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diff --git a/old/55593-h/55593-h.htm b/old/55593-h/55593-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 8dd147b..0000000 --- a/old/55593-h/55593-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26491 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of Travels in Peru and India, by Clements R. Markham, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. - </title> -<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2,h3 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -h2 {page-break-before: always;} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; -} - -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.p4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.p6 {margin-top: 6em;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - clear: both; -} - -hr.tb {width: 45%;} -hr.chap {width: 65%} - -hr.r5 {width: 5%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;} - -ul { list-style-type: none; - margin-left: 1em; - margin-top:.5em; -} - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} - -.tdh { - text-align: justify; - padding-left: 1.75em; - text-indent: -1.75em; - } - -.tdrb {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} - - .tdl {text-align: left;} - .tdr {text-align: right;} - .tdc {text-align: center;} - -table1 { - margin-left: 1em; - margin-right: 1em; -} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; -} /* page numbers */ - -.linenum { - position: absolute; - top: auto; - left: 4%; -} /* poetry number */ - -.blockquot { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -ol.roman { - list-style-type: upper-roman; - margin-left: 1em; -} - -.bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} - -.bl {border-left: solid 2px;} - -.bt {border-top: solid 2px;} - -.br {border-right: solid 2px;} - -.brd {border-right: double 4px;} - - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.right {text-align: right;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -.u {text-decoration: underline;} - -.small {font-size: 70%;} - -.smallish {font-size: 80%;} - -.s {font-size: 80%;} - -.large {font-size: 150%;} - -.r {text-align:right;margin-right: 5%;} - -.sig {text-align:right;margin-right: 20%;} - -.c {text-align:center;text-indent:0%;} - -.l {text-align:left;margin-left: 5%;} - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} - -.sans {font-family: sans-serif;} - -.bold { - font-weight: bold; -} - -.hang {text-indent:-2%;padding-left:2%;} - -.h {text-indent:-2%;padding-left:2%;} - -.ht {text-indent:2%;padding-left:2%;} - -.gesperrt -{ - letter-spacing: 0.2em; - margin-right: -0.2em; -} - - -.caption {font-weight: bold;} - -/* Images */ -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; -} - -img {max-width: 100%; height: auto;} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Poetry */ - -.poem-container { - text-align: center; -} - -.poem { - display: inline-block; - margin-left:10%; - margin-right:10%; - text-align: left; -} - -.poem br {display: none;} - -.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} - -.poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} -.poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 1em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - -@media handheld { - hr.chap, hr.r5 {border-width: 0;} - } -@media handheld -{ - .poem { - display: block;} - } - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's Travels in Peru and India, by Clements Robert Markham - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Travels in Peru and India - While Superintending the Collection of Chinchona Plants - and Seeds in South America, and Their Introduction into - India. - -Author: Clements Robert Markham - -Release Date: September 21, 2017 [EBook #55593] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS IN PERU AND INDIA *** - - - - -Produced by Josep Cols Canals, Alan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="transnote"> -<p class="center large bold">Transcriber's Notes</p> - - -<p> ---A larger version of some images is obtained by clicking on them.<br /> ---Footnotes have all been moved to the end of the text.<br /> ---Silently corrected palpable typos.<br /> ---Variations in hyphenation have been maintained.<br /> ---Assumed printer's errors have been corrected. - - -</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/cover.jpg" - alt="Book front cover" /> - </div> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a name="fig1" id="fig1"></a> -<img src="images/fig1.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption center">HINCHONA-PLANTS AT OOTACAMUND,<br /> -In August 1881 (from a Photograph). A flowering branch of Chinchona in the foreground.<br /> -FRONTISPIECE. <span class="small">Page 487</span> -</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<hr class="r5" /> -<h1><span class="gesperrt">TRAVELS<br /> - -<span class="small">IN</span><br /> - -PERU AND INDIA.<br /></span></h1> -</div> - -<div class="c"> -<span class="smallish"> -WHILE SUPERINTENDING THE COLLECTION OF CHINCHONA<br /> -PLANTS AND SEEDS IN SOUTH AMERICA, AND<br /> -THEIR INTRODUCTION INTO INDIA.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span class="smcap">By</span> CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, F.S.A., F.R.G.S.,<br /> -<br /> -<span class="small">CORR. MEM. OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHILE;<br /> -AUTHOR OF 'CUZCO AND LIMA.'</span><br /> -<br /> -<p class="c bold"><span class="small"><span class="sans">WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.</span></span></p><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smallish">LONDON:</span><br /> -JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.<br /> -<br /> -1862.<br /> -<br /> -<i>The right of Translation is reserved.</i><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span class="small">LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,<br /> -AND CHARING CROSS.</span><br /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<hr class="r5" /> -<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> introduction of quinine-yielding Chinchona-trees -into India, and the cultivation of the "Peruvian -Bark" in our Eastern possessions, where that inestimable -febrifuge is almost a necessary of life, has for -some years engaged the attention of the Indian -Government. In 1859 the author of the present -work was intrusted, by the Secretary of State for -India in Council, with the duty of superintending all -the necessary arrangements for the collection of Chinchona-plants -and seeds of the species esteemed in -commerce, in South America, and for their introduction -into India. This important measure has now -been crowned with complete success, and it is the -object of the following pages to relate the previous -history of the Chinchona-plant; to describe the -forests in South America where the most valuable -species grow; to record the labours of those who -were engaged in exploring them; and to give an -account of all the proceedings connected with the -cultivation of Chinchona-plants in India.</p> - -<p>In the performance of this service it was a part of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> -my duty to explore the forests of the Peruvian -province of Caravaya, which has never yet been -described by any English traveller; and the first -part of the work is occupied by an account of the -various species of Chinchona-plants and their previous -history, a narrative of my travels in Peru, -and a record of the labours of the agents whom -I employed to collect plants and seeds of the -various species of Chinchonæ in other parts of South -America.</p> - -<p>The traveller who ascends to the lofty plateau of -the Cordilleras cannot fail to be deeply interested in -the former history and melancholy fate of the Peruvian -Indians; and some account of their condition -under Spanish colonial rule, and of the insurrection -of Tupac Amaru, the last of the Incas, will, I trust, -not be unwelcome. I have devoted three chapters -to these subjects, which will form a short digression -on our way to the Chinchona forests. I am indebted -to the late General Miller, and to Dr. Vigil, the -learned Director of the National Library at Lima, -for much new and very curious material throwing -light on that period of Spanish colonial history -which includes the great rebellion of the Peruvian -Indians in 1780.</p> - -<p>The second part of the work contains a narrative -of my travels in India, a description of the sites<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span> -selected for Chinchona-plantations, and an account -of the progress of the experimental cultivation of -those inestimable trees, from the arrival of the plants -and seeds, early in 1861, to the latest dates.</p> - -<p>In conducting the operations connected with the -collection of Chinchona-plants and seeds in South -America, I obtained the services of Mr. Spruce, Mr. -Pritchett, Mr. Cross, and Mr. Weir; and it affords -me great pleasure to have this opportunity of publicly -recording their perseverance in facing many -dangers and hardships, and in doing the work that -was allotted to them so ably, and with such complete -success.</p> - -<p>To Mr. Richard Spruce, an eminent botanist who -has for eight years been engaged in exploring the -basin of the Amazons, from Para to the peaks of the -Quitenian Andes, and from the falls of the Orinoco -to the head-waters of the Huallaga, the largest share -of credit, so far as the South American portion of -the enterprise is concerned, undoubtedly belongs. -I have endeavoured to do justice to his untiring -energy and zeal, and to the important service which -he has rendered to India.</p> - -<p>But the collection of plants and seeds in South -America, and their conveyance to the shores of India, -would have been of little use if they had not been -delivered into competent hands on arriving at their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span> -destination. To the scientific and practical knowledge, -the unwearied zeal, and skilful management -of Mr. McIvor, the Superintendent of the Government -Gardens at Ootacamund, on the Neilgherry -hills, is therefore due the successful introduction -of Chinchona-plants into India. His care has now -been fully rewarded, and the experiment has reached -a point which places it beyond the possibility of ultimate -failure.</p> - -<p>I am indebted to Sir William Hooker, who has, -from the first, taken a deep interest in this beneficial -measure, for many acts of kindness, and for his -readiness to give me valuable advice and assistance; -while he has rendered most essential service in -successfully raising a large number of Chinchona-plants -at Kew. To Dr. Weddell my thanks are -due for much information most promptly and kindly -supplied; and to Mr. Howard for the important -suggestions and information with which he has frequently -favoured me, and which no scientific man -in Europe is better able to give. It is a fortunate -circumstance that his invaluable and superbly illustrated -work on the Chinchona genus should have -been published just at the time when the Chinchonæ -are about to be planted out in India and Ceylon, for -from no other source could the cultivators derive -so large an amount of valuable information. Mr.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span> -Howard has likewise done good service by presenting -the Indian Government with a fine healthy plant -of <i>Chinchona Uritusinga</i>, a species which had not previously -been introduced. I take this opportunity of -expressing my thanks for much assistance from Dr. -Seemann, the able Editor of the 'Bonplandia;' from -Mr. Dalzell, the Conservator of Forests in the Bombay -Presidency; from Dr. Forbes Watson, the Reporter -on the vegetable products of India, at the India -Office; from Mr. Veitch, of the Royal Exotic Nursery -at Chelsea; and from many kind friends both in Peru -and India. I am also indebted to Mr. Alexander -Smith, son of Mr. John Smith, the Curator of the -Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, for an interesting -note on the principal plants employed by the natives -of India on account of their real or supposed febrifugal -virtues, which will be found in an Appendix.</p> - -<p>The botanical name for the plants which yield -Peruvian bark was given by Linnæus, in honour of -the Countess of Chinchon, who was one of the first -Europeans cured by this priceless febrifuge. The -word has been generally, but most erroneously, spelt -<i>Cinchona</i>; and, considering that such mis-spelling -is no mark of respect to the lady whose memory it is -intended to preserve, while it defeats the intention -of Linnæus to do her honour, I have followed the -good example of Mr. Howard and the Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span> -botanists in adopting the correct way of spelling the -word—<i>Chinchona</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The Counts of Chinchon, the -hereditary Alcaides of the Alcazar of Segovia, do -not hold so obscure a place in history as to excuse -the continuance of this mis-spelling of their name.</p> - -<p>After much anxiety, extending over a period of -three years; after all the hardships, dangers, and -toils which a search in virgin tropical forests entails; -and after more than one disappointment, it is a source -of gratification and thankfulness that this great -and important measure, fraught with blessings to -the people of India, and with no less beneficial -results to the whole civilized world, should have -been finally attended with complete success, in spite -of difficulties of no ordinary character. How complete -this success has been, will be seen by a perusal -of the two last chapters of the present work, and -of Mr. McIvor's very interesting Report in the -Appendix; it is sufficient here to say that it has -exceeded our most sanguine expectations.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<hr class="r5" /> -<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<h3><span class="gesperrt">TRAVELS IN PERU.</span></h3> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<div class="center"> - -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr><td class="tdl"><a href="#PREFACE"><span class="smcap">Preface</span></a>.</td><td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Page v</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Discovery of Peruvian Bark.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdh">The Countess of Chinchon—Introduction of the use of bark into Europe— -M. La Condamine's first description of a <i>chinchona</i>-tree—J. de Jussieu— -Description of the chinchona region—The different valuable -species—The discovery of quinine</td> -<td class="tdrb">1</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Valuable Species of Chinchona-trees—their History, their -Discoverers, and their Forests</span>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">I. The Loxa region and its <i>crown barks</i></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">II. The "<i>red-bark</i>" region, on the western slopes of Chimborazo</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">III. The New Granada region</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">IV. The Huanuco region in Northern Peru, and its "<i>grey barks</i>"</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">V. The <i>Calisaya</i> region in Bolivia and Southern Peru</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Rapid destruction of chinchona-trees in South America—Importance -of their introduction into other countries—M. Hasskarl's mission— -Chinchona plantations in Java</td> -<td class="tdrb">44</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Introduction of Chinchona-plants into India.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdh">Preliminary arrangements</td><td class="tdr">60</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Islay and Arequipa</td><td class="tdr">69</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Journey across the Cordillera to Puno</td><td class="tdr">88</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Lake Titicaca.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdh">The Aymara Indians—Their antiquities—Tiahuanaco—Coati—Sillustani -—Copacabana</td> -<td class="tdrb">108</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Peruvian Indians.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdh">Their condition under Spanish colonial rule</td><td class="tdr">117</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Narrative of the insurrection of José Gabriel Tupac Amaru, the last -of the Incas</td><td class="tdr">134</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Diego Tupac Amaru—Fate of the Inca's family—Insurrection of Pumacagua</td><td class="tdr">158</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Journey from Puno to Crucero, the capital of Caravaya</td><td class="tdr">180</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Province of Caravaya.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdh">A short historical and geographical description</td><td class="tdr">199</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Caravaya—The valley of Sandia</td><td class="tdr">216</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Coca cultivation</td><td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span>232</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Caravaya.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdh">Chinchona forests of Tambopata</td><td class="tdr">240</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">General remarks on the chinchona-plants of Caravaya</td><td class="tdr">267</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Journey from the Forests of Tambopata to the Port of Islay.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdh">Establishment of the plants in Wardian cases</td><td class="tdr">275</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Present Condition and Future Prospects of Peru.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdh">Population—Civil wars—Government—Constitution—General Castilla and -his ministers—Dr. Vigil—Mariano Paz Soldan—Valleys on the coast—Cotton, -wool, and specie—The Amazons—Guano—Finances—Literature—Future -prospects</td> -<td class="tdrb">288</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Mr. Spruce's expedition to procure plants and seeds of the "red bark," or -<i>C. succirubra</i>—Mr. Pritchett in the Huanuco region, and the "grey barks"—Mr. -Cross's proceedings at Loxa, and collection of seeds of <i>C. Condaminea</i></td> -<td class="tdrb">313</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Conveyance of Chinchona-plants and Seeds from South America to India.</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Transmission of dried specimens—Voyages of plants in Wardian cases—Arrival -of plants and seeds in India—Depôt at Kew—Treatment of plants -in Wardian cases—Effects of introduction of chinchona-plants into India -on trade in South America—Neilgherry hills</td> -<td class="tdrb">331</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h3><span class="gesperrt">TRAVELS IN INDIA.</span></h3> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - - - - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI</a>.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Malabar.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdh">Calicut—Houses and gardens—Population of Malabar—Namburi Brahmins—Nairs—Tiars—Slaves—Moplahs—Assessment -of rice-fields, of gardens, -of dry crops—Other taxes—Voyage up the Beypoor river—The -Conolly teak plantations—Wundoor—Backwood cultivation—Sholacul—Sispara -ghaut—Blackwood—Scenery—Sispara—View of the Nellemboor -valley—Avalanche—Arrival at Ootacamund</td> -<td class="tdrb">341</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Neilgherry Hills.</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Extent—Formation—Soil—Climate—Flora—Hill tribes—Todars—Antiquities—Badagas—Koters—Kurumbers—Irulas—English -stations—Kotergherry—Ootacamund—Coonoor—Jakatalla—Government gardens -at Ootacamund and Kalhutty—Mr. McIvor—Coffee cultivation—Rules -for sale of waste lands—Forest conservancy</td> -<td class="tdrb">358</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Selection of Sites for Chinchona-Plantations on the Neilgherry Hills.</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">The Dodabetta site—The Neddiwuttum site</td><td class="tdr">379</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Journey to the Pulney Hills.</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Coonoor ghaut—Coimbatore—Pulladom—Cotton cultivation—Dharapurum—A -marriage procession—Dindigul—Ryotwarry tenure—Pulney hills—Kodakarnal—Extent -of the Pulneys—Formation—Soil—Climate—Inhabitants—Flora—Suitability -for chinchona cultivation—Forest conservancy—Anamallay hills</td> -<td class="tdrb">390</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></td></tr> - - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Madura and Trichinopoly.</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Arrive at Madura—Peopling of India—The Dravidian race—Brahmin -colonists in Southern India—Foundation of Madura—Pandyan dynasty—Tamil -literature—Aghastya—Naik dynasty—The Madura pagoda—The -Sangattar—The Choultry—Tirumalla Naik's palace—Caste prejudices—Trichinopoly—Coleroon -anicut—Rice cultivation—The palmyra -palm—Caroor—Return to the Neilgherries—Shervaroy hills—Courtallum</td><td class="tdrb">408</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Mysore and Coorg.</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Seegoor ghaut—Sandal-wood—Mysore—Seringapatam—Hoonsoor—The -tannery—Fraserpett—Mercara—The fort—The Rajahs of Coorg—The -Coorgs—Origin of the river Cauvery—Coorg—Climate—Coffee cultivation—Sites -for chinchona-plantations—Caryota Urens—Virarajendrapett—Cardamom -cultivation—Kumari—Poon, blackwood, and teak—Pepper -cultivation in Malabar—Cannanore—Nuggur and Baba Bodeen hills—The -Beebee of Cannanore—Compta—Sedashighur—Arrive at Bombay</td><td class="tdrb">432</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Mahabaleshwur Hills and the Deccan.</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Journey from Bombay to Malcolm-penth—The Mahabaleshwur hills—The -village and its temples—Elevation of the hills—Formation—Soil—Climate—Vegetation—Sites -for chinchona-plantations—Paunchgunny—Waee—Its -temples—The babool-tree—Shirwul—The village system—Village -officials—Barra-balloota—Cultivators—Festivals—Crops and -harvests—Poona—The Bhore ghaut—Return to Bombay</td> -<td class="tdrb">458</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Cultivation of the chinchona-plants in the Neilgherry hills, under the superintendence -of Mr. McIvor</td> -<td class="tdrb">483</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIX">CHAPTER XXIX</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chinchona Cultivation.</span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Ceylon—Sikkim—Bhotan—Khassya hills—Pegu—Jamaica—Conclusion</td> -<td class="tdrb">509</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#APPENDIX_A">APPENDIX A</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">General Miller and the Foreign Officers who served in the Patriot Armies of -Chile and Peru, between 1817 and 1830</td> -<td class="tdrb">521</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#APPENDIX_B">APPENDIX B</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Botanical descriptions of the genus Chinchona, and of the species of Chinchonæ -now growing in India and Ceylon</td> -<td class="tdrb">530</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#APPENDIX_C">APPENDIX C</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Notes on the principal plants employed in India on account of their real or -supposed febrifuge virtues: by Alexander Smith, Esq.</td> -<td class="tdrb">546</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#APPENDIX_D">APPENDIX D</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Report, by Mr. McIvor, on the cultivation of Chinchona-plants in Southern -India</td> -<td class="tdrb">566</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#APPENDIX_E">APPENDIX E</a>.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdh">Note on the export-trade in Peruvian bark from the South American ports, -and on the import-trade into England</td> -<td class="tdrb">571</td></tr> - -</table></div> - - - - -<h2 id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> - - - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">PAGE</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Chinchona-plants at Ootacamund</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#fig1"><i>Frontispiece</i>.</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Chinchona Micrantha</td><td class="tdr"><i>to face</i> <a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Arequipa</td><td class="tdr">" <a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Arequipa Cathedral</td><td class="tdr">" <a href="#Page_77">76</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">A Cholo of Arequipa</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Balsa on Lake Titicaca</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">The Towers of Sillustani</td><td class="tdr"><i>to face</i> <a href="#Page_110">111</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Genealogical Table of the Family of the Incas of Peru</td><td class="tdr">" <a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">The Sondor-huasi, at Azangaro</td><td class="tdr">" <a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Chinchona Nitida Trees</td><td class="tdr">" <a href="#Page_323">323</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Chinchona Chahuarguera</td><td class="tdr">" <a href="#Page_329">329</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Canoe on the Beypoor river</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_520">520</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Capsules and parts of the flower of Chinchona Chahuarguera—magnified -and natural size</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_532">532</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Capsule and parts of the flower of Chinchona Succirubra</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_534">534</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Parts of the flower and fruit of Chinchona Micrantha</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_539">539</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Map to illustrate Mr. Spruce's journeys to the forests on the -Western slopes of Chimborazo</td><td class="tdr"><i>to face</i> <a href="#Page_313">313</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl">Map of part of Peru, to illustrate Mr. C. Markham's journey to -the Chinchona forests of Caravaya</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_572"><i>at the end.</i></a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><span class="gesperrt">POSTSCRIPT.</span></h2> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Oct. 16, 1862.</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="c">LATEST INTELLIGENCE OF THE CHINCHONA PLANTS, -FROM THE NEILGHERRY HILLS.</p> - -<p>Number of Chinchona plants on the Neilgherry Hills on August 31st, -1862.</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Species.</td><td class="tdr">Number.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. Succirubra</i></td><td class="tdr">30,150</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. Calisaya</i></td><td class="tdr">1,050</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. Condaminea</i> (var. <i>Uritusinga</i>)</td><td class="tdr">41</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. Condaminea</i> (var. <i>Chahuarguera</i>)</td><td class="tdr">20,030</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. Condaminea</i> (var. <i>Crispa</i>)</td><td class="tdr">236</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. lancifolia</i></td><td class="tdr">1</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. nitida</i></td><td class="tdr">8,500</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. micrantha</i></td><td class="tdr">7,400</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. Peruviana</i>;</td><td class="tdr">2,295</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Species without name</td><td class="tdr">2,440</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. Pahudiana</i></td><td class="tdr">425</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr bb bt">Total 72,568<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p>The total number of plants permanently placed out in the plantations, -on August 31st, 1862, was 13,700, and, although only recently transplanted, -they are in a very promising condition. The number placed out, at the -same date, in the nurseries in the open air, and in the hardening-off -frames, was 18,076, all in the finest possible state of health. The number -of small plants under glass, including those used for the production of -wood for propagation, was 40,792.</p> - -<p>There are four plantations for Chinchona cultivation, either cleared and -planted, or about to be cleared, at Neddiwuttum and Pycarrah; besides<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></span> -the loftier one at Dodabetta. At Neddiwuttum the "Denison Plantations" -will contain about 210 acres of planted land, the "Markham -Plantation" about 200 acres; and near Pycarrah about 250 acres are to be -planted, of fine well-watered land, completely sheltered from the west -winds, to be called the "Wood Plantation," after the Secretary of State -for India: altogether about 660 acres, besides the Dodabetta site.</p> - -<p>Plants are to be disposed of to private individuals who may be desirous -of undertaking the cultivation, and 22,000 had already been ordered in -the beginning of September.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">LATEST INTELLIGENCE FROM DARJEELING.</p> - -<p>Dr. Anderson, who is in charge of the Chinchona cultivation in Bengal, -brought the plants to the Darjeeling Hills early in May 1862. He then -had 84 plants of <i>C. succirubra</i>, 44 of <i>C. micrantha</i>, 48 of <i>C. nitida</i>, 2 of -<i>C. Peruviana</i>, 5 of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, and 53 of <i>C. Pahudiana</i>. On July 26th -these had been increased, by layers and cuttings, to 140 of <i>C. succirubra</i>, -53 of <i>C. nitida</i>, 43 of <i>C. micrantha</i>, 7 of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, and 3 of <i>C. Peruviana</i>. -<i>See page 512.</i></p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">LATEST INTELLIGENCE FROM CEYLON.</p> - -<p>On July 29th, 1862, Mr. Thwaites had raised 960 young plants of <i>C. -Condaminea</i> from seeds. At the same date the plants of <i>C. succirubra</i> -were thriving admirably, several being planted out in the hill garden, and -a few at Peradenia. The other species were doing well, and Mr. Thwaites -was propagating as fast as possible from cuttings. <i>See page 509.</i></p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">C. PAHUDIANA.—<span class="smcap">The Dutch Species.</span></p> - -<p>The <i>C. Pahudiana</i>, which forms the bulk of the Java plantations, is -now generally acknowledged to be worthless. A tree of this species has -been chemically analyzed by Professors G. F. Mülder and F. A. W. Miquel, -and, in consequence of the joint report of these gentlemen, the Dutch -Government have determined to put an entire stop to its cultivation. <i>See -page 56. See letter from M. Hasskarl, dated May 23rd, 1862.</i></p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><span class="gesperrt">TRAVELS IN PERU.</span></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="c">DISCOVERY OF PERUVIAN BARK.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="hang smallish">The Countess of Chinchon—Introduction of the use of bark into Europe—M. -La Condamine's first description of a <i>Chinchona</i>-tree—J. de Jussieu—Description -of the Chinchona region—The different valuable species—The -discovery of quinine.</p></blockquote> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> whole world, and especially all tropical countries where -intermittent fevers prevail, have long been indebted to the -mountainous forests of the Andes for that inestimable febrifuge -which has now become indispensable, and the demand for -which is rapidly increasing, while the supply decreases, -throughout all civilized countries. There is probably no drug -which is more valuable to man than the febrifugal alkaloid -which is extracted from the chinchona-trees of South -America; and few greater blessings could be conferred on -the human race than the naturalization of these trees in -India, and other congenial regions, so as to render the supply -more certain, cheaper, and more abundant.</p> - -<p>It will be the principal object of the following pages to -relate the measures which have been adopted within the -last two years to collect plants and seeds of these quinine-yielding -chinchonæ, in the various regions of South America, -where the most valuable species are found; and to give an -account of their introduction into India, and of the hill -districts in that country where it is considered most likely -that they will thrive. But it is necessary that the reader -should have a general knowledge of these precious trees, -and of their history, before he accompanies the explorers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> -who were sent in search of them over the cordilleras of the -Andes, and into the vast untrodden forests.</p> - -<p>It would be strange indeed, if, as is generally supposed, -the Indian aborigines of South America were ignorant of the -virtues of Peruvian bark; yet the absence of this sovereign -remedy in the wallets of itinerant native doctors who have -plied their trade from father to son, since the time of the -Incas, certainly gives some countenance to this idea. It seems -probable, nevertheless, that the Indians were aware of the -virtues of Peruvian bark in the neighbourhood of Loxa, 230 -miles south of Quito, where its use was first made known to -Europeans: and the Indian name for the tree <i>quina-quina</i>, -"bark of bark," indicates that it was believed to possess some -special medicinal properties.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The Indians looked upon their -conquerors with dislike and suspicion; it is improbable that -they would be quick to impart knowledge of this nature to -them; and the interval which elapsed between the discovery -and settlement of the country and the first use of Peruvian -bark by Europeans may thus easily be explained.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> The -conquest and subsequent civil wars in Peru cannot be said to -have been finally concluded until the time of the viceroy -Marquis of Cañete, in 1560; and J. de Jussieu reports that -a Jesuit, who had a fever at Malacotas,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> was cured by -Peruvian bark in 1600. M. La Condamine also found a -manuscript in the library of a convent at Loxa, in which it -was stated that the Europeans of the province used the bark -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>at about the same time. Thus an interval of only forty -years intervened between the pacification of Peru and the -discovery of its most valuable product.</p> - -<p>It may be added, however, that though the Indians were -aware of the febrifugal qualities of this bark, they attached -little importance to them, and this may be another reason -for the lapse of time which occurred before the knowledge -was imparted to the Spaniards. Referring to this circumstance -La Condamine says, "Nul n'est saint dans son pays." -This indifference to, and in many cases even prejudice against -the use of the Peruvian bark, amongst the Indians, is very -remarkable. Poeppig, writing in 1830, says that in the -Peruvian province of Huanuco the people, who are much -subject to tertian agues, have a strong repugnance to its -use. The Indian thinks that the cold north alone permits -the use of fever-bark; he considers it as very heating, and -therefore an unfit remedy in complaints which he believes to -arise from inflammation of the blood.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Humboldt also notices -this repugnance to using the bark amongst the natives; -and Mr. Spruce makes the same observation with respect to -the people of Ecuador and New Granada.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> He says that -they refer all diseases to the influence of either heat or cold; -and, confounding cause and effect, they suppose all fevers to -proceed from heat. They justly believe bark to be very -heating, and hence their prejudice against its use in fevers, -which they treat with <i>frescos</i> or cooling drinks. Even in -Guayaquil the prejudice against quinine is so strong that, -when a physician administers it, he is obliged to call it by -another name.</p> - -<p>In about 1630 Don Juan Lopez de Canizares, the Spanish -Corregidor of Loxa, being ill with an intermittent fever, an -Indian of Malacotas is said to have revealed to him the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> -healing virtues of quinquina bark, and to have instructed -him in the proper way to administer it, and thus his cure -was effected.</p> - -<p>In 1638 the wife of Luis Geronimo Fernandez de Cabrera -Bobadilla y Mendoza, fourth Count of Chinchon, lay sick of -an intermittent fever in the palace at Lima. Her famous -cure induced Linnæus, long afterwards, to name the whole -genus of quinine-yielding trees in her honour <i>chinchona</i>. The -godmother of these priceless treasures of the vegetable kingdom -has, therefore, some claim upon our attention.</p> - -<p>This Countess of Chinchon was a daughter of the noble -house of Osorio, whose founder was created Marquis of -Astorga by Henry IV., King of Castille. The eighth -marquis, who died at Astorga in 1613, had a daughter by his -wife Dona Blanca Manrique y Aragon, named Ana,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> born -in 1576; and the ruins of the palace in the curious old town -of Astorga, in which she passed her childhood, are still -standing.[9] At the early age of sixteen she was married to -Don Luis de Velasco, Marquis of Salinas, who was about to -assume the important office of viceroy of Mexico. She probably -accompanied her husband to Mexico, and afterwards to -Lima, as he was viceroy of Peru from 1596 to 1604. In the -latter year he resumed his former office in Mexico, and, on -his return to Spain, he became President of the Council of -the Indies from 1611 to 1617.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> The lady Ana had thus been -a great traveller, when, in the latter year, she found herself -a widow. In 1621 she was married, in the city of Madrid, to -her second husband the fourth Count of Chinchon, who was -descended from a long line of proud and valiant Catalonian -ancestors. One of his forefathers, Don Andres de Cabrera,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> -who was created Marquis of Moya in 1480, married Beatriz -de Bobadilla, so well known in history as the faithful -attendant and confidential friend of Queen Isabella the -Catholic. The Emperor Charles V., remembering the services -and ancient dignity of the illustrious families of Cabrera -and Bobadilla, created the second son of the Marquis of Moya, -by Beatriz de Bobadilla, Count of his town of Chinchon, in -the kingdom of Toledo, in 1517.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> The third Count was one -of the over-worked ministers of that most indefatigable of -"red-tapists" Philip II.; and his son became the husband -of the widow Ana, who accompanied him to Lima on his -appointment as viceroy of Peru in 1629. Thus, for the -second time, this lady entered the City of the Kings as Vice-Queen.</p> - -<p>While the Countess Ana was suffering from fever in 1638, -in her sixty-third year, the Corregidor of Loxa, Don Juan -Lopez de Canizares, sent a parcel of powdered quinquina -bark to her physician, Juan de Vega, who was also captain of -the armoury, assuring him that it was a sovereign and never-failing -remedy for "tertiana." It was administered to the -Countess and effected a complete cure; and Mr. Howard is -of opinion that the particular plant which had this honour, -and which, therefore, yields the true and original Peruvian -bark, is the <i>Chahuarguera</i> variety of the <i>C. Condaminea</i>.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> -This kind contains a large percentage of <i>chinchonidine</i>, an -alkaloid, the great importance of which is only now just -beginning to be recognised, so that it is to <i>chinchonidine</i>, -and not to <i>quinine</i>, that the Countess's cure is due.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p> - -<p>The Count of Chinchon returned to Spain in 1640, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> -his Countess, bringing with her a quantity of the healing -bark, was thus the first person to introduce this invaluable -medicine into Europe.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Hence it was sometimes called -Countess's bark, and Countess's powder. Her physician, -Juan de Vega, sold it at Seville for one hundred reals the -pound. In memory of this great service Linnæus named the -genus which yields it <i>Chinchona</i>, and afterwards the lady -Ana's name was still further immortalized in the great family -of <i>Chinchonaceæ</i>, which, together with <i>Chinchonæ</i>, includes -ipecacuanhas and coffees. By modern writers the first <i>h</i> has -usually been dropped, and the word is now almost invariably, -but most erroneously, spelt <i>Cinchona</i>.</p> - -<p>After the cure of the Countess of Chinchon, the Jesuits -were the great promoters of the introduction of bark into -Europe. In 1639, as the last act of his viceroyalty, her husband -did good service to the cause of geographical discovery, -by causing the expedition under the Portuguese Texeira to -proceed from Quito to the mouth of the Amazons, accompanied -by the Jesuit Acuña, who wrote a most valuable -account of the voyage.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> From that time the missionaries of -Acuña's fraternity continued to penetrate into the forests -bordering on the upper waters of the Amazons, and to form -settlements; and Humboldt mentions a tradition that these -Jesuits accidentally discovered the bitterness of the bark, -and tried an infusion of it in tertian ague. In 1670 the -Jesuit missionaries sent parcels of the powdered bark to -Rome, whence it was distributed to members of the fraternity -throughout Europe by the Cardinal de Lugo, and used for -the cure of agues with great success. Hence the name of -"Jesuits' bark," and "Cardinal's bark;" and it was a ludicrous -result of its patronage by the Jesuits that its use should have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> -been for a long time opposed by Protestants and favoured by -Roman Catholics. In 1679 Louis XIV. bought the secret -of preparing quinquina from Sir Robert Talbor, an English -doctor, for two thousand louis-d'ors, a large pension, and a -title. From that time Peruvian bark seems to have been -recognised as the most efficacious remedy for intermittent -fevers. The second Lord Shaftesbury, who died in 1699, -mentions in one of his letters—"Dr. Locke's and all our -ingenious and able doctors' method of treating fevers with -the Peruvian bark:" he declares his belief that it is "the -most innocent and effectual of all medicines;" but he also -alludes to "the bugbear the world makes of it, especially the -tribe of inferior physicians."</p> - -<p>There can be no doubt that a very strong prejudice was -raised against it, which it took many years to conquer; and -the controversies which arose on the subject between learned -doctors were long and acrimonious. Dr. Colmenero, a professor -of the University of Salamanca, wrote a work in which -he declared that ninety sudden deaths had been caused by its -use in Madrid alone.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> Chiflet (Paris, 1653) and Plempius -(Rome, 1656), two great enemies of novelty, prophesied the -early death of quinquina, and its inevitable malediction by -future ages; while the more enlightened Badius (Genoa, -1656) defended its use, and quoted more than twelve thousand -cures by the aid of this remedy, performed by the best -doctors of the hospitals in Italy. In 1692 Dr. Morton, one -of the opponents of its use, was obliged to retract all he had -said against quinquina; and it was then that it began to be -generally admitted as a valuable medicine. It still, however, -remained a subject of controversy, and as late as 1714 two -Italian physicians, Ramazzini and Torti,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> held opposite views<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> -on the subject. Ramazzini wrote against its use with much -violence, while Torti maintained that, in proper doses, it -would arrest remittent and intermittent fevers.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> - -<p>Whilst the inestimable value of Peruvian bark was gradually -forcing conviction on the most bigoted medical conservatives -of Europe, and whilst the number and efficacy of -cures effected by its means were bringing it into general use, -and consequently increasing the demand, it was long before -any knowledge was obtained of the tree from which it was -taken. In 1726 La Fontaine, at the solicitation of the -Duchess of Bouillon, who had been cured of a dangerous fever -by taking Peruvian bark, composed a poem in two cantos to -celebrate its virtues; but the exquisite beauty of the leaves, -and the delicious fragrance of the flowers of the quinquina-tree, -with allusions to which he might have adorned his -poem, were still unknown in Europe.</p> - -<p>The first description of the quinquina-tree is due to that -memorable French expedition to South America, to which -all branches of science owe so much. The members of this -expedition, MM. De la Condamine, Godin, Bouguer, and the -botanist Joseph de Jussieu, sailed from Rochelle on the 16th -of May, 1735, to measure the arc of a degree near Quito, and -thus determine the shape of the earth. After a residence at -Quito, Jussieu set out for Loxa, to examine the quinquina-tree, -in March, 1739, and in 1743 La Condamine visited -Loxa, and stayed for some time at Malacotas, with a Spaniard -whose chief source of income was the collection of bark. He -obtained some young plants with the intention of taking -them down the river Amazons to Cayenne, and thence transporting -them to the Jardin des Plantes at Paris; but a wave -washed over his little vessel near Para, at the mouth of the -great river, and carried off the box in which he had pre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>served -these plants for more than eight months. "Thus," he -says, "I lost them after all the care I had taken during a -voyage of more than twelve hundred leagues."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> This was -the first attempt to transport chinchona-plants from their -native forests.</p> - -<p>Condamine described the quinquina-tree of Loxa in the -'Mémoires de l'Académie;'<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> he was the first man of science -who examined and described this important plant; and in -1742 Linnæus established the genus <span class="smcap">Chinchona</span>, in honour -of the Countess Ana of Chinchon. He, however, only knew -of two species, that of Loxa, which was named <i>C. officinalis</i>, -and the <i>C. Caribæa</i>, since degraded to the medicinally -worthless genus of <i>Exostemmas</i>.</p> - -<p>Joseph de Jussieu, whose name is associated with that of -La Condamine in the first examination of the chinchona-trees -of Loxa, continued his researches in South America after the -departure of his associate. He penetrated on foot into the -province of Canelos, the scene of Gonzalo Pizarro's wonderful -achievements and terrible sufferings; he visited Lima -with M. Godin; he travelled over Upper Peru as far as the -forests of Santa Cruz de la Sierra; and he was the first -botanist who examined and sent home specimens of the coca-plant, -the beloved narcotic of the Peruvian Indian. After -fifteen years of laborious work he was robbed of his large -collection of plants by a servant at Buenos Ayres, who -believed that the boxes contained money. This loss had a -disastrous effect on poor Jussieu, who, in 1771, returned to -France, deprived of reason, after an absence of thirty-four -years. Dr. Weddell has named the shrubby variety of <i>C. -Calisaya</i> in honour of this unfortunate botanist <i>C. Josephiana</i>.</p> - -<p>For many years the quinquina-tree of Loxa, the <i>C. officinalis</i> -of Linnæus, was the only species with which botanists<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> -were acquainted; and from 1640 to 1776 no other bark was -met with in commerce than that which was exported from -the Peruvian port of Payta, brought down from the forests -in the neighbourhood of Loxa. The constant practice of -improvidently felling the trees over so small an area for -more than a century, without any cessation, inevitably led to -their becoming very scarce, and threatened their eventual -extinction. As early as 1735 Ulloa reported to the Spanish -Government, that the habit of cutting down the trees in the -forests of Loxa, and afterwards barking them, without taking -the precaution of planting others in their places, would undoubtedly -cause their complete extirpation. "Though the -trees are numerous," he added, "yet they have an end;" and -he suggested that the Corregidor of Loxa should be directed -to appoint an overseer, whose duty it should be to examine -the forests, and satisfy himself that a tree was planted in -place of every one that was felled, on pain of a fine.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> This -wise rule was never enforced, and sixty years afterwards -Humboldt reported that 25,000 trees were destroyed in one -year.</p> - -<p>The measures adopted by the Spanish Government towards -the end of the last century, in sending botanical expeditions -to explore the chinchona forests in other parts of their vast -South American possessions, led to the discovery of additional -valuable species, the introduction of their barks into commerce, -and the reduction of the pressure on the Loxa forests, -which were thus relieved from being the sole source whence -Peruvian bark could be supplied to the world.</p> - -<p>The region of chinchona-trees extends from 19° S. latitude, -where Weddell found the <i>C. Australis</i>, to 10° N., following -the almost semicircular curve of the cordillera of the Andes -over 1740 miles of latitude. They flourish in a cool and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> -equable temperature, on the slopes and in the valleys and -ravines of the mountains, surrounded by the most majestic -scenery, never descending below an elevation of 2500, and -ascending as high as 9000 feet above the sea. Within these -limits their usual companions are tree ferns, melastomaceæ, -arborescent passion-flowers, and allied genera of chinchonaceous -plants. Below them are the forests abounding in palms and -bamboos, above their highest limits are a few lowly Alpine -shrubs. But within this wide zone grow many species of -chinchonæ, each within its own narrower belt as regards -elevation above the sea, some yielding the inestimable bark, -and others commercially worthless. And the species of chinchonæ, -in their native forests, are not only divided from each -other by zones as regards height above the sea, but also by -parallels of latitude. In Bolivia and Caravaya, for instance, -the valuable <i>C. Calisaya</i> abounds, but it is never found -nearer the equator than 12° S. Between that parallel and -10° S. the forests are for the most part occupied by worthless -species, while in Northern Peru the important grey barks of -commerce are found. In each of these latitudinal regions the -different species are again divided by belts of altitude. Yet -this confinement within zones of latitude and altitude is -not a constant rule; for several of the hardier and stronger -species have a wider range; while the more sensitive, and -these are usually the most precious kinds, are close prisoners -within their allotted zones, and never pass more than a -hundred yards beyond them. All the species are, of course, -affected by local circumstances, which more or less modify -the positions of their zones, as regards altitude.</p> - -<p>Thus, to give a geographical summary of the chinchona -region, beginning from the south, it commences in the -Bolivian province of Cochabamba in 19° S., passes through -the yungus of La Paz, Larecaja, Caupolican, and Munecas, -into the Peruvian province of Caravaya; thence through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> -the Peruvian forests, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, of -Marcapata, Paucartambo, Santa Anna, Guanta, and Uchubamba, -to Huanuco and Huamalies, where the grey bark is -found. It then continues through Jaen, to the forests near -Loxa and Cuenca, and on the western slopes of Chimborazo. -It begins again in latitude 1° 51´ N. at Almaguer, passes -through the province of Popayan, and along the slopes of the -Andes of Quindiu, until it reaches its extreme northern limit -on the wooded heights of Merida and Santa Martha.</p> - -<p>Humboldt remarks that, beyond these limits, the Silla de -Caraccas, and other mountains in the province of Cumana, -possess a suitable altitude and climate for the growth of chinchona-trees, -as well as some parts of Mexico, yet that they -have never been found either in Cumana or Mexico; and he -suggests that this may be accounted for by the breaks which -take place in Venezuela on the one hand, and on the isthmus -of Panama on the other, where tracts of country of low -elevation intervene between the lofty mountains of Cumana -and Mexico and the chinchona region of the main Andes. -In these low districts the chinchona-trees may have encountered -obstacles which prevented their propagation to the -northward: otherwise we might expect to find them in the -beautiful Mexican woods of Jalapa, whither the soil and -climate, and their usual companions the tree ferns and -melastomaceæ, would seem to invite them.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> - -<p>Be this how it may, the chinchona-plant has never been -found in any part of the world beyond the limits already -described.</p> - -<p>The chinchonas, when in good soil and under other favourable -circumstances, become large forest trees; on higher -elevations, and when crowded, and growing in rocky ground, -they frequently run up to great heights without a branch;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> -and at the upper limit of their zone they become mere -shrubs. The leaves are of a great variety of shapes and sizes, -but, in most of the finest species, they are lanceolate, with a -shining surface of bright green, traversed by crimson veins, -and petioles of the same colour. The flowers are very small, -but hang in clustering panicles, like lilacs, generally of a -deep roseate colour, paler near the stalk, dark crimson -within the tube, with white curly hairs bordering the laciniæ -of the corolla. The flowers of <i>C. micrantha</i> are entirely -white. They send forth a delicious fragrance which scents -the air in their vicinity.</p> - -<p>The earliest botanists gave the name of Chinchona to a -vast number of allied genera, which have since been -separated, and grouped under other names.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> There are three -characteristics by which a true chinchona may invariably be -known; the presence of curly hairs bordering the laciniæ of -the corolla, the peculiar mode of dehiscence of the capsule -from below upwards, and the little pits at the axils of the -veins on the under sides of the leaves. These characters -distinguish the chinchona from many trees which grow with -it, and which might at first sight be taken for the same genus. -The fact, established by the investigations of chemists, that -none of these allied genera contain any of the medicinal -alkaloids, has confirmed the propriety of their expulsion from -the chinchona genus by botanists; and Dr. Weddell gives a -list of seventy-three plants, once received as Chinchonæ, -which are now more properly classed under allied genera, -such as <i>Cosmibuena</i>, <i>Cascarilla</i>, <i>Exostemma</i>, <i>Remijia</i>, <i>Ladenbergia</i>, -<i>Lasionema</i>, &c.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p> - -<p>Thus thinned out and reduced in numbers, the list of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> -species of Chinchonæ has been established by Dr. Weddell at -nineteen, and two doubtful;<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> but even the classification of -this eminent authority, published in 1849, already requires -much alteration and revision. For instance: Dr. Weddell -gives no place to the "red-bark" species, the richest in -alkaloids, and one of the most important, which, through the -recent investigations of Mr. Spruce, will now probably be -admitted by botanists as a distinct species, the <i>C. succirubra</i> -(Pavon). A new grey bark now introduced into India as -<i>C. Peruviana</i> (Howard), and the <i>C. Pahudiana</i> (Howard), a -worthless kind, cultivated by the Dutch in Java, will also be -received as additional species. It seems likely also that the -<i>C. Condaminea</i> requires to be divided into two or three distinct -species; while the <i>C. Boliviana</i> (Weddell) will sink into -a mere variety of the <i>C. Calisaya</i>.</p> - -<p>The commercially valuable species, however, comprise but -a small proportion of the whole; and, as all these have now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> -been introduced into India, they alone deserve our attention. -They are as follows:—</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig4.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>These species yield five different kinds of medicinal barks, -which are collected from five different regions in South -America; and in the following chapter I propose to give a -brief account of each of these regions, of their chinchona-trees, -and of the investigations of botanists down to the time -when measures were taken to introduce these inestimable -plants into Java and India. Such an account will naturally -divide itself into five sections:—</p> - -<ol class="roman"> -<li>—The Loxa region, and its <i>crown barks</i>.</li> -<li>—The <i>red-bark</i> region, on the western slopes of Chimborazo.</li> -<li>—The New Granada region.</li> -<li>—The Huanuco region in Northern Peru, and its <i>grey barks</i>.</li> -<li>—The <i>Calisaya</i> region, in Bolivia and Southern Peru.</li> -</ol> - -<p>Before entering on this subject, however, it will be well to -cast a hasty glance at the progress of those investigations -which ended in the discovery of the febrifugal principle in -Peruvian bark.</p> - -<p>The roots, flowers, and capsules of the chinchona-trees have -a bitter taste with tonic properties, but the upper bark is the -only part which has any commercial value.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> The bark of -trees is composed of four layers—the epiderm, the periderm, -the cellular layer, and the liber or fibrous layer, composed of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> -hexagonal cells filled with resinous matter and woody tissue. -In growing, the tree pushes out the bark, and, as the exterior -part ceases to grow, it separates into layers, and forms the -dead part or periderm; which in chinchonas is partially -destroyed, and blended with the thallus of lichens. The bark -is thus formed of the dead part, or periderm, and the living -part, or derm. On young branches there is no dead part, the -exterior layers remaining entire, while the inner layers have -not had time to develop. In thick old branches, on the -contrary, the periderm or dead part is considerable, while the -fibrous layer of the derm is fully developed. In preparing -the bark the periderm is removed by striking the trunk with -a mallet, and the derm is then taken off by uniform incisions. -The thin pieces from small branches are simply exposed to -the sun's rays, and assume the form of hollow cylinders, or -quills, called by the natives <i>canuto</i> bark. The solid trunk -bark is called <i>tabla</i> or <i>plancha</i>, and is sewn up in coarse -canvas and an outer envelope of fresh hide, forming the -packages called <i>serons</i>.</p> - -<p>The character of the transverse fracture affords an important -criterion of the quality of the bark. Cellular tissue -breaks with a short and smooth fracture, woody tissue with -a fibrous fracture, as is the case with the <i>calisaya</i> bark. -The best characteristics by which barks containing much -quinine may be distinguished are the shortness of the fibres -which cover the transverse fracture, and the facility with -which they may be detached, instead of being flexible and -adhering as in bad barks. Thus, when dry <i>calisaya</i> bark is -handled, a quantity of little prickles run into the skin, and -this forms one of its distinguishing marks.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p> - -<p>Until the present century Peruvian bark was used in its -crude state, and numerous attempts were made at different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> -times to discover the actual healing principle in the bark, -before success was finally attained. The first trial which is -worthy of attention was made in 1779 by the chemists Buguet -and Cornette, who recognised the existence of an essential -salt, a resinous and an earthy matter in quinquina bark. -In 1790 Fourcroy discovered the existence of a colouring -matter, afterwards called <i>chinchona red</i>, and a Swedish doctor -named Westring, in 1800, believed that he had discovered -the active principle in quinquina bark. In 1802 the French -chemist Armand Seguin undertook the bark trade on a large -scale, and found it necessary to study the means of discovering -good barks, and distinguishing them from bad ones. He -found that the best quinquina bark was precipitated by -tannin, while the bad was not precipitated by that substance. -In 1803 another chemist found a crystalline substance in the -bark which he called "<i>sel essentiel fébrifuge</i>" but it was -nothing more than the combination of lime with an acid -which was named <i>quinic acid</i>. Reuss, a Russian chemist, in -1815, was the first to give a tolerable analysis of quinquina -bark; and about the same time Dr. Duncan of Edinburgh -suggested that a real substance existed as a febrifugal principle. -Dr. Gomez, a surgeon in the Portuguese navy, in -1816, was the first to isolate this febrifugal principle hinted -at by Dr. Duncan, and he called it <i>chinchonine</i>.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p> - -<p>But the final discovery of quinine is due to the French -chemists Pelletier and Caventou, in 1820. They considered -that a vegetable alkaloid, analogous to morphine and strychnine, -existed in quinquina bark; and they afterwards discovered -that the febrifugal principle was seated in two alkaloids, -separate or together, in the different kinds of bark, called -<i>quinine</i> and <i>chinchonine</i>, with the same virtues, which, however, -were much more powerful in quinine. It was believed that in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> -most barks chinchonine exists in the cellular layer, and -quinine in the liber, or fibrous layer; but Mr. Howard has -since shown that this view is quite incorrect.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> In 1829 -Pelletier discovered a third alkaloid, which he called <i>aricine</i>, -of no use in medicine, and derived from a worthless species -of chinchona, growing in most of the forests of Peru, called -<i>C. pubescens</i>.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> - -<p>The organic constituents of chinchona barks are—</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Quina.</td><td class="tdc">¦</td><td class="tdl"> Kinovic acid.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Chinchonia.</td><td class="tdc">¦</td><td class="tdl"> Chinchona red.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Aricina.</td><td class="tdc">¦</td><td class="tdl"> A yellow colouring matter.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Quinidia.</td><td class="tdc">¦</td><td class="tdl"> A green fatty matter.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Chinchonidia.</td><td class="tdc">¦</td><td class="tdl"> Starch.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Quinic acid.</td><td class="tdc">¦</td><td class="tdl"> Gum.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Tannic acid.</td><td class="tdc">¦</td><td class="tdl"> Lignin.</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p>These materials are in different proportions according to -the barks. Grey bark chiefly contains chinchonine and -tannin; Calisaya, or yellow bark, much quinine, and a -little chinchonine; red bark holds quinine and chinchonine -in nearly equal proportions; while the barks of New Granada -chiefly contain chinchonidine and quinidine. The two latter -alkaloids were definitively discovered in 1852 by M. Pasteur; -although the Dutch chemist Heijningen had, in 1848, found -what he called β quinine or quinidine. Chinchonidine is -only second to quinine itself in importance as a febrifugal -principle.</p> - -<p><i>Quinine</i> is a white substance, without smell, bitter, fusible, -crystallized, with the property of left-handed rotatory polarization. -The salts of quinine are soluble in water, alcohol, and -ether. Of all the salts the bisulphate of quinine is preferred, -because it constitutes a stable salt, easy to prepare, and containing -a strong proportion of the alkaloid. It is very bitter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> -and soluble, and crystallizes in long silky needles. It is -prepared by adding sulphuric acid to the sulphate.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> - -<p><i>Chinchonine</i> differs from quinine in being less soluble in -water, and being altogether insoluble in ether. It has the -property of right-handed rotatory polarization.</p> - -<p><i>Quinidine</i> also has the property of right-handed rotatory -polarization, and forms salts like those of quinine. It becomes -green by successive additions of chlorine and ammonia.</p> - -<p><i>Chinchonidine</i> has not the property of turning green, and -forms a sulphate almost exactly like sulphate of quinine.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> - -<p>The discovery of these alkaloids in the quinquina<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> bark, by -enabling chemists to extract the healing principle, has greatly -increased the usefulness of the drug. In small doses they -promote the appetite and assist digestion; and chinchonine is -equal to quinine in mild cases of intermittent fever; but in -severe cases the use of quinine is absolutely necessary. Thus -these alkaloids not only possess tonic properties to which -recourse may be had under a multitude of circumstances, but -also have a febrifugal virtue which is unequalled, and which -has rendered them almost a necessary of life in tropical -countries, and in low marshy situations where agues prevail. -Many a poor fellow's life was saved in the Walcheren expedition -by the timely arrival of a Yankee trader with some chests -of bark, after the supply had entirely failed in the camp.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> Dr.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> -Baikie, in his voyage up the Niger, attributed the return of -his men alive to the habitual use of quinine; and the number -of men whose lives it has saved in our naval service and in -India will give a notion of the vast importance of a sufficient -and cheap supply of the precious bark which yields it. India -and other countries have been vainly searched for a substitute -for quinine, and we may say with as much truth now as -Laubert did in 1820—"This medicine, the most precious of -all those known in the art of healing, is one of the greatest -conquests made by man over the vegetable kingdom. The -treasures which Peru yields, and which the Spaniards sought -and dug out of the bowels of the earth, are not to be compared -for utility with the bark of the quinquina-tree, which -they for a long time ignored.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2> - -<p class="c"><span class="smallish">The valuable species of Chinchona-trees—their history, their discoverers, and -their forests.</span></p> - - -<p class="c">I.—THE LOXA REGION, AND ITS <i>CROWN BARKS</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> region around Loxa, on the southern frontier of the -modern republic of Ecuador, is the original home of the -Chinchona, and nearly in the centre of its latitudinal range -of growth. On the lofty grass-covered slopes of the Andes, -around the little town of Loxa, and in the sheltered ravines -and dense forests, those precious trees were found which first -made known to the world the healing virtues of Peruvian -bark. They were most plentifully met with in the forests -of Uritusinga, Rumisitana, Cajanuma, Boqueron, Villonaco, -and Monje, all within short distances of Loxa.</p> - -<p>Linnæus had named these trees <i>Chinchona officinalis</i>; but -when Humboldt and Bonpland examined them, the discovery -of other species yielding medicinal bark had rendered the -name inappropriate, and they very properly re-christened -them, after the distinguished Frenchman who had originally -described them, <i>Chinchona Condaminea</i>. Humboldt says that -they grow on mica slate and gneiss, from 6000 to 8000 feet -above the sea, with a mean temperature between 60° and 65° -Fahr. In his time the tree was cut down in its first flowering -season, or in the fourth or seventh of its age, according as it -had sprung from a vigorous root-shoot, or from a seed. He -describes the luxuriance of the vegetation to be such that the -younger trees, only six inches in diameter, often attain from -fifty-three to sixty-four English feet in height. "This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> -beautiful tree," he continues, "which is adorned with leaves -above five inches long and two broad, growing in dense -forests, seems always to aspire to rise above its neighbours. -As its upper branches wave to and fro in the wind, their red -and shining foliage produces a strange and peculiar effect, -recognisable from a great distance."<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> It varies much in the -shape of the leaves, according to the altitude at which it -grows, and bark-collectors themselves would be deceived if -they did not know the tree by the glands, so long unobserved -by botanists. The <i>C. Condaminea</i> described by Humboldt -is the same as the <i>C. Uritusinga</i> of Pavon. It once -yielded great quantities of thick trunk bark, but, owing to -reckless felling through a course of years, it is now almost -exterminated, and its bark is rarely met with in commerce. -The distinguished botanist Don Francisco Caldas examined -the chinchona forests of Loxa after Humboldt, between 1803 -and 1809. He says that the famous quina-tree of Loxa grows -in the forests of Uritusinga and Cajanuma, at a height of -from 6200 to 8200 feet above the sea, in a temperature of -41° to 72° Fahr.; but that it is only found between the rivers -Zamora and Cachiyacu.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> He describes the tree as from -thirty to forty-eight feet high, with three or more stems -growing from the same root; the leaves as lanceolate, -shining on both sides, with veins a rosy colour, a short and -tender pubescence on the under side when young, and when -past maturity a bright scarlet colour; the bark black when -exposed to the sun and wind, a brownish colour when closed -in by other trees, and always covered with lichens;<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> and the -rock on which the trees grow, a micaceous schist.</p> - -<p>Don Francisco José de Caldas, a native of New Granada, -was one of the most eminent scientific men that South -America has yet produced. He was associated with Mutis in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> -the botanical expedition of New Granada; he explored the -chinchona region as far as Loxa; and thus takes his place as -one of those to whom we are indebted for throwing light on -the nature of the trees yielding Peruvian bark. Caldas was -born at Popayan in the year 1770; and, from early youth, -devoted himself to the pursuits of science with untiring -energy, especially studying botany, mathematics, meteorology, -and physical geography. He constructed his own -barometer and sextant, and, ignorant of the methods adopted -in Europe, he discovered the way of ascertaining altitudes by -a boiling-point thermometer. He has left many memoirs on -botanical and other subjects behind him, and his style is -always animated, clear, and interesting; but many of the -productions of this remarkable man are still in manuscript,<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> -and others are lost to us for ever. Above all, it is to be -regretted that his botanical chart of the chinchona genus, -which he promised in one of his memoirs, has never seen the -light. After the declaration of independence Caldas was -nominated by the Congress at Bogota to publish the works -of his friend the botanist Mutis. When the brutal Spanish -General Morillo entered Bogota in June 1816, he perpetrated -a series of savage massacres, in which more than 600 of the -most distinguished men in the country fell victims. Among -them was Caldas, who was shot through the back on the 30th -of October 1816.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p> - -<p>The Spanish botanists Ruiz and Pavon also examined the -chinchona-trees of Loxa; and the latter described two species, -<i>C. Uritusinga</i>, named from the mountain on which it was -once most abundant, and <i>C. Chahuarguera</i>, so called from a -fancied resemblance of the bark to a pair of breeches (<i>huara</i> -in Quichua) made from the fibre of the American aloe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> -(<i>chahuar</i>). To these the botanist Tafalla added the <i>C. crispa</i>. -These three species are all included in Humboldt's <i>C. Condaminea</i>, -which is readily known by the little pits, bordered -with hairs, at the axils of the veins on the under side of -the leaf. It would appear that at one period of growth these -little pits or scrobicules are wanting, but when the plant is -in full vigour they are markedly prominent. The <i>C. Chahuarguera</i><a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> -is described by Pavon as growing from eighteen -to twenty-four feet in height; although now the trees, which -yield the Loxa bark of commerce, do not attain a height of -more than four to nine feet. It is met with on the grassy -open crests of mountain ridges, in light sandy soil interspersed -with rocks, amongst shrubs and young plants. The -barks of Loxa were called <i>crown barks</i>, because they were -reserved for the exclusive use of the royal pharmacy at -Madrid; and they originally sold at Panama for five and -six dollars, and at Seville for twelve dollars the pound; -but in later times they were much adulterated, and the -price fell to one dollar the pound.</p> - -<p>The <i>C. Chahuarguera</i> is the <i>rusty crown bark</i> of commerce,<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> -and the <i>C. crispa</i> is the <i>quina fina de Loxa</i> or <i>crespilla negra</i> -of the natives. A parcel of it has quite recently sold at a -higher price than <i>Calisaya</i> quills. With this <i>rusty crown bark</i> -are mixed larger quills particularly rich in the alkaloid called -chinchonidine.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> The <i>C. Uritusinga</i> grew to the height of a -lofty forest tree, but it is now nearly exterminated. The -leaves assume a red colour before they fall, acquiring the -most beautiful tints, and the tree is one of the finest in -those forests.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> It is said that there is a great difference in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> -the bark, according as it is grown on the sides of mountains -most exposed to the morning or evening sun; and its position -is believed to have a great influence on the quality of its -alkaloids. The usual yield of the large quills is 3.5 to 3.6 per -cent.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p> - -<p>The bark-collectors of Loxa are said to show some little -forethought, a quality which is entirely wanting in most of -their fraternity. To save the trees they occasionally cut off -the whole of the bark, with the exception of one long strip, -which gradually replaces its loss; and the second cutting is -called <i>cascarilla resecada</i>. This practice was in use in the -days of the botanist Ruiz, who protested against it, and -declared that it was very injurious to the trees, many having -been destroyed by it.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> Later accounts, however, show that -the bark-collectors of Loxa are as thoughtlessly destructive -as those in other parts of South America. They often pull up -the roots, while the annual burning of the slopes, and the -continual cropping of the young shoots by cattle, assist the -work of destruction.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> - -<p>It is, therefore, well that the <i>C. Chahuarguera</i> and <i>C. -Uritusinga</i>, the earliest known and among the most valuable -of the chinchona-trees, should have been saved from extinction -by timely introduction into India.</p> - -<p>The annual export of Loxa bark, from the port of Payta, -is from 800 to 1000 cwts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="c">II.—THE "RED-BARK" REGION, ON THE WESTERN SLOPES -OF CHIMBORAZO.</p> - -<p>The species yielding "red bark," the richest and most important -of all the Chinchonæ, is found in the forests on the -western slopes of Mount Chimborazo, along the banks of the -rivers Chanchan, Chasuan, San Antonio, and their tributaries. -So early as 1738 Condamine spoke of "red bark" (<i>cascarilla -colorada</i>) as being of superior quality;<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> and Pavon sent home -specimens of the "red bark of Huaranda," and named the -species <i>C. succirubra</i>. Some of these are now in the British -Museum; and in the collection of Ruiz and Pavon, in the -botanical gardens at Madrid, I found capsules, flowers, and -leaves marked "<i>cascarilla colorada de los cerros de San Antonio</i>." -In 1857 Dr. Klotzsch, an eminent German botanist, read a -paper at Berlin,<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> elaborately describing the "red bark" as a -product of <i>C. succirubra</i>, from a very good specimen of -Pavon's in the Berlin Museum. Mr. Howard has also received -a specimen from Alausi, and he is inclined to the -belief that there are several varieties of <i>C. succirubra</i>, and -one or two allied species, as yet undescribed.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> Much light -was thrown upon the history of this valuable species by Mr. -Spruce, when he penetrated into the forests to collect seeds -and plants for transmission to India in 1860.</p> - -<p>Though little was known of the tree until quite lately, there -was never any doubt concerning the value of the bark. In -1779 a Spanish ship from Lima, bound to Cadiz, was captured -off Lisbon by the 'Hussar' frigate, and her cargo consisted -chiefly of "red bark," part of which was imported into -England. In 1785 and 1786 Ruiz states that the collectors -began to gather the bark of <i>C. succirubra</i>, and sell it at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> -Guayaquil, and from that time it continued to be found in -the European markets. It contains a larger proportion of -alkaloids than any other kind, amounting to as much as from -3 to 4 per cent. of the substance of the bark, and of this -a fair share is quinine. Fine samples yield 3.9 per cent., -selling at 8<i>s.</i> 9<i>d.</i> per lb.; and the quill bark from the -smaller branches 3.6 per cent.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> Mr. Howard has recently -procured 8.5 per cent. of alkaloids from a specimen of "red -bark." A large supply of plants of this species is flourishing -in India and Ceylon, and, from the richness of the species, -the comparatively low elevation at which it thrives, and -its hardy nature, it may be expected to become a cultivated -plant of great value and importance.</p> - -<p>In 1857 the export of bark from the port of Guayaquil, the -place of shipment for the <i>C. succirubra</i>, amounted to 7006 -quintals, valued at 23,353<i>l.</i><a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> In 1849-50 Dr. Weddell gives -the amount at 1042 quintals.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="c">III.—THE NEW-GRANADA REGION.</p> - -<p>The importance of the chinchona-trees was fully established -in the middle of the last century, and, Don Miguel de Santistevan, -the director of the mint at Bogota, having addressed -a memorial on the bark trade (<i>estanco de cascarilla</i>) to the -Viceroy Marquis of Villar in 1753, the attention of the -Spanish Government was seriously turned to the subject. -When the Viceroy Don Pedro Mesia de la Cerda, Marquis -de la Vega de Armijo, went out to Bogota in 1760,<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> he was -accompanied by the botanist Don José Celestino Mutis, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> -native of Cadiz, who was appointed to conduct a botanical -survey of New Granada, and especially to investigate the -bark of the chinchona-trees.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p> - -<p>In 1772 Mutis found these trees in the neighbourhood of -Bogota, and described four kinds in 1792, which he called -<i>C. lancifolia</i>, <i>C. cordifolia</i>, <i>C. oblongifolia</i>, and <i>C. ovalifolia</i>, -yielding four kinds of barks—<i>anaranjada</i>, <i>amarilla</i>, <i>roja</i>, and -<i>blanca</i>, or orange-coloured, yellow, red, and white.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> He -declared the <i>C. lancifolia</i> to be excellent for intermittent -fevers, in which he was right, and to be identical with the -<i>C. Condaminea</i> of Loxa, in which he was wrong; the <i>C. cordifolia</i> -he recommended for remittent fevers, and the other -two for inflammatory diseases. In reality the two last are -not chinchonas at all, but belong to the genus <i>Ladenbergia</i>, -and contain no fever-dispelling alkaloids whatever; while -the <i>C. Cordifolia</i> is so poor in alkaloids as to be practically -worthless.</p> - -<p>While Mutis, and his disciples Caldas and Zea, were prosecuting -their researches in New Granada, an expedition -under the botanists Ruiz and Pavon was sent to Peru; and -an acrimonious paper war sprang up between the rivals, as to -the respective merits of the barks of New Granada and Peru. -Ruiz declared the New Granada kinds to be inferior to those -of Peru, while Mutis contradicted him, and Zea<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> went so far -as to maintain that the species found by Ruiz and Pavon in -Peru were mere varieties of the four chinchonas of Mutis, -growing near Bogota.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> - -<p>The <i>C. lancifolia</i> of Mutis is dispersed in wild inacces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>sible -forests, while the other three kinds grow in partly cultivated -and inhabited regions, and their barks are therefore -much more easy to collect. These worthless barks were, therefore, -largely exported from Carthagena and Santa Martha, -while the valuable <i>C. lancifolia</i> was neglected; and the consequence -was that the barks of New Granada fell entirely into -discredit for many years. In about 1849, however, Dr. Santa -Maria of Bogota discovered the <i>C. lancifolia</i> afresh, producing -the <i>quina anaranjada</i>, and it has recently been found in the -whole cordillera from Bogota to Popayan, and largely exported -between 1849 and 1855, when the supplies began to fail.