navigation of the - Irish Channel. From the central situation of the Isle of Man, a - light would soon pay itself, by serving the trade of Maryport, - Workington, Whitehaven, Lancaster and Liverpool, on the one side of - the Channel, with Dublin and Newry on the other.” - -With reference to this suggestion the Commissioners, in January 1802, -adopted the following resolution:-- - - “In the above report Mr. Stevenson has stated very strongly the - great utility of a lighthouse upon the Calf of Man; but not being - within the jurisdiction either of the Trinity House of London, or - of the Commissioners for the Northern Lighthouses, both of them - are thereby prevented from accomplishing an object so much wished - for by mariners, as it would prove a great additional security to - the navigation between a great number of the ports on the west of - England, and Dublin, and other ports in Ireland. In order therefore - that this circumstance may not be overlooked, the Commissioners - directed this notice to be taken of it in their Minutes, in order - that if any application to Parliament shall at a future period be - deemed necessary, the Commissioners may judge how far it may not be - proper to apply for power and liberty to erect a lighthouse upon a - situation so very eligible as the Calf of Man, being the southmost - point of that island.” - -The report was illustrated with plans of Douglas, Milford, Longships, -and Portland Lighthouses. The somewhat formidable journey he had -undertaken, involving 2500 miles of travelling, occupied eight weeks in -its performance, and the following amusing incident shows what peaceful -travellers, in those troubled times, had sometimes to encounter:-- - - “I left the Scilly Islands considerably instructed by the - examination of the machinery and apparatus of this lighthouse, - and very much gratified. I took my passage in a vessel bound - for Penzance, where, however, I had not been long landed, when - I met with a circumstance which, while it lasted, was highly - disagreeable, and as it is somewhat connected with the object of - the journey, I beg your indulgence while I lay it before you. - - “Finding that I could not get any convenient mode of conveyance - from Penzance to the Lizard Lights, I set off on foot for Marazion, - a town at the head of Mounts Bay, where I was in hopes of getting - a boat to freight. I had just got that length, and was making - the necessary inquiry, when a young man, accompanied by several - idle-looking fellows, came up to me, and in a hasty tone said, - ‘Sir, in the King’s name I seize your person and papers.’ To which - I replied that I should be glad to see his authority, and know - the reason of an address so abrupt. He told me the want of time - prevented his taking regular steps, but that it would be necessary - for me to return to Penzance, and there undergo an examination, as - I was suspected of being a French spy. Had I not been extremely - anxious to get on my journey, I would not have objected to this. - I therefore proposed to submit my papers to the examination of - the nearest Justice of Peace, who was immediately applied to and - came to the inn where I was. He seemed to be greatly agitated, and - quite at a loss how to proceed. The complaint preferred against me - was, ‘That I had examined the Longships Lighthouse with the most - minute attention, and was no less particular in my inquiries at - the keepers of the lighthouse regarding the sunk rocks lying off - the Land’s End, with the sets of the currents and tides along the - coast: that I seemed particularly to regret the situation of the - rocks called the Seven Stones, and the loss of a beacon which the - Trinity Board had caused to be fixed upon the Wolf Rock: that I had - taken notes of the bearings of several sunk rocks, and a drawing - of the lighthouse and of Cape Cornwall: further, that I had refused - the honour of Lord Edgecombe’s invitation to dinner, who happened - to be at the Land’s End with a party of pleasure, offering as an - apology that I had some particular business on hand, upon which I - immediately set off for the Scilly Islands. These circumstances - concurring with a report that a schooner had been seen off the Land - taking soundings, it was presumed that I was connected with her, - and had some evil intention in making these remarks.’ - - “In order to clear myself of this suspicion, I laid before the - Justice your letter directing me to make the journey, which was - signed by Mr. Gray (Secretary to the Board), as also several - letters he had procured for me to some of the members of the - Trinity House, London, together with a letter from the Trinity - House, Leith, to the Marquis of Titchfield. I produced also my - letter of credit from Sir William Forbes and Company, and, after - perusing these letters, the Justice of Peace very gravely observed - that they were ‘merely bits of paper,’ and was of opinion that I - should be kept in custody till the matter should be laid before - Lord Edgecombe, the Lord-Lieutenant of the county, and added, that - he would most likely order me to be _sent_ to Plymouth. - - “I no sooner heard the opinion of this gentleman than I ordered a - chaise and immediately returned to Penzance, where I laid my papers - before the Justices of Peace, and waited their decision with much - anxiety. They no sooner looked them over than in the most polite - manner they cleared me of the suspicions I laboured under, and - left me at liberty to pursue my journey, which I did with so much - eagerness that I gave the two coal lights upon the Lizard Point - only a very transient look, and passed on to Plymouth.” - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE. - -1798-1811. - - Resolves to practise as a Civil Engineer--Journals--Reports--Design - for the Bell Rock Lighthouse--Improvements on Smeaton’s - design--Application to Parliament for Act in 1802--Act of - Parliament passed in 1806--Works begun in 1807--Tender breaks - adrift--Life in the floating light--Boating between the - lightship and the rock--Anxiety for workmen--Sunday work--Life - in the Barrack or Beacon--Visits the Eddystone in 1813 and - 1818--Sir Walter Scott’s visit to the Bell Rock. - - -From what has been said in the preceding chapter, it will be seen that -Mr. Stevenson, from an early period, evinced a decided liking for -general Engineering, and I find that almost simultaneously with his -appointment under the Lighthouse Board, for whose peculiar duties he -had qualified himself by a pretty large and hard-earned experience, he -resolved to prosecute the practice of Civil Engineering, in all its -branches. - -I find also that coincident with this start in life, he commenced a -systematic “Journal,” beginning in 1801, of the various travels made in -the prosecution of his profession, which occupies nineteen octavo and -quarto manuscript books. - -His Reports, many of them on subjects of great interest, occupy -fourteen folio manuscript volumes, and his printed reports occupy four -thick quarto volumes. - -These books, together with relative plans, the number of which I fear -to mention, are the documents I had to consult in obtaining the records -of my father’s professional life. The Journals, Reports, and Plans -extend over a period of nearly fifty years, and the selection of topics -from such a mass of matter has been no easy task. But as the duty I -have undertaken is to convey to the reader a sketch of my father as -a Civil Engineer, I have been content, passing over many interesting -subjects, to select from the documents before me only so much as should -be useful in carrying out that object; and even in this I encountered -the difficulty of determining the best order in which the selections -I have made should be given. To do so according to any chronological -arrangement I find to be impossible, and having resolved to give them -not as a consecutive narrative, but in the form of detached notices, I -think it will be most appropriate that I should commence the story of -Mr. Stevenson’s professional life with his great work--the Bell Rock -Lighthouse,--which extended over a period of twelve years, commencing -with his early conception of its structure in 1799, and terminating -with its completion in 1811. - - * * * * * - -The Inchcape or Bell Rock lies off the east coast of Scotland, nearly -abreast of the entrance to the Firth of Tay, at a distance of eleven -miles from Arbroath, the nearest point of the mainland. The name of -“Bell” has its origin in the legend respecting the good intention of a -pious Abbot of Aberbrothock being frustrated by the notorious pirate, -Sir Ralph the Rover, as related in Southey’s well-known lines, which I -have given in an Appendix. - -Of the origin, progress, and completion of the lighthouse Mr. Stevenson -has left a lasting memorial and most interesting narrative in his -quarto volume of upwards of 500 pages, a great part of which was -written to his dictation by his only daughter, and was published in -1824.[2] - -But there are some circumstances connected with the early history -of the Bell Rock, which, while they could not properly have found -a place in his narrative, have been noticed in his Memoranda, from -which I shall transcribe a few paragraphs detailing his early efforts -and disappointments while engaged in designing and arranging for the -prosecution of that great work:-- - - “All knew the difficulties of the erection of the Eddystone - Lighthouse, and the casualties to which that edifice had been - liable; and in comparing the two situations, it was generally - remarked that the Eddystone was barely covered by the tide at _high - water_, while the Bell Rock was barely uncovered at _low water_. - - “I had much to contend with in the then limited state of my - experience; and I had in various ways to bear up against public - opinion as well as against interested parties. I was in this state - of things, however, greatly supported, and I would even say often - comforted, by Mr. Clerk of Eldin, author of the System of Breaking - the Line in Naval Tactics. Mr. Clerk took great interest in my - models, and spoke much of them in scientific circles. He carried - men of science and eminent strangers to the model-room which I had - provided in Merchants Hall, of which he sometimes carried the key, - both when I was at home and while I was abroad. He introduced me - to Lord Webb Seymour, to Admiral Lord Duncan, and to Professors - Robison and Playfair, and others. Mr. Clerk had been personally - known to Smeaton, and used occasionally to speak of him to me.” - -It is impossible to read this little narrative without feeling -a respect for Mr. Clerk’s hearty enthusiasm, and perceiving the -beneficial influence which a kindly disposition may produce on the -pursuits of a young man, by stimulating an honourable emulation and -discouraging a desponding spirit. - - “But at length,” the memorandum continues, “all difficulties with - the public, as well as with the better informed few, were dispelled - by the fatal effects of a dreadful storm from the N.E., which - occurred in December 1799, when it was ascertained that no fewer - than seventy sail of vessels were stranded or lost, with many of - their crews, upon the coast of Scotland alone! Many of them, it - was not doubted, might have found a safe asylum in the Firth of - Forth, had there been a lighthouse upon the Bell Rock, on which, - indeed, it was generally believed the ‘York,’ of 74 guns, with all - hands, perished, none being left to tell the tale! The coast for - many miles exhibited portions of that fine ship. There was now, - therefore, but one voice,--‘There must be a lighthouse erected on - the Bell Rock.’ - - “Previous to this dreadful storm I had prepared my pillar-formed - model, a section of which is shown in Plate VII. of the ‘Account of - the Bell Rock Lighthouse.’ Early in the year 1800, I, for the first - time, landed on the rock to see the application of my pillar-formed - model to the situation for which it was designed and made. - - “On this occasion I was accompanied by my friend Mr. James Haldane, - architect, whose pupil I had been for architectural drawing. Our - landing was at low water of a spring-tide, when a good _space_ of - rock was above water, and then the realities of its danger were - amply exemplified by the numerous relics which were found in its - crevices, such as a ship’s marking-iron, a piece of a kedge-anchor, - and a cabin stove, a bayonet, cannon-ball, silver shoe-buckle, - crowbars, pieces of money, and other evidences of recent shipwreck. - - “I had no sooner set foot upon the rock than I laid aside all idea - of a pillar-formed structure, fully convinced that a building on - similar principles with the Eddystone would be found practicable. - - “On my return from this visit to the rock, I immediately set to - work in good earnest, with a design of a stone lighthouse, and - modelled it. I accompanied this design with a report or memorial to - the Lighthouse Board. The abandoned pillar-formed plan I estimated - at £15,000, and the stone building at £42,685, 8s. But still I - found that I had not made much impression on the Board on the score - of expense, for they feared it would cost much more than forty or - fifty thousand pounds.” - -It was as to some of the details of this stone design that my father -asked Professor Playfair to give his opinion, and received the -following reply, which was not a little encouraging to the young -engineer attempting to improve on the design of the great Smeaton:-- - -“Mr. Playfair is very sorry that he has scarce had any time to look -more particularly over the plans which Mr. Stevenson has been so good -as to send him. Mr. Playfair is too little acquainted with practical -mechanics to make his opinion of much weight on such a subject as the -construction of a lighthouse. But so far as he can presume to judge, -the method of connecting the stones proposed by Mr. Stevenson is likely -to prove perfectly secure, and has the advantage of being more easily -constructed than Mr. Smeaton’s.” - -“_9th August 1802._” - - * * * * * - -The Lord Advocate Hope, one of the Commissioners of Northern -Lighthouses, and Member of Parliament for the city of Edinburgh, who -had interested himself much in the Bell Rock question, and often -conferred with Mr. Stevenson on his design for the work, determined -that the matter should not be allowed to rest, and introduced a Bill -into Parliament in 1802-1803 to empower the Board to carry it out. - -This Bill passed the House of Commons. The Committee to which it was -referred report--“That it appears that a sufficient foundation might -be prepared on the north end of the rock, where the surface is highest -and of greatest dimensions: That artificers could work five hours at -the times of each low-water in the day-time of the summer months, and -that if the building should be made of masonry the stones to form it -might be prepared on shore, marked and numbered, and carried off to the -rock and properly placed: That as the present duties may not for a long -time enable the Commissioners to defray the expense of erecting and -maintaining a lighthouse on the Bell or Cape Rock, it will be expedient -to authorise the Commissioners to levy and take further duties for -that purpose, with power to borrow a further sum on the credit of said -duties.” - -At that early date there was no “standing order” of the House requiring -the promoters of a Bill to lodge plans of their proposed works, and my -father in his Memoranda says:--“The only plans in Mr. Hope’s hands were -those which, in 1800, I submitted to the Lighthouse Board.” - -In the House of Lords the Bill met with opposition from the Corporation -of the City of London, as including too great a range of coast in -the collection of duties, and such alterations and amendments were -introduced in the Upper House as rendered it necessary for the Lord -Advocate to withdraw the Bill. - - * * * * * - -In order to fortify Mr. Stevenson’s views as to the practicability of -building a stone tower in such a situation, which was apparently the -chief difficulty in all the early negotiations, the Board resolved -to take the advice of Mr. Telford, then employed by Government in -reporting on the Highland Roads and Bridges and the Caledonian Canal, -who, however, was unable to overtake the duty, and thereafter, on -Mr. Stevenson’s suggestion, they applied to Mr. John Rennie, Mr. -Stevenson’s senior by eleven years, who had, like himself, at the early -age of twenty-one, commenced the practice of his profession, and was -then settled in London as a civil engineer. Rennie having concurred -with Stevenson as to the practicability and expediency of adopting a -stone tower, the Lighthouse Board resolved to make another application -to Parliament. - -The second application was made in 1806, in a Bill introduced by Lord -Advocate Erskine, and proceeded on the same design and estimate of -£42,685, 8s., prepared by Mr. Stevenson, in 1800; and the following is -an extract from the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons to -whom was referred the petition of the Commissioners of the Northern -Lighthouses:-- - -“Proceeded to examine Mr. Robert Stevenson, Civil Engineer, who, in -his capacity of Engineer for the Northern Lighthouses, has erected six -lighthouses in the northern parts of the kingdom, and has made the -erection of a lighthouse on the Cape or Bell Rock more particularly his -study,--especially since the loss of about seventy sail of vessels in a -storm which happened upon the coast in the month of December 1799, by -which numerous ships were driven from their course along the shore, and -from their moorings in Yarmouth Roads, and other places of anchorage, -southward of the Firth of Forth, and wrecked upon the eastern coast of -Scotland, as referred to in the report made to this House in the month -of July 1803; the particulars of which he also confirms: That the Bell -Rock is most dangerously situated, lying in a track which is annually -navigated by no less than about 700,000 tons of shipping, besides his -Majesty’s ships of war and revenue cutters: That its place is not -easily ascertained, even by persons well acquainted with the coast, -being covered by the sea about half-flood, and the landmarks, by which -its position is ascertained, being from twelve to twenty miles distant -from the site of danger. - -“That from the inquiries he made at the time the ‘York’ man-of-war was -lost, and pieces of her wreck having drifted ashore upon the opposite -and neighbouring coast, and from an attentive consideration of the -circumstances which attend the wreck of ships of such dimensions, he -thinks it probable that the ‘York’ must have struck upon the Bell -Rock, drifted off, and afterwards sunk in deep water: That he is well -acquainted with the situation of the Bell Rock, the yacht belonging -to the Lighthouse service having, on one occasion, been anchored near -it for five days, when he had an opportunity of landing upon it every -tide: That he has visited most of the lighthouses on the coast of -England, Wales, and Ireland, particularly those of the Eddystone, the -Smalls, and the Kilwarlin, or South Rock, which are built in situations -somewhat similar to the Bell Rock: That at high water there is a -greater depth on the Bell Rock than on any of these, by several feet; -and he is therefore fully of opinion, that a building of stone, upon -the principles of the Eddystone Lighthouse, is alone suitable to the -peculiar circumstances which attend this rock, and has reported his -opinion accordingly to the Commissioners of the Northern Lighthouses -as far back as the year 1800; and having given the subject all the -attention in his power, he has estimated the expense of erecting a -building of stone upon it at the sum of £42,685, 8s. - -“Your Committee likewise examined Mr. John Rennie, Civil Engineer, who, -since the report made to this House in 1803, has visited the Bell Rock, -who confirms the particulars in said report, and entertains no doubt of -the practicability of erecting a lighthouse on that rock, is decidedly -of opinion that a stone lighthouse will be the most durable and -effectual, and indeed the only kind of building that is suited to this -situation: That he has computed the expense of such a building, and -after making every allowance for contingencies, from his own experience -of works in the sea, it appears to him that the estimate or expense -will amount to £41,843, 15s.” - -This application was fortunately successful, the Act having obtained -the royal assent in July 1806, when the Commissioners at once -determined to commence the work. - -Mr. Stevenson now began to feel the full stress of his responsibility. -He accordingly says in his notes:-- - - “The erection of a lighthouse on a rock about twelve miles from - land, and so low in the water that the foundation-course must be - at least on a level with the lowest tide, was an enterprise so - full of uncertainty and hazard that it could not fail to press on - my mind. I felt regret that I had not had the opportunity of a - greater range of practice to fit me for such an undertaking. But - I was fortified by an expression of my friend Mr. Clerk, in one - of our conversations upon its difficulties. ‘This work,’ said he, - ‘is unique, and can be little forwarded by experience of ordinary - masonic operations. In this case Smeaton’s Narrative must be the - text-book, and energy and perseverance _the pratique_.’” - -Mr. Rennie also, who had supported the Bill of 1806 in Parliament, and -afterwards was appointed by the Commissioners as an advising Engineer -to whom Mr. Stevenson could refer in case of emergency, and who had -suggested some alterations on Mr. Stevenson’s design of the lighthouse -in which he did not see his way to acquiesce, nevertheless continued -to take a kind interest in the work, and they continued to correspond -frequently during its progress. “Poor old fellow,” Rennie says in one -letter, alluding to the name of Smeaton, “I hope he will now and then -take a peep of us, and inspire you with fortitude and courage to brave -all difficulties and all dangers, to accomplish a work which will, if -successful, immortalise you in the annals of fame.”[3] - -How well Mr. Stevenson met the demands which, in the course of his -great enterprise, were made on his perseverance, fortitude, and -self-denial, the history of the operations, and their successful -completion, abundantly show. The work was indeed, in all respects, -peculiarly suited to his tastes and habits; and Mr. Clerk -truly--although perhaps unconsciously--characterised the man, in -his terse statement of what would be required of him: “The work is -unique--ordinary experience can do little for it--all must depend on -energy and perseverance.” No one can read Mr. Stevenson’s “Account -of the Bell Rock Lighthouse” without perceiving the justness of this -estimate of the difficulties that lay before him, and his ability to -overcome them. - -Though ever maintaining the highest respect for Smeaton and his noble -work, Mr. Stevenson was led, in his original design of 1800, as we -have already seen, and further in his actual execution of the Bell -Rock tower, to deviate to a considerable extent from the design of the -Eddystone. Mr. Stevenson adopted a height of one hundred feet instead -of sixty-eight for the height of the masonry, and he carried the level -of the solid part of the tower to the height of twenty-one feet above -high water, instead of eleven feet as at the Eddystone. In addition to -these deviations in the general dimensions of the tower, he increased -the thickness of the walls, and he also introduced some changes of -importance in its interior structure, whereby he secured a greater -continuity, and therefore greater strength of the masonry of the walls -and floors, which he describes in his book as follows:-- - - “Each floor stone forms part of the outward walls, extending - inwards to a centre stone, independently of which they are - connected by means of copper bats, with a view to preserve their - square form at the extremity, instead of dovetailing. These stones - are also modelled with joggles, sidewise, upon the principles of - the common floor, termed feathering in carpentry, and also with - dovetailed joggles across the joints, where they form part of the - outward wall.... The floors of the Eddystone Lighthouse, on the - contrary, were constructed of an arch form, and the haunches of the - arches bound with chains to prevent their pressing outward, to the - injury of the walls. In this, Mr. Smeaton followed the construction - of the Dome of St Paul’s; and this mode might also be found - necessary at the Eddystone, from the want of stones in one length, - to form the outward wall and floor, in the then state of the - granite quarries of Cornwall. At Mylnefield Quarry, however, there - was no difficulty in procuring stones of the requisite dimensions; - and the writer foresaw many advantages that would arise from having - the stones of the floors to form part of the outward walls, without - introducing the system of arching.” - -Smeaton in fact adopted an arched form for the floors of his building, -which rendered it necessary, in order to counteract the outward thrust, -to insert chains, embedded in grooves, cut in the masonry; but Mr. -Stevenson, in designing the Bell Rock Lighthouse, improved on Smeaton’s -plan, not only by a better general arrangement of the masonry, but -by converting the floors into effective bonds, so that, instead of -exerting an outward thrust, they actually tie or bind the walls -together. This is at once apparent from Figs. 1 and 2, which show the -floor-courses of the Eddystone and Bell Rock in section. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Eddystone.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Bell Rock.] - -The engineer of the Bell Rock had all the advantage of Smeaton’s -earlier experience, which he ever thankfully acknowledged; but there -can be no doubt whatever that the Bell Rock presented peculiar -engineering difficulties. The Eddystone Rock is barely _covered_ by -the tide at high water, while the Bell Rock is barely _uncovered at_ -LOW WATER, rendering the time of working on it, as we shall afterwards -find, extremely limited; and the proposal to erect a stone tower on -this low-lying isolated reef, at a distance of twelve miles from land, -was no less remarkable for its novelty than for its boldness. - -[Illustration: - - _PLATE I._ - -_BELL ROCK LIGHT HOUSE._ - - _W. & A. K. Johnston, Edinburgh._ -] - -[Illustration: - - _PLATE II._ - -_SECTION OF THE BELL ROCK LIGHT HOUSE._ - - _W. & A. K. Johnston, Edinburgh._ -] - -Plate I. is an elevation of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, and Plate II. is -a section showing the manner in which the interior is laid out, and, -so far as the size of scale admits, the peculiar arrangements of the -masonry, to which reference has been made. - -The following is a brief statement of the progress of the work:-- - -The spring of 1807 was occupied in preparing a floating lightship to be -moored off the rock, erecting the timber framework which was to support -the barrack to be occupied as a temporary dwelling by the workmen, -and in carrying out other preliminary arrangements. During this first -season the aggregate time of low-water work, caught by snatches of an -hour or two at a tide, amounted to no more than thirteen and a half -days’ work of ten hours each. - -In 1808 the foundation-pit was excavated in the solid rock, and the -building was brought up to the level of the surrounding surface, the -aggregate time of low-water work amounting to twenty-two days of ten -hours, so that little more than a month’s work was obtained during the -first two years. - -In 1809 the barrack for the workmen was completed, and the building of -the tower brought to the height of seventeen feet above high water of -spring-tides. - -In 1810 the masonry of the tower was finished and the lantern erected -in its place, and the light was exhibited on 1st February 1811. The -light is of the description known as revolving _red_ and _white_, and -hence Sir Walter Scott’s “gem of changeful light” (see page 47). - -These weary years of toil and peril were also years of great -professional responsibility for the Engineer, and of constant -anxiety for the safety of his devoted band of associates, including -shipmasters, landing-masters, foremen, and workmen, in all of whom -Mr. Stevenson took a cordial and ever friendly interest, and in whom -he invariably placed implicit confidence when he found that their -several duties were faithfully discharged. To form strong attachments -to trustworthy fellow-workmen was ever a marked feature in my father’s -character, and after a lapse of nearly half a century many who joined -in his labours at the Bell Rock were still associated with him in the -business of his office, or as Inspectors of works. - -His daily cheerful participation in all the toils and hazards which -were, for two seasons, endured in the floating lightship, and -afterwards in the timber house or barrack, over which the waves broke -with very great force, and caused a most alarming _twisting_ movement -of its main supports, were proofs not merely of calm and enduring -courage, but of great self-denial and enthusiastic devotion to his -calling. On some occasions his fortitude and presence of mind were most -severely tried, and well they stood the test. - -The record of this great work is, as I have already said, fully given -in the “Account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse,” to which I must refer -professional readers; but as this volume is out of print, and is not -easily accessible, I shall give a few extracts from it, which I feel -sure will be read with deep interest, and convey to the reader at -least some idea of the difficulties with which this undertaking was -beset:-- - - “Soon after the artificers landed on the rock they commenced work; - but the wind coming to blow hard, the Smeaton’s[4] boat and crew, - who had brought their complement of eight men to the rock, went - off to examine her riding-ropes, and see that they were in proper - order. The boat had no sooner reached the vessel than she went - adrift, carrying the boat along with her; and both had even got - to a considerable distance before this situation of things was - observed, every one being so intent upon his own particular duty - that the boat had not been seen leaving the rock. As it blew hard, - the crew, with much difficulty, set the mainsail upon the Smeaton, - with a view to work her up to the buoy, and again lay hold of the - moorings. By the time that she was got round to make a tack towards - the rock, she had drifted at least three miles to leeward, with the - praam boat astern; and having both the wind and tide against her, - the writer perceived, with no little anxiety, that she could not - possibly return to the rock till long after its being overflowed; - for, owing to the anomaly of the tides, formerly noticed, the Bell - Rock is completely under water before the ebb abates to the offing. - - “In this perilous predicament, indeed, he found himself placed - between hope and despair; but certainly the latter was by much - the most predominant feeling of his mind,--situate upon a sunken - rock, in the middle of the ocean, which, in the progress of - the flood-tide, was to be laid under water to the depth of at - least twelve feet in a stormy sea. There were this morning in - all thirty-two persons on the rock, with only two boats, whose - complement, even in good weather, did not exceed twenty-four - sitters; but to row to the floating light with so much wind, - and in so heavy a sea, a complement of eight men for each boat - was as much as could with propriety be attempted, so that in - this way about one-half of our number was unprovided for. Under - these circumstances, had the writer ventured to despatch one of - the boats, in expectation of either working the Smeaton sooner - up towards the rock, or in hopes of getting her boat brought to - our assistance, this must have given an immediate alarm to the - artificers, each of whom would have insisted upon taking to his own - boat, and leaving the eight artificers belonging to the Smeaton - to their chance. Of course, a scuffle might have ensued, and it - is hard to say, in the ardour of men contending for life, where - it might have ended. It has even been hinted to the writer that a - party of the _pickmen_ were determined to keep exclusively to their - own boat against all hazards. - - “The unfortunate circumstance of the Smeaton and her boat having - drifted was, for a considerable time, only known to the writer, - and to the landing-master, who removed to the further point of - the rock, where he kept his eye steadily upon the progress of the - vessel. While the artificers were at work, chiefly in sitting or - kneeling postures, excavating the rock, or boring with the jumpers, - and while their numerous hammers, and the sound of the smith’s - anvil, continued, the situation of things did not appear so awful. - In this state of suspense, with almost certain destruction at hand, - the water began to rise upon those who were at work on the lower - parts of the sites of the beacon and lighthouse. From the run of - sea upon the rock, the forge-fire was also sooner extinguished - this morning than usual, and the volumes of smoke having ceased, - objects in every direction became visible from all parts of the - rock. After having had about three hours’ work, the men began, - pretty generally, to make towards their respective boats for their - jackets and stockings, when to their astonishment, instead of - three they found only two boats, the third being adrift with the - Smeaton. Not a word was uttered by any one, but all appeared to - be silently calculating their numbers, and looking to each other - with evident marks of perplexity depicted in their countenances. - The landing-master, conceiving that blame might be attached to him - for allowing the boat to leave the rock, still kept at a distance. - At this critical moment the author was standing upon an elevated - part of Smith’s Ledge, where he endeavoured to mark the progress of - the Smeaton, not a little surprised that the crew did not cut the - praam adrift, which greatly retarded her way, and amazed that some - effort was not making to bring at least the boat, and attempt our - relief. The workmen looked steadfastly upon the writer, and turned - occasionally towards the vessel, still far to leeward. All this - passed in the most perfect silence, and the melancholy solemnity of - the group made an impression never to be effaced from his mind. - - “The writer had all along been considering various - schemes--providing the men could be kept under command--which - might be put in practice for the general safety, in hopes that - the Smeaton might be able to pick up the boats to leeward, - when they were obliged to leave the rock. He was, accordingly, - about to address the artificers on the perilous nature of their - circumstances, and to propose that all hands should unstrip their - upper clothing when the higher parts of the rock were laid under - water; that the seamen should remove every unnecessary weight - and encumbrance from the boats; that a specified number of men - should go into each boat, and that the remainder should hang by - the gunwales, while the boats were to be rowed gently towards the - Smeaton, as the course to the Pharos or floating light lay rather - to windward of the rock. But when he attempted to speak, his mouth - was so parched that his tongue refused utterance, and he now - learned by experience that the saliva is as necessary as the tongue - itself for speech. He then turned to one of the pools on the rock - and lapped a little water, which produced an immediate relief. - But what was his happiness when, on rising from this unpleasant - beverage, some one called out ‘A boat! a boat!’ and on looking - around, at no great distance, a large boat was seen through the - haze making towards the rock. This at once enlivened and rejoiced - every heart. The timeous visitor proved to be James Spink, the Bell - Rock pilot, who had come express from Arbroath with letters. Spink - had for some time seen the Smeaton, and had even supposed, from the - state of the weather, that all hands were on board of her, till - he approached more nearly and observed people upon the rock. Upon - this fortunate change of circumstances sixteen of the artificers - were sent at two trips in one of the boats, with instructions for - Spink to proceed with them to the floating light.[5] This being - accomplished, the remaining sixteen followed in the two boats - belonging to the service of the rock. Every one felt the most - perfect happiness at leaving the Bell Rock this morning, though a - very hard and even dangerous passage to the floating light still - awaited us, as the wind by this time had increased to a pretty - hard gale, accompanied with a considerable swell of sea. The boats - left the rock about nine, but did not reach the vessel till twelve - o’clock noon, after a most disagreeable and fatiguing passage of - three hours. Every one was as completely drenched in water as if he - had been dragged astern of the boats.” - -After this accident difficulty was experienced in getting the men to -turn out next morning, as related in the following extract:-- - - “The bell rung this morning at five o’clock, but the writer must - acknowledge, from the circumstances of yesterday, that its sound - was extremely unwelcome. This appears also to have been the feeling - of the artificers, for when they came to be mustered, out of - twenty-six, only eight, besides the foreman and seamen, appeared - upon deck, to accompany the writer to the rock. Such are the - baneful effects of anything like misfortune or accident connected - with a work of this description. The use of argument to persuade - the men to embark, in cases of this kind, would have been out of - place, as it is not only discomfort, or even the risk of the loss - of a limb, but life itself, that becomes the question. The boats, - notwithstanding the thinness of our ranks, left the vessel at - half-past five. The rough weather of yesterday having proved but - a summer’s gale, the wind came to-day in gentle breezes, yet the - atmosphere being cloudy, it had not a very favourable appearance. - The boats reached the rock at six A.M., and the eight artificers - who landed were employed in clearing out the bat-holes for the - beacon-house, and had a prosperous tide of four hours’ work, being - the longest yet experienced by half an hour. - - “The boats left the rock again at ten o’clock, and the weather - having cleared up, as we drew near the vessel, the eighteen - artificers who remained on board were observed upon deck, but as - the boats approached they sought their way below, being quite - ashamed of their conduct. This was the only instance of refusal - to go to the rock which occurred during the whole progress of the - work.” - -The state of suffering and discomfort, as well as danger, on board the -floating light, which lay moored off the rock during the first two -seasons of the work, before the timber beacon was used as a habitation, -is described, in the following passage, which presents a striking -illustration of the continual anxiety that must have existed in the -minds of those engaged in the work, and of the frequent calls for -energetic and courageous exertion:-- - - “Although the weather would have admitted of a landing this - evening, yet the swell of the sea, observable in the morning, still - continued to increase. It was so far fortunate that a landing was - not attempted, for at eight o’clock the wind shifted to E.S.E., - and at ten it had become a hard gale, when fifty fathoms of the - floating-light’s hempen cable were veered out. The gale still - increasing, the ship rolled and laboured excessively, and at - midnight eighty fathoms of cable were veered out; while the sea - continued to strike the vessel with a degree of force which had not - before been experienced. - - “During the last night there was little rest on board of the - Pharos, and daylight, though anxiously wished for, brought no - relief, as the gale continued with unabated violence. The sea - struck so hard upon the vessel’s bows that it rose in great - quantities, or in ‘green seas’ as the sailors termed it, which - were carried by the wind as far aft as the quarter-deck, and - not unfrequently over the stern of the ship altogether. It fell - occasionally so heavily on the skylight of the writer’s cabin, - though so far aft as to be within five feet of the helm, that the - glass was broken to pieces before the dead-light could be got into - its place, so that the water poured down in great quantities. In - shutting out the water, the admission of light was prevented, and - in the morning all continued in the most comfortless state of - darkness. About ten o’clock A.M. the wind shifted to N.E., and - blew, if possible, harder than before, and it was accompanied by a - much heavier swell of sea; when it was judged advisable to give the - ship more cable. In the course of the gale the part of the cable - in the hause-hole had been so often shifted that nearly the whole - length of one of her hempen cables, of 120 fathoms, had been veered - out besides the chain-moorings. The cable, for its preservation, - was also carefully “served” or wattled with pieces of canvas round - the windlass, and with leather well greased in the hause-hole. - In this state things remained during the whole day,--every sea - which struck the vessel--and the seas followed each other in close - succession--causing her to shake, and all on board occasionally - to tremble. At each of these strokes of the sea the rolling and - pitching of the vessel ceased for a time, and her motion was felt - as if she had either broke adrift before the wind, or were in the - act of sinking; but when another sea came, she ranged up against - it with great force, and this became the regular intimation of our - being still riding at anchor. - - “About eleven o’clock, the writer, with some difficulty, got out - of bed, but, in attempting to dress, he was thrown twice upon the - floor, at the opposite side of the cabin. In an undressed state - he made shift to get about half-way up the companion-stairs, with - an intention to observe the state of the sea and of the ship upon - deck, but he no sooner looked over the companion than a heavy sea - struck the vessel, which fell on the quarter-deck, and rushed - down-stairs into the officer’s cabin, in so considerable a quantity - that it was found necessary to lift one of the scuttles in the - floor to let the water into the limbers of the ship, as it dashed - from side to side in such a manner as to run into the lower tier - of beds. Having been foiled in this attempt, and being completely - wetted, he again got below and went to bed. In this state of the - weather the seamen had to move about the necessary or indispensable - duties of the ship, with the most cautious use both of hands - and feet, while it required all the art of the landsman to keep - within the precincts of his bed. The writer even found himself so - much tossed about that it became necessary, in some measure, to - shut himself in bed, in order to avoid being thrown to the floor. - Indeed, such was the motion of the ship, that it seemed wholly - impracticable to remain in any other than a lying posture. On deck - the most stormy aspect presented itself, while below all was wet - and comfortless. - - “About two o’clock P.M. a great alarm was given throughout the - ship, from the effects of a very heavy sea which struck her, and - almost filled the waist, pouring down into the berths below, - through every chink and crevice of the hatches and skylights. From - the motion of the vessel being thus suddenly deadened or checked, - and from the flowing in of the water above, it is believed there - was not an individual on board who did not think, at the moment, - that the vessel had foundered and was in the act of sinking. The - writer could withstand this no longer, and as soon as she again - began to range to the sea, he determined to make another effort to - get upon deck. - - “It being impossible to open any of the hatches in the fore part - of the ship in communicating with the deck, the watch was changed - by passing through the several berths to the companion-stair - leading to the quarter-deck. The writer, therefore, made the best - of his way aft, and on a second attempt to look out, he succeeded, - and saw indeed an astonishing sight. The seas or waves appeared - to be ten or fifteen feet in height of unbroken water, and every - approaching billow seemed as if it would overwhelm our vessel, - but she continued to rise upon the waves, and to fall between the - seas in a very wonderful manner. It seemed to be only those seas - which caught her in the act of rising which struck her with so much - violence, and threw such quantities of water aft. On deck there was - only one solitary individual looking out, to give the alarm in the - event of the ship breaking from her moorings. The seaman on watch - continued only two hours; he had no greatcoat nor overall of any - kind, but was simply dressed in his ordinary jacket and trousers; - his hat was tied under his chin with a napkin, and he stood aft the - foremast, to which he had lashed himself with a gasket or small - rope round his waist, to prevent his falling upon deck or being - washed overboard. Upon deck everything that was moveable was out - of sight, having either been stowed below previous to the gale, or - been washed overboard. Some trifling parts of the quarter-boards - were damaged by the breach of the sea, and one of the boats upon - deck was about one-third full of water, the oyle-hole or drain - having been accidentally stopped up, and part of the gunwale had - received considerable injury. Although the previous night had been - a very restless one, it had not the effect of inducing sleep in - the writer’s berth on the succeeding one; for having been so much - tossed about in bed during the last thirty hours, he found no easy - spot to turn to, and his body was all sore to the touch, which ill - accorded with the unyielding materials with which his bed-place was - surrounded. - - “This morning about eight o’clock the writer was agreeably - surprised to see the scuttle of his cabin skylight removed, and the - bright rays of the sun admitted. Although the ship continued to - roll excessively, and the sea was still running very high, yet the - ordinary business on board seemed to be going forward on deck. It - was impossible to steady a telescope so as to look minutely at the - progress of the waves, and trace their breach upon the Bell Rock, - but the height to which the cross-running waves rose in sprays, - when they met each other, was truly grand, and the continued roar - and noise of the sea was very perceptible to the ear. To estimate - the height of the sprays at forty or fifty feet would surely be - within the mark. Those of the workmen who were not much afflicted - with sea-sickness came upon deck, and the wetness below being dried - up, the cabins were again brought into a habitable state. Every - one seemed to meet as if after a long absence, congratulating his - neighbour upon the return of good weather. Little could be said as - to the comfort of the vessel; but after riding out such a gale, - no one felt the least doubt or hesitation as to the safety and - good condition of her moorings. The master and mate were extremely - anxious, however, to heave in the hempen cable, and see the state - of the clinch or iron ring of the chain cable. But the vessel - rolled at such a rate that the seamen could not possibly keep their - feet at the windlass, nor work the handspokes, though it had been - several times attempted since the gale took off. - - “About twelve noon, however, the vessel’s motion was observed to - be considerably less, and the sailors were enabled to walk upon - deck with some degree of freedom. But to the astonishment of every - one it was soon discovered that the floating light was adrift! - The windlass was instantly manned, and the men soon gave out that - there was no strain upon the cable. The mizzen-sail, which was bent - for the occasional purpose of making the vessel ride more easily - to the tide, was immediately set, and the other sails were also - hoisted in a short time, when, in no small consternation, we bore - away about one mile to the south-westward of the former station, - and there let go the best bower-anchor and cable, in twenty fathoms - water, to ride until the swell of the sea should fall, when it - might be practicable to grapple for the moorings, and find a better - anchorage for the ship. - - “As soon as the deck could be cleared the cable end was hove up, - which had parted at the distance of about fifty fathoms from - the chain moorings. On examining the cable, it was found to be - considerably chafed, but where the separation took place, it - appeared to be worn through, or cut shortly off. How to account for - this would be difficult, as the ground, though rough and gravelly, - did not, after much sounding, appear to contain any irregular - parts. It was therefore conjectured that the cable must have hooked - some piece of wreck, as it did not appear from the state of the - wind and tide that the vessel could have _fouled_ her anchor when - she veered round with the wind, which had shifted in the course of - the night from N.E. to N.N.W. - - “Be this as it may, it was a circumstance quite out of the power of - man to prevent, as, until the ship drifted, it was found impossible - to heave up the cable. But what ought to have been the feeling - of thankfulness to that Providence which regulates and appoints - the lot of man, when it is considered that if this accident had - happened during the storm, or in the night after the wind had - shifted, the floating light must inevitably have gone ashore upon - the Bell Rock. In short, it is hardly possible to conceive any case - more awfully distressing than our situation would have been, or - one more disastrous to the important undertaking in which we were - engaged.” - -The distance at which the floating light was moored from the rock was -about three miles, and the passage of the men to and from their work, -and boarding the vessel in rough weather, was a source of great anxiety -and danger, and is described in the following paragraphs:-- - - “When the tide-bell rung on board the floating light, the boats - were hoisted out, and two active seamen were employed to keep them - from receiving damage alongside. The floating light being very - buoyant, was so quick in her motions, that when those who were - about to step from her gunwale into a boat, placed themselves upon - a “cleat” or step on the ship’s side with the man or rail-ropes in - their hands, they had often to wait for some time till a favourable - opportunity occurred for stepping into the boat. While in this - situation, with the vessel rolling from side to side, watching the - proper time for letting go the man-ropes, it required the greatest - dexterity and presence of mind to leap into the boat. One who was - rather awkward would often wait a considerable period in this - position: at one time his side of the ship would be so depressed - that he would touch the boat to which he belonged, while the next - sea would elevate him so much that he would see his comrades in - the boat on the opposite side of the ship, his friends in the one - boat calling to him to ‘jump,’ while those in the boat on the - other side, as he came again and again into their view, would - jocosely say--‘Are you there yet? You seem to enjoy a swing.’ In - this situation it was common to see a person upon each side of the - ship for a length of time, waiting to quit his hold. A stranger to - this sort of motion was both alarmed for the safety, and delighted - with the agility, of persons leaping into the boat under those - perilous circumstances. No sooner had one quitted his station on - the gunwale than another occupied his place, until the whole were - safely shipped.” - -On their return trips from the rock to the floating light, the men had -a no less hazardous and trying ordeal to undergo, for Mr. Stevenson -records the following as an example of the risks to which they were -exposed:-- - - “Just as we were about to leave the rock, the wind shifted to the - S.W., and from a fresh gale it became what seamen term a hard - gale, or such as would have required the fisherman to take in two - or three reefs in his sail. The boats being rather in a crowded - state for this sort of weather, they were pulled with difficulty - towards the floating light. Though the boats were handsomely built, - and presented little obstruction to the wind, as those who were - not pulling sat low, yet having the ebb-tide to contend with the - passage was so very tedious that it required two hours of hard work - before we reached the vessel. - - “It is a curious fact, that the respective tides of ebb and flood - are apparent upon the shore about an hour and a half sooner than - at the distance of three or four miles in the offing. But what - seems chiefly interesting here is, that the tides around this small - sunken rock should follow exactly the same laws as on the extensive - shores of the mainland. When the boats left the Bell Rock to-day, - it was overflowed by the flood-tide, but the floating light did not - swing round to the flood-tide for more than an hour afterwards. - Under this disadvantage the boats had to struggle with the - ebb-tide and a hard gale of wind, so that it was with the greatest - difficulty they reached the floating light. Had this gale happened - in spring-tides, when the current was strong, we must have been - driven to sea in a very helpless condition. - - “The boat which the writer steered was considerably behind the - other, one of the masons having unluckily broken his oar. Our - prospect of getting on board, of course, became doubtful, and our - situation was rather perilous, as the boat shipped so much sea that - it occupied two of the artificers to bale and clear her of water. - When the oar gave way we were about half-a-mile from the ship, but, - being fortunately to windward, we got into the wake of the floating - light at about 250 fathoms astern, just as the landing-master’s - boat reached the vessel. He immediately _streamed_ or floated a - life-buoy astern, with a line which was in readiness, and by means - of this useful implement, the boat was towed alongside of the - floating light, where, from the rolling motion, it required no - small management to get safely on board, as the men were much worn - out with their exertions in pulling from the rock. On the present - occasion, the crews of both boats were completely drenched with - spray, and those who sat upon the bottom of the boats to bale them - were sometimes pretty deep in the water, before it could be cleared - out. After getting on board, all hands were allowed an extra dram, - and having shifted, and got a warm and comfortable dinner, the - affair, it is believed, was little more thought of.” - -An interesting incident, showing the constant anxiety of the chief for -his men, is given in the following passage:-- - - “The boats left the ship at a quarter before six this morning, - and landed upon the rock at seven. The water had gone off the - rock sooner than was expected, for as yet the seamen were but - imperfectly acquainted with its periodic appearance, and the - landing-master being rather late with his signal this morning, - the artificers were enabled to proceed to work without a moment’s - delay. The boat which the writer steered happened to be the last - which approached the rock at this tide; and, in standing up in the - stern, while at some distance, to see how the leading boat entered - the creek, he was astonished to observe something in the form of a - human figure in a reclining posture upon one of the ledges of the - rock. He immediately steered the boat through a narrow entrance to - the eastern harbour, with a thousand unpleasant sensations in his - mind. He thought a vessel or boat must have been wrecked upon the - rock during the night; and it seemed probable that the rock might - be strewed with dead bodies--a spectacle which could not fail to - deter the artificers from returning so freely to their work. Even - one individual found in this situation would naturally cast a damp - upon their minds, and, at all events, make them much more timid - in their future operations. In the midst of those reveries, the - boat took the ground at an improper landing-place; but, without - waiting to push her off, he leapt upon the rock, and making his way - hastily to the spot which had privately given him alarm, he had the - satisfaction to ascertain that he had only been deceived by the - peculiar situation and aspect of the smith’s anvil and block, which - very completely represented the appearance of a lifeless body upon - the rock. The writer carefully suppressed his feelings, the simple - mention of which might have had a bad effect upon the artificers, - and his haste passed for an anxiety to examine the apparatus of the - smith’s forge, left in an unfinished state at the evening tide.” - -In the following words Mr. Stevenson explains his resolution to regard -the operations at the Bell Rock as a work of mercy, and to continue -them, when weather permitted, throughout all the seven days of the -week:-- - - “To some it may require an apology, or at least call for an - explanation, why the writer took upon himself to step aside from - the established rules of society by carrying on the works of this - undertaking during Sundays. Such practices are not uncommon in - the dockyards and arsenals, when it is conceived that the public - service requires extraordinary exertions. Surely if, under any - circumstances, it is allowable to go about the ordinary labours of - mankind on Sundays, that of the erection of a lighthouse upon the - Bell Rock seems to be one of the most pressing calls which could - in any case occur, and carries along with it the imperious language - of necessity. When we take into consideration that, in its effects, - this work was to operate in a direct manner for the safety of many - valuable lives and much property, the beautiful and simple parables - of the Holy Scriptures, inculcating works of necessity and mercy, - must present themselves to every mind unbiassed by the trammels of - form or the influence of a distorted imagination. In this perilous - work, to give up every seventh day would just have been to protract - the time a seventh part. Now, as it was generally supposed, after - taking all advantages into view, that the work would probably - require seven years for its execution, such an arrangement must - have extended the operation to at least eight years, and have - exposed it to additional risk and danger in all its stages. The - writer, therefore, felt little scruple in continuing the Bell Rock - works in all favourable states of the weather.” - -He however conducted a regular Sunday service, as noticed in the -following paragraph:-- - - “Having, on the previous evening, arranged matters with the - landing-master as to the business of the day, the signal was - rung for all hands at half-past seven this morning. In the early - state of the spring-tides, the artificers went to the rock before - breakfast, but as the tides fell later in the day, it became - necessary to take this meal before leaving the ship. At eight - o’clock all hands were assembled on the quarter-deck for prayers, - a solemnity which was gone through in as orderly a manner as - circumstances would admit. Round the quarter-deck, when the weather - permitted, the flags of the ship were hung up as an awning or - screen, forming the quarter-deck into a distinct compartment with - colours; the pendant was also hoisted at the main-mast, and a large - ensign flag was displayed over the stern; and, lastly, the ship’s - companion, or top of the staircase, was covered with the _flag - proper_ of the Lighthouse Service, on which the Bible was laid. A - particular toll of the bell called all hands to the quarter-deck, - when the writer read a chapter of the Bible, and, the whole - ship’s company being uncovered, he also read the impressive prayer - composed by the Reverend Dr. Brunton, one of the ministers of - Edinburgh.