</p> - -<p>Dr. Karsten, a distinguished German botanist, has lately -returned from a residence of some years in New Granada, -where he thoroughly examined the region of <i>C. lancifolia</i>. -His remarks on the production of alkaloids in chinchona barks -are very important. He came to the conclusion that the -content of alkaloids was not always the same in the same -species of chinchona, and that the soil and relations of climate, -on which the nourishment of the plant depends, exercise -considerable influence. He also assumes, what is undoubtedly -true, that the chinchonæ with the capsule opening from the -base and crowned by the calyx, with a corolla of delicate -texture and bearded edges, and generally unindented seed-lobes, -give febrifugal barks; but his further position that the -short oval or elliptic capsules are a sign of a regularly larger -content of alkaloids, while long capsules show a small quantity -or total absence of quinine and chinchonine, though -doubtless correct so far as Dr. Karsten's personal observation -extended, will not bear general application. The <i>C. succirubra</i>, -the richest of all the barks in alkaloids, would certainly -come under the latter head. Dr. Karsten's observations on -the differences in the structure of the false and true barks -are also exceedingly valuable.</p> - -<p>The <i>C. lancifolia</i> of New Granada has been found to contain -as much as 2½ per cent. of quinine and from 1 to 2 per<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> -cent. of chinchonine. The trees are found in forest-regions -veiled in fog and rain, and often exposed to frost, where -the temperature ranges from freezing-point to 77° Fahr., at -heights of 7000 feet and upwards above the level of the sea. -They attain a height of 80 feet and 5 feet in diameter, but -the average size is 30 or 40 feet high and 3 feet in girth.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> -Seeds of this species, collected by Dr. Karsten, were sent to -Java, and there are now several plants raised from these -seeds in India.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> - -<p>I find that between 1802 and 1807 the export of New -Granada bark from the port of Carthagena was 3,340,000 lbs.; -the largest quantity in one year being 48,330 lbs. in 1806. -The first arrivals in Spain sold at 5 to 6 dollars a pound, but -in 1808 they were worth next to nothing, owing to the damaged -state in which the bark arrived.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="c">IV.—THE HUANUCO REGION IN NORTHERN PERU, AND ITS -GREY BARKS.</p> - -<p>The chinchona-trees, in the forests of the province of -Huanuco, in Northern Peru, were discovered by Don Francisco -Renquifo in 1776, on the mountain of San Cristoval de -Cuchero or Cocheros; and Don Manuel Alcarraz brought the -first sample of bark from Huanuco to Lima.</p> - -<p>At almost the same time the Spanish government was -organizing a botanical expedition to explore the chinchona<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> -forests of Peru; composed of the botanists Don José Pavon, -Don Hipolito Ruiz, the Frenchman Dombey, and two artists -named Brunete and Galvez. They embarked at Cadiz on -November 4th, 1777, and reached Callao April 8th, 1778. -Having made a large collection of plants in the neighbourhood -of Lima, and despatched them to Spain,<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> they crossed -the Andes, explored the forests of Tarma, and then proceeded -to Huanuco. They traversed the valley of Chinchao, explored -the hill of Cuchero or Cocheros, near Huanuco, and discovered -seven species of chinchona-trees,<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> returning to Lima laden with -the precious spoils of their expedition. They then sailed for -Chile, and, after exploring the greater part of that province, -they returned to Lima, and sent off their botanical collections -in fifty-three boxes, which were all lost in the shipwreck of -the 'San Pedro de Alcantara,' off the coast of Portugal, in -1786. M. Dombey returned to Europe at about the same -time.</p> - -<p>Ruiz and Pavon then returned to Huanuco, explored the -courses of the rivers Pozuzu and Huancabamba, and eventually -established themselves at the farm of Macora, near Huanuco, -where they resided for two months with Don Francisco -Pulgar and Don Juan Tafalla, who, by order of the king, had -joined them as pupils and associates in their labours—the -first as an artist, the second as a botanist. In August, 1785, -a fire broke out in their house, which destroyed all their journals -and collections; and they then undertook journeys -through the forests of Muña, Pillao, and Chacahuasi, examin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>ing -new species of chinchonæ.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> On April 1st, 1788, taking -leave of Pulgar and Tafalla, they sailed from Callao, and -reached Cadiz in September, when they commenced the publication -of their great work the 'Flora Peruviana.'<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p> - -<p>Tafalla continued his researches in the province of Huanuco, -and discovered the <i>C. micrantha</i> in 1797, in the cool and -shady forests of Monzon and Chicoplaya. Pavon calls him -"noster alumnus."</p> - -<p>The expeditions and discoveries of the Spanish botanists -induced the merchants of Lima to speculate in bark, and -brought the grey barks of Huanuco into the European markets.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> -In 1785 Don Juan de Bezares, a Lima merchant, -devoted 2000 dollars to the exploration of the forests of -Huamalies. He penetrated along the banks of the Monzon -to Chicoplaya, passing mountains thickly covered with chinchona-trees, -and engaged people to collect bark. Thousands -of arrobas were thus obtained of the bark of <i>C. glandulifera</i>; -and having been appointed Governor of Huamalies by -the Viceroy Don Teodoro de Croix in 1788, Bezares commenced -the construction of a good road down the valley -of the Monzon.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> Up to 1826 the principal supplies of grey -bark were derived from <i>C. nitida</i>, but since that time they -are believed to have come chiefly from <i>C. micrantha</i>.</p> - -<p>Science owes much to the labours of Spanish botanists: the -Spanish nation has every reason to be proud of her sons who -explored the forests of the Andes with such untiring energy -and distinguished ability; and the names of Mutis, Ruiz, -Pavon, and Tafalla occupy no unimportant place in the history -of botanical research. Nor, in this respect, have the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> -natives of South America been behindhand. Caldas and Zea -were worthy successors of Mutis; Franco Davila<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> represents -the botanical learning of Peru; while in more modern times -the name of the South American Triana is not unworthy to -stand side by side with those of the best botanists in Europe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig5.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption center">CHINCHONA MICRANTHA.<br /> -(From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia de Pavon.') <span class="smallish">Page 32.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>After the days of Ruiz and Pavon, our chief authority on -the grey barks of Huanuco is Dr. Poeppig, now a professor in -Leipsic, who travelled in Chile and Peru between the years -1827 and 1832.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> He says that, as in New Granada, the grey -barks of Huanuco soon fell into discredit in the European -markets, owing to the adulterations of small speculators, and -that after 1815 the trade almost entirely ceased.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> In 1830 -scarcely 1250 lbs. of bark found their way from Huanuco to -Lima.</p> - -<p>In the flourishing times of the Huanuco bark trade the -<i>cascarilleros</i>, or bark-collectors, entered the forests in parties -of ten or more, with supplies of food and tools. They penetrated -for several days into the virgin forest until they came -to the region of the chinchona-trees, when they built some -rude huts and commenced their work. The <i>cateador</i>, or -searcher, then climbed a high tree, and, with the aid of experience -and sharp sight, soon discovered the <i>manchas</i> or clumps -by their dark colour, and the peculiar reflection of the light -from their leaves, easily observable even in the midst of these -endless expanses of forest. The <i>cateador</i>, then, with never-erring -instinct, conducted the party for hours through the -tangled brushwood, to the chinchona clump, using the wood-knife -at every step. From a single clump they often obtained -a thousand pounds of bark, which was sent up to be dried -beyond the limits of the forest. All depended on the success<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> -of this operation, for the bark easily becomes mouldy and -loses its colour. The <i>cascarilleros</i> got two rials for every -twenty-five pounds of green bark stripped, from the speculator, -and, as they could easily strip three hundred pounds, they -made two dollars a day. The bark cost the speculator about -four dollars, and the price at Lima was sixteen to twenty -dollars the arroba of twenty-five pounds.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> - -<p>Dr. Poeppig makes some important remarks on the supposed -danger of the total extirpation of the chinchona-trees by reckless -felling. Condamine and Ulloa believed that this would -be the case in the Loxa forests, and Poeppig thinks that their -apprehensions were well founded, because there the trees are -not felled, but left standing deprived of their bark, in which -case they are attacked by rot with extraordinary rapidity in -tropical forests, hosts of insects penetrate to the stem, and the -healthy roots become infected. But it is only necessary to -observe the precaution of hewing the stem as near as possible -to the root, in order to be sure of its after-growth. After six -years, near Cuchero, the young stems may already be felled -again; but, at higher altitudes, where the most effective chinchonas -are found, it requires twenty years.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p> - -<p>The <i>C. micrantha</i> abounds in the province of Huanuco, and -the bark is known as <i>Cascarilla provinciana</i>. It yields 2.7 per -cent. of chinchonine, and is much sought after for the Russian -market.</p> - -<p>The <i>C. nitida</i> is a lofty tree growing in the higher regions -of Huanuco, and is known by the natives as <i>quina cana legitima</i> -(genuine grey bark). It grows at a greater height than -the former species, and yields 2.2 per cent. of chinchonine.</p> - -<p>The <i>C. Peruviana</i>, so named by Mr. Howard, is the <i>Cascarilla -de pata de gallinazo</i> of the natives. It grows in the forests -at a lower elevation than <i>C. nitida</i>, and yields 3 per cent. of -chinchonine and chinchonidine, consequently indicating a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> -considerable amount of febrifugal power. Quinine has also -been found in samples of grey bark.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p> - -<p>The name of <i>grey</i> bark refers to the striking effect of the -overspreading thallus of various <i>Graphideæ</i>, forming groups, -and indicating that the tree has grown in an open situation, -exposed to rain and sunshine. A large supply of all the best -kinds of grey bark is now growing in India.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="c">V.—THE CALISAYA REGION IN BOLIVIA AND -SOUTHERN PERU.</p> - -<p>The chinchona region of Bolivia and Southern Peru, although -one of the most important, was the last to contribute supplies -of bark to the European markets. The trees first became -known through the investigations of the German botanist -Thaddæus Haenke, and a Spanish naval officer named Rubin de -Celis, who drew the attention of the inhabitants to the valuable -forests on the eastern slopes of the Bolivian Andes in 1776, -though the unfortunate French naturalist Joseph de Jussieu -had previously explored some portions of those forests.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> But -it was not until 1820, when quinine was first discovered as -the febrifugal principle of bark, that the <i>Chinchona Calisaya</i><a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> -was recognised as containing more of that alkaloid than any -other species.</p> - -<p>After 1820 the demand for <i>calisaya</i> bark increased enormously; -great numbers of <i>cascarilleros</i>, or bark-collectors, -entered the forests, and in a short time scarcely a tree<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> -remained in the vicinity of the inhabited places; and the bark -was exported in such quantities that the price fell very much.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> -It was not, however, until 1830 that the Bolivian Government -interfered in the bark trade. It was then considered -necessary by General Santa Cruz's administration to check -the drain of this precious source of wealth by limiting the -quantity of bark to be cut or exported; and in November, -1834, the Bolivian Congress decreed a law on the subject, -which, however, never took effect. Finally, the cutting was -prohibited for five years, but before the expiration of that -period the decree was abrogated, and an export duty of twelve -dollars to twenty dollars the quintal, or cwt., was imposed.</p> - -<p>In 1844 the Bolivian Congress authorized the President, -General Ballivian, to negotiate for the establishment of a -national bank of bark, with the requisite capital, to export all -the quinquina bark produced in the country. This Bolivian -legislation on the chinchona bark, which is considered, with -justice, the most important product of their country, is very -curious, and sufficiently demonstrates the futility of attempting -a system of protection and monopoly. Instead of taking -measures to prevent the reckless destruction of the trees, to -establish extensive nurseries for young plants, and thus -ensure a constant and sufficient supply of bark, these Bolivians -have meddled with the trade, attempted to regulate European -prices by the most barbarous legislation, and allowed the -forests to be denuded of chinchona-trees. In 1845 the bark -monopoly was given to Messrs. Jorge Tesanos Pinto and Co., -for five years, for the sum of 119,000 dollars, during which -time not more than 4000 quintals of bark were to be exported -annually. This company gave such iniquitously low prices -to the <i>cascarilleros</i> for their bark, that a clamour was raised<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> -against it, and the President, General Belzu, put an end to -its existence in March 1849.</p> - -<p>Free trade, with a duty of twenty dollars the quintal, was -then established during one year; but in 1850 exclusive -privileges were again granted to Messrs. Aramayo Brothers -and Co., who were to pay the Government 142,000 dollars a -year for the right of exporting 7000 quintals of bark -annually, to be purchased of the <i>cascarilleros</i>, the <i>tabla</i> or -trunk bark at sixty dollars the quintal, and the <i>canuto</i> or -quill bark at thirty to thirty-six dollars the quintal. The -Pinto company had only paid eighteen to twenty-two dollars -the quintal for <i>tabla</i>, and eight to ten dollars for <i>canuto</i> bark. -The favourable conditions thus offered to <i>cascarilleros</i> induced -so great a number of persons to undertake the business, -that at the end of the first year more than 20,000 quintals of -bark arrived at La Paz—that is to say, more than twice as -much as the company had agreed for, and more than the -Pinto company had exported in five years. The Government -then issued a decree to prevent the smuggling of bark, -and another that no bark should be cut except for the company: -but these measures caused much discontent, and in 1851 -the Congress voted that the Executive had exceeded its powers -in making these arrangements with the Aramayo company, -and declared them to be null and void. The Aramayo company -purchased 14,000 quintals of the bark, and agreed to -take the same quantity during the two following years, -paying only a third of the price in ready money; but a new -company, formed under the name of Pedro Blaye and Co., -engaged to purchase all the bark that was for sale, both at -La Paz and Cochabamba, for ready money. It was evident -that one or the other of these companies must break, and -finally that of Blaye fell. The Government then determined to -export the bark which remained in store on its own account, -paying the same price as had been agreed on by the company.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p> - -<p>These two companies lasted for two years, during which -time the Bolivian forests yielded 3,000,000 lbs. of bark. -Such was the result of the high prices which followed the -fall of the Pinto monopoly; but it was the rich contractors, -and not the poor bark-collectors, who derived benefit from -the change.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p> - -<p>In 1851 Government prohibited the cutting of bark entirely, -from the 1st of January, 1852, to the 1st of January, -1854.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> In 1858 a decree was issued to regulate the transition -of the system of monopoly to that of free-trade in bark, -which caused an improvement in the prices in European -markets; and in November, 1859, Dr. Linares, then President -of Bolivia, declared the right to cut bark in the forests to -be free, and reduced the duty 25 per cent. on the current -prices, to be fixed at the beginning of each year.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> This is -the law which now regulates the bark trade in Bolivia, and, -after a course of short-sighted meddling legislation, extending -over twenty years, in 1850 it still brought 142,000 dollars -annually into the public treasury, being a fifteenth part of -the whole revenue of the Republic.</p> - -<p>For exportation the bark is wrapped in fresh bullock-hides, -having been previously sewn up in thick cotton bags -containing 155 lbs. each. These hide packages are called -<i>serons</i>, a mule-load being 285 lbs., and the transport to the -coast costing about ten dollars for each mule-load.</p> - -<p>It is to the persevering energy and great talent of that -distinguished French botanist Dr. Weddell that we owe our -knowledge of the chinchona regions of Bolivia and Southern -Peru, and especially of the inestimable quinine-yielding -species which he identified as the <i>C. Calisaya</i>. Dr. Weddell -accompanied the scientific expedition of the Count de Castel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>nau, -which was sent out by Louis Philippe to South America, -and, after crossing the vast empire of Brazil, entered Bolivia -by the country of the Chiquitos in August, 1845. It was -Dr. Weddell's chief object to examine the chinchona region of -this country, and his first step was to proceed to Tarija, -to ascertain the extreme southern limit of the chinchona-trees, -which he discovered in 19° S. lat. He named the -species <i>C. Australis</i>. Dr. Weddell then commenced a -thorough exploration of the Bolivian chinchona forests, -making his way over the most difficult country, from Cochabamba, -through Ayopaya, Enquisivi, and the <i>yungus</i><a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> of La -Paz; where the species of chinchonæ continued to multiply -under his eye. In Enquisivi he first met with and studied -the <i>C. Calisaya</i>, which he named and described, collecting -much information respecting the trade, and the methods -of collecting bark. In 1847 he entered the province of -Capaulican, descending the river Tipuani, where he was -attacked by fever, and ascending the Mapiri. At Apollobamba, -the centre of the most ancient bark-collecting district, -he found that the surrounding forests were quite cleared -of chinchona-trees, and that it was necessary to seek for them -at a distance of ten or twelve days' journey from any inhabited -place. In June 1847 Dr. Weddell entered the Peruvian -province of Caravaya, examined the chinchona forests of the -valleys of Sandia (San Juan del Oro) and Tambopata, and -concluded his investigations by a visit to the lovely ravine of -Santa Anna, near Cuzco.</p> - -<p>Dr. Weddell was accompanied in his visit to the valleys of -Santa Anna by M. Delondre, a manufacturer of quinine at -Havre, who, after contemplating the project of paying a personal -visit to the chinchona forests for twenty years, had at -length set out, landed at Islay in July, 1847, and proceeded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> -by way of Arequipa to Cuzco. M. Delondre appears to have -employed a contractor to supply him with bark, who failed -in his engagements, and of whom the French quinine manufacturer -bitterly complains as a second Dousterswivel.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> MM. -Weddell and Delondre finally left the chinchona forests in -September, 1847, and set out for the coast of Peru. Dr. -Weddell's valuable monograph on the chinchona genus, '<i>Histoire -naturelle des Quinquinas</i>,' the most important work that -has yet appeared on the subject, was published at Paris in 1849.</p> - -<p>In 1851 Dr. Weddell undertook a second voyage to South -America, and in 1852 he entered the Bolivian chinchona -region of Tipuani by way of Sorata. In descending the -eastern slopes of the Andes he describes the vegetation as -taking new forms at every mile of the descent. The undergrowth -was formed of <i>Melastomaceæ</i> with violet-coloured flowers -(<i>Chætogastra</i>), myrtles, <i>Gaultherias</i>, and <i>Andromedas</i>; lower -down there were many superb species of <i>Thibaudias</i>; and, -where the great forests succeed to the smaller growth of the -more elevated region, the predominant trees were <i>Escallonias</i>, -arborescent <i>Eupatorias</i>, <i>Bocconias</i>, and a fruit-bearing <i>Papilionacea</i> -with a scarlet corolla. He encountered the first forest -chinchona-trees at an elevation of 7138 feet, being the <i>C. ovata -var. α vulgaris</i>. Descending still, he came to paccay-trees -(<i>Mimosa Inga</i>) in flower, and met with the first plant of the -shrubby variety of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, on an open grassy ridge or -<i>pajonal</i>, at an elevation of 4800 feet.</p> - -<p>Dr. Weddell descended the river Tipuani to Guanay, a -mission of Lecos Indians, and ascended the Coroico in a -canoe made of the wood of a species of <i>Bombax</i>. The forests -bordering on the river Coroico abounded in many species of -palms, chiefly <i>Maximilianas</i> and <i>Iriarteas</i>, the latter a singular -kind with a trunk supported on long aërial roots. There were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> -also many trees of <i>C. micrantha</i> on the banks of the Coroico, -a species of chinchona, the peculiarity of which is its fondness -for the bottoms of valleys and banks of rivers, while most of -the others prefer elevated ridges or slopes of the mountains. -With it were growing trees of the beautiful <i>Cascarilla magnifolia</i>, -an allied genus with deliciously fragrant flowers.</p> - -<p>The <i>cascarilleros</i> of Bolivia lead a hard and dangerous life. -They only value the <i>C. Calisaya</i>, the other species being for -them <i>carhua-carhua</i>, a name given to all the inferior kinds. -Those who carry the bark on their shoulders from the interior -of the forests receive fifteen dollars for every quintal, and -they also have to carry all their provisions and covering for -the night. If by any accident they are lost, or their provisions -are destroyed, they die of hunger. Dr. Weddell, on -one occasion, while ascending the Coroico, landed with the -intention of passing the night on a beach well shaded by -trees. Here he found the hut of a <i>cascarillero</i>, and near it a -man stretched out on the ground in the agonies of death. He -was nearly naked, and covered with myriads of insects, whose -stings had hastened his end. His face was so swollen as to be -wholly unrecognisable, and his limbs were in a frightful state. -On the leaves which formed the roof of the hut were the remains -of this unfortunate man's clothes, a straw hat and some -rags, with a knife, and an earthen pot containing the remains -of his last meal, a little maize, and two or three <i>chuñus</i>. Such -is the end to which their hazardous occupation exposes the -bark-collectors—death in the midst of the forests, far from -all friends—a death without help, and without consolation.</p> - -<p>Dr. Weddell returned to La Paz by ascending the Coroico, -and the results of his second visit to the chinchona forests -appeared in an entertaining book of travels.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> To this able<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> -botanist and intrepid explorer science is indebted, to no small -extent, for the present state of our knowledge of the chinchona -genus.</p> - -<p>The <i>C. Calisaya</i> species has been divided by Dr. Weddell -into two varieties, namely, a <i>vera</i> and β <i>Josephiana</i>. The -former, when growing under favourable circumstances, is a tall -tree, often larger round than twice a man's girth, with its -leafy head rising above all the other trees of the forest. The -leaves are oblong or lanceolate-obovate, pitted in the axils of -the veins, with a shining green surface, and reddish veins. -The flowers, which hang in large panicles, are a rosy-white -colour, with laciniæ rose-colour, and bordered by marginal -white hairs. The capsule is smooth, and about twice as long -as broad. This tree grows on declivities, and steep rugged -places of the mountains, from 4900 to 5900 feet above the -sea, in the forests of Enquisivi, Capaulican, Apollobamba, and -Larecaja in Bolivia, and of Caravaya in Peru. The trunk -may be known by the periderm of the bark, sometimes of a -greyish-white, sometimes brown or blackish, being always -marked by longitudinal ridges or cracks, a characteristic -remarked of no other tree of these forests, excepting one or -two of the same family. The taste is strongly bitter, which -is apparent directly the tip of the tongue touches it, and, -when the exterior receives a cut, a yellow gummy resinous -matter exudes from it. The bark comes off with great ease, -like peeling a mushroom, while, in the inferior kinds, and -above all in the false chinchonas, it strips transversely, and -with much greater difficulty. A good tree yields 150 to 175 -pounds of dried bark.</p> - -<p>The other variety of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, called <i>ychu cascarilla</i>, or -<i>cascarilla del pajonal</i>, by the natives, was named <i>Josephiana</i> by -Dr. Weddell after the unfortunate French botanist Joseph de -Jussieu. It is a shrub, not attaining a greater height than six -and a half to ten feet, and growing on open grassy slopes, at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> -much higher elevations than the tree <i>Calisaya</i>. There is -another tree variety with a somewhat darker leaf, which Dr. -Weddell classed as a distinct species, and called <i>C. Boliviana</i> -in 1849, but which he now considers to be a mere variety of -<i>C. Calisaya</i>. The other good kinds in the forests of Bolivia -and Caravaya are <i>C. micrantha</i>, and two varieties of <i>C. -ovata</i>.</p> - -<p>Dr. Weddell brought seeds of <i>C. Calisaya</i> to Paris, which -were raised in the Jardin des Plantes in 1848, and others in -the garden of the Horticultural Society in London, where one -of the plants flowered.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> Many of these plants were given -away, and some of them were sent by the Dutch Government -to Java.</p> - -<p>Plants of <i>C. Calisaya</i> are now flourishing in India. The -yield of quinine for the best kinds of <i>calisaya</i> bark is 3.8 -per cent., that for the <i>Josephiana</i> variety 3.29.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p> - -<p>Arica and Islay are the ports for the shipment of <i>calisaya</i> -bark; and in 1859 the quantity and value exported were:—</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">From</td><td class="tdl">Arica</td><td class="tdl">1926</td><td class="tdl">quintals,</td><td class="tdl">worth</td><td class="tdr">£17,334</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">Islay</td><td class="tdl">1365</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">12,383</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bb bt">3291</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr bt bb">29,717</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p class="c"> -Jan. 1st to Nov. 30th, 1860, Arica $160,260 = £35,000 (about).<br /> -1860, Islay, 1077 quintals.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="hang smallish">Rapid destruction of chinchona-trees in South America—Importance of their -introduction into other countries—M. Hasskarl's mission—Chinchona -plantations in Java.</p></blockquote> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> collection of bark in the South American forests was -conducted from the first with reckless extravagance; no -attempt worthy the name has ever been made either with a -view to the conservancy or cultivation of the chinchona-trees; -and both the complete abandonment of the forests to the -mercy of every speculator, as in Peru, Ecuador, and New -Granada, and the barbarous meddling legislation of Bolivia, -have led to equally destructive results. The bark-collector -enters the forest and destroys the first clump of chinchona-trees -he finds, without a thought of any measure to preserve -the continuance of a supply of bark. Thus, in Apollobamba, -where the trees once grew thickly round the village, no full-grown -one is now to be found within eight or ten days' -journey:<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> and so utterly improvident are the collectors that, -in the forests of Cochabamba, they bark the tree without -felling, and thus ensure its death; or, if they cut it down, -they actually neglect to take off the bark on the side touching -the ground, to save themselves the trouble of turning the -trunk over.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p> - -<p>A century ago Condamine<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> raised a warning voice against -the destruction that was going on in the forests of Loxa. -Ulloa<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> advised the Government to check it by legislation; -soon afterwards Humboldt reported that 25,000 chinchona-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>trees -were destroyed every year, and Ruiz<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> protested against -the custom of barking the trees, and leaving them to be -destroyed by rot. But nothing was ever done in the way of -conservancy, either by the Government, or by private speculators -whose subsistence depended on a continued supply of -bark. Dr. Weddell, alluding to this recklessness as regards -<i>C. Calisaya</i>, observes that "the forests of Bolivia, rich as they -are, cannot long resist the continued attacks to which they -have been recently exposed. He who, in Europe, sees these -enormous and ever-increasing masses of bark arrive, may -perhaps believe that they will continue to do so; but he who -sees the chinchona-trees in their native forests, and knows -the real truth, is obliged to think otherwise."</p> - -<p>There is, however, no danger of the actual extirpation of -the trees unless the plan is adopted of leaving them standing, -and stripped of their bark, as in the Loxa forests. Poeppig -says that, in these cases, the trees in the tropical forests are -attacked by rot with extraordinary rapidity; hosts of insects -penetrate the stem to complete the work of destruction, and -the healthy root becomes infected. Thus the valuable species -called <i>C. Uritusinga</i> has really been almost exterminated.</p> - -<p>But where the trees are felled it is only necessary to -observe the precaution of hewing the stem as near as possible -to the root, in order to be sure of its after-growth.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> Under -these circumstances, after six years the young trees are -ready to be felled again in the milder regions, and after -twenty years in cold and exposed localities. From the base -of the stems, when not barked, a number of shoots spring out -between bark and wood; and Dr. Karsten says that, though -an interval of rest of twelve or fifteen years must be given to -the forests where the chinchona-trees have thus been felled, -this only promotes further investigation in the endless<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> -untrodden forests, while, in the mean time, the younger -generation is growing up in those which have already been -exhausted.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p> - -<p>The danger, therefore, is not in the actual annihilation of -the chinchona-trees in South America, but lest, with the -increasing demand, there should be long intervals of time -during which the supply would cease, owing to the forests -being exhausted, and requiring periods of rest. In many -districts this is already the case. The bark which comes -from Loxa is in the minutest quills, and in the forests of -Caravaya, after an interval of rest of several years, the root-shoots -had scarcely grown to a sufficient size to yield anything -but quill bark. Then again the supplies of bark from -South America are not nearly sufficient to meet the demand, -and the price is kept so high as to place this inestimable -remedy beyond the means of millions of natives of fever-visited -regions. For these reasons the incalculable importance -of introducing the chinchona-plant into other countries -adapted for its growth, and thus escaping from entire dependence -on the South American forests, has long occupied -the attention of scientific men in Europe.</p> - -<p>In 1839 Dr. Royle, in his 'Illustrations of Himalayan -Botany,'<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> recommended the introduction of the chinchona-plants -into India, pointing out the Neilgherry and Silhet -hills as suitable sites for the experiment, and Lord William -Bentinck took some interest in the project. M. Fée had -previously recommended the introduction of these plants into -the French colonies;<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> and in 1849 both Dr. Weddell<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> and -M. Delondre<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> strongly urged the adoption of this measure.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> -The former declared that posterity would bless those who -should carry this idea into execution.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p> - -<p>The Dutch, who possess in the island of Java a range -of forest-covered mountains admirably adapted for chinchona -cultivation, were, however, the first to take active steps for -its introduction into the Eastern Hemisphere; and their -praiseworthy exertions deserve, what they lay claim to with -justice, the approbation of the whole civilized world. The -experiment in Java, however, has only been tried with a very -limited number of valuable species of chinchonæ, and has met -with very limited success, owing to the introduction of worthless -kinds, and to mistakes in the cultivation, committed -during the first few years.</p> - -<p>For the last thirty years Dutch scientific men, among whom -the name of the botanist Blume may be mentioned, had -urged their Government to undertake the introduction of chinchona-plants -into Java. But it was not until the year 1852 -that M. Pahud, the Dutch Minister of the Colonies, was authorized -to employ an agent to collect plants and seeds of valuable -species in Peru, and to convey them to Java. He selected, for -this important mission, M. Justus Charles Hasskarl, a botanist -who had for some time superintended the gardens in Java, -but who was a stranger to South America—ignorant of the -country, the people, and the languages—unacquainted with -the forests where the chinchona-trees are found, and who -had never seen them growing in their natural state. He -sailed for Peru in December, 1852, with orders not to confine -himself to the <i>Calisaya</i> plant, but to collect plants and seeds -of as many different species as possible. His original orders<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> -were to proceed from Guayaquil to the chinchona-forests of -Loxa in the first instance; but he changed his plan, and, -landing at Lima, crossed the cordilleras in May, 1853.</p> - -<p>It would be difficult, in making a chance journey from the -coast to the forests of the Eastern Andes, to hit upon a part -where valuable species of chinchona-trees are not known to -exist. There are such spaces—forest tracts—intervening between -the more favoured regions, where only species of little -value are found, such as <i>C. pubescens</i>, <i>C. scrobiculata</i>, &c.; and -on one of these, between the region of grey barks in Huanuco -and that of <i>C. Calisaya</i> in Caravaya, M. Hasskarl, through -being unacquainted with the localities, was so unfortunate -as to stumble. He crossed the Andes by the road from Lima -to Tarma, and descended the eastern slopes into the montañas -of Vitoc, Uchubamba, and Monobamba; returning thence by -Xauxa into the loftier region of the Andes. Near Uchubamba -he saw trees which he believed to be <i>C. Calisaya</i>; but that species -is never found to the north of the province of Caravaya. -He however collected a quantity of seeds of this imaginary -<i>C. Calisaya</i>, and four packets of a species which he called -<i>C. ovata</i>, with smaller quantities of <i>C. pubescens</i> and <i>C. -amygdalifolia</i>.</p> - -<p>The species called by M. Hasskarl <i>C. ovata</i> now forms the -bulk of the chinchona-plantations in Java. He found it on -dry sunny hills, without much shelter from the sun, in a very -sandy micaceous soil, at an elevation of 5500 to 6000 feet -above the sea. It is sometimes a mere shrub, but occasionally -rises to fifteen or twenty-five feet, with elegant pink -flowers and reddish fruit. The native name is <i>cascarilla crespilla -chica</i>; and as the <i>crespilla grande</i> is the <i>C. ovata</i> of -Weddell, it is probable that M. Hasskarl was thus led into the -mistake of calling his new species <i>C. ovata</i>. The leaves are -smooth above, with a felt-like pubescence on the under surface, -and the hairy capsules are probably an indication of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> -worthlessness of the species.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> In fact, no good kinds are found -in this part of the country, and all the seeds sent home by -M. Hasskarl were equally valueless. He collected specimens -of <i>C. lanceolata</i> of Pavon, at a place called "Escalera -de San Rafael," on the road between Uchubamba and -Xauxa.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p> - -<p>From Xauxa M. Hasskarl went to Cuzco, and thence in -September to Sandia in the province of Caravaya; but finding -that the seeds of chinchona-trees are ripe in August, and that -he had arrived too late, he returned to Lima, and finally -took up his abode at Arequipa until the following year. In -March, 1854, he again set out, crossed the Andes to Puno, -and, after wandering over part of Bolivia, at length reached -the little village of Sina in Caravaya, near the frontier -between Peru and Bolivia, in April. He had assumed the -feigned name of José Carlos Müller, and had printed it on his -cards, one of which he presented to the governor of Sina, -Don Juan de la Cruz Gironda, requesting him to procure a -supply of chinchona-plants for him. Gironda refused, but -introduced the stranger to a Bolivian named Clemente -Henriquez, a clever and intelligent, but dishonest and unscrupulous -man. Henriquez agreed to procure 400 plants -of <i>C. Calisaya</i> for a certain sum, part of which was to be -paid down, and the remainder on delivery of the plants. M. -Hasskarl then went on to the village of Sandia, where he -took up his abode, without entering the chinchona forests, -and waited there until the plants should arrive. Meanwhile -Henriquez employed an Indian to collect the stipulated -number of plants, round a place called Ychu-corpa,<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> on the -frontier of Bolivia; and when they were brought to him he -went to Sandia, delivered them to M. Hasskarl, and received -his money. An outcry was afterwards raised against Hen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>riquez, -by the people inhabiting villages bordering on the -chinchona forests, who considered that their interests would be -injured by the exportation of the plants: they declared they -would cut his feet off if they caught him, and he has ever -since been obliged to live at Pelechuco, in Bolivia.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> This -feeling has rendered any future operations of a like nature -exceedingly difficult.</p> - -<p>M. Hasskarl left Sandia with these plants in June, 1854, -but they were not placed in Wardian cases at the port of -Islay until August, and on the 27th of that month he finally -left the coast of Peru in a sailing vessel, and shaped his -course direct for Java.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> He arrived at Batavia with twenty -Wardian cases on December 13th, but all his plants have -since died except two.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> On his arrival M. Hasskarl was -intrusted with the cultivation of chinchona-plants in Java, -with the rank of Assistant-Resident, and was made a Knight -of the Netherlands Lion, and Commander of the Order of the -Oaken Crown.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p> - -<p>Besides the plants brought by M. Hasskarl, a plant of -<i>C. Calisaya</i>, raised in Paris from seeds sent home by Dr. -Weddell, had arrived in Java; as well as plants raised from -seeds previously sent from Peru, and seeds of <i>C. lancifolia</i> -sent by Dr. Karsten from New Granada, through the -Governor of Curaçoa; and thus the experimental chinchona -cultivation in Java was commenced.</p> - -<p>Although through various circumstances the mission to -South America was not very successful, yet M. Hasskarl -deserves the greatest credit for the zeal and determination -displayed by him in his journeys, during which he was -surrounded by no ordinary amount of difficulties and dangers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> -He certainly proved himself to be a most indefatigable and -courageous traveller.</p> - -<p>M. Hasskarl, and his associate M. Teysmann, selected the -site for the first chinchona plantation, at a place called -Tjibodas, thirty miles south of Batavia, on the northern slope -of the volcanic range which traverses Java from east to west, -and 4400 feet above the sea. Ground was also prepared at -Tjipannas, half a mile above Tjibodas, and 4700 feet above -the sea. These sites were covered with rasamala-trees of -immense size (<i>Liquidambar Altingia</i>,<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> <i>Blume</i>), which had to -be felled. The superintendents, deceived by the sight of such -large trees, imagined that the soil was deep and good, but in -reality it was not more than six inches deep, and underneath -there was a formation completely impenetrable to roots, -called <i>tjadas</i>, composed of sand and small stones of trachytic -origin, strongly cemented together by crater slime, -the whole being as hard as rock. Not one of the huge -rasamala-trees in reality pierced this <i>tjadas</i> with their roots, -but ran along its surface horizontally for hundreds of feet. -In these localities the chinchona-plants continued to languish -during the year 1855, and in the end of that year the experiment -presented a most hopeless appearance.</p> - -<p>The causes of this failure are sufficiently evident. After the -felling of the rasamala-trees, the young chinchona-plants were -exposed to the full force of a burning sun, without any shade -whatever, in an extraordinarily thin soil upon a rocky bank -impenetrable to roots. The dead and rotted roots of the -rasamala-trees were allowed to remain, developing fungi -which attacked the chinchona-roots; and the sites themselves -were in much too low and warm a climate. In consequence -of the combined effects of these adverse influences, there were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> -only 300 chinchona-plants in Java, in a sickly unpromising -condition, after the lapse of the first eighteen months.</p> - -<p>In December, 1855, Dr. Franz Junghuhn came to Java -with 139 chinchona-plants, raised from seeds in Holland. -They were delivered over to M. Hasskarl, and in six months -seventy-six of them were dead. In June, 1856, M. Pahud, -who had been Minister of the Colonies, and was then Governor-General -of Netherlands India, relieved M. Hasskarl of his -duties, and gave the entire charge of the chinchona experiment -to Dr. Junghuhn, an experienced scientific botanist. -Dr. J. E. de Vry, a chemist of some eminence, was also -sent to Java, charged with the special duty of applying -chemical tests to the barks of the chinchona-plants, to ascertain -their intrinsic value.</p> - -<p>When Dr. Junghuhn took charge the prospects of the -experiment were very far from promising, and he has displayed -an amount of intelligent perseverance, combined with -much practical knowledge, which is deserving of all praise. -He found the 139 chinchona-plants which he himself brought -out reduced to sixty-three; the seeds of <i>C. lancifolia</i> represented -by three sickly plants; the collection of plants of -<i>C. Calisaya</i> brought by M. Hasskarl from Peru, also reduced -to three; two plants of <i>C. Calisaya</i> raised from seeds sent -home by Dr. Weddell; and the remainder, consisting of the -worthless species collected by M. Hasskarl in Uchubamba, -making a total of only 300 plants.</p> - -<p>In 1856 a new system was introduced, money was lavishly -expended, an efficient establishment was formed, and a great -effort was commenced to secure the successful cultivation of -the chinchona-plants. The superintendent receives 1350<i>l.</i> a -year, the chemist 1100<i>l.</i> a year, and under them there are -eight Dutch overseers; the total amount paid in salaries -being 3256<i>l.</i> a year.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> It was ordered that, until the cultiva<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>tion -is considered as quite successful, it should remain under -the management of scientific men, but that finally it should -be handed over to the ordinary direction of the chiefs of the -provincial government, under the Director of Cultures; and a -memorandum of instructions, consisting of eighteen articles, -was drawn up for the guidance of Dr. Junghuhn and his -subordinates.</p> - -<p>Finding the chinchona-plants in so deplorable a condition, -one of Dr. Junghuhn's first measures was to transplant -them from Tjibodas to a more suitable site on the Malawar -mountains, a very delicate and hazardous operation, which -was, however, successfully performed: in 1857 plants both of -<i>C. Calisaya</i> and of the worthless species blossomed, and in -1858 bore fruit. Dr. Junghuhn found that the latter could -not be the <i>C. ovata</i> as named by M. Hasskarl; but he was -himself equally mistaken in naming it <i>C. Lucumæfolia</i>, from -a fancied resemblance to that species of Pavon.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> The great -mistake of the Dutch has been in propagating this worthless -species, and spending vast sums of money on its cultivation, -tempted by finding that its nature was hardy, and that it -required less care than the delicate <i>C. Calisaya</i>.</p> - -<p>In 1858 several of the plants sickened from the attacks of -destructive insects (<i>Bostrichus</i> or <i>Dermestes</i>), not larger than -the head of a pin, which pierced horizontally into the bark -and wood of the stem and branches, where they laid their -eggs and died. Dr. Junghuhn conjectures that they were -imported from Peru; as they are not natives of the Java -forests, and I found these boring insects in the wood of chinchona-trees -in the forests of Caravaya. Twenty-nine trees -were thus attacked in Java, and died.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> - -<p>Dr. Junghuhn established his new plantations on the -slopes of the Malawar mountains, where he has found that -the <i>C. Calisaya</i> is much more sensitive than his so-called <i>C. -Lucumæfolia</i>; and that very slight differences in temperature, -in elevation, in light, in shade, and in moisture, exercise a -very evident influence on the former, while the latter remain -quite unaffected by them. He considers that the best conditions -for the growth of <i>C. Calisaya</i> on the Malawar mountains -(between latitude 7° and 8° S.) are good loose forest -soil and moderate shade, at an elevation from 5000 to 5700 -feet above the sea. The <i>C. Calisayas</i>, when they receive -light only on their crowns, and are surrounded by the dark -wood, have a rapidly rising, slender, tall stem, devoid of side -branches; whilst, when they stand on clear open spots, they -grow much stronger in width and thickness, but are shorter, -and have numerous side branches.</p> - -<p>The following is Dr. Junghuhn's method of cultivation. -Pots, made of bamboo-joints, are loosely filled with finely-sifted -earth, composed of one-fourth part of black volcanic -sand (felspar, hornblende, and magnet iron) mixed with -brown forest soil. The pots are then placed in the interior -of the forests, on beds of heaped-up earth laid out in the -form of terraces, on the declivities of the mountains. A roof -of dry grass, supported by stakes, and high enough to admit -a side light, protects the pots from the falling rain-drops. -These seed-beds are from 200 to 500 feet long, and extend -in parallel lines between the trees, like the steps of an -amphitheatre. Each pot receives only one seed, and the -earth is kept constantly moist by watering twice daily with -the squeeze of a sponge.<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p> - -<p>The pots remain standing on the seed-beds until the plants -are about half a foot high, which takes about eight months; -and during this time they are turned every five or eight days,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> -in order to prevent the crooked growth of the plants, which -always turn to the side where most light falls on the beds. -For the purpose of planting out, a few principal broad roads -are made along the mountain ridge through the wood, united -at intervals by cross footpaths, twenty-five feet asunder. At -the side of these footpaths, and twenty-five feet from each -other, wide trenches are dug, and filled up with cleansed -earth, so as to make slightly raised mounds, with gutters to -carry off the rain-water. The young plants are placed in the -loose earth on these mounds, and four strong stakes, driven -into the ground round them, are fastened together four or -five feet above their heads. This protects them from falling -boughs, drip, and wild animals, for some years. Thus -thousands of paths have been cut in the forests, and planted -with chinchona-trees, which are growing well. There are now -nine nurseries in Java—Tjibodas on Mount Gêdé; Tjiniruan -on the south-west slope, and Tjiborum on the southern slope -of Mount Malawar; Genting; Reong Gunung; Kawah -Tjirvidei in the Kendeng mountains; one on Mount Patna; -and two others.</p> - -<p>Dr. Junghuhn, in adopting the above method of cultivation, -and in altering M. Hasskarl's arrangements, has run into an -opposite extreme. His system of planting the young chinchonas -in the forests under dense shade<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> is most erroneous; -and the way in which the seeds are treated quite accounts for -the small number which germinate.</p> - -<p>On the 31st of December, 1860, the number of chinchona-plants -in Java was as follows:—</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. Calisaya</i></td><td class="tdr">7,316</td><td class="tdc">plants,</td><td class="tdc">and</td><td class="tdr">1030</td><td class="tdc">cuttings.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. lancifolia</i></td><td class="tdr">80</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">28</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Species procured by M. Hasskarl</td><td class="tdr">939,809</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">18</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Total</td><td class="tdr bt">947,205</td><td class="tdc"> plants.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p> - -<p>Besides 700,264 seeds in stock, or sown. The extreme height -attained by the tallest <i>C. Calisaya</i> was, at the same date, -fifteen feet, and by the worthless species twenty-eight feet. -One of the trees of <i>C. lancifolia</i> had also attained a height of -fifteen feet.</p> - -<p>Dr. de Vry, the eminent chemist who is associated with -Dr. Junghuhn, and who had for two years previously occupied -himself with the study of the chinchona alkaloids, has been -actively engaged in careful investigations of the chinchona -barks in Java. With regard to the <i>C. Calisaya</i> his results -have been very satisfactory. From the trunk-bark of a plant -of this species, six years old, he obtained, in August, 1860, -5 per cent. of alkaloids; and from that of the branches, 2½ -per cent. But the specimens of <i>C. Calisaya</i> bark from Java, -which have been sent to the Exhibition of 1862, have a very -different appearance, and are much thinner than those from -South America. This circumstance leads to the inference -that the present system of cultivation in Java is erroneous. -With the species introduced by M. Hasskarl, Dr. de Vry -was not so successful. The leaves, flowers, fruit, and bark -of this species were sent to Mr. Howard by Dr. Junghuhn; -and it was found that the names of <i>C. ovata</i>, given it by M. -Hasskarl, and of <i>C. Lucumæfolia</i> by Dr. Junghuhn, were -equally erroneous. It was clear that it was one of the -numerous worthless species, not previously described, and Mr. -Howard, in the seventh number of his work, has named it <i>C. -Pahudiana</i>,<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> after M. Charles F. Pahud, who, as Minister of -the Colonies, sent M. Hasskarl to South America in 1852, -and who, being appointed Governor-General of Netherlands -India in 1855,<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> did so much to ensure the success of the -chinchona experiment in Java. Up to 1860 Dr. de Vry had -only obtained 0.4 per cent. of alkaloids from the bark of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> -<i>C. Pahudiana</i>, and Mr. Howard's examination coincides with -the analysis of Dr. de Vry in pronouncing it an inferior sort. -In 1861, however, he obtained 3 per cent. of alkaloids from -the bark of the roots of a <i>C. Pahudiana</i> plant eight years old, -and 1¼ per cent. from the trunk-bark. From a tree aged -two years and three months he only got 0.09 per cent. from -the trunk-bark, and 1.9 per cent. from the root-bark, of which -he states the greater part to be quinine; while in the trunk-bark -there was not a trace of that alkaloid. This result -leads Dr. de Vry to conjecture that the quinine, once formed -in the roots, is employed in the growth of the plant, and that, -when it attains its full growth, the trunk-bark will also be -rich in quinine. If this should not be the case, he hopes that -the roots of the young plants may be used profitably for the -manufacture of quinine. It is to be feared that the quinine -in the trunk-bark will not increase with age, for, while in the -younger tree there was 1.9 per cent. of alkaloids in the roots, -chiefly quinine, and 0.09 in the trunk-bark, in the older one -there was 3 per cent. in the roots, of which 1.8 was quinine, -and 1¼ per cent. in the trunk-bark, in which there was -only the minutest trace of quinine. Thus, while the quantity -of quinine decreased or remained stationary in the -roots, the trunk-bark was still destitute of that precious -alkaloid.</p> - -<p>It is possible that Dr. de Vry, in his earnest desire to -discover quinine in a species upon which so much labour and -anxiety, and such vast sums of money, had been expended, -may have been deceived by appearances. Both from the form -of the capsules, the absence of quinine in the upper bark, and -the locality whence it was procured, there is every reason to -fear that the <i>C. Pahudiana</i> is a worthless kind; and the bark -of this species, which has been sent to the Exhibition of 1862, -is so evidently valueless that no dealer would buy it. In all -valuable species there is a good percentage of alkaloids in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> -the upper bark, and a very much smaller proportion, which, -too, is amorphous and of little commercial value, in the bark -of the roots. This law of nature, the existence of which is -proved by all experience, would have to be reversed in order -to enable the Dutch to extract large supplies of quinine from -the roots of a species, such as <i>C. Pahudiana</i>, which contains -none in the upper bark.</p> - -<p>It is much to be regretted that the scientific men in Java, -instead of exerting all their skill and talent in the work -of cultivating <i>C. Calisaya</i> and <i>C. lancifolia</i>, of the value of -which there is no doubt, should have filled the forests of -Java with a kind which from the first was known to be of -very doubtful value, was unknown in commerce, and the cultivation -of which will, it is to be feared, only end in loss and -disappointment.</p> - -<p>The valuable species were found to be much more tender, -and more sensitive to external unfavourable influences, than -the <i>C. Pahudiana</i>; the latter was therefore propagated -rapidly, and unwisely allowed to outstrip the other kinds in -the race, and the consequence has been that it has gained -an immense preponderance. Thus, so far as valuable species -of chinchona-plants are concerned, the Dutch experiment in -Java has been attended by a very small measure of success. -After three years the Dutch gardeners only had forty plants of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> -valuable species in Java, and after six years they had only -increased their stock to seven thousand plants. It will presently -be seen that far greater results were attained in India -within eighteen months of the first introduction of the chinchona-plants.</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl bt br"></td><td class="tdc bt br">1857.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></td><td class="tdc bt br">December,</td><td class="tdc bt br">December,</td><td class="tdl bt"></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br"></td><td class="tdc br bb">At Tjibodas.</td><td class="tdc bb br">1859.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></td><td class="tdc bb br">1860.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></td><td class="tdc bb">1861.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br"><i>C. Calisaya</i></td><td class="tdr br">37</td><td class="tdr br">3,201</td><td class="tdr br">7,316</td><td class="tdc">?</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br"><i>C. lancifolia</i></td><td class="tdr br">3</td><td class="tdr br">45</td><td class="tdr br">80</td><td class="tdc">?</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br bb"><i>C. Pahudiana</i></td><td class="tdr br bb">60</td><td class="tdr br bb">96,838</td><td class="tdr br bb">939,809</td><td class="tdc bb">Millions.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Yet, so great are the difficulties of this most important undertaking, -that, in spite of the comparative failure in Java, -the highest praise and admiration are due both to M. Hasskarl -and to his successors. They have devoted great ability, -no ordinary amount of scientific knowledge, and untiring perseverance -to this good work; and, now that they have -received plants of other really valuable species from India, -there is a prospect that the chinchona cultivation in Java -may eventually attain such a measure of success as will -entitle Dr. Junghuhn and Dr. de Vry to the gratitude of -their countrymen.<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2> - -<p class="c">INTRODUCTION OF CHINCHONA-PLANTS INTO INDIA.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smallish">PRELIMINARY ARRANGEMENTS.</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> distribution of valuable products of the vegetable kingdom -amongst the nations of the earth—their introduction -from countries where they are indigenous into distant lands -with suitable soils and climates—is one of the greatest benefits -that civilization has conferred upon mankind. Such measures -ensure immediate material increase of comfort and -profit, while their effects are more durable than the proudest -monuments of engineering skill. With all their shortcomings, -the Spaniards can point to vast plains covered with wheat -and barley, to valleys waving with sugar-cane, and to hill-slopes -enriched by vineyards and coffee-plantations, as the -fruits of their conquest of South America. On the other -hand, India owes to America the aloes which line the roads in -Mysore, the delicious anonas, the arnotto-tree, the sumach, the -capsicums so extensively used in native curries, the pimento, -the papaw, the cassava which now forms the staple food of -the people of Travancore, the potato, tobacco, Indian corn, -pine-apples, American cotton, and lastly the chinchona: while -the slopes of the Himalayas are enriched by tea-plantations, -and the hills of Southern India are covered with rows of -coffee-trees.</p> - -<p>It is by thus adding to the sources of Indian wealth that -England will best discharge the immense responsibility she -has incurred by the conquest of India, so far as the material -interests of that vast empire are concerned. Thus too will she -leave behind her by far the most durable monument of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> -benefits conferred by her rule. The canals and other works -of the Moguls were in ruins before the English occupied the -country; but the melons which the Emperor Baber, the -founder of the Mogul dynasty, introduced into India, and -which caused him to shed tears while thinking of his far-off -mountain-home, still flourish round Delhi and Agra. Centuries -after the Ganges canal has become a ruin, and the -great Vehar reservoir a dry valley, the people of India will -probably have cause to bless the healing effects of the fever-dispelling -chinchona-trees, which will still be found on their -southern mountains.</p> - -<p>The introduction of the chinchona-plant into India was surrounded -by difficulties from which all other undertakings of a -similar nature have been free. When tea was introduced -into the Himalayan districts, it had been a cultivated plant -in China for many ages, and experienced Chinese cultivators -came with it. But the chinchona had never been cultivated; -since the discovery of its value in 1638 it had remained a -wild forest tree; all information concerning it was solely -derived from the observations of European travellers who -had penetrated into the virgin forests; and the only guidance -for cultivators in India is to be found in the reports of these -travellers, and in the experience slowly acquired by careful -and intelligent trials.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> Great as these difficulties were, they -were probably exceeded by the perils and risks of every description -which must be encountered in collecting plants and seeds -in South America, and conveying them in safety to India.</p> - -<p>But the vast importance of the introduction of these plants -into our Indian empire, and the inestimable benefits which -would thus be conferred on the millions who inhabit the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> -fever-haunted plains and jungles, were commensurate with -the difficulties of the undertaking. The subject had occupied -the attention of the Indian Government from time to time, -ever since Dr. Royle in 1839 advocated the introduction of -quinine-yielding trees into India, in his work on Himalayan -Botany; but it was not until twenty years afterwards, in 1859, -that any adequate steps were taken to effect this most desirable -end, and to bring an antidote within the reach of the fever-stricken -people of India, while adding a new source of wealth -to the resources of that great dependency.</p> - -<p>The proposal to introduce the chinchona-plants into India -was first made officially in a despatch from the Governor-General, -dated March 27th, 1852. It was referred to the -late Dr. Royle, the reporter on Indian products to the East -India Company, who drew up an able memorandum on the -subject, dated June, 1852:—"To the Indian Government," -he said, "the home supply of a drug which already costs 7000<i>l.</i> -a year would be advantageous in an economical point of -view, and invaluable as affording means of employing a -drug which is indispensable in the treatment of Indian fevers. -I have no hesitation in saying that, after the Chinese teas, -no more important plant could be introduced into India." -The only result of this application from India was that the -Foreign Office was requested to obtain a supply of plants and -seeds from the consuls in South America, and instructions to -that effect were sent out to them in October, 1852. In the -autumn of 1853 Mr. Mark wrote from Bogota that some -delay would be necessary, and nothing more was heard from -that quarter; Mr. Sullivan, the consul-general in Peru, -replied that it would be impossible to accomplish a successful -result, through the jealousy of the people; but Mr. Cope, -the excellent and venerable consul-general at Quito, made a -more satisfactory and substantial answer, in the shape of a -box of chinchona plants and seeds from Cuenca and Loxa.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> -They, however, did not long survive the voyage to England. -Seeds of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, procured through Mr. Pentland, were -sent to the botanical gardens at Calcutta, but did not germinate; -and in 1853 six plants of the same valuable species, -contributed by the Horticultural Societies of Edinburgh and -London, raised from seeds sent home by Dr. Weddell from -Bolivia, were taken out to Calcutta by Mr. Fortune. They -arrived in good order, but all died through gross carelessness -in their removal to Darjeeling. In May, 1853, Dr. Royle -drew up a second long and valuable report upon the subject, -and the question was then allowed to drop for some years.</p> - -<p>It is a curious coincidence that at the very time when Dr. -Royle was writing this report I was actually exploring some -of the chinchona forests of Peru. But the object of my -travels was of an antiquarian and ethnological character, and -I was in ignorance of the desire of the Indian Government to -procure supplies of those plants, which I then only admired -for their beauty.</p> - -<p>In March, 1856, Dr. Royle made a final attempt to induce -the East India Company to take efficient steps to procure -supplies of chinchona plants and seeds from South America; -and proposed to employ Dr. Jamieson, the able Professor of -Botany in the University of Quito, for this purpose. The -lamented death of that eminent botanist Dr. Royle, to whom -India owes so much, again put an end to all discussion of the -subject for some time; but in 1859 energetic measures were -set on foot, which at length effected the desired object fully -and completely. Dr. Royle is well known as the author of -works on Himalayan botany, on the cotton cultivation and on -the fibres of India, and of a 'Materia Medica' containing a -valuable article on the chinchona genus, which he caused to -be printed separately for circulation in India. For several -years he took the warmest interest in the proposed measures -for the introduction of chinchona-plants into India, and used<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> -every influence at his command to effect this most important -object. But he was not destined to see the final achievement -of a design which he seems to have had so much at -heart.</p> - -<p>In 1859 my services were accepted to superintend the collection -of chinchona plants and seeds in South America, and -their introduction into India; and I was authorised by Lord -Stanley, then Secretary of State for India, to make such -arrangements as should best ensure the complete success -of an enterprise, the results of which were expected to add -materially to the resources of our Indian Empire. The -urgent necessity of this measure had become more apparent -since Dr. Royle's time. Then the Government of India expended -7000<i>l.</i> a year upon quinine; but in 1857 the expenditure -had risen to 12,000<i>l.</i>, and continued to increase during -the following years.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p> - -<p>I at once determined to take measures for obtaining plants -and seeds of all the valuable species of chinchonæ described in -a former chapter; to arrange so that, if possible, they should -be collected simultaneously in the different regions separated -by many hundreds of miles from each other; and that, -warned by the fatal error of the Dutch in Java, no species -should be introduced into India which did not possess bark of -well-established commercial value. In one of his reports Dr. -Royle had most truly said that "the greater the number of -species obtained, as well as the greater the extent of country -over which the seeds are collected, the greater is the probability -of finding soils and climates in India for their successful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> -culture." It was thus necessary to employ competent persons -to collect in New Granada, Ecuador, the Huanuco forests of -Northern Peru, and Caravaya or Bolivia at the same time. I -considered that it was essential that the proceedings should -be completed during the first year if possible, in order to -give as short a time as was practicable for the awakening of -that narrow-minded jealousy in the people of the South -American Republics, which I was well aware would sooner or -later be aroused. It was also my duty to get the work done -economically, and there could be no doubt that the employment -of several agents for a few months would cost less than -the mission of a single traveller, who would have to make his -way over thousands of miles, for three or four years. Time -also was an object with regard to the establishment of plantations -in India.</p> - -<p>The Secretary of State for India sanctioned all the details -of my plan, with the exception of the expedition to New -Granada,<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> and the provision of a steamer to convey the plants -direct across the Pacific to India. But it was no easy matter -to find agents possessed of the necessary qualifications for the -work. A personal acquaintance with the chinchona forests, a -knowledge of the country, of the people, and of the languages, -were essential, as well as of the particular species of chinchona-trees -growing in each region; and, as the service was -to be performed without delay, no time could be spared for -acquiring any of these qualifications.</p> - -<p>For the chinchona forests in Ecuador I was so fortunate as -to secure the services of Mr. Spruce, an excellent botanist -and most intrepid explorer, who had been engaged for several -years in the examination of the wilds of South America, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> -who was actually on the spot. Of his qualifications there -could be no doubt, but I could scarcely have ventured to -hope that the service which he undertook to perform would -have been done so completely and so thoroughly, and would -have been crowned with such undoubted success. It is perhaps -invidious to make distinctions, where all have worked so -zealously; but it is due to Mr. Spruce to say that by far the -largest share of credit is due to him, and that his name must -take the most prominent place in connection with the introduction -of these precious plants into India. The region -assigned to him was the most important, as it yielded the -"red-bark" tree (<i>C. succirubra</i>), containing a larger percentage -of febrifugal alkaloids than any other species; and I -felt more sanguine of success in this quarter than in any other, -because the country of the "red bark" was more accessible -than any of the others, the forests being on the western slopes -of the Andes, navigable rivers flowing through them to the -Pacific Ocean, and there being, therefore, no necessity of conveying -the plants over the snowy wilds of the cordilleras. -I also requested Mr. Spruce to make an arrangement for -procuring seeds of the valuable species from the forests of -Loxa.</p> - -<p>For the forests of the Peruvian province of Huanuco I procured -the services of Mr. Pritchett, a gentleman who had -passed some years in South America, and who was well -acquainted with that particular region. He was to collect -plants and seeds of the species yielding grey bark.</p> - -<p>I myself undertook to explore the forests either of Caravaya -or Bolivia, and to collect the <i>C. Calisaya</i> and other important -species of that more distant region. This part of the -enterprise was surrounded by peculiar difficulties, arising -from the jealousy of the people, habitual with the Bolivians, -and recently excited in the minds of the Peruvians of Caravaya -by the proceedings of M. Hasskarl, the Dutch agent;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> -while the forests are far more inaccessible, and the journey to -the coast is longer and more formidable.</p> - -<p>It was the opinion of Sir William Hooker, who gave me -the advantage of his valuable advice, that a good practical -working gardener should accompany both Mr. Spruce and -myself, and he considered this an imperative requirement, in -order that they might attend to the packing of the plants in -the forests, their establishment in Wardian cases, and have -charge of them during the voyage to India. I appointed Mr. -Cross, at his recommendation, to act under the orders of -Mr. Spruce; and Mr. Weir, who was recommended to me -by Mr. Veitch, accompanied me to the chinchona forests of -Caravaya.</p> - -<p>In employing several agents in districts widely removed -from each other, my chief object was to effect the introduction -of as many valuable species as possible; but I also -reflected on the extreme difficulty of the undertaking, and -the overwhelming chances against success which confronted -a single-handed attempt. In such wild unfrequented regions -all is uncertainty. Along the dizzy paths of the Andes a -single false step may dash the fairest hopes, disappoint the -most careful calculations. Add to these dangers the probability -of obstacles raised by the natives, and it will at once -be seen that three independent expeditions materially increased -the chances of ultimate success.</p> - -<p>By the end of 1859 I had completed all the preliminary -arrangements; and there was at length a prospect of securing -the successful introduction into India of a plant the inestimable -value of which had been felt, and the importance of -its cultivation discussed, for twenty years. On December -17th, 1859, we sailed from England, and, crossing the -isthmus of Panama, arrived in Lima, the capital of Peru, on -January 26th, 1860. Thirty Wardian cases for the plants -had been sent out round Cape Horn, and I forwarded fifteen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> -to Guayaquil for Mr. Spruce's collection, and fifteen to the -port of Islay in Southern Peru, to await my return from the -chinchona forests. After a month's residence in Lima we -embarked on board one of the mail-steamers for the southward, -and on the 2nd of March, 1860, we landed at Islay, -which is more conveniently situated than any other port -for a journey to the chinchona forests of Southern Peru or -Bolivia.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2> - -<p class="c">ISLAY AND AREQUIPA.</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> port of Islay is the commercial outlet of the departments -of Arequipa, Cuzco, and Puno, in Southern Peru; and thus -a small town, dating from about 1830,<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> has risen up on the -rocky barren coast, surrounded by a sandy desert, and shut -in from the interior by a range of sterile mountains. The -coast consists of inaccessible cliffs, perforated with deep caves -by the incessant surge of the ocean, with several rocky islets -off the shore. The anchorage<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> is formed by a slight indentation -of the coast, and the landing is effected at a small -iron jetty clamped to the rocks, under which the swell -breaks and chafes with a ceaseless roar. A very steep path -leads up the cliff to a custom-house, forming one side of -the little <i>plaza</i>, which is constantly filled with droves of -mules from the interior. A single street leading up from -the plaza, with a few lanes off it, forms the town of Islay; -and a brief statement of the trade of this port will give -an idea of the importance of the country to which it forms -an outlet.</p> - -<p>The principal articles of export are alpaca and sheep's -wool, vicuña wool, copper, bark, and specie; the total value<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> -in 1859 being 336,842<i>l.</i>,<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> and the value of the imports, consisting -chiefly of European goods, is about equal to that of -the exports.</p> - -<p>The country round Islay is as dreary and arid a waste as -the eye could rest on; yet from July to October, when there -is the greatest amount of moisture on the coast, the otherwise -barren mountains, which rise up abruptly from the desert, -at a distance of about three miles from the sea, are green -and carpeted with flowers, while the plain nearer Islay is -also dotted over with vegetation. This maritime range is -called the "Lomas." In consequence of the unusual quantity -of rain which fell in the early part of 1860, the Lomas had -broken out in renewed freshness in March. The country, -close to Islay, was covered with a scattered growth of Compositæ, -wild tobacco, Nympha, Oxalis, Salvia, an Umbellifer with -a large white flower, Verbena, Heliotrope, a purple Solanum, -an Amaranth, and other flowers. It is broken up into abrupt -ravines; and, near the foot of the mountains, some of them -contain deposits of soil washed down by little streams which -flow during the wet season, sufficient to sustain small groves -of fig and olive trees, the abodes of numerous flocks of doves. -Such is the case in the ravines called Catarindo, Yutu, and -Matarani, from the latter of which the water is led in pipes to -supply the town of Islay. The guardian of this water-supply is -an Irishman, generally known as Juan de la Pila (John of the -fountain), an active obliging man, who also follows the trades<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> -of carpenter, cooper, and blacksmith; and to whom we were -indebted for much valuable assistance in procuring soil for -the Wardian cases, and in giving us the use of his yard.</p> - -<p>The soil in the richest parts of these ravines, which had -been washed down from the higher slopes of the Lomas, is -several feet deep, and appeared sufficiently good to be used -for the Wardian cases, in the event of its being found impossible -to obtain soil from any more promising locality; -and the great number of wild flowers which were growing -in it convinced me that it could not contain anything very -pernicious.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p> - -<p>The formation consists of granite, with veins of very pure -quartz; but the plains are covered with large patches of -fine dust, consisting chiefly of silica, containing potash and -mica, with small quantities of the débris of the rocks associated -with the soil, which Admiral FitzRoy suggests may -have been the ashes ejected, at some remote period, from the -volcano of Arequipa. Near the sea-shore, and about half a -mile south-east of Islay, there is a very curious result of the -constant action of the weaves, in two immense cavities hollowed -out of the rock, called the <i>Tinajones</i> (jars). They are -circular holes about thirty yards across, and of great depth, -separated from the sea by a wall of cliffs not more than four<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> -yards wide, the lower part of which is undermined, and forms -a passage by which the waves rush into the great <i>tinajon</i>, -or bowl, with a mighty roar; and, dashing themselves against -the rocky sides, throw back clouds of white spray. The only -vegetation near the coast consists of lowly little <i>Mesembryanthema</i>, -scattered about at long intervals, and an occasional -stonecrop (<i>Sedum</i>).</p> - -<p>During our stay at Islay we enjoyed the hospitality of -Mr. Wilthew, H.B.M. Consul, and his wife, to whom we -were indebted for much thoughtful kindness. The rest of -the inhabitants consist of Peruvian officials, agents of commercial -houses in Arequipa, and a few shopkeepers and -artisans, besides the muleteers and other birds of passage, -and the porters and boatmen of mixed Indian and negro -extraction. The supplies for the market come almost entirely -from the rich valley of Tambo, some leagues down the coast.</p> - -<p>On March 6th, our mules and horses having arrived, we -started for Arequipa in the morning, a distance of ninety -miles, and, crossing the country near Islay, entered a gorge -in the mountains, which winds up to the great desert above, -at the commencement of which there is a grove of dusty -olive-trees. This dismal ravine, with arid scarped mountains -rising up on either side, here and there a tall gaunt cactus, -and everywhere a dense cloud of white dust, leads up to a -little post-house built of canes, called the "Tambo de Guerreros," -eighteen miles from Islay.</p> - -<p>Guerreros is at the head of the gorge leading down to -Islay; and, from a rising ground a little beyond the tambo,<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> -the great desert of Arequipa opens upon the view, bounded -by a range of mountains which are crowned by the snowy -peak of the volcano. At this point there is a wooden cross -which marks the grave of a poor soldier belonging to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> -fugitive army of Salaverry, in 1836, who, worn out with -fatigue and thirst, had here sunk down to die, and had been -lightly covered over with sand. The flesh was in perfect preservation. -We then entered the great desert of Arequipa, -extending to the horizon on the right and left, and ending in -front at the foot of the rocky range of mountains separating -the sandy waste from the fertile campiña of Arequipa. The -desert consists of hard ground, without a blade of vegetation, -affording good riding; but it is covered at short intervals -with mounds of the finest white sand, from twenty to thirty -feet high, all in the shape of a half-moon, with their horns -pointing north-west, and thus denoting the prevailing wind. -They are called <i>Medanos</i>. These <i>Medanos</i> shift their positions, -and the breeze, whirling the sand in eddies on their -summits, often causes a singing noise in the early dawn. -Frequently they form athwart the road, which has to deviate -in a half-circle, and rejoin the old track on the other side; -but they all resemble each other exactly, and afford no -landmark to the lost or benighted traveller.</p> - -<p>In the centre of the desert is the post-house or tambo of -La Joya, twenty miles from Guerreros, kept by an Englishman, -whose homely name of Jimmy Eyres has been converted -into the more grandiloquent and euphonious Spanish -one of Don Santiago Casimiro de los Ayres. Water and -fodder for the beasts are brought from a great distance, -and their price is of course proportionately high; but, considering -its position in the midst of a desert and many leagues -from all supplies, the little tambo, consisting of several rooms -of deal planking roughly knocked together, was very comfortable.</p> - -<p>Starting at four on a bright starlight morning, the perfect -stillness and the wild grandeur of the boundless desert were -very impressive, while there was a delicious freshness in the -cool air. As the sun rose behind the mighty cordilleras<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> -which bounded the view, the whiteness of their snowy -peaks became quite dazzling. Immediately in front was -the perfect cone of the volcano of Arequipa; to the right -the glorious peaks of Charcani and Chuquibamba; to the -left the remarkable range of Pichupichu. It is probable -that in no part of the world is so sublime a view of mountain -peaks to be found as is presented at early dawn from this -desert. But its sublimity is similar to that which is witnessed -in a sunrise at sea; it fills the mind with an idea of vastness -and grandeur, while it wants all the details which usually -accompany and form no small part of the enjoyment derived -from ordinary mountain scenery. Yet here, while gazing on -those magnificent peaks, with no middle distance and no -foreground, save the flat sea-like wilderness, we felt that any -addition would have marred the simple glories of this unparalleled -view. The desert is between 4000 and 5000 feet -above the sea, and the cordillera peaks are, some more, some -a little less, than 20,000 feet in height; so that, within a -distance of under forty miles, we beheld mountains rising -upwards of 16,000 feet from the point on which we stood: -of no other mountains in the world could such a view be -obtained. In this land of the Incas Nature has done her -work on a truly gigantic scale.