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The Beacon or Barrack.] - -So soon as a barrack of timber-work could be erected on the rock as a -substitute for the floating light, it was inhabited by Mr. Stevenson -and twenty-eight men. This barrack was a singular habitation, perched -on a strong framework of timber, carefully designed with a view to -strength, and no less carefully put together in its place, and fixed -to the rock with every appliance necessary to secure stability. The -tide rose sixteen feet on it in calm weather, and in heavy seas it was -exposed to the assault of every wave. Of the perils and discomforts of -such a habitation the following passages give a lively picture:-- - - “This scene” (the sublime appearance of the waves) “he greatly - enjoyed while sitting at his window. Each wave approached the - Beacon like a vast scroll unfolding, and in passing discharged a - quantity of air which he not only distinctly felt, but was even - sufficient to lift the leaves of a book which lay before him.... - - “The gale continues with unabated violence to-day, and the sprays - rise to a still greater height, having been carried over the - masonry of the building, or about 90 feet above the level of the - sea. At four o’clock this morning it was breaking into the cook’s - berth (on the Beacon), when he rang the alarm-bell, and all hands - turned out to attend to their personal safety. The floor of the - smith’s or mortar gallery was now completely burst up by the - force of the sea, when the whole of the deals and the remaining - articles upon the floor were swept away, such as the cast-iron - mortar-tubs, the iron hearth of the forge, the smith’s bellows, and - even his anvil, were thrown down upon the rock. The boarding of the - cook-house, or story above the smith’s gallery, was also partly - carried away, and the brick and plaster work of the fireplace - shaken and loosened. It was observed during this gale that the - Beacon-house had a good deal of tremor, but none of that ‘twisting - motion’ occasionally felt and complained of before the additional - wooden struts were set up for the security of the principal beams; - but this effect had more especially disappeared ever since the - attachment of the great horizontal iron bars in connection with - these supports. Before the tide rose to its full height to-day, - some of the artificers passed along the bridge into the lighthouse, - to observe the effects of the sea upon it, and they reported that - they had felt a slight tremulous motion in the building when great - seas struck it in a certain direction about high-water mark. On - this occasion the sprays were again observed to wet the balcony, - and even to come over the parapet wall into the interior of the - light-room. In this state of the weather, Captain Wilson and the - crew of the ‘Floating Light’ were much alarmed for the safety of - the artificers upon the rock, especially when they observed with a - telescope that the floor of the smith’s gallery had been carried - away, and that the triangular cast-iron sheer-crane was broken - down. It was quite impossible, however, to do anything for their - relief until the gale should take off.... - - “The writer’s cabin measured not more than 4 feet 3 inches in - breadth on the floor; and though, from the oblique direction of the - beams of the Beacon, it widened towards the top, yet it did not - admit of the full extension of his arms when he stood on the floor; - while its length was little more than sufficient for suspending a - cot-bed during the night, calculated for being triced up to the - roof during the day, which left free room for the admission of - occasional visitants. His folding-table was attached with hinges - immediately under the small window of the apartment; and his books, - barometer, thermometer, portmanteau, and two or three camp-stools, - formed the bulk of his moveables. His diet being plain, the - paraphernalia of the table were proportionally simple; though - everything had the appearance of comfort, and even of neatness, the - walls being covered with green cloth, formed into panels with red - tape, and his bed festooned with curtains of yellow cotton stuff. - If, on speculating on the abstract wants of man, in such a state of - exclusion, one were reduced to a single book, the sacred volume, - whether considered for the striking diversity of its story, the - morality of its doctrine, or the important truths of its Gospel, - would have proved by far the greatest treasure.” - -The Barrack was not removed immediately on the completion of the tower, -and on Mr. Stevenson’s first visit to the rock after the light had -been established, it was with feelings of emotion that he viewed his -old quarters. His Journal says--“I went up the trap and entered my own -cabin with mingled thoughts of reflection upon the many anxious hours -I had spent within the narrow precincts of its little walls, and here -offered up thanks to God for the happy termination of this work.” - -Mr. Stevenson’s merit as Engineer of the Bell Rock Lighthouse does -not rest in his bold conception of, and confident unshaken belief in, -the possibility of executing a tower of masonry on that submerged reef, -or even in his personal courage and discretion in carrying out so -difficult a work, in the face of so many dangers, when he had neither -“steamboat” nor “steam-crane” to call to his aid. But his mechanical -skill in all the arrangements of the work was pre-eminent in bringing -his labours to a successful issue. Not only did he conceive the plan -of the moveable _jib_ and _balance cranes_, described in a subsequent -chapter--which he applied with much advantage in the erection of the -tower, and the former of which is now in universal use,--but his -inventive skill, ever alive to the possibility of improving on the -conceptions of his great master, Smeaton, led him to introduce all -those advantageous changes in the arrangements of the masonry of the -tower, which have been already described, as distinguishing it from the -Eddystone. - -The Commissioners entertained a high sense of Stevenson’s services at -the Bell Rock Lighthouse; and, as many of them took a deep interest in -the execution of that remarkable work, and paid occasional visits to -it during its progress, they were well able to appreciate the ability -and zeal with which he devoted himself to this arduous task, and they -resolved, at a meeting held in the lighthouse itself--“That a bust of -Mr. Robert Stevenson be obtained, and placed in the library of the -Bell Rock Lighthouse, in testimony of the sense entertained by the -Commissioners of his distinguished talent and indefatigable zeal in the -erection of that lighthouse.” A beautiful bust in marble, by Samuel -Joseph, from which the frontispiece has been engraved, was accordingly -placed in what is called the library, being the upper apartment of the -tower. - - * * * * * - -Mr. Stevenson’s interest in the Eddystone did not cease on the -completion of his own work. We know that he paid at least two visits -to the Eddystone after the completion of the Bell Rock. One of those -visits was made in September 1813, when, by the courtesy of the Trinity -House, he was accommodated with the use of the ‘Eddystone’ tender, and, -though the weather was not very favourable, succeeded in landing on the -rock and making a hasty inspection of the far-famed lighthouse. - -Mr. Stevenson’s last visit was made in 1818, on a voyage in the -Northern Lighthouse tender, on which occasion he was favoured with a -smooth sea and a low tide, and enabled to make a thorough inspection -of the rock. It is important and interesting to record that this -examination strongly impressed him with the _ultimate_ insecurity of -the structure, as appears from the following almost prophetic extract -from his Journal:-- - - “The house seems to be in a very good state of repair, and does - not appear to have sustained any injury by the lapse of time. The - joints are full of cement, and the stone exhibits little appearance - of decay, being granite or syenite. The rock itself upon a narrow - inspection seems to be gneiss. The rock is shaken all through, and - dips at a very considerable angle, perhaps one in three, towards - the south-west; and being undermined on the north-east side for - several feet, it must be confessed that it has rather an alarming - appearance. I am not, however, of opinion that it has altered - its state perhaps since the date of the erection of the tower. - Since my last visit in 1813 I am not sensible of any change - upon it. On the north-east side, however, at what is called the - ‘Gut’ landing-place, where the men sheltered themselves from the - fire of Rudyerd’s Lighthouse, but especially at low-water mark of - spring-tides, there is a hollowing of the rock which penetrates - at least to the circumference of the base of the lighthouse. I - therefore conclude that when the sea runs high there is danger of - this house being _upset_, after a lapse of time, when the sea and - shingle have wrought away the rock to a greater extent. Nothing - preserves this highly important building but the hardness of the - rock and the dip of the strata, but for how long a period this may - remain no one can pretend to say.” - -[Illustration: - - _PLATE III._ - -BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE.] - -That period has at length arrived, and the Trinity House, under the -advice of Mr. Douglass, their Engineer, have resolved that Smeaton’s -Eddystone--the engineer’s long cherished object of veneration--must -be renewed, and henceforth Stevenson’s Bell Rock must be held as the -earliest existing type of a class of bold and skilful works--still few -in number--which, by converting a dark sunken danger into a source of -light and safety, have saved many a ship, and cheered the heart of many -a tempest-tossed sailor, as happily expressed in Sir Walter Scott’s -impromptu “Pharos loquitur,” written in the Album of the Lighthouse, -when he landed with a deputation of the Commissioners in 1814. - - “Far in the bosom of the deep - O’er these wild shelves my watch I keep, - A ruddy gem of changeful light, - Bound on the dusky brow of night; - The seaman bids my lustre hail, - And scorns to strike his timorous sail.” - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -LIGHTHOUSE ILLUMINATION. - -1801-1843. - - Early modes of illumination--Facet reflectors and lamps--Silvered - copper reflectors and Argand lamps--Isle of May coal - light--Improvements in catoptric lights--Distinctions - for lighthouses invented by Mr. Stevenson, viz., - flashing, intermittent, and double lights--Floating light - lantern--Lighting of stage of Covent Garden Theatre--Dioptric - system of lighthouse illumination. - - -Seeing that, for reasons stated in the last chapter, I was led to give -up the idea of attempting to follow any chronological sequence in this -Memoir, it may perhaps be convenient, before speaking of my father’s -general practice as a Civil Engineer, that I should supplement the -sketch I have given of the Bell Rock Lighthouse by some account of the -other important duties he performed as Engineer to the Commissioners of -Northern Lighthouses--an office which, as we have seen, he held for so -long a period. - -The lighthouse towers of the last century, though useful as beacons by -day, were after all most imperfect guides by night. Indeed, the rude -expedients adopted at that early period to give light to the sailor -in a dark and moonless sky, present a very curious contrast to the -modern system of lighthouse illumination--the result of careful study -by modern philosophers and engineers. If proof of this be wanted, -we have only to refer to the twenty-four miserable candles, unaided -by reflectors or any other optical contrivance, which shed their dim -and uncertain light from Smeaton’s famous Eddystone for nearly half a -century after it was built. - -But indeed at that early time all lights had not even the advantage of -the glazed lantern which protected the candles of the Eddystone from -the winter’s blast and summer’s breeze; the grand Tour de Cordouan on -the coast of France was then lighted by blazing fagots of wood burned -in an open chauffer, and many of the early lighthouses were open coal -fires. - -When Mr. Smith, however, was appointed Engineer to the Scotch -Lighthouse Board, he, as has been already said, came forward as the -advocate of lamps aided by reflectors, a system which he introduced -at Kinnaird Head in 1787; so that the Lighthouse Board of Scotland -never employed any less perfect mode of illumination. These early -reflectors, which had been in use in England, consisted of small pieces -or facets of common mirror glass arranged in a hollow mould and fixed -in their places by plaster of Paris; but soon afterwards the facets of -mirror glass, though forming good instruments for their day, and of -their kind, were discarded, and the reflectors were thereafter made of -copper, plated with silver, and brightly polished. - -I am not in a position to say when or by whom these metallic reflectors -were first introduced, or what was their exact form, the question being -invested in some degree of doubt; but it was to the perfecting of these -optical instruments and adapting them to practical use in a lighthouse -that Mr. Stevenson’s attention was early directed. Thus we find him in -1805 reporting as follows:-- - - “The operations at the Start Point were this season begun upon - Monday the 27th of May, and the lighthouse was finished upon - Saturday the 17th October and the light advertised to be lighted - upon the night of Wednesday the 1st of January 1806. Some nights - before I left Sanday I had the light set in motion, when the effect - appeared to be most excellent; indeed, it must be equal to the - Scilly or Cromer lights, and superior to the revolving light at - Tinmouth: at the former there are twenty-one reflectors, and at the - latter there are fifteen, whereas at the Start Point Lighthouse - I only use seven reflectors, but by altering the motion of the - machinery and construction of the revolving part, I produce the - desired effect.” - -And again in 1806:-- - - “I was late in the season for making all the observations I could - have wished upon the Start Point and North Ronaldsay lights, and - was not very well appointed in a vessel for keeping the sea in - bad weather. I however made a cruise for this purpose, and stood - towards the Fair Isle in a heavy gale of wind, with an intention - to run for Shetland, but the wind shifted, and I stretched towards - Copinshaw, at the distance of about ten or twelve miles to the - westward of Orkney, with both lights in view. The second night - I went through North Ronaldsay Firth to have a west view of the - lights. I put about off Westra, and stood northward with both - lights in view, when it came to blow with great violence from the - s.w., and it was with much difficulty we could regain the coast. - Although on this trip I had rather bad weather, with a heavy swell - of sea, yet it was very answerable for my purpose, and I was upon - the whole much pleased with the appearance of the new light; but - I find, when at the distance of ten or twelve miles, with the sea - running high, the light is seen for rather too short a period, so - that it would be proper to place other seven reflectors upon the - frame at an angle of about 40° to the present reflectors, in the - event of removing North Ronaldsay light.” - -I find from his correspondence that my father consulted Sir John -Leslie, the distinguished Professor of Natural Philosophy, and -Alexander Adie, the well-known optician, as to the best mode of -procuring a true parabolic form for the construction of his reflectors, -and having introduced a simple means of withdrawing the lamp from -the reflector, his new catoptric apparatus may be said to have been -completed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.] - -The Bell Rock was the first lighthouse that was illuminated by Mr. -Stevenson’s improved apparatus (shown in section in Fig. 4), where _a_ -is the fountain for the oil, _b_ the burner, and the directions of the -incident and reflected rays are represented by dotted lines. In Fig. 5 -the reflector is shown in elevation; the lamp is represented as lowered -down from the reflector, which is effected by a sliding arrangement -controlled by a guide,--the object being to allow the lamp to be -removed while the reflector is being polished, and to insure its being -returned to its exact position in the true focus of the reflector. -Perhaps the most valuable opinion that can be quoted as to the utility -of this arrangement is that of Mr. Airy, the Astronomer-Royal, who, -after the apparatus had been in use fifty years, and after having -inspected the lighthouses both of Britain and France, says--“This -lighthouse” (Girdleness, in Aberdeenshire) “contains two systems of -lights. The lower, at about two-fifths of the height of the building, -consists of thirteen parabolic reflectors of the usual form. I remarked -in these, that by a simple construction, which I have not seen -elsewhere, great facility is given for the withdrawal and safe return -of the lamps, for adjusting the lamps, and for cleaning the mirrors;” -and in closing his report he adds, “It is the best lighthouse that I -have seen.”[6] - -Notwithstanding the introduction of this improved apparatus at the Bell -Rock in 1811, a coal-fire, which had existed for the long period of 181 -years on the Isle of May, at the entrance to the Firth of Forth, still -continued, in 1816, to send forth its feeble and misleading light, and -as it was one of the best specimens of the lighthouses of days now -passed away, it may not be uninteresting to give a short account of it. - -The May light was at that period what is called a “private light”--the -right of levying dues on shipping being vested in the Duke of Portland, -who was owner of the island. There were many private lights in -England, but the Isle of May was the only one that still remained in -Scotland, and the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses, believing it -to be advantageous that so important a light should be placed under -public management, so as to secure for the shipping a better light, -and exemption from the high passing tolls charged by the proprietor, -entered into treaty with the Duke of Portland for the purchase of his -rights. This negotiation resulted in the introduction of a Bill into -Parliament in 1814, authorising the purchase of the Isle of May, with -the right of levying toll, for the sum of £60,000. - -So soon as the property came into the hands of the Commissioners they -erected a new lighthouse, and on the 1st of February 1816 the old coal -chauffer was discontinued, and a light from oil with reflectors was -exhibited in its stead. I am enabled from an old plan in my possession -to present the reader with two sketches of the original chauffer light -of the Isle of May. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.] - -Fig. 6 is an elevation of the building, with the tackle for raising -the fuel to the top, and its inscription stone over the door bearing -the date 1635. Fig. 7 shows the building in section, with its stone -winding staircase and vaulted chambers, the whole structure apparently -being so designed as to be perfectly proof against fire--a precaution -very necessary for a building dedicated to such a purpose, for it is -recorded that no fewer than 400 tons of coal were annually consumed in -the open chauffer on its top. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.] - -It was, as I have said, one of the best coal-fires in the kingdom, -and three men were employed to keep the bonfire burning, so that its -inefficiency as a light was not due to any want of outlay in its -support. But its appearance was ever varying, now shooting up in high -flames, again enveloped in dense smoke, and never well seen when most -required. When Mr. Stevenson visited the island, with a view to its -purchase by the Commissioners, he was told by the keeper, that in -violent gales the fire only kindled on the _leeward_ side, and that he -was in the habit of putting his hand through the _windward_ bars of -the chauffer to steady himself while he supplied the fire with coals, -so that in the direction in which it was most wanted hardly any light -was visible. Nothing can be worse than any variableness or uncertainty -in the appearance of a light. Better far not to exhibit it at all than -to show it irregularly; and the coal lights were so changeable and -destitute of characteristic appearance as to be positively dangerous. -This indeed was too sadly proved by the loss of H. M. ships ‘Nymphen’ -and ‘Pallas,’ which on the 19th December 1810 were wrecked near Dunbar, -the light of a limekiln, on the coast of Haddington, having been -mistaken for the coal light of the Isle of May. Fortunately only nine -of their combined crews of 600 men perished; but the vessels, valued at -not less than £100,000, became total wrecks. - -During the long period he held the office as Engineer to the Board, Mr. -Stevenson designed and executed eighteen lighthouses in the district -of the Northern Lighthouse Commissioners, many of them in situations -which called for much forethought and great energy. All his lighthouse -works were characterised by sagacity and inventiveness, and exhibit -successive stages of improvement, equally indicative of the growing -prosperity of the Board and of the alacrity and zeal with which their -Engineer laboured in his vocation. Whether we consider the accuracy and -beauty of the catoptric apparatus, the arrangements of the buildings, -or the discipline observed by the lightkeepers of the Northern -Lighthouses, we cannot fail to recognise the impress of that energetic -and comprehensive cast of mind which directed the whole. Acting under -the direction of an enlightened Board of Commissioners, my father may, -with the strictest propriety, be said to have created the lighthouse -system of Scotland. His merits indeed in this respect were generally -acknowledged in other quarters; and many of the Irish lighthouses, and -several lighthouses in our colonies, were fitted up with apparatus -prepared after his designs. - -In the course of his labours my father’s attention was much given to -the question of _distinction_ among lights--a matter of the utmost -importance, especially in narrow seas, where many lights are required; -and at his suggestion, the Northern Lighthouse Commissioners fitted up -a temporary light-tower on Inchkeith, in which numerous experiments -having this object in view were made. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8. - -FIG. 9.] - -He was the inventor of two useful distinctions--the _Intermittent_ -and _Flashing_ lights. In the intermittent distinction the light is -suddenly obscured by the closing of metallic shades which surround the -reflector frame, and on their opening, it is as suddenly revealed to -sight, in a manner which completely distinguishes it from the ordinary -revolving light, which from darkness, _gradually_ increases in power -till it reaches its brightest phase, and then gradually declines until -it is again obscured; the action of these shades in producing the -intermittent effect is illustrated in Figs. 8 and 9. The _Flashing_ -light, by a peculiar arrangement of reflectors, and a rapid revolution -of the frame which carries them, is made to give a sudden flash of -great power, once in five seconds of time, and thus has a distinctive -appearance very different from either the revolving or intermittent -light. For these distinctions Mr. Stevenson received from the King of -the Netherlands a gold medal as a mark of his Majesty’s approbation. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.] - -Mr. Stevenson also, in 1810, gave a design for a double light at the -Isle of May, as shown in Fig. 10, in which all lighthouse engineers -will see the embryo of the double light of the present day. - -I must not omit to notice his improvement on the lanterns of floating -lightships, now universally adopted, which he introduced in 1807. -Previously to this date the lightships exhibited their lights from -small lanterns suspended from the yardarms or frames. Mr. Stevenson -realised the inutility of such a mode of exhibition, and conceived the -idea of forming a lantern to surround the mast of the vessel, and to -be capable of being lowered down to the deck to be trimmed, and raised -when required to be exhibited. His plan had the advantage of giving a -lantern of much greater size, because it encased the mast of the ship, -and with this increase of size it enabled larger and more perfect -apparatus to be introduced, as well as gearing for working a revolving -light. Fig. 11 shows this lantern, and the following is his description -of it:-- - - “The lanterns were so constructed as to clasp round the masts and - traverse upon them. This was effected by constructing them with - a tube of copper in the centre, capable of receiving the mast, - through which it passed. The lanterns were first completely formed, - and fitted with brass flanges; they were then cut longitudinally - asunder, which conveniently admitted of their being screwed - together on the masts after the vessel was fully equipped and - moored at her station. Letters _a a_ show part of one of the - masts, _b_ one of the tackle-hooks for raising and lowering the - lanterns, _c c_ the brass flanges with their screw-bolts, by which - the body or case of the lantern was ultimately put together. There - were holes in the bottom and also at the top connected with the - ventilation: the collar-pieces _e_ and _g_ form guards against - the effects of the weather. The letter _h_ shows the front of the - lantern, which was glazed with plate-glass; _i_ is one of the glass - shutters by which the lamps were trimmed, the lower half being - raised slides into a groove made for its reception; _k_ shows - the range of ten agitable burners or lamps out of which the oil - cannot be spilt by the rolling motion of the ship. Each lamp had a - silvered copper reflector _l_ placed behind the flame.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.] - -The reputation of my father’s catoptric apparatus was not, it appears, -confined to those interested in the welfare of the seaman. In 1819, -Mr. Stevenson was waited on by a gentleman passing hurriedly through -Edinburgh, who came on behalf of Mr. Harris, the manager of Covent -Garden Theatre, who was desirous to try catoptric apparatus for certain -stage effects which he intended to introduce in London. The proposal -seems rather to have taken the Lighthouse Engineer by surprise, but on -learning that the gentleman who had favoured him with a call was Mr. -Benson, the famous singer of the day, he wrote the following letter to -Mr. Harris:-- - - “I had some conversation with Mr. Benson of your theatre on the day - he proposed to leave this for London. The purpose of his visit to - me was to inquire about the reflectors we used in the lighthouses - upon this coast, which are under my direction, as he had some plan - in view for dispensing with the _footlights_ on the stage by the - introduction of reflected light. - - “Being desirous to give every facility to Mr. Benson’s views, - I offered him the loan of a reflector, which I showed him; but - from his being on the eve of setting off, and wishing to keep the - discovery, if practicable, for your theatre, I agreed to send it - to you at Covent Garden, and this letter is to acquaint you that a - case containing the reflector and its burner was shipped to your - address. - - “You are to understand that there is no charge whatever to be made; - I only request that the reflector may be returned when you have - made your trials. I no sooner learned that I conversed with the - gentleman who sings so delightfully in ‘Rob Roy’ than I felt an - irresistible inclination to oblige him. - - “Wishing you every success in the projected improvement in lighting - the stage, I remain,” etc. - -The reflector was duly returned by Mr. Harris. The note intimating its -shipment says--“It is an excellent reflector, but it collects the light -too much in one spot for our use; I mean, it does not spread the light -sufficiently about.” - -I mention this small matter, not so much because the manager of Covent -Garden Theatre came to Edinburgh to get his information, but to show -that Mr. Harris’s experiment, made in 1819, foretold the result of all -trials that have since been made to light railway stations, public -gardens, and parks, by using lighthouse apparatus, which is designed -to _condense_ the rays of light, and not to _diffuse_ them, and is -therefore inapplicable for such purposes. - - * * * * * - -The remarks I have made on lighthouse illumination refer to what -is known as the _catoptric_ system, whereby the light is acted on -by _reflection_ alone. The invention of the _dioptric_, system by -Fresnel was first communicated to Mr. Stevenson in a letter received -from Colonel Colby of the Royal Engineers, who had an opportunity of -knowing the benefit of Fresnel’s dioptric light in making certain -trigonometrical observations for connecting the Government surveys of -the shores of England and France across the English Channel. The letter -is in the following terms:-- - - “TOWER, _1st Nov. 1821_. - -“MY DEAR SIR,--I am quite ashamed of having delayed answering your -letter, and thanking you for the communications you sent me for so long -a time. In regard to the lamps, an account will be given of them in the -_Annales de Chimie_ for the next month. The lens is composed of pieces -of glass forming a circle three feet in diameter, ground to three feet -focal length. The lamp is similar to an Argand lamp, having hardly any -other difference, except four concentric circular wicks instead of -one. The external wick is about three inches in diameter. The light -given by the lens is remarkably brilliant. When we were at Folkestone -Hill, the lamp at Blancnez appeared to give about four times the light -of the Dungeness Lighthouse, though the distance of the lamp was nearly -double that of the lighthouse. The only difficulty which occurs to me -in their employment in lighthouses is the small angle to which a single -lens gives light. I think one lens is brilliant for seven degrees, and -could not answer for more than eight or nine degrees. - -“The Cordouan Lighthouse is to be fitted up with ten lenses round one -lamp. - -“With best wishes to Mrs. S. and your family, ever yours, - - “THOS. COLBY.” - -The merits of the dioptric system of illumination were brought before -the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses in Mr. Stevenson’s Report of -December 1821, and, as is well known, it has, with various extensions -and important improvements, been very generally adopted in all cases -where it is applicable to lighthouse illumination. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -ROADS. - -1798-1835. - - Early roads and road-making--Edgeworth and M’Adam’s systems of - roads--Stevenson’s system of roads--Cast-iron and stone tracks. - - -Writing at an early date, Mr. Stevenson has given the following sketch -of Roads and Road-making:-- - - “In early periods, when every family formed a kind of community - within itself for providing the necessaries of life, it is obvious - that there could be little communication with distant parts of the - country, and there was, therefore, no use for roads, which, long - after the establishment of towns, must have continued in the state - of _footpaths_ and _horse-tracks_. The bulky articles of fuel and - building materials are likely to have given rise to the first idea - of a sledge, the precursor of the wheel-carriage, which ultimately - led to the construction of anything like a regular path. The first - roads of Britain appear to have been the Military Ways of the - Romans. Some remains of these are still to be seen in various parts - of the kingdom, and even in the immediate vicinity of the city of - Edinburgh. It is, however, quite astonishing how slow the progress - of improvement in road-making seems to have been, and especially - its adaptation to economical purposes; although all classes must - have felt an equal interest in the formation of roads, as both the - landed proprietor and the citizen were to be mutually benefited - by thus laying open the country. But it requires the accumulated - wealth of ages to produce improvements so expensive. It is long - before the mind can be brought to approve of any radical change of - habit, however advantageous; and the scale adopted in the first - instance is often so circumscribed, that the whole measure requires - to be extended and even to be changed a second, and perhaps a third - time, in keeping pace with the public demands for improvement. - - “It is well known, that even so late as about the middle of the - last century, almost the whole land carriage of Scotland, and a - great part of England, was conducted upon horseback, the animals - employed being termed _pack-horses_. To the horse-tracks thus - produced, and which in the first instance were _formed_ without - regard to steep acclivities, are to be ascribed the evils which - we now labour under, as attendant on the laying out of our roads - for the modern improvement of wheel-carriages. Nor was it till - after much practice and the application of scientific principles, - long after the introduction of carriages, that we were induced - to improve the line of draught and adopt level tracks of road, - although perhaps more circuitous. - - “In Great Britain the road department, after much experience, - is now brought into a system by which the highways are made - and upheld by dues directly levied on those who travel or use - them,--excepting, indeed, such roads as are situated in very - remote parts of the country, where the Government, with the most - enlightened policy, has either executed the works directly by the - troops upon the _peace establishment_, as in the case of General - Wade’s army, or given aid towards the original formation of - extensive lines of road, for opening the more remote districts of - the country. There is, perhaps, no better criterion for judging of - the prosperity of a country than by its public improvements; and - were this subject considered in all its bearings, we should hardly - be able to quote any stronger evidence of internal riches and true - greatness, than we find connected with the subject of its public - roads. It appears from a very general or cursory calculation, - which the reporter has made, that the highways of Great Britain - and Ireland, independently of the almost innumerable parish and - private roads, extend to about 25,000 miles. The expense of these, - including bridges, etc., on a very moderate calculation, may be - stated throughout the kingdom at the rate of £800 per mile, which - is equal to no less than the aggregate sum of twenty millions - sterling. Now, to what branch of political economy can we look with - more certainty and propriety than to such splendid examples of the - substantial wealth and resources of a country? for until a kingdom - is traversed and laid open by roads, its government must be weak, - and its people remain in a state of comparative poverty. - - “But in so extensive a concern as the system of roads, involving - so great an expense, we may naturally look for small beginnings - and very gradual advancement. Accordingly, we find in the first - formation of highways, before their utility could be fully - understood or experience had shown the benefits of science in the - practice of the engineer, the early road-maker only increased the - breadth of the horse-track, and strewed it over with gravel from - the neighbouring brook. Indeed, we know that so late as the year - 1542, even the streets of London were formed in this way; and it - is said to be established by the records of Parliament, that when - the new system of road-making was first proposed to be extended - beyond the region of a few miles from that metropolis, such was - the mistaken policy and narrow-minded views of the immediate - proprietors, that the measure was strenuously opposed by those who - wished to make a monopoly of the supplies for the metropolis, as - detrimental to the established order of things.” - -The names of Richard Edgeworth, F.R.S., and John M’Adam, are well known -in connection with roads--Mr. Edgeworth writing in 1813, Mr. M’Adam in -1816. Both men had, it appears, given attention to the subject before -the end of the last century. Mr. Edgeworth says:--“I have visited -England, and have found, on a journey of many hundred miles, scarcely -twenty miles of well-made road. In many parts of the country, and -especially near London, the roads are in a shameful condition, and the -pavement of London is utterly unworthy of a great metropolis.” - -Mr. M’Adam had been much struck by the entire want of system that -existed in the management of roads at that early period, and strongly -urged the necessity of a reform in road _management_ as a pre-requisite -to road _improvement_. He urged the laying out of the roads of the -country into separate districts, with the appointment of road trustees -to manage them--the appointment of chief and assistant road-surveyors -to superintend them--and a new system of accounting and finance,--all -under statutory regulations; and it cannot be doubted that in all -this Mr. M’Adam did good service, which was recognised in 1823 by -Parliament voting a sum of money to him for having introduced a system -of “repairing, making, and managing turnpike roads and highways, from -which the public have derived most important and valuable advantages.” - -It appears to me, however, that all that is said in Mr. M’Adam’s first -edition of his book on road-making, in 1816, is of so general and vague -a nature that he cannot have known of Mr. Stevenson’s work at an early -part of the century. - -From Mr. Stevenson’s reports it appears that he was much employed in -road-engineering in the counties of Edinburgh, Stirling, Linlithgow, -Perth, and, indeed, generally throughout Scotland, extending as far -north as Orkney and Shetland; and without raising any claim to priority -of design, I give the following extracts from reports made by him in -1812 and 1813, after he must have had at least several years’ previous -study and practice of road-making, which I think clearly show that -Mr. Stevenson, if not the _original_, was at least an _independent_ -inventor of the system of road-making which is termed “macadamising.” - -In a report to “The Honourable the Committee of the Trustees for the -Highways and Roads within the county of Edinburgh,” dated 1812, he -says:-- - - “It may not, however, be considered altogether out of place to - notice that the pieces of stone composing the road-metal in common - use are perhaps one-half, and in some instances two-thirds, larger - than is suitable for the best condition of a road. Road-metal of a - small size consolidates by the pressure of weighty carriages, when - stones of the size _commonly used_ are either pounded under the - wheel or forced into the road. It would therefore be desirable, as - an experiment upon the large scale, to lay one of the most public - roads in the county to the extent of one fourth of a mile with - stones broken much smaller than is _customary_. - - “In some instances, especially within a few miles of Edinburgh, - it might be worthy of consideration by the Honourable Trustees - of this county how far _cast-iron cart-tracks_ might not be - advantageously laid upon the roads. Some years since the reporter - got two or three yards’ length of these iron tracks brought from - the Shotts ironworks, where they have been used for years with much - advantage, and, it is believed, with economy. These cart-tracks - would cost about £2000 per statute mile, including upholding by the - iron-founder for one year. It would be interesting to have also a - trial made of these in some very public road, although it were only - to the extent of two or three hundred yards.” - -Again, in a report to “The Honourable the Trustees for the Bridge of -Marykirk,” also in 1812, he says:-- - - “In the annexed specification of road-makers’ work, the reporter - makes some alterations upon the _common_ and _ordinary_ method of - breaking and laying road materials, by reducing the road-metal - to a more uniform size, and using a course of gravel, if it can - be procured, or even of clean sharp sand, as a bottoming for the - broken stones. A road composed of stones of various sizes can never - be brought into that smooth and uniform surface, which is so much - to be desired, for the moment the pressure is brought upon one of - these _out-sized_ stones, it must either be crushed under the wheel - or be forced by repeated attacks into the road, and thereby it - displaces the surrounding stones, and in either case admission is - given to the surface-water; a pit is immediately formed, and every - succeeding wheel widens the breach, until the road is rendered - impassable. To counteract this very common effect, arising chiefly - from the very vague manner of defining the dimensions of road-metal - by bulk or even by weight, the reporter provides that the Trustees - shall furnish a riddle or screen, the meshes or openings of which - are to be of such dimensions that a stone measuring more than one - inch and a half upon any of its sides cannot pass through it.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Section of one half of Roadway.] - -Mr. Stevenson’s specification of the Regent Road in Edinburgh is -fuller, and is in the following terms:-- - - “The cross section (shown in Fig. 12) of the metalled road to - be the same in all respects as that already described for the - causewayed roadway. But the cross section is to rise from the - interior _brows_ or slopes of the paved channels to the centre of - the roadway, at the rate of 1 in 25. The bottoming of the road is - to be of broken stones from the excavated matters of the Calton - Hill works; the pieces of stone not to exceed five or six lbs. - in weight; to be laid _by hand_ in a compact manner to the depth - necessary for preparing the road for the upper strata, viz., a - layer or stratum of clean sharp sand four inches in thickness, laid - all over the surface, and forming a bed for the upper or road-metal - stratum, which is to be seven inches in thickness, and to consist - of broken stones taken from the quarries of Salisbury Crags, or - the lands of Heriot’s Hospital, as may be finally agreed upon. The - road-metal is to be broken into pieces of such dimensions as to - pass freely through a screen, to be provided by the Commissioners, - the meshes of which shall not exceed one inch and a half square. - The whole to be finished with a ‘top-dressing’ of sea-gravel, in - such a manner that none of the road-metal shall appear on the - surface of the roadway when it is completed.” - -These extracts, so far as I have been able to discover, contain the -earliest proposals and precise specification of the construction of -road now known by the familiar name of “macadamising,” and I dismiss -the subject with the following candid quotation from Mr. Stevenson’s -Memoranda, in which he says:-- - - “It may be well to notice that in 1811 I specified road materials - of the size as nearly as may be of road-metal, which _afterwards_ - became what is called ‘macadamised roads.’ I am not sure if I was - before Mr. M’Adam in this respect; at all events he had the great - merit of introducing the system of smooth roads. When I first - proposed this method, I think, to the Trustees of Marykirk, they - objected to it upon the score of expense.” - -As regards the iron cart-tracks suggested for trial by Mr. Stevenson -in his report to the Edinburgh Road Trustees, already quoted, he -subsequently matured his views and described them in the article -“Roads” in the _Edinburgh Encyclopædia_, where he proposed to use stone -tracks as a “smooth and durable city road,” which he describes as -follows:-- - - “The individual component stones of the wheel-tracks, hitherto, - very partially in use, extend from three to four feet in length, - are about ten or twelve inches in breadth, and eight or ten - inches in depth. The stones of the tracks recommended by me, on - the other hand, are of a cubical form, measuring only from six to - eight inches in the lengthway of the track, and twelve to fourteen - inches in depth, eighteen inches in breadth at the base, and - twelve inches at the top or wheel-track. The stones are therefore - proportionate in all their dimensions, for unless they contain a - mass of matter corresponding to their length, they will be found to - want strength and stability. It would hardly be possible to keep - slender stone-rails in their places, and hence the chief benefit of - a connected railway would be lost. On the other hand, very large - materials are difficult to be got, and are also more expensive in - carriage and in workmanship than stones of a smaller size. The - Italian wheel-tracks are composed of stones two feet in breadth, - and of various lengths. To lessen the risk of horses falling, - these broad stones are kept in a rough state, by occasionally - cutting grooves with a pick-axe upon their upper surface. A mode - of paving with large blocks of granite, chequered or cut in this - manner, has been tried in some of the streets in London. In order, - however, to give pavement of this kind the necessary stability, - the blocks would require to have their dimensions equally large on - all sides, the expense of which would be too great. But cubical - stones of the size now recommended may be procured at a moderate - price, and throughout a great range of country; while the tracks, - if properly laid, will actually be more stable than if blocks - of larger dimensions were employed. For we may notice that a - carriage-wheel rests or impinges even upon a less surface than - one inch of its track at a time, in the course of each revolution - round its axis; hence, it may be conceived to produce a kind of - compensating effect, connected with the use of small stones, which - prevents the tremor from being communicated beyond the limited - sphere of each particular block, and, consequently, extending only - a few inches. This system of paving I originally proposed for the - main street of Linlithgow, forming part of the great western road - from Edinburgh to Stirlingshire, and a correct idea of the proposal - will at once be acquired by examining Fig. 13. By using tracks of - this description--giving the stones a proportionally broad bed, and - laying them upon a firm foundation (which is indispensable)--we - should have our streets and the acclivities of our highways - rendered smooth and durable, avoiding the expense and inconvenience - of the common road, and also the irksome noise and jolting motion - of the causeway. - - “The tracks may be formed of granite, whinstone, or any of the hard - varieties of rock capable of being hammer-dressed.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Section for Road Metal. Section for Causeway.] - -Specimens of these stone tracks were laid in Edinburgh, in terms of -Mr. Stevenson’s specification, on South Bridge Street opposite to the -College, and in the Pleasance, and a third specimen was laid by the -Road Trustees on Liberton Hill, which still remains after a lapse of -half a century. - -Subsequently to this Mr. Walker laid similar tramways in the Commercial -Road, London, and as is well known, they have been pretty largely used -in the principal towns in Italy. - -For a “city road,” as Mr. Stevenson termed it, the system he proposed -has certain advantages, inasmuch as carriages with any form of wheel -may use it, and this freedom of use admits of any amount of traffic -being accommodated, carriages having the freedom of passing from the -stone track to any part of the road. The introduction of iron “street -tramways” may, however, be said, for the present, to have taken the -place of all other plans for improving city passenger traffic. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -IMPROVEMENT OF EDINBURGH. - -1812-1834. - - Design for approaches to Edinburgh from the East by Regent and - London Roads, and opening up access to the Calton Hill--Sites - for the new Jail and Court of Justiciary, and buildings in - Waterloo Place--Regent Bridge--Feuing Plan for Eastern District - of Edinburgh--Improvement of accesses to Edinburgh from the - West and North, and from Granton--Removal of old “Tolbooth” - Prison--Removal of University buildings. - - -Ancient Edinburgh was famed for its narrow streets and crooked wynds, -and even at the period when this Memoir begins, much remained to be -done for the improvement of the various accesses to the city. These -roads, leading from north, south, east, and west, were under the -management of different Trusts or public bodies, by all of whom Mr. -Stevenson was on various occasions consulted; and the subject seems -to have had for him more than a merely professional interest, for -his advice was generally far “ahead” of the cautious views of his -employers, on whom he seems often to have had no small difficulty in -urging the adoption of sufficiently comprehensive designs. His love -for the beautiful rose above all other feelings, and he succeeded, not -without difficulty and perseverance, in securing for Edinburgh those -spacious road improvements which have undoubtedly helped her to claim -the title of “Modern Athens.” - -The “Modern Athenians” who now enjoy the magnificent approach to -Edinburgh by the Regent Road and Calton Hill, or that no less -commodious access from Parson’s Green to Leith Walk, known as the -“London Road,” can hardly realise the time when the only communication -from Princes Street to Portobello was by Leith Street, Calton Street, -and the North Back of the Canongate. - -At that time Princes Street was abruptly terminated by a row of houses -at the Register Office, and the Calton Hill was in a state of nature. - -Mr. Stevenson’s scheme of forming a direct access to London and the -south, by making a roadway over the Calton Hill, was based on a -comprehensive scale, providing sites for public buildings, and an -extensive feuing-plan for the eastern portion of Edinburgh, all of -which were ultimately carried out under his directions. - -But this scheme, boldly conceived and so beneficial to Edinburgh, -was not well received by the inhabitants. It had the _economical_ -objection of interfering to some extent with house property, a liberty -to which people were only reconciled in modern times when sites had to -be acquired for railway stations. It had the _engineering_ objection -of involving what were represented in those days as dangerous rock -cuttings and extensive high retaining walls along the sides of the -Calton Hill; but above all, it had the serious _social_ objection that -its route ran through the “Old Calton Burying-ground,” and involved the -removal of the remains of those interred in it to a new resting-place, -to be provided by the Improvement Commissioners. This last objection -subjected Mr. Stevenson to some ill feeling; and the fact that the -place of interment of his own family was one of those to be removed -to the new cemetery, did not succeed in allaying the discontent. It -was undoubtedly in consequence of Mr. Stevenson’s perseverance and -unfaltering conviction that his advice was _sound_, and calculated to -benefit his fellow-citizens, that his plan was ultimately adopted and -carried out. - -It is proper to notice that the new jail and the buildings in Waterloo -Place were designed by Mr. Archibald Elliot, and at a more recent -period the houses in the Regent and Royal Terraces by Mr. Playfair, -and the High School and Burns’s Monument by Mr. Thomas Hamilton, all -architects of eminence, whose works added to the attractiveness of Mr. -Stevenson’s splendid access. - -In carrying the road round the part of the hill now occupied by the -High School, Mr. Stevenson had some difficulty, owing to the height -of the retaining wall, in avoiding what would have appeared as a dead -wall, and would have proved unsightly as viewed from Arthur’s Seat. He -accordingly built a strong retaining wall of masonry, which supports -the road, and is covered by an exterior wall of rough masses of stone -arranged as rustic work, which, when viewed at a distance, has all the -appearance of a face of natural rock. - -In Lord Cockburn’s _Memorials of his Time_ he says:--“Scarcely any -sacrifice could be too great that removed the houses from the end of -Princes Street, and made a level road to the hill, or, in other words, -produced Waterloo Bridge. The effect was like drawing up the curtain of -a theatre.” - -[Illustration: - - _PLATE IV._ - -APPROACHES TO EDINBURGH BY REGENT AND LONDON ROADS, 1814. - - _J. Bartholomew Bain._ -] - -In Plate IV. are traced, in red colour, the various lines of connecting -road which go to make up this grand improvement, of the value of which -those who know the locality can judge for themselves. - -In the following report, addressed to the “Sheriff-Depute of the county -of Edinburgh, as convener of a committee for erecting a new jail for -the county of Edinburgh,” Mr. Stevenson details the various benefits to -be derived by adopting his proposal; and as his views on this matter -encountered, as has been stated, much opposition, I give extracts from -his report, begging of those readers who have no local interest in it -kindly to pass it over:-- - - “In the report which you addressed to the Commissioners for - erecting a new jail for the county of Edinburgh, the Calton Hill - is amongst other places alluded to as a site. But the difficulty - of access to that commanding and healthful situation presents - itself as a strong objection to its being adopted. As, however, - an approach to the city from the eastward, with access to the - extensive lands connected with the Calton Hill, valuable both as - building grounds and as a delightful city walk, has long been a - _desideratum_, and as the present seemed a fit time for again - attempting this measure, the reporter had the honour to receive - your instructions to inquire into the practicability of making a - proper communication to the Calton Hill, with the view of there - building the intended new jail; and he is now to submit the - accompanying survey of the grounds, together with the requisite - plans and sections connected with the design of a road from - Shakespeare Square, at the eastern extremity of Princes Street, to - join the great road to London at the Abbeyhill. - - “The Hon. Sheriff is aware that the attainment of this object - has long been wishfully kept in view by the public. It is - believed that at different times such proposals were by them - brought under the notice of Mr. Adam and of Mr. Baxter, the most - celebrated architects of their day. But still the work remains - to be accomplished, not certainly from any physical difficulty - necessarily attending its execution, but from the want of - sufficient energy to meet the expense that must unavoidably attend - an operation of this nature, involving the removal of some valuable - buildings, and otherwise interfering with private property. Were - the reporter to have in view merely the forming of an improved - approach to the city of Edinburgh from the eastward, instead of the - present inconvenient access by the Water Gate, he might here allude - to the intended London Road through the lands of Hillside to Leith - Walk, or to the once proposed line of road terminating by a bridge - from the northern side of the Calton Hill to Greenside, opposite - York Place, and the completion of this fine street by the removal - of the old and ruinous houses which still continue to encumber - its entrance; or he might take notice of the less commodious road - at one time in view over the higher parts of the Calton Hill, and - joining the lower part of Leith Street by means of an arch over - Calton Street. But all of these lines of road are _objectionable_, - in a greater or less degree, inasmuch as they include the acclivity - of Leith Street before the passenger can arrive at the level of - the North Bridge. To obtain this in the most eligible manner, we - must look to the extension of the line of Princes Street to the - Calton Hill, for although the other lines of road have been looked - forward to as improvements to a certain extent, yet still they were - defective, and must have left something undone, while the extension - of Princes Street by a bridge over Calton Street, and a road to the - Abbeyhill, seems to answer every purpose. It unfortunately happens, - however, that if carried in a direct line it must pass through the - Calton Burying-ground; and if this part of the road were made with - a curve, the most desirable effect in point of beauty would not - be produced. There was a time indeed when, without encroachment - upon the burying-ground, the road could have been made with a curve - to the southward of Hume the historian’s tomb; but of late years - the walls of the burying-ground have been extended to the verge - of precipitous rocks, so that the removal of numerous private - cemeteries would now be indispensable in carrying the road at - an elevation sufficient to command the proper view. If a lower - level were adopted in this direction, the fine prospects of the - higher road would be lost, and this line would then become quite - uninteresting, while a heavy expense must be incurred in carrying - the road through much private property, considerations which are - sufficient to render this line highly objectionable. - - “But the road which would afford the easiest line of draught is - that which the reporter has delineated upon the plan by a curved - line towards the left from the eastern extremity of the new bridge, - crossing the present road to the Calton Hill, winding round the - northern side of the hill and joining the intended ‘London Road’ - through the lands of Hillside near the eastern road to Leith. By - this line of road the level of Princes Street may be conceived to - become the summit level of the road, which would admit of being - made with a uniform declivity from Shakespeare Square to the - Abbeyhill, while the acclivity to Bridewell by the present road - might be greatly reduced, and the road improved in connection with - the new line of road. In the present instance, however, it is - not to the easiest line of draught as an approach to the city of - Edinburgh that the Sheriff directs the attention of the reporter, - but to a better access to the higher lands of Calton Hill, with - a view to obtain a proper site for the new jail, and therefore - only an eye view of the northern line of road is given. Yet when - a communication is opened with the Calton Hill by a bridge from - Princes Street, we may expect at some future day to see one - continuous street or drive round the hill. Before proceeding - further, a preliminary remark may here be stated, and in making - it the reporter thinks it proper to say that no one can hold the - great professional abilities of Mr. Adam in higher estimation than - he does; at any rate he is certain that it could not fall to the - lot of any individual who would feel more compunction in proposing - an alteration even upon an outward wall of a work executed under - his directions. But such is the inconvenience and even danger to - passengers attending the projection of the south-eastern angle - of the parapet wall in front of the Register Office, that in the - progress of these improvements the reporter would humbly propose, - for the greater accommodation and comfort of the public, that - this fine piece of masonry should undergo a small alteration, as - represented in dotted lines upon the plan, in order to widen the - street and improve the great thoroughfare to the port of Leith. - - - “_Description of Line of Road recommended._ - - “In reference to the accompanying survey and plan, it will be - proper to describe it more particularly. The first step towards - forming the proposed new approach to the Calton Hill will be the - removal of the houses which presently shut up the eastern extremity - of Princes Street, and the other property in its direction - eastward. The approach will then be made up to the proper level - by a bridge extending in length about 362 feet from Shakespeare - Square over Calton Street, towards the western extremity of the - Calton Burying-ground, through which it will pass. Thence, passing - in front of Bridewell, or between it and Nelson’s Monument, it is - continued along the southern side of the Calton Hill to the line of - wall of division between the property of the city of Edinburgh and - the lands of Heriot’s Hospital. At this position the road begins to - skirt along the southern side of the rising grounds in the parks of - Heriot’s Hospital, and crossing the eastern road to Leith it passes - behind the houses of Abbeyhill, and ultimately joins the great road - to London. - - “The line of road just described has been laid out with gradients - varying from 1 in 39 to 1 in 22. The more to the eastward the new - line of road is carried before it joins the present London road, - the more gradual and gentle the acclivity becomes. To improve this - line of road still further by cutting deeper into the rock at the - summit would not only create a great additional expense, but would - place the road in a hollow, and shut out these characteristic views - of the city which are the chief inducements to the new line of road. - - “In determining the line of direction for the street from - Shakespeare Square to Bridewell, it seems desirable that it - should run in a straight line. The only objection to this is - its interference with the Calton Burying-ground. In making any - encroachments upon a place of burial, there is no doubt something - very repugnant to the feelings, but in many cases this has been - found necessary for public improvements, of which we have an - example in the improved access from the bottom of Leith Walk to - Bernard Street, where the road was carried through part of the - churchyard of South Leith, and so in other parts of the country. - The reporter has been at much pains in endeavouring to avoid the - burying-ground, by attempting to turn the road more or less towards - the left in going eastward, and by this means taking only a part - from the northern side of that ground. But were the burying-ground - to be encroached upon at all, and this cannot well be prevented, - it seems less objectionable to carry the road in a straight line - through it, especially as it may be found practicable to give an - equal quantity of ground immediately contiguous to the present - burying-ground without materially trenching upon any plan that - may be in view for the erection of the prison; and as there will - be a considerable depth of cutting in carrying the road through - the burying-ground, the surface terring of the different places - of interment may be removed to the new grounds with due care and - becoming solemnity. - - “The reporter gives a preference to this line, because it seems - best suited to the peculiar situation of the ground, being - calculated to show to much advantage the rugged rocks on which - Nelson’s Monument is erected, which beautifully terminates the - view in looking eastward; and in entering the town from the - opposite directions, it exhibits at one view, from a somewhat - elevated situation, the striking and extensive line of Princes - Street. Now the reporter is humbly of opinion that to attain - these objects, this line of road should be carried straight from - Shakespeare Square to the eastern side of the burying-ground, after - which it may be made to suit the position and nature of the ground - in all its windings, as delineated upon the survey. - - “As this road is not only to be the great approach from the - eastward, but likewise to become the chief thoroughfare to the - extensive lands of Heriot’s and Trinity Hospitals, and to the - lands of the other conterminous proprietors, henceforth likely - to become the principal building grounds for this great city, - which is always increasing towards its port of Leith, it becomes - desirable for these purposes, and particularly to preserve the - interesting view of the Calton Hill, that this road should not - be less than seventy-five feet in breadth, or similar to Princes - Street, exclusively of the sunk areas, which is certainly adequate - to all the ordinary purposes of utility, intercourse, and elegance. - There is, however, one way of viewing the width of this part of - the road or street, by which it may appear to be too narrow even - at seventy-five feet, and that is by comparing it with the width - of Princes Street, which, including the sunken areas, measures - ninety-five feet in breadth. Princes Street, however, comes more - properly under the description of a row or terrace, and the - principal footpath being on the north side of the street, it may - consequently be apprehended that unless the new street were of an - equal width, a spectator looking from the north side of the new - street towards the line of Princes Street would command but an - imperfect view of it. This to a considerable extent would be the - state of the case even at seventy-five feet of breadth, and were - the street reduced to sixty feet in breadth, as has been proposed, - the view of the higher parts of the Calton Hill would be hid from - the pavement on Princes Street. But the narrowing of the street - even to sixty feet in width, with two elegant buildings in the form - of pavilions or wings to the bridge, would have an effect similar - to what is strikingly observable in looking from the western end - of George Street towards the Excise Office. Examples of narrowing - streets are not uncommon, as Great Pulteney Street in Bath, and - Blackfriars and Westminster Bridge Streets in London. The reporter, - however, confesses that he is not induced to consider sixty feet, - or even seventy-five feet, as the most desirable breadth for the - new bridge from any views of elegance; with him the reduction of - the width of the street is proposed rather from motives of economy - to insure the success of a great measure, than from choice in - making the design. In this situation a bridge of ninety-five feet, - or equal to the extreme breadth of Princes Street, would most - unfortunately place the new buildings upon the north-western side - so near to the houses of Leith Street, that the windows of the - houses of Leith Street and those of the new street would be shaded - by each other, so as to require the buildings at the western end - of the bridge to be kept less in height, if not to be discontinued - altogether, for a considerable way, which would render the building - grounds of much less value. Two or three of the new buildings, - indeed, might be joined or connected with the old houses, but still - the property upon the whole would be greatly injured. Considering - this, and also the additional expense of the bridge without greatly - increasing the value of the cellarage, together with the greater - trespass that would be made on the burying-ground by a street of - ninety-five feet in breadth, the reporter has been induced to - delineate upon the plan a bridge of seventy-five feet, and a road - from it to the Abbeyhill of sixty feet in breadth. Yet if it shall - appear that funds cannot be conveniently obtained to meet even this - expense, it may then be found necessary to make the whole of the - uniform breadth of sixty feet. From the annexed estimate for the - purchase of property, building a bridge of seventy-five feet in - width, and making a road from it to the Abbeyhill of sixty feet in - breadth, it appears that the expense will amount to £71,976, 14s. - - “In estimating the expense of these works, the reporter has had - in view that the road should be executed in aisler causeway, and - that the whole should be executed in a substantial manner. From - the borings in the strata which have been made by the directions - of the reporter, there is reason to hope that the foundations of - the bridge will not be difficult, and he therefore trusts that the - several sums in the estimate of the expense already alluded to, - will be found adequate to this purpose. - - “The expenditure will no doubt be large, but the advantages are - great in proportion. - - “In considering this proposed new approach, it may be proper to - notice it particularly as the means of procuring a proper site for - the new jail and court house; _second_, as calculated to raise the - value of certain building grounds; _thirdly_, as a public road; - and _lastly_, as contributing individually to the comfort of the - inhabitants of Edinburgh. - - - “_Site for the Jail._ - - “In any display of the advantages of this measure, the motive which - led to it should not be overlooked. It was not the convenience - of the wealthy citizen, nor the increased value of ground for - building, nor even the improvement of the public roads that was - sought after. It was to obtain a healthful situation for a _common - jail_, and thereby to extend the comforts particularly of one - unfortunate class of individuals, who, perhaps from the unavoidable - circumstances of their lot, or from innocent misfortunes, are - unable to pay their debts, and are cast into prison; and even of - another class, certainly less to be pitied, who from a perversity - of disposition or the depravity of their nature, forfeit their - liberty for a time. - - “In looking for a proper site for building a jail upon the Calton - Hill, the eye is naturally directed to the position of Bridewell as - a fit place for concentrating the whole establishment of prisons - for the city of Edinburgh to one spot, and if thought advisable, - to put the whole under the care of the same governor, as is the - general practice in England. A suitable site for the felons-jail - has been pointed out upon the western side of Bridewell; and - with a proper discrimination, the Sheriff proposes to erect the - debtors-jail upon the other side; and if these buildings be - constructed in the same style of architecture as Bridewell, the - whole will present one uniform front or suite of buildings. The - reporter understands, however, that the Sheriff does not wish this - to be understood as fixed, but that the opinion of the most eminent - architects should be obtained regarding the jail to be erected. - - - “_Site for the Justiciary Court House._ - - “Supposing, for the present, that the jails were arranged in this - manner, and that it were necessary in connection with them to erect - a Justiciary Court House and public offices, a place must be found - for them that shall at once be suitable in point of elegance, and - be at the same time convenient for communicating with the prisons. - In the event of adopting a street with a turn at the eastern end of - the bridge, a site for these buildings could be very appropriately - got, either facing the line of Princes Street or upon the southern - side of the arch over Calton Street. On this last spot it may - be objected that the buildings would not be fully seen till the - spectator had reached the open arch of the bridge. Both of these - situations would, however, be contiguous to the Register Office - and North Bridge, and could be made accessible to the prisons by a - private way round the southern side of the burying-ground. - - “But certainly the most commanding site, in regard to elegance and - grandeur of effect, for a public building would be to place it - opposite to the prisons in the opening of the street, as marked - on the plan. In such a position, when viewed from Princes Street - in connection with the monument, the effect of these Court houses - in perspective would indeed be very fine, and in coming round the - hill by the line of road from the eastwards, it would be no less - striking. - - “The site for the prisons naturally points out itself contiguously - to Bridewell, as well for the reasons already stated as on account - of its southern exposure, and it has been observed to be just at - the point of elevation for receiving a supply of water from the - city’s reservoir. But in setting down the public buildings for the - county and for the Sheriff Court at so great a distance from the - Court of Session and the other Courts of Law, the convenience of - the practitioners is a consideration of importance which presents - itself as requiring very mature deliberation, which does not - strictly come under my notice. - - - “_The value of Feuing Ground._ - - “The prolongation of the line of Princes Street by a bridge over - Calton Street is calculated in a particular manner to benefit - the extensive lands of Heriot’s and Trinity Hospitals, and the - conterminous proprietors to the eastward of the Calton Hill, - by affording a better access than can be obtained in any other - direction, especially in so far as it regards the higher grounds - of Heriot’s Hospital. But on this subject the reporter has already - submitted his opinion in so far as regards Heriot’s Hospital, - in a report to the Governors of that institution; and as the - same argument held in a greater or less degree with the other - proprietors, it seems unnecessary, in this place, to resume the - subject. - - - “_As a Public Road._ - - “As a new approach to the city of Edinburgh from the Abbeyhill to - the central parts of the city, avoiding the inconvenient acclivity - and awkward termination of Leith Street, or the still more - intricate and incommodious access by the North Back of Canongate, - this road will be regarded by the Trustees for the highways within - the county as an improvement of the first importance. As a road, - it is at once direct and obvious. By an extension of this line of - road to Leith by the eastern road, or still more to the eastward - through the lands of Restalrig, this access will be found of very - general utility, while the traveller thus entering Edinburgh will - be presented with the most characteristic views of the city, both - old town and new town, calculated to inspire the highest opinions - of its picturesque beauties. - - - “_To the Inhabitants of Edinburgh._ - - “As a great addition to the individual comfort and convenience - of the inhabitants of Edinburgh, the bridge over Calton Street - will open an elegant access to the lands of the Calton Hill, from - which the surrounding country forms one of the most delightful - prospects of distant mountain ranges,--detached hills and extensive - sea-coast, with numerous ships ever plying in all directions, - together with the finest city scenery that is anywhere to be met - with. - - “Those who have admired the city of London from an eminence have - indeed seen more extended lines of street bounded perhaps by a - richer country, yet it is very deficient in that variety and - boldness of feature which is so striking in this place. When it - is wished to extend this walk to the eastward, the new road will - lead the pedestrian commodiously to the bottom of Arthur’s Seat, - round the eastern side of which a path to Duddingston, branching - out in various directions in its course round to Salisbury Crags, - might, in a very delightful manner, be imagined to complete an - afternoon’s excursion. Let those who have not a lively picture in - their mind of the prospect from the Calton Hill walk along the line - of the projected road, and upon attending to it they will meet - with such a richness and variety of scenery as will satisfy them - how greatly the ornament of the city, and the pleasures of the - inhabitants and of its occasional visitants, would be promoted by - the continuation of the line of Princes Street towards the lands - of Calton Hill. Whether therefore we consider a bridge over Calton - Street as calculated to improve the approach to the city from the - eastward, or as rendering accessible many acres for building, and - villa grounds which must otherwise remain as grass fields for an - indefinite period, or as opening an easy way to the rising grounds - of the Calton Hill, in all these and in other important purposes - the reporter is humbly of opinion that this measure ought to be - regarded as the greatest object which has engaged the attention of - public men since the erection of the North Bridge, which was a very - bold and enterprising undertaking for any period of provincial or - even of metropolitan history. - - “Under these circumstances, it must be doubly gratifying to learn, - that notwithstanding the facility which an improved access must - afford in laying out the city grounds of the Calton Hill for - buildings, it is understood to be the intention of the Lord Provost - and Magistrates, in framing the Bill for an Act of Parliament - for regulating these works, to provide, with a proper liberality - and a due regard for the immediate and ultimate interests of the - community, that these lands shall in all time coming be preserved - open and free as at present from all common buildings. It is also - hoped that the Hon. and Rev. Governors of Heriot’s Hospital, with - enlightened sentiments, will preserve the view of Holyrood House - and its connecting scenery, by restricting the buildings on the - southern side of the new road through the Hospital’s land to such - limits as may seem for that purpose to be necessary.” - -The Bill for this new approach to Edinburgh was passed in 1814, and, -on the 9th of September 1815, the foundation stone of the Waterloo -Bridge was laid with great masonic ceremony, bearing the following -inscription-- - - REGNANTE GEORGIO III. PATRE PATRIAE - URBIS PRAEFECTO ITERUM - JOANNE MARJORIBANKS DE LEES EQUITE BARONETTO - ARCHITECTO ROBERTO STEVENSON - CIVES EDINBURGENSES - NOVUM HUNC ET MAGNIFICUM - PER MONTEM VICINUM - AD SUMMAM URBEM ADITUM MOLITI - IN HOC PONTE NOMEN JUSSERUNT INSCRIBI - PROREGIS GEORGII AUGUSTI FREDERICI.[7] - -which I quote, because Mr. Stevenson, in his notes, mentions a curious -circumstance in connection with it:--“The late James Gregory, then -Professor of the Practice of Medicine in the University, the well-known -author of the _Conspectus Medicinae Theoreticae_, was applied to by -the Commission for the improvement to put the inscription in classical -Latin. The Doctor came to me to say that he must style me _Architect_, -there being no such word as _Engineer_ to be found in the history of -the Arts, and so it stands in the inscription. I wanted the Doctor -to introduce the term Engineer, as it was very desirable to have -the profession recognised in works now exclusively entrusted to the -engineer.” - -Mr. Stevenson’s original feuing plan, already referred to, for the -Calton Hill had three ranges of terraces at different levels, as shown -by a picture in my possession, from which Plate V. has been engraved. -The middle line of terrace shown in the drawing corresponds to the -Regent Terrace as ultimately constructed. - -The approach on the northern side of the hill, known as the “London -Road,” was executed according to Mr. Stevenson’s design immediately -after the completion of the Regent Road and Waterloo Bridge; and the -whole of the new lines of road, as shown in red in Plate IV., were, as -I have stated, part of the same design. - -Mr. Stevenson’s further contributions to the improvement of the -approaches to Edinburgh were made between 1811 and 1817 to the -“Trustees for the Post-road District of Roads,” the “Trustees of the -Middle District of Roads,” the “Commissioners for forming and feuing -Leith Walk,” and the “Trustees of the Cramond District of Roads.” -These were the several authorities at that time in power, under whose -directions he laid out the access to Edinburgh from Stockbridge by -Royal Circus, and from Inverleith by Canonmills to Dundas Street, and -from Canonmills to Bellevue Crescent. More recently the access from -Granton Harbour to Inverleith Row on the east, and to Caroline Park on -the west, were designed and executed under his direction in connection -with his design for Granton Harbour, made to the Duke of Buccleuch in -1834. - -To Mr. Stevenson’s engineering skill, therefore, it may truly be said -that modern Edinburgh owes much of its fame as a city of palaces, -commanding views of the Firth of Forth and surrounding country which -cannot be surpassed. - -[Illustration: - - _PLATE V._ - - DESIGN FOR BUILDING ON THE CALTON HILL. - by - Robert Stevenson, F.R.S.E. Civil Engineer. - - W. & A. K. Johnston Lithog. Edinburgh. G. C. Scott, Delt. -] - - -THE OLD TOLBOOTH PRISON. - -While Mr. Stevenson was elaborating his designs for the new approaches -to the city, his attention was naturally directed to the crowded state -of the buildings in the old town; and as we shall see, he did not fail -fully to appreciate this evil, or forget to suggest a remedy for it in -his plans of improvement. - -The old “Tolbooth” prison, in the High Street of Edinburgh--the scene -of so many incidents in the _Heart of Midlothian_--was still the -only stronghold in which debtors and criminals were indiscriminately -confined. Its position in the centre of the High Street, at St. Giles’ -Church, was very objectionable, and the erection of a new jail, in a -more favourable situation, had been often proposed, but never carried -out. - -In pursuance of this desirable object, Sir William Rae--the -Sheriff-Depute of Edinburgh--in 1813, accompanied by Mr. Stevenson -as a professional adviser, visited many of the principal jails in -England, including Newgate, Kingsbench, Cold Bath, Oxford, Gloucester, -Chester, and Lancaster, to inquire into their general arrangements and -accommodation. - -Sir William Rae also remitted to Mr. Stevenson, in conjunction with -Mr. Crichton, architect, to report on the condition of the ancient -“Tolbooth;” and from the conclusion arrived at by the engineer and -architect, most people of the present day will readily sympathise with -the Sheriff in his ardent desire for the erection of a new building. -Their report is curious, as conveying an idea of the state of prison -discipline in the early part of this century, and is interesting in -connection with the antiquities of Edinburgh. Messrs. Stevenson and -Crichton say:-- - - “Agreeably to the directions of the Honourable the Commissioners - for erecting a new jail, the reporters have examined both the - exterior walls and the interior parts of the present jail, - and they now report that this building, which was erected in - 1562, originally formed the western extremity of a continuous - range of buildings in the middle of the High Street, called the - Luckenbooths. A few years ago these buildings were partly removed, - leaving the old jail in an insulated and unsupported state. The - street at the north-eastern angle of the buildings was at the - same time lowered several feet; and these changes, together with - the defective state of the masonry, appear to have produced the - following effects upon the eastern and northern walls of this now - shattered fabric. - - “The eastern wall or gable is rent in three places. Two of these - fissures extend from the ground to the top of the building, and the - wall is found to bulge or bend outwards. - - “On the northern side there has been a junction of the walls of - two separate buildings, forming what is called the _debtor_ and - _criminal_ sides of the prison, which seem to have been erected at - different periods. At this place there is a very apparent opening - from the bottom to the top of the prison, and the eastern or - criminal end appears to be settling at the north-eastern angle, as - further appears from the doors of the guard-house and black hole, - situate in that quarter of the building, having at different times - required some alterations to make them move upon their hinges. - - “This wall, like the eastern one, is also bulged outwards to the - extent of from six to ten inches in different places. - - “The roof of the prison is likewise unsafe, particularly upon the - criminal or eastern side, where the rafters have sunk in the middle - and pressed the side wall outwards at the top. - - - “_Interior of the Prison._ - - “Upon examining the interior of the prison, it was found that the - several _cracks_ and _fissures_, already described as observable on - the outside of the building, were also most distinctly visible from - within, and that the northern wall in several of the apartments - appears to have separated from the floors. In confirmation of - these facts, which appear particularly to claim the notice of - the Honourable the Commissioners, it was distinctly stated to - the reporters by Mr. Sibbald, the head jailer, that he had been - conversant with this prison about twenty-two years; that about - seven years ago he became principal jailer, and had ever since been - in the habit of making requisitions for the necessary repairs, - which were always executed at his sight; that these openings and - fissures, which now appeared obvious to the reporters, had been - frequently plastered over with lime, sometimes previously to - whitewashing the apartments, and at other times at the earnest - request of the prisoners, to stop the current of air, which annoyed - them, and still these fissures appeared to be getting wider; that - in every instance where the walls had been attempted to be forced - by the prisoners, the mortar was found to be loose and soft, - without having taken bond; in particular it was stated that two of - the prisoners had lately excavated about two cartloads of rubbish - from the walls with a small piece of iron, in the course of a few - hours. - - “It is therefore humbly concluded, from the information obtained - by the reporters upon the spot, but especially from their own - knowledge and observation, that there are data for assuming - that the eastern and northern walls of the prison have deviated - considerably from the perpendicular of their original elevation; - that there is reason to consider them still continuing to deviate - from the perpendicular; and that finally, in the decayed state - of this building, it is impossible to warrant its stability for - any given period of time. The reporters should even consider the - continuing the use of this building for one year longer than is - indispensably necessary for the erection of a sufficient jail, an - evil if possible to be avoided, as involving imminent danger to the - wretched inmates, and much hazard to the public at large, from its - position in the heart of the city. - - “It would accordingly be very desirable that some support could - be given to this old building immediately, but unfortunately - its position renders this quite impossible without seriously - obstructing the High or principal street of the city. Had it formed - any part of the Honourable the Commissioners’ instructions to the - reporters to take notice of this jail as a place of security for - the safe custody of prisoners, it would only be necessary for them - to refer to what is herein stated regarding the insufficiency of - the walls, and to remark that the floors, being wholly composed of - timber, are neither proof against the simplest accident by fire - nor against the slightest attempt at escape by the prisoners. It - is truly surprising that any criminal of a desperate character can - be retained within its precincts to abide the pains of law, which - nothing but the active vigilance of its keepers could insure.” - -This ancient prison-house was removed in 1817, and in his Notes to the -_Heart of Midlothian_, Scott says:--“That with the liberal acquiescence -of the persons who had contracted for the work, he procured the -stones which composed the gateway, together with the door and its -ponderous fastenings, to decorate the entrance to the kitchen court at -Abbotsford.” - - -THE REMOVAL OF THE COLLEGE. - -There is yet another report which, though its interest may only be -local, I think is worthy of a place in this Memoir, as it not only -shows Mr. Stevenson’s firm conviction in the ultimate success of his -Calton Hill improvements, but is a pleasing record of his interest in -the scene of his early studies. - -It is not, I believe, generally known that Mr. Stevenson made an -unsuccessful attempt to have the University buildings, then in -progress, removed from the old town to the _site_ proposed to be opened -up on the Calton Hill; and the remarks he then made, addressed to the -Right Honourable Sir John Marjoribanks, Lord Provost of Edinburgh, may -have interest even at the present day, as shadowing forth views which, -in the now altered relations of the new and old town, have been to some -extent realised. - - “In making the following observations at the desire of the Lord - Provost regarding the completion of the College of Edinburgh, the - memorialist would be understood as referring to the _site_ of the - building rather than to the merits of any particular design, of - which he does not presume to give any opinion, as it is a matter - which more properly falls under the observations of the architect - than the engineer. - - “In treating of the fitness of the present site of the College of - Edinburgh, it may be proper to take some cursory notice of the - situation of the Old College, as connected with the houses and - streets in the neighbourhood, and then show the alterations which - the University grounds have undergone since the design was first - formed of rebuilding the College. - - - “_Old College._ - - “In so far as the memorialist can recollect the exterior of the - area of the Old College, it was occupied by a range of _low_ - buildings of only two stories, particularly upon the southern and - western sides, and was again divided by a range of buildings into a - small lower court towards the north, and the present main courtyard - on the south, and these two courts communicated with each other - by a spacious flight of steps, so that the principal or higher - court was comparatively open and free to the influence both of the - sun and of the air. Nor was there any obstruction to this state - of things beyond the precincts of the College for a considerable - period after the New College was commenced, and until the elegance - of the building stamped a new value upon all the surrounding - property. But, unfortunately, by this time the funds for the works - fell short, and the operations were stopped. The Magistracy, also, - who originally entered upon this great work, in rotation retired - from office, and the same zeal was perhaps not felt by those who - immediately succeeded; and we are now left to regret the shortness - of the period of human life, which has removed the man who - conceived the magnificent design of this building, which is now so - completely invested with streets as to be rendered nearly unfit for - the purposes of its foundation. - - - “_New College._ - - “The _site_ of the New College of Edinburgh, as already stated, - does not possess any of those properties which are considered - essential to the convenience and eligibility of a public school. - Instead of being in a retired situation with sequestered - walks, like the other colleges of the United Kingdom, it is - closely surrounded by paved streets, which are the most public - thoroughfares for carriages in the city, insomuch that the - memorialist has witnessed the annoyance of Playfair’s mathematical - class by a ballad-singer, and he has oftener than once seen the - Professor of Moral Philosophy put to silence by the disloading of - a cart with _bars of iron_ in College Wynd; and at all times the - driving of a single carriage briskly in the streets which surround - the College is sufficient to disturb, and even to interrupt, - the classes. To this it may be replied that double windows will - prevent such interruptions; but these would obscure the light - which already, from the late erection (on all sides) of very high - buildings, is much injured. - - “So strongly is the memorialist impressed with these views, from - what he has himself as a student experienced, and from what he has - heard from others, that he cannot resist bringing them forcibly - under the notice of your Lordship in connection with the erection - of a building for one of the first seminaries of education in - Europe. - - “When your Lordship’s predecessors in the office of the magistracy - adopted the plan of Robert Adam, the most eminent and justly - celebrated architect of his day, the site was comparatively free - from the objections stated. It is not therefore the plan which - is objectionable, but it is the neighbourhood which has been so - altered and changed as to be very unsuitable to the elegant design - of the architect. - - “From causes to which it is unnecessary to allude, the building - of the New College has only advanced about one third towards the - perfecting of the design, and a sum of money is now expected to be - procured for its completion. The present moment is therefore one - of the greatest importance for considering the deficiencies of the - present site, and if found materially defective, as humbly appears - to your memorialist to be the case, it were much better to change - the site of the building while it may be done without much loss, - and execute the design in a more eligible situation. - - “It must always be kept in view that when this design was made the - grounds were open to the free circulation of the air and the full - influence of light. But now the case is materially altered, and - if the design is executed under such a change of circumstances - the direct rays of the sun will hardly ever reach the area of the - courtyard, especially in the winter months, neither will there - be that free circulation of air which is essential to health and - comfort, and moss (byssus) will make its appearance upon the lower - parts in the interior of the courtyard, which is very unsuitable in - a magnificent building such as Mr. Adam’s design for the College of - Edinburgh. - - “At the period when the rebuilding of the College was determined - upon there was perhaps little choice as to the spot for its - erection; the number of students, now greatly on the increase, - was at that time much smaller, and the College grounds were then - much more relieved and uncumbered with other buildings, a state of - things which most unquestionably would have been preserved had the - building proceeded as was expected; but in the lapse of about one - third of a century many changes take place, and the slow progress - of the building necessarily produced a want of energy in the - official people to prevent the use that has since been made by the - respective proprietors of the surrounding grounds. - - “At the present crisis, however, your Lordship will now feel - yourself called upon in a review of these circumstances to consider - what is proper to be done upon a great scale for the ultimate - best advantage of future generations in a matter of great public - interest. Under these impressions a field of operation is just - opening for your Lordship’s consideration, in a prolongation of - Princes Street in a direct line to the lands of Calton Hill and - Heriot’s Hospital, now in progress under the auspices of your - Lordship. To take a minute view of this improvement would be - tedious, and would require the notice of more particulars than - these observations are intended to refer to. But in a general - way it may be noticed that there is ample space and freedom for - the execution of Mr. Adam’s design on the lands to which the new - approach will lead by a very easy access. - - “It may be objected to the removal of the College that it would be - inconvenient for the students; but for those who are perhaps the - most numerous, living in the New Town, a site for the College on - the north side of the town would be the most convenient, and for a - different class lodgings at a cheap rate would be procured quite at - hand in the Canongate. - - “A more powerful objection would perhaps arise from the contiguity - of the present site of the College to the Infirmary and other - institutions connected with the education of the medical classes, - but these may also be got over by a little arrangement in the - present hours of the classes, and one would not despair of seeing - a more direct road projected from the Calton Hill to the southern - side of the town were the College removed to that neighbourhood. - With regard to any real loss to the students, it is not believed - that such could be instructed were this proposition fully - considered. But those who would perhaps be the most clamorous are - the persons who have made the most of their property by building - immense piles of lodging-houses in the immediate vicinity of the - College, and have thus ruined the neighbourhood. - - “With regard to the funds for this change of site, your memorialist - is of opinion that the removal of the College from the present - valuable grounds in the central parts of the city, for buildings - applicable to commercial and economical purposes, would be attended - with an increase of funds towards the new erection;--for the lower - part all round would be opened for valuable shops, while the higher - parts would answer for dwelling-houses and other purposes. The part - of the front would be easily convertible into a house for the Royal - Bank, which seems much wanted, and in short it may be confidently - stated that upon the whole there would be no loss, but gain, by the - change of position, while very many advantages could be pointed - out as attending such a measure, were this the proper place for - entering more fully into the subject. - - “The proposal stated is not new; it has been often under the - memorialist’s consideration, and he has heard it favourably spoken - of and received by several of the Professors of the University, in - particular Professors Leslie and Playfair, and others eminently - qualified to judge correctly upon the subject.” - -With this report I conclude what may be fairly held to be of purely -_local_ interest, but which nevertheless I have thought worthy of a -place in the memoir of one whose great anxiety ever was to secure the -amenity of Edinburgh, and make it attractive not only as a place of -residence but as a seat of learning. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -FERRIES. - - Ferry Engineering--Extracts from Report on the Tay Ferries-- - Reports on various Ferries--Orkney and Shetland Ferry, etc. - - -Before we had steamers to navigate our firths and railways to bridge -our estuaries, the “crossing of the ferry” was an event of no small -solicitude to the traveller. In the sailing pinnace-boat of those -days he not only might encounter serious danger, but his exposure -to sea-sickness and drenching spray depended wholly on the weather, -and sometimes the length of the passage, and the duration of his -suffering could not be foretold by the most experienced “Skipper,” as -the captain of the boat was invariably styled. Anything that could -reduce the hazard and uncertainty of so miserable a state of things was -naturally hailed as a priceless boon; and the improvement of “ferry -communication” at the beginning of this century was an important -branch of civil engineering. Its successful practice demanded nautical -knowledge as well as constructive experience, for the engineer had -first of all to study the strength and direction of the tidal currents -of flood and ebb, and then to consider from what points on the shore -a ferry-boat, under the varying states of wind and tide, could most -readily make her passage across. He had further to select the most -suitable sites for landing-places, and to construct high and low -water _slips_ at different points to meet the varying states of tide -and wind, and to construct roads of more or less extent to connect -the landing-places with existing turnpikes. All this arrangement was -required, because at the time of which I write, before steamboats were -invented, two costly deep-water piers placed _ex adverso_ of each -other, one on each side of a ferry, would not have met the requirements -of the case; for the management of a sailing pinnace, at the mercy -of the currents and winds, demanded not a single pier for which to -steer, but a choice of several points, on as wide a range of coast as -possible, for which the “skipper” could shape his course and make a -landing. Mr. Stevenson’s nautical experience peculiarly fitted him for -giving valuable advice in this important branch of marine engineering. -It is no doubt a branch of the profession which may be said to be -obsolete, but I do not know that on that account it is undeserving of -notice; and the best mode I can think of for conveying to any one who -may be interested in it an idea of the “ferry engineering” of former -times, is to give an extract, with an illustrative sketch, of one of -Mr. Stevenson’s early Ferry Reports. I select for this purpose a report -made to the “Freeholders, Justices of the Peace, and Commissioners of -Supply of the counties of Fife and Forfar” relative to the ferries -across the Tay at Dundee:-- - - “Having examined the shores and firth of Tay the reporter has now - the honour of submitting the following as his report regarding the - proposed improvements:-- - - “The improvement of the ferries on the Tay has long been the - desire of the public; and though this measure has hitherto been - delayed, on account of the expense which necessarily attends such - operations, yet so desirable an object has been invariably kept in - view; and now, when the advantages attending the recently improved - state of Queensferry and Kinghorn ferries have been in a good - measure realised, the passage across the Tay has very opportunely - been brought under the consideration of the freeholders of the - adjoining counties. - - “The present landing-slips or quays upon the Tay are situate at - Dundee upon the north, and at Woodhaven and Newport on the south. - The bed of the firth or river at Dundee is so much silted up and - encumbered with sandbanks and mud, that the piers, which were no - doubt originally built of sufficient extent, and perhaps commanding - the necessary depth of water for floating the passage-boats at low - tides, have at length become inadequate to so great a thoroughfare, - and the boats are now left by the water at every spring-tide, to - the great annoyance and inconvenience of the public. - - “It will be observed from the plans accompanying this report that - the Craig pier at Dundee is proposed to be extended from the - southern extremity of the present landing-slip or pier 400 feet in - length, or to the southern extremity of the Craig rock, so as to - command a depth of about five feet at low water of spring-tides, - which will be sufficient to float decked boats of twenty to - twenty-five tons register, built upon a suitable construction for - sailing. It is proposed to construct this pier, where the greatest - business is to be done, upon the plan of a double pier, sixty feet - in breadth; and as it will now be of a much greater extent than - formerly, a _screen wall_ is proposed to be erected in the middle - of it, in a longitudinal direction, so as to check the waves or run - of the water over the pier, and also for the defence and shelter - of passengers from the inclemency of the weather. This pier will - form an inclined plane sloping to seaward at the rate of one - perpendicular to twenty-six horizontal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.] - - “In sailing from the southern side of the Tay for Dundee, it will - on some occasions be found convenient, with certain directions - of the wind and currents of the tide, to have landing-slips or - piers both above and below the town of Dundee, so as to prevent - the necessity of _tacking_ with adverse winds, as is the case at - present from the want of such accommodation. Upon examining the - shores above or to the westward of Dundee, the most convenient - position for a landing-slip is at the Magdalene Point, about 1400 - yards to the westward of the Craig pier at Dundee. - - “In the same manner a convenient position presents itself on the - rocky shores of the Rood Yards, about 2000 yards below or to the - eastward of the Craig pier. These proposed new piers are delineated - and laid down in the drawings accompanying this report.[8] - - “Upon the southern side of the Tay, and opposite to Dundee, the - harbour or landing-slip most frequented at present is that of - Newport. In former times, when the accumulation of sand, called the - Middle Bank, between the opposite shores of the ferry at Dundee, - was less extensive, the principal landing-place upon the Fife side - of the firth was that of Woodhaven. Newport is a small harbour, - built of masonry, with a landing-slip or sloping pier attached - to the outward wall of the harbour for the convenience of the - ferry-boats. At this station it will therefore only be necessary to - extend the landing-slip about eighty-eight feet northward, in order - to obtain five feet of depth at low water of spring tides; and as - the present sloping pier or slip is inconveniently narrow, it is - proposed to add fourteen feet to its breadth; and the reporter - would recommend that this work, in connection with the pier at - Dundee, should be executed in the first instance, on account of its - being of primary importance in the improvement of the Ferry. - - “At Woodhaven it is proposed to add seventy-one feet to the length - of the landing-slip, to enable the ferry-boats to approach it at - low water of spring tides, in the same manner as at Newport. - - “At or near Craighead, about 830 yards below or to the eastward of - Newport, there is a convenient point of land, where it is proposed - to erect a slip or pier 250 feet in length and 30 in breadth. This - pier will command five feet, or a sufficient depth of water for the - ferry-boats at the lowest tides, and is in a position calculated to - be highly useful. - - “A pier has likewise been suggested as necessary at Wormit Bay, - about a mile to the westward of Woodhaven, which, in certain - directions of the wind, may no doubt be found useful; but when the - piers opposite to Dundee come to be put in good order, and the - ferry placed under proper regulations, it is presumed that a pier - at Wormit Bay would very seldom be found necessary. The cost of - these works is estimated at £20,952, 13s. 6d. - - “In forming the several landing-places already described, it - is obvious that there must be a ready communication between - each of these piers and the public roads in their respective - neighbourhoods. It will also be of essential importance to this - measure, that a connection by good roads be formed and kept up - between the several landing-places, in so far as this can be - effected. At present there is a pretty good line of road between - Woodhaven and Newport, which would require to be extended eastward - to the landing-place at Craighead. - - “In the event of Craig pier being adopted as the landing-place at - Dundee, it might be advisable to take a power in the proposed Act, - as a measure of the burgh of Dundee, for making a new and more - direct approach from that pier to the main street. The extension - and formation of these roads, however, will necessarily fall under - the joint consideration of the trustees for the ferries and roads - in apportioning the expense between the respective trusts. - - - “_Boats._ - - “At present there are said to be no less than about thirty boats - plying upon the passage at Dundee, which are navigated by about - fifty men and boys. But were the piers and landing-places, with the - accesses to them, completed in the manner proposed, and the whole - placed under proper regulations, there can be little doubt that - the ferry of Dundee would be much better attended, and the public - better served, by one half of the present number of boats, as has - been experienced on the ferries of the Firth of Forth. - - - “_Steamboats._ - - “Some are of opinion that both the number of boats and of piers or - landing-places might be still further reduced by the introduction - of the _Steamboat_ upon this passage. The reporter, however, - does not think it would be advisable to have fewer than three - landing-places at each station, as even the steamboat itself is - more or less liable to fall short or to be driven past its port by - adverse winds and strong currents; and, in a great public measure - of this kind, it is proper to be prepared for the worst that is - likely to happen. Regarding the adoption of the steamboat in - preference to sailing-boats, the reporter is not however prepared - to give any very decided opinion upon the subject. He has, indeed, - seen the steamboat used with great facility on the passage across - the river Mersey at Liverpool, and has himself brought the plan - of a steamboat under the notice of several of the trustees for - Kinghorn and Queensferry passages, proposed to be constructed upon - similar principles with that originally tried, it is believed, - by the late Mr. Millar of Dalswinton. But it would seem to be - premature to recommend the framing of the Bill or the construction - of piers for Dundee ferry upon the idea of the exclusive use of - the steamboat. The consideration of the late unpleasant accidents - which have befallen some of those boats renders this a matter of - great delicacy, and one in which much precaution should be used - on so public a ferry. Under such circumstances it is not only - necessary to consult the actual safety of passengers while afloat, - but even to meet their prejudices, with proper attention to their - comfort. From considerations of this kind, the reporter recommends - that such of the piers or landing-slips on the ferry of Dundee as - may ultimately be erected, should be completed agreeably to the - plan herein proposed; and it is fortunate that, with some trifling - alterations or additions, the piers suitable for the common boat - can be made answerable for the steamboat. When this measure is in - full operation it may then be highly proper to make an experiment - with the steamboat upon the passage at Dundee, and if this mode is - approven of by the public it can be extended, and the number of - sailing-boats diminished accordingly.” - -Mr. Stevenson was employed to give similar advice by other Trusts, -and particularly by the “Trustees of the Queensferry Passage” and the -“Trustees of the Edinburgh and Fife Ferry,” both across the Forth,--the -“Freeholders and Justices of Peace of the counties of Ross and -Sutherland,” for the Ferry of the Dornoch,--the “Freeholders of the -county of Glamorganshire,” for the new passage-ferry of the Severn, to -all of whom he made reports at various times, as to the improvement of -the mode of communication under their charge. He also was engaged by -the Lords of the Treasury “to inquire into and report on the best mode -of improving the post-packet communication to Orkney and Shetland,” -which he did after careful survey and consideration, in an elaborate -report, from which I give the following extracts, as illustrating some -of the disadvantages under which the public laboured before steam was -generally adopted:-- - - “The islands of Orkney are separated from the coast of Caithness or - mainland of Scotland by the rapid channel of the Pentland Firth, - which varies in breadth from six to nine miles, while Zetland lies - fifty miles to the northward of Orkney.” - - “These two groups of islands, forming one county, are of late - years greatly advanced in importance, and possess an aggregate - population of 60,000 inhabitants, who are chiefly engaged in - maritime affairs and fishing adventures. From their local position - also in the North Sea, they lie much in the track of vessels - sailing in the higher latitudes, and correspondence with them - regarding the destination and insurance of ships is often of the - greatest importance to commercial men. It is likewise known to the - Right Honourable the Lord Advocate of Scotland, and the Honourable - the Sheriff of the county, that the want of a proper communication - by post not unfrequently interferes with the regular administration - of justice in these islands; and now that Orkney and Shetland - jointly send a member to Parliament, the evils resulting from the - want of a regular communication press more forcibly, not only on - the inhabitants of these islands, but on the public generally. - - “So uncertain is the post of Zetland on its present footing, that - the reporter himself carried to Lerwick the first intelligence of - the appointment of Sir William Rae as Lord Advocate of Scotland, - after it had been currently known through the newspapers in all - other parts of the kingdom for several weeks, and it is well known - that the succession of the King was not known in Lerwick for - several months after the event took place. During the winter months - the intercourse is indeed precarious as well as uncertain, and much - painful delay is often experienced by parties interested in any - question connected with the insurance of vessels wrecked on this - dangerous coast. - - “In order to lessen the labour and expense to themselves, the - Orkney ferrymen on either side contrive to leave their shores so as - to meet about the middle of the Firth, where they exchange the mail - and passengers, and then return to their respective homes. In this - way they seldom complete the full trip across the Firth, excepting - when obliged by stress of weather. This interchange of the post - from boats, it must be allowed, is rather a hazardous experiment - anywhere, but more especially in the middle of the Pentland Firth; - and whether the inhospitable state of the shores on either side, - the rough and boisterous nature of the sea to be passed through, or - the want of management be considered, there is evidently great room - for improvement on the ferry of the Pentland Firth.” - -This communication is now, as is well known, carried on by first-class -steamers, which touch at Kirkwall and Lerwick, and by a daily mail -steamer which crosses the Pentland Firth from the low-water pier at -Scrabster in Caithness to Stromness in Orkney; and the travelling -public may be congratulated that the ferry communication of the early -part of the century, of which I have given a sketch in this chapter, no -longer forms a part of the practice of the civil engineer. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -RAILWAYS. - -1812-1826. - - Canals and Railways on one level--Haulage on Railways--Railways - in Scotland--Edinburgh and Midlothian, Stockton and - Darlington, and Edinburgh and London Railways--Uniform gauge - proposed--Notes on Railways for the Highland and Agricultural - Society--Letter from George Stephenson. - - -Great powers of observation, combined with fertile and practical -mechanical resources, enabled Mr. Stevenson in many cases to form -engineering opinions which may truly be said to have been “before their -time,” and in no subject, perhaps, was this more strikingly realised -than in his views as to railways. - -Impressed with the great inconvenience of change of level in canals, -involving “lockage,” with all its expensive works and serious -obstruction of traffic, he early formed a firm belief that wherever -lockage could be avoided, by making even a considerable detour in -the line of canal, it was sound engineering to adopt the level line, -although it might be at the cost of additional length. Founding on -this general opinion, so early as 1812, he traced out and proposed -lines of canal to be carried upon _one level, without lockage_, through -the valleys of Strathmore and Strathearn, connecting Perth, Forfar, -Arbroath, and Montrose, and also by a line of canal, by Broxburn, -Linlithgow, Polmont, Castlecary, Campsie, and Broomielaw, to unite -Edinburgh and Glasgow. - -His early researches on the subject of canals prepared him, about -1816, to extend the same reasoning to railways, which, with wonderful -sagacity, he foresaw must become what he termed the “British highway” -of the future. He found that his first idea of tracks of iron and -stone to improve the draught on common roads was not destined to -meet the requirements of the future; and when as yet nothing was -known of railways beyond the tramways connected with coal-fields, and -no proposal had been made to adapt them to passenger traffic, Mr. -Stevenson was engaged tracing in all directions through Scotland lines -of railway as a new mode of conveyance to supersede roads. Some of -these early proposals, extending to about five hundred miles, are shown -in hard lines on Fig. 15, and of all these railways he made surveys, -estimates, and elaborate reports addressed to Committees of subscribers -by whom the various schemes were supported. - -It must be remembered that at that early period no other power than -that of horses was contemplated for performing the haulage either on -road, canal, or tramway, and Mr. Stevenson, true to his early views -as to the disadvantage of lockage on canals, spent much time in -experimenting on the prejudicial effect of steep inclines on horse -railways, and in endeavouring, in his various surveys, to discover -routes by which his lines of railway might be carried through, as much -as possible, on one level, regarding a few miles additional length -of line as quite unimportant compared to the disadvantage of a steep -gradient,--a view which was more appreciated before the locomotive -engine had taken upon itself the labour of the horse. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.] - -To show the state of railway matters at the period to which I refer, -I think it may not be uninteresting to give, even at some length, -extracts from Mr. Stevenson’s report on what was called the Edinburgh -Railway. The report, which is dated 1818, was addressed to “His Grace -the Duke of Buccleuch and Queensberry, and the other noblemen and -gentlemen, subscribers for a survey of a railway from the coal field of -Midlothian to the city of Edinburgh and port of Leith.” - - “In the course of a report relative to a line of canal upon one - level, or without lockage, between the cities of Edinburgh and - Glasgow, the reporter took occasion to state the practicability - of a line of railway from the coal field of the vale of the Esk - to the city of Edinburgh and the port of Leith, founded upon a - communication which he had the honour to make to Sir William Rae, - Baronet, and the Honourable Baron Clerk, so far back as the year - 1812. This subject having since attracted the notice of Sir John - Hope, Baronet, and several of the other landed proprietors of - Midlothian, the reporter had consequently a correspondence with - Messrs. Gibson and Oliphant, Writers to the Signet, on the part of - the promoters of this measure. - - “A public meeting was accordingly called by advertisement to be - held in the Royal Exchange Coffee-house on the 3d day of September - 1817, when John Clerk, Esq. of Eldin, having taken the chair, the - reporter received instructions to survey a line or lines of railway - from the Midlothian coal field to the city of Edinburgh and port - of Leith; and he now submits the following as his report, with - reference to the accompanying map or plan, and sections of the - several lines of road surveyed. - - “It is uncertain at what periods the inhabitants of Edinburgh - were generally obliged to lay aside the use of timber, from the - distance of carriage, as their chief building material, or of wood - and turf as fuel; neither have we any certain information at what - time pit coal was discovered, or the coal field of the Lothians - first opened. But it is in the recollection of some persons still - living, that, owing to the miserable and circumscribed state of - the roads, or rather the want of formed roads altogether, pit coal - continued to be conveyed in sacks and on horseback for supplying - the city of Edinburgh. These horse tracks, originally taken up - by accident, were persevered in by obstinate habit; and being - afterwards followed as the lines of our future roads, have become - the ultimate source of much of the difficulty attending their - improvement, from the soft and miry track of the pack-horse and - the sledge, to the broad and spacious _stoned_ carriage-way, in - combination with the trim footpath of the present day. But, even - here, experience shows that it would be improper to rest satisfied, - and cease from further exertion. The acclivities of the road may - still be levelled, and its asperities smoothed, by the introduction - of the more compact and durable materials of the _British Roadway_ - or Iron Bail. Such, however, has been the progressive nature of - discovery in all ages, that we are only beginning to appreciate - the immense advantages which would attend the introduction of a - new system of roads or railways, laid upon a level or horizontal - base, as admirably calculated to increase the power of the horse in - a tenfold proportion by destroying friction--that bane to animal - labour as now applied on the common road. - - “Wagon-ways constructed entirely of square wooden frames or rails, - laid in two right lines on wooden sleepers, appear to have been - in use at Newcastle so far back as the year 1671. The plan of - cast-iron railways seems to have been originally introduced by the - great Iron Company of Colebroke Dale in Shropshire, only about the - year 1786, as an improvement upon the tram or wooden railway; and - such are likely to be the benefits resulting from this discovery, - that we doubt not, as this system develops itself, the name of the - person who first conceived the idea will eagerly be sought after, - and honour done to him, as to one of the greatest benefactors of - his country. We might mention the name of the late Mr. Jessop, - as the first engineer of eminence who seems to have introduced - railways in the south. He was also the engineer for the magnificent - works of his Grace the Duke of Portland in Scotland, connected with - which there is a double railway from Kilmarnock to Troon, which is - ten miles in length. The other railways in Scotland of any extent - are those at the works of the Carron Company, Lord Elgin’s, Mr. - Erskine of Mar’s, Sir John Hope’s, and other coal works. A public - railway has also been projected from Berwick-upon-Tweed to Glasgow, - an extent of country of about 125 miles; and an Act of Parliament - has already been obtained for completing part of this track, viz., - from Berwick to Kelso. - - “A railway has the advantage of being formed at an average of one - third perhaps of the expense of a navigable canal; and in many - situations its first cost may even be compared with the expense of - making a common road. The result is also favourable if we inquire - into the comparative quantities of work done upon a canal and a - level railway. Upon the canals in England, a boat of thirty tons - burden is generally tracked by one horse, and navigated by two men - and a boy. On a level railway, it may be concluded that a good - horse managed by a man or lad will work with eight tons. At this - rate the work performed on the railway by one man and a horse is - more than in the proportion of one third of the work done upon - the canal by three persons and a horse, if we take into account - the more speedy rate of travelling and the facilities to general - trade in loading and discharging, together with the difference - of the first cost of a railway, which altogether give it in some - cases a decided advantage over the navigable canal. If we compare - the railway with the common road, it may be fairly stated that, - in the instance of a level railway, the work will be increased - in an eight or ten fold proportion. The best horse, indeed, with - difficulty, works with three fourths of a ton on the common road, - from the undulating line of its draught, but on a level railway it - is calculated that he will work even with ten tons. But to increase - the economy of the railway system still further, we have only to - employ one man to work two horses. - - - “_Line of Draught._ - - “With regard to the line of draught, or longitudinal section of a - railway, it may be stated as one of its great advantages that it - is more easily accommodated to the irregularities of the ground - through which it has to pass than a navigable canal; and even where - the ground is so irregular as not to admit of a uniformly level - track, or an inclined plane, there are several simple methods - which may be resorted to for lifting the wagons from one level to - another, so as to produce similar effects with lockage on a canal. - In so far, however, as the present design of the Edinburgh Railway - has been carried by actual survey, neither of these plans will be - found necessary upon the main lines. Even on the descending line, - the fall is so extremely gentle that the horses in returning may be - loaded with four or five tons. But the proposed mode of lockage may - with propriety be introduced on the several offset branches, such - as those from Leith to the main line, and from Monkton Hall and the - Cowpits to Dalkeith, and to the southern parts of the county, on - which a trade may be expected to be carried both to and from the - main line. - - “Where the load or trade is all in one direction, it is a maxim in - _practice_, that the fall should be so apportioned to the rise, - that the work may be equal _down_ with the load, and _up_ with - the empty wagons. But where there is to be a trade both ways, it - is obviously much to be desired that a level in all such cases - should be obtained. This, in the Edinburgh Railway, has been found - from the declining aspect of the country towards the sea; but as - there will be less return trade on this railway in merchandise - and manure, etc., to the eastward, than the coal and building - materials, etc., carried to the city, it becomes a question of - policy how far it may be proper, in this instance, to adopt the - level line at a great additional expense. - - “By the level line to Edinburgh the branch to Leith becomes also - somewhat more lengthened than by the descending line, which, - instead of preserving the level, is always falling, or approaching - towards Leith. The reporter, as before noticed, has various modes - in view, by which the branch to Leith may be made of a very easy - line of draught, or be thrown into a succession of levels, by a - species of lockage or stepping. Where sudden acclivities occur on - the line of a railway they are generally overcome by an inclined - plane, of greater or less extent, according to the particular rise, - and on this the loaded wagons are brought up by a steam-engine. But - to render railways applicable to all situations, it seems to be - necessary that the overcoming of such obstacles should be within - the reach or power of the driver and his horse; by working a kind - of _gin_ connected with an inclined plane, or by lifting the loaded - wagons perpendicularly, which may in various ways be accomplished - by the aid of pulleys, by the common lever, or the revolution of a - wheel. - - “This subject has been justly considered to be a matter of so - much public importance, that the Highland Society of Scotland - has offered a premium for an Essay, with models, for lockage on - railways; and the reporter has no doubt that by this means much - additional light will be thrown on the subject. - - “There are few subjects on which those conversant in the working - of draught animals are more divided than about the proper _line - of draught_. Some do not hesitate to affirm, that a level road is - injurious to the horse, and that an undulating road is preferable - to one by which the ascent is long, though gradual. Such are of - opinion, that by throwing the road into successive eminences, or - _up and down hill_, various muscles are brought into action, while - others are left at rest, and this alternation they conceive to be - the best condition of things for the animal. - - “Being rather, however, at a loss in regard to that part of the - subject which relates to the operation of the muscles, the reporter - applied for a solution of the case to a distinguished medical - friend in this city [Dr. John Barclay], eminent for his knowledge - and for his great exertions in the science of _Comparative - Anatomy_. His answer to the queries which he allowed the reporter - to put contain the following comprehensive passages: ‘My - acquaintance with the muscles by no means enables me to explain how - a horse should be more fatigued by travelling on a road uniformly - level than by travelling over a like space upon a road that crosses - heights and hollows; and it is demonstrably a false idea that one - set of muscles can alternately rest and come into action in cases - of that kind. The daily practice of ascending heights, it has been - said, gives an animal _wind_, and enlarges the chest; it may also - with equal truth be affirmed that many horses lose their wind under - this sort of training, and irrecoverably suffer from imprudent - attempts to induce such a habit.’ In short, he ascribes much to - prejudice, ‘originating with the man, who is continually in quest - of variety, rather than the horse, who, consulting only his own - ease, seems quite unconscious of Hogarth’s _line of beauty_.’ - - “In the course of investigating the subject of the draught of - horses, the reporter has made several experiments with the - dynamometer, both upon canals and railways, with a view to - ascertain the power of horses and the best line of draught; and - he has further the satisfaction to find, that the result of - these trials agrees nearly with experiments made, and obligingly - communicated to him, from various parts of the kingdom. The - reporter therefore concludes that the force with which a horse will - continue to work is about one-sixth or one-seventh of his absolute - weight. Now, as he found the average weight of three ordinary cart - horses to be about ten cwt. it may be assumed, generally, that - a horse can continue to work with a force equal to 160 lb.; and - allowing 40 lb., or one fourth, for friction, there remains 120 lb. - to be applied to the load. In these trials, when the wagons were - put in motion, it appeared, under favourable circumstances, that a - force of about 12 lbs. only was necessary to move one ton upon a - level edge railway, which by calculation would give about ten tons - as the load of a good horse weighing ten cwt.; but, for practice, - this will perhaps more properly be taken at about eight tons. With - regard to inclined planes, it may be noticed, that for every one - fourth of an inch of rise to the lineal yard of road, the force - must be increased, or the load diminished, in a ratio or proportion - varying at the rate of about one half, one third, one fourth, one - eighth, and one ninth, etc. - - “Such are the happy effects of a wise and extended policy, that, - notwithstanding the expensive war in which this country has been - engaged, more has actually been done in Great Britain, within - the last twenty or thirty years, for the improvement of the - highways, and in laying open the country by new and better lines - of road, than was effected for centuries before that period. With - such public improvements we presume to class the measure of the - proposed railway from the city of Edinburgh and its port of Leith, - calculated as it is to ramify through the various tracts of East - Lothian, Berwickshire, Roxburgh and Selkirk shires, and to become, - in time, a system of the greatest importance in its consequences to - the advancement of the commerce and agriculture of this part of the - kingdom. Under impressions of this kind, the noblemen and gentlemen - who now come forward as promoters of this measure are actuated; and - with this in view, the reporter lays before them the accompanying - survey, and will now endeavour to state the consideration which - he has given the subject, by describing the several lines he has - surveyed, and estimating the probable expense and advantages of the - measure.” - -Mr. Stevenson then describes the proposed line, which he estimated -at £52,000, and terminates his report by giving some remarks on the -construction of railways, which are interesting as noticing the use of -cast and malleable iron rails, and George Stephenson’s experiments on -locomotives. - - -“_Construction of the Railway._ - - “In giving some general description or outline of the construction - of the proposed railway, it may be observed, that the formation - of railways, or roads of cast iron, is comparatively but a recent - discovery, which, however, is likely to be attended with immense - advantage to this commercial and agricultural country. From the - great traffic to be expected upon the Edinburgh Railway, two sets - of wheel-tracks will require to be laid,--one for the wagons or - carriages coming to town, and another for those going to the - country. This double railway, with the necessary allowance for - driving-paths, etc., will occupy at least twenty feet of space in - its cross-section, viz., four feet three inches for each set of - tracks; a space of four feet between the respective wagon-ways; and - three feet nine inches on each side for a driving-path, fences, and - gutters. The horse-paths, or spaces between the waggon-tracks of - the railway, as proposed above, will be four feet three inches in - breadth, or the width of the _square part_ of the common cart axle, - it being also a great advantage for the convenience of loading, - etc., and for the stability of the railway, to have broad and - rather low wagons. But from the general use to which this public - railway is applicable, it may be found advisable to acquire even - a greater breadth than twenty feet. The space between the tracks - will be made up with stones, broken very small, and blinded or - covered with gravel, as in the best description of road-making. - The footpath for the drivers may be made with gravel, coal dust, - pan ashes, or brick-dust, as may be found most convenient in the - district of the railway. - - - “_Cast Iron Rails._ - - “The cast iron tracks of the earlier railways were made flat, or - about four inches in breadth, with a projecting ridge or _flange_, - upon the outer verge, and are technically called _plate rails_. - But the reporter is led from his own observation, and the opinion - of the following professional gentlemen obligingly communicated - to him, viz., Mr. Wilson of Troon, Mr. Bald of Alloa, Mr. Landale - of Charlestown, Mr. Grieve of Sheriff Hall, and Mr. Buddle of - Newcastle, who are not only scientifically but practically - conversant in this matter, to conclude that the plate rail not only - induces greater friction, but is more exposed to have the wheels - clogged and interrupted with gravel or small stones than that - called the _edge rail_, which, in its best construction, of cast - iron, consists of a bar of about 1½ inch in thickness or breadth, - for the _seat_ of the wheel, and of a depth corresponding to the - weight to be carried. This bar is set upon edge instead of being - laid flat. In this manner the edge rail presents less friction, - and, weight for weight, is much stronger for the load than the - plate rail; upon the same principle as, in modern carpentry, the - beam is now set on edge, instead of being laid on its side as - formerly. The Reporter is therefore to recommend an edge rail - warranted to work with two tons, including the wagon, of the weight - of 140 lb. per lineal yard of finished double railway. Lighter - dimensions might indeed be found to answer; but for a public - railway, the rails should be made of a greater strength than is - barely sufficient for a given weight, as this cannot always be - kept within bounds, or regulated to a nicety. The expense of a - little additional weight of cast iron, in the first instance, will - be greatly compensated in the end, by avoiding frequent repairs, - and will thereby be amply repaid, while the expense of laying the - road, and other contingencies, are much the same in the light as - in the heavy rail. The mode of fixing is another point of great - importance in the construction of a substantial railway. In the - early practice of laying railways, the value of this new discovery - was for a time lost to the public, owing to the intricacy and - difficulty of this part of the design. Much trouble and expense - have in this way been occasioned, in consequence of using, for the - underground fixtures, soft and friable stones, liable to be acted - upon by the alternate changes of the weather, from their being - necessarily placed so near the surface. A method has been adopted - of making the cross fixtures under ground, with bars wholly of - cast iron, to which the rails are attached, with iron pins. Much, - however, depends upon the nature and tenacity of the ground to be - passed over. At the works of Lord Elgin and the Carron Company, - the use of the sleeper or cross iron bar is laid aside, and other - alterations are daily suggested as improvements, in the method - of laying and fixing the rails, and also in the construction of - the wheels and wagons. With regard to the construction of _cast - iron rails_, they are, in general, made in the lengths of from - three to four feet; but the reporter is inclined to think that - the perfection of the cast-iron railway will be found to consist - rather in shortening the rails very considerably than adopting even - the shortest of those lengths; but this and similar matters will - fall more properly to be matured in the practical details of the - business. - - - “_Malleable Iron Rails._ - - “One point, however, deserves particular notice here, as likely - to be attended with the most important advantages to the railway - system, which is the application of malleable iron instead of cast - iron rails. Three miles and a half of this description of railway - have been in use for about eight years on Lord Carlisle’s works - at Tindal Fell in Cumberland, where there are also two miles of - cast iron rail; but the malleable iron road is found to answer the - purpose in every respect better. Experiments with malleable iron - rails have also been made at Mr. Taylor’s works at Ayr and Sir John - Hope’s at Pinkie; and, upon the whole, this method, in the case of - the Tindal Fell Railway, is not only considerably cheaper in the - first cost than the cast iron railway, but is also much less liable - to accident. In the use of malleable iron bars the joints of the - railway are conveniently obtained, about twelve feet apart, and - three pedestals are generally placed between each pair of joints. - - - “_Locomotive Engine._ - - “Some of the most striking improvements in the system of railways - are the patent inventions of Mr. Stephenson of Newcastle, - particularly his _locomotive engine_, by which fifty tons of coal - and upwards are at one load conveyed several miles along a railway - by the power of steam.” - -Acting on the same general principles, Mr. Stevenson surveyed and -reported on such lines as the “Montrose and Brechin Railway,” the -“Strathmore Railway,” and the “East-Lothian Railway,” which, as has -been shown, embraced a large portion of the principal business part -of Scotland. But at that time Scotland was not ready either to take -up his enlarged views, or to find money to carry them out, and the -prospectuses issued by the different Committees who zealously promoted -these railway schemes did not meet sufficient support to enable -the promoters to form Companies to apply to Parliament for their -construction. We all know that in England, at a later date, our British -Railway system was first inaugurated, but it is a fact that redounds -greatly to Mr. Stevenson’s credit as an engineer, that all of these -Scottish lines, originally surveyed by him, have, with or without -deviation, been now carried out. - -Mr. Stevenson, in his researches for adapting railways to the general -communication of the country, had made a great advance in bringing -the subject before the public; and he was requested to visit the coal -districts in the north of England to advise as to establishing a -railway between Stockton and Darlington, with extensions to the coal -fields of Bishop-Auckland; which he did in 1819, meeting with Mr. -Pease, Mr. Backhouse, and other influential men there, to whom, after -making a survey, he reported on the Stockton and Darlington Railway. - -In making these various researches, Mr. Stevenson was enabled to -suggest many proposals which can only be regarded as valuable for -the period at which they were made, but he gave many opinions, which -undoubtedly have come wonderfully true in the history of railway -communication. - -The Right Honourable Sir John Sinclair, Bart., proposed, in 1823, -certain queries to Mr. Stevenson relative to a proposal for the -construction of an iron railway between the cities of London and -Edinburgh, and the following is an extract from his reply, showing, -that while he fully appreciated the value of _ship-canals_, he -entertained the conviction that “iron railways” would become, as I have -already said, the highway of the future. - - “Regarding the practicability of such a scheme, it may be noticed - that the late eminent James Watt entertained an idea of the - eligibility and great advantage which might accrue to the public - from the formation of a central and considerably elevated line - of inland navigation constructed so as to ramify through the - interior districts of England, and communicate with the principal - manufacturing and populous towns in the kingdom. - - “In any comprehensive view of a measure of this kind there can - be no doubt that an iron railway would not only be much more - practicable, but more commodious and useful for general intercourse - than a canal. And the comparative expenses of the two operations - would probably be in the ratio of about one to eight in favour of - the railway. Again, if the advantages of carriage by the railway - and the _common road_ be compared, it will be found that the - proportion is at the rate of about one to seven, also in favour of - the railway. - - “The economy of carriage on the railway, when fully contrasted - with that of the canal, is also much greater. It may now, indeed, - be considered as a generally received opinion, that, unless for - enabling sea-borne ships to pass from one side of the coast to - another, so as to avoid a tedious or dangerous circumnavigation, - the railway in every other case is preferable. It is at the same - time to be noticed that when Mr. Watt suggested the idea of a - central line of canal many years since, the railway system was then - neither so well known nor so much acted upon as now.” - -Mr. Stevenson’s belief that railways would ultimately be the general -highways of the world, led him to regard with distrust their -_immediate_ introduction into Britain in absence of some public Act -for their proper regulation, and accordingly, on 29th January 1825, he -writes to Lord Melville in the following terms:--“It seems necessary at -this time, even before any Act is proposed for a public railway, that a -Committee of the House should take the subject of regulating the width -according to the number of tracks, and perhaps the strength of rails -and weight to be carried on four wheels, in a public Act, otherwise -much confusion will ensue. It will be a great loss if these railways, -like the common road, should require to be altered that they may -communicate with each other. - -“All the engineers I have spoken with, including Mr. Telford, agree in -this. I have noticed it to Mr. Home Drummond and Mr. Gladstone. - -“I put the specification of the bridge at Melville Castle in train -before I left home.” - -Had it been possible to carry out the spirit of this suggestion, -made at that early period, in an Act of the Legislature, I think, in -the retrospect of much that took place during our “railway manias” -and “railway company competitions,” it might possibly have proved -advantageous to the community. - - * * * * * - -The Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, which has ever been -foremost to encourage everything that tends to the improvement of the -country, regarded the introduction of railways as a matter of great -importance, and considering it a subject that came legitimately within -their province, offered, in 1818, a premium of fifty guineas for the -best essay on the construction of railroads. Many competing treatises -were given in, and the Society placed the whole of them in the hands -of my father for his opinion and report on their merits, “together -with such remarks of his own as he might judge useful.” The result of -his examination is given at great length in the Transactions of the -Society,[9] accompanied by “notes,” in which he makes several valuable -suggestions. Before the period alluded to, the rails in use had been -almost invariably made of cast iron or timber; but my father in his -notes says--“I have no hesitation in giving a decided preference to -malleable iron formed into bars from twelve to twenty feet in length, -with flat sides and parallel edges, or _in the simple state in which -they come from the rolling-mills of the manufacturer_.” He also -recommends that they should be fixed into guides or chairs of iron -supported on props placed at distances in no case exceeding three feet, -and that they should be connected with a clamp-joint so as to preserve -the whole strength of the material. It is not a little singular that -this description, given about forty years ago, may, to use engineering -phraseology, be not inaptly called a “specification of the permanent -way” of our best railways at the present day. - -I close this chapter by giving a letter which shows the value that -George Stephenson attached to my father’s researches on railways, -while it is at the same time interesting as showing the very moderate -estimate which the great Railway Engineer at that time entertained of -the performance of the locomotive engine--a machine which was destined -ultimately to become, under his skilful management, so important an -agent in changing the inland communication of the whole civilised -world:-- - - “KILLINGWORTH COLLIERY, - _June 28, 1821_. - - “ROBERT STEVENSON, ESQ. - - “SIR,--With this you will receive three copies of a specification - of a patent malleable iron rail invented by John Birkinshaw of - Bedlington, near Morpeth. The hints were got from your Report on - Railways, which you were so kind as to send me by favour of Mr. - Cookson some time ago. Your reference to Tindal Fell Railway led - the inventor to make some experiments on malleable iron bars, the - result of which convinced him of the superiority of the malleable - over the cast iron--so much so, that he took out a patent. Those - rails are so much liked in this neighbourhood, that I think in a - short time they will do away the cast iron railways. They make a - fine line for our engines, as there are so few joints compared with - the other. I have lately started a new locomotive engine, with some - improvements on the others which you saw. It has far surpassed my - expectations. I am confident a railway on which my engines can work - is far superior to a _canal_. On a long and favourable railway - I would stent my engines to travel 60 miles per day with from - 40 to 60 tons of goods. They would work nearly fourfold cheaper - than horses where coals are not very costly. I merely make these - observations, as I know you have been at more trouble than any man - I know of in searching into the utility of railways, and I return - you my sincere thanks for your favour by Mr. Cookson. - - “If you should be in this neighbourhood, I hope you would not pass - Killingworth Colliery, as I should be extremely glad if you could - spend a day or two with me.--I am, Sir, yours most respectfully, - - “G. STEPHENSON.” - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -HARBOURS AND RIVERS. - -1811-1843. - - -There is scarcely a harbour or river in Scotland about which, at some -time, Mr. Stevenson was not asked to give his advice. His opinion was -also sought in England and Ireland, and he executed works of greater or -less extent in many of the cases in which he was consulted. - -We may select from his reports the names of Dundee, Aberdeen, -Peterhead, Stonehaven, Granton, Fraserburgh, Ardrossan, Port-Patrick; -the rivers Forth, Tay, Severn, Mersey, Dee, Ribble, Wear, Tees, and -Erne, as among some of the many places in the United Kingdom where he -was employed. - -In a subsequent chapter extracts will be found illustrating Mr. -Stevenson’s views on various professional subjects, and from these -it will be seen that he brought his large experience and study of -the waves to bear advantageously and practically on his harbour -engineering. He was, as will be gathered from the extracts, at an early -period fully alive to the value of spending basins for tranquillising -a harbour, and of the proper disposition of the covering piers, in -reference to the line of exposure, so as to avoid throwing sea into -the harbour’s mouth, or causing it to heap up on coming in contact -with the piers; while, as regards rivers, he was no less alive to -the value of _backwater_ in keeping open estuaries, and to the -necessity of removing all obstructions to the free flow of the tide in -river-navigation. - -At an early date, for example, Mr. Stevenson and Mr. Price were jointly -consulted as to the navigation of the Tees, and I am indebted to Mr. -John Fowler of Stockton, the engineer to the Tees Navigation, for the -following statement as to the result of that joint reference:-- - -“The Navigation Company consulted Mr. Stevenson and Mr. H. Price, who -differed in opinion as to the general treatment of the river. Mr. Price -recommended that it should be contracted by jetties, and Mr. Stevenson -that the banks should be faced with continuous walls, stating as his -reason for this recommendation, that ‘to project numerous jetties into -the river, I regard as inexpedient, being a dangerous encumbrance -to navigation, and tending to disturb the currents and destroy the -uniformity of the bottom.’ The plan adopted by the Navigation Company -was, however, that of Mr. Price; and jetties were constructed on the -river to a large extent,” and Mr. Fowler adds, that “after a trial -of twenty-seven years it was found that they were liable to all the -objections that had been urged against them by Mr. Stevenson.” - -Accordingly, under Mr. Fowler’s direction, the whole of the jetties -have been removed. - -One of the early harbour schemes in which my father was engaged in -England, was a harbour at Wallasey Pool, on the Mersey, in which he -acted in conjunction with Telford and Nimmo. The following reports -will show the nature and extent of work then contemplated as a -commencement of the Birkenhead Docks, now so valuable an adjunct to the -port of Liverpool. But at the early period of 1828, when the reports -were written, the public were not prepared to entertain a scheme of -improvement based on so great a scale. It included, as will be seen, -not only the formation of a floating harbour at Wallasey on the -Mersey, but the construction of a harbour at Helbre on the Dee, with a -connecting ship canal between the two estuaries. - - “_To the Subscribers for the proposed Wet Docks at Wallasey Pool._ - - “PRELIMINARY REPORT of ROBERT STEVENSON and ALEXANDER NIMMO, Civil - Engineers, on the proposed improvements at Wallasey Pool. - -“_Liverpool, Feby. 23, 1828._--Having been requested to examine -the situation of the Wallasey Pool with a view to discover how far -additional accommodation might be obtained there for the increasing -trade of the port of Liverpool, we did accordingly meet at Woodside on -the 10th February 1828, and after examining the pool at high and low -water, and the action of the tides on the northern edge of the Leasowe -level, which we found to be overflowed at high water of the 16th and -17th and 18th February, with off-shore winds and moderate weather, -we next examined the shore down to low water in that place called -Mockbeggar Wharf, which we found to consist of turf and soft marl over -a bottom of fine clay. We afterwards visited the western part of the -level, which extends to the immediate vicinity of the estuary of the -Dee, part of which we examined, also Helbre, Hoylake, and the Rock -Channels, and directed certain surveys and levels to be taken for our -further information, and though we have not yet obtained all the data -requisite for forming estimates of the expense of improvement, we are -generally of opinion as follows:-- - -“That this situation of Wallasey Pool affords, beyond doubt, the most -favourable position in the vicinity of Liverpool for an extension of -the accommodation of the shipping trade of the port, at a very moderate -expense. - -“The ground being level, the soil water-tight and of easy excavation, -docks may be formed there of any extent. The bay in front between -Seacombe and Woodside, though mostly shallow at present, affords the -first place of shelter within the Mersey, and small vessels lie there -out of the stream in perfect safety. It possesses a creek or channel -which could easily be enlarged and deepened so as to form an outer -tide harbour similar to the original harbour of Liverpool, but upon a -greater scale, and for the scouring of which it would be easy to open -up the tide in the pool to the extent of 250 acres, as far as Viners -Embankment, and above that to any extent that may be thought desirable. -This space having a deep creek through its whole extent forms a -complete half-tide basin for facilitating the entrance into the Docks -on either side, while on the shallow parts may be formed extensive -timber-ponds. Works of masonry in this situation being out of the -sea-way and of the stream of the tide, may be constructed with great -economy; good building stones are to be found at Bidston Hill, and the -whole soil is a brick earth. - -“The situation possesses other advantages of access not so obvious, -but which may eventually be of the greatest importance. The Leasowe -level at the head of this pool extends as far as the river Dee, and -touches the sea-shore at Mock Beacon, where indeed it is occasionally -overflowed by the tide. In this direction it would be quite practicable -to open a direct passage for ships into the Horse Channel, by -excavating in marl and clay, only quite clear of the shifting sands -which are found in all other parts of the Mersey and Dee. And towards -the Dee a ship canal may easily be cut with its entrance either at -Dawpool in Hoylake, or in a tide harbour which could be formed at -Helbre, a position which affords many maritime advantages. - -“That position has several good anchorages in its vicinity, three -different passages to sea, and is only five miles from the floating -light, the distance of which from Liverpool by Wallasey and Helbre is -exactly the same as by the Rock Channel; and nine miles of it would be -inland navigation, instead of an intricate passage among sandbanks, the -whole of which inland navigation is an addition to the floating harbour. - -“Having thus briefly shown the facilities possessed to seaward, we may -next turn our attention to those connected with the inland navigation. -It is evident that to the ‘flats’ which navigate the Duke’s Canal, -Mersey and Irwell, Ellesmere, Sankey, and Weaver Navigations, Wallasey -Pool is just as accessible as the Docks of Liverpool, while by a canal -to Helbre you communicate with the large navigation of the Dee, and the -valuable mineral county of Flintshire; and if ever, as is extremely -probable, the canal navigation should be brought nearer to Liverpool, -the natural termination would be Tranmere or Wallasey Pool, between -which a cut can be easily formed. By this means boats from the small -canals in Staffordshire and the other inland counties can be brought -down to the seaport and return their cargo without the trouble of -transhipment,--an object, as being important to the proprietors of -these canals, that there can be little doubt of their endeavouring to -carry it into effect whenever the shipping can be accommodated on the -Cheshire side. - -“Although in the present state of our survey, and until we meet our -eminent friend and colleague Mr. Telford, we are not prepared to -enter into any detail of plans or estimates of the expense of these -improvements, yet we are satisfied he will agree with us in opinion -that the cost of even the most expensive will be greatly inferior to -that of obtaining any important additional accommodation upon the -Liverpool shore, which being almost entirely occupied already, we -consider it impossible to obtain there at any expense sufficient room -for the increasing trade; and we would conclude this preliminary report -by recommending to the thriving and enlightened community of Liverpool -to weigh well the advantages above alluded to, and the benefit of now -extending their operations to the Cheshire shore. - - “ROBERT STEVENSON. - ALEXANDER NIMMO.” - - “INTENDED SHIP CANAL between the RIVERS DEE and MERSEY. - - “THE REPORT of THOMAS TELFORD, ROBERT STEVENSON, and ALEXANDER - NIMMO, Civil Engineers, recommending Two extensive new Sea - Ports, etc., on the Rivers Dee and Mersey, adjacent to - Liverpool, with a Floating Harbour or Ship Canal to connect - them. - -“The undersigned, having so far completed their land and water surveys -as to enable them to speak with confidence upon the practicability of -extending the accommodation for shipping to suit the rising demands -of this great commercial emporium, beg leave to commence their report -upon this important subject by describing the general outline of the -proposed improvements, and then to proceed to discuss them in detail; -but previous to this it is necessary to make a few preliminary remarks. - - -“_On the Estuaries of the Dee and Mersey._ - -“In one or other of these must always continue to be the great port of -the north-west of England, the preservation and improvement of which -has become the more important since this last century has added so -much to the progress of manufacturing and commercial enterprise, and to -that extension of inland navigation, which has rendered Liverpool not -only the great mart of the north-west of Britain and of all Ireland, -but nearly of the whole western world. - -“The chief feature of these estuaries is the extensive range of -sandbanks in their front, through which an intricate ship-navigation -has to be carried. These channels have been always subject to -variations, and are now only safely navigated by a careful system of -pilotage. - -“In the progress of our investigations, and feeling the great -importance of the measures we are about to recommend, we have carefully -inquired into the various changes which have taken place on these -banks, as far as can be collected from history or inferred from -observation, in order to be enabled to judge what is likely to take -place as to their future permanent condition. - -“In the time of the Romans the Ribble seems to have been the chief port -of this district, and Ribchester is said to have been a city as great -as any out of Rome; the port was Poulton below Preston, at the Neb of -the Naze, so vastly inferior at the present time to various situations -on the Mersey and the Dee that it is impossible not to admit that some -extraordinary change has taken place in their physical condition since -that period. Tradition says that the port of the Ribble was destroyed -by an earthquake, and also that there were tremendous inundations in -Cheshire and Lancashire about the termination of the Roman sway in -Britain; and various phenomena we have seen seem to point to some such -catastrophe. - -“It is well known that in the Saxon times the river Dee was an -important navigation, and that Chester was then and for many ages after -the great port of the west, and for the connection with Ireland, whilst -the Mersey was little known, and Liverpool only a fishing village. - -“But in after times the port of Chester was so much obstructed by -sandbanks in the upper portions that the city became inaccessible to -vessels of large draught, and though serious efforts were made to -remedy this evil, and have even partly accomplished it, yet the trade -of the country was gradually transferred to Liverpool on the Mersey, -which had become a place of considerable importance at the time of the -Revolution, and had been created an independent port: before, it was -only a creek of Chester. - -“In our inquiries into the early state of the navigations of the Dee -and Mersey, the oldest chart we have found of any authority is that of -Grenville Collins, in 1690. It is dedicated to King William, to whom he -acted as pilot on his expedition to Ireland; and as that army embarked -from Hoylake, as also that of the year before under General Schomberg, -and as Collins was officially employed in making charts of the coast, -there can be no doubt that, though rude, it conveys, as far as it goes, -an authentic representation of the state of navigation at that time. - -“The roadstead of Hoylake was then spacious and deep, with five fathoms -into it, and seven fathoms inside, from one half to three quarters of a -mile wide, and covered by the Hoyle Sand, which was then one solid bank -without any swash or opening across it, and was dry at neap tides as -far as opposite the Point of Air and beyond. - -“The Dove Point then projected a mile and three-quarters from the -shore, separating Hoylake from the Rock Channel, which was then nearly -dry at low water as far as Mockbeggar, between which and Burbo Sand -there was only one quarter fathom, and between Dove Point and Burbo -only two fathoms. - -“The large vessels which at that time belonged to Liverpool put out -part of their lading in Hoylake until they were light enough to sail -over the flats to Liverpool. - -“The union of Hoylake and the Rock Channel formed, as at present, -the principal passage to sea, called the Horse Channel, then a fair -opening with three to seven fathoms, but considerably to the eastward -of the present channel of that name; for Collins’s sailing mark through -it was Mockbeggar Hall upon the Banquetting-House in Bidston, would -mark the present Spencer’s Gut as having been the channel. The north -spit did not then exist, or rather was part of the Hoyle bank; and the -Beggar’s Patch seems to have been the extremity of Dove Point. The -Formby Channel was said to have three fathoms on the bar, but was not -buoyed or beaconed, therefore not used. - -“The Chester bar had nine feet least water; and Wild Road is marked -as good anchorage, much used in the coal trade. About 1760, published -in 1776, we have the Survey of Mackenzie, who was employed by the -Admiralty to make charts of the western coasts of Britain, which are -still in high reputation. - -“At this time Hoylake continued to be a good roadstead, though greatly -altered; the depth at entrance was only two fathoms, eight fathoms -in the middle, the width only three furlongs, and its length had -diminished at least a mile. A passage was opened from the Rock Channel -across to Dove Point into Hoylake, and across the east end of Hoyle -Sand, with four to eight fathoms, forming the present Horse Channel. - -“On this chart we also perceive the beginning of another opening across -the Hoyle Sand, now called Helbre Swash, then dry at low water at each -end, having three fathoms in the middle, now a deep and fair channel -with seven to nine fathoms, and two and a half least water at its mouth. - -“Since the opening of this channel or swash little or no tide sets -through the Hoylake, which is gradually closing up, and now used only -for small craft. - -“The existence of Hoylake was of material importance to Liverpool and -also to the Dee, for vessels could run there at any time; the entrance -to it was marked by leading lights in the middle of last century, one -of the first applications of reflecting lights to the purposes of -navigation; they are now of little use, as the sand has shifted to the -eastward, and the entrance is nearly dry at low water. - -“The Rock Channel seems to have undergone a very important change by -the time of Mackenzie’s survey. We have observed that in Collins’s -time, 1690, it was dry at low water as far nearly as Mockbeggar. -Although this is still nearly the case at the Perch at low tides, it is -opened below that in a material degree. In the space of seventy years -the channel had deepened to have three or four fathoms in Wallasey -Hole; also between Mockbeggar Wharf and the north bank, which was dry -at low water; and a channel had opened across Dove Point, with two and -three fathoms, into Hoylake, and from thence across the east end of -Hoyle, forming the present Horse Channel, as before described, with -four to eight fathoms out to sea. On the other hand, the sand from -this deepening had been carried down to seaward, forming a complete -shoal across the original Horse Channel of Collins’s time, in whose -sailing-line is marked a depth of four feet only, and this shoal -connected with that called the Beggar’s Patch, and thence with the spit -or flat along the west side of the Horse Channel, on which was six -feet water. This last channel was direct and fair, with five to eight -fathoms, and previous to the publication of Mackenzie’s chart, but -after the time of his survey, was marked by two lighthouses at Leasowe -shore, and subsequently by that on Bidston Hill under the direction of -Captain Hutchinson, as was also the entrance into Hoylake by the two -lights near Meols, as before described. - -“The Formby Channel is marked as deep upon Mackenzie’s chart, with -four fathoms at the entrance, and between Taylor’s Bank and Middle -Patch two fathoms; there is now only five feet over the flats at low -water at its entrance, and it was buoyed in at Mackenzie’s time; but, -though the deepest channel to Liverpool, it is, from its intricacy and -instability, still very little used for navigation. - -“Lieutenant Evans published a survey of the Liverpool and Chester -rivers, with a book of sailing directions, which is in good repute. We -have preferred the chart by Mr. Thomas in 1813, made by order of the -Lords of the Admiralty, for the purpose of comparison with the several -before mentioned surveys, as more minute in detail. - -“At the time of this survey, fifty years after that of Mackenzie, -Hoylake had diminished in breadth to one furlong; the depth at the -entrance was three to seven feet; four fathoms near the Red Stones; -since that time it is still shallowing, and now may be walked across at -low water, from Dove Point to East Hoyle; so that this roadstead may be -considered as lost. - -“Helbre Swash had opened to half a mile wide, with six or eight fathoms -water, but with a shoal at its entrance of one fathom; there are now -two fathoms and a half through that entrance. - -“The Brazil or North Bank had extended dry, at low water, as far as -Spencer’s Gut Buoy, and the North Spit or four feet flats had extended -into the Horse Channel across the line of sea lights, thereby forcing -that channel further into Hoyle Bank. The lower part of the Rock -Channel had enlarged by the formation of a passage on each side of the -Beggar’s Patch. - -“The entrance to Formby Channel had very much altered since Mackenzie’s -time, and, though better marked, still continued to be little -frequented. The floating light placed opposite Helbre Swash and the -Horse Channel, outside of all the banks, has made a great improvement -in the access from the seaward in that direction. - -“The Rock Channel, from these circumstances, continues to be the main -passage to and from the harbour of Liverpool, but it is only provided -with day marks, and though well buoyed cannot be navigated by night; -being very narrow, and having banks in its middle, it is difficult for -vessels to beat through with foul winds in one tide, and as there is no -secure anchorage, frequent delays and losses take place in this part of -the navigation. - -“Within the harbour of Liverpool or in the river Mersey the principal -places of anchorage are-- - -“1st, Abreast the town. - -“2d, Off the Magazines, which is used by the outward-bound vessels. - -“3d, Up the river in Sloyne Roads, or Broombro Pool, which is almost -confined to vessels under quarantine. - -“In the two first-mentioned anchorages a great sea tumbles in, with NE. -gales, and this, with the rapid tide and bad holding ground, causes -vessels to drift, even with two anchors down, so that it is necessary -for all the merchant vessels, as soon as the tide serves, to proceed -into dock and remain there until a favourable opportunity occurs of -putting to sea, so as to get through the Rock and Horse Channels with -daylight; hence a considerable accumulation of vessels within the docks -at all times, but especially when there has been a continuance of -northerly and westerly winds, and which has made it necessary to look -now for additional accommodation on the opposite shore of Wallasey Pool. - - -“_Proposed establishment at Wallasey._ - -“Small craft find good shelter on the banks at the mouth of Wallasey -Pool, being there out of the stream, and land-locked by the Point of -Seacombe. - -“The steamers also, to which dispatch is of moment, moor along this -shore, and if there was more room in Wallasey Pool it would decidedly -be the best anchorage about Liverpool. - -“Wallasey Creek runs nearly for two miles from the Mersey, where it -is stopped by an embankment, through which the waters of 3000 acres -of marsh land pass by a tunnel. The pool below the embankment covers -nearly 250 acres at spring-tides, and by its backwater maintains a -channel through the creek down to low water springs, and with seventeen -feet at high water springs as far up as the embankment. - -“Previous to the embankment it is certain that this creek was -materially deeper. On Mackenzie’s chart, opposite to its mouth, there -are twenty fathoms marked, being much more than anywhere within the -Mersey at present, and a bottom of rock. This channel would therefore -be restored by any considerable addition to the backwater; and at -all events, if the lower parts of the creek were opened by dredging, -and, by a power of scouring it, low water obtained, a safer inlet for -vessels to run to would be acquired than at present exists anywhere in -the neighbourhood of Liverpool. - -“On the south side of the creek, between Woodside Ferry and Bridge End, -there is a bottom of sandstone rock, but this ceases at Bridge End -Creek; and above that place the shore is composed of firm clay, fit for -brick making, to a depth at least of thirty feet, in which excavation -for docks and basins could be carried on with great facility. - -“Upon the attention being directed to Wallasey Pool as a commercial -station, it will appear at first view obvious that an entrance might -be made along the low ground which extends from it to the sea shore -at Leasowe, by which a direct passage to sea might be obtained, and -the insecurities and dangers of the bar and banks of the Rock Channel -be avoided; but the objections to such an entrance are, that the -channel outside affords no safe anchorage, and the cut would be exposed -directly to the stroke of the sea, and if protected by piers their -construction would not only be expensive, but might also materially -alter the channel along shore. - -“But the ground continues equally favourable to the westward as far as -Hoylake and the Dee below the hill of the Grange. The shore is skirted -by a narrow belt of sandhills, through which however there would be -no great difficulty in making a passage into the tideway. Here it -is important to remark that the Helbre Swash opens a deep and fair -channel, well sheltered by banks on each side, and only five miles in -extent to the floating light, which is in a direct line with it. - -“This channel has been formed within the last century, and readily -accounts for the deterioration of Hoylake; it now carries down most -of the ebb of the Dee, and is likely to improve still more, having -deepened materially since Thomas’s survey in 1813. - -“Through all the vicissitudes we have traced there has been deep water -and good anchorage at the point of Helbre Island; and as that situation -affords solid rock for every sort of construction, there can be no risk -of the permanency of any work that may be established there. - -“Sea-locks constructed at Helbre would be protected against the -prevailing westerly gales by the island itself, against the northerly -by the bank of East Hoyle; and they may be connected to the mainland by -banks formed across the strand, which is mostly dry at high water of -neap tides; and by means of these banks a pond of sixty-four acres may -be enclosed, which, being filled