</p> - -<p>The desert, from Guerreros to the entrance to the gorge -leading through the rocky hills which divide it from the -plain of Arequipa, is upwards of forty miles across, while its -length from the transverse valley of Tambo to that of Vitor -must be about sixty. During the greater part of the day we -were threading our way through arid mountain gorges, and -up and down zigzag rocky paths strewn with the bones and -carcasses of mules, under a scorching sun. A little pale -purple <i>Nemophila</i>, a small <i>Crucifer</i>, and the weird <i>Cacti</i>, -the appropriate inhabitants of the desert, are the only plants -of this cheerless region; and a few obscene gallinazos, float<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>ing -lazily in the upper air, with their keen-piercing eyes -watching for some luckless mule to sink under its burden, -were the sole representatives of animal life.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig6.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption center">AREQUIPA.<br /> -<span class="smallish">Page 75.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>At length our eyes were gladdened by the sight of the -green vale of Tiavaya, in the campiña of Arequipa. The -rows of tall willows, the bright green fields of lucerne, and -white farm-houses, were a blessed relief after the monotonous -glare of barren rocks and sand; but it was not until late at -night, and after a ride of more than fifty miles, that we -reached our hospitable lodging in the city of Arequipa.</p> - -<p>Arequipa, the second city in Peru, is built on the banks -of the rapid river Chile, and at the foot of the great volcano, -called Misti, which rises up in a perfect cone to the -height of 17,934 feet, its upper half covered with snow. -Arequipa itself is 7427 feet above the sea, so that the mountains -ascend in one unbroken sweep upwards of 10,500 feet. -The climate, during my stay from March 11th to March -22nd, was as follows:—</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mean temperature</td><td class="tdr">64⅓</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mean minimum at night</td><td class="tdr">60½</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Highest observed</td><td class="tdr">67</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Lowest</td><td class="tdr">58</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Range</td><td class="tdr">9</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The town is built of a white stone of volcanic origin, being a -trachytic tuffa containing pumice and lava, dug out of quarries -at the foot of the volcano. The houses are usually of one story, -built solidly and substantially, with vaulted stone ceilings, -the better to resist the shocks of the frequent earthquakes. -Like almost all Spanish American cities, the streets are -straight and at right angles to each other, with an <i>azequia</i> -flowing down the centre. Wheeled vehicles of any description -are unknown, and the traffic consists of horses, droves of -mules, donkeys laden with lucerne, and flocks of llamas. The -principal streets all lead to the great square, which forms a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> -busy and most interesting scene in the morning, the time for -marketing. It is then filled with gaily-dressed Indian women, -some sitting under shades, with their goods spread out on -the ground before them, and others, in constant movement, -threading their way amongst the sellers. Their dresses are -of baize, manufactured at Halifax,<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> of the gayest colours—consisting -of a skirt and mantle of the two most brilliant colours -they can find, red and blue, green and crimson, or purple and -orange. The effect of these bright-coloured groups, in constant -motion, as they move about buying fruit or vegetables, -potatoes, earth-nuts, medicinal drugs, corn, articles of dress, -and other necessaries, is very pleasing. The background is -formed by the handsome new cathedral of whitest stone, behind -which the noble volcano, and the peaks of Charcani (18,558 -feet above the sea) dazzle the eyes by the brilliancy of their -snowy covering.</p> - -<p>The campiña of Arequipa, which surrounds the city, is -about five miles broad from the foot of the cordillera to the -arid range of hills which separates it from the wilderness of -the coast; and about ten or twelve miles long, being bounded -at each end by a sandy desert. It is watered by the river -Chile,<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> coming from a chasm in the cordillera, on the north-west -side of the volcano, and by the streams called Posterio -and Savandia, which flow from the Pichu-pichu mountains to -the eastward of the volcano. These several streams unite on -leaving the campiña, and finally fall into the river of Quilca. -The campiña contains, besides the city of Arequipa, a number -of small villages, and numerous farm-houses. In March the -view from the hills above the city is most beautiful. The -brilliant green of the campiña, with its fields of maize and -alfalfa, its rows of tall willows, and orchards of fruit-trees, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> -dotted with houses and villages, while it forms an emerald -setting to the white city. Looking from the other side of -Arequipa, the view, though not so beautiful, is more imposing: -the snow-capped volcano rearing its majestic head above the -stunted towers of the town. There is a great deal of maize -grown in the valley, and guano is extensively used as manure; -but the wealth of the campiña is chiefly derived from its -mules, which monopolize the carrying-trade from the coast -to Arequipa, and from Arequipa to the interior. A quantity -of lucerne or <i>alfalfa</i> is raised for their sustenance, and the -<i>arrieros</i> or muleteers are a wealthy class of men, generally -possessing a <i>chacra</i> or farm of their own, besides considerable -sums in ready money. They are, as a rule, good-looking, -well-grown men, with fresh complexions, and little mixed -blood, which is also made evident by the comparatively fair -complexions of their wives and daughters.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig7.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption center">AREQUIPA CATHEDRAL.<br /> -<span class="smallish">From a Photograph. Page 76.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>The families of the upper classes of Arequipa usually own -estates in the neighbouring warm valleys of the coast, such -as Vitor, Tambo, Siguas, Majes, and Camana, where the rich -vineyards yield them a profitable return by the sale of aguardiente. -Their houses in the city are built round a <i>patio</i> or -courtyard, on which the principal rooms open. Their sons -are frequently the leaders of the turbulent <i>Cholos</i> in revolt, -and follow the professions of <i>abogados</i>, lawyers or politicians, -traders, and <i>haciendados</i> or farmers, while the more ambitious -adopt a military life, the <i>carrera de armas</i>. The ladies are -considered the most beautiful and intelligent in Peru, and, at -Lima, the most attractive women are usually Arequipeñas. -Perhaps the majority have never moved beyond the campiña, -and adjacent warm valleys, and many have never seen the -sea. Yet they are sprightly and agreeable in society, full of -intelligent curiosity, and almost invariably excellent musicians. -They frequently sing the plaintive <i>despedidas</i>, and -other sonnets of their native poet Melgar, whose love for a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> -fair townswoman was unrequited, and whose melancholy fate -has surrounded his name with a halo of romance. He was -barbarously shot, after having been taken prisoner by the -Spaniards, at the battle of Umachiri in 1815, the first attempt -which the Peruvians made for their independence.</p> - -<p>During the winter months the wealthier families remove -to villages in the campiña, either to Tingo, Tiavaya, or -Savandia, taking furniture with them. At the commencement -of the season droves of mules leave the city laden with beds, -chairs, and tables, to render the country houses habitable. -Here the Arequipeños enjoy the delights of the country and -of bathing in large swimming-baths faced with masonry, and -planted round with rows of tall willows. The rides in the -country which surrounds these villages are exceedingly -pretty. The trees consist chiefly of tall willows and of the -<i>Schinus molle</i> with its bunches of red berries, while bushes -of fragrant white <i>Daturas</i> and of the beautiful <i>Bignonia -fulva</i> fill the hedges, and the streams are bordered by -masses of <i>Nasturtiums</i>. The fields either bear crops of vivid -green alfalfa, or tall Indian corn, six to eight feet high, over -which the <i>Tropæolum canariensis</i> creeps in golden masses, and -at whose feet the bright blue <i>lupins</i>, and a <i>Solanum</i> with rich -purple flowers, grow as weeds. From many points of view the -rapid waters of the river Chile complete the picture, while far -away the snowy peaks of Chuquibamba, Charcani, and the -volcano glisten in the beams of the sun. Above Arequipa -the river flows through the valley of Chilinos, the steep sides -of which are lined with <i>andeneria</i>, or terraced maize-gardens, -with here and there a picturesque group of the stone huts -of the Indians, often completely hidden by the dark green -leaves and golden flowers of the gourds which cover -them. The courtyards of the houses are frequently ornamented -with a beautiful passion-flower, which creeps over -the trellised verandahs, and is covered with flowers. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> -a species of <i>Tacsonia</i>, called by the natives <i>tumbo</i>. The -flower has a very long tube, and is of a deep rich rose-colour: -and a delicious <i>fresco</i>, or sherbet, is made of the egg-shaped -fruit.</p> - -<p>In addition to the baths of pure spring-water at Tingo -and Savandia, the medicinal baths of Yura are a great resort -during the winter months. Yura is thirty miles to the north-west, -and is situated, like Arequipa, just under the range of -the cordilleras. The road leads over very broken ground, -where the rugged spurs from the Andes project out into the -desert. In March the weary arid wilderness was enlivened -by wild flowers, bushes of yellow and purple <i>Solanums</i>, bright -orange <i>Compositæ</i>, and, in one place, a carpet of little purple -dwarf iris. The baths are in a green ravine, with tall willow-trees -and maize-fields, watered by a little rivulet. In this -narrow glen, bounded on one side by sandstone mountains, -which here form the base of the volcano, and on the other by -a ridge of trachyte, there are two places where thermal -waters bubble out of the rocks, one being ferruginous and the -other sulphurous. At the sulphurous baths there are some -solid stone buildings, intended as lodgings for the bathers, -with heavy arcades, and long vaulted rooms with no windows, -and without furniture, for, as at Tingo and Savandia, all -visitors bring their beds, tables, chairs, crockery, and cooking -utensils with them. In the bath-room there are four square -basins, faced with stone, of different temperatures, and called -the <i>Vejeto</i> (87° Fahr.), the <i>Desague</i> (88°), the <i>Sepultura</i> (89°), -and the <i>Tigre</i> (90°). They are said to cure dysentery, rheumatism, -and cutaneous diseases. The rivulet flows down the -glen and joins the river of Yura near a village called Calera, -where most of the soap is manufactured which is consumed -in Arequipa. Great quantities of carbonate of soda -are collected from the sandstone rock, which gives employment -to the people of the village. The land is divided<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> -into <i>topos</i> (5000 square yards), each valued at a thousand -dollars, and every six weeks a harvest of <i>salitre</i> (carbonate -of soda) is reaped. From Calera there is a fine view of the -green valley of Yura, and of a grand range of porphyritic -mountains.</p> - -<p>The population of the campiña and town of Arequipa is -reckoned at about 50,000.<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> The place was first colonized by -the Inca Mayta, who established a body of <i>mitimaes</i> or colonists -there, from the village of Cavanilla, near Puno, and -ordained that they should remain and settle there. Hence -the name "<i>Ari quepay</i>," "Yes! remain:" or more probably -it is derived from the words "<i>Aric quepa</i>," "Behind the sharp -peak." These <i>mitimaes</i> were the ancestors of the present -Indians, or <i>Cholos</i> as they are called, and were established in -villages in the campiña, occupied in the cultivation of maize; -but the city is purely Spanish, and was founded by Pizarro in -1540, at which time the stone-quarries first began to be -worked.</p> - -<p>The <i>Cholos</i> or Indians of Arequipa have long been -notorious for their turbulence, and for the eagerness with -which they join any attempt at revolution, apparently from -mere love of excitement. They are addicted to the use of -<i>chicha</i>—a fermented liquor made from Indian corn—to such -an extent that it is said that nearly all the maize which is -raised in the campiña is used in brewing this liquor; under -the influence of which the Cholos have established the fame -of Arequipa as the grand focus of Peruvian revolutions. -But this habit of drinking to excess has rendered the -Cholos, though capable of fighting desperately behind walls, -quite worthless as soldiers in a campaign; and their habit -of body becomes so bad that a slight wound is frequently -fatal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p> - -<p>Though the received idea in Europe, that Peru is constantly -in a state of civil war, is erroneous in fact, as well as -unjust,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> yet it is true that the period of tranquillity which had -lasted from 1844 to 1854 was broken in the latter year by -the successful revolution of General Castilla—the result of -the discontent caused by the dishonest financial measures -and the embezzlements of his predecessor; and two years -afterwards the Cholos of Arequipa commenced a rebellion -against Castilla. A brief account of the siege of that city, -which followed, will give a good idea of the endurance and -fighting qualities of the Cholos.</p> - -<p>In October 1856 two young men of good family, named -Gamio and Masias, collected a handful of Cholos, and sent a -message to the Prefect Canseco, telling him that he must -either evacuate the city with his troops, or lay down his -arms. The prefect marched out, and left Arequipa in the -hands of the insurgents, who proclaimed the exiled General -Vivanco President of Peru, and appointed Don José Antonio -Berenguel prefect of the town; and most of the soldiers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> -who had marched out with Canseco returned on the following -day to join the rebels. Vivanco was an exile in Chile, but, -on receiving the news, he started for Islay by the English -mail steamer, and reached Arequipa in December; while -General San Roman, who had been sent from Lima to propose -terms of accommodation with the rebels, was dismissed, -and retired into the interior to collect forces for the support -of Castilla's government.</p> - -<p>While the Cholos of Arequipa were maturing their rebellion, -a fortunate event placed the Peruvian navy at the disposal of -Vivanco. Their largest frigate, the 'Apurimac,' was lying -off Arica, and, while her captain, a rough old Chilian seaman -named Salcedo, was on shore, the crew, led by Lizardo -Montero, one of her lieutenants, a young man and native of -Piura, mutinied, declared for Vivanco, and steamed away, -leaving Salcedo storming on the beach. The 'Apurimac' -went at once to Islay, where Montero captured the port, and -where he was joined by two smaller steamers, the 'Loa' and -'Tumbez.'</p> - -<p>Vivanco, meanwhile, had proclaimed himself "Regenerator" -of Peru, and offered his services as a lawgiver and -restorer of prosperity to his country, which were not accepted -or appreciated, as none of the other great towns followed -the example of Arequipa. Leaving a ministry consisting of -young inexperienced lawyers, who had nothing to lose and -all to gain, in charge of affairs at Arequipa, he embarked on -board the 'Apurimac,' in the end of December, 1856, and -sailed for Callao, but did not venture to disembark. He then -went on board the 'Loa,' leaving the 'Apurimac' to watch -Callao, and proceeded to Truxillo; while the 'Apurimac' -went down to the Chincha Islands, and began shipping off -the guano to any one who would buy it, thus leaving the port -of Callao open.</p> - -<p>General Castilla is an old Indian, possessed of great mili<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>tary -talent and extraordinary energy and intrepidity; while -Vivanco is a native of Lima, of pure Spanish descent, indolent, -dilatory, and without personal courage; but eloquent -and persuasive, and possessed of qualities which have surrounded -him with numerous warm partisans and personal -friends. Between such men the issue could not be doubtful.</p> - -<p>The veteran Castilla, as soon as the 'Apurimac' had sailed -for the Chincha Islands, formed the daring plan of attacking -his enemy in the north; and, in spite of the Navy, which had -declared against him, he bought an old steamer, the 'Santiago,' -belonging to the English Steam Navigation Company, -and boldly steamed away in search of the Regenerator. On -hearing of his approach, Vivanco was seized with a panic, -and, evacuating the places he had occupied, retreated to his -ships. He now thought that, in the absence of Castilla, he -might succeed in an attempt on the capital, and, collecting -all his vessels, he retraced his steps southward, and arrived -in Callao bay on April 22nd, 1857. A night attack was -then made on the fort, but, after some hard street fighting, -Vivanco's party were obliged to retire to their ships; and, his -expedition having proved a complete failure, the Regenerator -returned to Islay, and proceeded at once to Arequipa.</p> - -<p>While Vivanco was absent in the north, General San -Roman had collected a considerable force in the interior, with -which he marched towards Arequipa. The warlike Cholos -came out to meet him, and a skirmish followed, which they -call the battle of Yumina. It consisted of a considerable -waste of powder, the two parties firing at each other, at very -long ranges, across a ravine; and in the afternoon the Cholos -returned in triumph to Arequipa. Having missed Vivanco -in the north, old Don Ramon Castilla steamed away to Arica -in the same old 'Santiago,' safely passing the rebellious fleet -at Islay, collected a force at Tacna, and, marching by land, -arrived in the campiña of Arequipa in the end of July; soon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> -afterwards establishing his head-quarters at the village of -Sachaca, some miles below the city, on the banks of the river -Chile. A detachment occupied Tiavaya, to cut off Vivanco's -communication with Islay.</p> - -<p>The people of Arequipa were now hard at work to place -the city in a proper state of defence; barricades were erected -in the most important streets, and day and night the Cholos -were under arms. But, supplies having now entirely ceased -from the custom-house at Islay, Vivanco found himself in -great difficulties; for people, having little faith in the success -of his revolution, were unwilling to advance money in exchange -for his <i>vales</i> or promissory notes, even at a discount of -fifty per cent. The needy Regenerator then resorted to more -violent methods of raising money, and, breaking open several -of the principal shops, began to sell their contents to the -highest bidder.</p> - -<p>Castilla made constant sham attacks upon the town, which -kept the inhabitants in a continual state of alarm; but all his -supplies were derived from Arica, by way of Tacna, as the -port of Islay remained in the hands of Vivanco's party. This -was his weak point; and when the 'Apurimac' arrived off -Arica, and her commander Montero, after a sharp street -fight, got possession of that port in February, 1858, Castilla -found himself in a position of great difficulty. His supplies -were entirely cut off, and it became necessary for him to -assault Arequipa at all hazards. Accordingly he moved from -his quarters at Sachaca and Tiavaya, marched round the -south side of the city, and early in the morning of March -5th, 1858, commenced an attack on the eastern suburbs. His -troops first stormed the church of San Antonio, and then -advanced to the attack of San Pedro, which had also been occupied -by the besieged. Here the Cholos held their ground for -four hours, from eight to twelve <span class="smcap">A.M.</span>, in spite of the desperate -attacks of Castilla's best troops, and the well-directed fire of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> -his artillery. At length, overpowered by numbers, they were -forced to retire, disputing every inch of the ground. They -rallied at the convent of Santa Rosa, and obstinately defended -the position for several hours, until night closed in upon the -combatants. Next morning, being the 7th of March, some -further resistance was made, but the troops of Castilla finally -stormed the barricades, and drove everything before them. -Vivanco escaped in the disguise of a friar to Islay, and thence -to Chile, while his officers looked after themselves, leaving -the gallant defenders of Arequipa to their fate. Tacna and -Arica at once returned to their allegiance, and the 'Apurimac' -was given up to Castilla's ministers at Lima by the -mutinous Montero.</p> - -<p>The Cholos of Arequipa thus defended their position, with -great bravery and resolution, against Castilla's disciplined -army for upwards of eight months; and during the assault, -which lasted for two days, their desperate valour was as -remarkable as their extraordinary endurance, for, such was -the negligence of Vivanco and his officers, that they were -kept without refreshment or even water during the many -hours in which they sustained a deadly and unequal struggle -against Castilla's troops. It should also be recorded to their -credit, that, although the town was on several occasions entirely -in their hands, there was no instance of any act of -pillage or excess being committed by them; and, when all -authority was withdrawn, they showed no disposition to take -advantage of their power, but displayed a regard for order -which would not be found among the lower orders of most -other countries during periods of great excitement.</p> - -<p>There is a very striking difference, however, between the -Cholos of Arequipa and the Inca Indians of the interior, who -appear in the streets with their llamas laden with silky vicuña-wool: -the former a turbulent, excitable race, who will -fight desperately behind walls, but who are without stamina<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> -and quite unable to endure fatigue; the latter a patient, -long-suffering people, capable of extraordinary endurance, -and, as soldiers, in the habit of marching distances which -appear incredible to those whose experience is confined -to the movements of European troops. There is an evident -mixture of Spanish blood in the people who inhabit Arequipa -and its campiña, while the Indians of the interior are for the -most part of pure descent.</p> - -<p>The road over the cordilleras to Cuzco and Puno leaves -Arequipa by the southern suburb, and, after a few miles, -ascends a rocky ridge to the more elevated valley of -Chihuata or Cangallo (9676 feet above the sea<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a>), at the foot -of the southern spur of the volcano. A wretched stone hut -with a mud floor is here the only shelter for the traveller. -At one end a fire of sticks, where an old hag acted as cook, -filled the interior with smoke, and at the other each wayfarer, -as he arrived, made a shakedown of blankets and ponchos, -sipped his chocolate, and, after a short conversation, composed -himself for the night. The fire gradually smouldered -and went out, and the old woman, with a brood of children, -made a heap at the further corner.</p> - -<p>At early dawn of the 23rd of March we were all in motion, and -our companion of the previous night, a Spaniard with a large -<i>tropa</i> of mules laden with aguardiente, was busily preparing -for a start. As the sun rose, the dazzling white of the snowy -peaks of Pichu-pichu and the volcano, with fleecy clouds -above their summits, gave a glorious effect. The rest of the sky -was blue, gradually clouding over as the morning advanced; -and the valley was covered with alfalfa-fields of the richest -green, with the pretty little village of Cachimarca perched on -a rounded hill to the southward. The flowering shrubs by -the roadside are the same as in the campiña of Arequipa,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> -except that a small yellow Calceolaria is more abundant. The -morning air was fresh and bracing as we mounted our mules -and faced the long zigzag path up the "alto de los huesos," -the southern spur of the volcano, so called from the bones of -thousands of mules which are met at every turn. This ascent -conducts the traveller from the temperate valley of Cangallo -to the bleak and chilling plains of the upper cordillera.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig8.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption center">A CHOLO OF AREQUIPA.<br /> -<span class="smallish">From a Photograph. See page 80.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2> - -<p class="c">JOURNEY ACROSS THE CORDILLERA TO PUNO.</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the region of the cordillera of the Andes, in Northern and -Central Peru, the country is broken up into deep warm -valleys and profound ravines, separated by lofty precipitous -ridges and snowy peaks, which combine to form some of the -most magnificent scenery in the world. Vast flocks of sheep -and alpacas find pasture on the upland slopes, while abundance -of wheat is grown lower down. Indian corn generally -flourishes at a still lower elevation, though it is grown as high -as 13,000 feet on the islands of lake Titicaca, and sugar-cane -is cultivated in the deep valleys. This is the nature of the -country between Ayacucho and Cuzco, and in the valley of -Vilcamayu, which extends from the foot of the Vilcañota -range until it subsides into the vast tropical plains to the -north and east of Cuzco.</p> - -<p>But the southern part of the interior of Peru, and the -northern portion of Bolivia, present a very different character. -From the Vilcañota mountains the Andes separate -into two distinct chains, namely, the cordillera or coast-range, -and the Eastern Andes, which include the loftiest peaks in -South America, Illimani and Sorata, or Illampu. The region -between these two ranges contains the great lake of Titicaca, -and consists of elevated plains intersected by rivers flowing -into the lake, at a height never less than 12,000 feet above -the sea. The magnificent scenery of Northern and Central -Peru is wanting in this southern part of the country, which -composes the department of Puno, and is usually called -the <i>Collao</i>. It, however, possesses features of its own which -are at once striking and imposing, while the land which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> -drained by the lake of Titicaca was the cradle of the civilization -of the Incas.</p> - -<p>The journey up the "Alto de los huesos" is very fatiguing, -and the change from the pleasant exhilarating air of Chihuata, -to the chilling icy blasts which constantly sweep over the -upper region of the cordillera, was severely felt. As the -afternoon advanced a drizzling mist came on, and added to -the cheerless desolation of the plains it was necessary to -traverse before reaching the post-house of Apo. Occasionally -a drove of llamas, with their Indian driver, loomed for a -moment through the mist, and at nightfall we arrived at the -post-house of Apo (14,350 feet), tired, drenched, and cold.</p> - -<p>The rainy season of the cordilleras commences in November, -and continues until the end of March, and during most -of that time the discomfort of travelling is so great, and the -rivers so swollen, that a journey is seldom undertaken by an -ordinary traveller. In March, however, the rain does not -fall continuously or in any quantity. The early morning is -generally clear, but in the afternoon mists, rain, or snow -begin to fall, and continue until far into the night. From -April until October is the dry season, and in May, June, -July, and August a cloud is scarcely ever seen in the sky.</p> - -<p>The post-houses in the desolate mountains between -Arequipa and Puno are all of the same character. They -consist of a range of low stone buildings surrounding a courtyard -on three sides, and consisting of five or six rooms with -mud floors, a rough table, and a platform of stone and mud -at one end, which is intended for a bed-place. The roof is -badly tiled or thatched, and the doors are so roughly fitted -that it is impossible to close them. Both man and beast are -subject to a most distressing illness, caused by the rarefaction -of the air at these great altitudes, which is called <i>sorochi</i> by -the Peruvians. I had suffered from a sharp attack of illness -at Arequipa, so that I was probably predisposed to a visita<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>tion -from <i>sorochi</i>, which I certainly endured to its fullest -extent. Before arriving at Apo, a violent pressure on the -head, accompanied by acute pain, and aches in the back of -the neck, caused great discomfort, and these symptoms increased -in intensity during the night at the Apo post-house, -so that at three <span class="smcap">A.M.</span>, when we recommenced our journey, I -was unable to mount my mule without assistance.</p> - -<p>A ride of seven hours across grassy plains covered with -herbage, with patches of snow here and there, and ranges of -hills with fine masses of rocks, forming a setting to the distant -peaks of the cordillera, brought us to the post-house -of Pati. During this ride we had to ford the river, which -flows past Arequipa as the Chile, more than a dozen -times. The only living creatures are the <i>lecca-leccas</i>, a bird -which frequents the numerous streams, and the graceful -flocks of vicuñas. The <i>lecca-lecca</i> is a large plover, with red -legs, white head, grey body, white under the breast and tail, -and wings and tail broadly edged with black. It incessantly -utters a wild shrill scream. The vicuñas, a species of llama -with the habits of an antelope, are very beautiful and graceful -creatures. They have rich fawn-coloured coats, with patches -of white across the shoulders and inside the legs, and long -slender necks. They are constantly met with in the most -desolate parts of the cordillera, browsing on the tender shoots -of the tufts of <i>ychu</i>, or galloping along with their noses close -to the ground, as if they were scenting out the best pasture.</p> - -<p>At Pati a range of abrupt porphyritic cliffs rises from the -plain, up which a rough zigzag pass leads to the "Pampa de -Confital,"<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> the loftiest part of the road over this pass of the -cordillera. A storm of hail began to fall, which turned into -snow as we reached the pampa, and a ride of many hours -over a succession of wild desolate plains, in an incessant snow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>-storm, -brought us to the "alto de Toledo," the highest part of -the road, and 15,590 feet above the level of the sea.<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> Some -glorious snowy peaks appeared through the gloom at sunset, -and after several weary hours in the darkness we at length -arrived at the post-house of Cuevillas.</p> - -<p>In the neighbourhood of Cuevillas there are large sheep-farms, -one called Toroya, near the "alto de Toledo," and -another called Tincopalca farther on. The sheep, at this -enormous height, lamb in March and July, and, of the March -lambs, usually about fifty per cent. survive. Beyond Cuevillas -there are two large Alpine lakes, whence a river flows down -into Titicaca, and we thus passed the watershed between -the Pacific and the great lake. The scenery is grand and -desolate, reminding me, in some respects, of the interior of -Cornwallis Island in the Arctic regions. The road passes -between the two lakes, and we reached the post-house of La -Compuerta as the afternoon rain commenced. The hills are -covered with tufts of coarse grass (<i>Stipa ychu</i>), of which the -llamas eat the upper blades, while the sheep browse on the -tender shoots underneath; and with two kinds of shrubby -plants, one a thorny <i>composita</i> called <i>ccanlli</i>, and the other -called <i>tola</i> or <i>ccapo</i>, which is a resinous <i>Baccharis</i>,<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> and is -used for fuel.<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p> - -<p>The gorge in which the La Compuerta post-house is situated -is the only outlet for the waters of the lake. Mountains -of great height rise up on either side, clothed, at this -season, with herbage of the richest green, while ridges of -scarped cliffs of dark porphyritic rock crop out at intervals.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> -The river dashes noisily over huge boulders, and near its -left bank are the rough stone buildings of the post-house. -Great quantities of ducks, gulls, coots, godwits, and sandpipers -frequent the shores of the lake. The postmaster -supplied <i>alfalfa</i> for the mules, and a <i>chupé</i> consisting of -potatoes and salt mutton for the travellers, at exorbitant -prices; the mules were freed from their cargoes, which were -placed within the porch, ready lashed up in their <i>redecillas</i> or -hide nets; and we were soon rolled up in blankets and ponchos, -while the snow continued to fall unceasingly through -the early part of the night. When we got up next morning -the thermometer was at 31° Fahr. indoors.</p> - -<p>Starting at dawn, we descended the gorge, passing two -ruined mining establishments, San Ramon and Santa Lucia, -into green plains with large flocks of sheep scattered over them.</p> - -<p>In these uninhabited wilds it is an event to meet a -traveller, and his appearance is the signal for a succession -of questions and answers. We here passed a <i>cavallero</i>, in -whose dress and general appearance we saw a reflection of -our own, excepting the comforters. He wore a large poncho -of bright colours, reaching nearly to his heels; a broad-brimmed -felt hat with a blue cotton handkerchief passed over -it, and tied in a knot under his chin; an immense woollen -comforter passed round his throat and face, until nothing -appeared but his eyes; a pair of woollen gaiters, bright green, -with black stripes; and huge spurs. He was an officer on -his way to Arequipa, and complained of the severity of the -weather and the heaviness of the roads. After a short -conversation the traveller passed on, followed by his cargo-mules, -and soon became a speck in the distance.</p> - -<p>In the afternoon we came to the first signs of cultivation, -since leaving the valley of Cangallo, in the neighbourhood of -the great sheep-farm of Taya-taya—patches of quinoa, barley, -and potatoes, with the huts of Indians scattered amongst<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> -them; and, crossing a rocky ridge, we came in sight of a vast -swampy plain, with the little town of Vilque, at the foot of -a fine rocky height, in the far distance, which we reached -at sunset. The long rows of thatched brown huts dripping -with rain, and the muddy streets, looked melancholy. But -at the time of the great fair, in June, Vilque presents a very -different appearance. The plains, for several miles beyond -this little town, were so swampy as to be rendered almost -impassable. It was with the greatest difficulty that we -made our way across them, constantly wading and splashing -through water, and in some places sinking so deep in the -adhesive mud, that it was not without desperate exertions -that the mules could extricate themselves. At length we -came to a rocky ridge which bounded the vast pampa of -Vilque, and continued our journey over rather drier ground.</p> - -<p>Since leaving La Compuerta we had been continually -descending; the vicuñas had disappeared, as they confine -themselves to the loftiest and wildest parts of the cordillera; -but, in the lower region between Vilque and Puno, the feeling -of desolation and solitude is dissipated by the numbers of -birds which enliven the country, and by the increased quantity -and variety of wild flowers.</p> - -<p>The <i>lecca-leccas</i> or plovers were very numerous, screaming -shrilly as they flew in circles, or ran along the ground. In -the clefts of the rocks there were many birds, like creepers, -called <i>haccacllo</i> by the Indians, and <i>pito</i> in Spanish—beaks -curved downwards, black on the top of the head, white underneath, -red at the back of the neck, speckled wings, white -breast, and a black line from the beak to the back of the -neck. We also saw many small green paroquets, bright -yellow finches called <i>silgaritos</i>, a kind of partridge called -<i>yutu</i>, and, above all, the glorious <i>coraquenque</i> or <i>alcamari</i>, -the royal bird of the Incas, whose black and white wing-feathers -surmounted the imperial <i>llautu</i> or fringe of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> -sovereigns of Peru. The <i>alcamari</i> is a large and noble-looking -bird of prey, with a scarlet head, black body, and -long wing-feathers of spotless white. Wherever the plains -are intersected by ridges of rocky cliffs, which is frequently -the case, there are swarms of large rodents, called <i>biscaches</i>, -which sat on their hind legs, and looked about inquisitively -as we rode past.</p> - -<p>Riding over several wide grassy plains, and passing the -village of Tiquillaca, we arrived at the banks of the river -Tortorani, which was so swollen as to be quite impassable. -By following its course for about half a mile, we came to a -place where the whole volume of water precipitates itself -down a sheer declivity of 250 feet, and forms a magnificent -cascade. A league below the falls we found a bridge, and, -at sunset, we came in sight of the great lake of Titicaca, -with the snowy range beyond. A steep zigzag descent leads -down to the city of Puno, which is close to the shores of the -lake, and hemmed in by an amphitheatre of argentiferous -mountains.</p> - -<p>Puno, the capital of the department, owes its origin and -former prosperity to the rich veins of silver-ore in the surrounding -country. It is approached, from the north, by a -stone archway built over the road by General Deustua, who -was prefect in 1850; and the streets slope by a gradual -descent towards the lake. The houses are built of small-sized -brown <i>adobes</i>, with roofs of thatch or red tiles, and -courtyards very neatly paved with round pebbles and -llama's knuckle-bones in patterns. There are scarcely any -with more than a ground-floor, and the rooms open on to -the court; but, though at this elevation, 12,874 feet above -the sea, it is extremely cold at night, stoves are unknown; -and the unusual luxury of a fireplace, which exists in one -house, is merely a luxury to the eye, for it is never lighted. -The streets are clean and well paved, and the stone church<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> -in the <i>Plaza</i>, dating from 1757, has an elaborately carved -front and two towers. In another plaza is the college, a -large building with an upper story, also built by General -Deustua; and both these public squares have bronze fountains -erected by the Government of General Echenique, the -late President, besides drinking fountains in the corners of -several of the streets. The water is excellent.</p> - -<p>Puno is surrounded by heights covered with patches of -potatoes, barley, and quinoa (<i>Chenopodium quinoa</i>), the huts of -Indians being interspersed amongst them; and immediately -over the town there is an isolated rocky ridge of carboniferous -limestone perforated by several natural caverns, called the -Huassa-pata. The shores of the lake are a few hundred -yards from the town, and at the little port there are always a -number of balsas, made of large bundles of reeds tied together, -with a reed sail.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> The view to seaward is, however, confined -by the peninsula of Capachica, and two islands at the mouth -of the bay of Puno. A canal to enable balsas to come up -nearer the town was made by the Spanish Intendente -Gonzalez Montoya in the beginning of the present century.<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p> - -<p>The flora of a country which, though within the tropics, is -at an elevation of nearly thirteen thousand feet above the -sea, must necessarily be meagre, and the few plants are lowly -and inconspicuous. I noticed the following in the immediate -vicinity of Puno. The only tree was one of stunted growth, -with a pretty pink and white flower, and dark-green leaves, -almost white underneath, called "oliva silvestre" by the -Spaniards, and <i>ccolli</i> in Quichua (<i>Buddlea coriacea</i>); and of -these there were not more than a dozen, sheltered behind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> -walls. By far the greater number of plants are <i>Compositæ</i>: of -these I observed three species of <i>Tagetes</i>—one with a small -yellow flower; another very sweet, called by the Indians -<i>huaccatay</i> and <i>chicchipa</i>, and used to flavour their chupes; -and a large shrubby marygold, called <i>sunchu</i>;<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> also the common -sow-thistle, a <i>Hieracium</i>, and the <i>tola</i> and <i>ccanlli</i> before -mentioned, used for fuel. I found two Verbenas and a -Solanum, all with purple flowers; a clover, a creeping cucurbitaceous -plant, two Cacti, a large dock, three Geraniums, all -with pink flowers; three Crucifers, very small herbs, one with -a white flower, one with a yellow flower, and the third the -common shepherd's-purse; a Gilium with a minute white -flower, a small legume with tomentose leaves, a pretty little -creeping Adoxa, a Statice, a wild Chenopodium, a Veronica, -a minute Stellaria, a Rhinanthus, a mallow, a plantago, and -three species of wild Oxalis, two very minute with white flowers, -and one with a yellow flower. There were also two ferns, one -a very beautiful Gymnogramma with silvery fronds; nine -grasses, the most abundant of which was the coarse <i>Stipa ychu</i>; -and a few mosses. On the shores of lake Titicaca I saw -rushes in great quantities, a Mimulus, a Ranunculus, a Rumex, -and three grasses. These plants, though lowly and unpretending, -are in sufficient abundance to cover the country with -verdure and pretty wild flowers, and brighten those parts -which are not cultivated. The cultivation consists of quinoa, -cañahua (both <i>Chenopodia</i>), barley, potatos, ocas (<i>Oxalis -tuberosa</i>), and wheat in very small quantities, which does not -ripen.</p> - -<p>Close to Puno, on the south, are the famous silver-bearing -mountains of Cancharani and Laycaycota, to which Puno -owes her existence: and to the discovery and working of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> -Laycaycota mine in the middle of the seventeenth century a -very curious history is attached; which is always talked of -by the people of Puno as one of the principal events in the -annals of their city.</p> - -<p>In about 1660 an exceedingly rich vein of silver had been -discovered on the hill of Laycaycota, by one José de Salcedo, -which was called the "Veta de la Candelaria." One account -says that the secret of its existence was revealed to Salcedo -by an Indian girl. José de Salcedo, and his brother Gaspar, -continued to work this vein, and several others which were -opened on the Cancharani and Laycaycota hills; enormous -quantities of silver were extracted; and the fame of his -enormous wealth, and its source, attracted crowds of unruly -people to the spot, from the various towns of Peru.<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> Salcedo -is said to have been generous and open-handed in finding -employment for applicants, but, from some unexplained cause, -tumults took place at the mines in 1665, which, from first to -last, are said to have caused 450 violent deaths. The governor -of the district, Don Angelo de Peredo, seems to have taken -part against the Salcedos, who retired to the village of Juliaca, -with a body of armed followers, in November, 1665. In March, -1666, they attacked the governor's people who had possession -of the mines; Salcedo neglected repeated orders to come -to Lima; and was accused of having threatened to extort -a general pardon from the Viceroy, at the head of a thousand -men. Salcedo himself, however, appears to have been -absent at Cuzco when the attack was made on the mines. -These tumults, accompanied by much bloodshed, continued -until 1669, when the Viceroy Count of Lemos came to Puno -in person, and settled the question by sending José and -Gaspar de Salcedo to Lima, where José was tried, condemned,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> -and executed. Gaspar was detained a prisoner in Callao -castle.</p> - -<p>It was the general impression at the time, and is so still at -Puno, that jealousy and envy of their riches occasioned the -persecution of these men; for not only were the charges -against them most frivolous, but the Count of Santistevan, -the predecessor of the Count of Lemos, had caused the -Bishop of Arequipa to publish a general pardon of all -offences in 1666. The accusations against José Salcedo were -that he went about with armed men, took a seat next to the -corregidor at a bull-fight in Cuzco, and neglected to obey the -order to come to Lima.<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p> - -<p>A petition was afterwards sent to Spain, representing that -the Salcedos were the victims of injustice, and not guilty of -disloyalty; that the Viceroy's proceedings were irregular; -and that the heirs of the Count of Lemos were bound to -make reparation for the evils caused to these deserving men. -The petition also prayed that the President of the Council of -the Indies might not be allowed to decide the case, because -he was related to the Count of Lemos.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> This petition seems -to have received favourable consideration; for I find that the -son of José de Salcedo was afterwards created Marquis de la -Villa Rica de Puno, and that he took a leading part in subsequent -mining operations.</p> - -<p>The most remarkable part of this story is that on the day -of Salcedo's death the mine became full of water, and the -Viceroy was thus disappointed in his expectation of succeeding -to the wealth of which he had deprived his victim. -This curious coincidence made a great impression on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> -Indians, which is not yet effaced; and they still point out a -small lake or pond that is said to cover the once rich vein or -"Veta de la Candelaria."</p> - -<p>Salcedo's son, the Marquis of Villa Rica, attempted to -reach his father's source of wealth by cutting a horizontal -adit or <i>socabon</i> in the side of the hill looking on lake -Titicaca; and he is said to have penetrated nearly 700 yards, -and within sixty yards of his father's perpendicular shaft; -but his funds failed him, and he died mad. In spite, however, -of the filling up of the "Candelaria," great numbers of other -shafts were sunk, and much silver was extracted, both by the -Marquis, and by other speculators. A report, dated 1718, -mentions as many as forty-six shafts on the hills near Puno, -which were then being worked.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> In 1740 a native company -attempted to finish the <i>socabon</i> which had been commenced -by the Marquis, but their workmen were unable to cut -through the masses of porphyry, and, after vast expense, it -was abandoned a second time.</p> - -<p>From 1775 to 1824 the mines near Puno yielded ores -worth 1,786,000 marcs of silver, at seven to nine dollars the -marc; the richest year being 1802, when the yield was -52,000 marcs; but since 1816 it has been steadily decreasing, -and in 1824, the year after the expulsion of the Spaniards, it -had sunk very low. In 1826 the <i>manto</i> mine, to which the -socabon leads, which was excavated by the Marquis of Villa -Rica, was granted to General O'Brien, a gallant and enthusiastic -old Irish hero of South American independence, who -resumed the work, but without any success. Mr. Begg, an -enterprising English merchant, undertook the completion of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> -the <i>socabon</i> in 1830. He imported expensive machinery from -England, employed an intelligent engineer named Patterson, -and continued to work the <i>manto</i> mine until 1839. He built -himself a house furnished with every English comfort, and lived -in very good style; but the speculation was a failure, and he -left the country a poor man in 1840, and died in Chile. -After the departure of Mr. Begg, some Peruvian speculators -continued to work at the same mine, but without any energy; -and, at the time of M. de Castelnau's visit in 1845, only -thirty workmen were employed.<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> When Lieut. Gibbon, -U.S.N., passed through Puno in 1851, the <i>manto</i> was still -being worked, but at the time of my visit it had been entirely -abandoned since 1858.</p> - -<p>It is one of the great evils arising from the political condition -of Peru since the independence that there is a complete -want of confidence in each other amongst the moneyed -classes, and an absence, to a great extent, of the spirit of -enterprise; so that any combination on a large scale for -mining, or other purposes of a similar nature, is almost impossible. -Peru is still a very young country, and there is -reason to hope that this state of things will not continue; -but now a feeling of suspicion, added to a want of energy, -prevents the formation of native companies. Thus the -<i>manto</i> is abandoned, and the numerous mines which once -covered the hills of Cancharani and Laycaycota, and actually -created the city of Puno, which nestles at their feet, are not -worked. At present there is only one small mine at work, -high up on the hill of Cancharani, called the Cachi Vieja. -Its proprietor, Don Manuel Ferrandis, is an upright, intelligent, -and most kind-hearted old gentleman, who has had -much experience in mining operations; and on the 29th of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> -March he took me to visit the abandoned <i>manto</i>, and his own -works at Cachi Vieja.</p> - -<p>About two miles south of Puno is the establishment built -by Mr. Begg, at the foot of the Laycaycota mountain, and -facing the lake. The buildings stand round a long courtyard, -containing four trees of the <i>oliva silvestre</i>, probably, as -the only trees in the country, once carefully tended by the -former English residents. There is a steam-engine which -turns a large stone wheel, twelve feet in diameter, for grinding -the ores; and the quicksilver was separated by the heat of -fires of llama-dung and <i>tola</i>,<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> the only fuel to be had. In the -house there were papered rooms, fire-grates, and English -conveniences, now all in ruins, and the rooms used as stables -for donkeys. At a short distance from Mr. Begg's ruined -house, and a little higher up the mountain, is the entrance to -the famous "<i>Socabon de Vera Cruz</i>" of the <i>manto</i> mine, commenced -by the Marquis of Villa Rica, and finished by Mr. -Begg. The "<i>socabon</i>" penetrates into the mountain, in a -generally south-west direction, for a distance of a mile and a -quarter; the first 900 yards having a depth of some feet of -water, which is dammed up at a little distance outside the -entrance. This part of the gallery is navigated by an iron -canoe about a foot and a half wide; but the canal is so -narrow that the canoe frequently grates on both sides at -once against the rocks. The roof of the excavation, too, is -very low, and several times we actually had to crouch down -in the bottom of the canoe, to avoid knocking our heads. -Thus we penetrated into the bowels of the earth by this -subterranean navigation, with an Indian holding a burning -torch in the bows. From the entrance, for about 300 yards, -the excavation traverses a mass of grey porphyry. In the -900 yards of navigation there are six locks; and when the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> -water terminates, the gallery continues for a hundred yards, -where there is an iron tramway laid down. The metal was -dragged down to the head of navigation in cars, by two old -mules, one of which had not seen daylight for fifteen years -when they ceased to work the mine. At the point where -the tramway comes to an end, the gallery still continues for -1200 yards; but this part is very narrow and tortuous, and -the metal was carried down to the cars on the backs of -Indians. The rock at the extreme end of the excavation is a -very hard green porphyry, with quartz and veins of silver ore.</p> - -<p>The Cachi Vieja works are high up on the Laycaycota -hill, and not far from the famous "Veta de la Candelaria." -The mouth of the shaft is in a building opening on -a courtyard, where women were sorting the ores in small -heaps. The most abundant ore is called <i>brosa</i>, containing -forty marcs of silver in the cajon of fifty quintals (cwts.); -other ores are called <i>rosicler</i>, <i>pavonado</i>, and <i>polvarilla</i>. The -<i>rosicler</i>, or ruby silver, is a most beautiful rose-coloured -mineral, containing a considerable quantity of silver.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p> - -<p>Besides Cachi Vieja in the immediate vicinity of Puno, -there are some very productive silver-mines at San Antonio -de Esquilache, twenty miles south-west of that town, which -have been worked since 1847 by Don Manuel Costas, one of -the most influential citizens of Puno, and my host during my -stay in that city.</p> - -<p>Wool and silver are the great staple products of the -department of Puno; the whole value of exported articles -being about 1,200,000 dollars.<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> The population is rather -under 300,000 souls; that of the town of Puno 9000.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> -Upwards of 1,500,000 dollars come into the department -yearly, either in payments for wool, or in salaries for offi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>cials, -without counting the expenditure for the troops; and -it is calculated that more than half this sum eventually finds -its way into the hands of the Indians, who bury it. Thus, in -considering the mineral wealth of Peru, the enormous quantities -of coined money, and vases or other articles made of the -precious metals, which have been buried by the Indians, must -be taken into consideration; for this practice has been going -on since the time of the Incas. Now that the currency consists -almost entirely of the debased half-dollars of Bolivia, if a -Spanish dollar or any other good coin is accidently received -by an Indian, it is immediately buried.</p> - -<p>The principal people in Puno, during my visit, were -General San Roman, in command of the army of the South, -an old man with the face and head of a pure Indian, and -plenty of white hair brushed off his forehead, who has been -mixed up in all the wars since 1822, and from whom I -received much information respecting the Indian rebellion -of Tupac Amaru in 1780, and of Pumacagua in 1815; Señor -Garces, the Prefect; Don Juan Francisco Oviedo; Don -Manuel Costas; and Don Manuel Ferrandis, the proprietor of -the mine on the Laycaycota hill. Every evening there was -a party assembled at the house of the latter to drink coffee, -and talk over the news of the day. On these occasions, -amongst other topics of conversation, the possibility of forming -a company for the navigation of lake Titicaca was -frequently discussed. Costas had first been struck by the -immense good that steam navigation on the lake would bring -to the department of Puno in 1840, and in 1846 he purchased -a small steamer called the 'Titicaca,' and had her sent out -in pieces. He sold her to the Government, on condition -that they would defray the expense of sending her up to the -lake; but this was never done. It is considered that any -steamers which may hereafter be ordered for this purpose -should be about forty tons, drawing four and a half feet, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> -paddles (as a screw would inevitably foul amongst the rushes), -and accommodation for passengers on deck. They would take -all the products of the Bolivian forests, bark, timber, chocolate, -coca, fruit, and arnotto, to Puno; European manufactured -goods, sugar of Abancay, and aguardiente of the coast, from -Puno to Bolivia; provisions and traffic of all kinds amongst -the Indians of the shores; and copper of Coracora to Puno. -Timber in vast quantities might be felled in the forests of -Caravaya, and floated down the rivers of Azangaro and -Ramiz during the rainy season, which, with the coal on the -island of Soto, would furnish supplies of fuel. Markets and -easy means of communication having been formed, the trade -would rapidly increase on all sides. The face of the country -would be entirely changed; the people, finding new wants, -would become more civilised; and Puno, instead of a city -with empty silent streets, and half a dozen balsas at its -anchorage, would be a flourishing and busy port.<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> These -bright prospects, however, will require time, and a total -change in the political condition of Peru, for their realization -in a somewhat distant future.</p> - -<p>It is also a very important question whether larches, firs, -and birch-trees might not be naturalized in the more -sheltered ravines of these lofty treeless regions; where large -plantations might be formed for the supply of timber and fuel. -The Indians are now entirely dependent, for the framework of -their roofs, on the crooked poles of the <i>queñua</i> tree (<i>Polylepis -tomentella</i>); and for fuel on llama's dung and the <i>tola</i> shrubs -(<i>Baccharis</i>). The winters, from May to September, are not -nearly so cold as in Scotland, though very dry; and, during -the summer or rainy season, though it is cold, there is plenty -of moisture. The introduction of these plantations would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> -change the whole face of the country, and the introducer -would confer an inestimable blessing on the inhabitants.</p> - -<p>I remained for some time at Puno, in order to collect -information, and come to a determination respecting the best -course to pursue in the performance of the service on which -I was employed. The supply of the bark of <i>Chinchona -Calisaya</i> trees is now entirely procured from the forests -of Munecas, Apollobamba, Yuracares, Larecaja, Inquisivi, -Ayopaya, and the <i>yungus</i> of La Paz in Bolivia; but -I found that the difficulties in the way of making a collection -of plants and seeds in these districts would be -very great, and it afterwards turned out that these difficulties -would have been insurmountable. As a considerable -part of the revenue of Bolivia is derived from the -bark trade, which is not the case in Peru, the Bolivians -are exceedingly jealous of their monopoly; and the nature -of my mission was already suspected. Moreover there was -an imminent prospect of a war between Peru and Bolivia; -a large army was massed in three divisions—at Puno under -General San Roman, at Vilque under Beltran, and at Lampa -under Frisancho; and, as soon as hostilities commenced, it -would have been next to impossible for a private person to -preserve his mules from seizure. This war did not actually -take place, but Linares, the President of Bolivia, issued a -decree on May 14th prohibiting all traffic, or the passage -of travellers, from one country to the other;<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> a decree which -was strictly enforced, and which would have rendered it -impracticable at that time to have conveyed myself and -companion, with laden mules, from Bolivia to the coast, -without long delays and detentions. One of the pretexts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> -for this threatened war is perhaps the most extraordinary -that has ever been alleged in modern times; namely, that -the Bolivian Government persisted in coining and deluging -Peru with debased half-dollars. A strange way of settling -a financial difficulty!</p> - -<p>While these objections weighed against an attempt to -collect plants in the forests of Bolivia, I found that, with -regard to the chinchona forests of the Peruvian province -of Caravaya, on the frontier of Peru and Bolivia, the facilities -for such an enterprise would be much greater. I had reason -to believe, though I afterwards found myself in error, that, -as there was no bark trade in Peru of any importance,<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> no -jealousy would be felt at the nature of my mission. Any -hostile proceedings on the Bolivian frontier would not -materially affect the route between the Caravaya forests -and the coast; and, above all, Caravaya is much nearer and -more accessible, as regards an available seaport, than any -part of the chinchona forests of Bolivia. This latter point was -of the very greatest importance, because success depended -chiefly on the rapidity with which the plants could be -conveyed across the frozen plains of the cordilleras. I -knew from Dr. Weddell that, though the bark trade from -Caravaya has now ceased, and bark from that district is -of no market value, owing to a foolish habit of adulteration -amongst speculators in former times, yet that young plants, -and trees bearing fruit, of the <i>Chinchona Calisaya</i>, and other -valuable species, were abundant in the forests of that province, -as far north as the valley of Sandia.</p> - -<p>I, therefore, after much anxious consideration, determined -to proceed direct from Puno to the forests of Caravaya.</p> - -<p>During my stay at Puno I had opportunities of examining<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> -some interesting ruins, and of collecting information respecting -the Indian population of Peru, especially with regard to -the great insurrections of Tupac Amaru and Pumacagua in -1780 and 1815. Much of this information is quite new; and -I, therefore, trust that a description of ancient ruins near -Puno, and an account of some of the most stirring events -connected with the Indians since the Spanish conquest, may -prove of sufficient general interest to justify a halt on the -road to the chinchona forests, and a brief digression from the -principal subject of the present work.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig9.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption center">BALSA ON LAKE TITICACA.<br /> -<span class="smallish">See page 95.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2> - -<p class="c">LAKE TITICACA.</p> - -<blockquote> -<p><span class="smallish">The Aymara Indians—Their antiquities—Tiahuanaco—Coati—Sillustani—Copacabana.</span></p> -</blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> region which is drained by rivers flowing from the -maritime cordillera and the eastern range of the Andes into -lake Titicaca consists of elevated plateaux, seldom less than -13,000 feet above the sea, which were originally inhabited -by the Aymara race of Indians, a people differing in some -respects from the Indians of Cuzco and further north, and -whose civilization dates from a period far anterior to that -of the Incas. Their language is different from the Quichua -of the Incas, though evidently a sister tongue, and it is still -spoken by the Aymara Indians from Puno to the central -parts of Bolivia, including all the shores of lake Titicaca. -I did not, however, observe much difference between the -Indians of Puno, who speak Aymara, and the Quichua -Indians of Cuzco. The men are, perhaps, somewhat stouter; -but they are the same race in all essential points.</p> - -<p>The lake of Titicaca, the great feature in the region -inhabited by the Aymara Indians, is about eighty miles -long by forty broad; being by far the largest lake in South -America. It is divided into two parts by the peninsula of -Copacabana; the southern division, called the lake of -Huaqui, being eight leagues long by seven, and united to -the greater lake by the strait of Tiquina. A number of -rivers, which are swollen and of considerable volume during -the rainy season, flow into the lake. The largest of these -is the Ramiz, which is formed by the junction of the two -rivers of Pucara and Azangaro, and enters the lake at its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> -north-west corner. The Suchiz, formed by the rivers of -Cavanilla and Lampa, also flows into the lake on its north -side, as well as the Yllpa and Ylave; while on the eastern -side are the rivers Huarina, Escoma, and Achacache, all -flowing from a low lateral chain, parallel with the great -eastern Andes, whose gigantic peaks of Illimani and Sorata -form the principal feature of the views from all parts of the -lake. Much of the water thus flowing in is drained off by -the great river Desaguadero, which flows out of the south-west -corner, and disappears in the swampy lake of Aullagas, -in the south of Bolivia; and perhaps a greater quantity is -taken up by evaporation; for the volume of water which -flows in during the rainy season, when the sun travels -north, is drunk up again when the tutelar deity of the -lake returns, between April and September.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> Indeed it -is evident that the waters are steadily receding, under the -combined influence of evaporation and of the sediment -brought down by the rivers. Lake Titicaca is very deep -in some places, the deepest part being on the Bolivian -side; but in others it is so shoal that there is only just -room to force the balsas through the rushes. The winds -blow from the eastward all the year round, sometimes in -strong gales, so as to raise a very heavy sea, during the day-time; -but at night they are occasionally westerly. Along the -western shore there are acres of tall rushes, and the east -winds blow all the dead rushes to the western side, mixing -with the living beds, and forming a dense tangled mass. -The lake abounds in fish of very peculiar forms, and in -aquatic birds.</p> - -<p>The principal islands of the lake are those of Titicaca -and Coati, near the peninsula of Copacabana; that of -Campanario in the east, opposite the town of Escoma, and -nine miles from the shore; Soto, also in the northern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> -part, which is said to contain coal;<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> and Esteves, in the -bay of Puno, where the patriot prisoners were confined by -the Spaniards during the war of independence; besides a -small archipelago in the lake of Huaqui.</p> - -<p>A very ancient civilization existed on the shores of lake -Titicaca long before the appearance of the first Inca of Peru; -the principal remains of which are to be found at Tiahuanaco,<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> -near the southern shore of the lake of Huaqui. An extensive -tract is here covered by huge blocks of carved stone. It was -with much regret that I was obliged, by my duty, to give up -my intention of visiting these interesting remains. M. de -Castelnau mentions two colossal statues of a man and a -woman, crowned with a kind of turban; a colossal head and -a lizard carved on blocks of stone; a great conical artificial -hill; and a monolithic doorway, the upper part of which is -covered with very curious sculpture. In the centre there is -a figure, probably representing the Sun, and on each side -a number of figures all turned towards it, with wings, and -sceptres in their hands: those on one side with their heads -crowned, and those on the other with heads of griffins, and -the bodies adorned with garlands of human heads.<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> All who -have visited these ruins consider them to be of a distinct -character from those of Cuzco, and other works of the Incas. -The stones are more richly carved, and many of them have -been united by means of a metal poured into transverse -grooves. M. de Castelnau considers that the chief characteristic -of Aymara ruins is the minute detail in the carving -on the stones, while that of the Incas consists in the grand -simplicity of the masonry.<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig10.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption center">THE TOWERS OF SILLUSTANI.<br /> -<span class="smallish">Page 111.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p> - -<p>On the islands of Titicaca and Coati there are also extensive -ruins, the remains of temples and convents of virgins dedicated -to the worship of the Sun and Moon; and Dr. Weddell -mentions that there is a kind of phlox on these islands (<i>Cantua -buxifolia</i>), its very elegant long scarlet flower being called by -the Aymara Indians the "flower of the Incas."<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p> - -<p>Although I was unable to visit either the ruins at Tiahuanaco -or those on the islands, I found time to examine ruins of -the same character on the shores of the lake of Umayu near -Vilque, where the great cemetery of the chiefs of the Aymara -tribes of the Collao appears to have been. These ruins are -at a place called Sillustani, on the north side of the lake of -Umayu, where a high rocky table-land juts out so as to form -a peninsula, which is literally covered with places of sepulture. -Four of them are towers of finely-cut masonry, equal -to that of Cuzco, with the sides of the stones dovetailing into -each other. On climbing up the steep rocky path which leads -to the table-land, the first on the right-hand side is perched -on the very edge of the northern precipice. Half of it is -destroyed, the other half is of well-cut stones, with a broad -rounded cornice near the summit, and a vaulted roof, part -of which remains entire. In the interior, near the foundation, -there is a vaulted chamber entered by a small aperture, -and full of human bones. The rest of the tower was filled -up with small stones and earth, leaving a narrow shaft which -ascended from the chamber to the summit, down which the -bodies may have been lowered into the chamber.</p> - -<p>On the left there is another smaller tower of exactly -similar construction. Further on, and near the verge of the -southern precipice, there are two other towers close together. -One is thirty-six feet high, and built of the same well-cut -masonry, with a cornice and vaulted roof, and a great lizard -carved in relief on one of the stones near the base, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> -measures six feet by three.<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> The other tower was apparently -exactly similar, but it is now in a very ruinous state.</p> - -<p>Besides these more remarkable edifices, the table-land is -covered with other towers of rough unhewn stone and earth, -and there are the remains of two square edifices built of cyclopean -stones. The fallen parts of the towers were covered with -masses of bright yellow compositæ called <i>suncho</i>, and a purple -solanum; and they were frequented by the creepers called -<i>haccacllo</i>, little green paroquets, a small quail called <i>pucupucu</i>, -and the little ground-dove <i>cullca</i>; numbers of <i>biscache</i> -rabbits burrowed in the ruins, while two or three lordly <i>coraquenques</i> -soared in circles over the table-land. After carefully -examining the old towers of Sillustani, I passed the night in -a very small hut, close to the lake of Umayu, the waters of -which were smooth as glass, an island in the centre, and blue -ranges of mountains capped with snow in the distance. To -get into the hut it was necessary to go on hands and knees, -the doorway being only three feet high, with a hide door -stretched on a wooden frame. The hut was built of rough -stones and thatched with barley-straw; but inside there was -a hospitable welcome and good cheer: the old Indian who -dwelt there, and his young daughter, providing excellent -boiled potatoes, cream-cheese, and fresh milk.</p> - -<p>The ruins of Tiahuanaco, and on the islands in the lake, -and the towers of Sillustani, are the principal remains of -ancient Aymara civilization. Nothing is known respecting -the people who raised these imperishable monuments, except -that, in the middle of the eleventh century, a man and -woman, declaring themselves to be children of the Sun, are -said to have first appeared on the shores of the great lake, -and, marching north, to have founded the empire of the Incas.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> -The circumstance that Manco Ccapac, the first Inca of Peru, -originally appeared in the country of the Aymaras, has led to -the belief that he was himself a chief of that nation; but I am -more inclined to the opinion that he was one of a band of adventurers -who had been brought from Asia, or her vast archipelago -of islands, by the westerly winds of the South Pacific, -and the southerly breezes of the coast, to the port of Arica; -that he thence made his way to the banks of the great lake, -where he became indoctrinated in the religion of the people; -and that, for some reason, he continued his wanderings, until -he finally collected a sufficiently numerous following to found -an independent state at Cuzco. It seems certain, from emblems -found carved upon the ruins, and from tradition, that -the worship of the Sun and Moon was established amongst -the Aymaras for ages before the conquest of their country by -the Incas of Cuzco.</p> - -<p>It was not for several generations after the foundation -of the empire of the Incas, that their conquests were -extended over the Aymara nation of the Collao; and it -was not until about the middle of the eleventh century -that the country on the shores of lake Titicaca became part -of the great empire whose centre and capital was at Cuzco. -From that time the islands of Titicaca and Coata, and -the peninsula of Copacabana, became the most sacred and -venerated spots within the dominions of the Incas; as the -localities where their great progenitor Manco Ccapac was -believed to have made his first appearance.</p> - -<p>Copacabana means "the place of a precious stone," <i>copa</i> -being a precious stone, and <i>cavana</i> a place where anything -is seen.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> A rock called Titicaca gave its name to the -island and lake: <i>titi</i> being Aymara for a cat, and <i>caca</i> a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> -rock, for on this rock a cat is said to have sat with fire -shooting from its eyes.<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> In Quichua <i>titi</i> means lead. On -this rock, which is at the west end of the island of Titicaca,<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> -there was an altar where the Aymaras adored the Sun, and -near it there were three idols joined in one, called <i>Apu Ynti</i> -(the Chief Sun), <i>Churip Ynti</i> (the Son's Sun), and <i>Yntip -Huauqui</i> (Brother of the Sun). The Inca Tupac Yupanqui -(<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1439-75) founded a palace and a village about half -a league from the rock, and established a convent of virgins -there.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a></p> - -<p>The island of Coata, a league to the eastward of Titicaca, -was dedicated to the Moon, the name being derived from -Coyata, the accusative of Coya, a queen; the Moon ranking -as wife to the Sun. The ruins of the <i>Accla huasi</i>, or convent -of virgins, on Coata island, are 120 feet long, the -interior being divided into numerous cells, with rows of -niches in the walls. They are now overshadowed by queñua-trees, -whose dark foliage adds to the sombre melancholy of -these silent memorials of the past. On both the islands -there were, in the time of the Incas, large establishments of -Virgins of the Sun, who were divided into three grades, -according to their beauty. The most lovely were called -<i>Guayruro</i>; the next <i>Yurac Aclla</i>, or white maidens; and -the plain ones <i>Paco Aclla</i>, or beast maidens. Each grade -was governed by a <i>Mamacona</i> or nurse, and an <i>Apu-panaca</i> -or governor lived near the convent, who guarded it, and -supplied its inmates with provisions. The occupations of -the virgins were weaving, embroidery, and brewing sacrificial -<i>chicha</i>, to be poured out on the altar of the deity.<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p> - -<p>After the conquest, the Spanish Viceroys handed over the -province of Chucuito, and the islands in the lake, to the -Dominican friars, who succeeded in introducing far grosser -and more degrading superstitions amongst the Indians than -they had ever practised on the islands of Titicaca and Coata; -and in establishing, on the adjacent peninsula of Copacabana, -a shrine, the pretended sanctity of which attracted devotees -and rich presents from all parts of Spanish America.</p> - -<p>Its origin appears to have been as follows:—A member -of the family of the Incas, named Francisco Titu Yupanqui, -not having money enough to buy an image of the Virgin for -his church, painted a very bad picture, and the cura, Antonio -de Almeida, either to please the Indian, or because there -were few images or pictures in the country, allowed it to -be placed near the altar. But the next cura, Antonio de -Montoro, seeing that it caused more laughter than devotion, -ordered it to be put in a corner of the sacristy. The -poor artist then went to Potosi to learn to paint, and, after -much labour, he succeeded in completing a picture which, -the moment it was placed in the church at Copacabana, -began to work miracles. It was set up in 1583, and the -Inca painter died in 1608. The first thing the picture -did was to banish all devils out of the province, and to cure -many Indians of their diseases; and its fame became so great -that in 1588 the Count of Villar, viceroy of Peru, solemnly -delivered it to the care of the Augustine friars by a royal -edict. Between 1589 and 1652 it is said to have performed -186 miracles. One Alonzo de Escote, for favours received, -saved up money for the purpose of giving the Virgin a lamp, -and at length he presented the richest then to be found in the -Spanish colonies, twenty feet long, with sockets for as many -candles as there are days in the year, all of solid silver. -Even as late as 1845, when Dr. Weddell saw the church, -it was very richly gilt.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p> - -<p>"Other images," says Father Calancha, "in Europe and -Asia perform miracles in their own towns or provinces, but -this picture of Copacabana performs them all over the new -world, and in parts of Europe!"<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a></p> - -<p>Thus the Spanish conquerors supplied the Aymara Indians -of the shores of lake Titicaca with an object of devotion in -the shape of this old picture; which was to replace their -former simple worship of the Sun and Moon on the sacred -islands of the lake. It will be interesting to examine briefly -the way the Spaniards treated the people they subjected, in -other respects, and to glance at the kind of government -which they substituted for the mild rule of the Incas.</p> - -<p>The forefathers of the present Aymara Indians established -a civilization of which we have no record save the silent -evidence of those cyclopean ruins which have just been -described. Subsequently, for nearly four centuries, from the -middle of the twelfth to the sixteenth, they formed a part of -the empire of the Incas, and their land was then called -Collasuyu. During this period the Incas followed their -constant policy of superseding the language of the conquered -land by their own more polished Quichua; and they so far -succeeded that the Aymara, which once extended and was -spoken all over the Collao, as far as the pass of Ayaviri, on -the road to Cuzco, has been entirely superseded in all parts -north of Puno by the Quichua, and is now only spoken -between Puno and La Paz, and farther south. Nevertheless -the people enjoyed a long period of tranquillity and prosperity -during the happy rule of the Incas, and the population continued -to increase. With the introduction of Spanish rule -a blight fell upon them: and we shall now see how the -beneficent laws of the sovereigns of Castile were administered -by their unworthy servants.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> - -<p class="c">THE PERUVIAN INDIANS:</p> - -<p class="c"><span class="smallish">Their condition under Spanish colonial rule.</span></p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> reviewing the deplorable results of Spanish domination -in South America, it may at once be conceded that the -legislation which originated from the councils of the kings -of Castile was always, except in matters connected with -religion, remarkable for beneficence and liberality in all -that concerned the natives; and that, in the words of Mr. -Helps, "those humane and benevolent laws, which emanated -from time to time from the Home Government, rendered the -sway of the Spanish monarchs over the conquered nations as -remarkable for mildness as any, perhaps, that has ever been -recorded in the pages of history."<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> It may also be allowed -that the Viceroys of Peru were generally earnest and zealous -statesmen, who conscientiously strove to enforce the regulations -which they from time to time received from the council -of the Indies.</p> - -<p>But it was almost as impossible for the viceroys to exercise -efficient personal supervision over the government of so -enormous a country, while residing at Lima, as it would -have been if they had remained at the council-table in Seville; -and their subordinates were, as a body, untrustworthy, -extortionate, rapacious, and often remorselessly cruel. Thus -the benign laws of the Spanish kings became a dead letter in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> -South America, and the natives groaned, for three centuries, -under a yoke which crashed them to the earth, and converted -vast tracts of once thickly populated country into uninhabited -deserts.</p> - -<p>Yet the humane intentions of the Spanish government, -and the labours of the Peruvian viceroys, were not wholly -without results; and it is partly due to them that a system -of worse than African slavery was not established in Peru, -and that the native race has not long ago become entirely -extinct.</p> - -<p>At the time of the Spanish conquest Pizarro was empowered, -in 1529, to grant "<i>encomiendas</i>," or estates, to his fellow-conquerors, -the inhabitants of which were bound to pay tribute -to the holders of the grants; and in 1536 these <i>encomiendas</i> -were extended to two lives. The consequent exactions and -cruelties were so intolerable that the good Las Casas, and -other friends of the Indians, at length induced the Emperor -Charles V. to enact the code so well known as the "New -Laws," in 1542; by which the <i>encomiendas</i> were to pass -immediately to the Crown after the death of the actual -holders; all officers under government were prohibited from -holding them; all men who had been mixed up in the civil -wars of the Pizarros and Almagros were to be deprived at -once; a fixed sum was to be settled as tribute to be paid -by the Indians; and all forced personal labour was absolutely -forbidden.</p> - -<p>The promulgation of these beneficent laws excited a howl of -furious execration from the conquerors,—the wolves who were -thus to be dragged away, when their fangs were actually fixed -in the flesh of their victims. Gonzalo Pizarro rose in rebellion -in Peru, and defeated and killed Blasco Nuñez de Vela, the -viceroy who had arrived to enforce these "New Laws;" -while the more politic Belalcazar, at Popayan, though professing -obedience, contrived to evade the execution of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> -orders, after a fashion which gave rise to the well-known -saying—"<i>se obedece, pero no se cumple</i>"—"he obeys, but -does not fulfil." Their unpopularity was so great that it was -considered unsafe to persist in the attempt to enforce them, -and they were revoked in 1545. The President Gasca re-distributed -the "<i>encomiendas</i>" in 1550, and they were granted -for three lives in 1629. Gasca, who showed more regard -for his own safety and convenience than for the public service, -arranged that his settlement of the <i>encomiendas</i> should -not be promulgated until he had sailed for Spain, and he -suspended the law prohibiting the forced personal service of -the Indians. The latter enactment, however, was boldly promulgated -by the Judges of the Royal Audience in 1552, and -was, as might have been expected, immediately followed by -a ferment amongst the conquerors and a formidable rebellion. -Finally the Marquis of Cañete arrived in Peru, as -viceroy, in 1554; and, by a mixture of severity and prudent -conciliation, trod out the last sparks of revolt amongst the -Spaniards.</p> - -<p>In 1568 the viceroy Don Francisco de Toledo established -the system under which the native population of Peru was -professedly ruled for the two succeeding centuries. Toledo -was a bigot, without pity, and inexorably cruel. Justice -or humanity had no weight with him if they stood in the -way of any policy which he deemed to be advisable, as -was shown in the judicial murder of the young Inca Tupac -Amaru. But he was a faithful servant of his sovereign, -and resolutely determined to enforce the edicts of the -Council of the Indies; a statesman of considerable ability -and untiring industry. He was so prolific in legislation that, -on the subject of coca-cultivation alone, he issued seventy -ordinances; and future viceroys referred to his rules and -enactments as to a received and authoritative text-book. The -viceroy Marquis of Montes Claros, in 1615, declared that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> -"all future rulers of Peru were but disciples of Francisco de -Toledo, that great master of statesmanship."</p> - -<p>By his <i>Libro de Tasas</i>, or Book of Rules, Toledo fixed the -tribute to be paid by the Indians, exempting all men under -the age of eighteen, or over that of fifty. The Indians were -governed by native chiefs of their own people, whose duty it -was to collect the tribute, and pay it in to the Spanish corregidor -or governor of the province, as well as to exercise -subordinate magisterial functions. These chiefs, called -<i>Curacas</i> in the time of the Incas, were ordered by Toledo -to be named <i>Caciques</i>, a word brought from the West Indian -islands;<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> and under them there were two other native officials—the -<i>Pichca-pachacas</i>, placed over 500 Indians, and the -<i>Pachacas</i> over 100. These offices were inherited from father -to son, and their possessors enjoyed several privileges, such -as the exemption from arrest, except for grave offences, and -they received a fixed salary. The native Caciques were often -men of considerable wealth; some of them were members of -the royal family of the Incas; they were free from the payment -of tribute and from personal service; and thus occupied -positions of importance amongst their countrymen.<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> They -wore the same dress which distinguished the nobles of the -Inca's court, consisting of a tunic called <i>uncu</i>, a rich mantle -or cloak of black velvet called <i>yacolla</i>, intended as mourning -for the fall of their ancient rulers; and those of the family of -the Incas added a sort of coronet, whence a red fringe of -alpaca-wool descended as an emblem of nobility. This head-dress -was called <i>mascapaycha</i>. They had pictures of the -Incas in their houses, and encouraged the periodical festivals -in memory of their beloved sovereigns, when plays were -enacted, and mournful music was produced from the national<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> -instruments, drums, trumpets, clarions, and <i>pututus</i>, or sea -shells.<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> All these customs were left unchanged by Toledo, -and the system so far resembles that which now prevails in -the Dutch colony of Java.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p> - -<p>But, in addition to the tribute, the amount of which as -established by Toledo was not excessive, and which was -rendered still less objectionable to the Indians from being -collected by their native chiefs, there was the <i>mita</i> or forced -labour in mines, manufactories, and farms,<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> which became -the instrument of fearful oppression and cruelty. Toledo -enacted that a seventh part of the adult male population of -every village should be subject to the <i>mita</i>, and ordered that -the Caciques should send these <i>mitayos</i>, as they were called, -to the public squares of the nearest Spanish towns, where -they might be hired by those who required their services; -and laws were enacted to regulate the distance they might be -taken from their homes, and their payment.<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> It appears, -however, that this seventh part of the working men who were -told off for forced labour was exclusive of those employed in -the mines, so that, even in theory, the <i>mita</i> condemned a large -fraction of the population to slavery.<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></p> - -<p>There was a class of Indians, numbering about 40,000 -souls in the time of Toledo (1570), called <i>Yanaconas</i>, who -were scattered over Peru, and forced to work on the lands of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> -Spaniards, or as domestic servants. They may have been -descendants of captives in war, or of persons who had been -condemned to slavery in the time of the Incas, and thus -became the property of the conquerors; but in 1601 an -enactment was promulgated to ameliorate their condition, -and fix the terms of their service.<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a></p> - -<p>In matters connected with religion the Spanish legislators -allowed of no temporizing policy. All signs of idolatry must -disappear, and with the new religion came additional exactions, -in the shape of fees for masses, burials, and christenings. -Toledo enacted many laws for the suppression of the old -religion of the Incas: any Indian who married an idolatrous -woman was to receive one hundred stripes, "because that is -the punishment which they dislike most;" the people were -prohibited from using surnames taken from the names of -birds, beasts, serpents, or rivers, which was their ancient -custom; and no Indian who had been punished for idolatry, -joining in infidel rites, or dancing the dance called <i>arihua</i>, -could be appointed to hold any public office.<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a></p> - -<p>On the whole, however, the legislation of the Spanish -kings, and the reports of the viceroys of Peru, display an -earnest desire to protect the Indians from tyranny, and to -render their condition tolerable. In 1615 the Marquis of -Montes Claros impressed on his successor the importance of -obliging all classes of Spaniards to treat the Indians well, and -of chastising oppression with rigour. In 1681 the Count of -Castellar states that one of the points most dwelt upon in the -instructions given to the viceroys, and in repeated royal -enactments, was the humane treatment of the Indians; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> -he declares that he always sought to enforce these orders -from the day that he landed in Peru; and words to the same -effect are to be found in the reports of most of the other -viceroys.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p> - -<p>But side by side with these evidences of the good intentions -of the Government, is the testimony of the viceroys -that their efforts to comply with these beneficent orders, and -enforce these humane laws, were fruitless, and rendered of no -effect by the unworthiness of their subordinates; and almost -all complain of the rapid depopulation of the country. In -1620 the Prince of Esquilache reported that "the arm of the -viceroy was not powerful against the negligence and maladministration -of the corregidors;" in 1681 the Count of -Castellar said that he had to correct and punish the excesses -both of the corregidors and the curas; in 1697 the Duke of -La Palata speaks of the depopulation of the villages and -towns, caused by the forcible detention of the Indians to work -at the mines, in cloth and cotton workshops, and in farms; -and another viceroy attributes the rapid depopulation of -the country to the same causes, and also to drink, and -urges a closer supervision of the conduct of the corregidors -and curas.</p> - -<p>I have, in a former work, given a brief account of the -treatment of the Indians, and of the way in which the laws -intended for their defence were evaded; from the evidence -of the brothers Ulloa, who were commissioned to make a -special and secret report on the subject to the King of Spain -in 1740.<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> I have since collected abundant testimony to the -same effect, printed and in manuscript, both at Madrid and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> -in Peru; but I have only space for a few brief notes, which -must serve to illustrate this part of the subject.</p> - -<p>The mines of Potosi were supplied with labourers from the -nearest provinces, by enforcing a <i>mita</i> of a seventh of the -adult male population. In 1573 this <i>mita</i> consisted of -11,199 Indians, in 1620 of 4249, and in 1678 of 1674,<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> a -decrease which marks the rapid depopulation of the country; -and, at the latter date, when the authorities at Potosi failed -to receive a sufficient number of labourers by the ordinary -<i>mita</i>, they kidnapped people in their homes, and on the roads, -and carried them off to forced labour in the mines. The law -was that the <i>mitayos</i> should be paid for coming and going, -and that they should not be forced to work at night; but -these laws were habitually set at nought, and Potosi became -an exhausting drain to the surrounding country.<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a></p> - -<p>The mines of Huancavelica, which supplied the quicksilver -necessary for extracting the silver of Potosi from -its ores,<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> also desolated the ten adjoining provinces. In -1645 the <i>mita</i> or seventh part of the adult male population -amounted to 620, and in 1678 to only 354 Indians. -The <i>mita</i> was a service which was abhorred and -dreaded by the people, and mothers maimed the arms and -legs of their children to deliver them from this slavery. -Don Juan de Padilla relates that, in 1657, when he was at -Santa Lucia, in the province of Lucanas, he saw the women -of the village go out to assist each other in sowing their fields, -and, at the end of their labour, they returned hand in hand, -singing a most melancholy song, and lamenting the cruel -fate of their husbands and brothers, who were slaving in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> -mines of Huancavelica, while they were obliged to work in -the fields like men. They declared that when a man was -once taken for the <i>mita</i> his wife seldom or never saw him -again, unless she went herself to the place of his torments.<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a></p> - -<p>The oppression of the owners of <i>obrajes</i> or manufactories of -coarse woollen and cotton cloths, in enforcing the <i>mitas</i>, was -as crushing as that of the miners. These people employed -men, called <i>guatacos</i>, to hunt the Indians, and drive them into -the <i>obrajes</i>. If they could not find the particular men for -whom they were in search, they took their children, wives, -and nearest neighbours, robbed them of all they possessed, -and frequently violated the women and young girls.<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> The -masters, in the <i>obrajes</i>, then forced their victims to get deeply -in debt to them, and thus obtained an excuse for keeping -them in perpetual slavery. In many <i>obrajes</i> there were -Indians who had not been outside the walls for forty years -and upwards. The law was that the natives should be free -from tribute and personal service until they attained the age -of eighteen; but it was the general practice to drag children -from their homes at the ages of six or eight, force them to -work hard at twisting woollen and cotton threads, and flog -them cruelly.<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a></p> - -<p>Thus the work of depopulation went on until, in 1622, -many <i>encomiendas</i> which originally contained a thousand adult -male Indians, and yielded eight thousand dollars of tribute, -were reduced to a hundred; yet these unfortunate survivors -were forced to continue the payment of the original tribute, -or to render personal service instead. There was an <i>encomienda</i> -in Huanuco where the Indians had paid more than one -hundred thousand dollars over and above what was legally -due, during fifty years.<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p> - -<p>It may well be asked of what use were the humane and -beneficent laws enacted by the kings of Spain if this was the -way in which they were universally evaded by corregidors, -curas, and Spanish settlers of all ranks? The caciques -sorrowfully watched the gradual extinction of their people, -perhaps secretly hoped for an opportunity of revenge, but -were without power to prevent the cruel oppression which -they deplored, though they did not neglect, from time to -time, to protest against the lawless exactions and cruelties of -the Spaniards.<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a></p> - -<p>But the Indians did not endure their fate without occasional -attempts at resistance. On one occasion the people on -the western shore of lake Titicaca rose against the <i>mita</i> of -Potosi, and retreated amongst the beds of rushes on the shores -of the lake, which, in some places, are nine leagues long and -one broad. In the midst of these rushes there was an island, -whence secret lanes were cut through the tangled mass, -which the fugitives navigated in their balsas. Secure in their -retreat, they continued to make inroads on the Spanish -towns near the lake, until at last, in 1632, the viceroy Count -of Chinchon ordered his nephew, Don Rodrigo de Castro, to -chastise them. Five of their leaders were captured and hung -at Zepita, and their heads were stuck on the bridge over the -Desaguadero. This only exasperated the Indians, who -elected a brave and enterprising leader named Pedro Laime, -and, suddenly attacking the bridge over the Desaguadero, -they carried off the heads of their former chiefs. The -Spaniards marched along the shore and waded to some islets, -while the Indians hovered round them in their balsas, and -prevented them from advancing further. At length the -Spanish troops were embarked in twenty balsas, and came in -sight of the hostile squadron commanded by Laime. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> -Indians went in and out of the lanes of rushes only known -to themselves, baffled their oppressors, and cut off several of -the Spanish balsas. A party of cavalry advancing into the -swampy ground was suddenly surrounded and cut to pieces, -the Indians only losing three men.<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p> - -<p>Thus the fugitive Indians retained their liberty for many -years in these inaccessible fastnesses of lake Titicaca, and the -Augustine friar Calancha confesses that "the rebellion was -caused by the injustice and tyranny of the Spaniards, who -forced the Indians to work without pay, and seized on their -goods."</p> - -<p>This was not a solitary instance of rebellion, though, on the -whole, the Indians endured their cruel fate with meekness -and long suffering. Yet they are not a mean-spirited people, -and at length they showed their oppressors that it was possible -to press the yoke down too hard even for their powers -of endurance.</p> - -<p>The tribute, the <i>mita</i>, the exactions of the curas, and the -<i>alcabala</i>, or excise duties,<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> were all patiently borne; but -another method of extortion, the "<i>repartimiento</i>," or "<i>reparto</i>,"<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> -at length exhausted the patience of the over-tasked Indians. -The <i>reparto</i> was a system, ostensibly for distributing European -goods to the Indians, which was converted into a means -of wholesale robbery by the Spanish corregidors, and finally -led to a general rebellion. An Indian chieftain thus describes -the <i>reparto</i> system:—"Abandoning their souls for their -avarice, the corregidors have the assurance to distribute -(<i>repartir</i>) by force, and against all reason, baize and cloths<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> -worth two rials for one dollar, and in the same proportion -with knives, needles, dice, pins, cards, trumpets, rings, and -pewter mirrors, which are all quite useless to the Indians; -besides velvets and silks, which the poor people cannot use; -for they are obliged to dress in the coarsest clothes, to sleep -on beds of rags, and feed on roots; while the corregidors and -their dependants commit the most unjust extortions and -outrages. They even exceed the legal quantity of <i>repartos</i> -assigned to their respective provinces; for example, that of -Tinta was ordered to be 112,500 dollars, and the corregidor -made it 500,000 dollars, as was proved by his books and -papers."<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> General del Valle, who commanded the troops -employed to put down Tupac Amaru's rebellion, complained -that the avarice of the corregidors, in recovering their claims -on the Indians for <i>repartos</i>, was such that they refused him -the aid of their people in pacifying the country. Their -obstinacy and avarice, he declared, had reached to such a -point that, if they were informed that the rebels had reached -the very suburbs of their towns, they would rather see the -defeat of the king's troops than send away a single Indian -who might owe them a yard of cloth.<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a></p> - -<p>This unblushing dishonesty and extortion, which was -winked at by the Royal Audience at Lima, the highest court -of judicial appeal, drove the Indian population to a state of -desperation, which only required a spark to set it in a blaze. -The humane laws, and the elaborate system of legislation for -the Indians, had, after 200 years of hopeless inefficiency, -ended in this. The careful enactments to limit the amount -of tribute, to prevent the Indians from suffering by forced -personal service, the laws of ecclesiastical councils to protect -them from the exactions of the curas, the benevolent intentions -evinced in declaring all Indians to be minors in the eye<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> -of the law, the "<i>residencias</i>," or arrangements for examining -the conduct of every official at the close of his term of office; -all these provisions, which have justly called forth the praise -of Mr. Helps, Mr. Merivale,<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> and other modern writers, had -become dead letters, absolutely and hopelessly, towards the -end of the last century. The laws remained the same, but -they were habitually set aside by those whose duty it was to -administer them. The tribute fixed for villages when they -contained a thousand men was continued the same when the -population had decreased to a hundred;<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> the <i>mita</i> was enforced -so mercilessly that whole districts were left without a single -adult male inhabitant;<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> the curas extorted exorbitant fees -from their victims, in spite of the law;<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> and the judges, who -were sent to take the "<i>residencias</i>," received bribes to overlook -all offences, and usually handed over the complaints -which were submitted to them to the officials who were complained -of in exchange for a sum of money, the price of their -silence.<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> These evils were long borne patiently; but when -the shameless enormities of the <i>Repartos</i> were superadded, -the poor remnant of the descendants of the subjects of the -Incas at length rose as one man against their oppressors.</p> - -<p>There were not wanting, amongst the Spaniards in Peru, -as well as amongst the native Caciques, many good and -humane men who raised their voices against the lawless -cruelty of the majority of the officials, and earnestly warned -the Government of the inevitable consequences. Don Ventura -Santalices, the Governor of La Paz, devoted his time and -fortune to the cause of the oppressed Indians, and was -appointed to a seat in the Council of the Indies, but he was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> -poisoned on his arrival in Spain: the energetic remonstrances -of Blas Tupac Amaru, a descendant of the Incas, -caused him also to be summoned to Spain, where he obtained -promises of many concessions, but he was assassinated at sea, -during the return voyage: and the names of other bold and -fearless defenders of the Indians deserve to be recorded, such -as Don Manuel Arroyo, Don Ignacio Castro, Don Agustin de -Gurruchategui, Bishop of Cuzco, and Don Francisco Campos, -Bishop of La Paz.</p> - -<p>But their remonstrances bore no fruit, and, in 1780, the -Corregidor of Chayanta having exacted three <i>repartos</i> in one -year, an Indian chief, named Tomas Catari, set the example -of revolt; thousands flocked to his standard, and to those -of his brothers Damaso and Nicolas; in a few months the -whole of Upper Peru (the modern Bolivia) was in revolt, and -an army of Indians under Julian Apasa, a baker of Hayohayo -near Sicasica, besieged La Paz.<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> At the same time there -was an uneasy feeling at Cuzco and throughout Peru, and -whispers of a conspiracy amongst the Indians. Don Pedro -Sahuaraura, the Cacique of Oropesa, near Cuzco, reported -that one Ildefonso del Castillo had solicited him to join the -conspiracy; suspicion was thrown on several other influential -Indians; and in June 1780 this Castillo, Bernardo Tambohuacto, -the Cacique of Pissac, and six others, were put to -death at Cuzco.<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> In the following November the Cacique -José Gabriel Condorcanqui, better known as Tupac Amaru, -raised the standard of revolt, and the last desperate struggle -for liberty was commenced by the descendant of the Incas.<a name="FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a></p> - -<p>"It would be difficult," says Dean Funes, "to find in the -history of revolutions one more justifiable and less fortunate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> -than that of Tupac Amaru. America had, in those days, -become the theatre of the most wide-spread tyranny; but -the Indians of Peru were those on whose necks the yoke -weighed heaviest. <i>Mitas</i> and <i>repartos</i> were, in Peru, the -deadly plagues of Spanish invention, which devoured the -human race."<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a></p> - -<p>I am enabled to give a more correct and circumstantial -account of the great rising of the Peruvian Indians in the -end of the last century than has yet appeared in Europe; -although, as this interesting subject is a digression from the -main purpose of the present work, I shall be obliged to compress -my narrative within the narrow limits of one or two -chapters.<a name="FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> In this brief sketch of the state of the Peruvian -Indians under Spanish rule, I have endeavoured to establish -the fact that Tupac Amaru's rebellion was justified because -the oppression of his people had become intolerable, and -because all law was set at defiance by the Spanish officials. -He protested, not against the tyranny of the laws, but against -the infringement of laws, and the oppressive acts done in -spite of the laws, by those whose duty it was to administer -them.</p> - -<p>In writing on this subject one is apt to be carried away by -indignation against the Spanish rulers in South America; -yet, if we look round at the systems of colonization pursued -by other European nations, it will be found difficult to say -who has a right to cast the first stone. The Spanish colonies, -however, cannot properly be compared with those modern English -settlements, to which thousands of the labouring classes -have emigrated, and either annihilated the natives, or fenced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> -them off by a system of reserves and isolation. No European -labouring class was introduced into South America; the -Indians still continued to be the cultivators, the shepherds, and -the artizans; and the Spaniards were merely the dominant -race. This state of things is more allied to the conditions -which now exist in British India or Dutch Java, and there -is thus no analogy between the South American settlements -and any British colony in the proper acceptation of the -word.</p> - -<p>Yet to Spain the credit is due, in spite of numerous shortcomings, -and notwithstanding the oppression of her subordinates, -of having endeavoured to establish the wisest, the most -humane, and the only successful system of treating natives -of an inferior race. It is certain that such a race must either -continue to form the mass of the population, amalgamate -with their conquerors, or be annihilated. The two former -of these three alternatives were adopted in Peru, partly from -natural causes, but partly also owing to the incessant exertions -of the earlier Spanish viceroys, and of the "Defenders -of the Indians;" and this result was achieved in spite of the -oppression and cruelty of their subordinates. The Indians -have continued to form the labouring class of Peru; amalgamation -has taken place, to a very large extent, with -Europeans; and the native race has thus been preserved -from extinction.<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> In the English colonies, on the other -hand, owing to the influx of settlers of the labouring class, -the aborigines have either been exterminated, or, through a -system of isolation, are rapidly and inevitably advancing on -the melancholy road to final annihilation.</p> - -<p>But it was the intention of the Spanish system to do -more for the aboriginal race than merely to preserve it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> -from extinction. By adopting a system of tutelage, as -regarded the Indians, the Spanish Government endeavoured -to defend them, in legal matters, from the superior intelligence -of a more civilized race; and Mr. Helps points out -that it is hardly possible to carry legislation further, in favour -of any people, than by considering them as minors in the -eye of the law, in order to protect them from being imposed -upon in their dealings with their conquerors.<a name="FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> The opposite -plan, which has been adopted in some of the English colonies, -of making native tribes equal to Europeans in the eye of -the law, is a mere mockery, and cannot by any possibility -exist in reality.<a name="FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a></p> - -<p>It may then be readily allowed that the intentions of the -Spanish Government towards the Indians were humane and -just; that their legislation was invariably marked by tenderness -and concern for the subject race; and that their policy, -had it been carried into effect, was far more wise and -generous than that by which modern nations have generally -been influenced in dealing with the aborigines of their -colonies. But I think I have clearly shown that, through -the unworthiness of their subordinates, this policy was only -very partially enforced; that the cruelty and oppression of -the colonial officials at length became insufferable; and that -no cause could be more just than that in which Tupac Amaru, -the last of the Incas, at length drew his sword.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2> - -<p class="c">NARRATIVE OF THE INSURRECTION OF JOSÉ GABRIEL TUPAC -AMARU, THE LAST OF THE INCAS.</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> basin of lake Titicaca is bounded on the north by the -mountains of Vilcañota, which unite the maritime cordillera -with the Eastern Andes, and the river of Vilcamayu rises in -these mountains, and flows north through a fertile and well-peopled -valley, which is covered with fields of Indian corn. -The road from Puno to Cuzco, after crossing the Vilcañota -range by the pass of Santa Rosa, descends the valley of the -Vilcamayu, passing through the towns of Marangani, Sicuani, -Cacha, Tinta, Checacupe, Quiquijana, and Urcos; and then -leaves the river near Oropesa, and ascends a valley for three -leagues to the city of Cuzco. On either side of the ravine of -Vilcamayu are lofty table-lands, which only yield potatoes and -quinoa; the wild hills are covered with coarse grass, often -weighed down with snow; and in several places there are -large Alpine lakes. Uninviting as this bleak region appears, -it still contains several Indian villages, ruled in 1780 by -native caciques, who were subject to the corregidor of Tinta, -in the valley. The principal villages under the jurisdiction -of Tinta in this cold and lofty district are Sangarara, Lanqui, -Pampamarca, Surimani, Yanaoca, and Tungasuca—the latter -of which was the home of Tupac Amaru. It is a small village, -with a few patches of potatoes and quinoa round it, near -the banks of a wild-looking lake, with rocky mountains rising -abruptly from the water.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/fig29.jpg"> -<img src="images/thumb2.jpg" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption center">FAMILY<span class ="small"> OF THE</span> INCAS OF PERU.<br /> -<span class="smallish"><i>To face page 134.</i></span> -</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p> - -<p>José Gabriel Condorcanqui or Tupac Amaru,<a name="FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> the son of -the Cacique Miguel Tupac Amaru by his wife Rosa Noguera, -was born at Tinta in the year 1742, and baptized at Tungasuca, -the birthplace of his father.<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> He claimed to be the -representative of the family of the Incas, as fifth in lineal -descent from Tupac Amaru, the son of the Inca Manco, who -was judicially murdered by the Viceroy Toledo in 1571.</p> - -<p>The young José received the first rudiments of his education -from two neighbouring clergymen, Antonio Lopez, Cura -of Pampamarca, a native of Panama, and a man of considerable -talent; and Carlos Rodriguez, Cura of Yanaoca, a -native of Guayaquil. At a very early age, however, he was -sent to the Jesuit college of San Borja at Cuzco, which had -been established for the education of young Indian chiefs. -He is said to have been particularly noticed by the professors -for his close application, capacity, and excellent disposition; -and his scholastic acquirements were not inconsiderable. He -spoke Spanish with fluent accuracy, and his vernacular -Quichua with peculiar grace.<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p> - -<p>Before he was twenty he succeeded his father as Cacique -of Tungasuca, Pampamarca, and Surimani, three villages -situated on the cold and lofty region which overhangs the -valley of the Vilcamayu; and in 1760 he was married to -Micaela Bastidas, a beautiful Indian girl of Abancay.<a name="FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a></p> - -<p>In person José Tupac Amaru was five feet eight inches in -height, well-proportioned, sinewy, and firmly knit. He had -a handsome Indian face, a slightly aquiline nose, full black -eyes, and altogether a countenance intelligent, benign, and -expressive. His address, remarkable for gentlemanlike ease, -was dignified and courteous towards superiors and equals; -but in his intercourse with the aborigines, by whom he was -profoundly venerated, there was a sedateness not inconsistent -with his legally-admitted claims (de jure) to the diadem of -the Incas. In mind he was enterprising, cool, and persevering. -He lived in a style becoming his rank, and, when -residing at Cuzco, usually wore a black velvet coat and small-clothes -in the fashion of the day, a waistcoat of gold tissue, -embroidered linen, a Spanish beaver dress hat, silk stockings, -and gold knee and shoe-buckles, and he allowed his glossy -black hair to flow in ringlets which extended down nearly to -his waist.<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> The chief source of his income arose from thirty-five -<i>piaras</i> or troops of mules, each <i>piara</i> consisting of ten, -which were regularly employed or hired out in the transport -of merchandise, home-made stuffs, sugar, and quicksilver to -Potosi and other parts.<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> He had travelled over a considerable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> -portion of Peru, and had two or three times resided in Lima; -and in his journeys he was always attended by a small retinue -of Indians, and sometimes accompanied by a chaplain.</p> - -<p>In about 1770 Tupac Amaru went to Lima to establish his -claim to the Marquisate of Oropesa, which had been granted -to his family by Philip II. After some delay his claim was -acknowledged by the Royal Audience, and, in a judgment pronounced -by the Fiscal Don Serafin Leytan y Mola, he was -declared to be the heir to the marquisate, as fifth in lineal -descent from the Inca Tupac Amaru; but it would appear -that this judgment was withheld from official publication. It -was said that the fiscal paid the successful suitor so many -honours, and said so many complimentary things concerning -his nobility and royal descent, that he grew proud;<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> and it -certainly appears that he adopted a style of living in his -mountain home at Tungasuca, after his return from Lima, -which he had not previously assumed.<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> It is remarkable that, -in 1618, the Viceroy Prince of Esquilache wrote a despatch -on the claims to jurisdiction of the members of the Inca -family, who were heirs to the marquisate of Oropesa. He -represented that very great inconvenience might arise from -any descendant of the Incas, particularly of the family of -Oropesa, so closely representing the direct line, holding any -jurisdiction in Peru. The estates of the marquisate were the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> -richest and best in Peru, and situated near Cuzco, where the -memory of the Incas was most cherished. Many descendants -of the Incas, he added, were then living, subject to no tribute -and no personal service, and very rich and powerful; and he -recommended that all claimants to the marquisate should be -obliged to live in Spain, and that an equivalent should be -paid them for their estates.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> This advice was not adopted by -the Council of the Indies.</p> - -<p>The young Inca at this time dropped his surname of Condorcanqui, -and assumed that of Tupac Amaru Inca. He -governed his villages of Tungasuca, Surinani, and Pampamarca -exceedingly well, and was highly esteemed by the -corregidor of the province, Don Pedro Muñoz de Arjona, and -his successors, who admired his punctual attention to his -duty, and therefore distinguished him above all the other -caciques. He habitually cultivated the acquaintance of the -Spanish curas and officials, and never let pass an opportunity -of representing to them, in impassioned language, the deplorable -condition of the Indians.<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> He assisted the distressed, -paid tribute for the poor, and sustained whole families which -had been reduced to ruin.<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> He cherished the traditions of -his people, and such customs as were not inconsistent with -his profession of Christianity; and he especially delighted in -the dramatic representations which recalled the glorious -memories of the past. One of his most intimate friends was -Dr. Antonio Valdez, Cura of Sicuani, a perfect master of the -Quichua language, and author of a play called 'Ollantay,' -founded on ancient tradition, which was frequently acted -before Tupac Amaru at Tungasuca.<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p> - -<p>The oppression of the Indians by means of the <i>mitas</i> and -<i>repartos</i> excited the indignation of the Inca Tupac Amaru; but -he exerted himself for years, and exhausted every means of obtaining -redress, before he was finally driven to take up arms in -their defence. Moved by his earnest and incessant appeals, -and his piteous account of the sufferings of his people, the -Bishops of Cuzco and La Paz forwarded them to the king -through Don Ventura Santalices; and Blas Tupac Amaru, the -Inca's uncle, also undertook a voyage to Spain; but death put -an end to the humane missions both of the Spaniard and the -Indian. Nevertheless, Tupac Amaru persevered in remitting -renewed petitions; while the corregidors not only eluded -compliance with the royal decrees, but also increased the burdens -of the Indians. At length his patience came to an end, -and he resolved to make an appeal to arms, not to throw off -the yoke of Spain, but to obtain some guarantee for the due<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> -observance of the laws, and their just administration. His -views were certainly confined to these ends when he first -drew his sword, although afterwards, when his moderate -demands were only answered by cruel taunts and brutal -menaces, he saw that independence or death were the only -alternatives.</p> - -<p>The most merciless oppressor of the Indians of Peru was -Don Antonio Aliaga, Corregidor of Tinta, and therefore -Tupac Amaru's immediate superior; and the Inca determined -to commence his revolt by punishing this great culprit. The -Inca's old tutor, Dr. Carlos Rodriguez, Cura of Yanaoca, in -celebration of his name-day, gave a dinner to the corregidor -of Tinta, and the Inca Tupac Amaru, on the 4th of November, -1780. The Inca, on pretence that some person had arrived -at his house from Cuzco, withdrew from the banquet early, -and placing himself in ambush on the road, with some -attendants, made the corregidor prisoner on his return, taking -him to Tungasuca,<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> and placing him in close confinement. -Tupac then wrote a letter marked <i>reservadissima</i>, which he -obliged Aliaga to sign, ordering his cashier at Tinta to remit -the public money in the provincial treasury to the Inca, -assigning as a reason that it was necessary to set out forthwith -to the port of Aranta,<a name="FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> threatened by a descent from -English cruisers. The Inca thus received 22,000 dollars, -some gold ingots, seventy-five muskets, baggage-horses, and -mules. Recruits were also ordered to be embodied, and sent -to Tungasuca.</p> - -<p>Having thus drawn together a considerable force, he sent -for his old master, Dr. Antonio Lopez, the Cura of Pampamarca,<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> -and ordered him to make known to the corregidor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> -that he must die, and to administer to him the consolations of -religion. A scaffold was then erected in the plaza of Tungasuca, -around which the retainers of the Inca were ranged in -three ranks, the first armed with muskets, the second with -pikes, and the rear rank with treble-loaded slings. Aliaga -was then led out and publicly executed on November 10th. -Tupac Amaru at the same time addressed the astonished multitude, -in Quichua, as to his present conduct and ulterior -views. Mounted on a fiery charger, attired in the princely -costume of his ancestors, with a banner bearing the figure of -an Inca encircled by embroidered chains of gold and silver, -and two armorial serpents,<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> he exhorted his followers to lend -an attentive ear to the legitimate descendant of their ancient -sovereigns, promising to abolish the <i>mitas</i> and <i>repartos</i>, and to -punish the extortionate corregidors.</p> - -<p>The whole multitude, with one accord, vowed implicit -obedience to his orders, and he at once began to form the -Indians into companies, and to nominate officers. Next day -he marched to Quiquijana, in the valley of the Vilcamayu, -the capital of the province of Quispicanchi, which he entered -at daybreak on the 12th, but the corregidor had fled. After -hearing mass Tupac returned towards Tungasuca, destroying -the <i>obraje</i> of Parapuquio on his way, where he found large -quantities of woollen clothes, which were distributed amongst -his followers. He also demolished the <i>obraje</i> of Pumacancha, -where he found property valued at 200,000 dollars, consisting -of 18,000 yards of woollen cloths (<i>bayeta</i>), 60,000 of cotton -cloths (<i>tocuyo</i>), some fire-arms, and two pieces of artillery, -belonging to the Corregidor of Quispicanchi.<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> These <i>obrajes</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> -were odious to the Indians, their owners having enforced the -<i>mita</i> far beyond the limits assigned by the law, and perpetrated -great cruelties on the women and children of the -<i>mitayos</i>. The Inca had now mustered 6000 troops, 300 -armed with muskets, and the rest with pikes, clubs, and -slings. Nearly the whole population of the provinces of -Tinta, Quispicanchi, Cotabambas, Calca, and Chumbivilicas -rose in his favour, with the exception of a few whites.</p> - -<p>The news of Tupac Amaru's revolt was brought to Cuzco -on the 12th, by Cabrera, the Corregidor of Quispicanchi, who -had so narrowly escaped capture. It created the greatest -alarm, as the city was only garrisoned by two regiments. -The college of the expelled Jesuits was turned into a kind -of citadel, into which private and public property was taken -for security; the white part of the population was enrolled; -requisitions for troops were sent to the neighbouring provinces; -and an express was despatched to Lima, imploring -speedy succour.</p> - -<p>Next day 450 men, under the command of Don Tiburcio -de Landa, Governor of Paurcartambo, marched out of Cuzco, -accompanied by the Cacique of Oropesa, Juan Sahuaraura, -with 700 Indians of his <i>ayllu</i>, or tribe. Landa was ordered -to wait for reinforcements at a place called Huayra-pata; -but the Corregidor Don Fernando Cabrera, who accompanied -him, enraged at the loss of property which he had sustained, -induced him to advance to the village of Sangarara, within -five leagues of Tinta, which he reached on the 17th. At -dawn on the following morning it began to snow, and, finding -himself surrounded by a superior force of hostile Indians, -Landa retreated into the church. Tupac Amaru then wrote -to him, offering terms, which were refused; and he again -wrote to the cura, who was also in the church, urging him -to retire with the women and children. The Spanish troops, -however, prevented them from coming out, a scuffle ensued,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> -the stock of powder ignited, and the roof and one of the -walls were blown out. The Spaniards then made a dash -forward, and fought bravely until they were nearly all -killed.<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> Only twenty-eight wounded remained, who were -cured and set at liberty by order of the Inca. Landa,<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> his -lieutenant Escajadillo, Cabrera, and the Cacique Sahuaraura<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> -were amongst the slain.</p> - -<p>The news of the disaster at Sangarara reached Cuzco on -the 19th, and produced indescribable confusion. The Cabildo -immediately began to collect arms, make powder, repair six -old field-pieces, and on the 20th Don Juan Nicolas de -Lobaton y Zavala, Marquis of Rocafuerte, arrived from -Urubamba with reinforcements. Every citizen came forward -to serve, and a corps of volunteers was formed under Don -Faustino Alvarez de Foronda, Count of Vallehermoso. The -Bishop ordered all the clergy to assemble, formed them into -four companies, and gave the command to the Dean, Dr. -Manuel de Mendieta. More troops soon came in from Calca, -under Don Pablo Astete, and from other parts, and by the -end of November there were 3000 men in arms at Cuzco. -Anxious to pacify the Indians, the Cabildo then issued a proclamation -abolishing the <i>repartos</i>, and the <i>alcabala</i>, or excise -on provisions, and declaring that the Indians should never<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> -again be forced to work in the <i>obrajes</i>, if they remained faithful. -Defensive works were thrown up in the city and suburbs, -and religious processions paraded the streets.</p> - -<p>At this moment Tupac Amaru might probably have entered -Cuzco without opposition; but unfortunately, relying on -the justice of his cause, he beguiled himself into the belief -that he could accomplish by argument and negotiation what -could only be obtained by the sword. He threw up embankments -and entrenched himself in an encampment near Tinta, -throwing out videttes to within three leagues of Cuzco; and -on the 27th he issued an edict from his head-quarters at -Tungasuca, setting forth the causes of his revolt. In this -document he recapitulated the grievances which his people -suffered, declared the tyranny of the Spanish officials to be -impious and cruel, and called upon the Indians to rally round -his standard.</p> - -<p>Early in December 1780 Tupac Amaru crossed the Vilcañota -range, by the pass of Santa Rosa, and, entering the -Collao, advanced by Pucara to Lampa. At every village he -addressed the people from the church-steps, saying that he -came to abolish abuses and punish the corregidors; and that -he was "the liberator of the kingdom, the restorer of privileges, -and the common father of those who groan under the -yoke of <i>repartos</i>." Nothing was heard amongst the Indians -but acclamations for their Inca and Redeemer.<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> On the 13th -of December he entered the town of Azangaro, where he -destroyed the houses of the Cacique Chuquihuanca, who had -refused to join the insurrection. A private letter, dated -January 1781,<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> says that he rode into Azangaro on a white -horse, with splendidly-embroidered trappings, and that two -fair men, like Englishmen, of commanding aspect, were on -his right and left. He was armed with a gun, sword, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> -pistols, and was dressed in blue velvet, richly embroidered -with gold, with a three-cornered hat, and an <i>uncu</i>, in the -shape of a bishop's rochet, over all, with a gold chain round -his neck, to which a large golden sun was attached. Having -received repeated letters from his wife, reporting the threatening -assembly of troops at Cuzco, he retraced his steps, by -Asillo and Orurillo, to the valley of the Vilcamayu, obliging -the curas of the villages through which he passed to receive -him in their churches under a canopy, and to chant the <i>Te -Deum</i>.</p> - -<p>On the 28th the heights of Picchu, overhanging Cuzco on -the west, were covered with his army. His cousin Diego -Tupac Amaru was detached to the eastward with 6000 men, -to occupy the provinces of Calca and Paucartambo. Another -detachment under Antonio Castelo, one of the Inca's most -trusted followers, marched along the direct road to Cuzco, -but was defeated two leagues from the city at a place called -Saylla, and finally effected a junction with the main body on -the heights of Picchu.</p> - -<p>Before attempting to force his way into Cuzco, the Inca -addressed a letter to the cabildo, and another to the bishop, -on the 3rd of January, 1781. To the cabildo he said that, as -the heir of the Incas, the ancient kings of the realm, he was -stimulated to endeavour by all possible means to put an end -to abuses, and to see men appointed to govern the Indians -who would respect the laws of the King of Spain. The -punishment of the Corregidor of Tinta was, he declared, absolutely -necessary as an example to others: and he announced -the object of his rebellion to be the entire abolition of <i>repartos</i>; -the appointment of an <i>alcalde mayor</i>, or judge of the -Indian nation, in every province; and the establishment of -an <i>audiencia</i> or court of appeal at Cuzco, within reach of the -Indians. "This," he concluded, "is at present the extent of -my wishes, leaving to the King of Spain his former dominion."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> -To the bishop he said that he had come forward, on behalf of -the whole nation, to put an end to the robberies and outrages -of the corregidors; and he promised to respect the priests, -all church property, and all women and inoffensive unarmed -people.<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a></p> - -<p>But the garrison of Cuzco had, in the mean while, been -reinforced by Pumacagua, the Cacique of Chinchero, and by -200 mulatto soldiers from Lima under Don Gabriel de -Aviles, who arrived by forced marches on January 1st. The -cabildo, therefore, refused to entertain any proposals from the -Inca. The Spaniards came out to attack him under Don Pablo -Astete, and the Caciques of Chinchero and Anta, Pumacagua -and Rosas. There was a long skirmish in the broken -ground, which was brought to a conclusion by the evening -snow; but on the 8th a sanguinary battle was fought in the -suburbs and on the heights, which lasted two days, and during -which a Dominican friar, named Ramon de Salazar, concealed -behind a rock, did effective service with his musket, and -contributed to throw the Indians into confusion. The Inca -finally retreated to Tinta, to re-organize his forces.</p> - -<p>His cousin Diego Tupac Amaru was also unsuccessful to -the eastward. His division was detached from the main army -at Checacupe, where he crossed some mountainous country, and -again descended into the valley of the Vilcamayu, following -the course of the river until he encountered the forces under -the command of the Marquis of Rocafuerte, consisting of the -levies of Pumacagua, Cacique of Chinchero, and those of the -Caciques of Maras and Huayllabamba. An engagement took -place at Huaran, on the banks of the river, near Calca, when -Diego was defeated, many of his Indians being drowned in -the river; and he again suffered defeat at Yucay on December -23rd. The Indian chief then left the valley of the Vilcamayu,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> -crossed a range of mountains, and laid siege to the town of -Paucartambo, on the banks of the rapid river of the same -name, while his videttes hovered over the heights above the -Vilcamayu valley, threatening the towns of Calca, Pissac, and -Taray. Don José Antonio Vivar was sent to occupy the -bridge at Urubamba, and watch the movements of the -Indians. Paucartambo, and a strong fort built on a rocky -height on the opposite side of the river, were desperately -defended by the Spaniards under Don Lorenzo Lechuga, who -had fortified and garrisoned the place. Astete was sent -across the bridge at Urubamba, with 400 men, to relieve it; -they had several encounters with the Indians on the march, -and on reaching the besieged town they found that Lechuga -had expended all his ammunition; but the besieging force, -under Diego Tupac Amaru, fell back towards Tinta, on the -approach of Astete, on the 18th of January, 1781. Having -re-organized his army at Tinta, the Inca, accompanied by his -cousin Diego, made another attack upon Paucartambo on the -11th of February; but, after several fruitless assaults, the -Indian army finally retreated to Tinta on the 14th.<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a></p> - -<p>Tupac Amaru had now assembled a force of 60,000 men -in and around Tinta; but they were wholly undisciplined, -and only a few hundreds were armed with muskets. All the -caciques in Peru, with the exception of sixteen,<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> had, however, -declared in favour of the Inca; and the whole Indian and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> -mestizo population, except the <i>ayllus</i> or tribes of the sixteen -Hispanicized caciques, longed earnestly for the success of this -truly national insurrection. After the retreat from Paucartambo -in February, the Inca occupied himself in strengthening -his position round Tinta, and in visiting the distant provinces -of Chuquibamba and Cotabambas, while one Isidro Mamani, -an Indian of ferocious character, born at Pomata, on the -banks of lake Titicaca, Pedro Vargas, and Andres Ingaricona, -held the open country in the Collao.</p> - -<p>The whole of the interior of Central and Upper Peru was -in revolt, and the viceroys of Peru and Buenos Ayres, Don -Augustin de Jauregui and Don Juan José de Vertiz, were -thoroughly alarmed. The former despatched Don José Antonio -Areche, as "visitador," with extraordinary judicial powers, -and a force commanded by Don José del Valle as Mariscal -del Campo, to Cuzco; while the latter named Don Ignacio -Flores, then Governor of Moxos, as commandante-general, to -put down the rebellion in Upper Peru.</p> - -<p>Areche, accompanied by General José del Valle, and Don -Benito de la Matta Linares, a judge of the Royal Audience -at Lima, arrived at Cuzco on February 23rd, 1781, where an -army of 15,000 men was collected, consisting of the tribes of -the recreant caciques, negroes and mulattos from the coast, -and a small force of Spaniards.</p> - -<p>Early in March General del Valle prepared to commence -the campaign. But, before his army marched out of Cuzco, -the visitador Areche received a letter from Tupac Amaru, in -which he represented the earnest endeavours he had made -to obtain justice for his people; the habitual violation of -the law by the Spanish officials; the cruel and intolerable -oppression caused by the <i>repartimentos</i> and the <i>mita</i>; and the -absolute necessity of some reform in the administration. He -concluded by proposing a negotiation by which these ends -might be attained without bloodshed. This despatch is very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> -ably written, and is a monument of the noble and enlightened -views of this great but most unfortunate patriot.<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> The -answer of the visitador Areche was a brutal menace, better -suited to a follower of Zengis Khan than to a Christian -judge. He refused all negotiation, vowed the most horrible -vengeance, and concluded by saying that, if the Inca surrendered -at once, the cruelty of the mode of his execution -would be lessened. The Spanish General del Valle protested -against the brutality of this reply.<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a></p> - -<p>Tupac Amaru now prepared to resist to the utmost, as it -became evident to him that complete independence or death -were the only two alternatives which were left by the barbarous -policy of the bloodthirsty visitador; but his edicts -were still marked by humanity and good sense. It does not -appear that he ever actually proclaimed himself a sovereign -independent of Spain; yet the draft of an edict was found -amongst his papers, in which he styles himself "Don José I., -by the grace of God, Inca, King of Peru, Quito, Chile, Buenos -Ayres, and the continents of the South Sea, Lord of the River -of the Amazons, with dominion over the Grand Paytiti." The -document is headed by a portrait of Tupac Amaru, crowned, -with Spanish trophies at his feet. It states that the King of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> -Castille had usurped the crown and dominions of Peru, imposing -innumerable taxes, tributes, duties, excises, monopolies, -tithes, fifths; appointing officers who sold justice, and treating -the people like beasts of burden. For these causes, and by -reason of the cries which have risen up to Heaven, in the -name of Almighty God, it is ordered that no man shall -henceforward pay money to any Spanish officer, excepting -the tithes to priests; but that tribute shall be paid to the -Inca, and an oath of allegiance to him be taken in every -town and village. The document is without date.<a name="FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a></p> - -<p>On March 12th, 1781, the army under General del Valle -marched out of Cuzco. A detachment of 2000 men was -sent against the insurgents, commanded by the Caciques -Parvina and Bermudez,<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> in the province of Cotabambas, who -were both killed in a desperate action. Tupac Amaru used -to call these brave chiefs his right and left arms. Meanwhile -the main body of the royalist army advanced slowly -along the mountains to the westward of the valley of the -Vilcamayu, suffering much from the snow-storms, the want -of food and fuel, and the shameful neglect of all commissariat -arrangements by Areche. On the 18th the Inca sent a -message to the Spanish General, saying that the morrow, -being the festival of San José, would be an appropriate day -for settling their differences; and that he should prepare his -troops for a movement of which, in compliment to the name-day -of both himself and Del Valle, he deemed it courteous -to apprise his adversary. In consequence of this message -the Spaniard kept his men under arms all night, but no -attack took place, and in the morning the Inca's army was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> -found to be gone. Tupac had intended a stratagem, and -had retired into an unfrequented ravine: on the 21st a -snow-storm favoured his design, and his plan would have -succeeded, had not a traitor, named Zunuario de Castro, -given Valle notice of his movements. The Spaniards -changed their position, and the Inca passed the night in -vainly searching for it.</p> - -<p>General del Valle was upwards of seventy years of age, -and, unable longer to endure the excessive cold of the -mountains, he descended into the valley of the Vilcamayu, -and captured Quiquijana, hanging the Cacique Luis Poma -Inca, who defended it. On the 6th of April the Spanish -army advanced up the valley, meeting with considerable -opposition, and reached Checacupe early in the day. Near -this village the Inca had taken up a position, defended by -a ditch and parapet stretching across the valley, and manned -by 20,000 men, but he had neglected to provide any defence -for his flanks. A Spanish division stole unperceived to -the back of the position, while the main body assaulted it -in front; and after an heroic defence the Indians, attacked -both in front and rear, fell back to another entrenched -position at Combapata, a league from Tinta, where the -village was surrounded by a mud wall, covered at the top -with thorny bushes. The Spaniards, following up their -success, played upon the village with their field-pieces for -several hours, then carried the position at the point of the -bayonet, and made a bloody entry into Tinta.</p> - -<p>Tupac Amaru, with his wife and three sons, fled to Lanqui, -a village about twenty miles to the westward, on the shores -of a wild Alpine lake. Here he intended to have rallied -his disordered troops, but he was betrayed by one of his -own officers, named Ventura Landaeta, who, assisted by the -cura of the place, basely delivered the illustrious Inca and -his family into the hands of the Spaniards. On the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> -day General del Valle hung sixty-seven Indian prisoners -at Tinta, whose heads he stuck on poles by the road-side.<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> -Diego Tupac Amaru, his nephew Andres Mendagure, and -Mariano, the second son of the Inca, fortunately escaped.</p> - -<p>On the 8th of April Francisco, the aged uncle of the Inca,<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> -was also seized, and the prisoners were marched bareheaded -into Cuzco, the visitador Areche coming out as far as Urcos -to meet them. They were all separated from each other, -and told that they would not meet again until the day of -execution.</p> - -<p>The chief prisoners were the Inca Tupac Amaru, his wife, -his two sons Hipolito and Fernando, his uncle Francisco, -his brother-in-law Antonio Bastidas, his maternal cousin -Patricio Noguera, his cousin Cecilia Tupac Amaru with her -husband Pedro Mendagure, a number of captains in the -Inca's army and other officials, and Aliaga's executioner -named Antonio Oblitas,<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> a negro slave.</p> - -<p>It is necessary to record the diabolical cruelties of the -visitador Areche, and his assistant Matta Linares, in order -to complete the narrative of the ill-fated Inca's life, and -to show into whose hands the fate of the Peruvian Indians -was placed by the Spanish viceroy, and of what devilish -atrocities they were capable. On the 15th of May, 1781, -the visitador Areche pronounced a lengthy sentence, in which -he declared that it was necessary to hasten its execution, -in order to convince the Indians that it was not impossible -to put a man of such elevated rank to death, merely because -he was the heir of the Incas of Peru. He then accused the -Inca of rebellion, of destroying the <i>obrajes</i>, of abolishing -the <i>mita</i>, and of causing pictures to be painted of himself<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> -dressed in the imperial insignia of the <i>uncu</i> or mantle, and -<i>mascapaicha</i> or head-dress; and others representing the triumph -of his arms at Sangarara. He condemned his victim -to behold the execution of his wife, his son, his uncle, his -brother-in-law Antonio Bastidas, and of his captains; to have -his tongue cut out, and afterwards to have his limbs secured -to the girths of four horses dragging different ways, and thus -to be torn in pieces. His body to be burnt on the heights -of Picchu, his head to be stuck on a pole at Tinta, one arm -at Tungasuca, the other in Caravaya, a leg in Chumbivilicas, -and another in Lampa. His houses to be demolished, their -sites strewn with salt, all his goods to be confiscated, all his -relations declared infamous, all documents relating to his -descent to be burnt by the hangman, all dresses used by the -Incas or caciques to be prohibited, all pictures of the Incas -to be seized and burnt, the representation of Quichua dramas -to be forbidden, all the musical instruments of the Indians -to be destroyed, all signs of mourning for the Incas to be -forbidden, all Indians to give up their national costumes, -and dress henceforth in the Spanish fashion, and the use of -the Quichua language to be prohibited.</p> - -<p>In the annals of barbarism there is probably not to be -found a document equalling this in savage wickedness and -imbecile absurdity: and this was written by a Spanish judge -only eighty years ago.<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a></p> - -<p>This hideous cruelty was literally carried into effect, in -all its revolting details. On Friday the 18th of May, 1781, -after the great square had been surrounded by Spanish and -negro troops, ten persons came forth from the church of the -Jesuits. One of these was the Inca Tupac Amaru, who had, -in the early morning, been visited in prison by Areche, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> -urged to betray all the accomplices in his rebellion.<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> "You -and I," he replied, "are the only conspirators: you for -having oppressed the country with exactions which were -unendurable, and I for having wished to free the people -from such tyranny."<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> The Inca's companions in misfortune -were his wife Micaela, his sons Hipolito and Fernando, his -brother-in-law Antonio Bastidas, his uncle Francisco Tupac -Amaru, Tomasa Condemaita the Cacica of Acos, José Verdejo -and Andres Castelo, captains in the Inca's army, and the -executioner Oblitas.</p> - -<p>Verdejo, Castelo, Oblitas, and Bastidas were hung at once. -The rest were heavily chained, tied up in the bags which are -used for carrying the maté or Paraguay tea, and dragged -backwards into the centre of the square by horses. Francisco -and Hipolito Tupac Amaru, the one an old man verging on -fourscore years, the other a youth of twenty, then had their -tongues cut out, and, with Tomasa Condemaita, were garrotted -by an iron screw, the first that had been seen in Cuzco. -Micaela, the wife of the Inca, was then placed on the same -scaffold, her tongue was cut out, and the screw was placed -round her neck in presence of her husband; but she suffered -cruelly, because her neck was so small that the screw failed -to strangle her. The executioners then placed a lasso round -her neck, and pulled different ways, at the same time kicking -her in the stomach and bosom until they succeeded in -killing her. The Inca was then taken into the centre of -the square, his chains were taken off, and his tongue was cut -out. He was then thrown on the ground; lassos, secured to -the girths of four horses, were fastened to his wrists and -ankles, and the horses were made to drag different ways, "a -spectacle never before seen at Cuzco." As the unfortunate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> -Inca's body was thus raised into the air, his youngest son -Fernando, a child of ten years, who had been forced to -witness this horrible massacre of his relations, uttered a heartrending -shriek, the knell of which continued to ring in the -ears of those who heard it to their dying day.<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> The horses -did not pull at the same time, and the body remained -suspended like a spider for many minutes, until at last the -brutal miscreant Areche, who was looking on from a window -in the College of the Jesuits, caused the head to be cut off.<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> -The child Fernando was then passed under the scaffold, and -sentenced to be banished for life to one of the penal settlements -in Africa.</p> - -<p>Many of the Spanish citizens were present, but not an -Indian was to be seen. They afterwards declared that, while -the horses were torturing the Inca, a great wind arose, with -torrents of rain, and that even the elements felt the death of -the Inca, whom the inhuman and impious Spaniards were -torturing with such cruelty.<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a></p> - -<p>The heads, bodies, and limbs of the victims were sent to -the different towns of Peru, and to the villages round Cuzco,<a name="FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> -in order to strike terror into the hearts of the Indians; but -this proceeding of course had the opposite effect, and goaded -them to fury. By the humane exertions of the Inca the war -had hitherto been carried on without unnecessary bloodshed, -and he had always protected unarmed persons and women; -but, after the perpetration of these barbarities in Cuzco, it -became a war of extermination, and during the following year -not less than 80,000 people fell victims to the vengeance of -the Indian and Spanish troops.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the revolting cruelty of Areche may be traced the abject -terror of a dastardly and craven mind; and to this cowardice -may also be imputed the concessions which were afterwards -wrung from him.<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a> Tupac Amaru did not die in vain; for, -after the suppression of his revolt, the <i>repartos</i> were abolished, -and the <i>mitas</i> were much modified.</p> - -<p>Thus fell the last of the Incas. He was a man of whom -his nation might well be proud, and will bear comparison -with the greatest monarchs of his race. Having enjoyed the -best education which Spanish policy at that time permitted -to the people of the colonies, he brought a cultivated mind, a -clear understanding, untiring industry, and devoted zeal for -the welfare of his countrymen to his important duties as a -wealthy and influential cacique. When he afterwards undertook -the office of defender of the oppressed Indians he -displayed an amount of patient perseverance, combined with -great ability in the advocacy of their cause, which excited -the admiration of the Bishop of Cuzco and others of the -more enlightened Spaniards. Finally, after he had unwillingly -become convinced that all remonstrance was useless, -he, in his appeal to arms, combined promptitude of action -with great moderation in his demands; his edicts were remarkable -for their good sense and humanity; and had his -efforts been met by the Spaniards in a corresponding spirit, -the viceroy of the King of Castille might at length have -succeeded in enforcing the practical observance of the humane -laws of his master.</p> - -<p>But this was not to be. Instead of a calm and enlightened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> -statesman, and Spain had many such, the viceroy placed full -powers in the hands of a wretch whose conduct was a mixture -of cowardice, atrocious cruelty, and incapacity. Fortune -decided in favour of the Spaniards, and the Inca fell into the -power of a man whose vile nature was excited to acts of -unequalled barbarity by the terror which his position and his -incompetence had caused him. I have felt obliged to relate -the shocking circumstances of the death of Tupac Amaru in -justice to the Indians; for who can be surprised if afterwards -they frequently refused to give quarter to any of the hated race -of <i>Chapetones</i>, as they called the Spaniards? and no atrocity -was ever perpetrated by them which can be compared to -the execution of the Inca and his family, committed by the -deliberate sentence of a Spanish judge.<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.</h2> - -<blockquote> -<p>DIEGO TUPAC AMARU—FATE OF THE INCA'S FAMILY—INSURRECTION -OF PUMACAGUA.</p> -</blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">While</span> the events occurred in the valley of Vilcamayu which -ended in the capture of the Inca Tupac Amaru and his family, -the whole of the Collao was in a state of insurrection, and all -Spaniards had to escape for their lives to Puno, La Paz, or -Arequipa.</p> - -<p>Don Joaquim Antonio de Orellana,<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a> Governor of Puno, -made a most gallant defence of that town, with a force -consisting of 180 musketeers, 647 pikemen, 44 artillerymen -with 4 guns, and 254 cavalry. He retreated behind -his entrenchments when the Inca advanced as far as Lampa, -in December 1780; but in February 1781, in spite of the -heavy rains, he marched to Lampa, where he flogged an Indian -until he confessed that his rebel countrymen were on an -adjacent mountain called Catacora. Orellana found the rebel -army drawn up in an almost inaccessible position, with colours -flying; and, while seeking for a place where his troops might -ascend, they suffered from a storm of hail and snow. The -Spaniards were divided into two assaulting parties, but the -showers of stones which the Indians hurled from their slings -obliged them to retreat, and Orellana himself was wounded in -the jaw.</p> - -<p>He found it prudent to fall back towards Puno, and, on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> -the 16th, encamped on the banks of the river of Juliaca, near -a place called Mananchili. The Indian army followed the -Spaniards and offered them battle—the chiefs sending a -message to Orellana to tell him that they acknowledged no -king but their Inca Tupac Amaru. They formed their forces -in a semicircle—the right being led by the Cacique Andres -Ingaricona, the left by Mamani, and the centre by a chief of -Caravaya named Alejandro Calisaya. The battle began at -four <span class="smcap">P.M.</span>, and, after a sharp fight, Mamani's division fled to -the adjacent heights, and Ingaricona was also routed. The -Indians left 370 killed on the field; among whom there were -many women who came to fight by the sides of their husbands -and brothers, armed with bones sharpened at one end. Notwithstanding -this success, Orellana made a rapid retreat to -his entrenched position at Puno, collected provisions, and sent -messengers to Arequipa for reinforcements.<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a></p> - -<p>On the 18th of March the Indian army came in sight, -extending for three miles along the heights round Puno, -with colours flying and a great noise of drums and clarions, -entirely surrounding the town, except on the side of the lake. -It was commanded by the Caciques Andres Ingaricona and -Pedro Vargas. The dismal news of the capture of Tupac -Amaru reached the besieging Indians on April 12th, when -they retreated, followed by a Spanish force under Nicolas de -Mendiosala of Chucuito. He overtook them posted on a hill -called Condorcuyo, to the left of the road to Cuzco, when -a furious struggle commenced; but the Indians fought most -gallantly, and defeated Mendiosala, who retreated in disorder. -This success encouraged the rebels as much as it disheartened -the Spaniards, and Chucuito and the other towns on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> -western banks of the lake of Titicaca fell into their hands. -They committed indiscriminate slaughter in revenge for the -cruel death of the Inca, and only a few Spaniards escaped -to Puno. The governor Orellana sent balsas to rescue some -fugitives who were concealed in the rushes on the shores of -the lake, he himself being confined to his house<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> by a wound -in his foot. Meanwhile the Indians of Azangaro, by capturing -the town and peninsula of Capachica, completed the conquest -of the province of Chucuito, and the rebel chiefs prepared -for a second siege of Puno.</p> - -<p>Diego Cristoval Tupac Amaru the Inca's cousin, with his -nephew Andres Mendagure, Mariano the young son of the -Inca, and Miguel Bastidas a nephew of the Inca's wife, -escaped when the rest of their family were betrayed and captured -at Lanqui. They now joined the rebel army in the -Collao, Diego took the command, and on the 9th of May he -invested Puno on all sides, and commenced the second siege.</p> - -<p>The Indians were formed in a semicircle on the sides of -the surrounding hills; while Orellana had deepened his -entrenchments, and occupied a very strong position on the -Huassa-pata hill, above Puno: he also built two forts, one -called Santa Barbara, where the triumphal arch now is, and -the other called Horca-pata, on the descent from the heights -of Cacharani. The corners of the plaza and of the streets -were barricaded. On the 10th there were skirmishes all day, -and on the 11th the Indians carried the forts of Santa Barbara -and Horca-pata by assault, and penetrated into the -streets, but failed in their attack on the rocky height of the -Huassa-pata.<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> On the 12th the besiegers suddenly retreated, -at the approach of the army advancing from Cuzco.</p> - -<p>General del Valle, after defeating the Indians at Comba<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>pata, -continued his march up the valley of the Vilcamayu, -crossed the pass of Ayaviri, and, entering the Collao, advanced -towards Puno, where he arrived in the middle of May. -But the Indians of his army were disgusted at the excessive -rigour with which the rebels were treated; they deserted in -great numbers,<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> and assisted the troops of Diego Tupac -Amaru in harassing the Spaniards, and cutting of all supplies. -The army of del Valle had been shamefully neglected by the -visitador Areche, who was too busy in torturing his prisoners -to attend to the commissariat. The troops were wretchedly -clad, unpaid, without medical stores, or biscuit, or fresh meat. -Under these circumstances the General reluctantly determined -to retreat to Cuzco, taking with him the garrison and -inhabitants of Puno, which place was evacuated by Orellana -on the 26th of May. The army which had left Cuzco in -March 15,000 strong was now reduced, by desertions and -sickness, to 1443 men, with which force General del Valle -commenced the retreat, closely followed and constantly -harassed by the Indians. He reached Cuzco on the 4th of -July, when a paper war ensued between him and Areche, the -latter blaming him for evacuating Puno, while the General -retorted that Areche had shamefully neglected the wants of -his army, and failed to make any attempt to subdue the -country round Cuzco.<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a></p> - -<p>The Viceroy seems to have taken the part of the General -in this controversy; and the foul vulture Areche, with his -companion Matta Linares, was recalled. He reached Lima -on August 23rd, 1781, and embarked for Spain with the poor -little Fernando, son of Tupac Amaru, who was sentenced to -imprisonment for life.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Indians still remained in arms round Cuzco, especially -in the heights above Urubamba and Calca, and at Lauramarca -and Ocungate. Those near Calca fortified themselves in a -place called Chayña-ccasa, against whom the General sent a -force of 400 men under Don José de Barela, and the Indians -were defeated with great slaughter; while Don Joaquim -Balcarcel kept the insurgents in check, who continued to -threaten Paucartambo.</p> - -<p>After the retreat of General del Valle from Puno, Diego -Tupac Amaru established his head-quarters at the town of -Azangaro, while Andres Mendagure and Miguel Bastidas -overran the provinces on the eastern shore of lake Titicaca, -captured the town of Sorata, and placed themselves in communication -with the insurgent forces in Upper Peru. It is -said that fifteen mule-loads of treasure, consisting of spoils -from the provinces of Omasuyos and Larecaja, were brought -into Azangaro at this time and buried. Diego Tupac Amaru -occupied a house near the plaza, where he gave audience in a -long sala; and he went from this house to the church every -night, wrapped in a large cloak. This story made people -believe that he was concealing treasure, and many a fruitless -search has since been made for it.<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a></p> - -<p>The hopes of the Indians were now beginning to wane. -Diego, though a man of considerable talent, was not possessed -of the same influence over the people as his unfortunate -cousin; and the Spanish officials were rapidly receiving reinforcements -from Buenos Ayres, while the slaughter of the -Indians had been prodigious. In August, 1781, Diego issued -a decree, ordering that all women, children, and priests, -should be respected during the war;<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> and on the 18th of -October he promulgated a manifesto setting forth the numerous -violations of law habitually committed by the corregidors,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> -the exactions of the curas, and the extortionate duties imposed -by the aduaneros.<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> This is a very able and telling -document, and, together with the more detailed writings of -the unfortunate Inca, forms a most complete vindication of -this memorable insurrection.<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a></p> - -<p>On September 12th, 1781, the viceroy of Peru, Don -Augustin de Jauregui, had issued a proclamation offering -pardon, on submission, to Diego Tupac Amaru and all his -followers.<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> It would swell this short narrative to an undue -length if I attempted to give any account of the events in -Upper Peru during this period;<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> but the final suppression -of the revolt in that part of the country by the Spanish -commanders Flores, Reseguin, and Segurola, induced Diego -Tupac Amaru to accept the Viceroy's offer of pardon, give -up the cause, and place himself in the power of a faithless -enemy. Dr. Antonio Valdez, cura of Sicuani, the friend of -the Inca, and author of the Quichua play of 'Ollantay,' was -sent to Azangaro by the Spanish authorities to persuade -Diego to adopt this course. They held their conferences on -the subject while walking up and down on the banks of the -river; and there is a tradition that Pedro Vilca Apasa, one of -Diego's bravest officers, overheard one of these conversations, -and remonstrated violently against the madness of trusting to -the word of a Spaniard. But the advice of Valdez prevailed, -Diego sent young Miguel Bastidas to open a negotiation with -the Spanish Colonel Reseguin in November; and on December -11th he gave himself up to Don Ramon de Arias, -commandant of the column of Arequipa. At the same time -Mariano Tupac Amaru, the son of the Inca, Andres Mendagure, -and Miguel Bastidas, surrendered to Don Sebastian de -Segurola at La Paz. Bastidas was sent to Buenos Ayres.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p> - -<p>Diego Tupac Amaru received his pardon at Sicuani, from -General del Valle in the name of the viceroy, on January 26th, -1782; and on the same day the Bishop of Cuzco<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> solemnly -absolved him in the church. But Vilca Apasa, Alejandro -Calisaya, and other chiefs of Diego's army, refused to submit, -and continued in arms in the provinces of Caravaya and -Azangaro. General del Valle marched against them in -March 1782, and took most of them prisoners. Vilca Apasa -was captured in his native village of Tapa-tapa, eighteen -miles east of Azangaro, where his descendants still live. He -was torn to pieces by horses in the plaza of Azangaro, and -his limbs were stuck on poles by the road-side.<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> An old lady -told me that she could remember seeing one of his arms on -a pole near her father's house. Calisaya, and many others, -were hung. The Spanish General had the cruelty to force -Diego Tupac Amaru to accompany him, and to witness the -execution of his old friends. Del Valle then marched over -the cordilleras of Lauramarca and Ausangate, where the -Indians had been in rebellion, taking Diego with him in a -sort of triumph, and returned to Cuzco in August. The old -general was taken ill soon afterwards, and died at Cuzco on -the 4th of September, leaving the command of the troops to -Don Gabriel de Aviles.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p> - -<p>Diego Tupac Amaru was permitted to retire to Tungasuca; -and young Mariano Tupac Amaru, with his cousin Andres -Mendegure, lived at Sicuani. But it would appear that the -Spanish authorities had no intention of keeping their faith -with these unfortunate Indians, and it was soon seen that -the distrust of Vilca Apasa was but too well founded. The -Spaniards were only waiting for an excuse before they completed -the extirpation of the whole family of the Incas. This -was soon found in a rebellion of the Indians of Marcapata -and Lauramarca, who, on the approach of a force under the -Corregidor Necochea in January 1783, retired to the lofty -and almost impenetrable heights of Hapo and Ampatuni. In -February their leader, Santos Huayhua, was captured with -his family, and torn to pieces by horses.<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a></p> - -<p>Thus the desired excuse for treachery and faithlessness -was furnished. All the surviving members of the family of -the Inca Tupac Amaru were arrested, by order of the viceroy -of Peru.