at spring tides, may be employed for -the purposes of scouring and keeping open the harbour and its entrance, -and as a reservoir for a ship canal from thence to the shore, and along -the low ground to Wallasey Pool. Such a canal, of large dimensions, and -seven miles long, will be one continued floating harbour, which may be -carried to a great extent in various directions and on the same level. - -“Independent of Helbre Swash two other channels for ships passing -to sea unite at that position; one, the original Hoylake, still -sufficiently navigable at high water; the other, the passage by Wild -Road and Chester Bar, greatly superior in safety and permanency to that -of the Formby Channel; for in all the successive charts little or no -change seems to have taken place on that bar, which continues to have -nine feet at low water, with a rise of thirty. The great extent of -ebb-tide from the Dee (being quite as extensive an estuary as that of -the Mersey) must always keep one or other of those channels or all of -them open, so that ships may sail from Helbre in almost every wind; and -if necessary to beat out, a vessel starting from Helbre with the first -of the ebb down the Swash will be at the floating light and clear of -the banks before another from Liverpool can get round the Rock Perch. - -“To persons at all acquainted with the navigation to Liverpool it -must be quite unnecessary to point out the benefit of this proposed -arrangement, which, while it preserves all the advantages of -communicating with the Mersey, and the extensive inland navigations -connected therewith, affords a new passage to and from the sea, -by means of the Dee, by which both the distance and dangers of an -intricate navigation will be wholly avoided. - -“An important advantage obtained by this plan is, that the proposed -entrance at Helbre is within the jurisdiction of the port of Chester, -of which it is recorded as a creek in Sir Matthew Hale’s Treatise _De -portibus maris_; and business done there or upon its waters, even as -far as Wallasey Pool, being within the port of Chester, will have to -pay the dues at that port; and unless ships and goods lock into the -Mersey they are exempted from the dues of Liverpool. The facility of -construction is so great that a moderate charge for dues will be a -sufficient remuneration for the capital required. The ground on either -side of the canal is singularly suitable to be appropriated to any kind -of establishment connected with shipping, and there can be no doubt -that it will be so employed even by private speculation; but in so -extensive a scheme as we propose it will be advisable for the promoters -of the measure at once to establish a set of docks and warehouses -of the most perfect description, as has been done in all the docks -which have been constructed in and adjacent to London, and we have -accordingly designed a set of such warehouses and yards as part of the -plan. - - -“_Details of the Plan._ - -“Commencing at the river Mersey, we propose to dredge out and widen -Wallasey Creek at least to the depth of three feet under low water of -spring tides, being four feet below the sill of Prince’s Dock, and -this for 200 feet in width up as far as the entrance into the basins; -to lay the sill of the greater entrance lock at that level, also the -sill of the basin of the barge lock. The barge entrance lock to have -a lift of ten feet; the ship lock four feet; so as to give the same -water when the gates are opened as into the Prince’s Dock. The side of -Wallasey Creek will be quayed for four hundred yards below the entrance -of the dock, to facilitate transporting vessels into and out of the -basins. - -“The tide basin is 1000 yards long, and 100 yards wide in the middle, -curving on the north side towards the locks at each end, the south side -receding 100 feet, so as to give berthage to timber vessels, and in -the front of them a sloping wharf and bonding yards for timber; a line -of barge canal between these yards and the warehouses on the main dock -will facilitate the removal of the timber without interfering with the -shipping. - -“The entrance lock into this basin from the tideway will be fifty feet -wide, the entrance wing walls widening gradually to 100 feet, to afford -easy access to the shipping when both gates are thrown open. At low -water, neaps, or half tide, two or three vessels may pass at a time. -The upper lock between this basin and the canal to be double; one large -lock, forty-five feet wide and 160 feet long, for great ships, and -another, twenty-five feet wide, for smaller vessels, with gates at each -end, pointing both to land and seawards. These locks to rise to four -feet below the old dock sill of Liverpool, and thus to have twenty-two -feet water in the canal on the level of an eighteen feet tide, which we -propose to make the surface level of the canal. - -“The ship dock parallel to this basin will be 400 yards long and 100 -wide, with warehouses on each side, supported by iron pillars, so as to -form a covered wharf, as at the St. Katherine’s Dock in London; behind -these warehouses a parallel barge canal fit for river flats, forty feet -wide, which will, as in Holland, be found a singular convenience. -These canals communicate with a dock and basin for flats only, whence -the barges may be let down into the creek during the ebb; and as they -navigate at the lowest water they will be ready to pass up the Mersey -with the first of the flood; and in like manner, coming down with the -last of the ebb, will get into the pool and enter the dock without -losing a tide. Ships from the Mersey, in like manner, may enter the -basin with half-flood, and be ready to proceed down the Swash with the -first of the ebb. - -“The flat marsh by the Boilers Yards is well adapted for this -establishment, but as the ground beyond is high for some distance we -propose the canal to be 124 feet only at water surface for 1000 yards -from the locks, and to be lined with a stone wall on each side, so that -this space will, in fact, be also a dock. Afterwards the marsh widens, -and here is a favourable place for another entrance basin and dock, -if necessary. From this point we propose to continue the canal with -sloping banks, the bottom to be four feet under the level of the old -dock sill, and 163 feet in width at the surface of the water, which -will be twenty-two feet in depth. - -“The canal proceeds at first in the direction of the Leasowe -Lighthouse, and approaches within half a mile of the shore, and about -the same distance north of the village of Moreton, and then turns to -the westward, keeping half a mile inland from the villages of Great and -Little Meols through Newton Car, where it turns off to Helbre Island, -and enters the strand about half a mile above the hotel; across the -strand it is carried by embankments to the upper end of Helbre Island. -A large breadth is allowed for the embankment on the sea-side, with -facing mound of stone from the rocky point near the Red Stone to within -600 feet of the Point of Helbre. The head of this pier to be of rough -stone, rounded off, and carefully paved. A pier head is to be built -in Helbre of 300 feet in length, leaving an opening of 300 feet into -the tide harbour, which is fifty acres in extent, and to be cleared -to at least low water of a spring-tide, and preserved of that depth by -scouring. - -“A quay wall is to be constructed of hewn stone along the Helbre Island -from the pier-head 600 yards to the tide lock, which is to be fifty -feet wide, as at Wallasey; another tide lock of similar dimensions on -the north side of the harbour. The north pier is only intended to be -of rough stone; but a short covering pier will be made to protect that -lock and facilitate the entry of ships. Above these locks the canal is -to be formed into a tide basin of 500 yards in length, the level of -which may be kept at that of the tide of the day; and at the upper end -are two parallel canal locks, as at Wallasey, with gates pointing to -the sea and land at each end, as the tide will occasionally rise higher -than the level of the water in the canal. - -“From Helbre Island to the Middle Helbre, thence to the Eye, and from -that to the shore at Kirby Church, an embankment and road will be -carried along the ridge and made water-tight. By this and the canal a -pond, as has already been described, will be enclosed, of 640 acres, -which will fill at spring-tides to the depth of nine feet, containing -3,000,000 of cubic yards, and may be all emptied for the purpose of -scouring the outer harbour; but at the latter part of the spring tides -it will be advisable to fill this pond as a reservoir for lockage -water, for which purpose it may be drawn down three feet to the canal -level, and will hold 1200 locks-full for ship lockage at each end, -and, if necessary, 1000 more locks-full may be drawn off without any -material inconvenience to the navigation. - -“We now subjoin an estimate of what we conceive will be the expense of -completing these works, including an extensive range of warehouses on -each side of the dock at Wallasey Pool, and of enclosed timber yards -along the tide basin; and for all the items we have made a liberal -provision. - - -“_Estimate._ - - Excavations in Wallasey Creek and Helbre Harbour, also in - the Locks, Basins, and Canal to Helbre, and Barge Canal - and Basins, £436,017 - - Quay Walls on Creek, Basins, Locks, and Canal at Wallasey - Pool, 230,100 - - Bridges and Tunnels, 38,000 - - Piers and Quays Walls, Helbre Harbour, 95,100 - - Locks, Dams, and Culverts, Helbre Harbour, 111,000 - - Warehouses at Wallasey Pool, Inclosure Walls, and Paving, 183,000 - - Purchase of Land, 125,000 - - For Surveys, Act of Parliament, Law Expenses, - Superintendents’, Lock-keepers’, and other Offices, - etc., and Contingencies on Works, Fifteen per Cent., 182,731 - ---------- - £1,400,948 - ========== - -“For the above sum a floating harbour will be obtained of seven miles -in length, capable of indefinite enlargement, with extensive warehouse -accommodation, and with a sea-port at either end on the two separate -estuaries. That this is not too great for the wants of the country will -be at once admitted by those who consider the vast extent of shipping -usually moored in the Thames, notwithstanding all its docks; the total -inapplicability of the rivers Mersey or Dee to such a purpose; and the -confined space which even the docks of Liverpool can afford for the -accommodation of a trade now hardly inferior to that of the metropolis, -and certainly and rapidly increasing. - - “THOS. TELFORD. - ROBT. STEVENSON. - ALEXANDER NIMMO. - - “LONDON, _16th May 1828_.” - - “FURTHER REPORT respecting the proposed two new Ports, etc., on the - Rivers Dee and Mersey, adjacent to Liverpool. - - “In the foregoing report we have shown the form and expense of this - establishment when completed upon an extensive and perfect plan. - At the commencement, however, of so great an undertaking it is - not to be expected that all the conveniences we have proposed can - be immediately required; a considerable portion may therefore be - deferred until the wants and increasing demands of trade shall show - them to be necessary. In the meantime the essential parts of the - improvement may be effected, with a smaller expenditure of capital, - so as to obtain all that safety and facility of access which we - have shown to be leading features of this plan. - - “We have proposed to make the canal from Wallasey to Helbre wide - enough for three great ships, so as to admit of part of it being - used as a floating harbour, still leaving room for navigation; - but for navigation alone it will be quite enough to adopt the - dimensions of the Caledonian Canal, viz., 120 feet at surface, - and if the trade should increase so as to require it, instead of - widening it, a parallel canal may hereafter be made, with a bank - and two towing-paths between, leaving the whole of the opposite - banks applicable to berthage and commercial establishments. The - same locks will serve at either end, and the transporting of ships - be greatly facilitated; and the construction of this canal, or - repair of the other, may be effected without any interruption to - the navigation by such an arrangement. Again, the double locks at - the Wallasey end of the canal, intended for the greater dispatch - of business, may very well be deferred for the present, and the - entrance basin made of smaller dimensions. The ship dock there may - at first be made as a part of the canal, and quayed on one side - only, and afterwards widened and completed when wanted. The half - tide dock may be dispensed with by enlarging the barge tide dock so - as to serve also for ships, and the quay walling of the pool and of - the first mile of the canal may also be deferred. The warehouses at - Wallasey dock may be dispensed with at first, or left to individual - capital; but it will be highly proper to secure a sufficient - quantity of land to enable all these improvements to be undertaken - at some future period. We do not deem it advisable to give up the - enlargement and deepening of the entrance of Wallasey Pool, as on - that depends much of the utility of the plan in giving access to - vessels at low tides; and for a similar reason we would preserve - all the works proposed for the harbour at Helbre Island. Upon this - modified plan the expense, as below, will be £734,163. - - “THOS. TELFORD. - ROBT. STEVENSON. - ALEX. NIMMO. - - “CHESTER, _July 14, 1828_. - - -“_Estimate._ - - Excavating Tide Basin, Barge Dock, and half of Ship Dock, - at Wallasey End, £25,000 - - Walling along the Pool, from Brassey’s Works, also the - Barge Dock and one side of Ship Dock, 31,500 - - Ship Lock, Barge Lock, and Tide Gates for Basin, and two - Swivel Bridges, 36,500 - - Dredging Wallasey Creek, as before, 20,000 - - Land and Damages, 51,000 - ------- - £164,000 - - Fifteen per Cent. Contingencies, 24,485 - ------- - For Wallasey End, £188,485 - ======= - Excavating Canal, £207,403 - - Bridges and Tunnel, 22,000 - - Land and Damages, 27,000 - ------- - £256,403 - - Fifteen per Cent., 38,460 - ------- - For the Canal, £294,863 - ======= - Pier and Quay Walls from Helbre, as before, £95,100 - - Locks, Dams, and Culverts, do., 111,000 - - Excavation in Harbour, 10,000 - - Strand and Damages on Isle, 2,000 - - Fifteen per Cent., 32,715 - ------- - £250,815 - ------- - GENERAL TOTAL, £734,163” - ======= - -I have given the Reports of the three Engineers to whom this question -was remitted, to show the very comprehensive view they took of the -important subject referred for their opinion; and it is almost -unnecessary to tell professional readers that after a lapse of nearly -a quarter of a century the embryo but comprehensive proposal of -Telford, Stevenson, and Nimmo resulted in the modified but still large -Birkenhead Dock scheme of J. M. Rendel. - - * * * * * - -The original design for the improvement of the Tay was made by Messrs. -Robert and Alan Stevenson, in 1833, and in connection with my father’s -life a short account of the works may be desirable as illustrating his -practice in River Engineering in the Tay and other rivers. - -The river Tay, with its numerous tributaries, receives the drainage -water of a district of Scotland amounting to 2283 square miles, as -measured on Arrowsmith’s map. Its _mean_ discharge has been ascertained -to be 274,000 cubic feet, or 7645 tons of water per minute. It is -navigable as far as Perth, which is twenty-two miles from Dundee and -thirty-two from the German Ocean. - -Before the commencement of the works, certain ridges, called “fords,” -stretched across the bed of the river, at different points between -Perth and Newburgh, and obstructed the passage to such a degree that -vessels drawing from ten to eleven feet could not, during the highest -tides, make their way up to Perth without great difficulty. The depth -of water on these fords varied from one foot nine inches to two feet -six inches at low, and eleven feet nine inches to fourteen feet at -high water of spring tides; so that the regulating navigable depth, -under the most favourable circumstances, could not be reckoned at -more than eleven feet. The chief disadvantage experienced by vessels -in the unimproved state of the river was the risk of their being -detained by grounding, or being otherwise obstructed at these defective -places, so as to lose the tide at Perth,--a misfortune which, at times -when the tides were falling from springs to neaps, often led to the -necessity either of lightening the vessel, or of detaining her till the -succeeding springs afforded sufficient depth for passing the fords. -The great object aimed at, therefore, was to remove every cause of -detention, and facilitate the propagation of the tidal wave in the -upper part of the river, so that inward-bound vessels might take the -first of the flood to enable them to reach Perth in one tide. Nor was -it, indeed, less important to remove every obstacle that might prevent -outward-bound vessels from reaching Newburgh, and the more open and -deep parts of the navigation before low water of the tide with which -they left Perth. - -The works undertaken by the Harbour Commissioners of Perth for the -purpose of remedying the evils alluded to, and which extended over six -working seasons, may be briefly described as follows:-- - -_1st_, The fords, and many intermediate shallows, were deepened by -steam dredging; and the system of harrowing was employed in some of -the softer banks in the lower part of the river. Many large detached -boulders and “fishing cairns,” which obstructed the passage of vessels, -were also removed. - -_2d_, Three subsidiary channels, or offshoots from the main stream, at -Sleepless, Darry, and Balhepburn islands, were shut up by embankments -formed of the produce of the dredging, so as to confine the whole of -the water to the navigable channel, and the banks of the navigable -channel were widened to receive the additional quantity of water which -they had to discharge. - -_3d_, In some places the banks on either side of the river beyond low -water mark, where much contracted, were excavated, in order to equalise -the currents, by allowing sufficient space for the free passage of -the water; and this was more especially done on the shores opposite -Sleepless and Darry islands, where the shutting up of the secondary -channels rendered it more necessary. - -The benefit to the navigation in consequence of the completion of -these works was of a twofold kind; for not only was the depth of -water materially increased by actual deepening of the waterway, and -the removal of numerous obstructions from the bed of the river, but a -clearer and a freer passage was made for the flow of the tide, which -begins to rise at Perth much sooner than before; and as the time of -high water is unaltered, the advantages of increased depth due to the -presence of the tide is proportionally increased throughout the whole -range of the navigation; or, in other words, the _duration of tidal -influence has been prolonged_. - -The depths at the shallowest places were pretty nearly equalised, -being five feet at low and fifteen feet at high water, of ordinary -spring tides, instead, as formerly, of one foot nine inches at low and -eleven feet at high water. Steamers of small draught of water can now -therefore ply at _low water_, and vessels drawing fourteen feet can now -come up to Perth in _one tide_ with ease and safety. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. - -1808-1843. - - -In 1808 Mr. Stevenson was the discoverer of the _Limnoria terebrans_, -that small but sure destroyer of timber structures exposed to the -action of the sea, and forwarded specimens of the insect and of -the timber it had destroyed to Dr. Leach, the eminent naturalist, -of the British Museum, who, in 1811, announced it as a “new and -highly interesting species which had been sent to him by his friend -Robert Stevenson, Civil Engineer,” and assigned to it the name of -_Limnoria terebrans_ (_Linnean Trans._, vol. xi. p. 37, and _Edinburgh -Encylopædia_, vol. vii. p. 433). - -The _Teredo navalis_, which is a larger and even more destructive -enemy, is happily not so prevalent in northern seas as the _Limnoria_. - -So impressed was Mr. Stevenson with the importance of his discovery as -affecting marine engineering, and especially harbour works, that he -resolved to establish a train of systematic experiments by exposing -the timber of different trees to the action of salt water, and it -occurred to him that no situation could be more suitable for such -observations than the Bell Rock, where the specimens would not only be -fully exposed to the sea, and free from any interference, but would -be strictly watched and minutely reported on by the lightkeepers. He -further conceived it proper, in the interests of the navy, to take -the Admiralty into his counsels, and he accordingly communicated his -intention to that Board, with the result that many of the specimens -of timber experimented on were sent from Woolwich dockyard, and the -results of the trials were from time to time communicated to the -Admiralty. - -The different blocks of timber under trial were treenailed to the rock, -and the experiments extended over a period of nearly thirty years. -They clearly proved that teak, African oak, English and American oak, -mahogany, beech, ash, elm, and the different varieties of pine, were -found sooner or later to become a prey to the _Limnoria_. Greenheart -oak was alone found to withstand their attacks, and even this timber -was ultimately not entirely unaffected. - -The result of these valuable experiments is given in the following -Table:-- - - TABLE showing the different kinds of Timber which were exposed to - the attacks of the _Limnoria terebrans_ at the Bell Rock in - 1814, 1821, 1837, 1843, with their durabilities. - - +-----------------+---------+--------+--------+------------------+ - | |Decay |Unsound | Quite | | - | Kind of Timber. |first | and | sound | Remarks. | - | |observed.| quite | for | | - | | |decayed.| | | - +-----------------+---------+--------+--------+------------------+ - | |yrs. mo. |yrs. mo.|yrs. mo.| | - | | | | | | - |Greenheart, 1 | | |19 0 |1 Affected in | - | | | | | one corner. | - |Teak-wood, | | |13 0 | | - | | | | | | - |Beef-wood, | | |13 0 | | - | | | | | | - |Treenail of | | | 5 0 | | - | Bullet-wood, | | | | | - | | | | | | - |Beech, Payne’s |10 7 | | |2 A little | - | patent pro., 2 | | | | holed at | - | | | | | one end | - |Teak-wood, 3 | 5 6 | | | underneath. | - | | | | | Nearly sound | - |African Oak, 4 | 5 6 | | | 7½ years after | - | | | | | being laid | - | | | | | down. | - | | | | | | - |Do. do. | 4 11 | 10 0 | |3 Nearly sound | - | | | | | 7½ years after | - |English Oak, | 4 7 | 10 0 | | being laid | - | kyanised, | | | | down. | - | | | | | | - |Teak-wood, | 4 7 | 12 0 | |4 Nearly sound | - | | | | | 7½ years after | - |American Oak, | 4 3 | | | being laid | - | kyanised, 5 | | | | down. | - | | | | | | - |British Ash, | 3 0 | 5 0 | | | - | | | | |5 Decaying, | - |Scotch Elm, | 3 0 | 5 0 | | but slowly, 5 | - | | | | | years and 7 | - |Ash, | 2 11 | 4 3 | | months after | - | | | | | being laid | - |English Elm, | 2 11 | 4 7 | | down. | - | | | | | | - |Plane Tree, 6 | 2 11 | | |6 Decaying, | - | | | | | but slowly, 5 | - |American Oak, | 2 11 | 4 7 | | years and 7 | - | | | | | months after | - | | | | | being laid | - | | | | | down. | - | | | | | | - |Baltic Red | 2 9 | 4 3 | |7 A good deal | - | Pine, 7 | | | | decayed when | - | | | | | first observed. | - |English Oak, | 2 4 | 4 7 | | | - | | | | | | - |Scotch Oak, 8 | 2 4 | | |8 Much decayed | - | | | | | when first | - |Baltic Oak, | 2 4 | 4 3 | | observed. | - | | | | | | - |Norway Fir, | 2 4 | 3 1 | | | - | | | | | | - |Baltic Red | 2 4 | 4 7 | | | - | Pine, kyanised,| | | | | - | | | | | | - |Pitch Pine, | 2 4 | 4 3 | | | - | | | | | | - |American | 2 4 | 3 7 | | | - | Yellow Pine, | | | | | - | | | | | | - |American Red | 2 4 | 3 1 | | | - | Pine, | | | | | - | | | | | | - |Do. do., | 2 4 | 4 7 | | | - | kyanised, | | | | | - | | | | | | - |Larch, | 2 4 | 4 3 | | | - | | | | | | - |Honduras | 2 1 | | |9 Nearly sound | - | Mahogany, 9 | | | | 3½ years after | - | | | | | being laid | - |Beech, | 1 9 | 3 1 | | down. Washed | - | | | | | away 6 months | - |American Elm, | 1 9 | 3 1 | | later. | - | | | | | | - |Treenail of | 5 0 | 3 0 | | | - | Locust, | | | | | - | | | | | | - |British Oak, | 1 6 | 5 0 | | | - | | | | | | - |American Oak, | 1 6 | 5 0 | | | - | | | | | | - |Plane Tree, | 1 6 | 5 0 | | | - | | | | | | - |Honduras Teak | 1 6 | 5 0 | | | - | treenails, | | | | | - | | | | | | - |Beech, | 1 6 | 5 0 | | | - | | | | | | - |Scotch Fir, | 1 6 | 3 0 | | | - | teak treenails,| | | | | - | | | | | | - |Do. from | 1 6 | 3 0 | | | - | Lanarkshire, | | | | | - | | | | | | - |Do. do. | 1 6 | 3 0 | | | - | | | | | | - |Do. Locust | 1 6 | 3 0 | | | - | treenails, | | | | | - | | | | | | - |Memel Fir, | 1 6 | 5 0 | | | - | | | | | | - |Pitch Pine, 10 | 1 6 | 2 6 | |10 Going fast | - | | | | | when first | - |English Oak, | 1 1 | 3 1 | | observed. | - | | | | | | - |Italian Oak, | 1 1 | 3 6 | | | - | | | | | | - |Dantzic Oak, | 1 1 | 2 6 | | | - | | | | | | - |English Elm, | 1 1 | 1 6 | | | - | | | | | | - |Canada Rock | 1 1 | 1 6 | | | - | Elm, | | | | | - | | | | | | - |Cedar of | 1 1 | 2 6 | | | - | Lebanon, | | | | | - | | | | | | - |Riga Fir, | 1 1 | 1 6 | | | - | | | | | | - |Dantzic Fir, | 1 1 | 1 6 | | | - | | | | | | - |Virginia Pine, | 1 1 | 1 6 | | | - | | | | | | - |Yellow Pine, 11 | 1 1 | 1 6 | |11 A good deal | - | | | | | gone 18 months | - |Red Pine, | 1 1 | 1 6 | | after being | - | | | | | laid down. | - | | | | | Swept away by | - | | | | | the sea 7 | - | | | | | months | - | | | | | afterwards. | - | | | | | | - |Cawdie Pine, 12 | 1 1 | 1 6 | |12 A good deal | - | | | | | decayed when | - | | | | | first observed.| - | | | | | | - |Polish Larch, 13 | 1 1 | 1 6 | |13 Going fast | - | | | | | when first | - |Birch, Payne’s | 0 10 | 1 10 | | observed. | - | patent pro., | | | | | - | | | | | | - |American | 0 8 | 3 0 | | | - | Locust | | | | | - | treenails, | | | | | - +-----------------+---------+--------+--------+------------------+ - -Mr. Stevenson seems to have formed an opinion that the best -preservative against decay was charring the timber, as recommended in -the following extract from a report, made in 1811, to the Trustees of -Montrose Bridge:-- - - “The changeableness of climate to which the northern parts of this - island are subject renders edifices of timber more liable to decay - here than perhaps in any other country in Europe. But the bridge - at Montrose is curiously circumstanced; for while it unavoidably - exposes a great surface of timber to the action of the weather, - some of the wooden piers are immersed twenty-two feet in the water, - where they are attacked by a destructive marine worm. Some of the - woodwork at the Bell Rock was infested with the same species of - animal which preys upon the wooden pier at Montrose. In some of - the temporary works there, as in the beams laid for carrying the - railway over the inequalities of the rock, the timber was so much - wormed that some logs measuring one foot when laid down would not - square to more than nine inches at the end of three years. The - beams which supported the wooden house for the accommodation of - the artificers while the lighthouse was erecting escaped almost - untouched, having been slightly charred, but the reporter, when - inspecting the Bell Rock works this year, found that these worms - are making some impression upon the ends of the supports resting - on the rock where the charring could not take effect. The reporter - is therefore of opinion that there is no better defence against - the effects of this animal than slightly charring the timber, and - he would recommend the practice at the bridge of Montrose wherever - it can be applied. The operation of charring at the Bell Rock was - performed by previously scraping off the adhering matter upon the - logs and laying the skin of the wood open, and tar was applied - to promote the combustion. Charcoal, besides being tasteless and - inodorous, possesses some very curious properties in its action - upon vegetable and animal substances, which may not only render it - insipid, but even offensive to this insect. For those parts between - the high-water mark and the roadway it will be enough to scrape the - timber and lay it over with hot tar.” - -I need hardly say that this advice would perhaps not have been given at -the present day, when even creosote has been found to delay, though not -to act as a perfect defence against, the ravages of the _Limnoria_.[10] - - -PRESERVATION OF IRON. - -At a more recent period Mr. Stevenson experimented at the Bell Rock -Lighthouse in the same way on twenty-five different kinds of malleable -iron, with the result that all of them were soon affected, and that -galvanised specimens resisted oxidation from three to four years, after -which the chemical action went on as quickly as in the others. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -BRIDGES. - -1811-1833. - - Marykirk, Annan, Stirling, and Hutcheson stone bridges--High-level - bridge for Newcastle--Timber bridge of built planks--Winch - Chain Bridge--American bridges of suspension--Runcorn - Bridge--Menai Chain Bridge--New form of suspension bridge. - - -Mr. Stevenson’s stone bridges over the North Esk at Marykirk, and -the Nith at Annan (Plate VI.), are good specimens of road bridges -of moderate extent; and his bridge over the Forth at Stirling, and -Hutcheson Bridge over the Clyde at Glasgow (Plate VII.), are structures -of a larger class. - -Of the latter, Mr. Fenwick, of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in -the preface to his work on the _Mechanics of Construction_, published -in 1861, says,--“The London and Waterloo Bridges, in the metropolis, -which rank among the finest structures of the _elliptical arch_, and -Stevenson’s Hutcheson Bridge at Glasgow, which is one of the best -specimens of the _segmental arch_, together with many others, have -supplied me with a variety of problems for illustration.” - -[Illustration: - - _PLATE VI._ - - ANNAN BRIDGE - 1824. - - MARYKIRK BRIDGE - 1811. - - _W. & A. K. Johnston, Edinburgh._ -] - -[Illustration: - - _PLATE VII._ - - HUTCHESON BRIDGE, GLASGOW. - 1828. - - STIRLING BRIDGE. - 1829. - - _W. & A. K. Johnston, Edinburgh._ -] - -[Illustration: - - _PLATE VIII._ - - DESIGN FOR HIGH LEVEL ROAD BRIDGE AT NEWCASTLE ON TYNE. - 1828. - - TRANSVERSE SECTION. - - _W. & A. K. Johnston, Edinburgh._ -] - -The Hutcheson Bridge was completed in 1832. The masonry of the piers -was laid at the level of seven feet below the bed of the Clyde, on a -platform of timber, on piles eighteen feet in length. I found by -a section made in 1845, after a lapse of thirteen years, that the level -of the river had been lowered, in consequence of the deepening of the -river Clyde by the Navigation Trustees, no less than eleven feet, and -even with that amount of scour the bridge was, and might long have -remained, a safe structure. But immediately above its site there is a -weir which dams up the Clyde and forms a lake, or almost still pool, in -the river’s bed for several miles. It was determined, in the interests -of navigation, to take powers to remove the weir, and on its removal -the bridge could, no longer be pronounced safe; it was also resolved to -take powers to replace the Hutcheson by the new Albert Bridge, designed -by Messrs. Bell and Miller. - - * * * * * - -Mr. Stevenson has also left behind him some traces of originality of -design in bridge-building. - -In 1826 he gave a design to the Corporation of Newcastle for raising on -the existing bridge another roadway, on a high level, to communicate -with the higher parts of the town, as shown in Plate VIII., being the -idea since so successfully carried out on a large scale by the late -Mr. Robert Stephenson in his justly celebrated “high-level railway -viaduct.” Mr. Stevenson’s design, as will be seen, consists of piers of -masonry raised on the piers of the old bridge supporting a roadway of -cast iron. The upper bridge being continued across the quays on either -side of the river, and joining the roadways leading towards the south -and north by easy gradients, avoided the circuitous and dangerous route -of the old post road through Newcastle. - -For timber bridges Mr. Stevenson also proposed, in 1831, a new form -of arch of a beautiful and simple construction (Fig. 16), in which -what may be called the “ring-courses” of the arch are formed of layers -of thin planks bent into the circular form and stiffened by _kingpost -pieces_, on which the level roadway rests. This form of bridge was -afterwards very generally employed for railway bridges before the -discovery had been made that for such works, structures of iron were, -in the end, more economical than timber. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.] - -In 1820, he proposed to the Cramond District of Road Trustees, with a -view mainly to lessening the cost of the work, a form of suspension -bridge applicable to spans of moderate width, in which the roadway -passes _above_ the chains, and the necessity for tall piers is avoided. -The suspension bridge over the Rhone at Geneva, and other bridges, have -since been constructed on this principle. - -In 1821 Mr. Stevenson wrote an article on Suspension Bridges for the -_Edinburgh Philosophical Journal_; and as it contains a description of -this new form of construction, as well as some historical information -relative to bridges on the suspension principle, a few extracts from -the paper may not be without interest:-- - - “_Winch Chain Bridge._--The earliest bridges of suspension of - which we have any account are those of China, said to be of great - extent; Major Rennell also describes a bridge of this kind over - the Sampoo in Hindostan, of about 600 feet in length. But the - first chain bridge in our own country is believed to have been - that of Winch Bridge over the river Tees, forming a communication - between the counties of Durham and York. This bridge is noticed - and an elevation of it given in the third volume of Hutchison’s - _Antiquities of Durham_, printed at Carlisle in 1794. As this - volume is extremely scarce, owing to the greater part of the - impression having been accidentally destroyed by fire, the writer - of this article applied for a sight of it from the library of his - friend, Mr. Isaac Cookson of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The following - account is given by Hutchison at p. 279:--‘The environs of the - river (Tees) abound with the most picturesque and romantic scenes; - beautiful falls of water, rocks and grotesque caverns. About two - miles above Middleton, where the river falls in repeated cascades, - a bridge suspended on iron chains is stretched from rock to rock - over a chasm nearly sixty feet deep, for the passage of travellers, - but particularly of miners; the bridge is seventy feet in length, - and little more than two feet broad, with a hand-rail on one side, - and planked in such a manner that the traveller experiences all - the tremulous motion of the chain, and sees himself suspended over - a roaring gulf, on an agitated and restless gangway, to which few - strangers dare trust themselves.’ We regret that we have not been - able to learn the precise date of the erection of this bridge, but - from good authority we have ascertained that it was erected about - the year 1741. - - “_American Bridges of Suspension._--It appears from a treatise - on Bridges by Mr. Thomas Pope, architect, of New York, published - in that city in the year 1811, that eight chain bridges have - been erected upon the catenarian principle, in different parts of - America. It here deserves our particular notice, however, in any - claim for priority of invention with our transatlantic friends, - that the chain bridge over the Tees was known in America, as - Pope quotes Hutchison’s vol. iii., and gives a description of - Winch Bridge. It further appears from this work that a patent was - granted by the American Government for the erection of bridges of - suspension in the year 1808. Our American author also describes - a bridge of this construction, which seems to have been erected - about the year 1809, over the river Merrimack in the State of - Massachusetts, consisting of a catenarian arch of 244 feet span. - The roadway of this bridge is suspended between two abutments or - towers of masonry, thirty seven feet in height, on which piers - of carpentry are erected which are thirty five feet in height. - Over these ten chains are suspended, each measuring 516 feet in - length, their ends being sunk into deep pits on both sides of the - river, where they are secured by large stones. The bridge over the - Merrimack has two carriage-ways, each of fifteen feet in breadth. - It is also described as having three chains which range along the - sides, and four in the middle, or between the two roadways. The - whole expense of this American work is estimated to have been - 20,000 dollars. - - “_Proposed Bridge at Runcorn._--Perhaps the most precarious and - difficult problem ever presented to the consideration of the - British engineer was the suggestion of some highly patriotic - gentlemen of Liverpool, for constructing a bridge over the estuary - of the Mersey at Runcorn Gap, about twenty miles from Liverpool. - The specifications for this work provided that the span of the - bridge should measure at least 1000 feet, and that its height above - the surface of the water should not be less than sixty feet, so as - to admit of the free navigation of this great commercial river. The - idea of a bridge at Runcorn, we believe, was first conceived about - the year 1813, when the demand for labour was extremely low, and a - vast number of the working classes of Lancashire were thrown out of - employment. A variety of designs for this bridge were procured by - a select committee of the gentlemen who took an interest in this - great undertaking. The plan most approved of, however, was the - design of a bridge of suspension; and Mr. Telford the engineer, and - Captain Brown of the Royal Navy, are understood pretty nearly to - have concurred in opinion as to the practicability of such a work. - Mr. Telford has reported fully on the subject, and has estimated - the expense of his design at from £63,000 to £85,000, according to - different modes of execution. Though as yet little advancement has - been made in carrying this enterprising design into execution, yet - the novelty and magnitude of an arch of 1000 feet span is a subject - of so much interest that we have thought it proper in this place to - mention these circumstances. - - “_Menai Chain Bridge._--The Straits of Menai, which separate - the island of Anglesea from Caernarvonshire, have long formed a - troublesome obstruction upon the great road from London to Dublin - by Holyhead, by which the troublesome ferry of Bangor might be - avoided. Many plans for the execution of this undertaking have also - been agitated, chiefly in cast iron, including a range of estimate - from about £128,000 to £268,000; but that which is now acted upon - is a bridge of suspension upon the catenarian principle, the extent - of which between the piers or points of suspension is to be 560 - feet, the estimate for which is only about £70,000. This by many - has been considered a work of great uncertainty; but the Union - Bridge on this plan has already been executed on the Tweed, to the - extent of 361 feet.” - -Mr. Stevenson then goes on to mention several wire and chain bridges -erected in Scotland, and gives the following description of his design -for Cramond Bridge:-- - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.] - - “Fig. 17 is a section and plan designed for crossing the river - Almond on the great north road between Edinburgh and Queensferry. - The extent of the span between the points of suspension is laid - down at 150 feet. The chief circumstances which particularise - this design are a mode of fixing the chains to the abutments of - suspension on each side of the river, by which the main chains - can be distributed equally under the roadway. The main chains are - likewise made to collapse or turn round the abutments of masonry, - as will be seen from the section, in which the parts of the work - are so contrived that access can be had to the chains by an arched - way on each side. In this design the two ends of the chains are - formed into great _nails_ or bolts, with countersunk or conical - heads made to fit into corresponding hollow tubes of cast iron - built into the masonry of the abutments. - - “From this description the reader will readily form an idea of the - simplicity and effect of this mode of fixing the chains, being - such, also, that any particular chain may be withdrawn and replaced - without deranging the fabric of the bridge. The roadway, instead of - being _suspended_ from the main chains, is made up to the proper - level upon the chains by a framework of cast iron, prepared for the - reception of a stratum of broken stones for the road. - - “The making up of the roadway of this bridge, however, and the - enlarged angle of its suspension, may be considered as limiting - the span or extent of bridges of this construction to about 200 - feet. The structure represented by Fig. 17 appears to possess many - advantages for bridges of that modified extent, and the manner of - fixing the chains is applicable to all bridges of suspension; it is - likewise new, so far as we know.” - -In the close of his paper Mr. Stevenson says:-- - - “To what extent suspension bridges may be carried is very - uncertain, and he who has the temerity to advance sceptical or - circumscribed views on this subject would do well to reflect upon - the history of the steam-engine. When the Marquis of Worcester - first proposed, by the boiling of water, to produce an effective - force, no one could have conceived the incalculable advantages - which have since followed its improvement by our illustrious - countryman, Watt.” - -A prophetic announcement, which has had its full realisation in the -Suspension _Railway_ Bridge of 821 feet span at Niagara Falls, and in -the still bolder design now in execution for connecting New York and -Brooklyn by a steel wire suspension bridge, having a clear opening -between the piers of no less than 1600 feet. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -WOLF ROCK LIGHTHOUSE. - - -About the year 1812, Mr. Stevenson having, as adviser of the -Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses, attained the position of being -the most eminent Lighthouse Engineer of his day, was requested by the -Admiralty to report on the practicability of erecting a lighthouse on -the Wolf Rock, lying about eight miles off the Land’s End in Cornwall. - -I give, from Mr. Stevenson’s “Journal,” the following curious account -of the first visit he made to the rock; and it may perhaps be as well -to say that all quotations made from what I have called his “Journal” -are records of what he roughly noted down at the time in the form of -a Diary, and are on that account perhaps all the more interesting, at -least to non-professional readers. - - “_14th Sept. 1813._--Waited upon Sir Robert Calder, Admiral of the - port of Plymouth, on the 13th, in consequence of letters from Lord - Melville relative to a vessel to carry me to the Wolf Rock. - - “The Admiral accordingly appointed the ‘Orestes,’ Captain Smith, to - proceed with me to the Wolf, and after landing me there, and having - made my observations, Captain Smith was directed to land me at any - port most convenient for me, according to the state of the weather. - Captain Smith, in consequence of this order, and to suit my - convenience, got the ‘Orestes’ in readiness two days sooner than he - otherwise intended, and I embarked on the 14th at 2 P.M. agreeably - to appointment. - - “The Captain took me by the hand and welcomed me on board His - Majesty’s ship, and introduced me to his first lieutenant, Mr. - Fallick. He then proceeded to give orders for casting off, which - was done in an instant after the word was given. The ‘Orestes’ is - properly a gun brig, but rigged as a ship, has 28 guns and 100 men. - Kept plying to windward, and in the evening had the Eddystone light - in view, still upon our lee quarter, distant eight or ten miles. - - “_15th._--Kept working along the shore all day, and at 7 P.M. a - pilot from Mousehole by Penzance came on board. Upon consulting - the pilot, he recommended that the ship should be brought to an - anchor in Mounts Bay, or rather Newland Road, all night, as it - would answer no good purpose to go round the land so soon after a - fresh gale of wind, with the view of landing on the Wolf, which - he represented as being only practicable in the finest of summer - weather. This was poor heartening. The Captain submitted to me - whether it were not more advisable to come to an anchor, in which, - with all submission to him, I consented. The ship, accordingly, was - brought to an anchor in twelve fathoms, clean sand. - - “On board of the ‘Orestes’ two of the people were punished,--one - for threatening to _knock down_ the serjeant of marines, while on - duty, received three dozen; another who offered an insult to a - lieutenant, received one dozen. - - “I was sitting below, the time this was going forward, when all - hands were piped on deck, and the Captain began to read the - Articles of War. He had previously said to me that two men were in - irons, whom he meant to punish and liberate. I went upon deck to - learn the cause of all being so quiet, and discovering what was - intended, I went below and waited in great suspense till the men - began to call out for mercy. I took the liberty of sending a note - to the Captain--the circumstances were so painful to me--to see if - he could remit any part of the punishment, to which I afterwards - understood he had listened, as he did not give them so many lashes - as was intended. Captain Smith had by no means the character of a - severe commander, as I understood from some of the officers he had - been two years in the ship, and had only punished twice. - - “About 9 P.M., while the Captain and myself were at supper, we - heard a conversation between the pilot and Mr. Fallick, the first - lieutenant, about a vessel being on fire. The former was of opinion - that it was a pilchard boat, the crew of which were roasting - pilchards, while Mr. Fallick insisted that it was a vessel on fire. - In a short time the vessel or boat appeared to be in flames, and - with all sail set she approached the ‘Orestes.’ On shore the people - of Penzance and Mousehole were afraid of the ‘Orestes’ taking fire - and discharging a broadside upon the town. In the meantime the - vessel on fire approached the ‘Orestes’ so directly that Captain - Smith gave orders to veer out all the cable, stand by to cut or - bend on more rope, according to circumstances. - - “The weather became moderate, and we had little or no wind, and the - vessel on fire (which turned out to be a sloop of 80 or 90 tons, - bound for St. Sebastian with bottled porter and bale goods) passed - ahead of the ‘Orestes’ about half a cable’s length. Her hull was - then completely on fire, but the rigging and sails had not then - caught fire, and she kept an undeviating course till she grounded - on the shore. - - “Captain Smith then despatched officers and men in three boats to - endeavour to save as much as possible, but a report having gone - abroad that she had gunpowder on board no person ventured near the - vessel on fire till it was too late to be of any service, and in - the morning when Captain Smith and I went on shore nothing remained - but the keel and a few of the ‘futtocks’ half burned, and the mast - over by the deck, the lower part having been consumed by the - flames. The vessel was just getting under weigh when the accident - occurred, through the carelessness of a boy, who set a lighted - candle into a crate of straw in which bottles were packed. The crew - soon afterwards appear to have carelessly deserted the vessel and - landed at Mounts Bay, three miles from Mousehole, and appear not to - have been very active in doing what was in their power. The loss of - ship and cargo was estimated at £14,000. - - “_16th._--Got under weigh at 6 P.M., and left Mousehole Bay with - an intention to go round the land; but the weather fell calm, and - after shutting in the Lizard lights came to an anchor in Mounts - Bay till next morning. The Lizard lights appeared to very great - advantage. - - “_17th._--Got under weigh at 6 A.M., wind shifting from southwest - to east with a fine breeze, and at 11 A.M. got up with the Wolf - Rock. At 12 noon two boats were manned--one commanded by a - midshipman, and the other by Lieutenant Fallick, into which I - went, and after pulling round and round the rock with both boats, - sounding all the while, we made preparations for landing. Mr. - Fallick arranged his boat’s crew, and let go a grapling over the - stern, then veered away upon this stern rope watching a smooth, and - when the boat was near enough the young man (the same who had two - days before got one dozen of lashes) appointed to land with a bow - rope to make fast, leaped upon the rock, and upon these two ropes - the boat was hauled off and on with great ease and facility. In - this manner Lieutenant Fallick landed next, then I landed, but not - without much difficulty, and watching an opportunity to get on the - rock with a smooth between the seas. - - “Upon leaving the ship, about a quarter of a mile from the rock, - I began to sound, and at from two to three cables’ length off the - rock have 41, 40, and 38 fathoms water, with shell sand of a fair - colour. At about one cable’s length have 13 fathoms, same bottom. - Within this distance have 10, 8, 5, 3½, and 2 fathoms, chiefly - rocky bottom. - - “The rock is steep in all directions; the south-west if anything - draws to a point with rather less water near it than in other - directions. - - “At low water of a neap tide the rock appeared to be about twelve - or fourteen feet in perpendicular height above the surface of the - water. Its surface is very irregular, jutting up in masses of from - six to ten feet in height. These inequalities all presented marked - and angular outlines, terminating in well-defined points and edges. - The central part of the rock is formed pretty much into a hollow, - where there have been some quarrying operations in fixing the - beacon which was erected upon it. The margin of the rock is upon - the whole pretty regular, as it appears jutting out of the water. - On the eastern side it is not so regularly formed at the water’s - edge as on the western side. It slopes outwards, and seems to form - a large stool in every direction. At some places there are guts or - slips in the rock, but none of these are large enough to be useful - for a boat landing at. The best and perhaps the only landing place - is at the north-east side, where the rock is most precipitous. - - “Taking the dimensions in the largest directions with the - lead-line, in fathoms, it measured twenty-two fathoms in a - north-east and south-west direction, and sixteen fathoms in a - north-west and south-east direction. - - “Upon the surface in the middle, at the hollow place, I found a - hole of six inches in depth, and about nine inches square, and - connected with it, at six feet distant, three holes for bats, which - I presume to have been the step of the beacon, and the iron bats - were still to be seen which had been used as guys. This fragile - affair appears to have wanted base and every requisite suited to - such an exposed situation and important purpose, and accordingly - the beacon, with a wolf of metallic work, erected by a Lieutenant - Smith, who erected the Longships Lighthouse, is said not to have - remained longer than a few days, and was carried away in the first - storm. - - “Besides these holes and bats, which last seem not to have exceeded - 1½ inch iron in strength, I found several eye bolts in different - parts of the rock, particularly at the landing place, which had - been put in to make fast boats, etc., while the beacon was being - erected. - - “The surface of the rock is extremely rugged, and running in every - direction into sharp angular points. The rock seems to run in beds - from an inch to a foot in thickness. It has much the appearance - of limestone, but upon a narrow inspection it turns out to be - porphyry. It is covered with the barnacle, many limpets of a very - large size--say two inches diameter,--and mussels. These were the - only animal productions that were found upon it. Of the marine - _fuci_ there were two or three varieties. - - “That it would be practicable to erect a building upon this rock I - have no doubt, but from its shape and figure, and the great depth - of water in all directions round it, together with the smallness - of its dimensions, it would be a work of great difficulty, and be - attended with much expense and great hazard. - - “I am therefore of opinion that it might cost from £80,000 to - £90,000 to erect a lighthouse at the Wolf, with all the requisite - buildings and appointments, like the Bell Rock Lighthouse. - - “In a conversation on this subject with Lieutenant Smith in 1806 - (who had erected the beacon on the Wolf), he pronounced it as - an impracticable work. But his opinion, from the work he had - performed at the Longships, and other circumstances, made very - little impression upon my mind, at the time, in regard to the Bell - Rock, and since seeing the Wolf Rock I think his arguments were ill - founded, and I am perfectly decided in opinion that the work is a - practicable one. - - “The wind being nearly easterly, and consequently unfavourable for - returning with dispatch to Plymouth, the captain gravely proposed - that we should stand towards ‘the Bay’ for a few days, when it - might shift. Not being fully aware of what was meant by the Bay, I - put the question, when to my surprise he meant the Bay of Biscay, - and said we should see St. Sebastian, which had just fallen; but to - this I replied, that I should much rather be landed at the Land’s - End. He was constantly on the outlook for prizes, and as I came not - to fight I wanted much to be on shore, that I might pursue my way - to Bath, where I knew Mr. Rae, the Sheriff of Edinburgh, would be - waiting my return to proceed upon the visit to the Prisons on our - return to Scotland. - - “The ship was therefore directed to steer for the Land’s End, and - the pilot took the ship within the Longships Lighthouse, and he and - I landed at Sennan on the same evening. - - “Having procured horses for myself and luggage, I set off - immediately for Penzance, which I reached about 10 o’clock at - night, the 17th September, much pleased with my trip upon the whole. - - “_18th._--Leave Penzance, and reach Falmouth by the fly. - - “_19th._--Leave Falmouth, and that same night, or early next - morning, reach Exeter. - - “_20th._--At 6 A.M. leave Exeter, and 8 P.M. reach Bath. - - “From Plymouth to the Wolf, and returning to Bath, only eight days.” - -Mr. Stevenson at a subsequent date made another visit to the Wolf, -accompanied by an assistant, when a careful survey was made, followed -by a well-considered design, which is shown in Plate IX., and is -described by him as follows:-- - -[Illustration: - - _PLATE IX._ - -_DESIGN FOR WOLF ROCK LIGHT HOUSE._ - - _W. & A. K. Johnston, Edinburgh._ -] - - “Plate IX. is the section of a design formed by the revolution of - the parabola round the axis of a building, as its asymptote, whose - base measures fifty-six feet in diameter, and parallel at the top - of the solid is thirty-six feet; and height to the entrance door, - thirty-five feet. The contents of this figure between these - parallels is calculated at 45,000 cubic feet; but the whole of - the masonry of the design is estimated at 70,624 cubic feet. Its - general features may be stated as similar to those of the Eddystone - and Bell Rock Lighthouses, the parts being only enlarged, and the - parabolic instead of the logarithmic curve adopted for its outline. - In this design, the parabolic curve is continued from the basement - to the copestone of the light room, exclusively of the projection - for the cornice and balcony. The masonry is intended to be 120 - feet in height, estimating from the medium level of the sea, of - which the solid, or from the foundation to the entrance door, forms - thirty-five feet, the staircase twenty-five feet, and the remaining - sixty feet of its height is occupied with six apartments, and the - walls of the light room. In the staircase a recess is formed for - containing the machinery for raising the stores to the height of - the entrance door; here a small hole is perforated through the - building for the admission of the purchase chain. The thickness - of the walls immediately above the solid is twelve feet; at the - top of the stone staircase they are eight feet, and where the - walls are thinnest, immediately under the cornice, they measure - two feet. A drop hole formed in the courses of the staircase and - solid, provides for the range of the weight of a revolving light. - The ascent to this building, as at the Bell Rock, is intended - to be by an exterior stair or ladder of brass, and the interior - communication between the several apartments by means of flights of - circular oaken steps.” - -The only estimate Mr. Stevenson ever made of the work was that already -stated in his Journal, at a cost of £80,000 to £90,000 for the tower -and requisite dwellings for the lightkeepers and crew of attending -vessel ashore. - -Mr. Stevenson’s original visit was, as we have seen, made in 1813, and -in 1870, after a lapse of fifty-seven years, the present tower on -the Wolf Rock, the joint work of the late Mr. James Walker and of Mr. -James N. Douglass, was successfully accomplished under the auspices -of the Trinity House. The cost of the tower, exclusively of the shore -establishment, which it was unnecessary to provide, was £62,726, being -not very different from the estimate of Mr. Stevenson (from £80,000 to -£90,000), which included a shore establishment. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -CARR ROCK BEACON. - -1810-1821. - - -The Carr Rock is a tide-covered reef extending about 1¾ mile from the -shore of Fifeness, and forming a _turning point_ in the navigation -of the northern-bound shipping of the Firth of Forth, and on Mr. -Stevenson’s recommendation the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses -resolved to erect a beacon of masonry to mark the danger. - -It may seem to be unnecessary, after describing the Bell Rock -Lighthouse, to notice so apparently small a work as this; but in such -matters it is unsafe to generalise; each case must be considered on its -own merits, and great difficulties were encountered in accomplishing -the work. The formation of the Carr Rock rendered it impracticable to -secure a base for a building of greater diameter than eighteen feet, -and as part of that base had to be founded under the level of the -lowest tides by cofferdams which were removed and taken ashore after -each tide’s work, even the Engineer of the Bell Rock Lighthouse found -all his resources taxed to a considerable extent, and he was in the end -foiled in carrying out his design for the building. But irrespectively -of these physical difficulties, the Carr Rock is a work of great -interest to the lighthouse engineer, inasmuch as Mr. Stevenson at that -early date conceived the idea of calling to his aid the power given -by the rise of tide on the building to move a train of clock work to -sound a warning bell; and again, when the destruction of the upper -portion of his beacon by the sea obliged him to relinquish this plan, -unwilling to be beaten, he suggested that the same tidal action might -be made to sound a whistle; and failing that, he proposed to exhibit a -phosphorescent light from the top of the building. All of these ideas -suggested by Mr. Stevenson’s inventive mind have been from time to time -revived by modern inventors. - -The original design of the Carr Rock Beacon was made in 1810, and -the work was commenced in 1813. After portions of the masonry had -repeatedly been carried away by the sea, the original design for -surmounting the building by a bell to be rung by the rise and fall -of the tide was abandoned, and the beacon was completed in 1821, by -raising an iron structure, as shown in Plate X. Fig. X-2, on the -foundation that had escaped the fury of the sea, and that structure is -still in perfect preservation. So great, indeed, was the difficulty -that Mr. Stevenson, in 1818, contemplated using blocks of cast iron -instead of stone to insure greater specific gravity--a proposal which -is believed to have been then made for the first time. - -The following is Mr. Stevenson’s own description of this interesting -work:-- - -“The form and construction of the Carr Rock Beacon, as originally -designed and ultimately executed, will be better understood by -referring to Plate X. The motion originally intended to be given to -the bell-apparatus, or tide machine, Fig. X-1, was to be effected by -admitting the sea through a small aperture of three inches in diameter, -perforated in the solid masonry, communicating with a cylindrical -chamber in the centre of the building, measuring two feet in diameter, -in which a float or metallic air tank was to rise and fall with the -tide. During the period of flood tide, the air vessel, in its elevation -by the pressure of the water, was to give motion to machinery for -tolling the bell and winding up a weight, which last, in its descent, -during ebb tide, was to continue the motion of the machine, until the -flood tide again returned to perform the joint operation of tolling the -bell and raising the weight. A working model of a machine upon this -principle having been constructed, it was kept in motion for a period -equal to several months; this was effected by water run through a -succession of tanks raised by a pump from the lower one to the higher, -thus producing the effect of flood and ebb tides. The time during which -this apparatus was in action having been ascertained by an index, a -constant attendance upon the machine during this protracted experiment -became unnecessary. - -[Illustration: - - _PLATE X._ - -CARR ROCK BEACON AS DESIGNED IN THE YEAR 1810 - -CARR ROCK BEACON AS EXECUTED IN THE YEAR 1821] - -“The upper termination of the beacon, in its present form, as shown in -Fig. X-2, does not admit of the application of the tide machine with -the bell apparatus. Experiments as applicable to this have, however, -been tried with a wind instrument, to be sounded by the pressure of the -sea water, but it has not succeeded to the extent that seems necessary -for a purpose of this kind. We have, indeed, thought that the -application of pressure as a power, communicated by the waters of the -ocean, in mechanical operations, might be carried to almost any extent -by simply providing a chamber or dock large enough for the reception of -a float or vessel, of dimensions equivalent to the force required. This -description of machinery is more particularly applicable in situations -where the tides have a great rise, as in the Solway Firth, Bristol -Channel, and other parts of the British seas; and at St. Malo on the -coast of France. - -“A beacon of any form, unprovided with a light, must always be -considered an imperfect landmark, and therefore various modes have -been contemplated for more completely pointing out the position of -the Carr Rock. It has been proposed that phosphoric lights should be -exhibited from the top of the building. This object, however, would -be more certainly accomplished by the erection of leading lights upon -the island of May and mainland of Fife. But these, with other plans, -which have been under the writer’s consideration, would necessarily -be attended with a great additional expense, which, in the present -instance, it is not thought advisable to incur.” - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -CRANES. - - -It appears that Mr. Stevenson was much perplexed as to what sort -of cranes he should use in building the Bell Rock Lighthouse. His -difficulties were twofold:-- - -_First_, In consequence of the dovetailed form of the stones he -required a crane that would drop them as nearly as possible on the beds -on which they were permanently to rest. - -_Second_, Supposing he devised a _guy crane_ that overcame this -difficulty, what was to be done as the building rose in height, and the -guys became too nearly perpendicular to admit of such a crane being -used? - -In his private notes Mr. Stevenson regrets that he could get no advice -from anybody he consulted, all of whom recommended him to employ common -sheer poles, such as had been used by Smeaton at the Eddystone; and he -adds, “I may say, morning, noon, and night, these difficulties have -haunted me.” But thrown back on his own resources, and appreciating the -difficulty as no one else could so well do, he found, as is often the -case, that he was his own best counsellor, and he succeeded in solving -the problem that had given him so much concern, by inventing what he -called the “moveable beam crane,” and also the “balance crane,” which -are shown in Plate XI. The former, as modified to suit particular -cases, is now in universal use for building purposes, and the latter -has been employed in rearing most of our Rock Lighthouses, so that I -think professional readers will not object to my giving Mr. Stevenson’s -description of these cranes, as designed by him at the beginning of -this century. He says:-- - -“In cranes of the common construction the beam is a fixture, and -is placed at right angles to the upright shaft: but in the machine -represented in the Plate (Fig. XI-1), its attachment is at the lower -extremity of the crane, where it is moveable up and down upon a journal -or bolt. This crane is therefore termed a moveable beam crane. The -moveable property of the beam, in so far as the writer knows, is new, -and possesses the advantage of laying any stone within its range -perpendicularly on its site. This, from the dovetailed form of the -stones at the Bell Rock, rendered it particularly fitted for this work, -to which a crane of the ordinary construction could hardly be said to -be applicable. At the Eddystone Lighthouse this operation was performed -by means of triangular sheers; but, from the greater extent of the Bell -Rock works, and their greater depth in the water, such means must have -rendered the process of building extremely tedious. These cranes were -necessarily immersed at high water, and were retained in their places -by four guys fixed at the top of the upright shaft, and the moveable -jib or beam being lowered down, was secured to an eyebolt batted into -the rock.” - -[Illustration: - - _PLATE XI._ - -_MOVEABLE JIB AND BALANCE CRANES._ - - _W. & A. K. Johnston, Edinburgh._ -] - -“The ‘balance crane’ (Fig. XI-2) was constructed on a new principle -for building the upper part of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, when the guy -ropes of the moveable beam crane became ‘too taut,’ as sailors express -it, or were too near the perpendicular, thereby rendering the beam -cranes unstable. To remedy this, the balance crane was so arranged as -to be kept in equilibrium by a back weight of cast iron, so adapted -as to counteract the varying load upon the working arm or beam. The -elevation here represented is the same in principle with that used at -the Bell Rock, but differs somewhat in form, agreeably to improvements -made in order to adapt it to the erection of the Carr Rock Beacon. -The upright central column is a tube of cast iron put together in -convenient lengths with flush joints, after the manner of spigot and -faucet, fitted by turning and boring. The centre column of this machine -might have been carried to any suitable or convenient height, by adding -length to length, as the building advanced, without once moving the -foot on which it rested, but at the Bell Rock not more than three -lengths of from six to nine feet were generally in use. A malleable -iron cross head was stepped into the void of the central shaft or -column when the body of the crane was to be elevated. This operation -was accomplished simply by hooking the main ‘purchase’ and ‘traveller’ -chains into the eyes of the crosshead, when the machinery of the crane -was employed with great facility as a locomotive power for lifting -itself as each new length of central column was added. The weight of -this crane as used at the Carr Rock did not exceed two tons.” - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -FISHERIES. - - -Mr. Stevenson was ever an intelligent and anxious observer of the -habits and industry of the people of those remote and isolated parts of -the country which he so often visited. He was specially interested in -the fisheries from which they mainly derive their support, as testified -by frequent allusions to them in his journals and notes. - -The following notice regarding the state of the Scottish fisheries, -made in 1819, to the editor of the _Edinburgh Philosophical -Journal_,[11] will be read with interest:-- - -“Having been for many years conversant with the navigation of the -Scottish seas, I have, prior to the war with Holland, seen fleets of -Dutch ‘busses’ engaged in the herring fishery off the northern parts of -our coast. For a long time past, however, those industrious fishermen -had not ventured to approach these shores; and they are now only -beginning to reappear. - -“In the early part of August last, while sailing along the shores of -Kincardineshire, about ten miles off Dunnottar Castle, the watch upon -deck, at midnight, called out ‘Lights ahead.’ Upon a nearer approach -these lights were found to belong to a small fleet of Dutch fishermen -employed in the deep sea fishing, each vessel having a lantern at her -mast head. What success these plodding people had met with our crew -had no opportunity of inquiring; but upon arriving the next morning at -Fraserburgh,--the great fishing station on the coast of Aberdeen--we -found that about 120 boats, containing five men each, had commenced -the fishing season here six weeks before, and had that night caught -no fewer than about 1500 barrels of herrings, which in a general way, -when there is a demand for fish, may be valued at £1 sterling per -barrel to the fishermen, and may be regarded as adding to the wealth -of the country perhaps not less than £3000. In coasting along between -Fraserburgh and the Orkney Islands, another fleet of Dutch fishermen -was seen at a distance. The harbour and bay of Wick were crowded with -fishing boats and busses of all descriptions, collected from the Firth -of Forth and southward even as far as Yarmouth and Lowestoft. The -Caithness fishing was said to have been pretty successful, though not -equal to what it has been in former years. - -“In the Orkney and Shetland Islands one would naturally look for -extensive fishing establishments, both in herrings, and what are termed -white fish (cod, ling, and tusk); but it is a curious fact, that while -the Dutch have long come from their own coast to these islands to fish -herrings, it is only within a very few years that the people of Orkney, -chiefly by the spirited and praiseworthy exertions of Samuel Laing, -Esq., have given any attention to this important source of wealth. It -has long been a practice with the great fishmongers of London to send -their _welled_ smacks to fish for cod, and to purchase lobsters, around -the Orkney Islands; and both are carried alive to the London market. -This trade has done much good to these islands, and has brought a great -deal of money to them; but still it is of a more circumscribed nature, -and is less calculated to swell the national wealth, than the herring -and white fishery in general. - -“Hitherto the industry of the Orcadians has been chiefly directed to -farming pursuits; while the Shetlanders have been almost exclusively -occupied in the cod, ling, and tusk fishing. It is doubtful, indeed, -if, up to this period, there be a single boat belonging to the Shetland -Isles which is completely equipped for the herring fishery. But on -reaching Shetland another fleet of Dutch doggers was seen collecting in -numbers off these islands--a coast which is considered a rich harvest -in Holland. - -“So systematically do the Dutch pursue the fishing business upon our -coasts, that their fleet of busses is accompanied by an hospital ship. -This vessel we now found at anchor in Lerwick roads, and were informed -that she paid weekly visits to the fleet, to supply medicines, and to -receive any of the people falling sick, or meeting with any accident. - -“Though Shetland is certainly not so much an agricultural country as -Orkney, yet it may be hoped that the encouragement judiciously held -out by the Highland Society, for the production of green crops in -Shetland, may eventually have the effect of teaching these insular -farmers the practicability of providing fodder for their cattle in the -spring of the year. This has long been a great desideratum. The command -of a month or six weeks’ fodder would enable the proprietors of that -country to stock many of their fine verdant isles with cattle, and to -employ their hardy tenantry more exclusively in the different branches -of the fishery. - -“It is well known, that, next to the Newfoundland Banks, those of -Shetland are the most productive in ling, cod, tusk, and other white -fish; and by the recent discovery of a bank, trending many leagues to -the south-westward, the British merchants have made a vast accession -to their fishing grounds. The fishermen who reside in the small -picturesque bay of Scalloway, and in some of the other bays and voes on -the western side of the mainland of Shetland, have pursued with much -success the fishing upon this new bank, which I humbly presume to term -the REGENT FISHING BANK--a name at once calculated to mark the period -of its discovery, and pay a proper compliment to the Prince. Here -small sloops, of from fifteen to twenty-five tons burden, and manned -with eight persons, have been employed. In the beginning of August -they had this summer fished for twelve weeks, generally returning home -with their fish once a week. On an average, these vessels had caught -1000 fine cod fish a week, of which about 600 in a dried state go to -the ton, and these they would have gladly sold at about £15 per ton. -So numerous are the fish upon the Regent Fishing Bank, that a French -vessel, belonging, it is believed, to St. Malo, had sailed with her -second cargo of fish this season; and though the fishermen did not -mention this under any apprehension, as though there were danger of the -fish becoming scarce, yet they seemed to regret the circumstance, on -account of their market being thus preoccupied. - -“Here, and at Orkney, we had the pleasure to see many ships arriving -from the whale fishing, and parting with a certain proportion of their -crews. To such an extent, indeed, are the crews of the whalers made up -from these islands, that it is calculated that not less than £15,000 -in cash are annually brought into the islands by this means. With -propriety, therefore, may the whale fishery be regarded as one of the -most productive sources of national wealth connected with the British -Fisheries. - -“From the Orkney and Shetland Islands our course was directed to the -westward. A considerable salmon fishing seems to be carried on in the -mouths of the rivers of Lord Reay’s Country in Sutherlandshire: the -fish are carried from this to Aberdeen, and thence in regular trading -smacks to London. We heard little more of any kind of fishing till we -reached the Harris Isles. There, and throughout the numerous lochs -and fishing stations on the mainland, in the districts of Gairloch, -Applecross, Lochalsh, Glenelg, Moidart, Knoidart, Ardnamurchan, Mull, -Lorn, and Kintyre, we understood that there was a general lamentation -for the disappearance of herrings, which in former times used to crowd -into lochs which they seem now to have in some measure deserted. This -the fishermen suppose to be owing to the _Schools_ being broken and -divided about the Shetland and Orkney Islands; and they remark, that, -by some unaccountable change in the habits of the fish, the greatest -number now take the east coast of Great Britain. This is the more to -be regretted, that in Skye, the Lewis, Harris, and Uist Islands, the -inhabitants have of late years turned their attention much to the -fishing. Indeed, this has followed as a matter of necessity, from -the general practice of converting the numerous small arable farms, -which were perhaps neither very useful to the tenants nor profitable -to the laird, into great sheep walks; so that the inhabitants are -now more generally assembled upon the coast. The large sums expended -in the construction of the Caledonian Canal have, either directly or -indirectly, become a source of wealth to these people: they have been -enabled to furnish themselves with boats and fishing tackle, and for -one fishing boat which was formerly seen in the Hebrides only twenty -years ago, it may be safely affirmed that ten are to be met with now. -If the same spirit shall continue to be manifested, in spite of all -the objections which have been urged against the salt laws, and the -depopulating effects of emigration, the British Fisheries in these -islands, and along this coast, with a little encouragement, will be -wonderfully extended, and we shall ere long see the Highlands and -Islands of Scotland in that state to which they are peculiarly adapted, -and in which alone their continued prosperity is to be looked for, -viz., when their valleys, muirs, and mountains are covered with flocks, -and the people are found in small villages on the shores.” - - * * * * * - -The following history of the origin of the Shetland herring fishery, -communicated to _Blackwood’s Magazine_ in 1821, is, I think, worthy of -being recorded:-- - -“Few people, on examining the map of Scotland, would believe that the -herring fishing has only within these few years been begun in Orkney, -while the natives are almost strangers to the fishing of cod and ling. - -“On the other hand, it is no less extraordinary that although the cod -and ling fishery has been carried to so great an extent in Shetland -as to enable them to export many cargoes to the Catholic countries on -the Continent, not a herring net has been spread by the natives of -Shetland till the present year (1821), when Mr. Mowat of Gardie, and a -few other spirited proprietors of these islands, formed themselves into -an association, and subscribed the necessary funds for purchasing boats -and nets, to encourage the natives to follow the industrious example of -the Dutch. - -“The immediate management of this experimental fishery was undertaken -in the most patriotic and disinterested manner by Mr. Duncan, the -Sheriff-Substitute of Shetland. Having procured three boats, he -afterwards visited Orkney, to ascertain the mode of conducting the -business there, and having also got fishermen from the south, this -little adventure commenced. Its nets were first wetted in the month -of July, and it is believed its labours were concluded in the month -of September, after obtaining what is considered pretty good success, -having caught as follows, viz.:-- - - The ‘Experiment,’ 6-manned boat, 212½ crans. - The ‘Hope,’ 5 ” 119¾ ” - The ‘Nancy,’ 4 ” 80 ” - ------- - 412¼ ” - ======= - -“The great object which the Shetland gentlemen have in view, in this -infant establishment, is to give employment to their fishermen in the -herring trade, after the cod and ling season is over, and by this means -to enable them to partake of those bounties and encouragements so -properly bestowed by Government on the fisheries; and thus abstract the -attention of the lower orders of these islands from an illicit traffic -in foreign spirits, tea, and tobacco, which has greatly increased of -late years. - -“The profit of the herring fishing at its commencement has, however, -afforded more encouragement than could have been expected; for, besides -paying the men a liberal allowance for their labour, a small sum has -been applied towards defraying the expense of the boats and nets. But -what is of far more consequence to this patriotic association is the -spirit of enterprise which it is likely to create by bringing forward a -number of additional boats in the way of private adventure, which must -be attended with the best advantage to the Shetland Islands.” - - -THE SYMPIESOMETER. - -Again, in 1820, Mr. Stevenson took occasion to express his solicitude -for the welfare of the fishermen in the following note, suggesting the -means whereby they might sometimes avoid a coming storm--a suggestion -which is now to some extent carried out by the Board of Trade’s -establishment of marine barometers at many of our fishing stations:-- - -“Mr. Stevenson informs us,” says the editor of the _Edinburgh -Philosophical Journal_[12] for 1820, “that having occasion, in the -beginning of September last, to visit the Isle of Man, he beheld the -interesting spectacle of about 300 large fishing boats, each from -fifteen to twenty tons burden, leaving their various harbours at that -island in an apparently fine afternoon, and standing directly out to -sea with the intention of prosecuting the fishery under night. He at -the same time remarked that both the common marine barometer, and -Adie’s sympiesometer, which were in the cabin of his vessel, indicated -an approaching change of weather, the mercury falling to 29·5 inches. -It became painful, therefore, to witness the scene,--more than a -thousand industrious fishermen, lulled to security by the fineness of -the day, scattering their little barks over the face of the ocean, -and thus rushing forward to imminent danger or probable destruction. -At sunset, accordingly, the sky became cloudy and threatening, and in -the course of the night it blew a very hard gale, which afterwards -continued for three days successively. This gale completely dispersed -the fleet of boats, and it was not without the utmost difficulty that -many of them reached the various creeks of the island. It is believed -no lives were lost on this occasion, but the boats were damaged, -much tackle was destroyed, and the men were unnecessarily exposed -to danger and fatigue. During the same storm, it may be remarked, -thirteen vessels were either totally lost or stranded between the Isle -of Anglesea and St. Bee’s Head in Lancashire. Mr. Stevenson remarks, -how much it is to be regretted that the barometer is so little in use -in the mercantile marine of Great Britain, compared with the trading -vessels of Holland, and observes, that although the common marine -barometer is perhaps too cumbersome for the ordinary run of fishing and -coasting vessels, yet Adie’s sympiesometer is so extremely portable -that it might be carried even in a Manx boat. Each lot of such vessels -has a commodore, under whose orders the fleet sails; it would therefore -be a most desirable thing that a sympiesometer should be attached to -each commodore’s boat, from which a preconcerted signal of any expected -gale or change of weather as indicated by the sympiesometer could -easily be given.” - - -THE HABITS OF FISHES. - -The following notes as to the habits of fish may prove of interest to -the naturalist:-- - -“It has often been observed in the course of the Bell Rock operations, -that during the cold weather of spring and autumn, and even at all -seasons, in stormy weather, when the sea is much agitated by wind, -the fishes disappear entirely from the vicinity of the rock, probably -retreating into much deeper water, from which they do not seem -to return until a change of weather has taken place; so much was -this attended to by the seamen employed on this service, that they -frequently prognosticated and judged of the weather from this habit of -the fishes as well as from the appearance of the sky.” - -“It was a general remark at the Bell Rock that fish were never plenty -in its neighbourhood, excepting in good weather. Indeed, the seamen -used to speculate about the state of the weather from their success -in fishing. When the fish disappeared at the rock, it was considered -a sure indication that a gale was not far off, as the fish seemed to -seek shelter in deeper water, from the roughness of the sea, during -these changes of the weather. This evening, the landing master’s crew -brought to the rock a quantity of newly caught cod fish, measuring -from fifteen to twenty-four inches in length. The membrane called the -_sound_, which is attached to the backbone of fishes, being understood -to contain, at different times, greater portions of azote and of oxygen -than common air, the present favourable opportunity was embraced for -collecting a quantity of this gas in a drinking glass inverted into a -pail of salt water. The fish being held under this glass as a receiver, -their bladders were punctured, and a considerable quantity of gas was -thus collected. A lighted match was afterwards carefully introduced -into the glass, when the gas exhibited in a considerable degree the -bright and luminous flame which an excess of oxygen is known to -produce.” - -On showing this extract to my friend Dr. P. D. Handyside, who has -contributed some interesting papers to the Royal Society of Edinburgh -on the Polyodon gladius, he writes:--“Biot and De La Roche found that -the proportion of oxygen in the air bladder increases with the depth of -the water in which the fish usually lives, from a small quantity up to -87 per cent. Biot found in the deep Mediterranean fishes 87 parts of -oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid. Humboldt found in the electrical -eel 96 parts of nitrogen and 4 only of oxygen. No hydrogen has ever -been detected in this organ. In the air bladder of marine fishes oxygen -predominates, and in that of fresh-water fishes nitrogen. No air sacs -exist in rays, flounders, sole, turbot, and others which lie at the -bottom.” - -Dr. Handyside adds: “The extract shows with what a practical and -accurate mind your father was endowed, and I think, in justice to him, -you should give his observations.” - -I also communicated Mr. Stevenson’s papers on fishings to the Honble. -B. F. Primrose, C.B. (Secretary to the Fishery Board: Scotland), who -has kindly sent me a letter explaining why the progress of the fishings -in the Shetland Islands is slow, from which I give a few extracts:-- - - “I have read with great interest your father’s notes upon the - fisheries of Scotland. They bear distinctly the impress of that - practical and accurate mind with which he is described as having - been endowed. It is also pleasant to see that his mind went a great - deal further, and grasped the application of science to solve the - mystery of fishings. - - “He seems to have overlooked, as was universal in his day, that the - secret of fisheries is not the presence of fish but the certainty - of markets. Samuel Laing of Orkney, to whom he refers, was, I - think, the first that struck this key note of truth. The Dutch - came here and fished for herrings because they could not fill - their vessels fast enough for the markets behind them in Holland. - The Shetlanders did not fish for herrings because they had no - remunerative market for them, but they fished, and fished boldly, - where they had one, viz., for the whales of the Arctic Regions. - They might have brought the herring home from off their own coasts - and got nothing for them, but they could not bring the whale oil - home without a secured profit. - - “The same thing obtains still. Shetland, from its position, cannot - compete with the mainland of Scotland either in the home market - or in the great continental markets for herrings; but it yields - large supplies of cod, ling, and tusk, for which it pushes distant - adventures to Iceland and the Faroe Isles.” - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -MARINE SURVEYING. - - -Modern engineers who have practised only under the benign reign of -Ordnance Surveys and Admiralty Charts, can have no idea of the toil -their predecessors underwent in procuring data for their designs and -reports; and I am safe in saying that Mr. Stevenson was of all others -the engineer to whom in his sea coast practice, such useful aids would -have been of the very highest value. - -For example, before he could tell, with the exactness he desired, the -distance between the Bell Rock Lighthouse and the shore, he had, in -absence of any reliable information, to undertake a pretty extensive -trigonometrical survey of the coast, involving the measurement of -a _base line_ upwards of two miles in length--a most “laborious -operation,” he observes, in which his assistants were aided by six -sailors from the lighthouse tender. - -Again, to show the difficulty in determining the best site for a -lighthouse in those early days, before an accurate Government survey of -the coast line had been made, I give from Mr. Stevenson’s Journal the -following notes of his observations to determine the best site for a -lighthouse at Kinnairdhead in Aberdeenshire. I give them _at length_, -as jotted down at the time, for they may perhaps lead young engineers -of the present day to be thankful that, in most cases at least, they -are not, from want of accurate coast surveys and soundings, left to -resort altogether to their own resources in getting the information -they require. But I think they are specially worthy of record as -showing the extreme care bestowed by Mr. Stevenson in getting the -data to enable him to determine the exact positions of the several -lighthouses _he designed_. His Journal says:-- - - “_First._--I caused a mast to be erected upon the top of - Kinnairdhead Castle or Lighthouse, making its extreme height from - the ground 100 feet. - - “Got the yacht under weigh, and having a careful pilot on board, I - sailed for Rattray Head, and there observed the mast over the land - of Cairnbulg, it being then high water, or twenty minutes past 7 - P.M. With the parapet of the lighthouse in view, have eight fathoms - water off the head, which bore W.N.W. Run in upon the head with - flag upon the mast seen over the land till seven fathoms water, - when the flag disappeared. Then leave the vessel and sound from the - boat, and have 6 fathoms, 5, 5, 4¼, 3, 2, 1 fathom, and lastly 3½ - feet. Return to the ship in a more southerly direction, and have 3 - feet, 1 fathom, 2, 2¼, 2¾, 3½, 4, 4¾, 5, 5½, 6½, and 7 fathoms. All - these soundings rocky bottom. - - “With the Windmill near Peterhead on with Stirling hill, and - Monument hill on with the rounded Sandy Down of Rattray, and the - parapet of Kinnairdhead Lighthouse seen over Cairnbulg land, you - are in 8 fathoms water off Rattray Briggs, which lie about ¼ of a - mile to the southward of the Sandy Down. - - “Wait off the Briggs till the light was seen, then stood in upon - the Briggs till the light was shut in by the land of Cairnbulg, and - at that moment had 8 fathoms water, so that at present the light - forms an excellent direction for Rattray Briggs. - - “Find that the lightroom is seen fully from the yacht’s deck in 8 - fathoms water off Rattray Briggs, that the flag upon the masthead - is seen in 6 fathoms water--high water spring tides. Ship then - bearing from the head E.S.E. and W.N.W., distant about one mile - from the shore, where a man is distinctly observed at a boat in the - twilight. - - “_Secondly._--Remove the mast from the castle or lighthouse on the - morning of the 15th to Cairnbulg, and elevate a flag to the height - of 86 feet from the ground, or 97 feet from high water mark, at the - distance of about 100 yards from the high water mark at the point - connected with Cairnbulg Briggs. - - “The yacht lying off or to the westward of the Briggs, was got - under weigh at 2 A.M. of the 16th, and beat up the north shore - as far as Rosehearty, and there observed the flag over the land. - Found off Rosehearty that the flag was just hid by the highest - inequalities of the land to the southward of the Castle, and - that it appeared at the lower or flat places sometimes in sight - 20 feet above the land, and at other places intercepted by the - land and houses of the town, amongst which it often appeared and - disappeared. The range of the flag along the land was as far as Mr. - Dalrymple’s house when it was time to put about, having there three - fathoms at nearly low water. - - “After completing the observations in this direction, sailed along - the shore southwards to Rattray Briggs. Find that Inverallochy - head, south-eastward of the town of Cairnbulg, is the eastmost - point on this coast, but, being at a distance from the foul ground - of Cairnbulg, would make a less desirable point than Cairnbulg. - - “Off Rattray, in eight fathoms water, begin to lose sight of - the lantern on Kinnairdhead Castle as before. See the mast and - flag at Cairnbulg a considerable way up the country over the - lands of Inverallochy. See the flag, standing in upon Rattray - to five fathoms water at half tide, lose it, and then stand for - Fraserburgh. - - “As the result of these trials, find that Inverallochy head or - point is the most eastern or projecting point of land upon that - coast, that Cairnbulg is the next projecting point. The former lies - between the points of danger, viz., Rattray and Cairnbulg. - - “Find that if the light were to be moved to a more southern - situation, it would be better on either of the above places than - Rattray Head, which would entirely remove its usefulness from the - Moray Firth. - - “Find that in the event of two lights for this coast, the one - ought to be at Kinnairdhead, and the other upon the Cock Inch at - Peterhead. - - “Under all the circumstances of the case, find that it would be - most advisable to erect a new lighthouse at Kinnairdhead, about - 100 yards more to the eastward than the Castle stands, and erect - it about twenty or thirty feet higher than the Castle. This, with - a better light, would perhaps answer the general purposes of - the coast better than a single light placed on any of the other - stations along this coast.” - -After perusing this extract, the reader, I think, will not be surprised -to find Mr. Stevenson making an urgent appeal on behalf of all -interested--Seamen--Fishermen, and Engineers, for a Government Survey -and “Sailing Directions” of the intricate navigation of the shores of -Scotland, which he did in the following terms:-- - - “The attention which Government has long paid to the improvement - of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, in connection with the - British Fisheries, has been attended with the best effects in the - country at large. It is much to be wished that these shores were - rendered more accessible to the mariner. - - “The marine survey of the Highlands by Murdoch Mackenzie, - undertaken by order of the Lords of the Admiralty, may be - considered as the first grand step towards the improvement of the - Highlands, and next to that the later institution of the Northern - Lighthouses. By means of these the fisher may find his way from - loch to loch, and the mariner bound over seas, instead as formerly - of holding a course without the Lewis Islands, can now find his - way through the Sounds, and in adverse winds take shelter in safe - harbours, instead of being exposed to the boisterous seas of the - Atlantic Ocean; these charts and lighthouses have in many points - of view contributed to the improvement of the Highlands, and to - the present flourishing trade carried on through these Sounds from - Liverpool, etc., to the northern continent of Europe. However, from - the extensive range of coast which these charts include, together - with the prodigious number of extensive lochs and small islands, it - was impossible that any first survey could be made so accurate as - to supply the place of pilots, where there are neither landmarks - to characterise the coast, nor beacons or buoys to point out the - situation of sunk rocks; and although these charts have certainly - contributed much to the facility and security of the navigation - of the Highlands, yet no one will say that they are free from - imperfections, and their incommodious size and high price are - insurmountable bars to their general utility, thereby rendering - them impracticable for the use of small vessels, so that they - are only to be found in the cabins of large vessels, where large - accommodation affords room to unfold them, but even here also the - price forms an objection, as the charts are always _found_ by the - shipmaster. - - “Nothing therefore can be more necessary or essential to the - improvement of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, than an - accurate survey of the fishing grounds, lochs, and harbours, upon - a scale considerably larger than Mackenzie’s charts, given in the - form of a book of the size of a large quarto, containing only the - lochs, etc., interleaved with printed directions and descriptions - of each chart or harbour, which book of charts, accompanied with a - general chart would sufficiently guide the mariner and fisher in - their several pursuits. - - “With regard to an accurate survey of the lochs and harbours - in the Highlands published in the most commodious form for the - use of small vessels, such an undertaking would require to be - sanctioned in a manner similar to the survey undertaken by Murdoch - Mackenzie, and though in process of time the sale of these charts - might produce a considerable return to those concerned with it, - yet the time and attention which such (with a laborious number of - soundings) must occupy would certainly require that those concerned - in the undertaking should be put in possession of certain sums - of money to enable them to go on with that deliberation which is - essential to accuracy, and this encouragement should be the more - considerable that the charts might be procured to the public at a - moderate price.” - -This Memorial, written in 1803, was intended for and in some shape -communicated to the Admiralty, and was followed by good results. - -In “A Memoir of the Hydrographical Department of the Admiralty,” -published in 1868,[13] are the following remarks:--“It was about this -time,” 1810, “that the Admiralty first conferred on the Hydrographer -the privilege of selecting a surveyor for the _home coasts_. Singular -as it may appear, the Hydrographer had at this time great difficulty -in finding a naval officer competent to fill the position, or who -was acquainted with anything beyond surveying by common compass. At -length, however, about 1811, Mr. George Thomas, a master, was selected” -for home service. The Memoir also states that at the same time the -Hydrographer appointed to foreign service Mr. Beaufort, afterwards -Sir Francis Beaufort, the eminent Hydrographer to the Admiralty, -who was, all his life, Mr. Stevenson’s intimate friend and constant -correspondent. - -There is therefore, I believe, no reason to doubt that Mr. Stevenson’s -original appeal and subsequent personal friendly and free intercourse -with the officials of the Admiralty led to the establishment, on a -_systematic footing_, of our Government “Admiralty Survey,” which, as -all engineers know, indicates with marvellous accuracy and detail every -shoal, sunken rock, and sounding on the coasts of Great Britain and -Ireland; and from which the “Admiralty Sailing Directions” have been -prepared with such discernment and care that the whole system of our -coast survey may now be said to have attained perfection. - -With Colonel Colby, also, of the Royal Engineers, who was Director -of the Ordnance Survey, Mr. Stevenson regularly corresponded, being -no less interested in the progress of the great national work so -successfully carried on under his charge. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -CONTRIBUTIONS ON ENGINEERING AND SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS. - - Contributions to _Encyclopædia Britannica_ and _Edinburgh - Encyclopædia_--The alveus or bed of the German Ocean--Sectio - planography--Wasting effects of the sea at the Mersey and - Dee--Density of fresh and salt water--The Hydrophore. - - -We have seen that Mr. Stevenson’s college education was mainly, if not -altogether, due to his own thirst for knowledge, and his education -being voluntarily undertaken, could hardly fail to issue in good -results. That his early studies were of incalculable value to him -no one can doubt; and his own conviction of this may explain the -solicitude with which, in after life, he impressed on his sons the -extreme importance of being properly grounded in every branch of study, -_scientific_ and _practical_, which a well trained engineer has to call -to his aid in the practice of his profession. - -Fortified by this valuable training, Mr. Stevenson had also that -unselfish love of his profession which alone can move a man to give -the results of his experience freely to others, and this he did to the -_Edinburgh Encyclopædia_ and the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, in articles -on “Roads,” “Lighthouses,” “Railways,” “Dredging,” “Blasting,” and -other engineering subjects. - -But he did not confine his literary labours to matters purely -professional. His love for nature in all its aspects led him also to -make communications to the Scientific Journals of the day on subjects -of more general interest. Of these his papers “On the Alveus or Bed of -the German Ocean,” in which by an investigation of many evidences he -is led to the conclusion that the sea is gradually encroaching on the -land, may be quoted as an example. - -Mr. Stevenson’s first communication on this subject was published in -1816, in vol. ii. of the Wernerian Transactions, in which he gives -examples, from actual observation, of the wasting effects of the -sea on various parts of the coasts of the British Isles. His second -communication was made to the Wernerian Society in March 1820, and -published in the _Edinburgh Philosophical Journal_ of that year. - -In the fifth edition of Baron Cuvier’s “Essay on the Theory of the -Earth,” reference is made to Mr. Stevenson’s theory. His papers are -several times quoted in Lyell’s _Principles of Geology_, and the -General Committee of the British Association at York in 1834 passed -a resolution, “that Mr. Stevenson be requested to report to the next -meeting upon the waste and extension of the land on the east coast of -Britain, and upon the general question of the permanence of the level -of the sea and land, and that individuals who may be able to supply -information upon the subject be requested to correspond with him.” - -Without discussing in how far Mr. Stevenson’s theory may be sound -(for on such questions it is notorious that the views of geologists -do not always coincide), it cannot be denied that his mode of dealing -with the subject is original and interesting, and as the papers are -not now accessible to the general reader, it may be excusable to give -one of them _in extenso_. I also notice another feature which gives -interest to the subject. In his illustrations he adopted a mode of -representation which was peculiarly suitable for the object in view. It -will be seen from Plate XII. that the sections are laid down on what is -now known by engineers as _sectio planography_, which it is believed -was used for the first time in illustrating this paper. - - - “ON THE BED OF THE GERMAN OCEAN, OR NORTH SEA. (Read before the - Wernerian Natural History Society, 25th March 1820.)” - -“The efforts of man in exploring the more occult processes of nature -are necessarily much circumscribed, especially when his attempts are -directed to the investigation of regions which his senses cannot -penetrate. It has accordingly been with the utmost difficulty that -his exertions have been rendered in any degree successful in prying -into the bowels of the earth, or in his endeavours to ascend to the -aërial regions. In proof of this, the limited excavations even of the -most extensive mining works, have required the lapse of ages, and the -powerful stimulus of commercial enterprise, for their accomplishment. -From these the philosopher has not hitherto derived much light, -to enable him to compare the theories which have been assigned by -geologists to account for the various and discordant appearances of -the structure of the globe. It has also been with much difficulty, -and at no small personal hazard, that the philosophical inquirer has -ventured to climb the highest mountains, to examine into the phenomena -of the atmosphere. The balloon has indeed enabled us to attain still -higher points of elevation; but as yet we do not seem to have made -proportional progress in knowledge. In all such attempts to ascend -the greatest heights or penetrate the deepest excavations, we still -breathe in our own element, though under different modifications. If, -however, we would explore the depths of the Ocean, we immediately -encounter an element to which the organisation of our lungs is not at -all adapted; the density of air, compared with water on a level with -the surface of the sea, being in the ratio of one to about 850; and our -difficulties must consequently increase in a very rapid proportion. -Here therefore we are unavoidably left to conjecture on many points -of our inquiries regarding this highly interesting subject. Even the -ingenious contrivance of the diving bell contributes but little towards -our investigations for ascertaining the nature of the bottom of the -sea, at least to any considerable depth, on account of the difficulty -of its application in situations exposed to stormy weather, and also of -the increasing ratio of the pressure of the fluid as we descend. This -curious machine, it is believed, was invented and employed, about the -year 1720, by a Captain Rowe for raising the wreck of ships upon the -coast of Scotland; and in the year 1778, the active mind of Smeaton -first applied it to the operations of the engineer. - -[Illustration: - - _PLATE XII._ - - CHART of the - NORTH SEA OR GERMAN OCEAN - with SECTIONS of the - _DEPTHS of WATER_ - _Illustrative of Observations_ - by - _ROBERT STEVENSON_ - _Civil Engineer_ - 1820. - - _W. & A. K. Johnston, Edinburgh._ -] - -“Our knowledge of the bottom of the ocean, therefore, remains still -very imperfect, and, with little exception, the simple apparatus of the -mariner, consisting of a plummet and line, continues to be chiefly in -use for ascertaining the depth of the sea and the nature of the ground. -With these, and the addition of a little grease applied to the lower -extremity of the plummet, which strikes against the bottom, we learn -the quality of the soil, though imperfectly, by the particles which -adhere to the grease. What the navigator has yet been able to discover -regarding the depth and the nature of the bottom of the German Ocean, I -shall now endeavour to notice, being myself enabled to offer the result -of a pretty extensive acquaintance with this field of inquiry. - -“It may be necessary to premise, in treating of a subject so extensive, -and in comparing great things with small, that we are obliged to speak -of the North Sea as a bay or basin, and of the immense collection of -débris which we meet with, extending over a great proportion of its -bottom, under the common appellation of sand banks. We must also be -allowed to consider the undulating line, or the irregularities of the -bottom, to arise chiefly from the accumulation of deposited matters; -and in most of the situations connected with these banks, we are -supported and borne out in this conclusion, by their local positions -relatively to the openings of firths, and the line of their direction -in regard to the set or current of the ebb tide. - -“The accompanying map (Plate XII.) of the eastern coast of Great -Britain, with the opposite Continent, though upon a small scale, -exhibits numerous soundings of the depth of the German Ocean; and -the sections delineated on it will perhaps be found to give a pretty -distinct view of the subject. This chart extends from the coast of -France, in latitude 50° 57´ to 61° N. On the east, this great basin is -bounded by Denmark and Norway, on the west by the British Isles, on the -south by Germany, Holland, and France, and on the north by the Shetland -Islands and the Great Northern or Arctic Ocean. The term _German -Ocean_, though in very common use, is certainly not so comprehensive in -its application to this great basin as that of _North Sea_, now more -generally used by the navigator. The extent of this sea from south to -north, between the parallels of latitude quoted above, is 233 leagues, -and its greatest breadth from west to east, reckoning from St. Abb’s -Head, on the coast of Scotland, to Ringhjoöbing Fiord, on the opposite -shore of Denmark, is 135 leagues. The greatest depth of the water in -this basin seems to be upon the Norwegian side, where the soundings -give 190 fathoms; but the mean depth of the whole may be stated at only -about 31 fathoms. - -“To be more particular with regard to the depth of the German Ocean, -or North Sea, it will be observed by the sections and soundings marked -upon the chart, that the water gradually deepens as we sail from south -to north. The first of these sections which we shall notice is on the -parallel of three degrees of east longitude, running from Ostend to the -latitude of the northmost of the Shetland Islands, being an extent of -227 leagues. The depth, as will be seen from this section (which, to -avoid confusion in the body of the chart, is traced along the western -side of it), varies rather after an irregular progression, from 120 -fathoms towards the northern extremity of this sectional line, to 58, -38, 24, and 18 fathoms, as we proceed southwards, to within five miles -of the shore, nearer which we do not approach in our remarks regarding -the soundings. Notwithstanding the irregularity of the depth from the -occurrence of numerous sandbanks, it is curious to observe the increase -upon the whole as we proceed from south to north, by which this sea -exhibits all the characteristic features of a great bay, encumbered -with numerous sandbanks. - -“In the same manner, though not strictly connected with our present -purpose, we may observe that the English Channel deepens progressively -from Dover to its entrance, formed by the Land’s End of England and -the Isle of Ushant, on the coast of France; so that the Strait between -Dover and Calais may be said to form a point of partition between two -great inclined planes, forming the bottom of these seas. - -“Besides the longitudinal, or north and south sectional line described -above, we have also six other sections delineated in an easterly -and westerly direction, across the accompanying chart, which are as -follow. One between the Shetland Islands and the coast of Norway; a -second between Tarbetness in Ross-shire and the Naze of Norway; a third -extends from the Firth of Forth to the coast of Denmark; a fourth -from the mouth of the river Tyne to Sylt Island, also in Denmark; a -fifth from Flamborough Head, in Yorkshire, to the mouth of the River -Elbe; and the sixth is from Yarmouth to Egmond-op-Zee, on the coast of -Holland. Other sections of this sea have also been made, which include -the general elevation of the land, as, for example, one of these -extends from Holland across the German Ocean to the Thames, and through -the interior of the country to the Bristol Channel; then crossing St. -George’s Channel, this sectional line passes through the southern -extremity of Ireland, and falls into the Atlantic Ocean; but this will -be more particularly noticed, when I come to speak of the bed of the -English Channel, in a future paper. - -“On examining the accompanying cross sections of the depths of water -on the same parallel they will be found to vary considerably. It may, -however, be stated as a general conclusion, that there is a greater -depth of water on the eastern and western sides of the German Ocean -than in its central parts, and that, upon the whole, it is deeper -on the British than on the continental shores, the coast of Norway -excepted. - -“We have already observed, that this sea is much encumbered with -sandbanks, or great accumulations of débris, especially in the middle -or central parts, and also along the shores towards what may be termed -the apex of the bay, extending from the river Thames along the shores -of Holland, etc., to the Baltic. One of these great central banks, -delineated on the chart, and known to mariners as the Long Forties, -trends north-east in the direction of the ebb tide from the entrance -of the Firth of Forth no less than 110 miles, while the Denmark and -Jutland banks may also be traced on the chart from the entrance of -the Baltic, upwards of 105 miles in a north-western direction. Besides -these, we have also another great central range of banks, which is -crossed by no fewer than four of our sectional lines. These are known -under the common appellation of the Dogger Bank, which is subdivided by -the navigator into the Long Bank, the White Bank, and the Well Bank, -including an extent of upwards of 354 miles from north to south. There -are also a vast number of shoals and sandbanks, lying wholly to the -southward of our section, between Flamborough Head and Heligoland. -Altogether, therefore, the superficies of these extensive banks is -found to occupy no inconsiderable portion of the whole area of the -German Ocean; the surface of which, in making these investigations, -has been estimated to contain about 153,709 square miles, while the -aggregate superficial contents of the sandbanks alone amount to no less -than 27,443 square miles, or include an area of about 5¾ of the whole -surface of the North Sea. - -“But to render these dimensions a little more familiar by comparison, -we may notice, that the Island of Great Britain contains about 77,244 -square miles, being not quite one half of the area of the North Sea; so -that the area of the sandbanks bears a proportion equal to about one -third of the whole _terra firma_ of England and Scotland; and they are, -therefore, perhaps, far more considerable in their extent than has been -generally imagined. - -“In speaking of the dimensions of sandbanks situate in the middle of -the ocean, we are aware that great allowance must be made in forming -a proper estimate of their extent, especially in speaking of their -cubical contents. From a vast number of observations and comparisons -relative to this subject, I have, however, been enabled to determine, -that the average height of these banks measures about seventy-eight -feet, from a mean taken of the whole. In ascertaining their height -above the surrounding bottom, the measurement has been taken from the -general depth around each respectively. Now, upon taking the aggregate -cubical contents of the whole of these immense collections of débris, -supposing the mass to be uniformly the same throughout, it is found to -amount to no less a quantity than 2,241,248,563,110 of cubic yards, -being equal to about fourteen feet of the depth of the whole German -Ocean, or to a portion of the firm ground of Great Britain, on a level -with the sea, taken twenty-eight feet in perpendicular height or depth, -supposing the surface to be a level plane. - -“These calculations at least tend to show that an immense body of water -must be displaced, in consequence of these banks occupying so very -considerable a proportion of the bed of the North Sea, the unavoidable -effect of which must give a direct tendency to the tidal waters, and -the flux produced by storms in the Atlantic, to overflow the bed of -the German Ocean, in the same manner as if stones or other matter were -thrown into a vessel already nearly brimful of water. This may further -be illustrated by considering the actual state of any of the great -inland lakes, as those of Geneva, Lochness, Lochlomond, etc., which for -ages past have been receiving the débris of the surrounding mountains. -We must doubtless allow that they contain a smaller portion of water, -or are actually of a less depth than they were at an earlier period of -the history of the globe. Accordingly, from inquiries, which, in the -prosecution of this subject, I have been led to make regarding the two -last mentioned lakes, it has satisfactorily appeared that their waters -are subject to overflow or rise upon their banks. On Lochlomond, in -particular, the site of a house at the village of Luss was pointed -out to me, which is now permanently under _the summer water mark_, -while the gable of another house in its neighbourhood is in danger of -being washed down by the increase of the waters of the loch. Whether -this striking appearance is to be attributed wholly to natural causes, -or partly to artificial operations upon the bed of the river Leven, -flowing from the loch, I have had no opportunity of inquiring. But the -great bench or flat space round the margin of the loch, which is left -partly dry during summer, forms altogether such a receptacle for débris -as to be sufficient to affect the surface of the loch, and indeed -permanently to raise its waters. We also infer, though by a different -process, that the constant deposition going forward in the bed of -the German Ocean must likewise displace its waters, and give them a -tendency to enlarge their bed and to overflow their banks or boundary. - -“In this view of the subject, it will appear that we have not only to -account for the supply of an immense quantity of débris, but we must -also dispose of the water displaced by the process of deposition which -is continually going forward at the bottom of the ocean. - -“With regard, then, to the supply of the débris of which these banks -are composed.