<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> The accusations against them were frivolous, and, -so far as appears in the sentences, without a shadow of proof -to support them. Diego was accused of calling the Indians -his sons, of living in a way unbefitting a pardoned rebel, and -of performing funeral rites for his cousin the Inca; young -Mariano Tupac Amaru of rescuing his lady-love on September -9th, who had been forced to become a novice in the monastery -of Santa Catalina in Cuzco; Andres Mendagure of conducting -himself in a suspicious way; Manuela Castro, the mother of -Diego, of keeping up disaffection amongst the Indians; and -Lorenzo and Simon Condori, the brothers-in-law of Diego, of -assisting the rebels in Marcapata. The rest of the family -were accused of being relations.</p> - -<p>Diego was imprisoned with his kindred on the 15th of -April, 1783, by Don Raymundo Necochea, Corregidor of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> -Quispicanchi;<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> while Mariano Tupac Amaru and Andres -Mendagure were sent to Lima, put on board a ship, butchered -at sea, and their bodies thrown overboard. The vulture -Matta Linares, who was still an Oidor of the Audienica at -Lima, scented carrion from afar, and arrived at Cuzco on -April 20th, with the same extraordinary judicial powers as -had previously been given by the viceroy to Areche. On -the 17th of July he sentenced Diego Tupac Amaru to be -dragged at the tail of a mule, with a rope round his neck, to -the place of execution in the plaza of Cuzco, there to be hung -and quartered, his body and limbs to be distributed amongst -the towns of Tungasuca, Lauramarca, Paucartambo, and -Calca, his goods to be confiscated, and his houses destroyed; -his mother, Marcela Castro, to be hung and quartered, and -her body to be burnt in the plaza; Lorenzo and Simon -Condori to be hung; and Manuela Titu Condori, the wife of -Diego, to be banished for life.<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> These sentences were executed -on the 19th of July 1783; and Matta Linares obliged -the good cura of Sicuani, Dr. Valdez, by whose persuasion, as -the ancient friend of the Inca Tupac Amaru, Diego had been -induced to accept the treacherous pardon, to witness the executions.<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> -Matta Linares is still remembered in Cuzco for -his barbarous, immoral, and sneaking conduct. He died in -Spain in about 1818, having been one of the first among -the unworthy Spaniards who declared in favour of Joseph -Buonaparte.</p> - -<p>At about the time of Diego's execution, the last spark of -insurrection was trampled out in Huarochiri, a province in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> -the Andes near Lima. The Indians of the villages near -Caramporna had risen under one Felipe Velasco Tupac Inca -Yupanqui, who declared that the Inca was not dead, but that -he was alive and crowned in the "Gran Paytiti."<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> Don -Felipe Carrera, who had been appointed Corregidor of Parinacochas, -was sent to Huarochiri, and by a rapid march succeeded -in capturing the chief. Towards evening, however, -he was surrounded by a large body of Indians armed with -slings and poles, in a narrow and dangerous part of the road. -He retreated to an eminence with his prisoner, where he -defended himself until dark against the storm of stones, and -then escaped to Lima. After daily fights with the Indians -the rebellion was put down in June, 1783. Felipe Velasco, -and his lieutenant Ciriaco Flores, were hung in the great -square of Lima on July 7th, 1783.<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a></p> - -<p>Having, after two years and a half, succeeded in quelling -the insurrection, it remained for the viceroy to extirpate all -the innocent members of the family of the Incas, and all -who were connected with them by marriage. Ninety members -of the family were sent to Lima in chains, among whom -were Bartolomé Tupac Amaru, the venerable great-uncle -of the Inca; Marcela Pallocahua, the mother of the Inca's -wife Micaela Bastidas; and Manuela Condori, the wife of -Diego. Soon after his arrival at Lima Bartolomé Tupac -Amaru died at the extraordinary age of 125. A life of -temperance had given this aged prince the strength to -endure months of solitary confinement at Cuzco, to sustain -blows from muskets and staves in the plaza, to undergo a -cruel journey on foot and in chains of 400 miles, but the -horrors of the Lima prison at length killed him. The un<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>happy -survivors were shipped off at Callao, in two ships, the -'Peruana' and the 'San Pedro,' and thrown into cells in -Cadiz for three years, when Charles III. caused them to be -distributed, apart from each other, in prisons in the interior of -Spain, until their sufferings were relieved by death. Once -during the voyage they were allowed by the brutal captain -of the transport 'Peruana,' named José Cordova, to wash their -tattered clothes at Rio; but their fetters were never removed, -and, though the captain gave his word of honour to a Frenchman -who mended his damaged rudder, that he would take -them off, he unblushingly perjured himself; and the horrors -which were suffered by these innocent persons, many of them -aged women and young children, were never relaxed until -they arrived at Cadiz.<a name="FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a></p> - -<p>Fernando, the youngest child of the Inca, "whose shrill -cry smote every heart with electric sympathy"<a name="FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> when he -beheld the cruel tortures of his parents, was taken to Spain -by the visitador Areche in 1781. He was then only ten -years of age. In 1783 one Don Luis Ocampo, a citizen of -Cuzco, went to Spain, and heard that young Fernando was -a close prisoner in the castle of San Sebastian at Cadiz. -Through the aid of an Irish gentleman, who was intimately -acquainted with the town major, Ocampo applied for a pass -to visit him, but was refused. He, nevertheless, made his -way into the fort, and, looking round at the iron gratings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> -of the cells, at length caught sight of a youth whose -countenance bespoke his origin. He addressed him in -Quichua, and found that he was speaking to Fernando Tupac -Amaru. While talking to him Ocampo received a blow -from the butt end of the musket of a Swiss sentry, whom, -however, he induced to permit him to continue the conversation. -It appeared that the government allowed Fernando -six rials a day, but that the soldiers of the guard cheated -him of half. Ocampo gave him two or three dollars a week -during his stay in Cadiz; and this is the last we know, for -a certainty, of the last surviving child of the unfortunate -Inca.<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a></p> - -<p>The fate of these poor Indians, the remaining descendants -of those Incas of Peru whose remarkable civilization, and -great power and wealth, became a proverb during the sixteenth -century, will not fail to be interesting to those who -have become acquainted, through the pages of Robertson, -Prescott, or Helps, with the history of the Spanish conquest -of Peru. The sufferings and death of Tupac Amaru and his -family form a very sad story, yet they did not suffer and die -in vain: and it must be recorded of them that, unlike other -dispossessed families, they sacrificed themselves, not for their -own selfish ends, but in the hope of serving their people. -They did not die in vain, for in their fall they shook the -colonial power of Spain to its foundation. Not only was the -system of <i>repartos</i> at once abolished, and the <i>mitas</i> considerably -modified, but in 1795 the hated office of corregidors -was replaced by that of intendentes, and from the cruel death -of the last of the Incas may be dated the rise of that feeling -which ended in the expulsion of the Spaniards from Peru.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p> - -<p>The rebellion which broke out in Cuzco, thirty-four -years after the death of Tupac Amaru, is historically -important, not on account of the patriotism of its leaders, -for they were almost all men of small weight and selfish -ends, but because the great body of the Indians rose as -one man at the first signal, in the hope of freeing their -country from a foreign yoke. In 1809 the people of Upper -Peru had formed an independent government, which they -called an "Institucion de Gobierno," and the viceroy sent -General Goyeneche against them with 5000 men from -Cuzco. The rebels, ill-provided with arms, were defeated -at Huaqui, near lake Titicaca, and slaughtered without -mercy;<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> but General Pezuela, who succeeded Goyeneche -in the command, had to face a patriot army from Buenos -Ayres under Belgrano, which kept him fully employed. -Then it was that the opportunity was seized of commencing -a rebellion at Cuzco; and this enemy in the rear of the -royal army placed Pezuela in a most critical position.</p> - -<p>The leader of the rebellion was Mateo Garcia Pumacagua, -Cacique of Chinchero near Cuzco, then a very old men. In -January 1781, when Tupac Amaru occupied the heights of -Picchu above Cuzco, he had marched from Chinchero with -Indians to join him, but, hearing that a large Spanish army -was advancing from Lima, he changed his mind, and took -part against his countrymen with such zeal, that the viceroy -created him a brigadier in the Spanish service. On August -3rd, 1814, this Indian Cacique Pumacagua, with the three -brothers Vicente, Mariano, and José Angulo, Don Gabriel -Bejar, Hurtado de Mendoza, Astete, Pinelo, Prado, and -others, raised the cry of independence in Cuzco; and so -unanimous was the feeling against Spanish rule, that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> -whole population of that city joined heart and soul in the -insurrection.<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id="FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> The brothers Angulo were men of low birth, -and vulgar both in their language and their persons;<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id="FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> but -Astete and Prado were gentlemen of good family and position. -It is possible that they made use of Pumacagua, as an -Indian cacique, that his countrymen might more readily be -induced to join their cause.</p> - -<p>Having occupied Cuzco, the insurgents divided their forces -into three divisions, which separated in different directions, to -excite the other provinces to revolt. Mariano Angulo, Bejar, -and Mendoza, who was nicknamed Santafecino, marched to -Guamanga, assaulted the house in which several Spaniards -had taken refuge, and hung two officers in the plaza. -Colonel Vicente Gonzalez was sent against them from -Lima, and attacked the insurgents, who had been joined by -a body of Morochuco Indians, near Guanta, in September. -The rebels were defeated, and several Morochuco Indians -were shot at Guamanga, but the country continued in a -disordered state until Santafecino was finally routed at -Matara in April 1815.</p> - -<p>Pinelo, and the cura of Munecas in Upper Peru, entered -Puno without resistance with another division on August -29th, advanced to La Paz, and took it by assault after a -siege of two days, on September 24th.</p> - -<p>The main division, led by Pumacagua in person, and -Vicente Angulo, marched on Arequipa.</p> - -<p>The position of the royalist army under Pezuela, with the -Buenos Ayrean army of independence in front, and this -formidable insurrection in the rear, was most critical: for the -Indians, believing that the rule of their Incas was to be -restored, and that Pumacagua would succeed where Tupac<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> -Amaru had failed, were flocking in thousands to the standard -of the old cacique. Pezuela organized a division of his -army, 1200 strong, commanded by General Don Juan Ramirez, -who marched from Oruro in October, and fell upon -the rebels, numbering 4000 men, 500 armed with muskets, -and the rest with slings, who were encamped on the heights -above La Paz. The rebels retired in good order to Puno, -and Ramirez entered La Paz, and, having extorted 63,000 -dollars from the citizens, continued his march to Puno, which -he occupied on November 23rd, and pressed on towards -Arequipa on the 26th.<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a></p> - -<p>In the mean while Pumacagua and Angulo had been joined -by many caciques with their <i>ayllus</i> or tribes, and he organized -his army at Cavanilla, giving the rank of generals and -colonels to the Indian chiefs.<a name="FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> From Cavanilla the rebel -forces marched along the road from Puno to Arequipa, -descended the "alto de los huesos," and encountered the -Spanish troops under Brigadier Picoaga in the plain of -Cangallo. Picoaga was defeated and taken prisoner, and the -Indians entered Arequipa in triumph, where the greatest -enthusiasm prevailed for the cause of independence. Picoaga -and Moscoso, the Intendente of Arequipa, were shot by order -of the Angulos, who, early in December, issued a proclamation, -declaring that Peru was free; that there had been -a revolution in Lima; and that the viceroy Don José de -Abascal was in prison. These falsehoods were intended to -excite the Spanish Americans to revolt; but, indeed, they -required no such stimulus, for the people of all races and -classes were burning to throw off the yoke of Spain.</p> - -<p>It was at this time that Melgar, the enthusiastic young<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> -poet of Arequipa, joined the national army, and became -secretary to Vicente Angulo.</p> - -<p>On the approach of Ramirez, Pumacagua evacuated Arequipa, -and manœuvred for some days on the lofty plains -between Apo and the post-house of Pati. Ramirez steadily -advanced, and came in sight of the Indian army at a little -hut called Chillihua, near the head of the "alto de los -huesos;" but Pumacagua, avoiding a battle, retreated hastily -into the interior, and Ramirez entered Arequipa without -opposition on December 9th. His first act was to shoot Don -José Astete, and other patriots who had compromised themselves -during the time that Pumacagua was in the city.</p> - -<p>The enthusiasm of the Indians was so great that, notwithstanding -the affair at Chillihua, which one authority describes -as a retreat,<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> and another as a disastrous defeat,<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> they again -flocked to the standard of the old cacique at Pucara, where -he soon had another undisciplined half-armed force around -him, numbering 40,000 men. Ramirez organized a force at -Arequipa of 1200 men armed with muskets, and fifty dragoons; -and, commencing his march on February 11th, 1815, -he encamped round the town of Lampa on March 1st. On -that day he received a letter from Vicente Angulo, protesting -against the war being carried on in a savage and relentless -spirit, representing that, when a whole people rises in arms, -the insurgents ought to be granted belligerent rights; and -urging the duty of concluding the war by negotiation, and -not by bloodshed. "It is not fear," Angulo continues, "that -induces me to write thus, but a feeling of humanity."<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> Ramirez -answered that he would accept nothing but unconditional -surrender. On March 4th he advanced to Ayaviri, on -the Vilcañota range, which separates the Collao from the -valley of the Vilcamayu. Here he received a letter from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> -Pumacagua. The cacique asked the Spanish general for -whom he was fighting, seeing that Ferdinand VII. had been -sold to the French, and that no man knew where he had -been taken to; he declared that there was now no other -king but the caprice of Europeans, and that, therefore, he -desired to establish a national Government; and he told him -that he was ready to meet the Spanish army on the field of -battle.<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a> Ramirez replied that a general of the king's army -would not waste words with vile and insolent rebels, and that -his bayonets would soon make them alter their tone.<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a></p> - -<p>From the 6th to the 10th of March both armies marched -in parallel lines, separated by the rivers Umachiri and Ayaviri. -On the 10th Pumacagua drew up his army behind the river -Cupi, which was much swollen by the rains. He had 30,000 -men, of whom 800 only were armed with muskets, and forty -field-pieces, said to have been cast at Cuzco by an Englishman -named George ——,<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id="FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> some of them of very large calibre, -with which he annoyed the Spaniards during the night before -the battle. Ramirez had only 1300 men; but they were all -disciplined and well-armed soldiers. He crossed the river -Cupi, near Umachiri, in spite of opposition; charged and -dispersed the Indians, killing a thousand men, and captured -all their cannon. The rout was complete, and the chiefs of -the patriot army sought safety in flight.<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id="FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a></p> - -<p>The poet Mariano Melgar was taken prisoner, and immediately -shot on the field of battle. The fate of this young -man was very melancholy: an unrequited passion led him to -join the desperate cause of the insurgents, and he is now<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> -chiefly remembered by his melancholy love-songs and <i>despedidas</i>.<a name="FNanchor_276_276" id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a></p> - -<p>Ramirez, immediately after the battle of Umachiri, marched -to Cuzco, where he arrived on the 25th; but he detached a -portion of his troops in pursuit of the Indians, who were -again defeated close to the town of Azangaro. The Spaniards -cut off the ears of all their prisoners, flogged them cruelly, -and sent them to tell their comrades that they would be -treated in the same way unless they instantly laid down their -arms. The Indians fled over the hills, followed by the -Spaniards, who again defeated them on a hill near Asillo, -six leagues to the north. Amongst the prisoners at Asillo -were the mutilated Indians who had been sent to terrify the -rest, still bravely fighting against their tyrants. Of such -heroism is the usually meek and docile Indian capable.<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id="FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a></p> - -<p>After the battle of Umachiri, Pumacagua had escaped to -the heights of Marangani; but he was betrayed by an Indian -whom he had sent down to buy some food, and brought a -prisoner into Sicuani. After a sort of confession had been -extorted from him, he was hung, not even with a respectable -halter, but with a lasso, being seventy-seven years of age. -José, Mariano, and Vicente Angulo, Gabriel Bejar, and many -others were shot at Cuzco by Ramirez, who, in the following -June, again united his forces with those of General Pezuela, -in Upper Peru. Thus ended the last great rising of the -Indians under one of their own chiefs, after a campaign which -lasted ten months.</p> - -<p>Ten years after the death of Pumacagua every Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> -soldier had been driven out of the country. Peru was independent, -and the Indians received equal rights with citizens -of Spanish descent in the new Republic, at least so far, and -only so far, as the law could give them. The <i>mita</i> or forced -labour was entirely abolished in 1825; but the tribute or -capitation-tax continued to be exacted until 1854 in Peru, and -is still the principal source of revenue in Bolivia, the Upper -Peru of Spanish times. It is not, however, quite exact to -suppose that this tribute was a capitation-tax; it was practically -at least a rent or tax on the produce of the land, and -more resembled the land-tax of India. The tribute was -levied on every male between the ages of eighteen and fifty; -but, in point of fact, nearly every individual between those -ages cultivated his own piece of land, or shared the produce -of a larger piece with several others. Latterly the tribute -paid by each Indian generally amounted to five dollars a -year; but, in some villages, the Indians paid double that -amount, the exact rule being handed down by tradition, and -known to the caciques. Those who paid most enjoyed a -more dignified position. The department of Puno yielded -300,000 dollars; that of Cuzco, 400,000. The entire abolition -of the tribute by General Castilla in 1854 is a portion of that -mad and reckless system of finance by which the revenue -of Peru is made to depend almost exclusively on the yield -of guano from the Chincha Islands.</p> - -<p>In Bolivia the tribute is still paid by men between the -ages of eighteen and fifty: the amount being six to ten -dollars a year for proprietors of land, and five dollars for -strangers. The revenue from this source amounted, in 1850, -to 4,595,000 dollars.</p> - -<p>But though the <i>mita</i>, the <i>reparto</i>, and the tribute have all -been abolished by law in Peru, the deplorable civil wars, and -the system of keeping up a large standing army, which is not -only unnecessary, but most mischievous, have entailed much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> -oppression on the Indians in the shape of impressment for -the army. Villages are frequently surrounded by a party of -soldiers, and all the able-bodied men that can be caught are -driven away to serve in the ranks. This deplorable waste of -human life is rapidly reducing the already scanty population; -and the system is more oppressive and cruel because it -is done in defiance of the law, by the military presidents and -generals who have hitherto been able to set the laws enacted -by civilians at defiance, when it suits their purpose.<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id="FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> Yet on -the whole the condition of the Indians is immeasurably more -endurable under the Republic than it was when they groaned -under the <i>mitas</i> of the Spanish corregidors.</p> - -<p>The history of these Peruvian Indians has been a very -melancholy one. The early accounts which the Spanish -chroniclers gave of the great empire of the Incas represented -the Indians as a people ruled by laws and usages which provided -for almost every action of their lives; neither a thief -nor a vicious man was known amongst them; and they lived -in happiness and contentment, but under a most rigid system -of tutelage and subjection. Then came the Spanish conquerors, -and, after a quarter of a century of bloodshed and -rapine, the people found themselves bowed down by a grievous -yoke. While the most beneficent laws were enacted by the -Council of the Indies, their humane provisions continued to -be either entirely evaded, or converted into pretexts for additional -modes of oppression. From upwards of thirty millions -the population was reduced to three millions within the space -of two centuries; and all that can be said of the much-lauded -colonial legislation of Spain is that it prevented the Indians -from being actually exterminated; and that, when Peru<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> -gained her independence, there were a few million survivors, -scattered in villages at wide intervals over a region once thickly -peopled by their ancestors. The Council-room at Seville was, -like another place, thickly paved with good intentions.</p> - -<p>I was thrown a great deal amongst the Indians, and at one -time I had the most excellent opportunities of judging of their -character, and I was certainly most favourably impressed. -They now have many vices engendered by centuries of oppression -and evil example, from which their ancestors were -probably free: they are fond of chicha and aguardiente, and -are very suspicious; but I found that this latter feeling disappears -when the occasion for it is found not to exist. They -have had but too good reason for their suspicion generally. -On the other hand, they are intelligent, patient, obedient, -loving amongst each other, and particularly kind to animals. -Crimes of any magnitude are hardly ever heard of amongst -them; and I am sure that there is no safer region in the -world for the traveller, than the plateaux of the Peruvian cordilleras. -That the Indians are not cowardly or mean-spirited -when once roused was proved in the battles which they -fought under the banner of Tupac Amaru in 1781; and a -people who could produce men capable of such heroic constancy -as was displayed by the mutilated heroes of Asillo -should not lightly be accused of want of courage. When -well led they make excellent soldiers.</p> - -<p>Although there is so large a proportion of <i>mestizos</i>, or half-castes, -in Peru, it is very remarkable how isolated the Indians -still remain. They have their separate language, and traditions, -and feelings, apart from their neighbours of Spanish -origin; and it is even said that there are secret modes of intercourse, -and even secret designs amongst them, the knowledge -of which is guarded with jealous care. In 1841, when General -Gamarra was at Pucara, on his way to invade Bolivia, it -was reported that certain influential Indians, from all parts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> -of the country, were about to assemble in the hills near -Azangaro, for the discussion of some grave business; and -that they were in the habit of assembling in the same way, -though in different localities, every five years. The object of -these assemblies was unknown—it may have been merely to -converse over their ancient traditions—but it was feared, at -the time, that it was for some far deeper and more momentous -purpose. It is believed that similar meetings have since -taken place near Chayanta<a name="FNanchor_279_279" id="FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> in Bolivia, near Quito, and in -other parts, but the strictest secrecy is preserved by the -Indians themselves. The abolition of the tribute has probably -had the effect of separating the Indians still more from the -white and mixed races, for they used to have constant intercourse -connected with the payments to the authorities, which -brought them into the towns, while now they live apart in -their solitary huts in the mountain fastnesses, or in distant -villages.</p> - -<p>It may be that this unhappy people, descendants of the -once mighty race which, in the glorious days of the Incas, -conquered and civilised half a continent, is marching slowly -down the gloomy and dark road to extinction; "the fading -remains of a society sinking amidst storms, overthrown -and shattered by overwhelming catastrophes."<a name="FNanchor_280_280" id="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> But I trust -that this may not be so, and that a fate less sad is still -reserved for the long-suffering gentle children of the Sun.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.</h2> - -<p class ="c">JOURNEY FROM PUNO TO CRUCERO, THE CAPITAL OF -CARAVAYA.</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> April 7th we left Puno on the road to the chinchona -forests of Caravaya. There are three modes of travelling in -Peru: one by purchasing all the required mules and employing -servants; the second, by hiring an <i>arriero</i>, or muleteer, -who supplies the mules at so much for the journey; and the -third, by using the wretched animals which are provided at -the post-houses, and changing them at each stage, but this -can only be done on the main roads. The latter way, though -the least comfortable, is by far the most economical, and I -therefore determined to adopt it, yet I should probably have -hesitated had I known the trouble it would entail. I bought -a fine mule for a hundred dollars, with the gentle <i>paso llano</i>, -the easiest pace imaginable, for myself, and sent to the post-house -at Puno for beasts for Mr. Weir, the gardener who -accompanied me, and for the baggage. Four vicious-looking -brutes accordingly made their appearance, and we started; -but no sooner had we reached the plain at the top of the zigzag -path leading out of Puno to the north, than they all -ran away in different directions, kicking violently. After -hours of this kind of annoyance I at last got one of the -brutes into a corner of a stone-fenced field, but, just as I -was about to catch him, he gave a kick, jumped over the -wall, and went off again. It ended in our having to drag -the mules by their lassos until our arms were nearly torn -out of the sockets; and thus we ignominiously entered the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> -village of Paucar-colla late in the evening, a distance of -only twelve miles from Puno. As for the scenery, or the -nature of the country, between Puno and Paucar-colla, I can -remember nothing but vicious mules with their hind legs -kicking up in the air.</p> - -<p>Paucar-colla is built on an eminence, surrounded by broad -grassy plains, which slope down to the shores of the lake of -Titicaca. It consists of a few streets of mud-built, red-tiled -huts, ranged round a large plaza, with a church in a dilapidated -state, also of mud. At this place I saw the last of -the Aymara Indians, or at least of their women, who can -always be distinguished by their dress, which differs from -that worn by the Inca or Quichua Indians. The Aymara -women wear an <i>uncu</i>, or garment brought together over -each shoulder, and secured in the mode of the classic Greeks, -with two <i>topus</i>, or large pins, generally in the shape of spoons. -The head-dress is a curiously-shaped, four-cornered red cap, -the sides curving outwards and stiff, with black flaps suspended -from it, sometimes hanging down, and at others -thrown up over the top. The Quichua dress, used by the -women from here as far as Cuzco, is quite different: they -have a full woollen skirt, reaching down half-way between -the knee and ankle; a bright-coloured <i>lliclla</i>, or mantle, over -the shoulders, secured across the bosom by a single <i>topu</i>; -and as a head-dress the broad-brimmed black velvet <i>montero</i>, -with red and blue ribbons.</p> - -<p>I left Paucar-colla early next morning, and passed by -several fields of <i>quinoa</i> (Chenopodium quinoa), the harvest of -which was just beginning. The stalks are cut and tied up in -heaps, and then the grain is beaten out with sticks. It is -used by the Indians in their universal dish, the <i>chupe</i>, and in -various other ways; but it is an insipid and not very nutritious -grain. Just beyond the village there is a stream called the -Illpa, which, in the dry season, scarcely wets the mules' hoofs;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> -but at this time of year it was swollen into a broad river, and -it was necessary to cross it on reed balsas, with the luggage, -while the mules swam. A very large troop of mules, laden -with aguardiente, was passing over at the same time—a long -and tedious business. There are many streams crossing -these roads, which are swollen during the rainy season, and -very serious delays are thus caused for want of a few bridges. -From the Illpa to Caracoto there is a broad plain extending -to the shores of the lake, with the town or village of Hatun-colla -on one of the last spurs of the cordillera to the west.<a name="FNanchor_281_281" id="FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> -This wide expanse, in the rainy season, is swampy and half -submerged. It was covered with flocks and herds, with huts -and out-buildings scattered over it, and surrounded by mud -walls. Here and there we passed pretty little cow-girls and -shepherdesses, now dressed in the Quichua, not the Aymara, -costume. Some of these little maidens, as they stood by the -wayside spinning wool, had such pretty faces, with the rosy -colour showing through their soft, brown skins, and their -figures were so graceful and dignified, that they strongly -reminded me of the pictures of young Inca princesses in the -churches of Santa Anna, and of the Jesuits, at Cuzco:—</p> - -<blockquote> -<p> -"La vi tan fermosa<br /> -Que apenas creyera<br /> -Que fuese vaquera<br /> -De la Finojosa."<br /> -</p> -</blockquote> - -<p>Potatoes, quinoa, and barley were cultivated in the skirts -of the hills bordering on the plain.</p> - -<p>The village of Caracoto is at the extreme end of a long -rocky spur, running out across the plain; a street of neat -mud huts, with a plaza and dilapidated church. At the post-house -a child had died, which was set out on a table with -candles burning before it, and the friends of the postmaster -were holding a wake, singing, fiddling, and drinking. Be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>tween -Caracoto and the next village of Juliaca there is -another swampy plain: most of the road was under water, -and we encountered a heavy hail-storm. The lights and -shades on the cordilleras and nearer hills, the heavy black -masses of cloud in one part of the heavens, and the sun's -rays breaking through in the other, were very fine. Juliaca -is a small town built under a spur of the mountains, with a -handsome stone church. It was Easter-Sunday, and I was -invited to meet all the principal families at dinner at the -house of the cura. Several Indian alcaldes were in attendance; -consequential old fellows in full dress, consisting -of broad-brimmed black felt hats, sober-coloured ponchos, -and black breeches very open at the knees, no stockings, and -<i>usutas</i> or sandals of llama-hide. The distinctive mark of the -alcaldes, of which they are very proud, is their staff of office, -with silver or brass head and ferule, and rings round it -according to the number of years the owner has held office. -The Indians here wear the hair in numbers of very fine -plaits reaching half-way down their backs. An Indian always -accompanied the post-mules from one village to another, in -order to take back the return-mules; and at Juliaca, while I -was quietly enjoying the cura's hospitality, the Indians took -my own mule back to Caracoto, as well as the post-mules. -Next morning, therefore, I sent for it, and received an -answer that the postmaster knew nothing about it. I was -eventually obliged, after seeing the gardener and luggage on -their way to Lampa, to go back to Caracoto, where the -postmaster was drunk and insolent; and at length I found it, -with a troop of others, on the great plain beyond Caracoto. -Several Indians took much trouble for me in catching my -mule; and it was late in the afternoon before I got back to -Juliaca, and was ready to set out on my journey to Lampa. -I mention this incident in order to show the trouble and -inconvenience of acting as one's own muleteer, although such -a mode of travelling is certainly four or five times as cheap<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> -as hiring an arriero; and I may add that the travelling -by post-mules caused me incessant annoyance and trouble. -Whenever they saw a chance the vicious brutes always ran -off the road in different directions, bumped their cargo against -rocks, and tried to roll, keeping us constantly employed in -galloping after them, and greatly increasing the fatigues of -the journeys. On several occasions, too, an animal was provided -which was so weak or tired that it sank under its -cargo before it had gone a league, and obliged me to return -to the post-house for another. The adjustment and lashing of -the cargos, like everything else, requires considerable knack -and skill, which is only acquired by experience; the Indians -were as ignorant in such matters as we were; and during the -first three or four journeys our troubles were increased by -the cargos constantly slipping on one side, when the mules -always seized the opportunity of rushing off the road and -kicking furiously.</p> - -<p>A few miles north of Juliaca there is a large river, formed -by the junction of those of Lampa and Cavanilla, the latter -being the same which rises in the lake on the road between -Arequipa and Puno, and flows by the post-house of La Compuerta. -We crossed it in a reed balsa while the mules swam. -Beyond the river is the great plain of Chañucahua, which was -covered with large pools of water, at this season frequented -by ducks and sandpipers. Close under the mountains, which -bound it on every side, were a few sheep-farms, one of them -the property of Don Manuel Costas of Puno, and the sheep -roamed at will over many leagues of pasture-land. At the -northern extremity of the plain the road ascends and descends -a range of steep hills, and, turning a rocky spur, I -came in sight of the town of Lampa. It was just sunset; -the tall church-tower rising over the town, and a stone bridge -spanning the river, were clearly defined by the crimson glow -in the western sky, while the lofty peaked mountains forming<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> -the background were capped by masses of black threatening -clouds. At that moment a tremendous thunder-storm, with -flashes of forked lightning and torrents of rain, burst over -the town.</p> - -<p>Lampa is the capital of a province in the department of -Puno, and I was hospitably received by the Sub-prefect, Don -Manuel Barrio-nuevo, who occupied a good house in the plaza. -A portion of the army of the South was quartered in the -town; and the General came every evening to have tea with -the Sub-prefect and his lady, a handsome Arequipeña. On -these occasions the party consisted of General Frisancho and -several officers, and ladies who came attended by their little -Indian maids, carrying shawls, and squatting on the floor in -comers during the visit. After tea and conversation the company -generally sang some of the <i>despedidas</i> and love-songs of -their national poet Melgar, in parts; and one young lady -sang the plaintive <i>yaravis</i> of the Indians in Quichua.</p> - -<p>The church of Lampa is a large building of stone, dating -from 1685, with a dome of yellow, green, and blue glazed -tiles, of which I was informed there was formerly a manufactory -in Lampa. The tower is isolated, and about twenty -yards from the church, apparently of a different date. Rows -of Indian girls, in their gay-coloured dresses, were sitting in -the plaza before their little heaps of chuñus, ocas, potatoes, and -other provisions, amongst which, at the season of Easter, -there are always great quantities of herbs gathered on the -mountains, possessing supposed medicinal virtues. Among -these a fern, called <i>racci-racci</i>, is used as an emetic; <i>churccu-churccu</i>, -a small wild oxalis, is taken as a cure for colds; -<i>chichira</i>, the root of a small crucifer, for rheumatism; <i>llacua-llacua</i>, -a composita, for curing wounds; <i>quissu</i>, a nettle, used -as a purgative; <i>cata-cata</i>, a valerian, as an antispasmodic; -<i>tami-tami</i>, the root of a gentian, as a febrifuge; <i>quachanca</i>, a -euphorbia, the powdered root of which is taken as a purga<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>tive; -<i>hama-hama</i>, the root of a valerian, said to be an excellent -specific against epilepsy;<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id="FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> and many others, the native -names of which, with their uses, were given me, but I was -unacquainted with their botanical names. Generally when -the name of a plant is repeated twice in Quichua it denotes -the possession of some medicinal property.</p> - -<p>On the morning of our departure from Lampa the ground -was covered with snow, which was slowly melting under the -sun's rays. Immediately after leaving the town the path -winds up a steep mountain range called Chacun-chaca, the -sides of the precipitous slopes being well clothed with <i>queñua</i>-trees -(<i>Polylepis tomentella</i>, Wedd.), which are gnarled and -stunted, with dark-green leaves, and the bark of the trunk -peeling like that of a yew. Their sombre foliage contrasted -with the light-green tufts of <i>stipa</i>, and the patches of snow. -The pass was long and dangerous, with little torrents pouring -down every rut; and on its summit was the usual <i>pacheta</i>, or -cairn, which the Indians erect on every conspicuous point. -The path descends on the other side into a long narrow plain, -with the hacienda of Chacun-chaca on the opposite side. The -buildings are surrounded by queñua-trees, and in their rear -two remarkable peaked hills rise up abruptly, clothed with -the same trees, with ridges of rock cropping out at intervals. -Their sides were dotted with cattle, tended by pretty little -cow-girls, armed with slings, and some of them playing the -<i>pincullu</i>, or Indian flute. The plain was covered with long -grass, in a saturated and spongy state, and groves of queñua-trees -grew thickly in the gullies of the mountains on either -side. After a ride of several leagues over the plain, latterly -along the banks of the river Pucara, I turned a point of the -road, and suddenly came in sight of the almost perpendicular -mountain, closely resembling the northern end of the rock of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> -Gibraltar, which rises abruptly from the plain, with the little -town of Pucara nestling at its feet. The precipice is composed -of a reddish sandstone, upwards of twelve hundred feet -above the plain, the crevices and summit clothed with long -grass and shrubby queñuas. Birds were whirling in circles at -a great height above the rock, which, in the Spanish times, -was famous for a fine breed of falcons, which were carefully -guarded and regularly supplied with meat. They tell a story -at Pucara that one of these birds was sent to the King of -Spain, and that it returned of its own accord, being known -by the collar.</p> - -<p>Pucara means a fortress in Quichua; and here Francisco -Hernandez Giron, the rebel who led an insurrection to oppose -the abolition of personal service amongst the Indians, -was finally defeated in 1554. The town is a little larger -than Juliaca, with a handsome church in the same style, -and a fountain in the plaza. I dined and passed the evening -with the aged cura, Dr. José Faustino Dava, who is -famous for his knowledge of the Quichua language, in its -purest and most classical form. The fame of Dr. Dava's -learning, in all questions connected with the antiquities of the -Incas and the Quichua language, had reached me in England, -and I was glad to obtain his valuable assistance in looking -over a dictionary of the rich and expressive language of the -Incas, on which I had been working for some time.</p> - -<p>Owing to the diminution of the aboriginal population in -Peru, and the constantly increasing corruption of the ancient -language, through the substitution of Spanish for Quichua -words, the introduction of Spanish modes of expression, and -the loss of all purity of style, that language, once so important, -which was used by a polished court and civilized -people, which was spoken through the extent of a vast empire, -and the use of which was spread by careful legislation, -is now disappearing. Before long it will be a thing that is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> -past, or perhaps fade away entirely from the memory of living -generations. With it will disappear the richest form of all -the great American group of languages, no small loss to the -student of ethnology. With it will be lost all the traditions -which yet remain of the old glory of the Incas, all the elegies, -love-songs, and poems which stamp the character of a once -powerful, but always gentle and amiable race.</p> - -<p>Unlike the English in India, the half-Spanish races of -Peru have paid little attention to the history and languages -of the aborigines, within the present century; and, if left to -them, all traces of the language of the Incas, and of the songs -and traditions which remain in it, would, in the course of -another century, almost entirely disappear. A few honourable -exceptions must, however, be recorded. The late Mariano Rivero -paid much attention to the antiquities of his country, and the -results of his labours have been published at Vienna.<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id="FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> The -curas of some of the parishes in the interior, also, especially -Dr. Dava of Pucara, Dr. Rosas of Chinchero, and the Cura of -Oropesa, near Cuzco, are excellent Quichua scholars, but -they are very old men, and their knowledge will die with -them.</p> - -<p>Dr. Dava had a large collection of the finches, and other -birds of the loftier parts of the Andes, hanging in wicker -cages along the wall of his house. Amongst them were a little -dove called <i>urpi</i>; the bright yellow little songster called -<i>silgarito</i> in Spanish, and <i>cchaiña</i> in Quichua; the <i>tuya</i>, another -larger warbler; the <i>chocclla-poccochi</i> or nightingale of Peru; -and a little finch with glossy black plumage, pink on the -back, and whitish-grey under the wings. He also had some -small green paroquets, with long tails and bluish wings, -which make their nests under the eaves of roofs, at a height -of fourteen thousand feet above the sea. At Pucara some of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> -the inhabitants have small manufactories for making glazed -earthenware basins, pots, plates, and cups,<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id="FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> which find an extensive -market in the villages and towns of the department -of Puno, and which will probably long hold their own against -the same kind of coarse wares from Europe or the United -States.</p> - -<p>From Puno to Pucara I had travelled along the main-road -to Cuzco; but, at the latter place, I branched off to the eastward, -to pass through the province of Azangaro to that of -Caravaya. The main-road continues in a northerly direction, -crosses the snowy range of Vilcañota near Ayaviri, and -descends the valley of the Vilcamayu to Cuzco. At Pucara -I left post-houses and post-mules behind me, for they only -exist on the main-roads between Arequipa, Puno, Cuzco, and -Lima; henceforth I had to depend on being able to induce -private persons to let out their mules or ponies to me.</p> - -<p>About 500 yards from the town of Pucara is the river of -the same name, which flows past Ayaviri in the mountains -of Vilcañota. It was very full, and eighty yards across. The -mules swam, and we had to cross in a rickety balsa made of -two bundles of reeds, which had to go backwards and forwards -five times before all the gear and baggage was on the eastern -side. After riding over a plain which became gradually narrower -as the mountains closed in, I began the ascent of a -rocky <i>cuesta</i>, with a torrent dashing down over huge boulders -into the plain. There was a splendid view of the distant rock -of Pucara, with the snowy peaks of the Vilcañota range -behind. A league further on there was an alpine lake, with -a fine peaked cliff rising up from the water's edge. There -were many ducks and widgeons, and large coots were quietly -busy, swimming about and building their nests on little reed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> -islands; also jet-black ibises, with dark rusty red heads and -long curved bills. After a ride of several leagues over a -grassy country covered with flocks of sheep, I reached the -summit of a range of hills, and got a distant view of the town -of Azangaro, in a plain with several isolated steep grassy -mountains rising from it, and the snowy Andes of Caravaya -in the background. After a very wearisome descent I -reached the plain, and, riding into Azangaro, was most -hospitably and kindly received by Don Luis Quiñones, one of -the principal inhabitants.</p> - -<p>The region which I had traversed between Puno and -Azangaro is all of the same character—a series of grassy -plains of great elevation, covered with flocks and herds, and -watered by numerous rivers flowing into lake Titicaca, which -are traversed by several mountain-ranges, spurs from the -cordillera, which sometimes run up into peaks almost to the -snow-line, and at others sink into rocky plateaux raised -like steps above the plain. What strikes one most in travelling -through this country is the evidence of the vast -population it must have contained in the days of the Incas, -indicated by the ruined remains of <i>andeneria</i>, or terraces for -cultivation, rising in every direction tier above tier up the -sides of the hills. But it is now almost exclusively a grazing -country, and the Indians, employed in tending the large -flocks of sheep, only raise a sufficient supply of edible roots -for the consumption of their families, and the market of the -nearest town. Frequently the shepherds are what are called -<i>yanaconas</i>, or Indians kept to service by the owners of the -flocks, which vary from 400 to 1000 head. The condition -of this class of Indians is very hard, as they get only a -monthly allowance of an <i>arroba</i> of chuñu (frozen potato) -or quinoa, and a pound of coca, or four dollars a month in -money.</p> - -<p>Puno, Juliaca, Lampa, Pucara, and Azangaro, are all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> -between 12,800 and 13,000 feet above the sea. Between -March 28th and April 15th, the indications of the thermometer -at these places were as follows:—</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mean temperature</td><td class="tdr">52½°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mean minimum at night</td><td class="tdr">37¼</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Highest observed</td><td class="tdr">58</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Lowest</td><td class="tdr">37</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Range</td><td class="tdr">21</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>Azangaro is the capital of the province of the same name. -There is a tradition that, when the Indians were bringing -gold and silver for the ransom of the Inca Atahualpa, they -received news of his murder by Pizarro, at Sicuani, and at the -same time orders came from Inca Manco, who was at Cuzco, -to remove the treasure to a greater distance; and that they -buried it near this town. <i>Asuan</i> is "more," <i>carun</i> "distant;" -hence <i>Azangaro</i>. It is generally believed that this treasure, -worth 7,000,000 dollars, as well as the fifteen mule-loads of -church-plate brought into the town by Diego Tupac Amaru -in 1781, are concealed somewhere, and that some of the -Indians know the place well, but will not divulge it. Hence -there have been numerous attempts to discover it, and one -sub-prefect made several excavations under the pavement in -the church, but without any success. On one occasion, not -long ago, an old Indian, who had been a servant in the house -where Diego Tupac Amaru lodged, told the sub-prefect that -in the centre of the <i>sala</i>, after digging down for about two -feet, a layer of gravel from the river would be reached; a -little further down a layer of lime and plaster; a little further -a layer of large stones; and that beneath the stones would be -the treasure. The excavation was commenced, and great -was the excitement when all the different layers were found -exactly as the Indian had described them; but there was no -treasure. It is not unlikely that the Indian only knew or -only told half the clue; and that these layers were some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> -mark, whence a line was to be measured in some particular -direction, and to a certain distance, to denote the spot under -which the treasure was deposited. Yet the searches have not -been wholly unsuccessful. There are several subterranean -passages and chambers under Azangaro, and one was discovered -a few years ago which had been made by the Indians -in ancient times. It led towards the plaza, and ended in -a recess, where there were several mummies, adorned with -golden suns and armlets, and golden semispheres covering -their ears—now the property of my host, Don Luis Quiñones.</p> - -<p>Azangaro is <i>par excellence</i> the city of hidden treasure. -The houses are built of mud and straw, and thatched with -coarse grass (<i>stipa ychu</i>), the better sort being whitewashed. -To the north of the town there is a long ridge of rocky -heights; to the south an isolated peaked hill nearly overhangs -the town; to the east is the river; and to the west -is a plain bounded by the mountains towards Pucara. The -church, in the plaza, is like a large barn outside, with walls -of mud and straw, and a tower with broad-brimmed red-tiled -roof; but on entering it I was astonished at its extraordinary -magnificence, so entirely out of proportion to the wealth or -importance of this little town. The nave is lined with large -pictures on religious subjects, by native artists, in frames of -carved wood richly gilt. The elaborate gilded carving was -very striking; the leaves, bunches of grapes, and twisted -columns, being the workmanship of the famous carvers of -Cuzco. Over the arch leading to the chancel there is a picture -representing the Triumph of the Faith, in bright colours. The -high altar is plated with massive silver, with gilded columns, -pictures, and images, in gorgeous profusion up to the roof. -On either side are two very remarkable pictures, filling the -walls between the altar and the chancel-arch. On the right -an allegorical picture, and the Shepherds worshipping. -One figure, in the latter picture, a girl holding a basket on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>her head, is of great merit, and exactly resembles the 'Santa -Justa' of Murillo in the Duke of Sutherland's collection. On -the left is a picture of the 'Woman taken in Adultery,' and -an excellent copy of the well-known 'Worshipping of the -Magi,' by Rubens, in the Madrid gallery. In a side chapel -there is a copy of Leonardo da Vinci's 'Last Supper,' with -portraits of two caciques—the heads of the two great families -of Azangero—with their wives, one of them very pretty, -looking on in a corner. These copies, which are excellent, -must have been procured from Europe at very great expense.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig12.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption center">THE SONDOR-HUASI, AT AZANGARO.<br /> -<span class="smallish">Page 193.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>The author of all this magnificence, according to the -inscription on his portrait, which is fixed in a handsome gilt -frame by the side of the chancel arch, was the Bachiller -Dr. Don Basco Bernardo Lopez de Cangas, a native of Cuzco, -and Cura of Azangaro. The interior decorations were completed -on January 12th, 1758, and the cura died in 1771. -He must have been possessed of enormous wealth, to have -enabled him thus to beautify and adorn his church with -such lavish profusion.</p> - -<p>In the days of the Incas the two great families of Azangaro, -whose heads ranked as Curacas, were the Murumallcucalcinas -and Chuquihuancas; and they retained the office of -cacique until recent Spanish times. The Murumallcucalcina -family is now extinct: they lived in the town, and a portion -of their house still remains, called the <i>Sondor-huasi</i>, dating -from the time of the Incas, and the greatest curiosity in -the place. It is a circular building, about twelve feet in -diameter, with walls twelve feet high, of mud and straw, -very strong and thick. The dome-shaped roof of thatch -also dates from the time of the Incas. The outside coating -consists of a layer of <i>stipa ychu</i>, two feet thick, placed in -very regular rows, and most carefully finished, so as to -present a smooth surface to the weather. Next there is a -thick layer of the same grass placed horizontally, netted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> -together with reeds; and finally an inner perpendicular -layer; the whole thatch being five feet thick. The interior -framework consists of twelve perfect circles of bent wands, -with others descending in curves from the apex of the roof -to the crest of the wall, and where they cross there are -lashings of a tough reed. The whole is finished with most -admirable neatness, forming a perfect dome. This is the only -roof of the time of the Incas still remaining in Peru, and -hence its great importance in an antiquarian point of view. -It has been said that the colossal and highly-finished masonry -of the Incas, and their poor thatched roofs, formed a barbaric -contrast; but the Sondor-huasi proves that their roofs -rivalled their walls in the exquisite art and neatness of their -finish. The Sondor-huasi is now in a very dilapidated state, -and is used as a kitchen by the degenerate collateral heirs -of the old caciques.</p> - -<p>The Chuquihuanca family had a country house about a -league from Azangaro, which was destroyed by the army of -Tupac Amaru in 1780, because the Chuquihuancas deserted -their countrymen and adhered to the Spanish cause. I accompanied -Don Luis Quiñones, and the whole of the society -of Azangaro, to a picnic at the ruined house of the Chuquihuancas; -and it was amusing to see all the masters of -families, the Sub-Prefect Don Hipolito Valdez, the judge, -the cura, and every one else, locking the great folding-doors -leading into their <i>patios</i>, and putting the keys into their -pockets. Azangaro was entirely deserted. We were all well -mounted, and there were fourteen young ladies of the party, -fresh pleasant girls, who thoroughly enjoyed a good gallop. -The ruined house was in a corner of the plain, and surrounded -on three sides by steep overhanging cliffs. There are the -remains of a house, with a long corridor of brick arches, -behind which several broad terraces rise up the face of the -cliff, which are still ornamented with some fine <i>oliva silvestre</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> -and <i>queñua</i> trees, a few ancient apple-trees, and a dense growth -of bright-yellow Compositæ, and Solanums with a purple -flower. A noisy torrent foamed down the cliffs and over -the terraces to the plain below. It was a very pretty spot, -but in a most desolate condition, and many small doves made -their nests in the trees. Lupins (<i>ccerra</i><a name="FNanchor_285_285" id="FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a>) and nettles (<i>itapallu</i>) -were growing in the crevices of the rocks. We had an excellent -and very merry dinner; a large amount of Moquegua -wine, and of the better-clarified and more generous liquor -from Don Domingo Elias's vineyards at Pisco, were drunk; -and guitar-playing and samocueca-dancing finished the day's -entertainment. We returned to Azangaro after dark. Don -Luis assured me that the people of this little town were like -one family; and that, though election-time or periods of civil -dissension sometimes caused estrangement amongst them, the -habitual concord and friendship always returned when the -excuse for alienation had passed away.</p> - -<p>Azangaro is a great cattle-breeding province, and there is -a considerable trade in cheeses with Arequipa and other parts. -I found very great difficulty in procuring animals to enable -me to continue my journey. At length I succeeded in hiring -four miserable-looking, vicious, undersized ponies; and, -having crossed the Azangaro on balsas, by far the largest -river I had passed over since leaving Puno, the way led over -the rocky range of Pacobamba hills into another plain, where -there were several cattle and sheep farms; and the village of -Corruarini, consisting of a ruined church and a dozen huts. -The river Azangaro rises in the snowy mountains of Caravaya, -forms an immense curve of nearly half a circle in a -course of about two hundred miles, and, uniting with the -river of Pucara, falls into the lake of Titicaca as the river -Ramiz, the largest of its affluents. After a ride of six leagues<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> -we reached the little village of San José, under a conical -hill, and close to the snowy mountains of Surupana.</p> - -<p>I dined with the cura, Fray Juan de Dios Cardenas, who -gave me a list of medicinal herbs used in Azangaro; and -the beasts from that place were so infamous that I was -obliged to invoke his assistance to procure fresh ones. It -appeared that two Frenchmen had passed a few days before, -on their way to establish a saw-mill in the Caravaya forests, -with a view to floating timber down the river of Azangaro -to lake Titicaca, and that they had ill-treated some Indians. -It was thus very difficult to induce them to furnish ponies, -but the alcaldes, with their great hats and long sticks, were -summoned, and, after some negotiation, they were induced -to supply four ponies to go as far as Crucero, the capital of -the province of Caravaya. It was most fortunate that I was -enabled to do this, for, during the night, the owners of the -Azangaro ponies came out to San José, and stole them, so -that we should have been left without even this wretched -means of conveyance.</p> - -<p>From San José the path winds up a long ravine for several -leagues, down which a torrent dashes furiously over the rocks, -descending from the snowy peak of Accosiri. The mountain -scenery, consisting of steep grassy slopes, masses of -rock, torrents, and distant snowy peaks, was very fine. The -ravine led up to the summit of the pass of Surupana, where -it was intensely cold, and the height of which I roughly estimated, -with a boiling-point thermometer, at 16,700 feet above -the sea. Here I met an active young vicuña-hunter, well -mounted, and provided with a gun, who said he was a servant -of the Cacique Chuquihuanca of Azangaro, on his way to buy -wool in Caravaya. He continued in my company during -most part of the day. Loud claps of thunder burst out in -different directions, and a snow-storm was drifting in our -faces. The ravines were covered with deep snow, between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> -high dark mountains, with abrupt cliffs cropping out. A flock -of vicuñas dashed across our path, disappearing again in the -driving sleet. After wading through snow and mud for -several leagues the weather cleared up, and we began to -descend a splendid gorge, exactly like some of the finest -coombs on the north coast of Devon, on a gigantic scale. -This led us down into a valley, where I parted with my young -vicuña-hunter, who had been a very pleasant companion. -Riding down the grassy valley, and passing many flocks of -sheep, I rode through the village of Potoni, a dozen huts on -the side of a hill; forded the river Azangaro, which is here -but a small stream even in the rainy season; and riding up -the opposite bank, got a magnificent view of the snowy -mountains of Caravaya, with their sharp needle-like peaks. -Two leagues brought me to Crucero, the capital of the province -of Caravaya, so called from the cross-roads which here -branch off to the various villages in the forests on the other -side of the snowy barrier which rises up close to the town, -to the eastward.</p> - -<p>Crucero is a collection of comfortless mud-houses, with a -small dilapidated church in the plaza, on a very elevated -swampy plain. It was intensely cold, with heavy snow-storms -during the nights, and the people sat wrapped up in -cloaks without fires, shivering in a dreary helpless way, and -going to bed soon after sunset, as the only comfortable place. -I was most kindly received by the sub-prefect, Don Pablo -Pimentel, a veteran soldier, and an official who had served -many years at the head of the Government in Caravaya, and -in Lampa. Dr. Weddell had named a new genus of chinchonaceous -plants <i>Pimentelia</i>, in honour of the worthy old -sub-prefect, which had pleased him very much. I remained -a few days in Crucero, before setting out for the chinchona-forests -in the valleys of Sandia and Tambopata; and during -that time I obtained a good deal of information from Don<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> -Pablo Pimentel, and from Señor Leefdael the Judge, respecting -the province of Caravaya. Don Pablo had travelled over -almost every part of it; and I also received much information -at Arequipa from Don Agustin Aragon, a former sub-prefect, -who has a large estate in the Caravaya forests. From these -sources I am enabled to offer some account of those parts of -Caravaya which I did not visit, and which will form the subject -of the following chapter. Caravaya is a region of which -little is known to European geographers, and, so far as I am -aware, no traveller has yet given any account of it to the -English public.</p> - - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Puno to</td><td class="tdl">Paucar-colla</td><td class="tdr">9</td><td class="tdl">miles.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">Caracoto</td><td class="tdr">18</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">Juliaca</td><td class="tdr">6</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">Lampa</td><td class="tdr">21</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">Pucara</td><td class="tdr">27</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">Azangaro</td><td class="tdr">16</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">San José</td><td class="tdr">18</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">Crucero</td><td class="tdr">36</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr bb bt">151</td><td class="tdc">"</td></tr> -</table></div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.</h2> - -<p class="c">THE PROVINCE OF CARAVAYA.</p> - -<p class="c"><span class="smallish">A short Historical and Geographical Description.</span></p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Peruvian province of Caravaya is drained by streams -which form part of the system of one of the largest and least -known of the tributaries of the Amazon—the river Purus.</p> - -<p>The Purus is the only great affluent flowing into the Amazon -from the south, the course of which has never yet been -explored. We have detailed accounts of the Huallaga from -Maw, Smyth, Poeppig, and Herndon; of the Ucayali from -Smyth, Herndon, and Castelnau; and of the Madeira from -Castelnau and Gibbon; but of the Purus, the largest apparently, -and one which, in course of time, will probably -become the most important, we have next to nothing. Its -mouth, and the course of its tributaries, near the base of the -Andes, are alone described.</p> - -<p>Condamine and Smyth, in descending the Amazon, mention -the great depth and volume of water at the mouth of the -Purus: Herndon heard from a Brazilian trader at Barra, who -had ascended its stream for some distance, that it was of -great size, and without obstructions; and Haënke, in the last -century, arguing from reliable geographical data which he -had collected from Indians, stated his conviction that a very -large river, flowing from the Andes east of Cuzco, reached the -Amazon to the westward of the mouth of the Madeira.</p> - -<p>This is the sum of our knowledge of the mouth and lower -course of the Purus. The tributaries which flow into it drain -the eastern slopes of the Andes, from the latitude of Cuzco<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> -quite to the frontier of Bolivia—that frontier dividing the -streams flowing into the Purus, on the Peruvian side, from -those which feed the Beni, on the Bolivian. These affluents -of the Purus are divided into three distinct systems: the -furthest to the north and west, consisting of the streams -flowing through the great valley of Paucartambo, which unite -under the name of the Madre de Dios, or Amaru-mayu; the -middle system, draining the ravines of Marcapata and Ollachea; -and the southern and eastern, being the numerous -rivers in the province of Caravaya, as far as the Bolivian -frontier, which unite as the Ynambari. The Madre de Dios -and Ynambari together form the main stream of the Purus.</p> - -<p>The Paucartambo system is the only one which has, as -yet, been described by modern explorers. In Spanish times -the streams which compose it were explored, and farms of -cacao and coca were established on their banks; and in the -end of the last century an expedition was sent to explore the -course of the Madre de Dios, under an officer named Don -Tiburcio de Landa. This must have been at some time previous -to 1780, for Landa was killed in that year in the great -rebellion of the Indians under Tupac Amaru.<a name="FNanchor_286_286" id="FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> After the -declaration of Peruvian independence, General Gamarra, -the first Republican Prefect of Cuzco, sent an expedition to -protect the farms in the valley of Paucartambo from the -encroachments of the wild Chuncho Indians, and to explore -the Madre de Dios. It was commanded by a Dr. Sevallos, -now a very old man, retired to a farm in the Caravaya -forests, but he has, unfortunately, lost his journal. General -Miller made an expedition into the same region in 1835, and -penetrated to a greater distance than any other explorer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> -before or since. A very brief account of his journey was -published in the 'Royal Geographical Society's Journal' for -1836; but there is a much fuller and most interesting -journal kept by this gallant veteran, which has never been -printed. In 1852 Lieut. Gibbon, U.S.N., entered the valleys -of Paucartambo; and in 1853 I explored a part of the course -of its principal stream, the Tono.<a name="FNanchor_287_287" id="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> Another expedition to -explore this region, under the sanction and with the aid of -the Peruvian Government, was undertaken by some native -adventurers, accompanied by a few Americans, and an English -artist named Prendergast, in 1856, but it completely failed. -Since that time the wild Chuncho Indians have continued to -attack and encroach upon the few farms which existed in -these valleys at the time of my visit in 1853, and at the -present moment there is not one remaining. The rich -valleys of Paucartambo, once covered with flourishing cacao -and coca farms, have again become one vast uncultivated -tropical forest.</p> - -<p>Following the eastern slopes of the Andes to the south and -east, we next come to the streams which drain the valleys of -Marcapata and Ollachea, but of these very little is known. -These valleys are in the province of Quispicanchi, in the -department of Cuzco; and it is said that in times past they -were cultivated with advantage, and contained many coca farms. -In the beginning of the last century a Jesuit found -gold in a hill called Camante, in the Marcapata valley, -situated between two ravines, in one of which, called Garrote, -a Spanish company established gold-washings. The leading -man of this company, named Goyguro, employed hundreds of -Indians, and extracted gold from the Camante hill in lumps; -but one day an immense landslip fell into the Vilca-mayu,<a name="FNanchor_288_288" id="FNanchor_288_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> -the chief stream of Marcapata, and all the workmen ran -away, and could not be induced to return. This was in about -the year 1788.</p> - -<p>For forty years after this event coca-farms and gold-washings -were alike abandoned in Marcapata, until in 1828 the -cura of the village of that name, Dr. Pedro Flores, again -opened a road into the valleys, and, with some associates, -established several farms for raising coca and fruit. In 1836 -a company was formed by several young adventurers, the -chief of whom were José Maria Pacheco of Cuzco and José -Maria Ochoa<a name="FNanchor_289_289" id="FNanchor_289_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a> of Huara, with the object of again discovering -the long-lost golden hill of Camante. The party assembled -at Ocongate, in the cold region of the Andes, whence the -distance to Marcapata, at the commencement of the warm -valleys, is fourteen leagues over a bad road, which traverses -the cordillera of Ausungate and Pirhuayani. From Marcapata -the two adventurers Pacheco and Ochoa, both active and -intrepid young men, advanced into the forests with fourteen -Indians, and a stock of chuñus and dried meat. These explorers -penetrated for several leagues, following the course of -the Vilca-mayu, but their expedition led to no practical -results.<a name="FNanchor_290_290" id="FNanchor_290_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_290_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a> In 1851 Colonel Bologenesi became the manager of -an expedition for collecting chinchona-bark in the forests of -Marcapata, and proceeded to the scene of his labours, accompanied -by a young Englishman named George Backhouse. -They advanced into the forests until they fell in with parties -of wild Chuncho Indians, who were propitiated by presents -of knives and other trifles, and induced to assist young -Backhouse and his party in collecting bark. Some of the -Chunchos, however, who had received knives, neglected to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> -work, which enraged the Indians in Backhouse's service, and -a quarrel ensued, ending in the massacre of Backhouse and -all his party. Those who were out collecting bark, on discovering -what had happened, fled to Colonel Bologenesi; but -in their retreat, while fording a river, the Chunchos poured -in a volley of arrows amongst them, and killed forty of their -number. Bologenesi then collected a military force and advanced -into the forests, where he suffered great hardships, -fighting with the Chunchos all day, and harassed by alarms -during the night. He, however, collected a thousand quintals -of bark, at a cost of fifty lives and three hundred thousand -dollars. During this expedition indications were met with of -the ancient gold-washings.</p> - -<p>It will thus be seen that fevers and perilous roads are not -the only dangers to be apprehended in a search for chinchona-plants.</p> - -<p>Lastly, and extending for a distance of one hundred and -eighty miles, from Marcapata to the frontier of Bolivia, is the -watershed along that part of the eastern Andes known as the -Snowy Range of Caravaya, where the numerous streams take -their rise which unite to form the Ynambari. The Madre de -Dios, Marcapata, and Ynambari are thus the three great -sources of the Purus. The tributaries of the latter drain the -province of Caravaya.</p> - -<p>The first mention of this region is to be found in the pages -of the old Inca historian, Garcilasso de la Vega, who says -that "the richest gold-mines in Peru are those of Collahuaya, -which the Spaniards call Caravaya, whence they -obtain much very fine gold of twenty-four carats, and they -still get some, but not in such abundance."<a name="FNanchor_291_291" id="FNanchor_291_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_291_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> The Jesuit -Acosta also mentions "the famous gold of Caravaya in -Peru."<a name="FNanchor_292_292" id="FNanchor_292_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> After the final overthrow of the younger Almagro -in the battle of Chupas in 1542, some of his followers crossed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> -the snowy range, and descended into the great tropical forests -of Caravaya,<a name="FNanchor_293_293" id="FNanchor_293_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a> where they discovered rivers, the sands of which -were full of gold. On the banks of these rivers they built -the towns of Sandia, San Gavan, and San Juan del Oro; -large sums in gold were sent home to Spain, and the last-named -settlement received the title of a royal city from -Charles V. In 1553 these settlers received a pardon from -the Viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza, in consideration of the -gold they sent home to the Emperor. It is said that they -sent him a nugget weighing four arrobas, in the shape of a -bullock's head; and that afterwards another nugget, in the -shape of a bullock's tongue, was sent to Philip II., but that the -ship which carried it was lost at sea. Eventually the wild -Chuncho Indians of the Sirineyri tribe fell upon the gold-washers, -and overpowered them. In the following century -certain mulattos occupied the gold-washings in Caravaya, and -the king, as a reward for their labours in extracting treasure, -offered to comply with any request they might make. The -mulattos asked to be called Señores, and for the privilege of -entering every town on white mules with red trappings, and -the bells ringing. The Señores mulattos were finally expelled -for knocking the priest of San Juan del Oro on the head -while he was saying mass, after a drunken broil. There are -many vestiges of washings, bridges, and cuttings made by -these mulattos, in different parts of Caravaya.<a name="FNanchor_294_294" id="FNanchor_294_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a></p> - -<p>The Spaniards, however, long continued to extract gold -from the rivers of Caravaya, and established coca-farms and -coffee-plantations in some of the ravines formed by spurs of -the cordillera. Gold, however, was the product for which -Caravaya was most famous.</p> - -<p>In 1615 the viceroy Marquis of Montes Claros spoke of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> -the rich <i>lavaderos</i> or gold-washings of Caravaya;<a name="FNanchor_295_295" id="FNanchor_295_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a> and his -successor, the Prince of Esquilache, wrote a long report upon -them in 1620. It appears that, at that period, the richest of -the Caravaya mines was called Aporuma, and that it had then -been worked for fifteen years by a company of adventurers. -These men, the chief of whom were named Quiñones, -Frisancho, and Perez, had excavated very extensive works -to drain off the water, and they petitioned the Viceroy to -grant them a <i>mita</i> of Indians to complete the works, for that -thus the royal fifths would be augmented. The Prince of -Esquilache wrote a marginal note, which may still be seen on -the original petition, ordering Don Pedro de Mercado, the -"visitador-general" of Caravaya, to grant them a <i>mita</i> of -Indians within a circuit of twenty leagues of the Aporuma -mine, with three dollars a month each, besides salt-meat and -other provisions.<a name="FNanchor_296_296" id="FNanchor_296_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_296_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a> In 1678 the yield of the royal fifths from -the Caravaya gold-washings was at the rate of 806 dollars in -three months.<a name="FNanchor_297_297" id="FNanchor_297_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a> From this time to the end of the seventeenth -century Franciscan missionaries were at work amongst the -wild Chunchos in the forests of Caravaya.<a name="FNanchor_298_298" id="FNanchor_298_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_298_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> Towards the end -of the last century Caravaya was separated from Peru to -form part of the new viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, and the -population of whites and civilised Indians was then only -estimated at 6500 souls. Just before that period the town -of San Gavan, with four thousand families and a large -treasure, had been surprised and entirely destroyed by the -Carangas and Suchimanis Chunchos. This calamity took -place on the 15th of December, 1767. The viceroy Don -Manuel Amat swore vengeance on the Chunchos; but his -famous mistress, Mariquita Gallegas, better known as La<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> -Perichola, interceded for them, and eventually nothing was -done. The other town of San Juan del Oro had been abandoned -some time before; and the very sites where they stood -are now uncertain.</p> - -<p>In the great rebellion of Tupac Amaru the caciques and -people of Caravaya took part with the Indians, probably -owing to the influence possessed by the Inca, arising from -the large coca estate which belonged to him near San -Gavan.<a name="FNanchor_299_299" id="FNanchor_299_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a> At the independence Caravaya became a part of -the Peruvian department of Puno.</p> - -<p>In 1846 Don Pablo Pimentel was appointed Sub-prefect -of Caravaya, and he endeavoured, by giving a glowing -account of its vast capabilities, to induce the government to -make roads and develop the resources of this important -province. Shortly afterwards, in 1849, Caravaya attracted -notice as a land rich in the precious metal, and it soon -became the California of South America. In July of that -year two brothers named Poblete, in searching for chinchona-bark, -discovered great abundance of gold-dust in the sands -of one of the Caravaya rivers, and the news soon spread far -and wide. Up to 1852 crowds of adventurers, among whom -were many Frenchmen, continued to follow in the footsteps -of the Pobletes, but most of them returned empty, and the -excitement has now died away. The trade in chinchona-bark, -which once was remunerative, and in which many Peruvians -displayed extraordinary energy and endurance of fatigue, -ceased to exist in 1847, owing to the habit of adulterating the -Calisaya bark with inferior kinds, which gave the Caravaya -article a bad name in the market, and at length rendered -it unsaleable. This adulteration was practised either through -fraud or ignorance. If the former, it was certainly very short<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>-sighted; -but Don Pablo Pimentel declares that it was done -through ignorance, the bark-collectors mistaking the <i>motosolo</i> -(C. micrantha) and <i>carhua-carhua</i> (Cascarilla Carua) for the -Calisaya bark.<a name="FNanchor_300_300" id="FNanchor_300_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a></p> - -<p>The above meagre notices are all that I have been able -to glean respecting the history of Caravaya; and I will now -give a brief description of the geographical features of this -interesting region.</p> - -<p>The province of Caravaya consists of a narrow strip of -lofty table-land, bordering on that of Azangaro; the snowy -range of the Eastern Andes for a distance of 120 miles; and -the boundless tropical forests to the eastward, stretching -away towards the frontier of Brazil. It is bounded on the -east and south by Bolivia, on the N.W. by the province of -Quispicanchi in the department of Cuzco, on the north and -N.E. by the illimitable forests, and on the west by Azangaro.</p> - -<p>The lofty table-land to the westward of the snowy Andes -extends for 120 miles, the whole length of Caravaya, but is -only from five to ten miles broad. It is 13,000 feet above -the level of the sea, and here, about a century ago, after the -destruction of San Gavan, the town of Crucero was founded, -as a central position for the capital of the province, and as -being free from the attacks of wild Indians. It derives its -name from the numerous roads which branch from it to the -villages on the eastern slopes of the Andes. This narrow -plain, on which Crucero<a name="FNanchor_301_301" id="FNanchor_301_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> is situated, is very swampy, covered -with long tufts of <i>ychu</i> grass, and intensely cold. It yields -pasture to immense flocks of sheep; and to the curious -hybrid, first bred by the cura Cabrera in 1826, between an -alpaca and a vicuña, called the paco-vicuña, with a black -and white fleece of long fine wool, which is wove into fabrics -like the richest silk.<a name="FNanchor_302_302" id="FNanchor_302_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p> - -<p>But the largest and only important part of Caravaya consists -of the forest-covered valleys to the eastward of the -Andes. On the western side that mountain-chain rises -abruptly into peaks covered with snow, from an elevated -plateau 14,000 feet above the sea; but on its eastern side -the descent is rapid into tropical valleys. Long spurs run off -the main chain to the northward, gradually decreasing in -elevation; and it is sometimes a distance of sixty or eighty -miles before they finally subside into the boundless forest-covered -plains of the interior of South America. Numerous -rivers flow through the valleys between these spurs, to join -the Ynambari; and in these valleys, near the foot of the -main chain of the eastern Andes, are the few villages and -coca and coffee plantations of Caravaya. In these long spurs -and deep valleys Caravaya differs in geographical character -from the more northern region of Paucartambo, where the -Andes subside much more rapidly into the level plain.</p> - -<p>In the warm valleys are to be found all the wealth -and population of Caravaya. The population consists of -22,000 souls, almost all Indians; and the wealth, besides the -flocks of sheep on the western table-land, is created by -the produce of coca, coffee, sugar-cane, and aji-pepper plantations, -fruit-gardens, and gold-washings. Correct statistical -returns are unknown in Peru; but, as near as I could make -out, there is an annual yield of 20,000 lbs. of coffee and -360,000 lbs. of coca.<a name="FNanchor_303_303" id="FNanchor_303_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> I could obtain no reliable statements -respecting the yield of gold.</p> - -<p>The Caravayan valley which is furthest to the north and -west is that of Ollachea, bordering on Marcapata, where -there is a small village at the foot of the Andes. Next come<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> -those of Ituata and Corani. The little village of Ayapata, -near the source of the river of the same name, comes next; -and thirty miles further in the interior, an intelligent and -enterprising Peruvian, named Don Agustin Aragon, has -established a sugar-cane estate called San José de Bella Vista. -It is situated at the junction of two rivers, and he is thus -protected from the attacks of the savage Chuncho Indians who -prowl about in the surrounding forests. He has made a road -practicable for mules from the village of Ayapata to his -estate; and he finds the manufacture of spirits from the -sugar-cane far more profitable than digging for gold or hunting -for chinchona-bark. He is a man full of energy and -resource. His attempt to establish a manufactory of india-rubber -only failed through the refusal of the Peruvian -government to give him a contract for supplying the army, -and thus assist his first efforts; in 1860 he sent an expedition -into the forests to collect wild cacao-plants; any scheme for -developing the resources of the country is sure to receive his -advocacy; and he looks forward with confidence to the day -when a steamer shall ascend the Purus and Ynambari, and -return to the Atlantic with a cargo of the produce of Caravaya. -It would be well for Peru if she contained many such -men as Don Agustin Aragon.</p> - -<p>It is supposed that the old Spanish town of San Gavan was -situated near a river of the same name, about twenty miles -from Aragon's estate. The site is now overgrown with dense -forest, and it has never been visited since its destruction; yet -it is believed that vast treasure lies concealed amongst the -tree-covered ruins, because the attack of the Chunchos was -sudden, and at once successful; they care nothing for the -precious metals, and San Gavan contained a royal treasury, -and was a central deposit for the gold of Caravaya. The -Chunchos, in former times, were in friendly communication -with, and even took service under, the Spaniards; but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> -tyranny of the latter at length exasperated them, and led to -the destruction of San Gavan. Since that time the Chunchos -have wandered in the forests in small tribes,<a name="FNanchor_304_304" id="FNanchor_304_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_304_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> the implacable -enemies of all white men and Inca Indians.</p> - -<p>Following the eastern slopes of the Andes to the south-east, -the next village to Ayapata, at the head of another deep -ravine, is Ccoasa, and next follow Usicayus, Phara, and Limbani. -Phara is in a ravine on the eastern slope of the -Andes, about thirty-five miles from Crucero. Here many -gold-mines were worked by the Señores Mulattos, and at no -great distance is the famous gold-mine of Aporuma, in the -ravine of Pacchani. Phara is on the road to the gold-diggings, -which were discovered by the brothers Poblete, and which -attracted so many luckless adventurers between 1849 and -1854. They are at a distance of fifteen leagues to the northward. -The path lies along a long ridge, gradually descending -for six leagues to a little hamlet called La Mina. Thence -to the banks of the river Ynambari, here called Huari-huari, -is a distance of three leagues, down a very dangerous road, -covered with huge blocks of schist, and skirting along fearful -precipices. For this distance the road is passable for mules. -The river is seventy yards broad, and is crossed by an <i>oroya</i>, -or bridge of ropes, traversed by a sort of net or cage, into -which the passenger gets, and is hauled over to the other side, -at a giddy height above the boiling flood. On the other side, at -the junction of the Huari-huari and the golden river of Challuma,<a name="FNanchor_305_305" id="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> -there is a place which has been named Versailles by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> -some French adventurers, of whom the most daring and -energetic is a M. La Harpe. The road, so far, was opened -by a party of soldiers of the batallion Yungay. From Versailles -to the <i>lavaderos</i> or gold-washings is a distance of -six leagues up a narrow forest-covered ravine; and, in this -distance, it is necessary to wade across the river Challuma no -less than fifty-three times—the water coming up to the waist, -the feet constantly slipping over loose rounded stones, the -only support a long staff, and where one false step would be -inevitable destruction. At the end of this perilous journey -there is a place called Alta-garcia, where the <i>administradores</i> -of the company of first discoverers were established in 1850. -Thence to Quimza-mayu (three rivers) is half a league, and -here the <i>lavaderos</i> commence. In this part of its course the -river is called Taccuma. Many of the gold-seekers, such -as the Señores Carpio, La Harpe, Valdez, Tovar, Cardenas, -and Costas, have been men who were formerly engaged -in the chinchona-bark trade, and who know the country -thoroughly. The tributaries of the Challuma, called Quimza-mayu, -rise in hills completely isolated from the Andes, and -their sands are full of gold, both in dust and nuggets. -Immediately above the <i>lavaderos</i> rises a hill called Capacurco, -and by the French adventurers Montebello, formed of -quartz and other primitive rocks, with rich veins of gold. -Here Don Manuel Costas of Puno erected a house, and -brought out machinery for crushing the quartz, but the -undertaking failed through the badness of the machinery, -and the immense cost and difficulty of transporting materials -through such a country. A few adventurers, however, still -continue to wash for gold in the Challuma or Taccuma. In -the part of its course above the <i>lavaderos</i> this river descends -rapidly from an isolated range of forest-covered precipitous -hills, and in one place its waters plunge down in a cascade,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> -with a sheer fall of forty feet.<a name="FNanchor_306_306" id="FNanchor_306_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> The gold-seekers of the -Challuma have penetrated further into the forests, and nearer -to the main stream of the Purus, than any other explorers; -and their discovery of the Challuma, and of the auriferous -hills near its banks, has added something to our geographical -knowledge of this region.</p> - -<p>The remaining villages on the eastern slopes of the Caravayan -Andes are Patambuco, Sandia, Cuyo-cuyo, Quiaca, -Sina, and the farm of Saqui, on the frontier of Bolivia. The -river of Sandia has one of its sources near the pass twenty -miles north-east of Crucero, whence it flows past Sandia, and -for many leagues down a narrow gorge, with magnificent -mountains rising up abruptly on either side. At a distance -of twenty miles below Sandia, in a part of the ravine called -Ypara, the coca and coffee plantations commence, at a height -of 5000 feet above the sea. Beyond Ypara cultivation ceases, -and the river, now increased to double its former size by -its junction with the Huari-huari, flows for many leagues -between mountains covered from their summits with a -dense tropical forest. This region is known as San Juan del -Oro, once famous for its gold-washings; and here the royal -town of the same name stood, founded by the fugitive Almagristas, -and afterwards tenanted by the Señores Mulattos, -but long since destroyed and abandoned. The forests contain -chinchona-trees of valuable species, and, until the last fourteen -years, they were frequented by bark-collectors.</p> - -<p>While flowing through the forests of San Juan del Oro the -river takes a turn to the westward, and, at a distance of -sixty miles from Sandia, enters the Hatun-yunca, or Valle -Grande, where the people of Sandia have very extensive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> -coca and coffee plantations. The curve here made by the -river is so considerable that the people from Sandia reach -their farms in the Valle Grande by leaving the ravine -above Ypara, and making their way across the grass-covered -mountains. The coffee-plants in these farms receive no -attention whatever from the time they are planted, so that, -instead of the dense well-pruned bushes of India or Ceylon, -they grow into tall straggling trees about twelve feet high, -with a very small harvest of berries on each, but each -berry well exposed to the sun. The coffee is certainly excellent.</p> - -<p>Passing through the Valle Grande the river flows on past -Versailles, where it receives the golden Challuma, and, -uniting with all the other rivers of Caravaya, becomes that -great Ynambari which finally effects a junction with the -Madre de Dios, and forms the main stream of the mighty -Purus.</p> - -<p>The river Huari-huari, which is formed by two streams -flowing from the villages of Sina and Quiaca, joins the river -of Sandia about thirty miles below that town, and their -united streams compose the Ynambari. Finally the river -Tambopata rises near a farm called Saqui, just within the -boundary between Peru and Bolivia, at the foot of a ridge -of the Eastern Cordillera. After a course of forty miles it -receives the river of San Blas, on the banks of which the -people of the Sina village have their coca-plantations. Eighty -miles lower down the Tambopata unites with the river Pablo-bamba, -on its right bank, at a place called Putina-puncu. -The Pablo-bamba rises in a hill called Corpa-ychu on the -very frontier of Bolivia, and is only divided from the Tambopata, -during its whole course, by a single range of hills. The -frontier between the two republics has never been surveyed. -Below Putina-puncu the united waters of the two rivers enter -the vast forest-covered plains into which the spurs of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> -Andes finally subside, and henceforth its course is entirely -unknown. I think it probable, however, that the Tambopata -finds its way direct to the Purus, without previously uniting -with the Ynambari.</p> - -<p>The respective distances and populations of the villages of -Caravaya are as follows:—</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig13.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>But some of these villages are at greater distances from the -foot of the Andes than others; thus they are not in a straight -line, and the direct distance from Ollachea to the Bolivian -frontier is a good deal under 180 miles. The valleys in which -the Caravaya villages are situated are separated from each -other by spurs of the Andes, many of them so wild and precipitous -as to be quite inaccessible; and there is no means of -passing from village to village, in many instances, without -crossing the Andes to Crucero or Macusani, and descending -again by another pass. For this reason Crucero, being in the -most central position, has been chosen as the site of the -capital of the province, though in a bleak and intensely cold -region.</p> - -<p>The geological formation of Caravaya is composed of non-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>fossiliferous -schists, micaceous and slightly ferruginous, with -veins of quartz. It is a portion of the extensive system of -rocks which Mr. Forbes has grouped together as belonging -to the Silurian epoch, and which extends almost continuously -over an extent from north-west to south-east of more than -seven hundred miles, forming the mountain-chain of the -Eastern Andes, continuous from Cuzco, through Caravaya, to -Bolivia. These rocks throw off spurs along the eastern side -of the main chain. Of this formation, too, are the loftiest -mountain-peaks in South America:—Illampu, or Sorata -(24,812 feet), and Illimani (24,155 feet). Illampu, Mr. -Forbes assures us, is fossiliferous up to its very summit.<a name="FNanchor_307_307" id="FNanchor_307_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a></p> - -<p>Such is a brief account of the geography of Caravaya, and -especially of the streams which combine to form the great -river Purus, from the rivers of the Paucartambo valley on the -extreme north-west, to the Pablo-bamba on the frontier of -Bolivia. The streams flowing from the Eastern Andes to the -north-west of the Paucartambo system combine to swell the -Ucayali, while those to the south-east of the Pablo-bamba fall -into the Beni, one of the chief tributaries of the Madeira. -The intermediate streams are the sources of the unknown -Purus, they are all more or less auriferous, they flow through -forests abounding in valuable products, and through countries -of inexhaustible capabilities. Yet the courses of very few of -them have been explored to distances of seventy miles from -their sources, and the main stream of the Purus, one of the -principal affluents of the Amazon, may be said to be entirely -unknown to geographers.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII.</h2> - -<p class="c">CARAVAYA.—THE VALLEY OF SANDIA.</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> the 18th of April I left Crucero, on my way to the chinchona -forests, rather late in the afternoon, accompanied by -Mr. Weir the gardener, a young mestizo named Pablo -Sevallos, and two cargo-mules. After a ride of three leagues -along the bleak plain of Crucero, covered with coarse <i>Stipa</i> -and stunted <i>Cacti</i>, we reached a little shepherd's hut, called -Choclari-piña, at dusk. It was built of loose stones, with a -sheepskin hung across the doorway, but with no plaster or -mud between the interstices of the stones, so that the -piercingly cold wind blew right through the hut.<a name="FNanchor_308_308" id="FNanchor_308_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> The poor -Indian family were kind and hospitable, and gave us plenty -of fresh milk. Next morning we continued the journey -along the same plain, with the snowy peaks of the Caravayan -Andes on the left, and the glorious nevada of Ananea -ahead, whence rise the rivers of Azangaro flowing into lake -Titicaca, and of Ynambari finding its way to the Atlantic. -A ride of twelve miles brought us to a hut called Acco-kunka -(neck of sand), at the foot of long ridges of dark-coloured -cliffs, with huge boulders of rock scattered over the sides of -the hills. A hard white frost covered the ground.</p> - -<p>At Acco-kunka I met a red-faced man, about fifty years -of age, who gave his name as Don Manuel Martel. He said -that he had been a colonel, and had suffered persecution -for being faithful to his party; that he had lost much money<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> -in the <i>cascarilla</i> trade; and that he was now making a -clearing in the forests of Caravaya, for the purpose of -growing sugar-cane. He talked about M. Hasskarl, the -Dutch agent, who was employed to obtain chinchona-plants -in 1854, under his assumed name of Müller; said that he -employed an agent named Clemente Henriquez to collect -the plants; and vowed that if he, or any one else, ever again -attempted to take <i>cascarilla</i> (chinchona) plants out of the -country, he would stir up the people to seize them and cut -their feet off. There was evidently some allusion to myself -in his bluster; and I suspected, what afterwards proved to -be the case, that Martel had, by some means, got information -respecting the objects of my journey, and was desirous of -thwarting them. I had always carefully avoided any mention -of the subject since leaving Arequipa. Martel said he was -going to buy gold-dust at Poti, so I soon got rid of him; -and, passing an alpine lake, full of water-fowl, we began the -descent into the golden valleys of Caravaya.</p> - -<p>On the left a black cliff, perpendicular, and fully 2000 feet -high, formed one side of the descent, and the space on its -inner side was occupied by a small glacier, the only one I -have ever seen in the Andes; whence descends, in a long -waterfall, the source of the little river Huaccuyo, which -dashes down the ravine. For the first thousand feet the -vegetation continues to be of a lowly alpine character, consisting -of coarse grass and flowering herbs, chiefly <i>Compositæ</i>, -of which there were several <i>Senecios</i>, generally with yellow -flowers, a gentian with violet-coloured flowers, a <i>Bartsia</i> with -a yellow flower, a little <i>Plantago</i>, and a <i>Ranunculus</i>. As we -continued the descent, the scenery increased in magnificence. -The polished surfaces of the perpendicular cliffs glittered -here and there with foaming torrents, some like thin lines -of thread, others broader and breaking over rocks, others -seeming to burst out of the fleecy clouds; while jagged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> -black peaks, glittering with streaks of snow, pierced the -mist which concealed their bases. After descending for -some leagues through this glorious scenery, the path at -length crossed a ridge, and brought us to the crest of the -deep and narrow ravine of Cuyo-cuyo.</p> - -<p>The path down the side of the gorge is very precipitous, -through a succession of <i>andeneria</i>, or terraced gardens, some -abandoned, and others planted with ocas (<i>Oxalis tuberosa</i>), -barley, and potatoes; the upper tiers from six to eight feet -wide, but gradually becoming broader. Their walled sides are -thickly clothed with Calceolarias, Celsias, Begonias, a large -purple Solanum, and a profusion of ferns. But it was not -until reaching the little village in the bottom of the hollow -that all the glories of the scene burst upon me. The river of -Sandia, which takes its rise at the head of the ravine, flows -by the village of Cuyo-cuyo, bordered by ferns and wild -flowers. It is faced, near the village, with fern-covered -masonry, and is crossed by several stone bridges of a single -arch. Almost immediately on either side, the steep precipitous -mountains, lined, at least a hundred deep, with well-constructed -<i>andeneria</i>, and faced with stone, rise up abruptly. -In several places a cluster of cottages, built on one of the -terraces, seemed almost to be hanging in the air. Above all -the dark rocks shoot up into snowy peaks, which stood out -against the blue sky. A most lovely scene, but very sad, -for the great majority of those carefully-constructed terraces, -eternal monuments of the beneficence of the Incas, are now -abandoned. The alcalde of Cuyo-cuyo received me most -hospitably. In the early morning numbers of lambs and -young llamas were playing about in the abandoned terraced -gardens near the village. Besides Cuyo-cuyo, there are two -small hamlets, called Muchucachi and Sullanqui, and several -scattered huts in the ravine, the population of which is -estimated at 2000 souls.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the morning of April 20th I rode down the beautiful -gorge to the confluence of the rivers of Sandia and Huaccuyo. -After this junction the stream becomes a roaring torrent, -dashing over huge rocks, and descending rapidly down the -ravine towards Sandia. On both sides vast masses of dark -frowning mountains rear themselves up for thousands of feet, -and end in fantastically shaped peaks, some of them veiled -by thin fleecy clouds. The vegetation rapidly increased in -luxuriance with the descent. At first there were low shrubs, -such as <i>Baccharis odorata</i>, <i>Weinmannia fagaroides</i>, &c.; which -gradually gave place to trees and large bushes; while all the -way from Cuyo-cuyo there were masses of ferns of many kinds, -Begonias, Calceolarias, Lupins, Salvias, and Celsias. Waterfalls -streamed down the mountains in every direction: some -in a white sheet of continuous foam for hundreds of feet, -finally seeming to plunge into huge beds of ferns and flowers; -some like driven spray; and in one place a fall of water -could be seen between two peaks, which seemed to fall into -the clouds below.</p> - -<p>A most glorious and enchanting scene, allowing little -time to think of the road, which was very bad, and in many -places most perilous. In its best parts it was like a steep -back-attic staircase after an earthquake. Three leagues from -Cuyo-cuyo is the confluence of the torrent of Ñacorequi with -the river of Sandia; and after this point maize begins to be -cultivated, where the craggy jutting cliffs permit, between -the river and the mountains. The Indians live in eyrie-like -huts, perched at great heights, here and there, amongst the -maize terraces. The village of Sandia is at a distance of -fifteen miles from Cuyo-cuyo, down this ravine, a dilapidated -little place, with more than half the houses roofless and in -ruins. It is built along the banks of the river, and has a -church in the <i>plaza</i>. The mountains rise up all round it, -almost perpendicularly, forming a close amphitheatre; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> -in two places glittering cascades foam down from their very -summits, into the bushes on a level with the town.</p> - -<p>The descent from the summit of the pass over the Caravayan -Andes to Sandia is very considerable, nearly 7000 feet -in thirty miles, from an arctic to a sub-tropical climate. The -height of Crucero is 12,980 feet; of the pass 13,600; of Cuyo-cuyo -10,510; and of Sandia 6930 feet above the sea.<a name="FNanchor_309_309" id="FNanchor_309_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a></p> - -<p>The four mountains closely hemming in the village of -Sandia are mount Chicanaco, which is beautified by a splendid -cascade; mount Vianaco, which ends in two fine wooded -peaks, between which a long slender thread of water descends -into the foliage midway; mount Camparacani, on the other -side of the river, which rises up to a stupendous height, -ending in a jagged rocky peak; and mount Catasuyu, which -completes the circle, rising abruptly above the church. The -name of Sandia is probably a corruption of the Spanish word -<i>sandilla</i>, the first settlers having mistaken the quantities of -gourds which grow here for <i>sandillas</i> or water-melons.</p> - -<p>When I arrived in Sandia the governor was absent on his -estate; the cura, my good friend Dr. Guaycochea, was getting -in his maize-harvest on his land near Cuzco; and the principal -remaining inhabitants were the Juez de Paz, Don -Francisco Farfan, and one Don Manuel Mena, who was drunk -in bed when I arrived, but who afterwards received me very -hospitably. These good people are, in manners and education, -the roughest backwoodsmen, much too fond of aguardiente, -and addicted to chewing coca to excess; but they -are warm-hearted and neighbourly, while they display some -energy in working the coffee and coca estates in the distant -montaña, and in making roads, such as they are, from these -estates to Sandia. The richer people of Sandia all have -more or less of Indian blood, and their wives and daughters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> -are unable to speak any language but Quichua; and thus -they seem to be more closely united in interests and feelings -with the mass of the population than in any other part of -Peru. The Indians of the district of Sandia are divided into -six <i>ayllus</i> or tribes, besides the inhabitants of the villages of -Sandia, Cuyo-cuyo, and Patambuco. These <i>ayllus</i> are established -on the mountains around Sandia, living in scattered -huts, some cultivating maize and potatoes, others raising -barley and alfalfa for mules. The <i>ayllus</i> are called Laqueque, -about a league up the river, on the right bank; Cuyo-cuyo -(not the village), behind mount Camparacani; Oruro, -on the heights below Cuyo-cuyo; Quiaca (not the village), -near Oruro; Quenequi, about a league down the river; and -Apabuco, behind mount Catasuyu. The population of the -parish of Sandia is about 7000; 4000 in Sandia and its six -<i>ayllus</i>, 2000 in the village and ravine of Cuyo-cuyo, and 1000 -in Patambuco. As many as 1000 souls fell victims to the -dreadful pestilence of 1855, which raged over all parts of the -Andes of Peru. Nearly every Indian family, besides land -near Sandia, owns a small farm of coca or coffee down in the -montaña, to which men, women, and children go at harvest-time. -As in all parts of the Andes, so in the Sandia ravine, -I constantly found the Indians civil, obliging, and respectful, -always saluting with an "Ave Maria Taytay!" and a touch -of the hat in passing. They are reserved and silent, it is -true, and superficial observers take this for stupidity. Never -was there a greater mistake: their skill in carving and all -carpenter's work, in painting and embroidery, the exquisite -fabrics they weave from vicuña-wool, the really touching -poetry of their love-songs and <i>yaravis</i>, the traditional histories -of their <i>ayllus</i>, which they preserve with religious care, surely -disprove so false a charge.</p> - -<p>The houses in Sandia are the merest barns, with mud-walls, -and roofs which let the water in. All the family sleep<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> -together in a promiscuous way; pigs and fowls wandering -over the floor at early dawn. The Juez de Paz, Francisco -Farfan, administers justice in such a place as this, lounging on -a sort of mud-platform at one end of the room, where his bed -is made up, while the culprit, and a crowd of alcaldes and -spectators, stand before him. Every one chatters at the same -time for about ten minutes, and the prisoner is sent to -the lock-up. The Jueces de Paz have to render periodical -accounts of all their cases, attested by witnesses, to the Juez -de Primera Instancia in the capital of the province.</p> - -<p>While upon the subject of these local authorities, it will -be well to give an account of the powers placed in their -hands by the Constitution of 1856, by which Peru is now -governed; both because the measures then adopted will, -I believe, have a lasting and beneficial effect on the people, -and because the persons so vested with power endeavoured -to display their patriotic zeal by throwing obstacles in my -way. By this constitution it was provided that in the capital -of each department there should be a <i>Junta Departmental</i>,<a name="FNanchor_310_310" id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a> -the members of which should be elected in the same way -and with the same qualifications as those for the National -Congress, to meet every year. These <i>Juntas</i> were to deliberate -and legislate for the advancement and material progress -of the departments, their decrees being null if contrary to any -law of Congress. The evident objection to this measure is its -tendency to split the country up into small communities with -separate interests, which has always proved to be most -disastrous in thinly-peopled and half-civilized states. This -view is taken in a very able article on the constitution, in a -periodical published at Lima, where the <i>Juntas Departmentales</i> -are declared to be the initiation of a system of "federation," -the result of which has always been to dismember countries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> -into so many small depopulated districts, as in Mexico, Central -America, New Granada, and the Argentine Republic, introducing -civil war, anarchy, and dissolution. The writer might -now add the dis-United States of North America also.<a name="FNanchor_311_311" id="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a></p> - -<p>But the institutions to which I before alluded, as having -had a beneficial effect, are the <i>Juntas Municipales</i>,<a name="FNanchor_312_312" id="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> which -were to be established in every district where materials -existed to form them, and to have the regulation of the local -funds and improvements. They were to consist of the most -influential citizens, elected by their fellow townsmen, and -were to attend to local interests, have charge of the civic -registers, take the census, &c. The same writer speaks of -these municipalities in terms of unqualified praise, and says -that their establishment is a positive good, without in any -way promoting a federation which would be ruinous to -Peruvian nationality.<a name="FNanchor_313_313" id="FNanchor_313_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_313_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> They will give young men the opportunity -of becoming acquainted with public affairs, teach them -habits of business, and gradually train them for more important -political duties. I look upon these institutions as one of -the sources of hope for a brighter future for Peru; and as -long as they show activity, whether in a right or wrong -direction, they must be productive of good. The habit of -taking an active part in public affairs must be better than -the torpor and indifference which formerly prevailed. I saw -several signs of activity in these <i>Juntas Municipales</i> during -my journey from Puno. At Lampa they were actively -engaged in an endeavour to re-establish a manufactory of -glazed tiles in that town; in Azangaro they were collecting -subscriptions for a bridge across the river, to which one of -their body had contributed half the required sum; and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> -Sandia they were drawing up a report on the state of the roads, -with an estimate of the sum required for their thorough -repair and bridging. I was happy to be able to assist the -Sandia Municipality, by preparing a map for them, to illustrate -their report. The <i>Juntas Municipales</i> of Sandia and -Quiaca also, especially the latter, took measures to prevent -me from procuring a supply of chinchona-plants or seeds, -influenced by motives which exposed their ignorance of -political economy, while it displayed their activity and -patriotic zeal.</p> - -<p>In Sandia the municipal body consists of the Alcalde Municipal, -who presides, the Teniente Alcalde, the Syndic, two -Judges of the Peace, three Regidores, one of whom is Don -Manuel Mena, and a Secretary.</p> - -<p>My original plan had been to examine the chinchona forests -during this month, make as many meteorological and other -observations as was possible, and perhaps send down a small -collection of plants to the coast; but to make the principal -collection of plants and seeds in August, the month when the -seeds of <i>C. Calisaya</i> are ripe. I had not, however, been two -days in Sandia before I discovered that Martel had already -written to several of the inhabitants, urging them to prevent -me from taking chinchona plants or seeds out of the country, -and to bring the matter before the <i>Junta Municipal</i> of the -district. I heard also that he was busying himself in the -same way in other villages bordering on the chinchona forests. -My mission was becoming the talk of the whole country; and -I at once saw that my only chance of success was to commence -the work of collecting plants without a moment's delay, and, -if possible, anticipate any measures which might be taken to -thwart my designs.</p> - -<p>It was at Sandia that it became necessary to make final -preparations for a journey into the forests, for beyond this -point the possibility of procuring supplies of any kind is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> -very doubtful. I here laid in a stock of bread to last for -about a month, which was toasted in the oven belonging to -the cura, the only one in the place, and which, together with -some chocolate and cheese, formed the provisions for myself -and the gardener. I then persuaded the judge to order -the alcaldes of four of the <i>ayllus</i> to procure four Indians and -two cargo-mules, the Indians to bring their own provisions -with them, for which I advanced them money. After considerable -delays my little expedition was ready to start, consisting -of myself, Mr. Weir the gardener, Pablo Sevallos the mestizo, -four Indians, and two mules. The supplies and provisions -were packed in six leathern bags, containing tea and sugar, -chocolate, toasted bread, cheese, candles, concentrated beef-tea, -changes of clothes, instruments, powder and shot, besides -a tent, an air-bed, gutta-percha robes, ponchos, a wood-knife -and trowel, and maize and salt meat for Pablo and the Indians. -It took several days to complete these preparations.</p> - -<p>The climate of Sandia, at this time of the year, is exceedingly -agreeable, the days being fine and clear until late in -the afternoon, and not too hot. The prevailing wind blows -up the ravine from the north-east, being the trade which -comes across the vast forest-covered plains of the interior. -It is this warm trade-wind which produces a much milder -climate and more tropical vegetation in Cuyo-cuyo than in -Arequipa, though the former place is three thousand feet -higher than the latter. In Sandia, just after sunset, it feels -rather chilly, and during the middle of the day the sun is exceedingly -hot. Light clouds generally hang about the highest -peaks. The variety of most beautiful and graceful ferns on -the walls of the houses, and near the banks of the river, is -endless.</p> - -<p>I had the satisfaction of seeing, in the house of Don Manuel -Mena, before leaving Sandia, a bundle of small branches of -the <i>ychu cascarilla</i> (<i>C. Calisaya, var. β Josephiana</i>), with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> -leaves and flowers, which had been collected as a tonic medicine -for a little daughter of my host.</p> - -<p>On the 24th of April, late in the afternoon, we left Sandia, -and reached the <i>tambo</i>, or travellers' hut, called Cahuan-chaca, -before dark. The road leads down the ravine, along -narrow ledges overhanging the river, which dashes furiously -along, in most places between perpendicular cliffs. The -path is very narrow and dangerous, but the scenery is -superb, and the vegetation becomes richer and more tropical -at every league of the descent.</p> - -<p>One of the Indians traitorously fled on the first day, and -my party was thus reduced to three, who were barely able -to carry the necessary provisions. These three men proved -faithful and willing fellow-labourers. Their names were -Andres Vilca of the Oruro <i>Ayllu</i>, Julian Ccuri of Cuyo-cuyo, -and Santos Quispi of Apabuco. They were fine-looking young -fellows, wearing their hair in long plaits down their backs, -coarse canvas trousers and shirts. They carry the cargos in -large cloths tied in bundles, and placed in other cloths, which -are passed over one shoulder and tied across the chest, called -<i>ccepis</i>. They stoop forward and step out at a great rate; and -it is in this way that Indians carry their burdens along the -roads, and women their children, throughout Peru. The -<i>tambo</i> of Cahuan-chaca is a shed, with one side open, and we -slept in company with three Indians and a woman on their -way to get in a coca-harvest in the Hatun-yunca, who were -living very well on salt mutton, eggs, and potatoes.</p> - -<p>The river rushing down the valley winds along the small -breadth of level land, striking first against the precipitous -cliffs on one side, and then sweeping over to the other, so -that a road in the bottom of the valley would require a bridge -at almost every hundred yards. It has, therefore, been -necessary to excavate a path in the sides of the mountains, -high above the river, which in some places has a breadth of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> -three feet only, with a perpendicular cliff on one side, and a -precipice six or seven hundred feet deep on the other; while, -in others, it zigzags down amongst loose stones, where one -false step would be immediate destruction. But the scenery -continued to increase in beauty, and the cascades were really -splendid:—</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"> -<div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">"A land of streams! some, like a downward smoke,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Slow-dropping veils of thinnest lawn, did go;<br /></span> -<span class="i0">And some thro' wavering lights and shadows broke,<br /></span> -<span class="i2">Rolling a slumbrous sheet of foam below."<br /></span> -</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>The river dashed noisily through the centre of the gorge, -and the masses of green on either side were toned down by -many flowers in large patches, bright purple <i>Lasiandræ</i>, -orange <i>Cassiæ</i>, and scarlet <i>Salviæ</i>. I also saw an <i>Indigofera</i> -growing in this part of the ravine.</p> - -<p>A mile from the hut of Cahuan-chaca is the confluence of -the river Huascaray; and a league lower down is the little -shed or tambo of Cancallani. Here bamboos and tree-ferns -first appear, and coca is cultivated in terraces which are -fringed with coffee-plants, with their rich green foliage and -crimson berries. I observed that the huts in the middle of -these patches of coca or maize had no doors, showing the confidence -of the inmates in the honesty of the numerous passers-by, -who go to and fro between Sandia and the more distant -coca estates.<a name="FNanchor_314_314" id="FNanchor_314_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_314_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> I passed the estate of Chayllabamba, with -terraces of coca at least fifty deep, up the sides of the moun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>tains; -and Asalay, a coffee estate, with groves of orange and -chirimoya-trees, the extreme point reached by M. Hasskarl, -the Dutch collector, in 1854. At the confluence of the rivers -Asalay and Sandia perpendicular cliffs rise abruptly from the -valley to a stupendous height on both sides, and the path -winds up in a serpentine slippery staircase, to creep along the -edge of the steep grassy slopes or <i>pajonales</i>, far above the -tropical vegetation of the ravine. Winding along this path, -we came to the <i>tambo</i> of Paccay-samana, on the grassy -<i>pajonal</i>, the mountains rising up on the opposite side of the -ravine only about sixty yards distant; yet the river, in the -bottom of the gorge, was many hundreds of feet below. There -were thickets with masses of bright flowers in the gullies, -and glorious cascades shimmering in the sunlight on the -opposite mountain-sides.</p> - -<p>It was at this spot that we first encountered chinchona-plants. -A number of young plants of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, <i>var. β -Josephiana</i>, were growing by the side of the road, with their -exquisite roseate flowers, and rich green leaves with crimson -veins. The rock is a metamorphic slate, unfossiliferous, -slightly micaceous, and ferruginous, with quartz occurring -here and there: the soil a stiff brown loam. Above the -tambo there was a small thicket of gaultherias, called <i>ccarani</i> -in Quichua, and Melastomaceæ with bright purple flowers -(<i>Lasiandra fontanesiana</i>), in a shallow gully, surrounded by -the rich broad-bladed grass of the <i>pajonal</i>. Here there were -some fine plants of the chinchona named by Dr. Weddell -<i>C. Caravayensis</i>; and further on more plants of <i>C. Josephiana</i>, -called <i>ychu cascarilla</i> by the natives. The height of this -spot is 5420 feet above the sea. A tree-fern and many -<i>Trichomanes</i> were growing with the chinchonæ. Paccay-samana -is sixteen miles from Sandia.</p> - -<p>Animal life did not appear to be very abundant. There -were plenty of large doves, some ducks near the river, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> -a brilliant woodpecker. I also saw great numbers of large -swallow-tailed butterflies, purple with light-blue spots on the -upper wings; and others with white upper wings edged with -jet black and rows of white spots, the lower wings orange.</p> - -<p>Beyond Paccay-samana there were several more plants of -<i>C. Josephiana</i>, rising out of masses of maiden-hair and <i>Polypodia</i>. -After following the edge of the pajonal for about a -mile, we descended by a precipitous zigzag path and crossed -over the river Pulluma, at its confluence with the Sandia. -Here the road to the Hatun-yunca or Valle Grande branches -off up the mountain of Ramas-pata, while our way continued -down the ravine. The scenery is here remarkably beautiful. -Lofty mountains, with their bright cascades, are clothed to -their summits with rich grass, while their gullies are filled -with flowering trees and shrubs. Half-way up, in many -directions, the stone terraces of coca rise tier above tier, -fringed with ferns and begonias, and filled with the delicate -coloured green coca-branches, diversified occasionally by the -darker hues of the coffee. The ravine is filled with masses of -purple Melastomaceæ, and the river is fringed with tree-ferns, -plantains, and bamboos.</p> - -<p>This purple Melastomacea (<i>Lasiandra fontanesiana</i>), called -in Quichua <i>panti-panti</i>, in the brilliancy and abundance of its -flowers, bears the same relation to this part of the Peruvian -Andes as the rhododendron does to the Himalayas. The -effect in masses is much the same, but the <i>Lasiandra</i> appears -to me to be a more graceful and delicate tree, with a more -beautiful flower. In this ravine we have the shrub chinchonæ -on the high grassy slopes, perhaps the finest coffee in the -world near the banks of the river, and a little galium by the -road-side—all chinchonaceous plants.</p> - -<p>At noon on April 26th we rested in the tambo of Ypara, -in the centre of coca cultivation, and in the afternoon, -crossing the river by a wooden bridge, we had to travel along<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> -the skirts of the mountains, at a considerable height, in the -region of the <i>pajonales</i>. No gullies or large cascades cut up -the face of these mountains, which were entirely exposed -to the full glare of the sun, and here, though there was a -profusion of purple Melastomaceæ in some of the shallow indentations, -there were no chinchonæ. Towards evening we -came to a lofty spur of the mountain, called Estanqui, at a -great height above the ravine, whence there was a most -extensive view. To the left was the valley of Sandia, -with little coca-farms nestling in all the sheltered gullies; -and I could just make out the boys and girls far far below, -like specks, busy with the coca-leaves in the drying-yards. -In front there was a distant view of the hills in the direction -of San Juan del Oro, covered with virgin forest; while at our -feet, and a thousand feet below us, was the confluence of the -rivers Sandia, Llaypuni, and Huari-huari, which unite to -form the great river Ynambari.</p> - -<p>It was my intention, after marking down all the eligible -plants of the shrubby <i>Calisaya</i>, to be taken up on our return, -to make for the forest-covered valley of Tambopata, which -is full of chinchona-trees; and I therefore left the ravine -of the Sandia river at this point, and, by a rapid descent, -went down from the grassy uplands to a region of tropical -forest, full of palms and tree-ferns. We thus reached the -banks of the Huari-huari. This river flows through a deep -and very narrow ravine, lined with forest, for about 500 feet, -above which rise grassy mountains to an immense height. -Though only 30 feet across, and confined by dark polished -rocks, the Huari-huari is very deep, and decidedly a more -important stream than the Sandia, at their junction.</p> - -<p>We established ourselves under a rock, where there was -no room to pitch the tent, and thus our first night of camping -out commenced, for previously we had slept in the road-side -<i>tambos</i>. The Indians carried little earthen pots for cooking,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> -in their <i>ccepis</i>, and got up a fire of dry sticks with great -rapidity. I had a delicious bath in the river, where the tall -forest trees overshadowed the water on either side. At -night the moon streamed its floods of light over the forest, -and the brilliant sparks from myriads of fire-flies shone -from the trees in every direction up the side of the opposite -mountain; but in the early morning the sky clouded over, -and a heavy drizzling rain began to fall, which prevented -sleep, and made us wish for day.</p> - -<p>From this encampment our way led up the precipitous -sides of the mountain, to the grassy <i>pajonales</i> which divide -the valleys of Sandia and Tambopata; but I will here halt -awhile to give a brief account of the cultivation of that plant, -of which we had lately seen so much, and which enabled -me to ascend the mighty passes of the Andes on foot with -ease and comfort—the strength-giving, invigorating coca.</p> - -<p>A general geographical description of all this country has -been given in the preceding chapter.</p> - -<p>During my stay at Sandia the indications of the thermometer -were as follows, between the 20th and 25th of -April:—</p> - - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mean temperature</td><td class="tdr">63⅕°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Minimum temperature at night</td><td class="tdr">50½</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Highest observed</td><td class="tdr">65</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Lowest</td><td class="tdr">47</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Range</td><td class="tdr">18</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV.</h2> - -<p class="c">COCA-CULTIVATION.</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> coca-leaf is the great source of comfort and enjoyment -to the Peruvian Indian; it is to him what betel is to the -Hindoo, kava to the South Sea Islander, and tobacco to -the rest of mankind; but its use produces invigorating -effects which are not possessed by the other stimulants. -From the most ancient times the Peruvians have used -this beloved leaf, and they still look upon it with feelings -of superstitious veneration. In the time of the Incas it was -sacrificed to the Sun, the Huillac Umu or high priest chewing -the leaf during the ceremony; and, before the arrival -of the Spaniards, it was used, as the cacao in Mexico, instead -of money. After the conquest, although its virtues were -extolled by the Inca Garcilasso de la Vega,<a name="FNanchor_315_315" id="FNanchor_315_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_315_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a> and by the -Jesuit Acosta,<a name="FNanchor_316_316" id="FNanchor_316_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a> some fanatics proposed to proscribe its use, -and to root up the plants, because they had been used in the -ancient superstitions, and because its cultivation took away -the Indians from other work. The second council of Lima, -consisting of bishops from all parts of South America, condemned -the use of coca in 1569 because it was a "useless -and pernicious leaf, and on account of the belief stated to be -entertained by the Indians that the habit of chewing coca -gave them strength, which is an illusion of the devil."<a name="FNanchor_317_317" id="FNanchor_317_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a></p> - -<p>In speaking of the strength the coca gives to those who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> -chew it, Garcilasso do la Vega relates the following anecdote. -"I remember a story which I heard in my native land of -Peru, of a gentleman of rank and honour, named Rodrigo -Pantoja, who, travelling from Cuzco to Rimac (Lima), met a -poor Spaniard (for there are poor people there as well as -here) who was going on foot, with a little girl aged two years -on his back. The man was known to Pantoja, and they thus -conversed. 'Why do you go laden thus?' said the knight. -The poor man answered that he was unable to hire an Indian -to carry the child, and for that reason he carried it himself. -While he spoke Pantoja looked in his mouth, and saw that it -was full of coca; and, as the Spaniards abominate all that -the Indians eat and drink, as though it savoured of idolatry, -particularly the chewing of coca, which seems to them a low -and vile habit, he said, 'It may be as you say, but why do -you eat coca like an Indian, a thing so hateful to Spaniards?' -The man answered, 'In truth, my lord, I detest it as much as -any one, but necessity obliges me to imitate the Indians, and -keep coca in my mouth; for I would have you to know that, -if I did not do so, I could not carry this burden; while the -coca gives me sufficient strength to endure the fatigue.' Pantoja -was astonished to hear this, and told the story wherever -he went; and from that time credit was giving to the Indians -for using coca from necessity, and not from vicious gluttony."</p> - -<p>The Spanish Government interfered with the cultivation -from more worthy motives, and <i>mitas</i> of Indians, for the -purpose of collecting coca-leaves, were forbidden in 1569, -owing to the reputed unhealthiness of the valleys.<a name="FNanchor_318_318" id="FNanchor_318_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a> Finally -Don Francisco Toledo, viceroy of Peru, permitted the cultivation -with voluntary labour, on condition that the Indians -were well paid, and that care was taken of their healths. -This most prolific of Peruvian legislators issued no less than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> -seventy <i>ordenanzas</i> on this subject alone, between the years -1570 and 1574. Coca has always been one of the most -valuable articles of commerce in Peru, and it is used by -about 8,000,000 of the human race.</p> - -<p>The coca-plant (<i>Erythoxylon coca</i>)<a name="FNanchor_319_319" id="FNanchor_319_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_319_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> is cultivated between -5000 and 6000 feet above the level of the sea, in the warm -valleys of the eastern slopes of the Andes, where almost the -only variation of climate is from wet to dry, where frost is -unknown, and where it rains more or less every month in the -year. It is a shrub from four to six feet high, with lichens, -called <i>lacco</i> in Quichua, usually growing on the older trunks. -The branches are straight and alternate; leaves alternate -and entire, in form and size like tea-leaves; flowers solitary -with a small yellowish-white corolla in five petals, ten filaments -the length of the corolla, anthers heart-shaped, and -three pistils.</p> - -<p>Sowing is commenced in December and January, when the -rains begin, which continue until April. The seeds are spread -on the surface of the soil in a small nursery or raising-ground -called <i>almaciga</i>, over which there is generally a thatch roof -(<i>huasichi</i>). At the end of about a fortnight they come up; -the young plants being continually watered, and protected -from the sun by the <i>huasichi</i>. The following year they are -transplanted to a soil specially prepared by thorough weeding, -and breaking up the clods very fine by hand; often in terraces -only affording room for a single row of plants, up the -sides of the mountains, which are kept up by small stone walls. -The plants are generally placed in square holes called <i>aspi</i>, -a foot deep, with stones on the sides to prevent the earth -from falling in. Three or four are planted in each hole, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> -grow up together. In Caravaya and Bolivia the soil in which -the coca grows is composed of a blackish clay, formed from -the decomposition of the schists, which form the principal -geological features of the mountains. On level ground the -plants are placed in furrows called <i>uachos</i>, separated by little -walls of earth <i>umachas</i>, at the foot of each of which a row of -plants is placed; but this is a modern innovation, the terrace -cultivation being the most ancient. At the end of eighteen -months the plants yield their first harvest, and continue to -yield for upwards of forty years. The first harvest is called -<i>quita calzon</i>, and the leaves are then picked very carefully, -one by one, to avoid disturbing the roots of the young tender -plants. The following harvests are called <i>mitta</i> ("time" or -"season"), and take place three times and even four times -in the year. The most abundant harvest takes place in -March, immediately after the rains; the worst at the end of -June, called the <i>mitta de San Juan</i>. The third, called <i>mitta -de Santos</i>, is in October or November. With plenty of -watering, forty days suffice to cover the plants with leaves -afresh. It is necessary to weed the ground very carefully, -especially while the plants are young, and the harvest is -gathered by women and children.</p> - -<p>The green leaves, called <i>matu</i>, are deposited in a piece of -cloth which each picker carries, and are then spread out in -the drying-yard, called <i>matu-cancha</i>, and carefully dried in -the sun. The dried leaf is called <i>coca</i>. The drying-yard is -formed of slate-flags, called <i>pizarra</i>; and, when the leaves -are thoroughly dry, they are sewn up in <i>cestos</i> or sacks made -of banana-leaves, of twenty pounds each, strengthened by an -exterior covering of <i>bayeta</i> or cloth.<a name="FNanchor_320_320" id="FNanchor_320_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> They are also packed -in <i>tambores</i> of fifty pounds each, pressed tightly down. Dr.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> -Poeppig reckoned the profits of a coca-farm to be forty-five -per cent.</p> - -<p>The harvest is greatest in a hot moist situation; but the -leaf generally considered the best flavoured by consumers, -grows in drier parts, on the sides of hills. The greatest care -is required in the drying; for too much sun causes the leaves -to dry up and lose their flavour, while, if packed up moist, -they become fetid. They are generally exposed to the sun -in thin layers.</p> - -<p>Acosta says that in his time the trade in coca at Potosi -was worth 500,000 dollars annually; and that in 1583 the Indians -consumed 100,000 <i>cestos</i> of coca, worth 2½ dollars each -in Cuzco, and 4 dollars in Potosi. In 1591<a name="FNanchor_321_321" id="FNanchor_321_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_321_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> an excise of 5 per -cent. was imposed on coca; and in the years 1746 and 1750 -this duty yielded 800 and 500 dollars respectively, from -Caravaya alone. Between 1785 and 1795 the coca traffic -was calculated at 1,207,430 dollars in the Peruvian viceroyalty; -and, including that of Buenos Ayres, 2,641,487 dollars.</p> - -<p>In the district of Sandia, in Caravaya, there are two kinds -of coca, that of Ypara and that of Hatun-yunca, which has a -larger leaf. The yield is 45,000 cestos a year. In the yungus -of La Paz, in Bolivia, the yield is about 400,000 cestos. -The coca-trade is a government monopoly in Bolivia, the -state reserving the right of purchasing from the grower, and -reselling to the consumer. This right is generally farmed out -to the highest bidder. In 1850 the coca-duty yielded 200,000 -dollars to the Bolivian revenue.</p> - -<p>The approximate annual produce of coca in Peru is about -15,000,000 lbs.,<a name="FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> the average yield being about 800 lbs. an -acre. More than 10,000,000 lbs. are produced annually in -Bolivia, according to Dr. Booth of La Paz; so that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> -annual yield of coca throughout South America, including -Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Pasto, may be estimated at more -than 30,000,000 lbs. At Tacna the <i>tambor</i> of 50 lbs. is worth -9 to 12 dollars, the fluctuations in price being caused by -the perishable nature of the article, which cannot be kept -in stock for any length of time. The average duration of -coca in a sound state, on the coast, is about five months, after -which time it is said to lose flavour, and is rejected by the -Indians as worthless.</p> - -<p>The reliance on the extraordinary virtues of the coca-leaf, -amongst the Peruvian Indians, is so strong, that, in the -Huanuco province, they believe that, if a dying man can taste -a leaf placed on his tongue, it is a sure sign of his future happiness.<a name="FNanchor_323_323" id="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a></p> - -<p>No Indian is without his <i>chuspa</i> or coca-bag, made of llama-cloth, -dyed red and blue in patterns, with woollen tassels -hanging from it. He carries it over one shoulder, suspended -at his side; and, in taking coca, he sits down, puts his -<i>chuspa</i> before him, and places the leaves in his mouth one -by one, chewing and turning them till he forms a ball. He -then applies a small quantity of carbonate of potash, prepared -by burning the stalk of the quinoa-plant, and mixing -the ashes with lime and water; thus forming cakes called -<i>llipta</i>, which are dried for use, and also kept in the <i>chuspa</i>.<a name="FNanchor_324_324" id="FNanchor_324_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> -This operation is called <i>acullicar</i> in Bolivia and Southern -Peru, and <i>chacchar</i> in the North. They usually perform it -three times in a day's work, and every Indian consumes two -or three ounces of coca daily.</p> - -<p>In the mines of the cold region of the Andes the Indians -derive great enjoyment from the use of coca; the running<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> -<i>chasqui</i>, or messenger, in his long journeys over the mountains -and deserts, and the shepherd watching his flock on the -lofty plains, has no other nourishment than is afforded by his -<i>chuspa</i> of coca, and a little maize. The smell of the leaf is -agreeable and aromatic, and when chewed it gives out a grateful -fragrance, accompanied by a slight irritation, which excites -the saliva. Its properties are to enable a greater amount of -fatigue to be borne with less nourishment, and to prevent -the occurrence of difficulty of respiration in ascending steep -mountain-sides. Tea made from the leaves has much the -taste of green tea, and, if taken at night, is much more effectual -in keeping people awake. Applied externally coca -moderates the rheumatic pains caused by cold, and cures -headaches. When used to excess it is, like everything else, -prejudicial to the health, yet, of all the narcotics used by -man, coca is the least injurious, and the most soothing and -invigorating.</p> - -<p>The active principle of the coca-leaf has, a few years ago, -been separated by Dr. Niemann, and called <i>cocaine</i>. Pure -<i>cocaine</i> crystallizes with difficulty, is but slightly soluble in -water, but is easily dissolved in alcohol, and still more easily -in ether.<a name="FNanchor_325_325" id="FNanchor_325_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_325_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a></p> - -<p>I chewed coca, not constantly, but very frequently, from -the day of my departure from Sandia, and, besides the agreeable -soothing feeling it produced, I found that I could endure -long abstinence from food with less inconvenience than I -should otherwise have felt, and it enabled me to ascend precipitous -mountain-sides with a feeling of lightness and elasticity, -and without losing breath. This latter quality ought to -recommend its use to members of the Alpine Club, and to -walking tourists in general, though the sea voyage would probably -cause the leaves to lose much of their virtue. To the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> -Peruvian Indian, however, who can procure it within a few -weeks of its being picked, the coca is a solace which is easily -procured, which affords great enjoyment, and which has a -most beneficial effect.<a name="FNanchor_326_326" id="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV.</h2> - -<p class="c">CARAVAYA.</p> - -<p class="c"><span class="smallish">Chinchona forests of Tambopata.</span></p> - - -<p>On the morning of April 27th we crossed a rude bridge over -the Huari-huari, and began to make our way up the face of -the steep mountain on the other side, first through a thick -forest, and then up into the grassy highlands, until, after -several halts, we at length reached the summit of the ridge, -though a mountain-peak still rose up in our rear. From -this point there was a most extensive panoramic view. A -sea of ridges rose one behind the other, with stupendous -snowy peaks in the background, and, more than a thousand -feet below, the rivers of Sandia and Huari-huari, reduced to -mere glittering threads, could be seen winding through the -tortuous ravines. We had now reached the <i>pajonales</i>, and -were on a ridge or back-bone between the rivers of Laccani -and San Lorenzo, two tributaries of the Huari-huari; a -grass-covered and comparatively cold region, interspersed -with thickets, forming the crest of the tropical forests which -line the sides of the ravines through which the rivers wind, -far below.</p> - -<p>When there is sunshine, these <i>pajonales</i> form a very pleasant -landscape: the broad expanse of grass, dotted over with -a graceful milk-white flower called <i>sayri-sayri</i>, is intersected -by dense thickets, some in the gullies and watercourses, and -others in clumps, like those in an English park, the palms -and tree-ferns raising their graceful heads above the rest of -the trees. Here and there a black pool of sweet water is -met with at the edge of the thicket, with chinchona and <i>hua<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>turu</i>-trees -drooping over it. Everywhere there is an abrupt -boundary to the foreground in the profound forest-covered -ravines, with splendid views of mountain ranges in the -distance.</p> - -<p>The vegetation of the thickets in these <i>pajonales</i> consists of -<i>palms</i>, <i>tree-ferns</i>, <i>Melastomaceæ</i> (<i>Lasiandra fontanesiana</i>) with -bright showy flowers, exceedingly pretty <i>Ericaceæ</i> (<i>Gaultheriæ</i>), -<i>Vacciniæ</i>, the <i>huaturu</i> or incense-tree in great quantities, -and <i>Chinchonæ</i>, chiefly consisting of <i>C. Caravayensis</i> -(Wedd.), with a few plants of <i>Calisaya Josephiana</i>, but the -latter are much more rare here than in the neighbourhood of -Paccay-samana. The <i>C. Caravayensis</i>, a worthless species, -has panicles of beautiful deep roseate flowers, large coarse -hairy capsules, and lanceolate leaves, above smooth with -purple veins, and hairy on the under side. It can probably -bear greater cold than any other chinchona.<a name="FNanchor_327_327" id="FNanchor_327_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a></p> - -<p>The afternoon was passed in searching for plants of the -shrubby <i>Calisaya</i>, but with little success. During our examination -of the thickets we found a single specimen, evidently -belonging to the <i>Calisaya</i> species, but in the form of a tree, -and not of a shrub. Its height was eighteen feet six inches; -its girth, two feet from the ground, eight and a half inches; -and the position in which it was growing was 5680 feet above -the level of the sea. I was uncertain whether it belonged -to the tree variety (<i>Calisaya vera</i>, Wedd.), or to the shrub -(<i>Calisaga Josephiana</i>); for Dr. Weddell only gives the height -of the latter at eight or ten feet.</p> - -<p>Near the banks of one of the black pools, overhung by -spreading branches, we found a shed, a roof of coarse grass -raised on four sticks four and a half feet high, and here we -encamped for the night. It had been made by some party of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> -incense-collectors from Bolivia, who wander through these -wilds. Towards sunset it began to pour with rain, and continued -through the night.</p> - -<p>From this point to the Tambopata valley the road was -unknown to my Indians, and had not been traversed since -the time of the bark-trade, which came to an end fifteen -years ago. It was supposed that any path which might once -have existed would be entirely choked up by the forest, and -I therefore started early in the morning, with Andres Vilca, -to reconnoitre. The backbone of the ridge along which we -travelled was not level, but up and down like a saw, and -very rough work. After walking for a league the ridge -ended where a transverse range of hills, at a lower elevation, -connects the mountains on the further sides of the rivers -of San Lorenzo and Laccani, and, closing up the ravines, -contains their sources. This range, at right angles with the -one over which we had journeyed, is called the <i>Marun-kunka</i>, -and is covered with dense forests. It was necessary to force -our way through this formidable obstruction, and we plunged -into it at once. Our progress was vigorously opposed by -closely matted fallen bamboos for the first few hundred -yards, and afterwards we followed the course of a torrent, -deeply cut in the rock, and forming a passage four to six -feet deep, and about three feet across, with masses of ferns -and the roots of enormous forest-trees interlacing across -overhead, and two feet of exceedingly tenacious yellow mud -underfoot. In many places it was almost dark at midday, -while in others the rays of the sun succeeded in forcing their -way through the ferns, and throwing a pale light across the -otherwise gloomy passage. It was a weird unearthly scene. -After several hours of very laborious travelling we at length -forced our way across the Marun-kunka, and came out upon -another <i>pajonal</i>, on the eastern side, whence there was a -grand view of the forest scenery towards Tambopata, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> -the snowy peaks of the cordillera above Quiaca and Sina to -the right.</p> - -<p>The afternoon was again devoted to searching for plants -of <i>Calisaya Josephiana</i> in the thickets; where the <i>C. Caravayensis</i> -was very plentiful, together with several plants of the -shrubby <i>Calisaya</i>, and four or five trees of the normal tree -<i>Calisaya</i>, from 20 to 30 feet high. The elevation of this -place was 5600 feet above the sea. Later in the day the -journey was continued over a most difficult country, sometimes -over grassy <i>pajonales</i>, and at others painfully struggling -through forests like those on the Marun-kunka. In one of -these forests I came upon a <i>Calisaya</i>-tree, 38 feet high, -and 1 foot 3 inches in girth at a distance of 3 feet from -the ground, which was several feet deep in dead leaves, -chiefly the smooth leathery leaf of the <i>huaturu</i>-tree. At -length we commenced the descent into the valley of Tambopata, -1200 feet down slippery rocks and grass, then through -a belt of forest, until we suddenly emerged on an open space -on the banks of the large rapid river, where there was a -bamboo hut. A little coca and sugar-cane was planted, but -the occupant was absent. With touching confidence he had -left his door open, so my Indians established themselves -comfortably, while Weir and I pitched the tent.</p> - -<p>The river of Tambopata, descending from the farm of -Saqui near the frontier of Bolivia, here flows in a northerly -direction. Up the stream I could see a few little clearings, -but looking down nothing appeared but the virgin forest. -A most magnificent range of mountains, with a fine growth -of forest trees, rises up on either side, and the rapid swollen -river rushed through the centre of the ravine. The rock -of all the ranges of hills between the Huari-huari and -Tambopata rivers is a yellow clay-slate, with masses of white -quartz cropping out on the <i>pajonales</i>.</p> - -<p>Early in the morning we continued our journey down the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> -valley, through a forest of grand timber, passing the little -hut of Tambopata which Dr. Weddell had mentioned to -me as having been the great rendezvous for <i>cascarilleros</i> or -chinchona-bark collectors, at the time of his visit. After -wading across the rapid little river of Llami-llami, which -enters the Tambopata on the left bank, we came to a small -clearing, planted with sugar-cane, the property of a very -energetic and obliging old Bolivian, named Don Juan de la -Cruz Gironda. He was living in a shed, open on two sides, -and with a young son, and two or three Indians, was actively -clearing, planting sugar-cane, and making rum in an extemporized -distillery of his own manufacture. This little farm -was the extreme outpost of civilisation in this direction, -and had only been commenced since December 1859.</p> - -<p>Gironda was cultivating sugar-cane, maize, and edible -roots; and, at the time of my visit, he was just commencing -his <i>michca</i>, or small sowing of maize. His people were -driving holes in the ground with long poles, about a foot -deep, into which they drop four to six grains, and cover over. -The holes are four feet apart, for here the maize grows to -an immense height. The agricultural tools were of a most -primitive kind. The ground is first broken and cleared -with a bit of old iron, fastened, at an acute angle, on a -short handle. It is further broken up by an attempt at a -spade, an oblong piece of iron, bent at one end round -a long pole. The weeds and brushwood are cleared away -by an instrument like the first, only turned a different way, -both being secured to their handles by leathern thongs. -They reap with the blade of an old knife, and where the -clods require to be broken up very fine, as in coca plantations, -it is done by hand. The only use that Gironda puts -his small supply of sugar-cane to, as yet, is making spirits -and a small quantity of treacle. The cane is expressed by -a very primitive mill of three upright rollers of hard wood,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> -worked by a single capstan-bar and a mule, the juice flowing -into a gutter, and running thence, through a bamboo, into -a large jar. The juice is then placed in two long canoes, -hollow trunks of trees, where it is allowed to ferment. In -about eight days the fermentation is over, and it is ready -for distilling. This sugar-beer is called <i>huarapu</i>, and is -rather good. The juice is then poured into a large jar, over -an oven, and above the mouth of this jar he places the -broken side of another smaller one, covering the joining -round with mud. From the mouth of the second jar a -bamboo is led through a large canoe to the mouth of a third -jar. The fire is lighted in the oven, the canoe is filled with -cold water to condense the vapour as it comes up through -the bamboo, and the work of distilling begins; the clear -colourless rum soon commencing to flow out of the bamboo -into the receiving-jar. The sugar-cane is of the purplish-brown -kind, which is said to ripen quickest.</p> - -<p>Gironda also raises a few edible roots, such as <i>yucas</i> (<i>Jatophra -manihot</i>), <i>aracachas</i><a name="FNanchor_328_328" id="FNanchor_328_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> (<i>Conium maculatum</i>), <i>camotes</i> or -sweet potatoes, and <i>ocas</i>. He gave me the following information -respecting the climate and seasons in the valley of -Tambopata, which is worthy of attention, as this is the very -centre of the <i>C. Calisaya</i> region.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>January.—Incessant rain, with damp heat day and night. Sun never -seen. Fruits ripen.</p> - -<p>February.—Incessant rain and very hot. Sun never seen. A coca -harvest.</p> - -<p>March.—Less rain, hot days and nights, little sun. Bananas yield most -during the rainy season.</p> - -<p>April.—Less rain; hot, humid nights, and little sun in the daytime.</p> - -<p>May.—A showery month, but little heavy rain. This is the month for -planting coca and sugar-cane, and what is called the <i>michca</i>, or small -sowing of maize, as well as yucas, aracachas, camotes, and other edible -roots. Coffee-harvest begins.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span></p> - - - -<p>June.—A dry hot month. Much sun and little rain. Coca-harvest early -in the month. Oranges and paccays ripen. Cool nights, but a fierce heat -during the day.</p> - -<p>July.—The hottest and driest month, but with cool nights. Very few -showers. Time for sowing gourds, pumpkins, and water-melons.</p> - -<p>August.—Generally dry. Trees begin to bud. A month for planting.</p> - -<p>September.—Rains begin. Time for blossoming of many trees. Coca-harvest.</p> - -<p>October.—Rains increasing. Maize-harvest, and time for the "sembra -grande," or great sowing of maize.</p> - -<p>November.—Heavy rains. A coca-harvest.</p> - -<p>December.—Heavy rains. Pumpkins ripen.</p></blockquote> - -<p>The inhabitants of the valley of Tambopata consist of -Gironda, his two little boys, one Victorio Jovi, Villalba, and -the <i>cascarillero</i> named Martinez. Another <i>cascarillero</i>, named -Ximenes, has lately died. They live with their families at a -place called Huaccay-churu, about half a mile up the Llami-llami -river, where there are a few huts, and a small clearing. -Gironda's little farm is the last inhabited spot; beyond is the -illimitable virgin forest, stretching away for hundreds, nay -thousands of miles, to the shores of the Atlantic. This -forest has not been traversed since 1847, when the bark trade -ceased, and it is quite closed up.</p> - -<p>By the desertion of one of my Indians on the day we left -Sandia, the other three and Pablo Sevallos were barely able -to carry the provisions and other necessaries, so that, on -reaching Gironda's clearing, which is called Lenco-huayccu,<a name="FNanchor_329_329" id="FNanchor_329_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a> -I found that I had only sufficient food to last for six days. -Gironda himself was little better off, and was living on roots, -and <i>chuñus</i> or potatoes preserved by being frozen in the -loftiest parts of the Andes. I determined, however, to penetrate -into the forest, in search of chinchona-plants, for six days, and -to trust to Gironda's kindness to supply me with provisions -to enable me to return to Sandia.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p> - -<p>I was so fortunate as to secure the services of Mariano -Martinez, an experienced <i>cascarillero</i>, who had acted as guide -to Dr. Weddell, on the occasion of his visit to the valley of -Tambopata in 1846. He was thoroughly acquainted with all -the different species of chinchona-trees, and, reared from a -child in these forest solitudes, he was a most excellent and -expert woodman, intelligent, sober, active, and obliging.</p> - -<p>On May 1st we prepared to enter the dense entangled -forest, where no European had been before, and no human -being for upwards of thirteen years, except the Collahuayas -and incense-collectors. Our party consisted of seven: the -three Indians, Weir, Pablo, Martinez, and myself. The -Indians, each with their <i>chuspas</i> of coca, and a <i>chumpi</i> or -belt round their waists, carried the <i>ccepis</i> or bundles of -provisions; Pablo bore the tent; and we were all armed -with <i>machetes</i>, or wood-knives, to clear the way. My people -were all dressed in coarse cotton cloth, and I wore a leathern -hat, red woollen shirt, fustian trousers, and the indispensable -<i>polccos</i>, or shoes made of <i>bayeta</i> or felt, always used -in these forests. We were all mustered and ready to start -on the verge of Gironda's clearing, which is surrounded by -tall forest trees, with the river rushing noisily past, and the -opposite mountains covered to their summits with fine timber, -when half a dozen pale-faced men emerged from the tangled -thicket in our front. They looked wan and cadaverous like -men risen from the dead, and worn out by long watching and -fatigue. They turned out to be Collahuayas, collectors of drugs -and incense, who penetrate far into the forests to obtain their -wares, and come forth, as we then saw them, looking pale and -haggard.</p> - -<p>These Collahuayas, called also Chirihuanos on the coast of -Peru, Yungeños, and Charasanis, are a very peculiar race. -They come from three villages in the forest-covered ravines -of the Bolivian province of Larecaja, called Charasani, Con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>sata, -and Quirbe; and their knowledge of the virtues of herbs -has been handed down from father to son from time immemorial. -They traverse the forests of Bolivia and Caravaya -collecting their drugs; and then set out as professors of the -healing art, to exercise their calling in all parts of America, -frequently being two and three years away from their homes, -on these excursions. With their wallets of drugs on their -backs, and dressed in black breeches, a red poncho, and -broad-brimmed hat, they walk in a direct line from village to -village, exercising their calling, and penetrating as far as -Quito and Bogota in one direction, and to the extreme limits -of the Argentine Republic in the other. Their ancestors did the -same in the time of the Incas, and Garcilasso de la Vega gives -some account of the medical treatment adopted by the ancient -Peruvian physicians. They were in the habit of letting blood -and purging, they administered the powdered leaf of the -<i>sayri</i> (tobacco) for headaches, <i>mulli</i> (<i>Schinus molle</i>) for -wounds, and a host of other simple herbs for other ailments. -Both Garcilasso<a name="FNanchor_330_330" id="FNanchor_330_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> and Acosta<a name="FNanchor_331_331" id="FNanchor_331_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_331_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> mention their knowledge of the -virtues of sarsaparilla, yet it is remarkable that the Collahuayas -should never have discovered the febrifugal qualities of chinchona -bark.</p> - -<p>We saluted these hard-working physicians, and then -entered the forest from which they had just emerged. A short -walk brought us to the river Challuma,<a name="FNanchor_332_332" id="FNanchor_332_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_332_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> a tributary of the -Tambopata, which we waded across. Martinez told me that -this was the extreme point reached by Dr. Weddell, and that -he came here to see a tree of <i>C. micrantha</i> growing.</p> - -<p>Beyond the Challuma there is no road at all, and the really -serious forest work began; two hornets stinging me on the -temple and back of the neck, as I forced my way through -the first bush. Martinez went in front as pioneer, clearing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> -away obstructions with his <i>machete</i>, and the rest of our little -party followed. Between lordly trees of great height the -ground was entirely choked up with creepers, fallen masses of -tangled bamboo, and long tendrils which twisted round our -ankles, and tripped us up at every step. Ten miles on open -ground is only equal to one over such country as this. In -many places we had to scramble through the same dense -forest, along the verge of giddy precipices which overhung -the river. Often we came upon tracks where a giant of the -forest had fallen, bearing all before it, and finally dashing -over the cliff into the river below. The Tambopata was boiling -and surging over a rocky bed, at times far below us, -while at others we took advantage of a short strip of rocky -beach to escape the forest. Thus we struggled on until sunset, -when we reached a stony beach, and encamped for the -night. This had been a most fatiguing march. In some -places we were a quarter of an hour forcing and cutting our -way through a space of twenty yards, and the halt was most -welcome. It was a wild scene as the darkness closed round: -the camp-fire and Indians on the beach, the dense gloomy -forest close behind, the boiling river in front, and forest-clad -mountains rising up on the other side.</p> - -<p>From this, the first day of our forest-life, until the 14th of -May, being just a fortnight, we were actively engaged in the -examination of the chinchona region, and in the collection of -plants. As the best way of recording the results of our investigations, -I now propose to give a detailed account of our -proceedings from day to day; and, in the following chapter, -to recapitulate our observations with special reference to the -climate, soil, and general habit of those species of chinchonæ -which came immediately under our notice. I owe much to -the intelligent assistance of our guide Martinez, who, to -great experience in woodcraft, added a lynx's eye for a <i>Calisaya</i>-plant; -and it required no little quickness and penetration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> -to distinguish these treasures, amidst the close entanglement -of the undergrowth, in the dense forests. Martinez spoke -Spanish very imperfectly, and, without a knowledge of Quichua, -I should have found much difficulty in conversing with -him; but he had a most complete and thorough knowledge -of all forest-lore, and was acquainted with the native name of -almost every plant, and with the uses to which they were or -might be applied.</p> - -<p>At dawn the Indians found the marks of a jaguar on the -beach close to the tent; and a huge snake wriggled through -the fallen trees as we re-entered the forest. The brilliant -colours and great variety of butterflies were very striking. I -particularly noticed one, bright blue and crimson above, with -the underside marked with a pattern, as if drawn by a crow-quill -on a snow-white ground, edged with deep blue. After -struggling through the forest for about a mile we came to -the foot of the tremendous precipices, one on either side of -the river, which Martinez called Ccasa-sani. That on our -(the western) shore rises up perpendicularly from the water -to a height which we estimated at 500 feet, ending in a rocky -peak. Its sides are masses of bare polished rock, except in -the rear, and in some crevices, where vegetation finds a foothold. -Amongst other trees the paccay (<i>Mimosa Inga</i>), with -its cottony fruit, was drooping over the bubbling waves. The -river, surging furiously over and around huge masses of rock, -dashed noisily on between the two precipices.</p> - -<p>We had to ascend the western precipice of Ccasa-sani by a -frightful kind of ladder, formed of ledges in the rock, or half-rotten -branches of trees, here and there having to cross a -yawning chasm on the fallen stems of tree-ferns rotting from -age. Near the summit we had a glorious view of the forest-covered -mountains, running up into sharp peaks, with graceful -palms rising above the other trees on their crests, and standing -out against the sky. Several <i>Calisaya</i>-trees were growing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> -on the summit, with bunches of young capsules, in company -with the leathery-leafed <i>huaturu</i>, and the <i>Aceite de Maria</i> -(<i>Elæagia Mariæ</i>, Wedd.). The latter is a tree about thirty -feet high, with bark covered with white lichens. Among the -numerous ferns the most conspicuous was a very large <i>Polypodium</i>, -called <i>calaguala</i>. Descending the rocks of Ccasa-sani, -we had to continue the work of cutting our way through -the forest, our passage being opposed by matted entanglements -of bamboo, and a <i>Panicum</i> with blades, the edges of -which cut like a penknife, called <i>challi-challi</i>. On many of -the trees there were hornets'-nests, globes of mud fixed to -the leaves, and covered with the insects. I was inadvertently -going to touch one, which was attached to the back of a -large fern-frond, when Martinez, with great dexterity, hurled -the plants down the precipice, before the savage creatures -were aware of their danger.</p> - -<p>We were now in the midst of the chinchona region; and -passed several trees of <i>C. ovata</i> (<i>morada ordinaria</i>) and <i>C. -micrantha</i> (<i>verde paltaya</i>). There were also great quantities -of a false chinchona, called by Martinez <i>Carhua-carhua blanca</i>. -We passed through several large groves of this species, which -appeared to be a <i>Lasionema</i>, but differed in several respects -from the <i>L. chinchonoides</i>, mentioned by Dr. Weddell as growing -in the Caravayan forests. The tree is very common near -the banks of the river Tambopata, frequently with its boughs, -large coarse leaves, and panicles of flowers, drooping over the -water.<a name="FNanchor_333_333" id="FNanchor_333_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p> - -<p>The magnitude and variety of the trees of the forest were -very striking; and the imposing character of the scenery, in -these vast solitudes, was a source of constant enjoyment, and -lightened the fatigues of the journey. Among the wonders -of the forest there were enormous trees with great buttressed -trunks, others sending down rope-like tendrils from the -branches in every direction, the gigantic balsam-tree, the -india-rubber tree, and many others. A list of the ferns or -mosses, endless in the variety of their shape and size, would -fill volumes. Of palms, also, there were many kinds. The -tall <i>chonta</i>, with its hard serviceable wood; the slender beautiful -<i>chinilla</i> (<i>Euterpe?