--We find that a very great portion of it consists of -siliceous matters in the form of sand, varying in size from the finest -grains to coarse bulky particles, mixed with coral and pounded shells, -the quantity of these calcareous matters being altogether astonishingly -great; and being specifically lighter than the particles of sand, the -shells generally cover the surface of these sunken banks. With regard -to the vast collection of siliceous particles connected with the banks, -our surprise ceases when we consider the receptacle which the North Sea -forms, to an almost unlimited extent of drainage from the surrounding -countries, on which the change of the seasons, and the succession of -rain and of drought upon the surface of the earth, are unceasingly -producing their destructive effects. All have remarked the quantity of -mud and débris with which every rill and river is charged, even after -the gentlest shower; especially wherever the hand of the agriculturist -is to be found. His labours in keeping up the fertilising quality of -the ground consist in a great measure in preparing a fresh matrix for -the chemical process or the germination of the seeds of the earth, in -lieu of that portion of the finely pulverised soil which the rains are -perpetually carrying to the sea, as the grand receptacle and storehouse -of nature for these exuviæ of the globe. From the effect of rills -and rivulets, we should, perhaps, rather be apt to expect a greater -deposition in the bed of sheltered bays and arms of the sea than we -really observe. So that we can readily believe that the quantity of -débris, even for a single year, along such an extent of coast, may -bear some consideration in respect to the bed of the German Ocean; -what, then, must these effects produce in the lapse of ages? - -“Whatever be the cause, the fact is certain, that on almost every -part of the shores of Great Britain and Ireland, and their connecting -islands, from the northernmost of the Shetland to the southernmost of -the Scilly Islands, and also upon the shores of Holland, and part of -France, particularly in the neighbourhood of Cherbourg, this wasting -effect is going forward. These shores I have myself examined. But my -inquiries have not been confined to the coasts which I have personally -visited, having also, through the kind attentions of some nautical -friends, been enabled to extend my investigations even to the remotest -parts of the globe. The general result has been, that equally in the -most sheltered seas, such as the Baltic and Mediterranean, and on the -most exposed points and promontories of the coasts of North and South -America, and the West India Islands, abundant proofs occur, all tending -to show the general waste of the land by the encroachments of the sea. -Such wasting effects are quite familiar to those locally acquainted -with particular portions of the shores; and I have often received -their testimony to these facts, as the sad experience of the removal -of buildings, and the inundation of extensive tracts of land by the -encroachment of the sea. - -“Indeed, by a closer inquiry into this department of the subject, we -shall, perhaps, find ourselves rather at a loss to account for the -_smallness_ of the quantity of this deposition, considering the waste -which is constantly going forward in the process of nature, and even -be led to seek for its wider distribution over the whole expanse of the -bed of the ocean, as has been supposed in that theory of the globe, so -beautifully and so ably defended by our late illustrious countryman -Professor Playfair. - -“One of the most striking and general examples of this kind may perhaps -be found in the abrupt and precipitous headlands and shores which we -everywhere observe along the coast, and which we suppose to have once -been of the same sloping form and declining aspect with the contiguous -land. In the production of these effects alone, an immense quantity of -débris must have been thrown into the bed of the ocean. The channels -which are cut by the sea in the separation of parts of the mainland, -and the formation of islands, no doubt make way for a considerable -portion of the displaced fluid; but still these channels, when filled -with water, come far short, in point of bulk, when compared with the -portions of the elevated land which are thus removed. Now, it has been -alleged by some, that while the land is wasting at certain points, -it is also gaining in others; and this is a state of things which is -freely admitted to take place in various quarters; yet these apparent -acquisitions are no more to be compared with the waste alluded to, -than the drop is to the water of the bucket. But accurate observations -regarding the formation of extensive sandbanks, and the accumulation -of the débris, of which they are formed, are not to be made in a few -years, perhaps not in a century, nor indeed in several centuries; for -although the short period of the life of man is sufficient to afford -the most incontrovertible proofs of the waste of the land where we -become observers, yet when we extend our views to the depths of the -ocean, and speak of the events and changes which are there going -forward, we must not be supposed to set limits to time. - -“We have many convincing proofs in the natural history of the globe, -that the sea has at one time occupied a much higher elevation than at -present. On the banks of the Firth of Forth, near Borrowstounness, for -example, I have seen a bed of marine shells, which is several feet in -thickness, and has been found to extend about three miles in length, -and which is now situate many feet above the present level of the -waters of the Forth. A recent illustration of this subject occurred -also in the remarkable discovery of the skeleton of a large whale, -found in the lands of Airthrey, near Stirling,--the present surface of -the ground where the remains of this huge animal were deposited, having -been ascertained (by my assistants, when lately in that neighbourhood) -to be no less than twenty-four feet nine inches above the present level -of the Firth of Forth at high water of spring tides. Now, whether -we are to consider these as proofs of the higher elevation of the -waters of the ocean in the most general acceptation of the word, at -a former period, I will not here attempt to inquire. But aside from -these anomalous appearances, there is reason for thinking that the -waters of the higher parts of the Firth of Forth, like those of the -Moray Firth, may, at one time, have formed a succession of lakes, with -distinct barriers, as we find in the case of Lochness, and the other -lakes forming the track of the Caledonian Canal. My object on the -present occasion, however, is simply to notice the wasting effects of -the North Sea upon the surrounding land, its deposition in the bottom -of the sea, and the consequent production of surplus waters at the -surface, and to endeavour to account for these appearances consistently -with the laws of nature. The opinion accordingly which I have formed, -and the theory which I have humbly to suggest (for I am not aware that -this subject has been before particularly noticed) is, that the silting -up of the great basin of the North Sea has a direct tendency to cause -its waters to overflow their banks. - -“Referring to the chart, we find that the North Sea is surrounded with -land, excepting at two inlets or apertures, the one extending about -100 leagues, between the Orkney Islands and the Norwegian coast, and -the other between Dover and Calais, which is of the width of seven -leagues. The aggregate _waterway_ of these two passages forms the track -for the tidal waters, and also for the surplus waters produced during -storms which affect the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. It is also obvious -that this waterway must remain nearly the same, and admit a constant -quantity; or, to speak more correctly, by allowing these inlets to -follow the general law, they must be enlarged by the waste or wearing -of their sides, in a ratio perhaps greater than the silting up of -the bottom in those particular parts, while the interior and central -portions of the German Ocean are continually acquiring additional -quantities of débris, along with the drainage water of the widely -surrounding countries. If therefore the same, or a greater quantity of -tidal and surplus waters continue to be admitted from the Atlantic and -Arctic Seas into this great basin, where the process of deposition is -constantly going forward, it is evident that the surface of the German -Ocean must be elevated in a temporary and proportionate degree, and -hence the production of those wasting and destructive effects which are -everywhere observable upon its shores. - -“This reasoning is also applicable, in a greater or less degree, to -all parts of the world; for as the same cause everywhere exists, the -same effects, when narrowly examined, must everywhere be produced. -In the Southern or Pacific Ocean we have wonderful examples of great -masses of land formed by madrepores and extensive coral banks, which in -time assume all the characteristic features of islands. These occupy -considerable portions of the watery bed of the ocean, and displace -corresponding portions of the fluid. Immense quantities of mud are -also said to be deposited in the Yellow Sea of China, in the great -deltas formed at the mouths of the Ganges, the Plate, the Amazon, the -Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, the Nile, the Rhine, and other large -rivers, whose joint operations, both at the surface and bottom of the -ocean, are continually carrying forward the same great process of -displacing the waters of the ocean; for it matters not to this question -whether the débris of the higher country which is carried down by the -rains and rivers, or is occasioned by the direct waste produced by the -ocean itself on the margin of the land, be deposited at the bottom or -surface of the ocean, it must still be allowed to displace an equal -or greater bulk of the fluid, and has therefore a direct tendency to -produce the derangement which we are here endeavouring to describe. - -“A striking illustration of this doctrine may be drawn from M. -Girard’s able and ingenious observations on the delta of Egypt, made -in 1799, and published in the _Mem. de l’Acad._ for 1817, in a memoir -_Observations sur la Vallée d’Égypte, et sur l’exhaussement séculaire -du sol qui la recouvre_. It appears that the whole soil of the “Valley -of the Nile” is very considerably increased by the alluvium deposited -annually by the inundations of the Nile, as ascertained by the marks -on some ancient Nilometers and statues, the dates of which have been -traced and compared by Girard, with the corresponding historical -periods. In the quarter of Thebes, where the statue of Memnon is -erected, the increase of the soil since the commencement of the -Christian era is lm. 924 (6 feet 3·7 inches), or this process may be -stated as going forward at the rate of 0m. 106 (4·17 inches) in the -course of each century. The magnitude of the deposits at the mouths -of the Nile, in the bed of the Mediterranean, appears to be no less -surprising. It is remarked that the Isle of Pharos, which in the time -of Homer was a day’s journey from the coast of Egypt, is now united to -the continent. - -“If, then, we compare these effects with the same process, going -forward in a certain proportionate rate over all parts of the globe, -and where the same facilities for these depositions being made on firm -ground are not afforded, we shall find that the quantity of deposit in -the bottom of the ocean must be so considerable as to affect the level -of the waters of the ocean. - -“In thus disposing of the waste of the surrounding land beyond the -accumulation of the sunken banks in the German Ocean, we are not left -at any loss for a distributing cause, as this is provided by the tides -and currents of the sea; and with regard to their action we have -many proofs, even at very considerable depths, by the breaking up of -the wrecks of ships, the occasional drift of seaweed, and also drift -timber, nuts, etc., into regions far distant from those in which they -are spontaneously produced. The dispersion of fishes, evinced by their -disappearance from the fishing grounds in stormy weather, tends to show -the disturbance of the waters of the ocean to the depth of thirty or -forty fathoms. This observation I have frequently had an opportunity of -making near the entrance of the Firth of Forth. Numerous proofs of the -sea being disturbed to a considerable depth have also occurred since -the erection of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, situate upon a sunken rock in -the sea, twelve miles off Arbroath, in Forfarshire. Some _drift stones_ -of large dimensions, measuring upwards of thirty cubic feet, or more -than two tons weight, have, during storms, been often thrown upon the -rock from the deep water. These large boulder stones are so familiar to -the lightkeepers at this station as to be by them termed _travellers_. -It is therefore extremely probable, that a large portion of the débris -is carried down with the drainage water of the higher country, as -before noticed, and ultimately washed out of the North Sea into the -expanse of the ocean. - -“The question which naturally arises as to the result of all this -waste or transposition of the solid matters of a large portion of the -globe, is to inquire what has become of the body of water displaced by -this wasting process. Without attempting to go into all the minutiæ -of this part of the subject, I shall here briefly observe, that there -seems to exist (if I may be allowed so to express myself) a kind of -compensating arrangement between the solid or earthy particles of the -globe in the one case, and the waters of the ocean in the other. Thus -by the process of evaporation, and the universal application of water, -which enters so largely, in its simple or chemical state, into the -whole animate and inanimate creation, the surface of the ocean may be -kept nearly at a uniform level. Phenomena of this description are, no -doubt, difficult in their solution upon the great scale, being met -by the process of _decomposition_, which resolves bodies into their -constituent parts, and also by our theory of the atmosphere, by which -its limits and operations are determined. But were we to abstract our -attention from the more general view of the subject, and confine our -inquiries to the German Ocean, the Baltic, the Mediterranean, the Red -Sea, or to any other inland and circumscribed parts of the ocean, this -difficulty seems to be lessened. Indeed, the probability is, and it is -a pretty generally received opinion, that a greater quantity of water -is actually admitted at the Straits of Gibraltar and of Babelmandel -than flows out of the Mediterranean and Red Seas. We consider water, -therefore, as the great _pabulum of nature_, which, as before noticed, -enters either simply or chemically into the constitution of all -bodies, and appears to be held, almost exclusively, in solution, in the -formation and maintenance of the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms, -and is found to exist largely in the composition of all mineral -substances. The quantity of water, consequently, that is required, and -is continually supplied from the ocean by the process of evaporation, -both for the support and reanimation of nature, must be immense, and -may of course be supposed permanently to absorb a very large proportion -of the surplus waters of these circumscribed seas, while the remaining -portion of surplus water, if not thus wholly accounted for, may be -distributed over the general expanse of the ocean. - -“But if we suppose with some, that in nature there is neither an excess -nor diminution of the waters of the globe, and that the united and -counterbalancing processes of evaporation, condensation, decomposition, -and regeneration, so completely equalise each other, that the surplus -waters, arising from the displacement of a portion of the solid surface -of the globe, must again be wholly distributed and intermixed with -the waters of the ocean, the portion of water remaining thus to be -accounted for becomes more considerable, and, upon the great scale, -must be permanently disposed of, independently of the process of -evaporation. - -“Another view has been suggested as applicable to the distribution of -the surplus waters produced by the gradual filling up of the bed of the -ocean. These waters, in place of being elevated in any sensible degree, -may be naturally disposed to find their level in the great polar -basins, or oblate portions of the surface of the globe which are known -to exist next the poles. The oblate figure of the earth at the poles -makes these imaginary points the nearest to the centre of the earth, -and consequently, with regard to level, they are also the lowest. It -therefore appears to follow, that any filling up of the bed of the sea -near the equator, or at a distance from the poles, will have the effect -of promoting the retiring of the surplus waters to the polar regions -by their own gravity, while the centrifugal force occasioned by the -earth’s diurnal motion will prevent their being further removed from -the earth’s centre, without a corresponding elevation of the waters in -the great polar basins. - -“In this manner, such an accumulation of water may, at a former period -of time, have taken place at the then poles of the globe, as to have -altered the position of these points, and given rise to the Flood, or -temporary general overflowing of the waters over the earth’s surface, -producing a change in the beds of the seas or oceans of former times. -In this way may have been produced many of the phenomena observable -in the crust of the earth, which are otherwise with much difficulty -accounted for. - -“Of what has now been advanced, regarding the waste of the land by the -operations of the sea, it will be proper to notice that much consists -with my own personal observation. The consequences of this process must -be the deposition of débris, and a tendency to raise the bottom of the -ocean and produce a proportional elevation of the water. With regard, -however, to the distribution of the surplus waters that is produced, -what I have now said is offered with much deference, in the hope that -some one better qualified than myself will turn his attention to this -curious subject.” - - * * * * * - -In connection with this discussion I give the following interesting -account of observations on the estuary of the Mersey:-- - - “WASTING EFFECTS OF THE SEA ON THE SHORE OF CHESHIRE BETWEEN THE - RIVERS MERSEY AND DEE. (Read before the Wernerian Society, 8th - March 1828.) - -“On a former occasion I had the honour to make a few observations which -appeared in the second volume of the Society’s Memoirs regarding the -encroachment of the sea upon the land generally. The present notice -refers only to that portion of the coast which lies between the rivers -Mersey and Dee, extending to about seven miles. - -“To this quarter my attention, with that of Mr. Nimmo, Civil Engineer, -had been professionally directed in the course of last month. In our -preambulatory survey we were accompanied by Sir John Tobin and William -Laird, Esq., of Liverpool, along the Cheshire shore and its connecting -sandbanks between Wallasey Pool in the Mersey, and Dalpool in the river -Dee. - -“Within these estuaries the shores may be described as abrupt, -consisting of red clay and marl, containing many land or boulder stones -of the cubic contents of several tons, and very many of much smaller -size, diminishing to coarse gravel. But the foreland or northern -shore between these rivers, which I am now to notice, is chiefly low -ground, and to a great extent is under the level of the highest tides. -The beach or ebb extends from 300 to 400 yards seaward, and toward -low water mark exposes a section of red clay; but toward high water -it consists of bluish coloured marl, with peat or moss overlaid by -sand. This beach, at about tide level, presents a curious and highly -interesting spectacle of the remains of a _submarine forest_. The -numerous roots of trees, which have not been washed away by the sea, or -carried off by the neighbouring inhabitants for firewood, are in a very -decayed state. The trees seem to have been cut off about two feet from -the ground, after the usual practice in felling timber, and the roots -are seen ramifying from their respective stumps in all directions, and -dipping towards the clay subsoil. They seem to have varied in size -from eighteen inches to perhaps thirty inches in diameter, and when -cut with a knife appear to be oak. Several of the boles or trunks have -also been left upon the ground, and being partly immersed in the sand -and clay, are now in such a decomposed state that, when dug into with a -common spade, great numbers of the shell fish called _Pholas candida_, -measuring about three fourths of an inch in length and two inches in -breadth, were found apparently in a healthy state. These proofs of the -former state of this ebb or shore--now upwards of twenty feet under -full tide--having been once dry land to a considerable extent beyond -the region of these large forest trees were rendered still more evident -by the occurrence of large masses of greenstone, which, at a former -period, had been embedded in the firm ground here, and especially on -the shore within the river Dee. It may further deserve notice that the -inhabitants of this district have a traditional rhyme expressive of the -former wooded state of this coast, where not a tree is now to be seen, -viz., “From Birkenhead to Helbre a squirrel may hop from tree to tree;” -that is, from the Dee to the Mersey, now presenting a submarine forest. - -“As these evidences of great changes upon the state and former -appearances of the land were highly interesting to the party, and -intimately connected with the professional inquiries of myself and -colleague, it seemed desirable, if possible, to get them corroborated -by oral testimony. Sir John Tobin accordingly very obligingly took -measures for examining the oldest people in the neighbourhood as to -their recollection of the former state of these shores. In particular, -Thomas Barclay, aged ninety-three, “all but two months,” by profession -a mason and measurer of country work; Henry Youd, labourer, aged -eighty-six; and John Crooksan, labourer, aged eighty, were examined. -Barclay stated that he had been employed at the erection of the -Leasowe landward lighthouse in the year 1764; that there were then -two lighthouses near the shore, for a leading direction to shipping -through the proper channel to Liverpool; and that the seaward light -became uninhabitable from its being surrounded by the sea. A new light -was then built upon Bidstone Hill, and the present Leasowe Lighthouse, -formerly the landward light which he had assisted in building, became -the sea light. He could not condescend upon the distance between the -two original lights, but was certain that it must have been several -hundred yards; that he knows that in the course of thirty years the -shore of the Leasowe lost _by measurement_ eleven Cheshire roods or -eighty-eight yards; and verily believes that, since he knew this shore, -it has lost upwards of half a mile of firm ground. To the correctness -of these statements the other two aged men gave ample testimony, Henry -Youd having also worked at the lighthouse. - -“As to the present state of things, the party alluded to were -eye-witnesses of the tides on the 16th, 17th, and 18th of February -1828, having exhibited a very alarming example of the encroachment -of the sea upon the Leasowe shore. At high water it came over the -bank, and ran in a stream of about half a mile in breadth surrounding -the lighthouse, and continued its course through the low grounds -toward Wallasey Pool on the Mersey, thereby forming a new channel, -and threatening to lay several thousands of acres of rich arable and -pasture lands into the state of a permanent salt lake. The present -Leasowe Lighthouse, which, in 1764, was considered far above the reach -of the sea, upon the 17th of February last was thus surrounded by salt -water, and must soon be abandoned unless some very extensive works be -undertaken for the defence of the beach, the whole of the interior -lands of the Leasowe being considerably under the level of high water -of spring tides. - -“This coast, with its sandbanks in the offing, its submarine forest, -and the evidence of living witnesses as to the encroachment of the -sea upon the firm ground, is altogether highly interesting to the -geological and scientific inquirer. The remains of forests in the bed -of the ocean occur in several parts of the British coast, particularly -off Lincoln, on the banks of the Tay near Flisk, at Skail in the -mainland of Orkney, and in other places noticed in the Transactions of -this Society, and are strong proofs of the encroachments of the sea -upon the land. However difficult, therefore, it may be to reconcile -the varied appearances in nature regarding the sea having at one time -occupied a higher level than at present, yet its encroachment as a -general and almost universal principle seems to be beyond doubt in the -present day. - -“Since I had last the honour of addressing the Society on this -subject, opportunities have been afforded me of making many additional -observations on the British shores, and of personally extending these -to almost every port on the Continent between the Texel and the -Garonne. I have also, through the obliging communications of friends, -been enabled to extend my inquiries to other quarters of the globe, -and I am now prepared to state that, with a few comparatively trifling -exceptions, the sea appears to be universally gaining upon the land, -tending to confirm the theory that débris arising from the general -degradation of the land, being deposited in the bed of the minor seas, -is the cause of their present tendency to overflow their banks.” - - -DENSITY OF SALT AND FRESH WATER. - -Mr. Stevenson’s discovery that the salt water of the ocean flows up the -beds of rivers in a stream quite distinct from the outflowing fresh -water, was made in 1812, when investigating a question regarding -salmon fishings on the Dee. It is described in the following extract -from his Report:-- - -“The reporter observed in the course of his survey that the current -of the river continued to flow towards the sea with as much apparent -velocity during flood as during ebb tide, while the surface of the -river rose and fell in a regular manner with the waters of the ocean. -He was led from these observations to inquire more particularly into -this phenomenon, and he accordingly had an apparatus prepared under -his directions at Aberdeen, which, in the most satisfactory manner, -showed the existence of two distinct layers or strata of water; the -lower stratum consisting of salt or sea water, and the upper one of -the fresh water of the river, which, from its specific gravity being -less, floated on the top during the whole of flood as well as ebb tide. -This apparatus consisted of a bottle or glass jar, the mouth of which -measured about two and a half inches in diameter, and was carefully -stopped with a wooden plug, and luted with wax; a hole about half an -inch in diameter was then bored in the plug, and to this an iron peg -was fitted. To prevent accident in the event of the jar touching the -bottom, it was coated with flannel. The jar so prepared was fixed to -a spar of timber, which was graduated to feet and inches, for the -convenience of readily ascertaining the depth to which the instrument -was plunged, and from which the water was brought up. A small cord was -attached to the iron pin for the purpose of drawing it, at pleasure, -for the admission of the water. When an experiment was made the bottle -was plunged into the water; by drawing the cord at any depth within -the range of the rod to which it was attached, the iron peg was lifted -or drawn, and the bottle was by this means filled with water. The peg -was again dropped into its place, and the apparatus raised to the -surface, containing a specimen of water of the quality at the depth to -which it was plunged. In this manner the reporter ascertained that the -salt or tidal water of the ocean flowed up the channel of the river -Dee, and also up Footdee and Torryburn, in a distinct stratum next the -bottom and under the fresh water of the river, which, owing to the -specific gravity being less, floated upon it, continuing perfectly -fresh, and flowing in its usual course towards the sea, the only -change discoverable being in its level, which was raised by the salt -water forcing its way under it. The tidal water so forced up continued -salt; and when the specimens from the bottom, obtained in the manner -described, were compared with those taken at the surface by means of -the common hydrometer of the brewer (the only instrument to which the -reporter had access at the time), the lower stratum was always found to -possess the greater specific gravity due to salt over fresh water.” - - -THE HYDROPHORE. - -The instrument Mr. Stevenson then invented and used was that to which -the term _hydrophore_ has been applied. Figs. 18 and 19 show two forms -of hydrophores made under his directions. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.] - -Fig. 18 is used for procuring specimens of water from moderate depths, -drawn on a scale of one-tenth of the full size. It consists of a tight -tin cylinder, _a_, having a conical valve in its top, _b_, which is -represented in the diagram as being raised for the admission of water. -The valve is fixed _dead_, or immoveable, on a rod working in guides, -the one resting between two uprights of brass above the cylinder, -and the other in its interior, as shown in faintly dotted lines. The -valve rod is by this means caused to move in a truly vertical line, -and the valve attached to it consequently fills or closes the hole in -the top of the cylinder with greater accuracy than if its motion was -undirected. A graduated pole or rod of iron, _c_, which in the diagram -is shown broken off, is attached to the instrument, its end being -inserted into the small tin cylinder at the side of the large water -cylinder, and there fixed by the clamp screws shown in the diagram; -the bottom of the water cylinder may be loaded with lead to any extent -required, for the purpose of causing the apparatus to sink; but this, -when an iron rod is used for lowering it, is hardly necessary. The -spindle carrying the valve has an eye in its upper extremity, to which -a cord is attached for the purpose of opening the valve when the water -is to be admitted, and on releasing the cord, it again closes by its -own weight. When the hydrophore is to be used, it is lowered to the -required depth by the pole which is fixed to its side, or, if the depth -be greater than the range of the pole, it is loaded with weights, and -let down by means of a rope so attached as to keep it in a vertical -position. When the apparatus has been lowered as far as is required, -the small cord is pulled, and the vessel is immediately filled with the -water which is to be found at that depth. The cord being then thrown -slack, the valve descends and closes the opening, and the instrument is -slowly raised to the surface by means of the rod or rope, as the case -may be, care being taken to preserve it in a vertical position. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.] - -The form of hydrophore represented in Fig. 19 is used in deep water, -to which the small one just described is inapplicable. It consists of -an egg-shaped vessel _a_, made of thick lead to give the apparatus -weight, having two valves, _b_ and _c_, one in the top and another in -the bottom, both opening upwards; these valves (which are represented -as open in the diagram) are, to insure more perfect fitting, fixed on -separate spindles, which work in guides, in the same manner as in the -instrument shown in Fig. 18. The valves, however, in this instrument -are not opened by means of a cord, but by the impact of the projecting -part, _d_, of the lower spindle on the bottom, when the hydrophore is -sunk to that depth. By this means the lower valve is forced upwards, -and the upper spindle (the lower extremity of which is made nearly to -touch the upper extremity of the lower one, when the valves are shut) -is at the same time forced up, carrying along with it the upper valve, -which allows the air to escape, and the water rushing in fills the -vessel. On raising the instrument from the bottom, both valves again -shut by their own weight, and that of the mass of lead, _d_, which -forms part of the lower spindle. The mode of using this hydrophore is -sufficiently obvious; it is lowered by means of a rope, made fast to a -ring at the top, as shown in Fig. 19, until it strikes on the bottom, -when the valves are opened in the manner described, and the vessel is -filled; on raising it the valves close, and the vessel can be drawn to -the surface without its contents being mixed with the superincumbent -water through which it has to pass. This instrument, shown on a scale -of one twentieth of full size, weighs about half a hundredweight, and -has been easily used in from thirty to forty fathoms water. - - * * * * * - -Mr. Stevenson subsequently extended his experiments on the density of -salt and fresh water to several firths and tidal rivers, and gave the -results in a paper communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in -May 1817, of which the following digest is given in Thomson’s _Annals -of Philosophy_:[14]-- - -“The waters of the Thames opposite the London Dock gates were found to -be perfectly fresh throughout; at Blackwall, even in spring tides, the -water was found to be only slightly saline; at Woolwich the proportion -of salt water increases, and so on to Gravesend. But the strata of salt -and fresh water are less distinctly marked in the Thames than in any of -those rivers on which Mr. Stevenson has hitherto had an opportunity of -making his observations. But these inquiries are meant to be extended -to most of the principal rivers in the kingdom, when an account of the -whole will be given. - -“From the series of observations made at and below London Bridge, -compared with the river as far up as Kew and Oxford, Mr. Stevenson -is of opinion that the waters of the Thames seldom change, but are -probably carried up and down with the turn of the alternate tides for -an indefinite period, which, he is of opinion, may be one, if not the -principal cause of what is termed the extreme softness of the waters of -the Thames. - -“Mr. Stevenson has made similar experiments on the rivers Forth and -Tay, and at Loch Eil, where the Caledonian Canal joins the Western Sea. -The aperture at Corran Ferry, for the tidal waters of that Loch, being -small compared with the surface of Loch Eil, which forms the drainage -of a great extent of country, it occurred to him that the waters of the -surface must have less saline particles than the waters of the bottom. -He accordingly lifted water from the surface at the anchorage off Fort -William, and found it to be 1008·2; at the depth of 9 fathoms 1025·5; -at the depth of 30 fathoms, in the central parts of the Loch, it was -1027·2; being the specific gravity of sea water.” - -The hydrophore, which was originally devised and used by Mr. Stevenson, -in 1812, at Aberdeen, has now reached its height of excellence of -construction and scientific importance in the famous ‘Challenger’ -Expedition. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -EXTRACTS FROM EARLY REPORTS. - - Wide range of subjects on which Mr. Stevenson gave advice--Reports - on ruins of Aberbrothock Abbey--St. Magnus Cathedral, and - Earl’s Palace, Kirkwall--St. Andrews Cathedral--Montrose - Church Spire--Melville Monument, Edinburgh--Lipping - of joints of masonry with cement--Provision for flood - waters in bridges--Hydraulic mortar--Protection of - foreshores--Cycloidal sea wall--Checking drift sand--Night - signal lamps--Cause of heavy seas in Irish Channel--Sea routes - across Irish Channel--Build of ships--Prospective increase - of population--Tidal scour--Unscrewing of bolts by the - waves--Cement Rubble cofferdams--Buoyage system--Observations - on fog signals--Regulations for steam vessels--Notes on - shipwrecks. - - -Judging from Smeaton’s well known “Reports,” to which all have -access, we may conclude that the “professional advice” given by early -Engineers was very generally accompanied by a fuller and less reserved -discussion of opinion than is to be met with in the brief and technical -Engineering reports of the present day. In early times, Engineers did -not hesitate to express themselves freely on physics, æsthetics, or -commerce, provided their views had a collateral bearing on the subject -under discussion, and this often added to the interest of their reports. - -These early Engineers were also consulted on a much wider range of -subjects than the Engineers of modern times. We know that the larger -requirements of modern Engineering demand that its practice should be -classified under distinct branches, such as harbours, navigations, -water works, gas works, lighthouses, or railways, not to mention -electrical and sanitary engineering, and other branches of modern -growth, all of which cannot possibly be advantageously practised by any -one member of the profession; for no one mind can grasp the theoretical -knowledge, and no one life can compass the practical experience, to -enable a man to attain eminence in all these departments of modern -Engineering. - -A biographical sketch of Mr. Stevenson’s professional life would, -it seems to me, be incomplete if it did not convey to the reader -some notion, however general, of the wide range of subjects brought -under his notice, in these early times, and of his comprehensive and -suggestive mode of treating every case on which he was professionally -consulted. This object would be only imperfectly attained were I -to restrict my reference to his reports to the examples given in -the preceding chapters; for I have found in his numerous writings -casual notices of a miscellaneous and fragmentary character, many of -which seem to me to be interesting to the profession, and worthy of -preservation, and I propose, in this chapter, to give a few of these -extracts, without order of subject or date; and I think they will -justify my remark as to the great variety and fulness of treatment to -be found in the reports of early Engineers. - - * * * * * - -It appears, for example, that Mr. Stevenson was often called to advise -on matters which were more related to architecture than engineering. -Of this nature was his tour of inspection to the jails of England, -in company with Sir William Rae, the Sheriff of Edinburgh, in 1813, -referred to in a former chapter. - - -ABERBROTHOCK RUINS. - -In like manner he inspected Aberbrothock Abbey, with Sir Walter Scott -and the Sheriff of Forfar, in 1809, to advise as to preserving the -ruins, some of the turrets being in imminent danger of falling; and -after procuring a survey of the whole building he prepared a report, -with plans and specification, which were submitted to the Barons of -Exchequer, and the work was thereafter carried out under his direction. - - -ST. MAGNUS CATHEDRAL AND EARL’S PALACE. - -He also reported in a similar way to the Sheriff of Orkney with -reference to the repairs of the Earl’s Palace at Kirkwall, estimated at -£500, and on certain alterations at the Cathedral of St. Magnus. - - -ST. ANDREWS CATHEDRAL AND MONTROSE SPIRE. - -With a similar object in view he inspected and reported on the -Cathedral of St. Andrews, and the steeple of the Church of Montrose, -which was thought to be in danger, and the result of that inquiry was -the present beautiful spire, built from the designs of James Gillespie -Graham. - - -MELVILLE MONUMENT. - -He was also associated with Mr. Burn in the Melville Monument of -Edinburgh,--the preparation of the foundation, the rubble work for the -tower, and the scaffolding and tackling for raising the statue were -carried out under Mr. Stevenson’s direction; the whole architectural -design being due to Mr. Burn alone. - - -LIPPING OF JOINTS OF MASONRY WITH CEMENT. - -The well known practice of what is termed “lipping” with cement the -mortar joints of masonry exposed to the wash of water is described by -him as new in his report to the Trustees of Marykirk Bridge, of 16th -July 1812, where he says:-- - -“Upon carefully examining the face joints of the masonry of the south -pier under water line, some of these were found not to be so full of -mortar as could have been wished, and although Mr. Logan (the inspector -of works) had taken the precaution to cause the joints to be covered -with clay to preserve them from the effects of the water, yet this had -not altogether answered the purpose, and hence the reporter recommended -to the meeting of the 8th current _to provide a few casks of Parker’s -Roman Cement, to be laid to the breadth of three or four inches upon -the bed and end joints under the low water mark of the remaining -piers_.” - - -PROVISION FOR FLOOD WATER IN BRIDGES. - -In determining the waterway of his bridges, Mr. Stevenson invariably -provided for prospective increase of flooding due to agricultural -improvements, as stated in the following extract from a report made in -1811:-- - -“To preserve an ample waterway the north abutment is placed about -twelve feet from the edge of the river, leaving a sufficient passage -for the water in floods. A less waterway might perhaps have answered -the purpose, but as the valleys through which the North Esk passes may -come to be meliorated by drainage, and especially those districts of -country on each side of the feeders which join the river, the facility -with which the surface water may then escape must greatly increase the -floods, and although their duration will be shorter, yet their rise -must be proportionally higher.” - - -HYDRAULIC MORTAR. - -The following remarks on hydraulic mortar, made in 1811 to the -Commissioners of Montrose Bridge, are interesting as showing the detail -which he brought to bear on all his works:-- - -“The best mortar for water work is a mixture of Pozzolano earth with -lime and sand, but the late interrupted state of commercial intercourse -with the Mediterranean has for years past rendered Pozzolano so scarce -an article as hardly to be procured on any terms. Your reporter has -therefore been induced to make various experiments with preparations -of lime and Roman cement, and finds that a mixture may be made which -will set under water and answer every purpose. For this mortar the -lime ought to be well burned, and put into casks when drawn from the -kiln. It should be brought to the work as recently after being burnt as -possible. This will be most readily attained by taking the lime from -Boddam kilns. English lime is in general stronger and cleaner, but -some of it brought for the purpose of agriculture is not so suitable -for buildings as Lord Elgin’s lime. These limes, however, cannot be -had very newly burnt, and it will be preferable to take lime from some -of the kilns in the neighbourhood which are of good character. When -brought to the bridge the lime should be kept under cover, opening only -one barrel at a time; the shells must be pounded to a state of powder, -and immediately before mixing it with the other ingredients it will -be proper to sprinkle a little water upon it to dissolve any gritty -particles that may remain amongst it. - -“The sand for this work, though fine, must nevertheless be sharp; it -must also be passed through a sieve, and cleaned of all impurities by -washing, if found necessary. For ramming the joints and pointing under -water, let equal parts of lime in its powdered state and of Roman -cement be used, with one fourth part of prepared sand, but for the -upper works the quantity of Roman cement in the mortar may be reduced -to one third part. - -“The mortar must be mixed in small quantities and quickly beaten up -into a consistency suitable for the work. All white specks, which are -apt to swell and spoil the joints, must be carefully rejected from the -mortar.” - - -PROTECTION OF FORESHORES. - -Some suggestive remarks on the protection of foreshores, made in 1812, -in a report to Lord Rosebery, on his Lordship’s property at Barnbougle -Castle on the Firth of Forth, are given in the following terms:-- - -“If the operation of the waters of the ocean be attended to in the -formation of the shores, some useful hints may be gained. These shores -will be found to be so many inclined planes, varying in declivity -according to the tenacity of the matter of which they, are composed. -Hence it is that the minute grains of sand and the light sea shell -become a lasting barrier against the rapid river current and the -tumultuous ocean, while the erect sea wall is levelled with the -ground. For the truth of this it were needless to refer to the works -of nature in different quarters of the world, or in distant parts of -this country; it is only necessary to examine the shores on each side -of Barnbougle Castle, where the beautiful beach, consisting of sand and -shells, between the Cockle Burn and the sea, forms a complete defence -to the low grounds behind it, while to the northward of the castle the -massive wall is in danger of being completely thrown down. Without -waiting to inquire into the causes which regulate these appearances, it -will be more consonant to the business of this report to point out how -their simple forms may be imitated and turned to advantage.” - - -CYCLOIDAL SEAWALL. - -In reporting on the defence of the lands of Trinity, on the Firth of -Forth, Mr. Stevenson recommended the adoption of a cycloidal talus -wall, which was executed under his direction in 1821:-- - -“In giving an opinion relative to the best mode of defending and -preserving this property, the reporter observes that it fortunately -happens that the beach is pretty closely covered with large boulder -stones, which now form a kind of _chevaux de frise_ in breaking the -force of the sea, and making it fall more gently towards high water -mark. Were it not that these stones are proposed to be employed in the -erection of a more effectual barrier against the waves, the reporter -would not fail to disapprove of their removal for any other purpose. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.] - -“The reporter proposes that a _Talus wall_ or bulwark should be -built of these boulder stones, roughly dressed and laid so as to -form a cycloidal curve in the central part, as nearly as may be, as -represented in the section with its tangents (Fig. 20). The properties -of the cycloid as applicable to a sea wall in an exposed situation are -very important. In particular, if compared with any other curve, in the -same vertical line and down through the same points, it will be found -of swiftest descent under similar circumstances, therefore the water -in its rise must be proportionally retarded. The lower tangent to the -curve alluded to also forms a wall towards low water, best adapted -for admitting the sea to flow gently over it, while that connected -with the upper extremity of the cycloidal part, tending towards the -perpendicular, brings gravity into action against the rise of the -waves. The practical execution of a wall upon this construction is -simple, while the aggregate quantity of materials is less than for any -of the curves of the conic sections of similar extent, and it seems -upon the whole to be peculiarly applicable for the defence of the sea -beach in question. - -“If we examine the numerous works of this kind erected for similar -purposes along this coast, we shall find that the general process or -action of the waves is to undermine the seaward courses of the walls. -In some cases, however, where due attention has not been paid to -making up the backing of the face wall in a compact and firm manner, -the central parts have been found to sink and give way. But the more -common mode of failure is by the undermining of the seaward courses, -arising from too sudden a slope being given to the face wall, which -has a direct tendency to produce additional agitation in the waters -at the bottom of the wall, by which the beach is excavated, and the -foundation, being exposed to the wash of the sea, its destruction soon -follows. If we attend to the distribution which nature makes of the -matters composing a sea beach, unless where special local causes occur, -we find them laid with a very gradual descent towards low water mark. -The sands of Portobello, in this neighbourhood, form a striking example -of this. Here small quartzose grains mixed with light sea shells prove, -in their effects, a more effectual barrier against the overwhelming -force of the waves than perpendicular and massive walls of masonry.” - - -CHECKING DRIFT SAND. - -Mr. Stevenson recommended Lord Palmerston to introduce the _Pinus -maritima major_, as a check for sand drift, on his estate of -Mullaghmore, in the following report, dated 21st July 1835:-- - -“During the reporter’s visit to Mullaghmore, his advice was also asked -regarding the operations at present going on for the improvement of -the land. He had then much satisfaction in viewing the interesting -improvements of reclaiming bog lands, and checking the inroads of the -sand flood or drift, by planting ‘bent’ grass upon the shores of this -estate. The system of dibbling the bent grass, pursued by Mr. Lynch, -is in the best style which the reporter has anywhere met with; and he -has been so impressed with the national importance of this scheme, from -the success already experienced at Mullaghmore, that he has already -taken the opportunity of recommending this system as applicable to the -entrance of Ballyshannon, and in other quarters, particularly to the -Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. - -“The question chiefly submitted to the consideration of the reporter, -in regard to these operations, was the best mode of defending the -margin of the bent grass towards the sea. For such purposes, buildings -or fences of any kind are not only expensive in their formation, but -are also in constant need of repair. Mr. Lynch seems so much at home -in all planting operations that the reporter begs simply to bring -under your Lordship’s notice the French mode of planting a species -of fir (_Pinus maritima major_), which was originally suggested to -the Government by the late M. Bremonteuil, _Ingénieur des Ponts et -Chaussées_. This system has been extensively tried along the stormy -shores of the Bay of Biscay, particularly in the district of Grave, at -the entrance of the Garonne, where the arid and sterile sands have been -covered with extensive forests, which thrive quite close to the water’s -edge. From the climate and exposure of the shores at Mullaghmore, -the reporter has no doubt of the success of similar plantations in -arresting the progress of the sand flood. It is believed that Mr. -Lawson, seedsman to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, -is taking measures to import the seeds of the _Pinus maritima major_, -with a view to trying it on some of the exposed sandy districts of -Scotland.” - -From the following extract of a letter from Mr. Kincaid of Dublin, who -was Lord Palmerston’s Commissioner, it is interesting to know that the -experiment was entirely satisfactory, proving that the _Pinus maritima -major_ is well adapted to the climate of the coasts of the British -Isles:-- - -“The Mullaghmore plantations extend to about 200 acres. About eighty -of these were planted twenty-five years ago. Some of the trees are -thirty feet in height, and vary from that height to about twenty or -twenty-five feet. The remainder were planted ten years ago, and are -making fair progress. All the pine plantations from opposite Newtown -Cliffony to Mullaghmore are in a most healthy condition, the trees -making growths of from twelve to twenty inches each year. The storms -have no bad effect on the south side of the great sand hill, but on its -summit, and towards the west side, the spray and gales of the Atlantic -will not allow the young trees to make any progress.” - - -NIGHT SIGNAL LAMPS. - -In a report to the Trustees for improving the Queensferry passage, made -in 1811, Mr. Stevenson proposes a set of signals as described in the -following extract, his proposal being, in fact, the signal now in use -on all British railways:-- - -“Upon the supposition of its being the intention of this Honourable -Trust to have an establishment on the south side of the Firth similar -to that which is now proposed for the north side, the reporter takes -the liberty of observing that much advantage, as the Trustees know, -might be derived by the public from a few simple and well appointed -signals, both for night and day. - -“Those intended for the day may be constructed upon a modified scale, -after the common telegraphic method; while the night signals can be -rendered extremely simple and effective by interposing at pleasure -between the observer and the reflector a shade of coloured glass. By -connecting these partial obscurations of colouring the light with an -index that shall be understood on both sides of the passage, orders may -be communicated in a very expeditious manner.” - - -CAUSE OF HEAVY SEAS IN IRISH CHANNEL. - -In a report to the Right Honourable Viscount Cathcart, Commander of His -Majesty’s Forces, made on Portpatrick harbour in 1812, he gives the -following explanation of the well-known rough sea between Portpatrick -and Donaghadee:-- - -“In describing the harbour of Portpatrick, it may be noticed that -although the coast on which it is situated is not directly exposed -to the Atlantic Ocean, yet the opposing tides of the north and south -channels meet there and separate to flow up the Clyde and Solway -Firths, which, independent of storms, must occasion a very considerable -commotion in the waters of the channel between Portpatrick and -Donaghadee. - -“Accordingly we find that the sea has made a great impression upon -the coast of Wigtonshire; and though the shores between Loch Ryan -and the Bay of Glenluce consist chiefly of whinstone (the greenstone -of mineralogists), which is one of the most indestructible rocks we -have, yet the figure of the coast is indented with many small cuts or -creeks, and rocks are all along the shore found jutting into the sea. -At the head of one of these creeks, which is about a hundred fathoms in -length, and thirty fathoms in breadth, the harbour of Portpatrick is -situated between two insulated rocks, upon one of which the piers are -built, the harbour being formed by an excavation, chiefly in the solid -rock.” - - -SEA ROUTES ACROSS IRISH CHANNEL. - -In the same report he states the relative advantages of various routes -of communication across the Irish Channel:-- - -“A further extension of the intercourse between Scotland and Ireland -could be made with much advantage to both by a regular establishment of -packets between Ardrossan, Troon, or Dunure in Ayrshire, and Larne in -the county of Antrim. Between the two last places, viz., Dunure and -Larne, the distance would only be about sixty miles, being ten miles -shorter, and unquestionably much safer, than the passage from Holyhead -to Dublin. - -“Under all the views of this subject, from the greater contiguity -of Portpatrick and Donaghadee than of Lochs Ryan and Larne, and the -former places having more immediate access to the open sea than the -latter, and also from the intercourse being now fully organised by -long establishment, it were perhaps better, even at a much greater -expense, to continue the present system than to change it. Portpatrick -harbour may be rendered incomparably better by the plan now proposed, -and Donaghadee is also capable and stands much in want of improvement, -by an extension of its piers and the erection of a permanent light to -direct the packets into the harbour under night.” - - -BUILD OF SHIPS. - -In reporting to the Royal Burgh of Dundee as to the improvement of the -harbour in 1814, Mr. Stevenson takes occasion to introduce one of those -collateral questions to which I have referred:-- - -“It is curious to observe the changes and to trace the progressive -improvements which have taken place in the form and _build_ of ships. -When we contrast those of early navigators with ships of modern -times, among the many alterations, none seems more striking than the -difference of their depth. The draught of water that was required for a -ship of 300 tons burden would hardly be found enough to float a modern -built vessel of 100 tons. This alteration in the construction of -ships, which is mainly calculated to improve their sailing, by giving -them a better hold of the water, seems gradually to have advanced, as -the mariner became more adventurous