</i>); the towering <i>muruna</i> (<i>Iriartea?</i>), -with its roots shooting out in every direction from eight feet -above the ground, and triangular-notched leaflets; the <i>chaquisapa</i> -(<i>Astrocaryum?</i>), with its lofty stem thickly set with -alternate rings of spines, and thorny leaves; the <i>sumballu</i> -(<i>Giulielma?</i>), a beautiful palm with a slender stem covered -with long sharp spines, numerous graceful leaves, and an -edible fruit; and above all the <i>sayal</i>, the monarch of the -palms of these forests, with a rather short thick stem, inner -fibres of the stalks like black wool, but with enormous leaves -growing rather erect from the stem to a length of at least -forty feet—I should think they must be the largest leaves in -the whole vegetable kingdom. Among the bright flowers -there were crimson <i>Melastomaceæ</i>, called <i>ccesuara</i>, a scarlet -<i>Justitia</i>, the <i>Manetia coccinea</i>, and many beautiful orchids in -the branches of the trees.</p> - -<p>At length, after a very hard day's work, we reached the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> -mouth of the Yana-mayu<a name="FNanchor_334_334" id="FNanchor_334_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_334_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a> or Black river; and attempted to -wade across the Tambopata, but found it too powerful. I -was particularly anxious to effect this, as Martinez assured -me that chinchona-trees were most abundant on the right or -eastern bank. We, however, managed to get upon an island, -near the left bank, and encamped for the night on a shingly -beach. After sunset it came on to rain very heavily, and the -waters foamed furiously around us in the inky darkness. The -rain continued to pour down, and the waters to rise through -the night, and I hourly expected the island to be submerged; -but, fortunately, we escaped this danger, though the river -came up to within a very few feet of the tent-door. I served -out a dram of brandy to all hands.</p> - -<p>In the morning of May 3rd I continued my attempts to -cross the river, by stripping and trying the water for a ford at -several points, with a long pole as a support. But the water -was deep, much swollen, and very rapid; and, after having -twice been as nearly as possible carried away by the fury of -the stream, I was obliged unwillingly to give up the attempt -for the present. I considered it prudent also to remove our -encampment from the island, and to establish it on a narrow -beach overshadowed by the forest, at the point where the -muddy waters of the Yana-mayu unite with those of the -Tambopata.</p> - -<p>These arrangements having been made, we devoted the day -to an examination of the adjacent forest. The spot on which we -were encamped was about 4600 feet above the sea. Our tent -was pitched close to the foaming torrent, and behind rose up -the tall dark forests. In front were the steep green sides of -the Yana-mayu ravine, while looking down the river the view -was bounded by forest-covered mountains, surmounted by -the lofty peak of Corimamani. On the actual banks of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> -river there were trees of <i>C. micrantha</i>, with large bunches of -lovely and deliciously sweet white flowers; many <i>carhua-carhua -blancas</i>; and a chinchonaceous tree, which Martinez -called <i>Huiñapu</i>. The <i>Huiñapu</i> grows low down and near -the banks of rivers. Its capsules are three inches long; -and the veins of the leaves are a pale purple. Dr. Weddell -tells me that he recollects gathering the leaves of the -<i>Huiñapu</i>, and that he took it to be a variety of <i>Cascarilla -magnifolia</i>.</p> - -<p>We commenced the day's work in the forest on the south-west -slopes of the Yana-mayu ravine, scrambling up the -steep forest-covered declivity amongst palms, tree-ferns, bamboos, -and trees with buttressed trunks of stupendous size. -Here too were the vast leaves of the <i>sayal</i> palm. At a -height of 400 feet above the river the <i>Calisaya</i> region commences; -while in the lower belt, from the river banks to a -height of 400 feet, the most abundant chinchonaceous plant -is the <i>Carhua-carhua grande</i> (<i>Cascarilla Carua</i>, Wedd.), with -very fragrant white flowers. I met with flowers and capsules -together on the same tree, which is forty feet high, -with a thick trunk, fine spreading branches, and masses of -beautiful white flowers.</p> - -<p>I found that the <i>C. Calisaya</i> region extended in a belt from -450 to 650 feet above the banks of the river; bamboos, large -palms, <i>C. micranthas</i>, <i>Huiñapus</i>, <i>Lasionemas</i>, and the <i>Cascarilla -carua</i> being found below that line, and other species of -chinchonæ and chinchonaceous plants above it. We collected -twenty-five <i>Calisaya</i>-plants, two of them fine strong seedlings, -and the remainder root-shoots springing up from trees which -had been cut down by <i>cascarilleros</i> in former times, but with -good spreading roots of their own. The search was exceedingly -hard work, scrambling through matted undergrowth, -and up steep ascents, through masses of rotting vegetation.</p> - -<p>The afternoon was devoted to an examination of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> -heights on the north-east side of the Yana-mayu, where, at an -elevation of 450 feet, there is a level table-land, covered with -palms and bamboos. The search was chiefly conducted along -a ridge above this plateau, where the bamboos ended. We -obtained twenty more plants of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, one of which was -declared by Martinez to be a <i>Calisaya morada</i> (<i>C. Boliviana</i>, -Wedd.), and the leaf agreed well with Dr. Weddell's description, -though that botanist believed that the species was not -found in this part of Caravaya, but only in the valleys of -Ayapata, further north. To-day we saw a couple of <i>tunquis</i>,<a name="FNanchor_335_335" id="FNanchor_335_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a> -birds with the most gorgeous plumage I ever beheld. They -are the size of large pigeons, with orange-scarlet feathers on -the head, neck, breast, and tail, black wings, light-grey back, -and scarlet crest. They have a shrill, harsh cry. The butterflies -and moths were numerous and brilliant, but so tame, -and in such swarms, as to be a perfect plague. There was -one bright swallow-tail, with blue wings, fringed with crimson. -The torments from venomous insects were maddening; especially -from a kind of fly which in a moment raised swellings -and blood-red lumps all over the hands and face, causing -great pain and irritation. During the night it rained -heavily, with peals of thunder, and vivid flashes of lightning, -while the river increased in size, and roared past the tent -noisily.</p> - -<p>The collection of chinchona-plants was deposited in a shady -place, near the tent, the roots being well covered over with -soft moss.</p> - -<p>On the morning of May 4th the river was so swollen as to -destroy all hopes of crossing it for the present. It frequently -changed its colour, on one morning the surging flood being -black, on another tolerably clear, and on another a light<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> -muddy colour. By these means Martinez could always tell -where the rains had been heaviest, and what stream was contributing -an unusual freshet to swell the waters of the -Tambopata.</p> - -<p>I devoted the day to examining the forest on the declivities -overhanging the left bank of the Tambopata, and this was by -far the most toilsome and dangerous forest journey we had -yet made, rendered worse by a comparative want of success. -The whole way was along giddy precipices, seeming to hang -half way between the sky and the roaring torrent, with no -foothold but decaying leaves, nothing to grasp but rotten -branches, every motion a drenching bath from wet leaves, -every other step a painful and dangerous slip or fall, besides -hornets, and endless thorns. Among the latter I was -struck by a tree called <i>itapallu</i>, with trunk and branches -thickly set with thorns, very large leaves, and the fruit in -clusters, like bunches of pearls with purple stalks. We met -with large pigeons, flocks of green parrots, paroquets, and -tunquis. The forest peeps across the river were superb, but -it was difficult to enjoy them. Martinez pointed out a small -<i>Asplenium</i>, called <i>espincu</i>, which has a sweet taste, and is -sometimes chewed by the Indians for want of coca; and the -<i>panchi</i>, a tall slender malvaceous tree, with large round leaves -on spreading branches at the top, and very white wood. It is -used by the Chunchos for procuring fire by friction, and the -bark, which peels off in long strips, is serviceable for girdles. -During this day we came to the largest <i>Calisaya</i> we had yet -seen, and Martinez operated on the bark to show his dexterity -as a cascarillero, which was remarkable.<a name="FNanchor_336_336" id="FNanchor_336_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_336_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a> Our collection -only amounted to fourteen plants, among them two fine -seedlings of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, two of <i>C. micrantha</i>, two of <i>C. ovata,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> -var. β rufinervis</i>, and the remainder root-shoots of <i>C. Calisaya</i>: -seedlings of the latter species are exceedingly rare. -We returned to our camp dead beat, and drenched to the -skin, only to find that my Indians were mutinous, declaring -that they had been away long enough, that they had no -maize or coca left, and that they must return to their homes -at once. Our only hope rested upon them, and, if they had -deserted, all our plans would have been entirely frustrated. -It, however, required no little persuasion and eloquence to -induce them to change their minds, and, as they had nothing -left to eat, I sent Andres Vilca back to Gironda, to entreat -him to supply us with a few chuñus and a little coca. I then -told the others, in their own expressive language, that if they -deserted me they were liars, thieves, traitors, and children of -the Devil, whose punishment would soon overtake them; -while if they were true to me they would be well rewarded, -and would enjoy the friendship of a Viracocha. After this -great effort in Quichua, the evening ended pleasantly. The -Indians had built themselves a little shed of palm-leaves near -the tent door, a bright fire was lighted, and its cheery reflection -danced on the waves of the noisy flood.</p> - -<p>It rained heavily through the night, and in the morning, -hearing from Martinez that the varieties of <i>C. ovata</i>, the -collection of which had been recommended to me by Dr. -Weddell, were only found in a zone at a much greater elevation -than that of the <i>C. Calisayas</i>, I devoted the day to a -search in an almost vertical direction, on the north-east side -of the Yana-mayu, towards some heights called Pacchani.</p> - -<p>Ascending the steep sides of the ravine of Yana-mayu for -about two hundred feet, we reached a narrow level shelf -covered with ferns and the huge leaves of the <i>sayal</i> palm. -The locality was very damp and shady, and the <i>C. micrantha</i>, -<i>Huiñapu</i>, and <i>Cascarilla Carua</i> were in great abundance. We -continued to ascend through the forest which covered the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> -sides of the steep mountain, for several hours continuously; -the footing consisting of decayed leaves and rotten trunks, -moss and ferns covering every tree, and all the vegetation -intensely humid. At a height of 750 feet above the river we -came to some trees of the <i>beno-beno</i> (<i>Pimentelia gomphosia</i>,<a name="FNanchor_337_337" id="FNanchor_337_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a> -Wedd.), with its bright laurel-like leaves and minute capsules; -the <i>C. pubescens</i>, called by Martinez <i>cascarilla amarilla</i>, -still only in bud, which was very abundant; and -large trees of the <i>morada naranjada</i> (<i>C. ovata, var. α vulgaris</i>, -Wedd.). Near this place a troop of about twenty -monkeys went chattering along the tops of the trees, and -while I was looking at them a huge black hornet rushed up -out of the moss and stung me on the chin. These savage -creatures make their nests under the earth, and are called -<i>huancoyru</i>.</p> - -<p>After a long and wearisome but fruitless search for young -plants of the <i>zamba morada</i> (the <i>β rufinervis</i> variety of <i>C. -ovata</i>) in these excessively damp forests, we began the -descent again. Nothing struck me so much as the extraordinary -variety of forms and shapes in which nature works in -these tropical forests. One is amazed to see enormous trees -with their gigantic roots separating at least twenty feet above -the ground, and forming perfect Gothic arches. In one place -a giant of the forest had grown on the edge of a ridge of rock, -and the roots had combined with the stone to form a spacious -vaulted cave large enough to hold ten men comfortably. -Beautiful variegated leaves of <i>Colocasiæ</i>, and a scarlet-flowered -<i>Justitia</i>, with bright purple leaves, united with a profusion of -ferns to ornament the opening, while some tree-ferns, and a -<i>chinilla</i>, the most slender and elegant of the palms of the -forest, guarded the entrance. Rays of the sun struggled -through a network of bamboos on an opposite bank, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> -penetrated into the recesses of the cavern. While I gazed on -this lovely scene, the plaintive mournful notes of the little -"<i>Alma perdida</i>" reached me from the boughs of the great -tree. This is a small bird of the finch tribe, of which there -are two kinds, one black, the other chesnut with black -wings. Their loud clear note is peculiarly sad. Such peeps -as these into the secret beauties of the innermost forest -recesses are rewards for many hours of toil and disappointment.</p> - -<p>Late in the evening I returned to the tent dead tired, sodden -and wet to the skin, covered with moss and fungus, bitten -all over by mosquitos, stung by a hornet, and with hands -sliced in pieces by the sharp blades of a <i>Panicum</i> called <i>challi-challi</i>, -but with only three plants of the valuable variety of -<i>C. ovata</i>. It is most provoking that only the seedlings of all -the worthless species of Chinchonæ should be in great abundance; -the reason is of course connected with the general -felling of the trees of valuable species by the cascarilleros, -years ago.</p> - -<p>There was little rain during the night, and on May 6th we -commenced the search of a range of forest on the south-west -side of the Yana-mayu ravine, where we found a large supply -of plants of <i>C. Calisaya</i>. At a height of 500 feet above the -river there was a ridge of rock jutting out from the forest-covered -sides of the ravine. In this spot the ground was not -nearly so thickly covered with vegetation; there were no -palms, tree-ferns, or plants requiring extreme moisture, and -young plants received shade from taller trees, while they also -enjoyed plenty of sunshine through the spreading branches. -The most abundant plants were <i>Melastomas</i>, <i>huaturus</i>, and -<i>Panica</i>, which climb amongst the branches to a height of -thirty feet and upwards. These afford but very slight shade, -and below there is an undergrowth of ferns, <i>Colocasiæ</i>, and -young plants. In different parts of this ridge we collected 124<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> -young <i>C. Calisaya</i> plants, most of them root-shoots, and -a few seedlings. There were also two young trees bearing -capsules. The <i>C. Calisaya</i> plants were all growing out of the -moss which covered the rock to a thickness of eight inches or -a foot, together with beautiful <i>Hymenophylla</i>,<a name="FNanchor_338_338" id="FNanchor_338_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> but there was -scarcely any soil. The roots spread along the face of the -rock, which is a metamorphic clay slate, unfossiliferous, -slightly micaceous, and ferruginous;<a name="FNanchor_339_339" id="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> and is easily broken up -into thin layers by the growth of the plants. In this situation -the <i>C. Calisayas</i> were more numerous than in any other -we have yet seen.</p> - -<p>Two bears had made themselves a comfortable and very -carefully prepared bed on the summit of the ridge, whence -there was an extensive bird's-eye view of the windings of the -river, and of the forest-covered mountains beyond. On the opposite -mountains there were two or three long bare places—tremendous -landslips, not unfrequent occurrences in the forest. -There is a sudden crash, when masses of rock, huge trees, and -underwood come rushing down in one fell irresistible swoop. -A beautiful white <i>Stephanotis</i> was climbing over the rocks. -We returned to the camp in a heavy fall of rain, after a very -severe but successful day's work, and found that both the -Indians and ourselves had come to the end of our provisions, -and that Andres Vilca Lad not returned.</p> - -<p>On May 7th we rose to find only a few bread-crumbs in the -corner of our bag, and, as famine was thus knocking at the -door, it became necessary to beat a hasty retreat. The plants -were carefully packed in layers of moss, and sown up in two -bundles of Russia matting, which we had brought with us, -containing about 200 chinchona-plants. In the absence of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> -Andres Vilca, Mr. Weir showed much zeal and energy in -undertaking to carry one of these bundles, four and a half -feet in circumference, over the slippery and dangerous road, -in doing which he fell into the river.</p> - -<p>On the morning of May 7th, when we commenced our -retreat, it was pouring with rain, and the forest was saturated, -our bodies sodden, our hands crumpled like washerwomen's, -and our powder damp. We had to wade across many little -streams falling into the Tambopata. The first, after leaving -the Yana-mayu, was called Churu-bamba, because it empties -itself just opposite an island (<i>churu</i>, in Quichua). The next -stream was <i>Uma-yuyu</i>, <i>uma</i> being water in Aymara, and <i>yuyu</i> -a plant with a large cordate dock-like leaf, used in <i>chupes</i>. -Thus every little stream and hill had received a name from -the cascarilleros of former times, from some peculiarity of -position or other similar circumstance, which would easily -impress it on the memory. What an improvement on the -nomenclature in new countries discovered by Englishmen, -where we have an endless succession of Jones's rivers, Smith's -mountains, and Brown's islands! Near the banks of these -streams there are very large snail-shells, and Martinez -described the snails as "large kind of hornets, all made of -flesh, which do not sting." He called them <i>Mamachuru</i>, or -"Mother of the Island."</p> - -<p>On reaching the precipice of Ccasa-sani we scrambled -along its slippery sides, in the pouring rain, to collect plants -of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, and obtained twenty-one good ones. They -were growing in a similar situation to those above the Yana-mayu, -in company with a number of <i>Aceite de Maria</i> trees -(<i>Elæagia Mariæ</i>),<a name="FNanchor_340_340" id="FNanchor_340_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> and completely exposed to the sun, without -any shade whatever. Passing the precipice, we continued our -damp weary journey, Martinez pointing out everything that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> -was noticeable by the way, especially the <i>palo santo</i> (<i>Guaiacum -sanctum</i>), a very tall tree, the stem 60 to 70 feet high, -without a branch, with a few short horizontally spreading -branches at the summit, with pinnate leaves. When the -bark is cut, a host of stinging ants come forth. There -was also a plant, which he called <i>achira silvestre</i> (<i>Canna -achira?</i>) with a rhizome, and bunches of rank red berries. -We passed through groves of paccays (<i>Mimosa Inga</i>), a -creeping legume with bright flowers, wild coca, many <i>Lasionemas</i>, -with their large coarse leaves drooping over the -river, and a melastomaceous plant with a crimson fruit. -After having been nearly carried away by the force of the -Challuma river, in wading across it, I reached Gironda's -hospitable shed, after a journey of more than thirty miles, -in pouring rain.</p> - -<p>On May 8th I left Gironda's clearing, with Martinez, in -order to examine the forests above the hut of Tambopata, -for plants of <i>C. Calisaya</i>. Here, in almost exactly a similar -ridge of rock to those which proved so prolific of these -precious plants on the heights above the Yana-mayu, and -on the precipice of Ccasa-sani, I found a number of plants -of <i>Calisaya morada</i> (<i>C. Boliviana</i>, Wedd.), growing out of -moss, amongst the rocks, with scarcely any soil. They were -overshadowed by numerous trees, called by Martinez "Compadre<a name="FNanchor_341_341" id="FNanchor_341_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a> -de Calisaya" (<i>Gomphosia chlorantha</i>, Wedd.), one of -the most graceful and beautiful of the chinchonaceous plants, -with deliciously sweet flowers. Dr. Weddell exactly describes -it as rising without a branch above all the trees of the forest, -and then spreading out in the form of a chandelier, and -attracting the attention of the traveller from afar. The -bark of this tree, with its transverse cracks, can with difficulty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> -be distinguished from that of <i>C. Calisaya</i>. Whilst climbing -amongst these rocks, I nearly put my hand on a small -viper of a most venomous kind, 18 inches long, with a black -skin marked with yellow rings, edged with white. In the -evening we returned to Gironda's clearing at Lenco-huayccu, -with eighty-seven chinchona-plants, sixteen of Calisaya fina -(<i>C. Calisaya, var. α vera</i>), and sixty-nine of Calisaya morada -(<i>C. Boliviana</i>, Wedd.).</p> - -<p>We found Gironda, on whom we were now entirely dependent -for food, very little better off than ourselves. His -supplies consisted of maize, yucas, aracachas, chuñus or -frozen potatoes, and quispiñas, made of boiled quinoa-grains -dried in the sun, ground, and preserved as little gritty -hard lumps. He also had some <i>achocches</i>, which are poor -watery cucurbitaceous things, squeezed, and served up in -chupes. No salt.</p> - -<p>Though frequently baffled, and more than once exposed to -much risk in making vain attempts, I had never given up -my determination to have at least one day's work on the -right bank of the Tambopata. For some days the volume -of water had been gradually decreasing, but it was still -40 yards across, and rushing with great velocity over a ford -which Gironda believed to exist a little below Lenco-huayccu. -I stripped and went in, with the stem of a young <i>chonta</i> -palm as a support, but, on approaching the mid-channel, the -water came up above my middle, the large pebbles slipped -and rolled under my feet, and for some time it was with the -utmost difficulty that I held my own; but finally we all -reached the right bank in safety.</p> - -<p>We were rewarded by a very successful day's work. After -ascending the steep ravine, through the zone of bamboos, -to a height of 400 feet, we reached a ridge of rocks, where -we collected 109 good chinchona-plants of the <i>Calisaya -morada</i> species. The leaves of the chinchonæ, and more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> -especially the <i>Calisaya</i> species, are invariably perforated by -holes in every direction. Much of this mischief is the work -of caterpillars, but it may partly be attributed to the effects -of drip from the trees which overshadow them. In this -forest there were trees of great height, without a branch for a -distance of 50 or 60 feet from the ground, which Martinez -called <i>canela</i>. The inner bark had a strong taste of cinnamon, -and they use it to scent and flavour their <i>huarapu</i>, or -fermented juice of the sugar-cane. On many trees, in the -forest, there are immense masses of earth fixed on the trunk, -called <i>cotocuro</i>. They consist of exceedingly thin layers, one -added to another until they are sometimes of an immense -size, eight to ten feet high, and three or four feet across. -They are made by myriads and myriads of small yellowish -lice, which swarm between each thin layer.</p> - -<p>In the evening we incurred the same risks in wading -across the river again, but arrived without any accident at -Gironda's clearing, where we now had a depôt of 436 -chinchona-plants.</p> - -<p>On May 10th I resolved to make a search on the heights -immediately above Lenco-huayccu, called Gloriapata, for -the valuable red-nerved variety of <i>C. ovata</i>. I first paid -a visit to the poor little Indian wife and children of Martinez -at Huaccay-churu, in a hut of split bamboos, surrounded -by aracachas, yucas, camotes with their white -convolvulus flowers, plantains, frijoles or beans, and the -<i>Amaranthus caudatus</i>, which they call <i>jataccu</i> and <i>cuimi</i>, -using the leaves in <i>chupes</i>. We then struck right up the -steep declivity of Gloriapata, making our way with difficulty -through the dense bamboo thickets, which, in spite of their -obstinate obstructiveness, make excellent cisterns, and their -joints will always afford a good drink of cool water. For -some time we followed a pathway made by a herd of peccaries, -until it ended at the mouth of a cave which, though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> -low, appeared to be of considerable size. These peccaries -come down in herds of thirty or forty to the clearings, during -the night, and do much damage amongst the roots. Some -are black and white, and others of a leaden colour.</p> - -<p>After ascending for several hundred feet we came to trees -of <i>C. pubescens</i>, which appear to belong to a zone just below, -but in contact with the <i>C. ovatæ</i>. Their leaves were eaten -by a caterpillar, red at both ends, with a horn, red stripe -down the back, and red spots on each side, body striped -green and yellow. Some hundred feet higher there were -large trees of both varieties of <i>C. ovata</i>, growing in very -moist parts of the forest, where the trees were covered with -<i>Hymenophylla</i> and dripping moss, the former a sure sign of -extreme humidity. The ground was covered with fallen -leaves to a great depth, and there was a good deal of shade. -We collected seven plants of <i>C. ovata, var. α vulgaris</i>, and -eleven of <i>C. ovata, var. β rufinervis</i>, five of which were -strong healthy seedlings, the remainder being suckers, with -spreading roots of their own. With the <i>C. ovatæ</i> grows the -<i>Carhua-carhua chica</i> (<i>Cascarilla bullata</i>, Wedd.).</p> - -<p>In descending from these heights I came to a tree which -Martinez called <i>copal</i>, but the trunk rose to such an extraordinary -height, without branches, that I was unable to make -out the appearance of the leaves or flowers. The bark was -covered with a milk-white fragrant resin, of a nature analogous -to <i>gum thus</i> or <i>gum elemi</i>. The forest also abounds -in vegetable and bees' wax, and in many varieties of gums -and resins.</p> - -<p>On May 11th, as we had now collected a sufficient number of -chinchona-plants, including those of the shrub <i>Calisaya</i> which -we intended to take up on our return across the <i>pajonales</i>, to -fill the Wardian cases at Islay, Mr. Weir began to make up -the plants in layers, with plenty of moss between them, ready -for sewing up in the Russia matting. Having heard that a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> -young man, a nephew of Gironda's, had planted a <i>C. Calisaya</i> -in a small clearing a few leagues up the ravine, I went to -examine it. The clearing was on a steep declivity sloping -down to the river, and had been partly planted with coffee -and coca by its solitary occupant. The tree was a <i>Calisaya -morada</i>, having been a root-shoot twelve inches high when it -was planted in January, 1859. It is now seven feet high, six -inches and four-tenths in circumference round the trunk, and -three feet three inches across the longest branches from one -side of the stem to the other. It was growing on the side of -a steep hill, quite open to the south, east, and south-east, at -the edge of a clearing, while mountains covered with forest -rise up close behind it, on the north and west, to a great -height. It is planted in a soil consisting of stiff yellowish -loam, composed of vegetable matter, mixed with the disintegration -of the soft clay slate. This is probably the only -cultivated chinchona-tree in Peru. In returning to Lenco-huayccu -I saw a flock of <i>Alectors</i>, large birds analogous to -turkeys, and many parrots; and on my arrival I found that -Mr. Weir had already made up the chinchona-plants, in -four Russia-matting bundles, ready to start for Sandia on -the following morning.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI.</h2> - -<p class="c">GENERAL REMARKS ON THE CHINCHONA-PLANTS OF -CARAVAYA.</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> range of my observations in the chinchona-forests extended -for a distance of forty miles along the western side of -the ravine of Tambopata, and one day's journey on the eastern -side. This region is covered, with few exceptions, from the -banks of the river to the summits of the mountain-peaks, by -a dense tropical forest. The formation is everywhere, as I -have before said, an unfossiliferous, micaceous, slightly ferruginous, -metamorphic clay-slate, with veins of quartz, and the -streams all contain more or less gold-dust. When exposed to -the weather this clay-slate quickly turns to a sticky yellow -mud,<a name="FNanchor_342_342" id="FNanchor_342_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a> and lower down it is very brittle, and easily breaks off -in thin layers. The soil formed by the disintegration of the -rock, mixed with decayed vegetable matter, is a heavy yellowish -brown loam, but there is very little of it on the rocky -sides of the ravine, and no depth of soil except on the few -level spaces and gentle slopes near the banks of the river. -Mr. Forbes, in speaking of the extensive range of Silurian -formation, of which the Tambopata hills form a part, attributes -the frequent occurrence of veins of auriferous quartz, -usually associated with iron pyrites, to the proximity of -granite, whence they have been injected into the Silurian -slates. In the cooling and solidification of granite the -quartz is the last mineral element to crystallize and become -solid, and he suggests that, during the cooling, the conse<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>quent -expansion due to the crystallization of the constituents -has forced the quartz and gold, still fluid, into the fissures -of the neighbouring rocks, and so formed the auriferous -quartz veins. These are only developed in the slate rocks, -which, when such veins occur, must be at no great distance -from granitic eruptions, either visible, or such as may be -inferred to exist.<a name="FNanchor_343_343" id="FNanchor_343_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_343_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a></p> - -<p>The chinchona forests which I examined in the Tambopata -valley are between lat. 13° and 12° 30´ S. The elevation -above the sea, on the banks of the river, is 4200 feet, while -the loftiest crests of the mountains which overhang it on -either side attain an elevation of about 5000 feet. In the -preceding chapter I have given a general idea of the nature -of the climate throughout the year, and my stay was too -short to enable me to give any more detailed information -for most of the months; but I did not fail to take careful -observations while I remained in the valley, which will -give an accurate idea of the climate during the month of -May. During the fourteen first days of May the results were -as follows:—</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig14.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span></p> - -<p>The wind generally blows up the valley during the daytime, -when the clouds ascend, to be condensed by the colder -night-air. Thus we almost invariably had rain at night, -generally in a heavy fall, but occasionally in small drizzle, -which usually continued until the forenoon. At noon it -cleared up for a fine afternoon, and only on two occasions -did we have rain throughout the day. The valley, and the -course of the river, bear N.N.W. and S.S.E.</p> - -<p>The three valuable species of chinchonæ found in Tambopata -grow in distinct zones as regards elevation, together -with other chinchonaceous plants, up the declivitous sides of -the ravine.</p> - -<p>From the banks of the river to about 400 feet up the -mountains, the forest consists of bamboos, several genera of -palms, tree-ferns, paccays, and other <i>Leguminosæ</i>, <i>Lasionemas</i>, -<i>Cascarilla Caruas</i>, and the <i>Chinchona micrantha</i>, together with -the chinchonaceous tree called by Martinez <i>Huiñapu</i>. This is -the lower zone. The <i>C. micrantha</i>, called by Martinez <i>verde -paltaya</i> and <i>motosolo</i>,<a name="FNanchor_344_344" id="FNanchor_344_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> was in flower in May. I met with it -constantly in moist low places; and several trees, with their -very large ovate leaves, and bunches of white fragrant -flowers, were actually drooped over the waters of the river. -It produces a good quality of bark, and I collected seven -fine seedling-plants of this species.</p> - -<p>From 400 to 600 feet above the river is the middle -zone, and that which contains the Calisaya-plants. The -vegetation chiefly consists of huge balsam and India-rubber -trees, <i>huaturus</i>, <i>Melastomaceæ</i>, Aceite de Maria (<i>Elæagia -Mariæ</i>), Compadre de Calisaya (<i>Gomphosia chlorantha</i>), and -occasional trees of <i>Cascarilla Carua</i>, which straggle up from -the lower zone. Here the young trees of <i>C. Calisaya</i> grow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> -in great abundance, but the cascarilleros had certainly done -their work well in former years, for every single tree of any -size had been felled, though many of the young root-shoots -were 20 and 30 feet high, and covered with capsule-bearing -panicles. These precious trees were most plentiful under -the ridges of rock which crop out at intervals, where the -ground was not so thickly covered with vegetation, and where -the young plants obtained plenty of light and air, while they -were partially protected from the direct rays of the sun by the -spreading branches of taller trees. The <i>Calisaya</i>-trees, on -the Ccasa-sani precipice, however, had no shade whatever. -They were covered with capsules. I observed that when the -young plants of <i>C. Calisaya</i> grew up the sides of the rocks, -and actually came in contact, they often threw out roots -from their stems or branches. The <i>C. Calisaya</i> is by far the -most beautiful tree of these forests. Its leaves are of a dark -rich green, smooth and shining, with crimson veins, and a -green petiole edged with red, and the deliciously sweet -bunches of flowers are white, with rose-coloured laciniæ, -edged with white marginal hairs. But it was evident that -we did not see them to advantage in these forests; they ran -up tall and straggling, as if seeking the sun, and seemed -to pant for more light and air, and a deeper and richer -soil. Martinez told me that, when the Calisaya is much -overshadowed by other trees, it loses the crimson colour -on the petioles and veins of the leaves; and that fifteen -leagues lower down the river (I suppose at about four thousand -feet above the sea) the leaves of the <i>Calisaya morada</i> become -quite bright purple all over the under side.</p> - -<p>Gironda and Martinez told me that there were three kinds -of Calisaya-trees; namely, the <i>Calisaya fina</i> (<i>C. Calisaya, α -vera</i>, Wedd.), the <i>Calisaya morada</i> (<i>C. Boliviana</i>, Wedd.), and -the tall <i>Calisaya verde</i>. They added that the latter was a -very large tree, without any red colour in the veins of the -leaves, and generally growing far down the valleys, almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> -in the open plain. A tree of this variety yields six or seven -quintals of bark, while the <i>Calisaya fina</i> only yields three or -four quintals; and Gironda declared that he had seen one, -in the province of Munecas in Bolivia, which had yielded -ten quintals of <i>tabla</i> or trunk-bark alone.</p> - -<p>My remarks respecting the position of <i>C. Calisaya</i> trees, on -the sides of the ravine, only apply to the forest below Lenco-huayccu; -above that position they are not found so high up -the sides of the mountains, probably owing to their greater -proximity to the snowy region of the cordillera. The nearest -snow may be about forty miles from Lenco-huayccu, as the -crow flies. I also found that the <i>Calisaya fina</i> was most -abundant about the Yana-mayu, while the variety called -<i>morada</i> was plentiful in the upper part of the ravine. But it -was very difficult for an unpractised eye to detect the slightest -difference between these two varieties, until their leaves were -placed side by side, when that of the <i>morada</i> appeared to be -just a shade darker green. Dr. Weddell has, in his work, -named the <i>Calisaya morada</i>, as a distinct species, <i>C. Boliviana</i>, -but I understand that he is now of opinion that it is scarcely -more than a variety of the <i>Calisaya vera</i>, its bark being very -generally collected and sold as that of the latter. No plants -which I saw in the forests could be compared, for vigour and -regularity of growth, with the tree which I have already -described as having been planted on the edge of a clearing; -and I think this tends to prove that plenty of light and air is -essential to the vigorous growth of the <i>C. Calisaya</i>, so long -as there is a sufficient supply of moisture, and protection -from the direct rays of a scorching sun for the first year or -two. The <i>C. Calisaya</i> is undoubtedly the most delicate and -sensitive of all the species of chinchona.</p> - -<p>Above the region occupied by <i>C. Calisayas</i>, in the forests, -is the third or upper zone, from 600 to 800 feet above the -river. Here, amidst very dense humid vegetation, covered -with ferns and mosses, are first met the trees of <i>C. pubescens</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> -and <i>Pimentelia glomerata</i>, and a little higher up are numerous -trees of the two valuable species of <i>C. ovata</i>, namely, α <i>vulgaris</i> -and β <i>rufinervis</i>, with very large ovate leaves, the -latter being distinguishable by the deep red of the leaf-veins. -The <i>Cascarilla bullata</i> grows with them, and extends still -higher up the sides of the mountains. The bark of the β -<i>rufinervis</i> variety is habitually used to adulterate the Calisaya, -which it very closely resembles, and is called <i>zamba -morada</i> by the cascarilleros, while the α <i>vulgaris</i> variety is -known as <i>morada ordinaria</i>. Martinez said that the <i>zamba -morada</i> was very tenacious of life, and that, having once -thrown away a branch amongst some moss, he found it a fortnight -afterwards, still throwing out shoots. Both varieties of -<i>C. ovata</i> yield valuable barks.</p> - -<p>Above the zone of the <i>C. ovatas</i>, and nearer the snowy -cordillera (for lower down the valley the forests cover the -crests of the mountains), commence the open grassy <i>pajonales</i>, -which I have already described. Here the formation is -exactly the same as that in the valley of Tambopata; and -the vegetation of the thickets which fill the gullies, and are -interspersed over the grassy glades, consists of <i>huaturus</i>, -<i>Gaultheriæ</i>, <i>Vacciniæ</i>, <i>Lasiandræ</i>, and other <i>Melastomaceæ</i>, -<i>Chinchonæ</i>, palms, and tree-ferns. The chinchonæ consist of -<i>C. Caravayensis</i>, and of the shrubby variety of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, -which is called <i>ychu cascarilla</i> by the natives. The shrub -<i>Calisaya</i> (β <i>Josephiana</i>) is generally from six and a half to ten -feet high, but I met with an individual plant which I believe to -belong to this variety, which had attained a height of eighteen -and a half feet; and this inclined me to think, at the time, that -this shrubby form could not even be considered as a variety of -the normal <i>C. Calisaya</i>, and that its more lowly habit was -merely due to the higher elevation and more rigorous climate -in which it grew. Dr. Weddell remarks that its appearance -varies very much according to the situation in which it grows,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> -and that the colour and texture of the different parts change -according to the amount of exposure.</p> - -<p>I found the shrub <i>Calisaya</i> in flower in the end of April.</p> - -<p>We crossed two <i>pajonal</i> regions, one above the valley of -Sandia, and the other between the valleys of Sandia and -Tambopata. The height of the former above the level of the -sea was 5422 feet, and of the latter 5600 feet. The time of -my visit was the end of April and beginning of May, and I -traversed both regions twice, so that an abstract of my meteorological -observations will give a tolerably correct idea of the -climate at that time of the year; although they only extend -over the 25th, 26th, 27th, and 28th of April, and a few days -in the middle of May.</p> - - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mean temperature</td><td class="tdr">59°</td><td class="tdl">Fahr.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mean minimum at night</td><td class="tdr">52</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Highest temperature observed</td><td class="tdr">67</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Lowest temperature observed</td><td class="tdr">49</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Entire range</td><td class="tdr">18</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mean of the dew-point</td><td class="tdr">53.6</td><td class="tdl">(dry bulb as above).</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p>In the early morning there were generally masses of white -clouds lying in the ravines, and in the afternoon a thick mist -drifted across the <i>pajonal</i>, with drizzling rain.</p> - -<p>The shrub-Calisayas, which were growing plentifully by the -roadside, above the valley of Sandia, were entirely exposed, -without any shade whatever, and the hill on which they grew -had a western aspect. There is a difference in elevation of -about 1000 feet between the locality where we saw the shrub-Calisayas, -and the region of the normal tree-Calisaya in the -Tambopata forests; and the shrubby form is also many -leagues nearer the snows of the cordillera. These circumstances -are alone sufficient to account for the difference in -the habit of these two forms of <i>C. Calisaya</i>; and there seems -to be no doubt that the barks of the shrubby varieties of chinchonæ -are specially good when their stunted growth is owing -to the altitude of the locality.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p> - -<p>Our collection of chinchona-plants in the Tambopata -forests, and on the <i>pajonales</i>, was completed on May 14th, as -follows:—</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc">No. of Plants.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. Calisaya</i> (<i>calisaya fina</i>)</td><td class="tdr">237</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. Boliviana</i> (<i>calisaya morada</i>)</td><td class="tdr">185</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. ovata, var. α vulgaris</i> (<i>zamba ordinaria</i>)</td><td class="tdr">9</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. ovata, var. β rufinervis</i> (<i>zamba morada</i>)</td><td class="tdr">16</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. micrantha</i> (<i>verde paltaya</i>)</td><td class="tdr">7</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. Calisaya, var. β Josephiana</i> (<i>ychu cascarilla</i>)</td><td class="tdr">75</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Total</td><td class="tdr bb bt">529</td></tr> -</table></div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII.</h2> - -<p class="c">JOURNEY FROM THE FORESTS OF TAMBOPATA TO THE -PORT OF ISLAY.</p> - -<p class="c"><span class="smallish">Establishment of the plants in Wardian cases.</span></p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">On</span> May 11th Mr. Weir completed the packing of the plants, -and we were preparing for the journey up into the <i>pajonales</i> -on the following day, having previously fixed on the <i>Calisaya</i>-trees -from which we intended to obtain a supply of seeds in -August, when Gironda received an ominous letter from Don -José Mariano Bobadilla, the Alcalde Municipal of Quiaca, -ordering him to prevent me from taking away a single plant; -to arrest both myself and the person who had acted as my -guide; and to send us to Quiaca.<a name="FNanchor_345_345" id="FNanchor_345_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_345_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a> I found that an outcry -against my proceedings had been raised by Don Manuel -Martel, the red-faced man whom I had met on the road to -Sandia, and that the people of Sandia and Quiaca had been -excited by assertions that the exportation of cascarilla-seeds -would prove the ruin of themselves and their descendants. -Gironda, though friendly and hospitable, feared that the -finger of scorn would be pointed at him, as the man who had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> -allowed the stranger to injure his countrymen. He wanted -to throw away all the plants, except a few which we might -take without observation, and, if we had not kept constant -guard over them, he would have carried his views into effect -without consulting us. I saw that in an immediate retreat -was the only hope of saving the plants; and I explained to -Gironda that his views were incorrect, and that, if necessary, -we were prepared to defend our property by force.</p> - -<p>At the same time I addressed a letter to Don José Bobadilla, -stating that his interference was an unwarrantable -step which I would not tolerate; and that, as I understood -the provisions of the Constitution of 1856, the functions of -the <i>Juntas Municipales</i> were purely consultative and legislative, -conferring no executive powers whatever, concluding -with an expression of my sense of his patriotic zeal, and of -regret that it should be accompanied by such misguided and -lamentable ignorance of the true interests of his country. -Nevertheless, I felt the imperative necessity of immediate -flight, especially as I obtained information from an Indian of -Quiaca that Martel's son and his party, who had brought the -letter, were only the vanguard of a body of mestizos, who -were coming down the valley to seize me, and destroy my -collection of chinchona-plants.</p> - -<p>Early in the morning of May 12th we took leave of our -kind and hospitable old friend Gironda, without whose -assistance we should have been exposed to much suffering -from want of food; and of the honest forester Martinez. I -expressed my sincere regret to Gironda that any misunderstanding -should have arisen at the close of our acquaintance, -and promised Martinez to obtain guarantees that he should -suffer no molestation on account of the services he had rendered -to me. The most melancholy part of travelling is the -parting with friends, never to meet again.</p> - -<p>After a laborious ascent through the forest we found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> -Martel's son and his party stationed on the verge of the -<i>pajonal</i>. They were evidently waiting for us, but did not -attempt to impede our passage, and a display of my revolver, -although it may have been very efficacious, was perfectly -harmless, as the powder was quite damp. The young Martel -asked the Indians in Quichua how they dared to carry the -plants, and called after them that they would be seized at -Sandia; but he was civil to me, and we continued our journey -peaceably, though full of apprehensions at the turn affairs -might take on our arrival at Sandia.</p> - -<p>We had to cross the same country as we had traversed in -our journey to the Tambopata valley; and, in skirting along -the verge of a ridge, near the Marun-kunka, the cargo-mule -fell headlong down a precipice of twenty feet, into a dense -mass of trees and underwood. We could see the poor beast's -legs kicking in the air, but it was long before we could -reach her, and more than two hours before a circuitous -path could be cut and cleared away to extricate her. We -encamped on the pajonal, and next day, after a very laborious -walk of twelve hours, we reached the Ypara tambo, -in the valley of Sandia, Mr. Weir having collected twenty -plants of <i>Calisaya Josephiana</i> on the way. On May 14th we -continued our journey towards Sandia, and collected fifty-five -more plants of <i>Calisaya Josephiana</i> on the pajonal of Paccay-samana, -chiefly seedlings.</p> - -<p>The water of the numerous cascades is very refreshing, and -as beautiful in its limpid transparency as when it dashes down -the rocks in dazzling streams of purest white. We were now -too in the land of luscious oranges and chirimoyas. The commonest -bird in the valley of Sandia is the <i>cuchu</i>, a kind of -large crow, with a shrill weak caw. It has a long yellow bill, -greenish-brown body and wings, rump-feathers red, and a long -bright yellow tail, with a black line down the centre. The -<i>cuchus</i> walk about the fields eating the young maize, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> -perch upon the adjoining trees. Humming-birds are numerous, -and very beautiful; I saw also a little cream-coloured -hawk, and lordly eagles were soaring over the ravine, having -their eyries in the inaccessible parts of the lofty cliffs. Approaching -Sandia in the early morning of May 15th, I came -upon many groups of Indians, with their wives and daughters, -who had slept in the road, on their way to and from their -coca-harvests. They were boiling their breakfasts of potatoes -over little fires of dry sticks, which crackled pleasantly. -Grand precipices towered up on either side of the valley, and -in the bottom, where the bright river was murmuring on its -way, there was a hut in a field of maize, surrounded by the -drooping crimson flowers of the "love-lies-bleeding," with a -girl in a bright blue woollen dress sitting at the door.</p> - -<p>On arriving at Sandia I went through the ceremony of paying -off my Indians, and taking leave; and Vilca, Ccuri, and -Quispi returned to their homes. I formed a very high opinion -of the Indian character from my experience with these my -fellow-labourers. Suspicious they certainly were at times, -and with good reason after the treatment they have usually -met with from white men, but willing, hard-working, intelligent, -good-humoured, always ready to help each other, quick -in forming the encampments, conversing quietly and without -noise round the camp-fires, and always kind to animals; altogether -very efficient and companionable people.</p> - -<p>I found things at Sandia in a very alarming state; most of -the people had been excited by letters from Quiaca to prevent -me from continuing my journey with the chinchona-plants, -and a sort of league had been made with other <i>Juntas Municipales</i> -to protect their interests, and prevent foreigners from -injuring them. The tactics which were adopted would have -succeeded in their object, but for a great piece of good luck. -I was prevented from hiring mules, except to go to Crucero, -where I knew Martel was stationed, with the intention of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> -raising obstacles to my further progress until the plants -had been killed by the frost. I was in despair, and meditated -setting out on foot, with all the four bundles of -plants on my own mule, when Don Manuel Mena told me -confidentially that, if I would give him my gun, he would get -an Indian to supply beasts, and accompany me to Vilque, on -the road to Arequipa. I willingly agreed to this bargain, -and sent Mr. Weir and Pablo to Crucero, so as to throw -Martel off the scent, while I hurried the plants down to the -coast by the most unfrequented line of country.</p> - -<p>An alarm had, however, been spread through all the -villages bordering on the chinchona forests, both in Caravaya -and Bolivia, and I ascertained that effectual measures had -been taken to prevent my return for seeds in August. -Martel had also written to the towns and villages between -Crucero and Arequipa, to put obstacles in the way of my -retreat, so that I found it necessary to avoid entering any -town or village, and to shape a direct compass-course over -the cordilleras from Sandia to Vilque. I also reluctantly -abandoned my intention of returning to collect seeds in -August, and made the best arrangements in my power to -obtain a supply, through a reliable agent, in the ensuing -year. Martel was a mischievous meddling fellow, but the -members of the <i>Juntas Municipales</i> may have been influenced -by misguided zeal for the interests of their country, and for -the preservation of a strict monopoly in a trade which has -ceased to exist, for no bark is now-exported from Caravaya.</p> - -<p>In the morning of May 17th I left Sandia on my own -trusty mule, driving two others with the plants before me, -and accompanied by their owner on foot, an Indian named -Angelino Paco, a middle-aged respectable-looking man, who -had been one of the Alcaldes of Sandia in 1859. Mr. Weir -started for Arequipa on the same day, by way of Crucero. -Passing through Cuyo-cuyo without stopping, I continued to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> -ascend a mountain-gorge, by the side of the stream, but -Paco had never been out of the valley of Sandia before, -and was useless as a guide. All along the banks of the -stream there were square pools dammed up and filled with -heaps of potatoes and ocas, placed there to freeze into -<i>chuñus</i>, the principal food of the Indians when in the forests, -or on the coffee or coca estates. Higher up the gorge all -signs of habitation cease, though there are still abandoned -tiers of ancient terraces, and the mountain scenery is quite -magnificent. Night coming on without a moon, I halted -under a splendid range of frowning black cliffs, and succeeded -in pitching the tent in the dark, but there was no -fuel, and on opening the leathern bag I found that my -little stock of food and lucifer-matches had been stolen in -Sandia. I was thus entirely dependent for existence on -Paco's parched maize, which proved uncommonly hard fare. -The cold was intense during the night, and penetrated -through the tent and clothes to the very marrow.</p> - -<p>At daybreak Paco and I loaded the mules, and continued -to ascend the gorge by the side of the river of Sandia, which -becomes a noisy little rill, and finally falls, as a thin silvery -cascade, over a black cliff. Reaching the summit of the -snowy cordillera of Caravaya, we commenced the journey -over lofty grass-covered plains, where the ground was -covered with stiff white frost. There were flocks of vicuñas -on the plain, and <i>huallatas</i>, large white geese with brown -wings and red legs, on the banks of the streams; but as -we advanced even these signs of life ceased, and, when night -closed in, I looked round on the desolate scene, and thought -that to make a direct cut across the cordilleras to Vilque -by compass-course was a very disagreeable way of travelling, -though, in this case, a necessary one. I had been -eleven hours in the saddle, when Paco found an abandoned -shepherd's hut, built of loose stones, three feet high, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> -thatched with <i>ychu</i> grass. The minimum thermometer, -during the night, was as low as 20° Fahr. by my side.</p> - -<p>At daylight on May 19th Paco complained of having to -rise before the sun, although he must have been half-frozen. -The mules had escaped, and we were fully three hours in -catching them. The ground was covered with a crisp frost, -and during the forenoon we were traveling over the same -lofty wilderness, consisting of grassy undulating hills, with -ridges of cliffs, and huge boulders here and there. The view -was bounded on the north and east by the splendid snowy -peaks of the Caravayan range, and to the north-west by -those of Vilcañota. The only living things, in these wild -solitudes, are the graceful <i>vicuñas</i>, which peered at us with -their long necks from behind the grassy slopes, the <i>guanacos</i>, -the <i>biscaches</i> burrowing amongst the rocks, and the <i>huallatas</i> -or large geese on the margins of streams or pools of water.</p> - -<p>At about noon we began to descend a rocky dangerous -cuesta, where there was much trouble with the mules, which -were constantly attempting to lie down and roll with the -plants. The steep descent led into the plain of Putina, -which was covered with flocks of sheep, with small farms, -shaded by clumps of <i>queñua</i>-trees, nestling under the sandstone -cliffs which bound the plain. Crossing another range, -we reached a swampy plain, with sheep and cattle scattered -over it, and stopped at an abandoned shepherd's hut, the -exact counterpart of last night's lodging. I had been ten -hours in the saddle, and was faint from hunger, but had to -go supperless to bed. Paco was nearly breaking down from -a bad wound in his foot, but I bandaged it with lint, and -he was able to proceed. He had an <i>alco</i> or Peruvian -dog with him, which was devotedly attached to its master. -These dogs are something like Newfoundlands, only much -smaller, generally black or white, and seldom bark.</p> - -<p>On the morrow the way, for the first two hours, led over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> -grassy hills covered with flocks of sheep, with shepherd-lads -playing on <i>pincullus</i>, or flutes, the sound of which came -floating pleasantly on the air, from every direction far and -near. We passed several blue mountain-lakes, with islands -of rushes, and many ducks. From 10 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span> until sunset the -whole day was occupied in crossing a vast plain covered -with sheep and cattle, and just after sunset we reached a -small <i>estancia</i> or sheep-farm. It was occupied by a large -family of good-tempered Indians, whose eyes glistened when -I offered them a <i>cesto</i> of coca which I had with me, in -exchange for unlimited supplies of milk and cheese. It was -pleasant to see their happiness at the acquisition of this -treasure, which was shared by the children and dogs. The -place was full of guinea-pigs, which are considered great -delicacies. The extreme hunger from which I had suffered -since leaving Sandia was here relieved by plenty of milk, -cheese, and parched maize. Every night I had wrapped the -Russian mats, which enveloped the plants, in warm ponchos, -and the tent. The crooked wriggling queñua-branches, which -formed the roof of the hut, looked like snakes in the dim -light after sunset.</p> - -<p>At sunrise on May 21st there was a white frost, and the -deep blue sky was without a single cloud. Suddenly an immense -flock of flamingos, called <i>parihuanas</i><a name="FNanchor_346_346" id="FNanchor_346_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a> in Quichua, rose -in a long column from the margin of the river of Azangaro, -which flows through the plain. These birds, with their crimson -wings, and rose-coloured necks and bodies, whirring up -in a long spiral column, formed one of the most beautiful -sights I ever saw.</p> - -<p>Crossing a range of rocky hills, we entered a plain, which -extended to the banks of a large lake, with the little town of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> -Arapa built along the shore. Dark mountains rise up immediately -in the rear. I believe that I am the first English -traveller who has ever visited this lake, and M. de Castelnau, -who obtained some information respecting it at Puno, says -that it is not to be found in any map.<a name="FNanchor_347_347" id="FNanchor_347_347"></a><a href="#Footnote_347_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a> Along the shores there -were long rows of flamingos, standing like a gigantic regiment, -with a few skirmishers thrown out fishing. There were -also <i>huallatas</i>, ibises, ducks, and a stout-built stunted sort of -crane. Journeying on, we began to cross a vast plain which -extends for many leagues round the north-west corner of -lake Titicaca, and is dotted with walled <i>estancias</i> and flocks -of sheep. At length we reached the ford over the river of -Azangaro, in sight of the little village of Achaya, to the -left. The water came above the mules' bellies, and, crossing -half a mile of swampy ground, we came to another -ford over the river of Pucara. The two rivers, uniting just -below Achaya, form the Ramiz, the largest feeder of lake -Titicaca. We continued our way for many hours over the -plain, until we reached an Indian's hut long after dark, having -been twelve hours in the saddle, at the slow tedious pace of -a tired mule. The cargo-mules had played every kind of -vicious trick throughout the day, running off in different -directions at every opportunity, and constantly trying to -roll.</p> - -<p>Starting at daybreak on the 22nd, we forded the river of -Lampa, crossed the road between Lampa and Puno, passed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> -over a rocky cordillera and a wide plain, and reached the -little town of Vilque by four in the afternoon. The place -presented a very different appearance from the time when we -passed through it in March, on our way to Puno. It was now -the time of the great yearly fair, when buyers and sellers -from every part of South America flock to the little <i>sierra</i> -town. This great gathering was first established in the time -of the Spaniards, and it is not improbable that the Jesuits, -who once possessed the great sheep-farm of Yanarico near -Vilque, and who always looked well after the improvement -of their property, may have been the great promoters of the -fair.</p> - -<p>Outside the town there were thousands of mules from -Tucuman waiting for Peruvian arrieros to buy them. In the -plaza were booths full of every description of Manchester and -Birmingham goods; in more retired places were gold-dust -and coffee from Caravaya, silver from the mines, bark and -chocolate from Bolivia, Germans with glass-ware and woollen -knitted work, French modistes, Italians, Quichua and Aymara -Indians in their various picturesque costumes—in fact, all -nations and tongues. In the plaza, too, there were excellent -cafés and dining-rooms, all under canvas; but house-rent was -exorbitant, and a lodging was not to be had for love or -money. There was much complaint of the injury done to -trade by the threatened war with Bolivia, and the edict of -President Linares, prohibiting all intercourse with Peru.</p> - -<p>I placed the bundles of plants, carefully wrapped round -with ponchos, in a barley-field occupied by arrieros, covered -over with their warm <i>aparejos</i>; but the thermometer was -down to 23° Fahr. in the night.</p> - -<p>In the afternoon of the 23rd I left Vilque for the sheep-farm -of Taya-taya, in company with Dr. Don Camillo Chaves -the superintendent. The road was crowded with people -coming from Arequipa to the fair at Vilque: native shop<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span>keepers, -English merchants coming to arrange for their -supplies of wool, and a noisy company of arrieros on their -way to buy mules, and armed to the teeth with horse-pistols, -old guns, and huge daggers, to defend their money-bags. -Many of them were good-looking fellows, the older ones -bearing signs of hard drinking.</p> - -<p>The sheep-farm of Taya-taya,<a name="FNanchor_348_348" id="FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a> four leagues from Vilque, is -a large range of mud-plastered buildings with thatched roofs, -built round a large <i>patio</i>, on a bleak plain surrounded by -mountains. In the morning a flock of forty llamas were -being laden with packs of wool in the patio, at which they -were making bitter lamentations. We started early on May -24th, and encountered a cold gale of wind, blowing in icy -squalls over the cordillera. I reached the posthouse of Cuevillas -in the night, a distance of 45 miles; got as far as the -posthouse of Pati the next day; encountered a tremendous -gale of wind on the skirts of the volcano of Arequipa, but -descended to the valley of Cangallo on the 26th; and rode -into the city of Arequipa, with my plants, on the morning of -the 27th of May. Mr. Weir arrived from Crucero on the -29th, having, as I expected, found Martel in that town, whose -designs were thus baffled. From Sandia to Arequipa is a distance -of nearly 300 miles. No opposition was made to my -departure from Arequipa, although the local newspaper had -something to say afterwards,<a name="FNanchor_349_349" id="FNanchor_349_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a> and on June 1st the plants were -safely deposited by the Wardian cases at the port of Islay.</p> - -<p>"John of the Fountain" had provided plenty of soil, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> -by the 3rd all the plants were established in the Wardian -cases by Mr. Weir. But the difficulties of getting the plants -out of the country were not entirely ended by my escape from -Martel and the <i>Juntas Municipales</i> of the interior. The -Superintendent of the custom-house of Islay declared it to -be illegal to export cascarilla-plants, and refused to allow -them to be shipped without an express order from the -Minister of Finance and Commerce at Lima. He had -probably received intelligence respecting the contents of the -cases from Vilque, where all news centres at the time of the -fair. This obliged me to go to Lima to obtain the necessary -order from Colonel Salcedo, the Minister of Finance, which, -after much difficulty, I succeeded in doing, and returned with -it to Islay on June 23rd.<a name="FNanchor_350_350" id="FNanchor_350_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a></p> - -<p>Meanwhile, since the plants had been established in the -Wardian cases, they had begun to bud and throw out young -leaves, which seemed to prove that they had quite recovered -from their journey across the arctic climate of the Andes. -In the evening of the 23rd the cases were hoisted into a -launch, ready to go on board the steamer on the following -morning; and during the night attempts were made to -bribe the man in charge to bore holes and kill the plants by -pouring in boiling water, but without success. On the following -day they were safely lodged on board the steamer -bound for Panama.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span></p> - -<p>It was impossible not to feel regret that H. M. steamer -'Vixen,' then lying idle at Callao, had not been ordered -to take the plants direct across the Pacific to Madras, when -a majority would have arrived in perfect order. But this was -not to be, and we had to look forward to long voyages, several -trans-shipments, and the intense heat of the Red Sea, -before this most valuable collection of plants could reach -their destination in Southern India.</p> - -<p>Yet it could not but be satisfactory to look back upon the -extraordinary difficulties we had overcome, the hardships and -dangers of the forests, the scarcity of the plants, the bewildering -puzzle to find them amidst the dense underwood, the -endeavour to stop my journey first at Tambopata and then in -Sandia, the rapid flight across unknown parts of the cordillera, -and the attempts first to stop and then to destroy the -plants at Islay: it was a source of gratification to look back -upon all this, and then to see the great majority of the plants -budding and looking healthy in the Wardian cases.</p> - -<p>The climate at Islay, during the time that the plants -remained there, was as follows, from the 1st to the 24th -of June:—</p> - - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mean temperature</td><td class="tdl">69°</td><td class="tdl">Fahr.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mean minimum at night</td><td class="tdl">60</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Highest temperature observed</td><td class="tdl">73</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Lowest</td><td class="tdl">58</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Entire range</td><td class="tdl">15</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p>The temperature is almost exactly the same as that of the -Tambopata forests in May; but the forests were always exceedingly -moist, while Islay is intensely dry. This, however, was -unimportant to the plants in their cases.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII.</h2> - -<p class="c">PRESENT CONDITION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS OF PERU.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="hang smallish">Population—Civil wars—Government—Constitution—General Castilla and -his ministers—Dr. Vigil—Mariano Paz Soldan—Valleys on the coast—Cotton, -wool, and specie—The Amazons—Guano—Finances—Literature—Future -prospects.</p></blockquote> - - -<p><span class="smcap">After</span> a sojourn of a few days at Lima we took a final -farewell of the land of the Incas, on June 29th, 1860. As -we steamed along the coast, in sight of the emerald-green -valleys, surrounded by trackless wastes of sand, and of the -glorious cordilleras which towered up behind them, a long -train of memories passed in array before us. In this land -alone, of all the nations of the earth, did the ideal of a -perfect patriarchal form of government become a reality. -Here, too, are the scenes of the most romantic episode in -modern history, comprised in the career of the Pizarros. -The sufferings of the gentle Indians excited the indignation -of the Elizabethan chivalry; the fabulous riches extracted -from the mines of Peru attracted the adventurous spirit of -the buccaneers of a baser age; and the brave struggle for -independence led more than one gallant Englishman to shed -his blood in the cause of Peruvian liberty.<a name="FNanchor_351_351" id="FNanchor_351_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> What is now -the state of this famous land, and what prospect is there of -the glowing hopes expressed in Mr. Canning's well-known -speech ever being fulfilled, are questions which cannot fail -to arouse some passing interest.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span></p> - -<p>In giving an account of the present condition and future -prospects of Peru, the invariable kindness and frank hospitality -of its inhabitants impose an obligation to speak with -as much leniency and forbearance as the interests of truth -will admit. The South American Republics are peopled by -races of mixed origin, who are doubtless inferior to Europeans, -both mentally and physically; and the unsettled -condition of those countries, which inevitably succeeded the -struggles for an independence for which the people were -unprepared, has continued longer than might justly have -been expected. But it appears to be a generally received -idea in England, originating from the accounts of travellers -unacquainted with the people, and ignorant of -their language, that the South Americans are a mongrel -degraded race, incapable of improvement, and hopelessly -degenerate.<a name="FNanchor_352_352" id="FNanchor_352_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> So far as my experience extends, and after -a careful consideration of the subject, I can see no grounds -for resigning the hope that a brighter future is yet in store -for the land of the Incas.</p> - -<p>It is true that, after a casual and superficial glance at -the state of affairs in South America since the expulsion -of the Spaniards, the prospect appears sufficiently gloomy. -But a more intimate acquaintance with the subject, and -especially a knowledge of the tone of thought amongst the -younger men, as expressed in conversation and in their -writings, would show that, under the surface, noble aspirations -and steady enlightened views prevail, which must eventually -yield fruit, and thus justify our hopes for the future. When -independence was established in South America, there were -two principal causes which led to the civil wars which -ensued; namely, the question between a federal or a cen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span>tralized -form of government, and the disputes respecting -boundaries. The power attained during the revolution by -the armies, and the selfish ambition, treason, and corruption -of public men, aggravated these sources of evil to a melancholy -extent. But other countries, far greater and nobler -than these poor struggling republics, have had to pass -through as long and as degrading a crisis in their history. -Englishmen must remember the thirty years comprising the -reigns of the two last Stuarts with quite as much shame as -the great-grandchildren of the present Peruvians will experience -when they learn the history of their country for the -first forty years after its independence. It is recorded that -in a British House of Commons there was but one Andrew -Marvel. To my personal knowledge there are now several -Andrew Marvels in Chile and Peru. These young and inexperienced -countries have had to pass through a fierce ordeal, -and, truth to say, they have played their part but indifferently -as yet. They indeed require forbearance, but let us not -turn from them with disdain and contempt, in the pride of -our present grandeur and prosperity. Were treason and -corruption and base selfish faction never rife in England's -court and parliament?</p> - -<p>The fatal mistake of several of the old Spanish colonies -was in establishing a federal system of government, in -imitation of the United States. This was the case in Mexico, -Central America, New Granada, and the Argentine Confederation. -No system can possibly be more entirely unsuited -to a thinly-peopled mountainous region, without roads, and -unprovided with a sufficient number of capable educated men -in the distant provinces to undertake the local government. -Power necessarily falls into the hands of any cunning -adventurer, every little state becomes a focus for revolution, -and an endless succession of civil wars are the result. Such, -in fact, has been the fate of those republics where federation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> -has been established. Pernicious as centralization always is -when carried too far in old and densely-peopled countries, -it is an absolute necessity in young states, with a small -population thinly scattered over a vast extent of country. -The distant inaccessible districts do not possess the materials -for self-government within themselves, and necessarily depend -for their prosperity and advancement on the capital.</p> - -<p>Peru has only once been subjected to the federal experiment, -and she has not suffered so much from internal -dissensions as the unfortunate countries above mentioned. -She holds a central position amongst the South American republics, -not so cruelly torn by anarchy as Mexico on the one -hand, and not enjoying so good and settled a government as -Chile on the other. Her people too are perhaps inferior in -capacity and mental endowments to the Chilians and the -natives of New Granada, but infinitely superior to those of -Central America and Mexico. She may, therefore, be taken -as an average example of these half Spanish, half Indian -states; and as such I will proceed to give some account of -her people, her government, and her material resources.</p> - -<p>The population of Peru, by the latest accounts, was 1,880,000 -souls: the whole of the labouring classes in the interior being -pure Indians; the artizans and shopkeeping classes in the -towns partly Indians and partly half-castes or mestizos; the -lower orders on the coast being negros, or zambos, a caste -between negros and Indians, with some imported Chinese; -and the upper classes being chiefly of Spanish descent with a -slight dash of Indian blood, many nearly or quite half-castes, -not a few pure Indian, and an exceedingly small proportion -of pure Spanish descent.<a name="FNanchor_353_353" id="FNanchor_353_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_353_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> The men of Indian extraction -display perhaps more energy and equal ability with their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> -fellow-countrymen of pure Spanish origin; and many Indians -are wealthy enterprising men, while others have held the -highest offices in the state. The Peruvians are intelligent -and quick of apprehension, exceedingly hospitable and kind-hearted, -and remarkably humane and forgiving, as a rule, -in the conduct of their civil wars; but they are apt to be -fickle and volatile, incapable of any long-sustained effort, and -inclined to indolence. Corruption, bribery, treason, and pusillanimity -are but too common; but may not these be the -vices engendered by civil strife and periods of anarchy, rather -than the normal characteristics of the people? With the -exception of the negro races on the coast, there are few -people among whom crime is more uncommon.</p> - -<p>The causes of the civil and foreign wars which have retarded -the progress of Peru since her independence may be explained -in a very few sentences.</p> - -<p>The first of these has arisen from disputes with her neighbours -respecting boundaries. On her southern frontier the -ambitious policy of Bolivar created a small republic, from no -reason or motive that was apparent, beyond the childish vanity -of having a country called after his name. This country was -to all intents and purposes a part of Peru. Her people, her -languages, her traditions and feelings were the same, and, -until the latter part of the last century, she had formed a part -of the Peruvian viceroyalty. No good end was attained by this -division; while disputes respecting a doubtful unsurveyed -boundary, jealousies and misunderstandings arising from all -imported goods from Europe having to be landed at the -Peruvian port of Arica, and conveyed to Bolivia across Peruvian -territory, has created a hostile feeling, embittered year -by year, between people who should have lived as brothers -under a single government. On her northern frontier Peru -has the little republic of Ecuador, until 1830 a portion of -Colombia; which possesses the only good port, with the exception -of Callao, on the western coast of South America,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> -that of Guayaquil. This port has always been coveted by -Peru; and the question of the frontier was further confused -by the civil jurisdiction in Peru and Quito, during Spanish -times, having been divided by one line, and the ecclesiastical -by another. The generally recognised rule for deciding the -frontiers between the South American Republics is the <i>uti -possidetis</i>, as regards the former colonial jurisdictions, at the -time of the war of independence.</p> - -<p>These frontier disputes, carried on with feelings embittered -by former jealousies, led to a war between Colombia and -Peru in 1828,<a name="FNanchor_354_354" id="FNanchor_354_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_354_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a> in which the latter republic was worsted; and -a campaign, ending in a treaty, between Peru and Bolivia at -the same time.</p> - -<p>The second and more disastrous cause for civil dissensions -was the question between a federal and a centralized form -of republican government. Peru enjoyed a period of peace -between the war with Colombia in 1828 and the year 1834; but -between the latter period and the year 1844 the unfortunate -country was subject to a constant series of civil wars and insurrections. -The ten years between 1834 and 1844 was Peru's -most miserable time. Her public men were corrupt, pusillanimous, -and selfishly ambitious; she was given up to be torn and -distracted by wretched military adventurers; and the marches -of armies, with their system of forced recruiting, banished all -attempts at advancement or improvement from the country. -Yet even during this dark interval there was a space of two -years, when General Santa Cruz established his dream of a -federal republic under the name of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, -during which the land enjoyed peace and some signs -of revived prosperity. The able and vigorous administration -of Santa Cruz, whose mother was an Indian chieftainess, was -the one bright spot in this dreary waste of anarchy.</p> - -<p>For the following ten years Peru enjoyed a period of peace,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> -under the rule of General Don Ramon Castilla, an old Indian -of Tarapaca, for the first six years, and afterwards of General -Echenique. During this period the country advanced -rapidly in material prosperity, but in 1854 it was again convulsed -by a revolution, caused by the general discontent of -the people at the gross malversations and unblushing robbery -of Echenique's Government. Castilla placed himself at the -head of this movement, and, with the aid of a large army, -has retained his power up to the present day. The insurrection -at Arequipa, and mutiny in the fleet, in 1857-58, were -purely local, and did not affect the general tranquillity of the -country.</p> - -<p>Towards the close of Peru's ten years of convulsion, a constitution -was adopted, establishing a strictly centralising form -of government, in 1839, in which immense power was placed -in the hands of the executive. But during the ten years of -peace which followed the election of Castilla in 1844, men's -minds were strongly influenced by European travel and by -more extended reading, extreme liberal views were very -generally adopted, and the old constitution was felt to be out -of date. In 1856, therefore, a new constitution was promulgated -by a national assembly summoned for the purpose by -General Castilla, in which abstract ideas of what is just and -right were unhesitatingly and heedlessly adopted; and a -strong tendency to federalism and local self-government was -displayed.</p> - -<p>By a stroke of the pen the capitation-tax paid by the Indians, -the principal source of revenue in ordinary times, the slavery -of negros on the coast, and all capital punishments were entirely -abolished. There would have been some nobleness in -the abolition of slavery, and the grant of 1,780,000 dollars -as compensation, as well as a display of liberal sentiment, if -it had in any way increased the burdens of the people, but -this was not the case. For the same reason the discontinuance -of the tribute paid by the Indians was a mere act<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> -of recklessness. In this constitution there were two legislative -chambers, a Senate and a House of Representatives; but -half the representatives were chosen by lot to form a Senate, -so that one chamber was a mere counterpart of the other. -The most remarkable clauses, however, were those in which -measures leading to the federal form of government, a plagiarism -of the disastrous system of the United States, were -adopted. Peru continued to be divided into Departments -governed by Prefects appointed by the President; but it was -now enacted that in the capital of each Department there -should be a sort of state legislature called a <i>Junta Departmental</i>, -the members being elected by the people, and empowered -to deliberate and legislate for the good of the -Department. This measure was but a commencement of that -fatal system which had convulsed some of the other republics; -and its tendency was so apparent that Castilla was accused of -intending to divide Peru into a dozen petty states, and to rule -as a Dictator, by fomenting dissensions among them.<a name="FNanchor_355_355" id="FNanchor_355_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_355_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a> A -wiser and more useful measure was the establishment of what -are called <i>Juntas Municipales</i> in the towns and unions of -villages, composed of the principal residents, who are intrusted -with the supervision and promotion of all local -interests and improvements.