in his voyages; and is only now -restrained by certain considerations of convenience, of which the most -prominent is the want of a sufficient depth of water in the havens and -harbours on the coast for their reception,--a circumstance which arises -partly from the natural position of harbours, but is chiefly owing -to the difficulties and expense attending the necessary engineering -operations, which increase enormously with the depth of water. Hence -it is that many of the ancient seaport towns of this country, which -at one time possessed an extensive trade, have, from neglecting their -harbours, sunk into a state of insignificancy; while others, by -proper exertions in this respect, have, under the most inauspicious -circumstances, attained to great commercial importance.” - - -PROSPECTIVE INCREASE OF POPULATION. - -Another case of the same kind occurs in his report on the harbour of -North Berwick, made in 1812:-- - -“Before closing this report it may be noticed that North Berwick has -considerable advantages, which if acted upon would infallibly lead to -the rapid improvement of the town and neighbourhood. Situated upon an -extensive flat which skirts along the high land of North Berwick Law, -on a beautiful sandy bay, which is intersected by the street leading to -the harbour, few towns will more easily admit of elegant extension or -are better calculated for becoming a sea-bathing retreat.” - -It has now the well-known reputation of being the best frequented -watering place on the east coast of Scotland. - - -TIDAL SCOUR. - -In the report, of 1814, on Dundee we find the following remarks on -tidal scour:-- - -“To put this matter in a clearer point of view, let us see what nature -does upon the great scale, as for example in the extensive basin -forming the Firth of Tay. We there find that in consequence of the -rapidity of the current at the narrow passage in the neighbourhood of -Broughty Castle, which may be viewed as the _scouring aperture_ of the -basin of the Tay, the water is from forty to eighty feet in depth, and -moves with a velocity which carries a great quantity of sandy particles -along with it. But no sooner are the waters of this current allowed to -spread and cover the basin of the Tay, than the velocity ceases, and -the foreign matters fall to the bottom and form the various sandbanks -which appear at low water. In a similar way the deposition of silt and -earthy particles brought down the river in speats is accounted for. -Now, this view of the case is equally applicable to the harbour of -Dundee, for so long as the water preserves the velocity it acquires in -the _scouring apertures_ or arches in the quays, it carries all its -foreign matters along with it; but the moment it is allowed to expand -over the extent of the harbour the deposition of these earthy particles -begins. And in every case the well-known law in hydraulics holds good, -that the _scouring effect_ of a fluid is in the ratio of the square of -the velocity.” - - -UNSCREWING OF BOLTS. - -The following observations made in 1807 on the action of the waves in -unscrewing bolts, are interesting:-- - -“The unlocking of screws, where _washers_ had been introduced as a -security was rather unexpected, and the writer took an opportunity of -conversing with his much respected friend Professor Playfair regarding -this circumstance. The Professor observed, that he had experienced some -inconvenience of this kind from the unlocking of almost all the screws -of a telescope which had been sent to him from London by the mail -coach. Indeed, from the spiral form of the screw, which is, in fact, an -inclined plane, Mr. Playfair readily accounted for such an occurrence, -and, when reflected upon, it seems to be an effect rather to be looked -for, and is a reason why riveting the point of a bolt in preference to -screwing it should generally be resorted to, where much motion is to be -apprehended.” - - -CEMENT RUBBLE COFFERDAMS. - -I give his description of the cement rubble cofferdams, first used in -1808, at the erection of the Bell Rock Lighthouse:-- - -“At seven o’clock this morning, the tide proving more favourable, -the artificers began to work. At nine o’clock the rock was again -overflowed, and the boats returned to the tender after two hours’ -work. Part of the operations of this morning’s tide consisted in -building up the crevices and inequalities of the rock round the margin -of the foundation with Pozzolano mortar and the chips produced from -excavation, with the view to dam out the water. These little walls -varied from six to eighteen inches in height; a small sluice or -aperture being formed in one of them, by which the water, during ebb -tide, was allowed to drain off. - -“It formed part of the writer’s original design to erect a cast iron -cofferdam of about five feet in height round the site of the building; -but the surface of the rock was so irregular that the difficulty of -tightening it, and also of emptying the contained water, so as to get -the benefit of it during ebb tide, would have been so great, that -taking these circumstances into account, together with the loss of time -which would attend the erection of such a preparatory work, the idea -of a cofferdam was laid aside, soon after entering upon the actual -execution of the work.” - - -BUOYAGE SYSTEM. - -In his report on the Forth Navigation, made to the Magistrates of -Stirling in 1828, Mr. Stevenson proposed a system of buoyage, which -has since been adopted by the several Lighthouse Boards of the United -Kingdom:-- - -“The channels proposed to be cleared through the different fords are -coloured red on the Plan, in reference to the sectional line. For the -use and guidance of river pilots, buoys and perches or beacons are -likewise intended to be placed in the positions shown in the Plan; -those coloured red are to be taken on the starboard, and those coloured -black upon the larboard side, in going up the river; and the whole are -to be so placed in connection with the clearing and deepening of the -fords as to be approached with safety.” - - -OBSERVATIONS ON FOG SIGNALS. - -At a very early period Mr. Stevenson’s attention was directed to the -dangers of fog at sea, and the best means of providing an effective -fog signal for the mariner, and so long ago as 1808 he had come to -the conclusion that the best signal adapted for the purpose was the -sustained sound of a horn, which, as is well known, has within the last -few years been so much employed in the fog signals which are now being -established at many of the lighthouse stations in this and foreign -countries. The following extracts give an idea of the difficulties he -encountered, and his views on the subject:-- - -“The boats landed this evening (23d June 1808), when the artificers -had again two hours’ work. The weather still continuing very thick -and foggy, more difficulty was experienced in getting on board of the -vessels to-night than had occurred on any previous occasion, owing -to a light breeze of wind which carried the sound of the bell, and -the other signals made on board of the vessels, away from the rock. -Having fortunately made out the position of the sloop “Smeaton,” at the -north-east buoy, to which we were much assisted by the barking of the -ship’s dog, we parted with the Smeaton’s boat, when the boats of the -tender took a fresh departure for that vessel, which lay about half a -mile to the south westward. Yet such is the very deceiving state of -the tides that although there was a small binnacle and compass in the -landing master’s boat, we had nevertheless passed the ‘Sir Joseph’ a -good way, when fortunately one of the sailors caught the sound of a -blowing horn. The only fire-arms on board were a pair of swivels of one -inch calibre; but it is quite surprising how much the sound is lost in -foggy weather, as the report was heard but at a very short distance. -The sound from the explosion of gunpowder is so instantaneous that -the effect of the small guns was not so good as either the blowing of -a horn or the tolling of a bell, which afforded a more constant and -steady direction for the pilot. It may here be noticed that larger guns -would have answered better, but these must have induced the keeping of -a greater stock of gunpowder, which in a service of this kind might -have been attended with risk. A better signal would have been a bugle -horn, the tremulous sound of which produces a more powerful effect in -fog than the less sonorous and more sudden report of ordnance.” - -And again he says:-- - -“In the course of this morning’s work two or three apparently distant -peals of thunder were heard, and the atmosphere suddenly became thick -and foggy. But as the Smeaton, our present tender, was moored at no -great distance from the rock, the crew on board continued blowing a -horn, and occasionally fired a musket, so that the boats got to the -ship without difficulty. The occurrence of thick weather, however, -became a serious consideration in looking forward to the necessary -change of quarters to the Pharos, distant about one mile from the rock, -instead of a few hundred yards, as in the case of the Smeaton. - -“The weather towards the evening became thick and foggy, and there was -hardly a breath of wind to ruffle the surface of the water; had it not -therefore been the noise from the anvils of the smiths, who had been -left on the beacon throughout the day, which afforded a guide for the -boats, a landing could not have been attempted this evening, especially -with so large a company of artificers. This circumstance confirmed the -writer’s opinion with regard to the propriety of connecting large bells -to be rung with machinery in the lighthouse, to be tolled day and night -during the continuance of foggy weather, by which the mariner may be -forewarned of too near an approach to the rock, while every distant -object is obscured in the mist.” - -Following out this subject, Mr. Stevenson caused observations to be -made at the Calf of Man--a small island at the south of the Isle of -Man, and separated from the main island by a narrow “sound.” The place -is noted for its fogs, on which Mr. Stevenson says:-- - -“I sent Mr. Macurich, a shipmaster in the lighthouse service, to the -Calf of Man, with directions to reside there, and make monthly returns -of the state of the weather, agreeably to a printed form. During his -stay of seven months, it appears upon the whole that the fog rested -only twice upon the highest land of the Calf Island, while it cleared -partially below. On one of these occasions I was on board of the -lighthouse yacht, then at anchor off the island, when the fog was for -a time general; and as the weather became clear, I observed that it -first disappeared upon the lower parts of the island, and that in half -an hour the whole of the Calf was seen. In the monthly returns made by -Mr. Macurich, the Calf island is represented as often perfectly free -of fog, while the higher parts of the opposite mainland of the Isle of -Man were hid in mist. To account for this, it may be noticed that the -mass of matter in the Calf Island is much less, and the land is also -much lower than in the main island. Part of this effect may also be -ascribed to the rapidity of the tides, which create a current of wind, -particularly in the narrow channel between the main and Calf islands, -which have a direct tendency to clear away the fog, as I have observed -at the Skerries in the Pentland Firth, and in similar situations on -different parts of the coast, where rapid currents prevail.” - -These extracts are given to show the attention Mr. Stevenson gave to -the subject of fogs, which, as already noticed, led him to recommend -the horn, the instrument now so much used in giving signals to the -mariner. - -Akin to this may be mentioned his expression of regret that no means -existed for determining the force of the wind, as noticed in the -following paragraph:-- - -“We cannot enough regret the want of an efficient anemometer, or -instrument for measuring the force of the wind. Indeed, we hardly know -any desideratum of more universal interest, for, notwithstanding the -labours of Lind and others on this subject, from the want of a proper -scale we are still groping in the dark with the use of such indefinite -terms as ‘light airs inclining to calm,’ ‘fresh breezes,’ ‘fresh -gales,’ ‘hard gales,’ and ‘very hard gales;’ for it rarely happens that -the sailor will admit the term ‘storm’ into his nomenclature.” - - -REGULATIONS FOR STEAM VESSELS. - -The loss of the ‘Comet’ steamer by collision on the Clyde, in 1825, led -the Lord Advocate to entertain the idea of introducing a Bill for the -regulation of steamers, and to issue a circular in the following terms, -of which Mr. Stevenson received a copy:-- - - “EDINBURGH, _4th Feby. 1826_. - - I annex a copy of the heads of such a Bill as, in my opinion, may - be calculated to afford sufficient security to steamboats, and - thereby alike promote the interests of the owners of such vessels - and that of the public. I feel noways wedded to any of the proposed - provisions, and am anxious to submit them to the consideration of - the better informed on such subjects, so as to obtain suggestions - either as to the additions or amendments which the Bill may be - fitted to receive. - - “In directing your attention to this important subject, I need - hardly remind you that in our endeavours to render such vessels - perfectly secure in so far as respects the passengers, we must - not lose sight of the interest of the owners, or attempt to clog - the trade with unnecessarily embarrassing regulations. Such - restrictions are seldom enforced, and, if they should receive - effect, might lead to such harassing consequences as would injure - this useful description of property, and thereby to a certain - extent deprive the public of the great benefit which is now derived - from the use of vessels navigated by steam.--I have the honour to - be your most obedient servant, - - “WM. RAE.” - -The only account I can find of Mr. Stevenson’s views on this important -subject is contained in the following extract from a letter, dated -3d November 1825, to Captain Foulerton, one of the Wardens of the -Trinity House, with whom he appears to have had much correspondence, -in which he explains views which are very much in accordance with the -regulations for steamers now issued by the Board of Trade. His letter -says:-- - -“We lately had a melancholy accident, as you would see, by the running -down of the ‘Comet’ steam packet, by which, it is believed, that about -seventy people lost their lives. The Lord Advocate attended himself at -the taking of the precognition, and is, I believe, to bring some of the -parties to trial. He has also in view some regulations by an Act on -this new and important subject. - -“From my seeming marine habits his Lordship has desired me to state -what occurs on the subject of lights. If we need this on the Forth and -Clyde, you must be in a worse state in the Thames. I have no doubt you -had this under the notice of your House. I think there should be two -lights, one in each bow, but under deck, in order to keep the lights -_entirely_ out of the view of those on deck. I am not for interfering -with their head sails. I would have them licensed like stage coaches, -and placed under the inspection of an officer of the navy, not below -the rank of a lieutenant. Six or eight officers might do the duty for -the whole United Kingdom for a time.” - -The accident seems to have led to a further investigation into the -general question of the saving of life in cases of shipwreck on -the coasts of Scotland; and on this subject Mr. Stevenson made the -following replies to the queries submitted to him by the authorities:-- - - “QUERY.--Are shipwrecks frequent on the coasts of Scotland and - its islands?” - -“Wrecks between the Firths of Forth and Moray are more frequent than on -any other part of the coast of Scotland. This may probably be accounted -for by the great number of vessels passing and repassing along that -coast. In the month of December 1799, a strong gale from the south-east -occasioned serious disasters on these shores, when upwards of seventy -sail were wrecked on the eastern coast of Scotland, and many of their -crews perished. This lamentable catastrophe was the means of causing -lifeboats upon Greathead’s plan to be fitted out at St. Andrews, -Arbroath, Montrose, Aberdeen, Peterhead, and other places, which have -been found highly useful in saving the lives of mariners. This gale was -also the immediate cause of the erection of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, -which may be said almost entirely to have prevented shipwreck, so -frequent in St. Andrews Bay and the entrance of the Firth of Forth in -general. - -“From the Moray Firth along the shores of the mainland to the entrance -of the Firth of Clyde, wrecks cannot be said to be very frequent, -although the navigation is rather difficult; but the safety of shipping -on this coast depends upon the great number of excellent natural bays -and harbours upon it. - -“In the Orkney and Shetland Islands few seasons pass without wrecks -occurring. On the Lewis and Western Hebrides shipwrecks frequently -occur.” - - “QUERY.--Are the coasts of Scotland in general well provided - with the means of giving assistance in case of shipwreck, - or are they deficient in such provision?” - -“The coast of Scotland is provided with no other means of saving the -crews of vessels than the assistance they accidentally meet with from -the inhabitants along shore. The only lifeboats established are those -at the ports already mentioned. - -“If Captain Manby’s apparatus was generally known and applied upon the -coast, it would be found highly beneficial.” - - “QUERY.--Are any instances remembered of total shipwrecks where - lives lost might have been saved by the lifeboat or by - Captain Manby’s apparatus, at the distance of 350 or 400 - yards off the coast?” - -“In the year 1813 the ‘Oscar,’ Greenland ship of Aberdeen, Captain -Innes, went ashore upon Girdleness, at the entrance of Aberdeen -Harbour. There were on board fifty-four persons, of whom only two were -saved, by dropping from the bowsprit end. The ship was very near the -shore. She broke up about twenty minutes after she struck, and I have -no doubt that, if an active person had been on the spot with Captain -Manby’s apparatus, the greater part of the crew of this ship might have -been saved. - -“In the winter of 1824 the ‘Deveron’ of Aberdeen, Captain Scott, went -ashore upon the sands three miles north of Aberdeen in a gale at -south-east. She was only about 300 yards from the shore, and here the -whole crew must have perished had it not been for the prompt use of -Captain Manby’s apparatus. - -“Every one who has seen this apparatus must have admired its simplicity -and effect. It is however difficult to see how its application can be -very generally introduced so as to be useful along the whole extent of -chequered coasts of the British dominions. Certainly at all principal -ports it would naturally be expected that both this and the lifeboat -would be provided. - -“A time seems to be approaching when the coast will be much more -complete in all such provision from the hands of the humane for the -safety of the mariner. We also hail with pleasure the extending efforts -of the respective Lighthouse Boards on the coasts of England, Scotland, -and Ireland, as a certain means of adding to the security of that -useful body of men, as well as to the facilities of her enterprising -merchants. Nor can we withhold the notice of the effect of the -operations of the Scots Board in this respect. At the entrance to the -Firth of Forth, prior to the erection of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, few -winters passed without some disastrous shipwreck. - -“Even after the completion of this arduous undertaking, until the -beacon was erected on the Carr Rock, off Fifeness, the fisherman’s -observation was--‘The Carr has always her wreck: if she misses one -year, she is sure to have two the next.’ But since the erection of this -beacon in 1820 till this date (1825), not a single wreck has happened -on this part of the coast.” - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -RETROSPECT OF MR. STEVENSON’S LIFE. - - -The unconnected sketches which form this Memoir extend over a period -of about forty years. They have, as already stated, been selected from -among a large mass of documents, in order to convey to the reader, -not only some idea of the great variety of subjects Mr. Stevenson was -called on to consider, but also to show his happy power of dealing with -engineering questions in the several aspects under which they were -presented to him. In perusing them, the reader can hardly have failed -to remark in how many instances the views Mr. Stevenson expressed -were forecasts either of great fundamental social changes, such as -the substitution of the railway for the road, or of smaller though -important matters of detail, as, for example, the signal lights of our -railways and steamers, without which the “night traffic”--so popular a -feature of modern travelling--could not possibly be conducted. These -and many other instances must have satisfied the professional reader -that _foresight_ and _originality_ were remarkable features of Mr. -Stevenson’s character. - - * * * * * - -In the department of Lighthouses, he had experiences which, it may -be safely said, none of his compeers possessed, and I think it will -be admitted that in his general practice he displayed powers of -observation of a high order. Acting as he did with Rennie, Telford, -Nimmo, and afterwards with Walker, George Rennie, and Cubitt, with all -of whom he ever remained in friendly intercourse, his experience was -both large and varied, and the whole of his practice as an Engineer was -distinguished by full preliminary investigation of his subject--great -caution in forming his conclusions--elaborate preparation of his -reports and designs, and, as specially called forth at the Bell -Rock Lighthouse, masterly skill, indomitable energy, and unwavering -fortitude in carrying his designs into execution. - - * * * * * - -My father was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in -1815, and soon after joined the Antiquarian and Wernerian Natural -History Societies, taking an active part at their meetings and -communicating papers to their proceedings. He was a Fellow of the -Geological and Astronomical Societies of London, a Member of the -Smeatonian Society, and of the Institution of Civil Engineers. - -He was also one of the original promoters of the Astronomical -Institution, out of which has grown the present establishment of -the Royal Observatory of Edinburgh, and the following account of -the early origin of the Institution was drawn up some years before -Mr. Stevenson’s death at the request of Professor Piazzi Smyth, the -Astronomer-Royal of Scotland:-- - -“There was a young man named Kerr--an optician--in Edinburgh, who, on -commencing business, brought about the formation of a Club, somewhat -like a Book Club, for procuring philosophical instruments for the use -of its members. These were more particularly optical instruments and -theodolites, etc., for surveyors, which were also to have been lent out -for hire. I think the subscription was a guinea. The meetings were, -perhaps, monthly; they were held in the office of Mr. James Ogilvy, -Accountant, Parliament Square. - -“I attended two, or perhaps three, meetings in the year. The Club was -formed before I was invited to become a member. At the first meeting -I found present Mr. James Bonar, treasurer of the Royal Society; Mr. -Christison, mathematician; Mr. Brown, bookseller, opposite the college; -Mr. Ogilvy, and Mr. Kerr. - -“After attending one or two meetings of this very modest Society for -the advancement of science, Mr. Bonar and I had some conversation -upon its prospects, and the difficulties attending such a scheme of -procuring philosophical instruments, and systematising the lending -out, and keeping in efficient order theodolites, levels, telescopes, -etc.; and we concurred in opinion that the scheme could not succeed. -We deemed it advisable rather to endeavour to get Short’s observatory -on the Calton Hill occupied as a ‘Popular Observatory.’ We spoke to -some of the magistrates on this subject, who, on the part of the town, -were quite favourable to the idea. We also applied to Mr. Thomas Allan, -then an active member of the Royal Society, and he joined us in a -communication to Sir George Mackenzie of Coul, who warmly entered into -our views; and ultimately we had an interview with Professor Playfair, -who, in his mild and placid manner, agreed to consider the subject, -but felt some difficulty on account of his colleague, the Professor -of Practical Astronomy. After a time Professor Playfair undertook to -draw up a statement for the public, which he did in his usual elegant -and concise style. Thus, step by step, we succeeded in obtaining -subscribers, and under the countenance and support of Playfair, many -were found who patronised the proposal of establishing an observatory -on the Calton Hill. - -“Our idea was that we might look forward to a Popular Observatory which -would not interfere with the existing Professorship of Astronomy, but -have an establishment to which, with our families, we might resort in -an evening with the advantage of oral and ocular demonstrations in the -science of Astronomy, treated after a popular form. - -“The present characteristic and beautiful building was then erected, -and with the aid of Government, it was furnished with some of the -chief instruments; but much to my regret the establishment has been -exclusively limited to the purposes of a scientific observatory, -without any provision of a popular description for which it was -originally intended. - -“Unfortunately there was nothing to keep our constitution alive in the -minds of the public--nothing to allure additional subscribers to our -funds, so as to extend the building, and fit it with a theatre and -apparatus for popular purposes--no Lecture was established, and, in -short, the original object fell dead in the hands of the Directors. -I thus personally lost my object in this establishment, and in all -my _uphill_ journeys and manifold meetings, I had chiefly in view -the pleasure of interviews with my excellent friend the late Thomas -Henderson, the Professor of Astronomy in the University.” - - * * * * * - -Passing from what may be regarded as Mr. Stevenson’s public character -as an engineer, it is only natural that I should conclude this Memoir -by adding a few paragraphs descriptive of his social bearing as a man. - -In politics my father was a decided conservative, but he never took a -prominent part in political or municipal affairs. He was, however, from -his earliest days a loyal subject of the king; and, as we find from -his Journal, a zealous supporter of the Government. He says:--“After -my return from the Pentland Skerries in 1794, I enrolled myself as -a private in the 1st Regiment of Edinburgh Volunteers raised as the -local Defenders of our _Firesides_ against the threatened invasion by -the French, and served about five years in the ranks of that corps. -However, when the war became hot, and invasion was fully expected, -other corps of Volunteers were embodied, when I was promoted to be -a Lieutenant in the ‘Princess (Charlotte’s) Royals,’ and afterwards -Captain of the Grenadier Company.” - -His connection with the volunteers seems to have been of a very -agreeable and satisfactory character, proving that such loyal and -patriotic services were not then and are not now incompatible with the -most ardent pursuit of those studies and duties which are to qualify -a man for the business of life. On his promotion to the Royals he -received the following friendly letter from his Colonel, Charles Hope, -Lord Advocate, and afterwards Lord President of the Court of Session:-- - - “_24th January 1804._ - - “SIR,--I always part with any of my friends in the Regiment with - great regret, especially such as belonged to the old Blues. But I - cannot object to your leaving me in order to be more extensively - useful in another corps. I therefore heartily wish you every - success in your new undertaking, and have no doubt that you will - prove a valuable acquisition to the discipline of the Spearmen. - - Notify to Captain Spens your resignation, that he may send for your - arms.--I am, Sir, yours sincerely, - - C. HOPE, - “_Lt.-Col. 1st. R.E.V._ - - “MR. ROBERT STEVENSON, - “Capt., Spens’ Company.” - -Mr. Stevenson remained several years in his new corps, until he -was obliged, on commencing the Bell Rock Lighthouse, to tender his -resignation, when he received a letter from Colonel Inglis conveying -the request of the Regiment that he should continue as an honorary -member of the corps:-- - - - “EDINBURGH, _9th April 1807_. - - “SIR,--My anxious desire to have, if possible, devised means for - detaining you among us, must plead my excuse for being so long - of replying to your letter; and it is with most sincere regret, - that, after the most mature consideration, I am obliged to express - my fears that the rules of the Volunteer Corps must deprive us - of your services, in consequence of your active charge of a work - of national importance, rendering your absence from Edinburgh - unavoidable for years, during the months of drill. - - “While I feel myself impelled, therefore, to accept of your - proffered resignation, I beg to assure you of my own sense, as well - as that of all the other officers, of the loss we sustain, and of - our great personal regard. - - “And I am directed to entreat you will do us the favour of - continuing as an honorary member of a corps which has been so much - indebted for your zeal and exertions. - - “I cannot conclude without returning you my thanks for the obliging - sentiment contained in your letter towards myself; and have the - honour to be, with much esteem, sir, your faithful obedient servant, - - “WILLIAM INGLIS, L.C.C., L.E.S. - - “CAPTAIN STEVENSON, Etc.” - -Many of his personal friends have recorded the pleasant satisfaction -with which they continued through life to look back upon the days spent -in my father’s company on board the lighthouse tender, while making his -annual inspection of the lighthouses. On one of these voyages he was -accompanied by his friends Patrick Neill, LL.D., the Botanist; Charles -Oliphant, Writer to the Signet; and John Barclay, M.D., the Anatomist; -who presented him with a piece of plate in remembrance of “the many -happy hours they passed in his company on sea and shore.” - -On another occasion in 1814, the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses -invited Sir Walter Scott to accompany them on their annual tour. Mr. -Lockhart, in his life of Scott, says, “The company were all familiar -friends of his, William Erskine, then Sheriff of Orkney, Robert -Hamilton, Sheriff of Lanarkshire, Adam Duff, Sheriff of Forfarshire, -but the real chief of the expedition was the Surveyor Viceroy, the -celebrated Engineer Stevenson, and Scott anticipated special pleasure -in his society.” “I delight,” Scott writes to Morritt, “in these -professional men of talent; they always give you some new lights by the -peculiarity of their habits and studies, so different from the people -who are rounded, and smoothed, and ground down for conversation, and -who can say all that every other person says, and--nothing more.” I -quote a single paragraph from Scott’s diary of this memorable voyage, -in which he gives an amusing account of the first landing of the -Commissioners on the rock on which the celebrated Skerryvore lighthouse -has since been erected by Alan Stevenson, who succeeded my father as -Engineer, on his retirement from the Scottish Lighthouse Board in 1843. - - “Having crept upon deck about four in the morning,” says Sir - Walter, “I find we are beating to windward off the Isle of Tyree, - with the determination, on the part of Mr. Stevenson, that his - constituents should visit a reef of rocks called Skerry Vhor, - where he thought it would be essential to have a lighthouse. Loud - remonstrances on the part of the Commissioners, who one and all - declare they will subscribe to his opinion, whatever it may be, - rather than continue this infernal buffeting. Quiet perseverance - on the part of Mr. S., and great kicking, bouncing, and squabbling - upon that of the yacht, who seems to like the idea of Skerry Vhor - as little as the Commissioners. At length, by dint of exertion, - come in sight of this long ridge of rocks (chiefly under water), - on which the tide breaks in a most tremendous style. There appear - a few low broad rocks at one end of the reef, which is about a mile - in length. These are never entirely under water, though the surf - dashes over them. To go through all the forms, Hamilton, Duff, - and I resolve to land upon these bare rocks in company with Mr. - Stevenson. Pull through a very heavy swell with great difficulty, - and approach a tremendous surf dashing over black, pointed rocks. - Our rowers, however, get the boat into a quiet creek between - two rocks, where we contrive to land well wetted. I saw nothing - remarkable in my way excepting several seals, which we might have - shot, but in the doubtful circumstances of the landing, we did not - care to bring guns. We took possession of the rock in name of the - Commissioners, and generously bestowed our own great names on its - crags and creeks. The rock was carefully measured by Mr. S. It will - be a most desolate position for a lighthouse, the Bell Rock and - Eddystone a joke to it, for the nearest land is the wild island of - Tyree, at fourteen miles’ distance. So much for the Skerry Vhor.” - -In family life Mr. Stevenson was a man of sterling worth. As a husband, -a father, and a friend, he was remarkably distinguished by the absence -of selfishness. His exertions in forwarding the progress of young men -through life were generous and unwearied; and few men had more solid -grounds than he for indulging in the pleasing reflection that, both in -his public and private capacity, he had consecrated to beneficial ends -every talent committed to his trust. - -He was a man of sincere and unobtrusive piety; and although warmly -attached to the Established Church of Scotland, of which for nearly -forty years he had been an elder, and for many years a member of the -General Assembly, he had no taint of bigotry or of party feeling, and -he died calmly in that blessed hope and peace which only an indwelling -personal belief in the merits of a Redeemer can impart to any son of -our race. - - * * * * * - -At a statutory general meeting of the Board of Northern Lighthouses, -which was held on the 13th July 1850, the day after my father’s death, -the Commissioners recorded their respect for his talents and virtues in -the following Minute:-- - -“The Secretary having intimated, that Mr. Robert Stevenson, the late -Engineer to the Board, died yesterday morning, - -“The Board, before proceeding to business, desire to record, their -regret at the death of this zealous, faithful, and able officer, to -whom is due the honour of conceiving and executing the great work of -the Bell Rock Lighthouse, whose services were gratefully acknowledged -on his retirement from active duty, and will be long remembered by the -Board, and to express their sympathy with his family on the loss of one -who was most estimable and exemplary in all the relations of social -and domestic life. The Board direct that a copy of this resolution -be transmitted to Mr. Stevenson’s family, and communicated to each -Commissioner, to the different lightkeepers and the other officers of -the Board.” - - - - -APPENDIX. - -THE INCHCAPE ROCK. - - An old writer mentions a curious tradition, which may be worth - quoting. “By east the Isle of May,” says he, “twelve miles - from all land in the German Seas, lyes a great hidden rock, - called Inchcape, very dangerous for navigators, because it is - overflowed everie tide. It is reported in old times, upon the - saide rock there was a bell, fixed upon a tree or timber, which - rang continually, being moved by the sea, giving notice to the - saylers of the danger. This bell or clocke was put there and - maintained by the Abbot of Aberbrothok, and being taken down - by a sea pirate, a yeare therafter he perished upon the same - rocke, with ship and goodes, in the righteous judgement of - God.”--STODDART’S _Remarks on Scotland_. - - - No stir in the air, no stir in the sea, - The ship was still as she could be; - Her sails from heaven received no motion, - Her keel was steady in the ocean. - - Without either sign or sound of their shock - The waves flowed over the Inchcape Rock; - So little they rose, so little they fell, - They did not move the Inchcape Bell. - - The Abbot of Aberbrothok - Had placed that Bell on the Inchcape Rock; - On a buoy in the storm it floated and swung, - And over the waves its warning rung. - - When the Rock was hid by the surge’s swell, - The mariners heard the warning Bell; - And then they knew the perilous Rock, - And blest the Abbot of Aberbrothok. - - The Sun in heaven was shining gay, - All things were joyful on that day; - The sea-birds scream’d as they wheel’d round, - And there was joyaunce in their sound. - - The buoy of the Inchcape Bell was seen - A darker speck on the ocean green; - Sir Ralph the Rover walk’d his deck, - And he fix’d his eye on the darker speck. - - He felt the cheering power of spring, - It made him whistle, it made him sing; - His heart was mirthful to excess, - But the Rover’s mirth was wickedness. - - His eye was on the Inchcape Float; - Quoth he, “My men, put out the boat, - And row me to the Inchcape Rock, - And I’ll plague the Abbot of Aberbrothok.” - - The boat is lower’d, the boatmen row, - And to the Inchcape Rock they go; - Sir Ralph bent over from the boat, - And he cut the Bell from the Inchcape float. - - Down sunk the Bell with a gurgling sound, - The bubbles rose and burst around; - Quoth Sir Ralph, “The next who comes to the Rock - Won’t bless the Abbot of Aberbrothok.” - - Sir Ralph the Rover sail’d away, - He scour’d the seas for many a day; - And now grown rich with plunder’d store, - He steers his course for Scotland’s shore. - - So thick a haze o’erspreads the sky - They cannot see the Sun on high; - The wind hath blown a gale all day, - At evening it hath died away. - - On the deck the Rover takes his stand, - So dark it is they see no land. - Quoth Sir Ralph, “It will be lighter soon, - For there is the dawn of the rising Moon.” - - “Canst hear,” said one, “the breakers roar? - For methinks we should be near the shore.” - “Now, where we are I cannot tell, - But I wish I could hear the Inchcape Bell.” - - They hear no sound, the swell is strong; - Though the wind hath fallen they drift along, - Till the vessel strikes with a shivering shock, - “O Christ! it is the Inchcape Rock!” - - Sir Ralph the Rover tore his hair; - He curst himself in his despair; - The waves rush in on every side, - The ship is sinking beneath the tide. - - But even in his dying fear - One dreadful sound could the Rover hear, - A sound as if with the Inchcape Bell, - The Devil below was ringing his knell. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Aberbrothock Abbey, 238. - - Aberdeen Harbour, 130. - - Adam, Robert, architect, 78, 80, 97, 98. - - Adie, Alexander, optician, 51, 192. - - Admiralty Survey, appeal for, 199. - - ---- Memoir of, 201. - - Airy, Sir G. B., 52. - - American Suspension Bridges, 163. - - Anderson, Dr., 5, 6. - - Anemometer, 257. - - Annan Bridge, 160. - - Ardrossan Harbour, 130. - - Argand lamps. _See_ Lighthouse Illumination. - - Astronomical Institution of Edinburgh, origin of, 265. - - - Backwater, value of, 131. - - Balance crane, 181, 182. - - Barclay, Dr. John, 119, 270. - - Barnbougle, foreshore, 241. - - Base line, measurement of, 196. - - Baxter, Mr., architect, 78. - - Beaufort, Sir F., 202. - - Bell Rock Lighthouse:--Dangers of the rock, 13, 15; - ballad of Sir Ralph the Rover, 13, 274; - “Account” of, 14; - Mr. Stevenson’s design of 1800 for a stone tower, 16; - improvements on Smeaton’s tower in design and arrangement of - materials, 16-24; - Bill of 1802-3 thrown out on financial grounds, 18; - Mr. Telford and Mr. Rennie called in to support Mr. Stevenson’s - design, 18; - Act passed in 1806, 19; - progress of the work, 25; - attending boat breaks adrift, 27; - life in the floating lightship, 31; - boating between lightship and the rock, 37; - Mr. Stevenson’s anxiety for the workmen, 39; - Sunday work, 40; - life in the barrack or beacon, 42; - cranes invented for the work, 45, 181; - bust of Engineer placed in the tower by the Lighthouse Board, 45; - Sir Walter Scott’s visit to the tower, and lines inscribed in the - album, 47; - experiments on preservation of timber, 155; - experiments on iron, 159; - measurement of base line for ascertaining its distance from the - shore, 196; - cement rubble cofferdams used at, 252; - observations on fog and fog signals, 254; - Southey’s “Inchcape Rock,” 274. - - Benson, Mr. (Covent Garden Theatre), 61. - - Birkenhead Docks, 132-150. - - Blackwood, W., publisher, 3. - - Blair, Sir D. Hunter, 3. - - Blasting, 203. - - Bolts, unscrewing of, by the waves, 252. - - Bremonteuil, M., 246. - - Bridges:--Mr. Stevenson’s designs for Marykirk, Annan, Stirling, - and Hutcheson stone bridges, 160; - high level road bridge for Newcastle, 161; - bridge of built planks, 162; - new form of suspension bridge, 162-165; - paper on suspension bridges, 162; - provision for flood waters, 239. - - Buoyage system, Mr. Stevenson’s, 253. - - Burn, Mr., architect, 238, 239. - - - Canals:--Mr. Stevenson’s Reports on, upon one level without - lockage, 111; - Strathmore, 111; - Edinburgh and Glasgow, 111; - ship canals, 125; - canal between the Dee and Mersey, 132-150. - - Carr Rock Beacon:--Design for, and tide machine for ringing bell or - sounding a whistle, 177. - - Cast iron rails. _See_ Railways. - - Cast iron tracks. _See_ Roads. - - Cathcart, Viscount, 247. - - Catoptric system. _See_ Lighthouse Illumination. - - Cement. _See_ Mortar. - - Clerk, John, of Eldin, 14, 15, 21, 22, 114. - - Coal light. _See_ Isle of May. - - Cockburn, Lord, 76. - - Cofferdams, cement rubble, 252. - - Colby, Colonel, 62, 202. - - ‘Comet’ steamer, accident to, 258. - - Corran Ferry, 235. - - Covent Garden Theatre, 60. - - Cramond Suspension Bridge, 162, 165. - - Cranes:--Moveable jib and balance cranes invented by Mr. - Stevenson, 45, 181. - - Creech, Mr., 3. - - Crichton, Mr., architect, 91, 92. - - Cubitt, Sir W., 265. - - Cumbrae Lighthouse, 2, 5. - - Cycloidal talus wall, 242. - - - Davidson, Rev. Dr., 2. - - Dee, River (Cheshire), 130, 132-150. - - ---- wasting effects of the sea at, 225. - - Dee, River (Aberdeenshire), density of salt and fresh water at, 229. - - Dioptric system. _See_ Lighthouse Illumination. - - Double light, 58. - - Douglass, J. N., C.E., 47, 176. - - Dredging, 203. - - Duff, Sheriff, 238, 271, 274. - - Duncan, Sheriff, 190. - - Dundee Harbour, 130, 249, 251. - - - Earl’s Palace, Kirkwall, 238. - - East Lothian Railway, 124. - - Eddystone Lighthouse, Mr. Stevenson’s inspection of, in 1813 and - 1818, 46; - fears as to its security, 46; - to be rebuilt, 47. - - Edgeworth, R., 66. - - Edinburgh Astronomical Institution, origin of, 265. - - Edinburgh, Mr. Stevenson’s design for approaches from the east by - Regent and London Roads, and opening up access to the Calton - Hill, 74; - sites for the new Jail, Court of Justiciary, and buildings in - Waterloo Place, 77; - Regent Bridge, 88; - Feuing Plan for eastern district of Edinburgh, 90; - improvement of accesses from the west and north and from - Granton, 90; - removal of Old Tolbooth Prison, 91; - proposal to remove the University buildings, 95. - - Edinburgh Railway, 114. - - Edinburgh and Glasgow, canal between, 111. - - Elliot, A., architect, 76. - - Erne, River, 130. - - Erskine, Lord Advocate, 19, 271. - - - Facet reflector, 49. - - Fenwick, Mr., 160. - - Ferries, 101; - Ferry Engineering illustrated by Mr. Stevenson’s Report on the Tay - Ferries, 102; - Reports on various ferries, 108; - Orkney and Shetland Ferry, 108. - - Fisheries:--Mr. Stevenson on the Scottish fisheries, 184; - origin of the Shetland herring fishery, 189; - sympiesometer suggested as a storm warning for fishing boats, 191; - habits of fishes, 193; - gases in air sacs of fishes, 194; - Dr. Handyside’s remarks on, 194; - Hon. B. F. Primrose on the slow progress of the Shetland - fisheries, 195. - - Flashing light, invention of, by Mr. Stevenson, 57. - - Floating light lantern, 58, 59. - - Fog and fog signals, observations on, 254. - - Foreshores, protection of, 241. - - Forth, River, 130, 253. - - Foulerton, Captain, Trinity House, 259. - - Fowler, J., C.E., 131. - - Fraserburgh Harbour, 130. - - Fresnel, A., 62. - - - German Ocean, the alveus or bed of, 204, 205. - - Graham, J. Gillespie, architect, 238. - - Granton Harbour, 90, 130. - - Gregory, Professor, 89. - - - Haldane, J., architect, 15. - - Hamilton, T., architect, 76. - - Hamilton, Sheriff, 271, 272. - - Handyside, Dr. P. D., 194. - - Harbours, Mr. Stevenson’s Reports on various, 130; - value of spending basins for, 130. - - Harris, Mr., 60. - - Henderson, Professor, 268. - - Highland and Agricultural Society, 127, 246. - - Hope, Lord President, 17, 18, 269. - - Hope, Professor, 7. - - Hutcheson Bridge, 160. - - Hydraulic mortar, 240. - - Hydrophore, Mr. Stevenson’s invention of, 231-235. - - - Inglis, Colonel, 269. - - Intermittent light, invention of, by Mr. Stevenson, 57. - - Irish Channel, cause of heavy seas in, 247; - sea routes across, 248. - - Iron, experiments on the durability of, 159. - - Isle of Man Lighthouses, 8. - - ---- observations on fog at, 256. - - Isle of May Lighthouse, 3, 53, 58. - - - Jameson, Professor, 7. - - Joseph, Samuel, R.A., 45. - - - Kincaid, Mr., 246. - - Kinnairdhead Lighthouse, 5, 49, 196. - - - Laing, S., 185, 195. - - Leach, Dr., 155. - - Leslie, Sir J., 51, 100. - - Lifeboats, 260. - - Lighthouse Illumination:--early modes of, 48; - facet reflectors and lamps, 49; - silvered copper reflectors and Argand lamps, 49; - sliding lamp carriage, 51; - coal lights, 53; - distinctions among lights, 57; - dioptric system, 62. - - Lightship lantern, Mr. Stevenson’s design for, 58, 59. - - _Limnoria terebrans_, ravages of, on timber, 155. - - Lipping of joints of masonry, 239. - - Loch Eil, 235. - - Locomotive engine, 124. - - Lockhart, J. G., 270. - - London and Edinburgh, railway between, 125. - - Low, Professor, 7. - - - M’Adam, J. L., 66, 67, 70. - - Mackenzie, Murdoch, 138 _et seq._ - - Manby’s apparatus, 261, 262. - - Marine Surveying, 196; - measurement of base line for Bell Rock, 196; - fixing site of Kinnairdhead light, 196; - appeal for Admiralty Survey, 199; - history of Admiralty Survey, 201. - - Marjoribanks, Sir J., 89, 95. - - Marykirk Bridge, 69, 160, 239. - - Melville, Lord, 126, 168. - - ---- Monument, Edinburgh, 238. - - Mersey, River: Reports on harbour and dock at Wallasey and the Dee, - with connecting ship canal, 132-150; - wasting effects of the sea at, 225. - - Montrose Bridge, 159, 240. - - ---- church spire, 238. - - Mortar, hydraulic, 240. - - Moveable jib crane, 181, 182. - - Mowat, Mr., of Gardie, 190. - - Mullaghmore Harbour, 245. - - - Neill, P., LL.D., 3, 7, 270. - - Netherlands, King of, 58. - - Newcastle, design for high level road bridge at, 161. - - New York Suspension Bridge, 167. - - Niagara Suspension Bridge, 167. - - Night signal lamps, 247. - - Nimmo, Alexander, C.E., 132, 135, 225, 265. - - North Berwick Harbour, 250. - - Northern Lighthouse Board, origin of, 4; - Mr. Smith appointed Engineer, 4; - first light exhibited by, 5; - Mr. Stevenson appointed Engineer, 7; - annual inspections and reports on the lighthouses, 7; - send Mr. Stevenson on a visit to the English lights, 7; - Bell Rock Lighthouse, 12; - improvements in lighthouse illumination adopted by, 49; - lighthouses designed by Mr. Stevenson, 56; - Minute on the death of Mr. Stevenson, 273. - - - Ordnance Survey, 202. - - Orkney and Shetland Ferries, 108. - - ---- Fisheries, 185, 189, 195. - - - Palmerston, Lord, 245. - - Pentland Skerries Lighthouse, 6. - - Peterhead Harbour, 130. - - _Pinus maritima major_, for checking sand drift, 245. - - Playfair, Mr., architect, 76. - - Playfair, Professor, 7, 15, 16, 96, 100, 252, 267. - - Population, prospective increase of, 250. - - Portpatrick Harbour, 130, 247, 248. - - Price, H., C.E., 131. - - Primrose, Hon. B. F., 195. - - - Queensferry passage, signal lamps for, 247. - - - Rae, Sir William, 77, 91, 114, 174, 238, 258, 259. - - Rails, cast and malleable iron, 122, 123, 128. - - Railways on one level, 112; - haulage on, 112; - lines of railway in Scotland laid out by Mr. Stevenson, 112; - Report on Edinburgh Railway, 114; - cast iron and malleable iron rails, 122, 123, 128; - locomotive, 124; - Reports on various railway lines, 124, 125; - uniform gauge, etc., proposed for, 126; - notes on railways for the Highland and Agricultural Society, 127; - description of permanent way of, 128; - letter from George Stephenson, 128; - article on, 203; - signal lamps, 247. - - Reflectors. _See_ Lighthouse Illumination. - - Rendel, J. M., 151. - - Rennie, George, 265. - - Rennie, John, 18, 20, 21, 22, 265. - - Ribble, River, 130. - - Ritchie, Professor, 7. - - Rivers, Mr. Stevenson’s Reports on, 130; - value of backwater, 131; - Tees navigation, 131; - Reports by Telford, Stevenson, and Nimmo, on harbours and wet docks - at Birkenhead and at the Dee with connecting ship canal, 132; - improvement of the Tay navigation, 151; - experiments on the density of fresh and salt water, 229. - - Roads:--Early roads and road making, 64; - Edgeworth and M’Adam’s systems of road making, 66; - Mr. Stevenson’s system of road making, 67-70; - cast iron tracks, 68; - stone tracks as a smooth and durable city road, 71; - article on, 203. - - Robison, Professor, 3, 7, 15. - - Rosebery, Lord, 241. - - - Salt water, density of, in estuaries and rivers, 229. - - Sand drift, checking of, by “bent” grass and planting _Pinus maritima - major_, 245. - - Scotch Lighthouse Board. _See_ Northern Lighthouse Board. - - Scott, Sir Walter, 25, 47, 94, 238, 270. - - Sectio planography, 205. - - Severn, River, 130. - - Shetland Ferries. _See_ Ferries. - - Shetland Fisheries, 185; - origin of herring fishery, 189. - - Ships, build of, 249. - - Shipwrecks, notes on, 260. - - Signal lamps, 247. - - Sinclair, Sir John, 125. - - Skerryvore Lighthouse, 271, 272. - - Smeaton, John, 21, 23, 24, 206, 236. - - Smith, Captain of the ‘Orestes,’ 168 _et seq._ - - Smith, Thomas: improvements in lighthouse illumination, 3, 4, 49; - Engineer to the Scotch Lighthouse Board, 4; - Cumbrae Lighthouse, 5; - Pentland Skerries Lighthouse, 6. - - Smyth, Professor Piazzi, 265. - - Southey’s “Inchcape Rock,” 274. - - Spink, J., Bell Rock pilot, 30. - - St. Andrews Cathedral, 238. - - St. Magnus Cathedral, 238. - - Steamboats, 107; - regulations for, 258; - lights for, 259. - - Stephenson, George, 121, 124, 128. - - ---- Robert, 161. - - Stevenson, Alan, 151, 271. - - Stevenson, Robert:--birth, 1; - superintends erection of Cumbrae Light, 2, 5; - resolves to be a Civil Engineer, 5; - student at Andersonian Institution, Glasgow, and University of - Edinburgh, 5-7; - superintends Pentland Skerries Lighthouse works, 6; - appointed Engineer to the Northern Lighthouse Board, 7; - annual inspections and Reports on the Scotch Lighthouses, 7; - inspection of and report on English lights, 10; - is taken for a French spy, 10; - Journals, 12; - Reports, 12. - - Design for the Bell Rock Lighthouse, personal superintendence of - the work during its execution, and incidents connected - therewith, 13-47; - “Account” of, 14. - - Lighthouse illumination, improvements in, 49; - sliding lamp carriage, 51; - lighthouses in Scotland designed by, 56; - invents distinctions for lighthouses, viz., flashing, - intermittent, and double lights, 57; - design for floating light lantern, 59; - Report on dioptric system of illumination, 62. - - System of road making, 67-70; - cast iron tracks for roads, 68; - stone tracks, 71. - - Improvement of Edinburgh:--design for approaches from the east by - Regent and London Roads, and opening up access to Calton - Hill, 74; - Report on sites for new Jail and Court of Justiciary and buildings - in Waterloo Place, 77; - building plan for eastern district of Edinburgh, 90; - improvement of accesses from the north and west and from - Granton, 90; - visit to the jails of England, 91; - Old Tolbooth Prison, 91; - Report on removal of University buildings, 95. - - Ferries:--Reports on, illustrated by those of the Tay, 102; - Reports on various ferries, 108. - - Report on canals on one level without lockage, 111; - Reports on railways, 112; - uniform gauge, etc., proposed for railways, 126; - notes on railways for the Highland and Agricultural Society, 127; - description of permanent way, 128. - - Harbours and Rivers:--Reports on, 130; - Tees navigation, 131; - Reports on harbour and wet docks at Birkenhead, and harbour at - Helbre on the Dee with connecting ship canal, 132-150; - Tay river improvements, 151. - - Preservation of timber:--experiments on, 154; - preservation of iron, 159. - - Bridges:--designs for Marykirk, Annan, Stirling, and Hutcheson - stone bridges, 160; - design for high level road bridge at Newcastle, 161; - bridge of built planks, 161; - new form of suspension bridge, 162, 165. - - Design for Wolf Rock Lighthouse, 168. - - Design for Carr Rock Beacon, 177; - proposal to use the tide for tolling a bell or sounding a - whistle, 178. - - Invents the moveable jib and balance cranes, 181. - - Fisheries:--notes on the Scotch, 184; - origin of the Shetland herring fishery, 189; - suggestion for using the sympiesometer as a storm warning, 91; - experiments on air sacs of fishes, 194. - - Marine survey, 196; - measurement of _base line_, 196; - mode of ascertaining positions of lighthouses, 196; - appeal for Admiralty Survey and Sailing Directions, 199. - - Contributions to _Encyclopædia Britannica_ and _Edinburgh - Encyclopædia_, 203; - alveus or bed of the German Ocean, 204, 205; - sectio planography, 205; - wasting effects of the sea on the estuaries of the Mersey - and Dee, 225; - discovery that the salt water flows up the beds of rivers in a - stream distinct from the outflowing fresh water, 229; - invents the hydrophore, 231. - - Wide range of subjects on which Mr. Stevenson gave advice, 236; - architectural reports, 236; - extracts from early Reports, 239. - - Retrospect of life, 264. - - Stewart, Professor Dugald, 7, 97. - - Stirling Bridge, 160. - - Stockton and Darlington Railway, 125. - - Stonehaven Harbour, 130. - - Stone tracks. _See_ Roads. - - Strathmore Canal, 111. - - ---- Railway, 124. - - Suspension Bridges. _See_ Bridges. - - Sympiesometer, 191. - - - Tay Ferries, 102. - - ---- River, 130, 151, 251. - - Tees, River, 130, 131. - - Telford, Thomas, 18, 127, 132, 149, 265. - - Thames, River, 234. - - Thomas, Captain, Admiralty Survey, 140, 201. - - Tidal scour, 251. - - Timber:--experiments on durability of, 155; - ravages of the _Limnoria terebrans_ on, 157; - charring, 158; - creosoted 159. - - Tour de Cordouan, 49, 63. - - Trinity, cycloidal sea wall at, 242. - - - Walker, James, C.E., 73, 176, 265. - - Water:--experiments on the density of fresh and salt water at the - Dee, 229; - Thames, Loch Eil, etc., 235; - hydrophore for obtaining specimens of, 231. - - Watt, James, 125, 126, 167. - - Waves, action of, in unscrewing bolts, 252. - - Wear, River, 130. - - Wilson, Captain, 43. - - Winch Chain Bridge, 163. - - Wolf Rock Lighthouse:--design for, 168; - Journal of visit to, 168-175; - tower built in 1870, 175. - - - PRINTED BY T. AND A. CONSTABLE, PRINTERS TO HER MAJESTY, - AT THE EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY PRESS. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] Mr. Randall assumed the name of Davidson after succeeding to the -estate of Muirhouse. - -[2] Account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse. Drawn up by desire of the -Commissioners of the Northern Lighthouses, by Robert Stevenson. -Edinburgh, 1824. - -[3] 7th September 1807. - -[4] The tender was named after the great Engineer. - -[5] Spink’s boat was too large to come close to the rock. - -[6] Report of the Royal Commission on Lighthouses, 1861, p. 86. - -[7] _Translation also by Dr. Gregory_:--“In the reign of George the -Third, the father of his country, in the second year of the Provostship -of Sir John Marjoribanks, Baronet, of Lees,--The citizens of Edinburgh -having made this new and magnificent access over the neighbouring hill -to the capital city, according to the plan of Robert Stevenson, Civil -Engineer, ordered the name of the _Regent_, George Augustus Frederick, -to be inscribed on this bridge.” - -[8] From which Fig. 14 has been made. - -[9] The essays most favourably noticed are those of Mr. Alexander -Scott, Mr. George Robertson, Mr. George Douglas, Mr. John Ruthven, Mr. -James Dickson, Mr. James Walker (Carron), Mr. James Walker (Lauriston), -Mr. John Fraser, Mr. John Wotherspoon, Mr. John Moore, and Mr. John -Baird. - -[10] Notice of the Ravages of _Limnoria terebrans_ on Creosoted -Timber.--_Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, vol. iv. and -vol. viii. - -[11] Vol. ii. p. 129. - -[12] Vol. ii. p. 196. - -[13] A Sketch of the Institution and the progress of the Hydrographical -Department of the Admiralty, from its first establishment in the year -1795. - -[14] Vol. x. p. 57. - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected. - -Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained; occurrences of -inconsistent hyphenation have not been changed. - -Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references. - -Illustration facing page 77: credit line not entirely readable. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Life of Robert Stevenson, by David Stevenson - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIFE OF ROBERT STEVENSON *** - -***** This file should be named 55596-0.txt or 55596-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/5/9/55596/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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