</p> - -<p>In November 1860 this constitution was reformed, improvements -were introduced, and some of its more absurd and -injurious provisions were repealed. Capital punishment for -the crime of murder was again enacted. The Congress was -to meet every two years on the 28th of July; a third of their -number to be renewed every two years; and, during the -recess, a permanent committee of the Congress, consisting -of seven senators and eight deputies, to be elected at the end -of each session, was to watch the execution of acts passed -by the Congress, and to exercise its functions. A great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> -improvement was also adopted in the constitution of the -Senate. The members of that body are to be elected by the -Departments, each one electing a certain number according to -the number of its provinces, and the qualification of a senator -is raised to 1000 dollars a-year. Thus there is now an intelligible -difference between the two chambers, and, in the -formation of the Senate, one of the few good points of the -constitution of the United States has been wisely adopted. -The executive power is in the hands of a President and two -Vice-Presidents elected for four years, and a council of -ministers. Finally the mischievous <i>Juntas Departmentales</i>, -which I believe had never been allowed to meet, were -abolished, while the municipal institutions of the constitution -of 1856, which could only be productive of good, remained -in full force.</p> - -<p>Such is the present form of government in Peru, perhaps -as good a one as the country is fit for, and capable, in firm -and honest hands, of meeting all the present requirements of -the people; but it is of more importance to know in whose -hands the government of the country is placed, and what -manner of men are intrusted with the destinies of a country -so rich in memories of the past, as well as in material resources; -a young republic still bleeding at every pore from a -series of civil wars, yet with a growing desire to struggle up, -through shame and misfortune, to a respectable place among -the nations. I will give a few hasty sketches of the men -who formed the executive power during my stay at Lima in -1860.</p> - -<p>General Ramon Castilla, the President, is a native of Tarapaca -in the extreme south of Peru, and must now be close -upon seventy years of age. He is the son of Pedro Castilla, -who worked the refuse silver-ores of the mines of El Carmen,<a name="FNanchor_356_356" id="FNanchor_356_356"></a><a href="#Footnote_356_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> -and young Ramon acted as his father's <i>leñatero</i>, or woodcutter. -He, afterwards, entered the Spanish army, and on -the arrival of the patriot forces from Chile in 1821 he joined -their cause, and attained the rank of colonel. After the independence -he was appointed Sub-prefect of his native province -of Tarapaca, in 1826; and he was Prefect of Puno -from 1834 to 1836; but he was mixed up in all the civil -wars, and, after a victory gained by him in 1844, he was -elected President of the Republic. Castilla is a small spare -man, with an iron constitution, and great powers of endurance. -His bright fierce little eyes, with overhanging brows, stiff -bristly moustaches, and projecting under lip, give his countenance -a truculent expression, which is not improved by a -leathery dried-up complexion; but he has a look of resolution -and an air of command which is almost dignified. This -remarkable man is an excellent soldier, brave as a lion, -prompt in action, and beloved by his men. Uneducated and -illiterate, his political successes and management of parties -almost amount to genius, while his victories have never been -stained by cruelty, and his antagonists have seldom been -proscribed for any length of time, generally pardoned at once, -and often raised by him to posts of importance in the service -of the Republic. His firm and vigorous grasp of power has -secured for Peru long periods of peace; faction has been -kept under, while an incalculable blessing has thus been -conferred on the country; and probably no other man had -the ability and the nerve to effect this. But Castilla, -though a necessity, has been a necessary evil. His want -of education renders him useless as a statesman. He has -generally shown himself indifferent to all public works, and -to measures for the moral or material benefit of the country,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> -while he insists on keeping up an enormous standing army, -and on spending untold sums on a costly navy, thus squandering -the public money, and continuing a pernicious and -ruinous system. The brave old man has been a necessity. -He alone has been able to keep the peace, and give time -to the Peruvians slowly to develop the resources of their -country; and through this period of tranquillity, when he -shall have passed away, interests and influences may have -insensibly risen up, which will prevent the recurrence of such -periods of anarchy as preceded Castilla's first accession to -power.</p> - -<p>Juan Manuel del Mar, the first Vice-President, a tall, -sallow, earnest-looking man, is a native of Cuzco, the old -capital of the Incas. He has held office for some years, and -has more than once been in supreme command during the -absence of Castilla. This statesman was called to the bar -in 1830, and has led an active public life as deputy to -Congress, judge, or minister ever since. He is thoroughly -honest, possessed of enlightened views and some ability, -very popular, and universally and deservedly respected.</p> - -<p>The second Vice-President, elected under the provisions of -the reformed constitution of 1860, is General Pezet, the son -of a physician of French extraction, who died in Callao Castle -when it was held by the Spaniards, and stood a long siege. -General Pezet, a native of Lima, joined the patriot ranks -when they landed in Peru in 1821, then only eleven years -of age; and was at once sent on active service. Thus he -was present at the battles of Junin and Ayacucho, which -destroyed the Spanish power, and was mixed up in the subsequent -civil wars.</p> - -<p>Castilla's ministers, at the time of my visit, were far from -representing the most able and distinguished class of Peruvians. -Colonel Salcedo, the Minister of Finance, a native of -Lampa, was born in 1801. He was one of the few members<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> -of Congress who, in 1824, firmly opposed and defeated the -ambitious designs of Bolivar; and he has since almost -constantly served as sub-prefect or prefect, or as a member -of Congress. Another minister was Don José Fabio Melgar, -a brother of the famous poet of Arequipa, whose melancholy -death I have already mentioned. He has served as chief -clerk in one or other of the public offices since 1833, is an -amiable man, well read, and intelligent, but with only -moderate abilities, and no originality or force of will. The -minister of Foreign Affairs was Don Miguel del Carpio, a -veteran statesman, born in 1795, and who, having joined the -patriots and been taken prisoner by the Spaniards in 1822, -was long kept in prison, and heavily chained. Since the -independence he has held important offices both in Bolivia -and Peru.</p> - -<p>But old Castilla requires obedient clerks around him, not -independent ministers, and the more able and active-minded -Peruvians are not to be found filling high political posts. -The best specimens of the natives of Peru are either to be -met with leading unobtrusive literary lives, and preparing -for better times; or on their estates actively and energetically -developing the resources of their country. Such men are -Mariategui, Felipe Pardo, Vigil, Paz Soldan, and Elias, -whose patriotism and great ability would do honour to any -country.</p> - -<p>Dr. Vigil is one of Peru's most distinguished sons. In -early life he was an active and eloquent member of Congress; -subsequently he was engaged on one of the most learned, as -well as the most liberal works that a Roman Catholic clergyman -has ever ventured to publish on the Papacy; and now -in his old age he continues to advocate, in his forcible -writings, every cause and every measure which is intended -to advance religious freedom, or the moral well-being of his -countrymen. Dr. Vigil fears that liberal views on religious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> -subjects, such as toleration, the marriage of the clergy, and -independence of Rome, cannot be expected to make any -rapid progress at present, but he is confident that a future -generation will appreciate his works, and introduce the -measures which he advocates. One of his strongest convictions -is that priests will never lead virtuous lives until they -are humanized by family ties: and that, while now they live -for the Church—that is for themselves and their order—they -ought to live for their flocks.</p> - -<p>While the learned and amiable Vigil represents the literary -men of Peru, Mariano Paz Soldan is one of the best specimens -of the men of action. His benevolent mind was shocked -at the wretched condition of the prisons in Peru, and he has -displayed an amount of energy and ability in endeavouring -to remedy this evil which goes far to vindicate the Peruvian -character from the charge of indolence and procrastination. -In 1853 Paz Soldan published a very able and detailed -report on the prisons of the United States; and in 1856, by -dint of unceasing representations, he obtained the necessary -grant from the Government for the erection of a penitentiary -on the most improved principle at Lima. The work was at -once commenced with vigour. The foundations, basement, -and first story are built of a very hard porphyritic stone, -brought from the hills about two miles from Lima, where a -quarry was opened for the first time by Paz Soldan, with a -tramroad direct to the works. The entrance is by a flight -of four steps, cut out of a single block of this porphyritic -rock. The second story is of brick, and all the iron for -gratings, doors, bolts, and roofing came out ready made from -England. The wards for men, women, and children are -separated, each with its large well-ventilated workroom, -exercising yard, and cells; and everything is arranged on -the best English and American models. It will hold 52 -women, 52 boys, and 208 men. This great public work will be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> -a credit to the country, and a lasting monument of the energy -and perseverance of its projector, who trusts that it will be -but the first of a series of such penitentiaries in different parts -of the country. Don Mariano Paz Soldan is also engaged in -organizing a general topographical survey of Peru.</p> - -<p>There are many landed proprietors and others, of Paz -Soldan's stamp, who have availed themselves of the period -of tranquillity since 1844, interrupted only by one year of -revolution, to improve their estates, and thus add to their -country's wealth, especially in the valleys on the coast. The -long slip of land between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean -enjoys an equable climate, rain and heavy storms are nearly -unknown, and refreshing dews descend during the night. The -greater part of this region consists of sandy desert, traversed -by ridges of rocky barren hills; but wherever a stream, -descending from the Andes, is of sufficient volume to reach -the ocean, a rich and fertile valley borders its banks. These -valleys, of greater or less extent, and at various intervals, -break the monotony of the desert from the bay of Guayaquil -to the river Loa, which separates Peru from Bolivia. They -are admirably adapted for the cultivation of cotton, the vine, -the olive, and sugar-cane.</p> - -<p>Immense wealth is already derived from these valleys, and, -with judicious outlay for obtaining more regular supplies of -water, their capabilities might be multiplied indefinitely. The -valley of Cañete, south of Lima, which is in the hands of six -enterprising proprietors, is covered with sugar-cane plantations. -In 1860 it yielded sugar worth 1,000,000 dollars, all raised by -Chinese and free negro labour. Further south, the valleys of -Pisco and Yca, thanks chiefly to Don Domingo Elias and his -sons, yield 70,000 <i>botijas</i> of a spirit called pisco, 10,000 barrels -of excellent wine, 800,000 lbs. of cotton, and 40,000 lbs. of -cochineal. Still further south there are many valleys which -render their owners wealthy by the produce of cane-fields and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> -vineyards, in the departments of Moquegua and Arequipa; -and in the valley of Tambo, near Arequipa, there are 5000 -olive-trees and seven mills.</p> - -<p>Now that the question of cotton-supply is attracting so large -a share of attention in England, it is gratifying to be able to -state that landed proprietors on the coast of Peru have seriously -turned their attention to the subject, and that in 1860 the -cultivation of cotton was becoming a favourite speculation. -The soil and climate of these coast valleys are admirably -adapted for its growth, and, though the quantity that could -be drawn from them would be insignificant when compared -with the vast demands of Manchester, yet the quality is good, -and they will supply one out of many sources which may -hereafter render us partially independent of the Confederate -States. The estates of Don Domingo Elias and others, in the -valleys of Yca, Palpa, San Xavier, and Nasca, yield 800,000 -lbs. of excellent cotton. I visited these cotton estates in -1853, and found that the cotton was carefully picked, and -packed by screw presses. A great deal of cotton is also -shipped from the port of Payta, which sells in Liverpool at -8<i>d.</i> to 9½<i>d.</i> the lb.; and in the valley of Lambayeque,<a name="FNanchor_357_357" id="FNanchor_357_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> between -Payta and Lima, cotton cultivation has lately been -undertaken on a very large scale. In 1860, in the four -districts of Talambo, Cayalti, Collus, and Calupe, there were -already 600,000 plants in the ground, and in neighbouring -estates extensive tracts of land had been prepared for cotton -by the house of Zaracondegui and others. At Talambo, in -the valley of Pacasmayo, there are many Biscayan families, -numbering in all 176 souls, who are exclusively engaged in -cotton cultivation; and the yield in that district in the first -year was 800,000 lbs. In the province of Chiclayo 700,000 -plants were put in the ground during 1860, and land was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> -being prepared for the growth of cotton crops to a much -larger extent. These cotton-growing provinces of Lambayeque, -Chiclayo, and Truxillo are fertile and well watered; -storms of rain are unknown, and they enjoy an equable -climate with a mean temperature between 70° and 84° Fahr. -It has been calculated that, after leaving a fifth of the -available land for crops to supply provisions for the inhabitants, -as many as 140,000 <i>fanegadas</i><a name="FNanchor_358_358" id="FNanchor_358_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a> might be brought under -cotton cultivation in these provinces alone. Allowing four -feet for each plant, and that each plant yields four pounds a -year, this extent of land would produce 580,000,000 lbs. of -cotton annually, worth twelve dollars the cwt. at the port of -shipment, or 69,600,000 dollars. Deducting 22,400,000 for -expenses, this would leave 47,200,000 dollars profit. But -these provinces only contain a small fraction of the fertile -coast valleys of Peru; and it is clear that, if the speculations -of 1860 yield a reasonably profitable return, the cultivation -of cotton may, in all probability, be undertaken over a vast -area, and render Peru an important source of supply for -Manchester.<a name="FNanchor_359_359" id="FNanchor_359_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a></p> - -<p>The lofty table-lands of the cordillera of the Andes produce -sufficient maize, wheat, and sugar for home consumption; -but their chief exportable wealth is to be found in the vast -flocks of sheep and alpacas which find pasture on those -grassy uplands, and in the veins and washings of silver and -gold. About 400,000<i>l.</i> worth of wool is annually exported, -of which 5,017,100 lbs., valued at 287,339<i>l.</i>, were embarked -from the port of Islay in 1859, and 4,214,000 lbs. in 1860. -The export of specie amounted to about 200,000<i>l.</i> in 1859, of -which 34,705<i>l.</i> were exported from Islay, and 32,000<i>l.</i> from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> -Arica. But of this a portion is in coined money and <i>chafalonia</i>, -or old plate.</p> - -<p>Besides the raising of the various valuable products -suitable to the coast valleys and the <i>sierra</i>, the vast forests -to the eastward of the Andes, and the great fluvial highways -which flow through them to the Atlantic, offer an -inexhaustible field for Peruvian enterprise. The incredible -resources of this portion of Peru are only now beginning -to be fully appreciated, though ten, and even twenty -years ago, there were evident symptoms of the first early -pulsations of life and commerce on the mighty river Amazons -and its tributaries. Petty traders, the pioneers of -a stirring future, were then busy, each in his little traffic; -canoes laden with hammocks, hats, wax, sarsaparilla, copaiba, -and other products of the forest, found their way to Para at -the mouth of the Amazons, and returned with European -manufactured goods.</p> - -<p>But of late years an immense stride in advance has been -taken; and in 1857 a Brazilian company was working eight -steamers on the Amazons and its tributaries, conveying passengers, -and bearing up and down a ceaseless ebb and flow of -commerce. Measures were adopted in 1853 to connect the -Brazilian line of steamers with a Peruvian line navigating the -upper waters, and two small steam-vessels were sent out from -New York for the purpose, called the "Tirado" and "Huallaga." -The revolution of 1854 temporarily put a stop to these -efforts, and the two steamers were left to rot at Nauta, 2300 -miles up the Amazons. Latterly, however, steps have again -been taken to supply the Peruvian tributaries of the Amazons -with steam navigation, and thereby to encourage settlement, -attract commerce, and thus develop the incalculable wealth -of Peru's Amazonian provinces.</p> - -<p>In October 1858 a fluvial convention was signed between -Brazil and Peru, establishing the free navigation of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> -Amazons, under certain restrictions; and in February 1860 the -Brazilian steamer 'Tabatinga' arrived at Laguna on the Peruvian -river Huallaga, upwards of 3000 miles from the mouth -of the Amazons. Meanwhile the Peruvian Government have -ordered steamers to be constructed to work on the upper -waters of the Amazons, in conjunction with the Brazilian line; -and roads are to be made connecting inland towns with the -nearest navigable points on the tributaries of the Amazons. -In June 1860 a party of sixty men left the town of Huanuco -to explore the wide forest-covered plains known as the "Pampas -del Sacramento" to the eastward; and in July a road had -already been commenced, which is to connect Huanuco with -a navigable part of the river Ucayali, a distance of 150 miles. -A small colony of Germans has been established on the river -Pozuzu. Other measures of a similar nature are in contemplation, -and it is impossible to estimate the rapid and certain -increase of wealth which will accrue to this hitherto neglected -region, when steam communication has thus brought one of -the richest regions in the world within reach of a market. -Para, at the mouth of the Amazons, already exceeds, in the -number of its staple commodities of export, all indigenous to -the regions of which it forms the outlet, almost any other port -on the surface of the globe. My space will not allow me to -dilate further on this most interesting subject; but it is assuredly -one which well deserves the attention of commercial -men in England.</p> - -<p>The most remarkable source of Peruvian wealth, and one -which has caused effects on her financial system which are -perhaps unique in the history of any country, is the guano -on the desert islands off the coast. When the South American -Republics were thrown open to the trade of Europe, the -value of guano as a manure was soon discovered, the demand -rapidly increased, and the Peruvian Government were not -long in availing themselves of this, as they believed, inex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>haustible -source of riches.<a name="FNanchor_360_360" id="FNanchor_360_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a> The three Chincha islands, in the -bay of Pisco, contained a total of 12,376,100 tons of guano in -1853, and, as since that time 2,837,365 tons have been exported -up to 1860, there were 9,538,735 tons remaining in -1861.<a name="FNanchor_361_361" id="FNanchor_361_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_361_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a> In 1860 as many as 433 vessels, with a tonnage of -348,554, loaded at the Chincha islands; so that, at the above -rate, the guano will last for twenty-three years, until 1883. -The guano monopoly brings in a revenue to the State of -14,850,000 dollars.</p> - -<p>In Peru even the arid deserts are the sources of enormous -wealth; for while the desolate Chinchas pour millions into -the treasury, the pampa of Tamarugal, in the Tarapaca province, -contributes its nitrate of soda (<i>salitre</i>) and borate of -lime to swell the riches of this favoured land. It is calculated -that the nitrate of soda grounds in this district cover fifty -square leagues, and, allowing one hundred pounds weight of -nitrate for each square yard, this will give 63,000,000 tons, -which, at the present rate of consumption, will last for 1393<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> -years.<a name="FNanchor_362_362" id="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a> In 1860 the export of nitrate of soda from the port -of Iquique amounted to 1,370,248 cwts., and a good deal -of borax is also exported, though its shipment is prohibited by -the Government.</p> - -<p>The extensive use of mineral substances, such as guano and -nitrate of soda, as a top-dressing for corn-crops, is a discovery -of modern times, and these manures were not generally appreciated -in England until a period between 1824 and 1829. -I believe that farmers consider guano and nitrate of soda to -be about equally efficacious as a top-dressing for corn; and -it is now a matter of pressing interest to the agricultural -community in England to reduce their prices, which are as -high as twelve and sixteen pounds a ton respectively. But, -with this view, a careful search for deposits of guano in other -parts of the world has only led to the discovery of those at -Ichaboe, on the coast of Africa, in 1843, and of those on the -Arabian Kooria Mooria islands more recently. The deposit -at Ichaboe was all carried off by the end of 1845, while that -on Jibleea, one of the Kooria Moorias, is still being worked; -but it is very inferior to the guano of the Peruvian islands.<a name="FNanchor_363_363" id="FNanchor_363_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span></p> - -<p>On the whole these attempts to find other deposits of -guano, which would tend to bring down the price in England, -have failed of success; and the Peruvians may consider -themselves secure of their strange source of revenue for some -twenty years to come. And a stranger means of defraying -nearly the whole expenditure of the state was never before -heard of. In 1859 the disbursements amounted to 20,387,756 -dollars, of which sum three-fourths were raised by shovelling -heaps of dirt off a desolate island on the coast!</p> - -<p>A prudent Government would have looked upon the guano -monopoly as an extraordinary item in the receipts, and would -have reserved it for paying off the internal and foreign debt, -for public works, and improvements; but the heads of the -Peruvians appear to have been turned by this wonderful increase -of their revenue, and they have squandered it with -ruinous and dishonest recklessness. It is true that the interest -of the foreign debt has been paid,<a name="FNanchor_364_364" id="FNanchor_364_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a> but otherwise the large -receipts have either been embezzled, as in General Echenique's -time, or spent on immense and unnecessary armaments, and -in jobbing salaries and pensions. Thousands of families now -live on the public money, and, when the guano receipts fail, -the ruin and suffering will be severe and widely spread. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> -the strength of the guano monopoly almost all the taxes have -been abolished, the tribute of the Indians amongst them, -and the revenue is composed mainly of three items—guano, -customs, and stamps. A biennial budget, containing the receipts -and disbursements, is laid before Congress every session. -I have these budgets before me for several years back; -but that for 1859 will suffice to show the extraordinary nature -of the revenue, and the still more extraordinary way in which -it is spent:—</p> - - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc"><i>Receipts.</i></td><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc bl"><i>Disbursements.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc"></td><td class="tdc">Dollars.</td><td class="tdc bl"></td><td class="tdc">Dollars.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Guano</td><td class="tdr">15,875,352</td><td class="tdl bl">Pay, &c., to members of Congress</td><td class="tdr">211,084</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Customs, &c.</td><td class="tdr">5,079,439</td><td class="tdl bl">Army and navy, with pensions</td><td class="tdr">9,746,432</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Surplus from 1858</td><td class="tdr">938,389</td><td class="tdl bl">Civil expenses, with pensions</td><td class="tdr">2,129,904</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">Payments to ecclesiastics</td><td class="tdr">63,296</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">Public works</td><td class="tdr">718,124</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">Education and charitable institutions</td><td class="tdr">332,471</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">Police</td><td class="tdr">92,807</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">Compensation for slaves and internal debt</td><td class="tdr">1,576,004</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">Redemption of Bonds</td><td class="tdr">3,218,700</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">Miscellaneous</td><td class="tdr">107,146</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">Interest of all kinds</td><td class="tdr">2,191,777</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl"></td><td class="tdr">20,387,745</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl bl">Surplus</td><td class="tdr">1,505,435</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr bt bb">21,893,180</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr bt bb">21,893,180</td></tr> -</table></div> - - - -<p>The foreign debt is 24,205,400 dollars, and the internal -debt and compensation for slaves amount to a still larger sum. -But the great drag upon the public treasury is the enormous -army of 15,000 men for a population under two million, with -upwards of 2000 officers, those who are unattached being still -retained on full pay. This will give some idea of the number -of families who are living in luxury and idleness on the public -money, and of the distress that will follow the sudden stoppage -of their incomes, which is inevitable when the guano -comes to an end. It will be an embarrassing and difficult -question for some future Government to decide upon the -proper measures for the disposal of an unwieldy army and a -crowd of hungry beggared officers. The best suggestion on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> -this subject has come from the late General Miller, who, when -governing Cuzco in 1836, proposed to establish military -colonies in the forests to the eastward of the Andes, and thus -convert a mischievous and dangerous tool for treason and faction -into a means of enriching the country.</p> - -<p>The administration of justice in Peru, though the laws are -excellent, and have been codified and ably edited, is so corrupt -that it is better to pass over the subject with a hope -that things may be better in a future generation; and the -police administration, especially round Lima, is disgraceful.</p> - -<p>Much indeed will be required, and much I trust is to be -hoped, from the rising generation of young men who are now -about to enter upon public life. Many of them have been -educated in Europe, a large proportion are well-informed, -polished by travel and extensive reading, and ardently desirous -of distinguishing themselves in the service of the State. -In literature they have already displayed considerable industry -and ability. The 'Revista de Lima,' a bi-monthly -periodical, contains archæological, biographical, historical, and -financial articles and reviews, generally very ably written, in -an enlightened and liberal spirit, and by men who evidently -take an earnest view of life. The contributors, among whom -are the Señores Lavalle, Ulloa, Pardo, Flores, Masias, and -the painter Laso, are all young men with a career before -them. It is a good sign, too, that effective steps have been -taken to edit and reprint historical materials which have long -remained in manuscript, or in scarce old editions. Thus Don -Manuel A. Fuentes has recently brought out six most interesting -volumes containing reports of the administrations -of several of the Spanish viceroys of Peru,<a name="FNanchor_365_365" id="FNanchor_365_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a> and a new edition -of the 'Mercurio Peruano.' His 'Estadistica de Lima' is also -a work which displays considerable merit: and Don Sebastian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> -Lorente's well-known learning, and habit of careful research, -promise that his history of Peru, now on the point of being -published in Paris, will be a work of great value.</p> - -<p>This hasty glance at the present state of Peru, as regards -its government, material resources, and literature, will, I -trust, have shown that the people of these South American -states are not altogether the hopelessly degraded race that -they are often represented; and that there are grounds for -believing that there is yet a happier future in store for them. -For, be it remembered, that Peru is far from being the best -specimen of these republics, and that the Chilians have displayed -tenfold the ability, both in governing, in commercial -and agricultural pursuits, and in literature. I think there can -be no doubt that a hasty conclusion respecting the South -American races, founded on their history since the independence, -is likely to be erroneous and unfair; and that, under -more favourable circumstances, they are in every way capable -of better things.</p> - -<p>I cannot better conclude this chapter than by quoting the -words of that noble old warrior General Miller, written only -a few months before his death, in November 1861. This -most excellent of men fought all the battles of independence -from 1817 to 1824; he was covered with wounds and riddled -with bullets<a name="FNanchor_366_366" id="FNanchor_366_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_366_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a> while striving for South American freedom; he -had watched with sorrowful attention the subsequent anarchy -and civil wars, and his words carry great weight with them. -It will be seen that he does not despond, but looks forward -with hope to the future.</p> - -<p>He says, "South America, with good reason, must feel for -ever proud of Camilo Henriquez, Vigil, and Mariategui, -Olmedo and Felipe Pardo, San Martin and O'Higgins, and -many others of her illustrious sons. And what may not be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> -expected from the rising and future generations, now that -there are such universities as that of Santiago de Chile, and -such men as Bello to direct and foster them! Who can be -blind to the genius and great natural abilities of the Peruvian -youth, now shooting forth, notwithstanding the great disadvantages -under which Peru at present labours, with regard to -the state of her colleges? With her immense resources, a -good government, and tranquillity, what may not be expected! -But every nation has its beginning, an inevitable -and perhaps necessarily rough ordeal to undergo, and South -America must not expect to make a leap that no other -country has been able to do."</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/fig30.jpg"> -<img src="images/thumb3.jpg" alt="" /></a> -<p class="caption center"><span class="smallish">Map to illustrate</span> M<sup><span class="small">R</span></sup>. SPRUCE'S REPORTS<span class="smallish"> on the</span> "RED BARK" REGION OF ECUADOR. -</p> -</div> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="hang smallish">Mr. Spruce's expedition to procure plants and seeds of the "red bark" -or <i>C. succirubra</i>—Mr. Pritchett in the Huanuco region, and the -"grey barks"—Mr. Cross's proceedings at Loxa, and collection of seeds -of <i>C. Condaminea</i>.</p></blockquote> - - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> a previous chapter I have given an account of the -arrangements which I made for procuring the various species -of Chinchonæ in districts other than that of the Calisaya, -and it now remains for me to record the labours of those -whom I employed on this service, and the successful results -with which those labours were rewarded. And first, both in -importance and success, stands the expedition of Mr. Spruce, -to collect the seeds and plants of the "red-bark" tree or -<i>C. succirubra</i>, of whose services it would be impossible to -speak too highly. I may mention, at starting, that he -received my first letter, requesting him to undertake the -work, on July 2nd, 1859, and such was his zeal that on -the 22nd of the same month he was on his way to the -chinchona forests, at his own expense, to ascertain the best -locality for collecting the plants and seeds.</p> - -<p>The species of chinchona, known as the "red-bark" tree, -yields a larger per-centage of febrifugal alkaloid than any -other, and must therefore be considered as the most important.<a name="FNanchor_367_367" id="FNanchor_367_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_367_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> -Its native forests are on the western slopes of the -famous mountain of Chimborazo, in the Republic of Ecuador, -and for a great many years it has not been found beyond -2° 36´ S. lat., but Mr. Spruce thinks it probable that in -former times the tree grew all along the roots of the Andes -of Cuenca and Loxa to the limits of the Peruvian desert<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> -in 5° S. To the north it scarcely passes the latitude of -1° S.; and these precious trees are thus confined within -a very narrow latitudinal zone.<a name="FNanchor_368_368" id="FNanchor_368_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_368_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a> Within the ascertained -limits of the true "red-bark" tree, it exists in all the valleys -of the Andes which debouch on the plain of Guayaquil; -but great havoc has been made amongst the trees of late -years by the bark-collectors. In the valleys of Alausi, -Pallatanga, and Chillanes (see map) all the large trees -have already been cut down. At the bases of the ridges -of Angas and San Antonio, the localities originally mentioned -by Pavon, and where "red-bark" trees once grew -in abundance, the same destructive system has been adopted; -and now the "red-bark" grounds are confined to the ravine -of the river Chasuan, and its tributaries, which rise on the -northern slopes of Chimborazo, and fall into the river of -Guayaquil.</p> - -<p>On the 22nd of July 1859 Mr. Spruce set out from the -pleasant town of Ambato, in the Quitenian Andes, where he -was then residing, and, passing through Alausi, arrived at the -banks of the river Chanchan, and established himself at a -place called Lucmas, which is conveniently near the "red-bark" -chinchona forests. Lucmas is a sugar-cane farm, -between 5000 and 6000 feet above the sea; there are forest-trees -in the valleys and on the hills, while the steep slopes -are often covered with scrub and grass. From Lucmas Mr. -Spruce went to the forests on the banks of the river Pumachaca, -which rises in the mountain of Asuay, and falls into -the Chanchan, at an elevation of 4000 feet. One circumstance, -among many, will give an idea of the difficulties -which he had to encounter. On reaching the Pumachaca -he found that the ford had been destroyed by the falling of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> -cliff, and that in its place there was a deep whirlpool; so, -with the driftwood along the banks, a bridge had to be made -where the river was narrowed between two rocks, by which -his party crossed with the baggage. Then, after a long -search, he found a place where the horses could swim across, -and, by rolling down masses of earth and stones, a way was -made for them to ascend on the other side. Once across, a -hut was made among vegetable-ivory palms, thatched with -the palm-fronds, and Mr. Spruce commenced the examination -of the forest.</p> - -<p>After a long search, during which he passed several felled -trunks of chinchona-trees, he at length came upon a root-shoot -about twenty feet high. It is very rare to find these -root-shoots, because the bark is stripped from the roots -as well as from the trunk. Mr. Spruce, from his observations -in the Pumachaca forest, came to the conclusion that the -"red-bark" trees grow best on stony declivities, where there -is, however, a good depth of humus, at an elevation of from -3000 to 5000 feet above the sea. The temperature was very -like that of a summer day in London, but with cold mists -towards evening, and from January to May unceasing rain. -He found the chinchona-trees, in this part of the country, -almost entirely extirpated, and, after a short stay at Lucmas, -he proceeded to examine the region of the "hill barks" or -<i>cascarillas serranas</i>, which is at an elevation of 8500 to 9000 -feet, on both sides of the river Chanchan. In the forest -of Llalla, at the foot of the mountain of Asuay, he found two -kinds called by the natives <i>cuchi-cara</i> (pig-skin) and <i>pata de -gallinazo</i>;<a name="FNanchor_369_369" id="FNanchor_369_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_369_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a> and on a stony hill-side there were twenty large -trees of the former, from 40 to 50 feet high.</p> - -<p>By this excursion in the summer of 1859 Mr. Spruce -ascertained the districts where he should not go to, a very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> -important point; and he finally determined to carry on his -collecting operations, in the season of 1860, at a place called -Limon, at the junction of a stream of that name with the -river Chasuan, which falls into the river of Ventanas at a -place called Aguacatal. (See map.) The forests are all -private property, and, after much negotiation with the owners, -Señor Cordovez of Ambato, and Dr. Neyra of Guaranda, an -agreement was made by which, on payment of 400 dollars, -Mr. Spruce was allowed to take as many seeds and plants as -he liked, on condition that he did not touch the bark.</p> - -<p>Mr. Spruce had made arrangements for Dr. Taylor of -Riobamba to proceed to Loxa, and collect seeds of the -<i>C. Condaminea</i> species; but a severe rheumatic and nervous -attack, almost amounting to paralysis, induced him to resign -the duty of collecting the "red bark" to Dr. Taylor, and it -was only at the last moment that he was strong enough to -undertake the journey in company with his friend. During -the whole time that Mr. Spruce was at work he was suffering -severely from illness; the benefit derived from the milder -climate of the forests was neutralized by the fogs and damp; -and, to use his own words, "although upheld by a determination -to execute to the best of my ability the task I had -undertaken, I was but too often in that state of prostration -when to lie down quietly and die would have seemed a -relief." Leaving the town of Ambato on the 11th of June, -Mr. Spruce and Dr. Taylor reached Guaranda on the 13th, -and continued their journey towards the forests on the 17th. -At a very little below 4000 feet above the sea they reached -the small farms at Limon. Their abode stood on a narrow -ridge sloping gradually to the river Chasuan. It was merely -a long low shed, two-thirds of which was occupied by the -rude machinery of a sugar-cane mill; the remaining third -had an upper story with a flooring of bamboo-planks, half of -it open at the sides, and the other half with a bamboo wall<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> -about six feet high, not coming up to the roof in any part of -it. This was their dormitory, and it was reached by a ladder, -merely a trunk of a tree with rude notches for steps. On -the ground-floor was the kitchen, with a wall of rough planks -of raft wood, not touching each other; so that the whole -fabric was abundantly ventilated, and only too often filled -with fog, causing coughs, aching limbs, and mouldy clothes.</p> - -<p>This was their head-quarters during the time that they -were collecting seeds and plants; and the severe hardships, -miserable lodging, and acute sufferings from illness must -increase our admiration for Mr. Spruce's zeal and resolution -in performing this great public service.</p> - -<p>Mr. Cross, the gardener whom I had engaged to assist Mr. -Spruce, conveyed the fifteen Wardian cases, which I had -previously sent to Guayaquil, up the river as far as Ventanas, -and reached Limon on the 27th of July.</p> - -<p>In the mean while Mr. Spruce had carefully examined the -chinchona forests, and visited all the bark-trees known to exist -within reach of Limon. He found a good crop of capsules -on many of them, which had already nearly reached their full -size on the finest trees; on others, however, there were only -very young capsules, and even a good many flowers, and not -one of the late-flowering panicles produced ripe capsules. -On the tree which bore most capsules they began to turn -mouldy, the mould being not fungi, but rudimentary lichens, -which, whilst it proved that the capsules were still alive and -growing, proved also that they were exposed to an atmosphere -almost constantly saturated with moisture.</p> - -<p>The <i>manchon</i> or clump of "red-bark" trees at Limon lies -nearly west from the peak of Chimborazo, and the river -Chasuan rises on the northern shoulder of that mountain. -The view from Limon takes in a vast extent of country, and -the whole is unbroken forest, save towards the source of the -Chasuan, where a lofty ridge rises above the region of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> -arborescent vegetation, and is crowned by a small breadth of -grassy <i>paramo</i>. The waters of the Chasuan run over a black -or dull blue, shining, and very compact trachyte, over which, -in the bottom of the valleys at Limon, there is a fine-grained -ferruginous sandstone of a deep brown colour, in thick strata. -The soil is a deep loamy alluvial deposit. The ridges on -which the "red-bark" trees grow all deviate a little from an -easterly and westerly direction, and the chinchonæ are far more -abundant on the northern than on the southern slopes. The -northern and eastern sides of the trees, too, had borne most -fruit, and scarcely a capsule ripened on their southern and -western sides. This is explained by the trees receiving most -sun from the east and north, the mornings being generally -clear and sunny in the summer, whilst the afternoons are -foggy, and the sun's declination is northerly. Mr. Spruce -also observed that the trees standing in open ground were -far healthier and more luxuriant than those growing in the -forest, where they are hemmed in and partially shaded by -other trees; and he concludes, from this circumstance, that, -though the "red-bark" tree may need shade whilst young -and tender, it really requires (like most trees) plenty of air, -light, and room wherein to develop its proportions.</p> - -<p>The lowest site of the "red-bark" tree at Limon is at an -elevation of 2450 feet above the sea, and its highest limit is -at an elevation of about 5000 feet. The trees nearest the -plain are generally the largest, but those higher up have -much thicker bark in proportion to their diameter.</p> - -<p>The havoc committed by the bark-collectors on these trees -within the last twenty years has been very great. The -entire quantity of "red bark" collected in 1859 did not reach -to 5000 lbs., and in 1860 no "red bark" at all was got out, -so that the trade is nearly extinct. In the valleys of the -Chasuan and Limon Mr. Spruce saw about 200 of these trees -standing, but only two or three were saplings which had not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> -been disturbed; all the rest grew from old stools, whose -circumference averaged from 4 to 5 feet. He was unable to -find a single young plant under the trees, although many of -the latter bore signs of having flowered in previous years; and -this was explained by the flowering trees invariably growing -in open places, where the ground was either weeded, or -trodden down by cattle.</p> - -<p>Mr. Spruce describes the <i>C. succirubra</i> or "red-bark" tree -as very handsome, and he declares that, in looking out over -the forest, he could never find any other tree at all comparable -to it for beauty. It is fifty feet high, branching from -about one-third of its height, with large, broadly ovate, deep -green, and shining leaves, mixed with decaying ones of a -blood-red colour, which give it a most striking appearance.</p> - -<p>The <i>Cascarilla magnifolia</i>, a very handsome tree, with a -fragrant white flower, grows abundantly with the "red bark," -and attains a height of 80 feet.</p> - -<p>After the arrival of Mr. Cross at Limon the work of collecting -commenced in earnest. A piece of ground was -fenced in, and Mr. Cross made a pit and prepared the soil to -receive cuttings, of which he put in above a thousand on -the 1st of August and following days; and he afterwards -went round to all the old stools and put in as many layers -from them as possible. "But," as Mr. Spruce most truly -observes, "only those who have attempted to do anything in -the forest, possessing scarcely any of the necessary appliances, -can have any idea of the difficulties, and Mr. Cross's -unremitting watchfulness alone enabled him to surmount -them."</p> - -<p>Towards the end of July, in a few sunny days, the fruit of -the "red-bark" trees made visible advances towards maturity; -and in the middle of August the capsules began to -burst at the base, and appeared ripe. An Indian was then -sent up the trees, and, breaking the panicles gently off, let<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> -them fall on sheets spread on the ground to receive them, so -that the few loose seeds shaken out by the fall were not lost. -The capsules were afterwards spread out to dry for some days -on the same sheets. In September Mr. Spruce went across -to the valley of the San Antonio, to the southward, in order -to secure additional seeds from "red-bark" trees there, leaving -Mr. Cross to watch over the rooting of the cuttings at -Limon. Between the 14th and 19th he gathered 500 well-grown -capsules at San Antonio, in addition to 2000 already -collected at Limon. Good capsules contain forty seeds each, -so that at least 100,000 well-ripened and well-dried seeds -were now gathered; and on the 28th of September Mr. -Spruce started for Guayaquil.<a name="FNanchor_370_370" id="FNanchor_370_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_370_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a> In November he proceeded -up the river again, and purchased one of the rafts at Ventanas, -which are used for conveying cacao to Guayaquil. It -was composed of twelve trunks of raft-wood, sixty-three to -sixty-six feet long and one foot in diameter, kept in their -places by shorter pieces tied transversely, and covered with -bamboo planking, fenced round with rails to a height of three -feet, and roofed over. The rope used for binding the parts of -the raft together was the twining stem of a <i>Bignonia</i>. The -Wardian cases were got ready on the raft at Ventanas, and -Mr. Cross arrived with the plants from Limon on the 13th of -December, and established them in the cases to the number -of 637.</p> - -<p>After encountering several dangers and mishaps in navigating -the river, the raft with its precious freight reached -Guayaquil on the 27th of December; and the plants were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> -safely embarked on board the steamer, in charge of Mr. Cross, -on the 2nd of January, 1861.</p> - -<p>Thus skilfully and successfully did Mr. Spruce, and his able -colleagues, perform this most difficult and important service. -Mr. Spruce, during the whole time that he was in the chinchona -forests, made most careful meteorological observations. -From June 19th to December 8th the results of observations -of the thermometer were as follows:—</p> - - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mean minimum</td><td class="tdr">61½</td><td class="tdl">°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mean maximum</td><td class="tdr">72⅓</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mean temperature at 6½ <span class="smcap">P.M.</span></td><td class="tdr">67¾</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Highest temperature observed</td><td class="tdr">80½</td><td class="tdl">on July 27th.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Lowest temperature observed</td><td class="tdr">57</td><td class="tdl">on July 11th.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Entire range</td><td class="tdr">23½</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mean daily variation</td><td class="tdr">10½</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p>On the western side of the Quitenian Andes, south of the -Equator, the summer or dry season lasts from June to December, -the remaining five months constituting the wet season. -In the summer, at Limon, the early part of the day is -often sunny, and fogs come on in the afternoon and night; -but in the wet season there are fogs in the morning, and -heavy rains during the rest of the day and night.</p> - -<p>A perusal of the foregoing pages, which are nothing more -than a brief abstract from Mr. Spruce's official reports, cannot -fail to impress the reader with the valuable nature of the -service which has been performed, and with the energy and -fortitude, combined with great skill and ability, which enabled -Mr. Spruce to overcome so many difficulties; and almost -equal praise is due to Mr. Cross. But in recounting these -arduous labours, only half of Mr. Spruce's services have been -recorded. That gentleman is an accomplished botanist, and -most accurate observer; and he has supplied us with a detailed -report which, I do not hesitate to say, contains a larger -amount of valuable information on the chinchona-forests than -any account which has yet appeared in Europe. In addition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> -to the narrative of his proceedings, and his observations on -the "red-bark" tree, Mr. Spruce here gives a minute account -of the vegetation of the "red-bark" forests of Chimborazo, a -detailed meteorological journal, and important remarks on -the climate and soil.<a name="FNanchor_371_371" id="FNanchor_371_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_371_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a></p> - -<p>My apprehensions respecting the feelings of the natives, -when our proceedings became known, were fully justified by -what took place in Ecuador, as well as in Peru. But the -South Americans are, as a rule, remarkable for the slowness -of their movements; and it was not until May 1st, 1861, that -the legislature of Ecuador decreed that every person, whether -foreigner or native, should be forbidden to make collections -of plants, cuttings, or seeds of the quina-tree; and that precautions -should be taken to prevent those articles from -passing the ports and frontiers of the Republic. A fine of -100 dollars on every plant, and every drachm of seed, was -imposed on those who attempted to break this decree. But -by May 1st, 1861, the plants and seeds of the quina-tree were -safe on the Neilgherry hills, in Southern India.</p> - -<p>While Mr. Spruce was engaged in collecting these seeds -and plants in the forests at the foot of Chimborazo, Mr. -Pritchett, whose services I had secured for the Huanuco -region in Northern Peru, was employed on the species of -chinchonæ yielding grey bark.</p> - -<p>Mr. Pritchett left Lima on the 18th of May, 1860, and -arrived in the town of Huanuco, the centre of the grey-bark -region, on the 28th, where he made the necessary preparations -for a journey into the neighbouring forests. On the 9th -of June he set out for the mountain-range of Carpis, to the -northward, where there are several species of chinchonæ. The -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span><i>C. purpurea</i> is very abundant; the <i>C. nitida</i> is common on -the north-east side, and on the upper part of the mountains; -the <i>C. obovata</i> is more rare; and the <i>C. micrantha</i> and <i>C. -Peruviana</i> are both inhabitants of the lower slopes. After -crossing the Carpis range, Mr. Pritchett followed the course -of the river of Casapi to the village of Chinchao, and went -thence to the coca estate of Casapi, at the eastern end of -the valley, where it joins that of the river Huallaga, and here -he was joined by his guide.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig16.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption center">CHINCHONA NITIDA TREES.<br /> -<span class="smallish">FROM A SKETCH BY MR. PRITCHETT.<br /> -Page 323.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>About three leagues from Casapi, and close to the Huallaga, -is the mountain called San Cristoval de Cocheros (Cuchero of -Pavon and Poeppig), which rises from the low land at the -junction of the two rivers to a height of about 1200 feet -above them, and is the centre of the bark district of Huanuco. -On the northern side Mr. Pritchett found abundance of <i>C. -micrantha</i>, and some trees of <i>C. Peruviana</i>; but the latter -species was much more rare. They both grow to a very -large size, some of them being thirty inches in diameter and -seventy feet in height. The trees of <i>C. nitida</i> were at a -higher elevation.</p> - -<p>During June and July, though it was the dry season, heavy -rains continued to fall from day to day; but towards the end -of July the weather broke up, and the sun began to make an -impression on the solid banks of cloud which filled the valleys, -and then it was that, during some portion of the day, the sun -penetrated to the very underwood of the forest. In the first -half of August there was fine weather, with only an occasional -shower. The seeds on the chinchona-trees ripened rapidly in -the sunshine, and Mr. Pritchett collected them by felling the -trees—a labour which was performed by Indians, whom he -hired from the coca estate of Casapi. Seven large trees were -cut down daily, and denuded of their capsules, for a fortnight; -the drying process being carried on at the estate, where every -moment of sunshine was taken advantage of. On the 13th<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> -of August he started for the coast with his collection of seeds, -and half a mule-load of young chinchona-plants, which were -in perfect health when placed in the Wardian cases at Lima.</p> - -<p>Mr. Pritchett reports that in the district around Cocheros, -Casapi, and Carpis, the rocks are of crystalline formation, in -many localities highly disintegrated, and composed of masses -of hornblende, felspar, and mica. He remarks that felspar -contains much potash, of which the chinchona-trees are said to -require a large quantity for their full development; and, as -felspar abounds in this region, he attributes the abundance -and size of the chinchona-trees to this circumstance. He also -reports that steatite, a silicate of magnesia and alumina, -abounds in the vicinity of Huanuco.</p> - -<p>He describes the climate as moist and warm, and says that -the difference in the degree of moisture and warmth between -the lower slopes where the <i>C. micrantha</i> flourishes, and the -higher parts of the mountains inhabited by the <i>C. nitida</i>, -is very striking, while on the lower slopes the soil is much -deeper and richer.<a name="FNanchor_372_372" id="FNanchor_372_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_372_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> He reports the elevation of Cocheros -above the level of the sea to be about 4000 feet,<a name="FNanchor_373_373" id="FNanchor_373_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_373_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> but he made -no meteorological or other observations; and I think there -can be no doubt that the elevation of that mountain is much -greater than Mr. Pritchett supposes. I do not find any information -on this point in Poeppig's travels; but the Huanuco -region is quite a beaten track, and there are several accounts -of it by modern travellers. Huanuco itself is 6300 feet -above the sea;<a name="FNanchor_374_374" id="FNanchor_374_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a> the distance thence to the summit of the -cuesta del Carpis, which is 8000 feet above the sea, is about -twenty miles, and there is a descent on the other side into -the valley of the Casapi of 2920 feet.<a name="FNanchor_375_375" id="FNanchor_375_375"></a><a href="#Footnote_375_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a> According to this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> -account the village of Chinchao, in the Casapi valley, would -have an elevation of about 5000 feet. From Chinchao to the -foot of the Cocheros mountain is a distance of twenty-five -miles down the Casapi valley,<a name="FNanchor_376_376" id="FNanchor_376_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> a gentle descent, with numerous -cottages and plantations on both sides of the road.<a name="FNanchor_377_377" id="FNanchor_377_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a> Thus the -foot of the Cocheros mountain would be about 4500 feet above -the sea, and its summit at least 6000 feet.</p> - -<p>We shall not, therefore, be very far from the truth if we -place the region of <i>C. nitida</i> on the Cocheros and Carpis -mountains at from 6000 to 7000 feet above the sea, and of -<i>C. micrantha</i> at from 4000 to 5000 feet.</p> - -<p>Mr. Pritchett performed the portion of this important undertaking -which I intrusted to him with promptitude and -zeal. Time was a great object, and, by going direct from -Lima to the best locality in the Huanuco chinchona region, he -completed the necessary collection of plants and seeds, and -returned to the coast in little more than three months.<a name="FNanchor_378_378" id="FNanchor_378_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_378_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a> This -shows how essential a previous knowledge of the chinchona -region, of the people, and of the language, was, without -which the collector would probably lose much time, which is -the same thing as spending much money, and eventually -wander into a locality where only worthless species are found, -as was the case with the Dutch agent.</p> - -<p>Owing to the unavoidable abandonment of Mr. Spruce's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> -intention of sending Dr. Taylor to collect seeds of <i>C. Condaminea</i> -at Loxa, one portion of my scheme for introducing all -the valuable species into India remained incomplete at the -close of 1860. On my return from India, therefore, in May -1861, I obtained the sanction of the Secretary of State for -India to take measures for obtaining a supply of seeds from -the Loxa forests. Mr. Cross, the gardener who had so ably -assisted Mr. Spruce, and shared his labours, after safely -depositing the collection of seeds and plants in India, had -returned to South America, attracted by the richness and -variety of the flora of the Andes. Having acquired experience -of the people and language, of the localities where -chinchona-trees are found, and of the mode of travelling, -during his former visit, he possessed the necessary qualifications; -and, as Mr. Spruce was too ill to undertake the work, -it was intrusted to Mr. Cross, who performed it with expedition -and success. He is an excellent practical gardener, -intelligent and persevering, ardently devoted to his profession, -and thoroughly trustworthy.</p> - -<p>On the 17th of September, 1861, Mr. Cross left Guayaquil -in an open rowing boat, and landed at Santa Rosa, the -port of the province of Loxa, whence he proceeded, by way -of Zaruma, to the town of Loxa, which he reached on the -27th. He had to pass through dense swampy forests, over -dangerous precipitous ridges of the Andes, in crossing one of -which his mule slipped down a deep ravine and was dashed -to pieces, and along barren lofty plains. He mentions that -during the ascent to Zaruma he saw several "red-bark" -trees growing at an elevation of eight or nine thousand feet.</p> - -<p>On the 1st of October he left Loxa, and went to a long -low ridge of hills, called the Sierra de Cajanuma, about eight -miles to the southward, a locality which is mentioned by -Humboldt, Bonpland, and Caldas, as the abode of the most -valuable kinds of <i>C. Condaminea</i>. He came to an Indian hut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> -on a little rounded eminence near the summit of the mountain, -which, being far from public roads or other dwellings, -seemed well suited for his head-quarters during the time that -he was searching for seeds. For be it remembered that the -Decree of May 1st, 1861, already mentioned, was in full force, -and that he was running the risk of fine and imprisonment in -performing this important service. The owner of the hut, who -was an experienced bark-collector, allowed Mr. Cross to establish -himself in a little shed at one end of it, which, although -favourable for drying seeds, was so cold that he was sometimes -compelled, during windy nights, to seek shelter in the -bottom of a neighbouring ravine.</p> - -<p>After many comparatively unsuccessful searches in the -surrounding woods, he was one day passing along the bank -of a steep ravine, and, happening to look over a projecting -rock, he saw a number of fine young trees of the <i>C. Condaminea</i> -on the steep slope beneath, some of which bore a -few panicles of seeds, which, on examination, he found to be -perfectly ripe. After this discovery he continued to search -all the ravines in the vicinity from sunrise to sunset, some -of which he had to descend by means of the trailing stems -of a species of <i>Passiflora</i>, and in this way a good supply of -seeds was collected. He reports that on the accessible slopes -there are few chinchona-trees, owing partly to the annual -burning, and partly to continual cropping of the young shoots -by cattle. He describes the rocks, composed of micaceous -schist and gneiss, as being, in many places, in a state of -decomposition, and states that large portions are frequently -tumbling down from the more elevated summits. The -alluvial deposit in the ravines, where the <i>C. Condaminea</i> is -found growing, is shallow, in many places not more than six -inches in depth, and Mr. Cross often gathered seeds from -trees which were growing in clefts of rock, where there was -not a single ounce of soil to be found. He describes the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> -<i>C. Condaminea</i> as a slender tree, from 20 to 30 feet in -height,<a name="FNanchor_379_379" id="FNanchor_379_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_379_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a> and from 8 to 10 inches in diameter at the base; -but he saw few trees of these dimensions, and the plants -from which the bark of commerce is now taken are in -general not more than 8 to 10 feet in height.<a name="FNanchor_380_380" id="FNanchor_380_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_380_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a> When the -plants are cut down, three or four young shoots or suckers -generally spring up, but this does not always happen, as -some of the more industrious bark-collectors frequently -pull up the roots, and bark them also. The bark is taken -from the smallest twigs, and thus the annual growths are -often taken, especially if they are strong. The plants are -sometimes found growing in small clumps, and sometimes -solitary, but always in dry situations.</p> - -<p>The temperature of this region ranges according to Humboldt -and Caldas from 41° to 72° Fahr., and according to -Mr. Cross from 34° to 70° Fahr.; but he adds that it seldom -falls below 40°, and rarely rises above 65°; the mean range -being from 45° to 60° Fahr. The climate of Loxa is very -moist. The wet season commences in January and lasts -until the end of April or middle of May; in June, July, -and August there are heavy rains, accompanied by strong -gales of wind; from September to January there is generally -fine weather, but occasional showers of rain fall even at that -time of year.<a name="FNanchor_381_381" id="FNanchor_381_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a></p> - -<p>The vegetation on the Sierra de Cajanuma is of a semi-arborescent -character, but some of the higher summits are -bare. In the bottoms of the ravines grow a species of <i>Alnus</i>, -<i>Melastomæ</i>, <i>Peperomias</i>, palms, and two species of tree ferns; -and on the slopes throughout the low-lying country, barley, -maize, peas, and potatoes are cultivated. Mr. Cross sent -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span>home a large collection of dried specimens of plants gathered -on the Sierra de Cajanuma. Among them I observed a -<i>Befaria</i> with pretty crimson flowers, of which he says that one -ounce of the roots in two pints of water is taken twice a day -by the Indians for dysentery; a very handsome purple -lupin, growing six to eight feet high; an <i>Embothrium</i>, a wide-spreading -shrub, growing in dry situations; another smaller -<i>Befaria</i>, a beautiful shrub, growing in very lofty dry -localities; a <i>Veronica</i>, a shrub six to eight feet high, with -a blue flower; a <i>Gaultheria</i>; a wide-spreading <i>melastomaceous</i> -plant, with inconspicuous flowers; and a number of <i>Lycopodia</i> -and ferns.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig17.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption center">CHINCHONA CHAHUARGUERA.<br /> -(From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia de Pavon.')<br /> -<span class="smallish">Page 329.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p>Besides the seeds of the <i>C. Condaminea</i>, which is identical -with the <i>C. Chahuarguera</i> (Pavon), Mr. Cross succeeded in -collecting a few seeds of <i>C. crispa</i> (Tafalla) after several -long journeys up the mountains. He found this kind -growing at a great elevation, in a deposit of peat, where -the temperature sometimes falls to 27° Fahr. This species -of chinchona yields the <i>cascarilla crespilla negra</i>, one of the -most esteemed forms of Loxa bark. Mr. Howard<a name="FNanchor_382_382" id="FNanchor_382_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_382_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> mentions -that the <i>Josephiana</i> bears the same relation to the normal -<i>C. Calisaya</i> as the <i>Crespilla</i> bark at Loxa does to the normal -and full-grown <i>C. Chahuarguera</i>.</p> - -<p>Mr. Cross did his work right well, and in December, 1861, -he returned to Guayaquil with nearly 100,000 seeds of -<i>C. Chahuarguera</i>, and a smaller parcel of <i>C. crispa</i>, which -were forwarded to India by way of Southampton.<a name="FNanchor_383_383" id="FNanchor_383_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_383_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span></p> - -<p>Thus were the various operations which I organized for -procuring the valuable species of chinchona-trees in South -America satisfactorily completed; and the labours of Mr. -Spruce, Dr. Taylor, Mr. Pritchett, Mr. Cross, and Mr. Weir, -though differing in value and importance, all deserve the -warmest recognition, for all those intrepid and courageous -explorers worked zealously and successfully, and did good -service in furthering this most important public enterprise.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX.</h2> - -<p class="c">CONVEYANCE OF CHINCHONA-PLANTS AND SEEDS FROM -SOUTH AMERICA TO INDIA.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="hang smallish">Transmission of dried specimens—Voyages of plants in Wardian cases—Arrival -of plants and seeds in India—Depôt at Kew—Treatment of plants -in Wardian cases—Effects of introduction of chinchona-plants into India -on trade in South America—Neilgherry hills.</p></blockquote> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> attempt to make simultaneous collections of seeds and -plants of all the valuable species of chinchonæ was thus -crowned with almost complete success. Out of my original -scheme the <i>C. lancifolia</i> of New Granada was the only one -which had not been procured. It is unnecessary to say -more respecting the numerous difficulties and dangers which -were encountered by the collectors, for the narrative of the -proceedings detailed in previous chapters will have made -these sufficiently obvious. So far as the labours in South -America were concerned, all obstacles were surmounted, and -the objects of this great enterprise were fully attained. Not -only were plants and seeds safely brought to the coast, but, -in every instance, the collectors took care to provide themselves -with botanical specimens from the chinchona-trees. -Thus the leaves, flowers, fruit, and bark of each species, -which were brought to England, placed the identity of the -valuable species to which the plants and seeds belonged -beyond the remotest possibility of a doubt.<a name="FNanchor_384_384" id="FNanchor_384_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a> But in con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>veying -these precious mule-loads to the coast of Peru, and -safely embarking them, only half the difficulties had been -overcome; and I could not but feel that some failures and -disappointments must be expected before the chinchona-plants -were fairly established in India.</p> - -<p>There was not much reason for apprehension with regard -to the seeds; but the plants, in the absence of any provision -for conveying them direct across the Pacific, had to undergo -an ordeal of unprecedented duration. Yet the great advantage -of introducing plants as well as seeds, in the immense -start they would give to the young plantations in India, was -strongly felt, and the complete success that attended the -hazardous transit of at least one relay, which came under -peculiarly favourable circumstances, fully justified the -attempt.</p> - -<p>I gave directions to Mr. Spruce and Mr. Pritchett to send -small parcels of seeds of each species to Jamaica and -Trinidad, in obedience to an order received from England, -so that quinine-yielding trees might also be introduced into -our West Indian colonies; and the results of the experiment -in those islands will be given in a future chapter. The great -bulk of the collections, however, were despatched to India, by -the roundabout way of Southampton, directly they arrived -on the coast of the Pacific.</p> - -<p>The thirty Wardian cases which I sent out round Cape -Horn were three feet two inches long, ten feet ten inches -broad, and three feet two inches high; and, with soil and -plants, each case weighed a little over three hundredweight. -The collection of plants of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, <i>C. ovata</i>, and <i>C.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> -micrantha</i> filled fifteen cases; and the other fifteen received -the collection of <i>C. succirubra</i> at Guayaquil. I also had six -cases of somewhat smaller dimensions constructed at Lima -for the plants from Huanuco. The fifteen cases containing -the collection of chinchona-plants from Caravaya sailed from -the port of Islay on the 23rd of June, and reached Panama -on the 6th of July, 1860, when 207 had already begun to -throw out green shoots. On their arrival in England, in -August, these 207 plants were in a most flourishing and -healthy condition, and continued so until their arrival at -Alexandria early in September. But the intense heat of the -Red Sea, where the thermometer ranged from 99° in the -night to 107° in the day-time, proved too much for them, and -the damage was increased by a detention of a week at Bombay. -Their roots were attacked by rot, yet, on their arrival in -the Neilgherry hills, their leaves still looked fresh, and several -hundred green cuttings were obtained from them, which, -however, failed to strike. The cases containing the chinchona-plants -from Huanuco left Lima in September, and were also in -a most promising state when they reached England, but on -their arrival in India they were all dead. The "red-bark" -collection, under the able management of Mr. Cross, sailed -from Guayaquil on the 2nd of January, 1861. On their -arrival in England in excellent order, six of them were left -at Kew as a precaution, and replaced by six plants of <i>C. Calisaya</i> -supplied by Sir W. Hooker. At that season the climate -of the Red Sea is cool, and, owing to this circumstance and -still more to the intelligent watchfulness of a good practical -gardener, 463 plants of <i>C. succirubra</i> and six of <i>C. Calisaya</i> -were handed over to the superintendent on the Neilgherry -hills, in as vigorous and healthy a condition as could possibly -have been hoped for after such a voyage.</p> - -<p>The "grey-bark" seeds arrived in the Neilgherry hills -early in January, 1861, and the "red-bark" in the following<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> -March, and both collections came up abundantly. The -supply of seeds of <i>C. Condaminea</i> reached their destination -in Southern India in February 1862. In order to guard -against all accidents, a portion of the seeds of each species -was left in England, and a depôt of young chinchona-plants -has thus been formed at Kew Gardens, with a view to fall -back upon them in the event of possible failures or misfortunes -in India.<a name="FNanchor_385_385" id="FNanchor_385_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_385_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a> Seeds of each of the species were also sent -to Ceylon, to which Sir W. Hooker added a few plants of -<i>C. Calisaya</i> from his stock at Kew.</p> - -<p>Thus, in spite of one or two disappointments, the great -object of the undertaking sanctioned by the Secretary of -State for India was fully attained. By the spring of 1861 a -large supply of plants and young seedlings was established -in the Neilgherry hills; and at the present moment we have -thousands of chinchona-plants, of all the valuable species, -flourishing and multiplying rapidly in Southern India, and in -Ceylon. When the unprecedented length of the voyages and -the numerous trans-shipments are taken into consideration, -the wonder is that any of the plants should have been successfully -conveyed from the slopes of the Andes in South America -to the ghauts in Southern India, over thousands of miles, -through every variety of climate, and subject to the risk of -crossing the isthmus of Panama, of changing steamers at -the island of St. Thomas, at Southampton, at Suez, and at -Bombay, and of the journey through Egypt.</p> - -<p>The most important introduction of plants into India, by -means of Wardian cases, previous to the arrival of the chinchonas, -was that of the tea from China in 1849 and following -years by Mr. Fortune. On those occasions the cases were -strongly and coarsely made, the glass shades firmly fixed, and -the glass itself thick, and glazed in pieces of moderate size.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> -The frames were protected by a grating of iron wire, with a -canvas covering capable of being unrolled so as to screen the -plants from the direct rays of the sun, if necessary. The soil -was not less than eight or ten inches deep, and kept down by -cross-battens, and the plants were fairly established in it -before starting. In 1849 Mr. Fortune sowed large quantities -of seeds in the cases, between rows of young plants, which -germinated on their way from China to India, and reached -their destination in the Himalayas in good condition. Out of -250 tea-plants, 215 arrived in perfect order.<a name="FNanchor_386_386" id="FNanchor_386_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_386_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a></p> - -<p>But it was an easy process to convey plants by the short -voyage from China to Calcutta, when compared with the -introduction of plants from the western coast of South -America into India; and the performance of the latter feat, -in the case of the chinchona-plants under Mr. Cross's care, -is undoubtedly the most extraordinary success of the kind -that has yet been achieved.</p> - -<p>A few remarks on the treatment of plants in Wardian cases -were supplied to me by Mr. Weir and Mr. Cross, who acquired -their experience in the voyages from South America to -India; and by Mr. McIvor, who received the plants on the -Neilgherry hills. The cases were filled with soil to a depth -of nine to ten inches, in which the chinchonas were planted -in rows, from the back to the front of the case. The distance -from plant to plant was regulated by their size, but, in the -case of their having much foliage, they should be rather wide -apart, for the crowding of foliage is always injurious, and -often brings on mildew or mould. After having been planted -they were well watered, and shaded from the glare of the -mid-day sun. On the surface of the soil, between each row -of plants, a batten was placed, extending from the back to -the front of the case, and held firmly down by two longer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> -battens extending lengthways. By this means the soil and -plants are not disturbed in the operation of moving the cases. -When the cases are finally closed the soil should be in a -medium state as regards moisture, and all dead foliage should -be removed. The cases should be made as air-tight as possible -by filling the seams with putty, and every precaution -must be taken to preserve the plants from the slightest contact -with salt water.<a name="FNanchor_387_387" id="FNanchor_387_387"></a><a href="#Footnote_387_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a> Mr. McIvor strongly recommends -that the cases should be furnished with a false bottom, raised -about two or three inches above the true bottom, by bars -of wood of the required thickness being nailed on the underside. -The false bottom should have holes bored in it at -regular intervals, with a few broken pieces of pot and a layer -of moss placed over them. He considers that the best sort -of soil is formed of equal parts of leaf-mould, turfy loam, -and sand, mixed in a dry state, and spread out and exposed -to the action of the sun for a few days before being placed in -the cases. During the voyage the plants should have plenty -of light and air, one side of the case being left open for two -or three hours, morning and evening, during fine weather, -when dead leaves should be picked off, and water administered -to any plant which may require it. The soil should -be turned up on the surface to the depth of about half -an inch with a small pointed stick every three or four days, -and always kept rough on the surface, so as to allow the -air to circulate in the soil. This circulation of air is also -facilitated by the false bottom. The action of the air on the -soil keeps the roots in fine condition, and entirely prevents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> -the formation of mildew and damp; but the principal object -of the false bottom is to allow any excess of water to drain off -into a place where it cannot <i>sour</i> the soil, and yet will not be -lost. Then, as the soil becomes dry above, the water will be -attracted to it.</p> - -<p>With the exception of the false bottom, all the above suggestions -were carefully attended to by the gardeners who -were in charge of the chinchona-plants during the voyage to -India; the partial failures which attended some of the relays -from South America could not, under the circumstances, have -been avoided by any human foresight; and, as the general -result of my arrangements has been to introduce all the -valuable kinds of quinine-yielding plants into India, we -have every reason to congratulate ourselves on the success -of our labours.</p> - -<p>With the chinchona-plants I brought from Peru a supply -of seeds of the chirimoya, of aji-pepper, and of the <i>Schinus -molle</i>, all of which are coming up well on the Neilgherry -hills.<a name="FNanchor_388_388" id="FNanchor_388_388"></a><a href="#Footnote_388_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a> They have most of the other kinds of <i>Anonas</i> in India, -but the chirimoya fruit, the most exquisite of all, has yet to -be raised. He who has not tasted the chirimoya has yet to -learn what fruit is. "The pine-apple, the mangosteen, and -the chirimoya," says Dr. Seemann, "are considered the finest -fruits in the world. I have tasted them in those localities in -which they are supposed to attain their highest perfection—the -pine-apple in Guayaquil, the mangosteen in the Indian -archipelago, and the chirimoya on the slopes of the Andes; -and, if I were called upon to act the part of a Paris, I would -without hesitation assign the apple to the chirimoya. Its -taste indeed surpasses that of every other fruit, and Haenke -was quite right when he called it the masterpiece of nature."<a name="FNanchor_389_389" id="FNanchor_389_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_389_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span></p> - -<p>In obtaining plants and seeds of these valuable chinchonas -from South America, it would be a source of deep regret to -me if that measure was attended by any injury to the people -or the commerce of Peru or Ecuador, countries in the welfare -of which I have for years taken the deepest interest. But I -have no apprehension that such will be the result of the cultivation -of these plants in other parts of the world. The -demand for quinine will always be in excess of the supply -from South America; and the result of chinchona cultivation -in India and Java will have the effect of lowering the price, -and bringing this inestimable febrifuge within the reach of a -vast number of people who are now excluded from its use, -without in any way injuring the trade of Peru and Ecuador. -I trust that not only will this measure do no injury to the -South Americans, but that it may be hereafter productive of -good to them, as well as to the rest of mankind. Hitherto -they have destroyed the chinchona-trees in a spirit of reckless -short-sightedness, and thus done more injury to their own -interests than could possibly have arisen from any commercial -competition; but it may be that the influence of peace -and education will inaugurate a new system in time to come, -that more enlightened views will prevail, and that they -themselves may undertake the cultivation of a plant which is -indigenous to their forests, but which, up to this time, they -have so foolishly neglected. It will then be a pleasure to -supply them with the information which will have been -gained by the experience of cultivators in India, and thus to -assist them in the establishment of plantations on the slopes -of the eastern Andes.</p> - -<p>Under any circumstances the South Americans, who owe -to India the staple food of millions of their people, and to the -Old World most of their valuable products—wheat, barley, -apples, peaches, sugar-cane, the vine, rice, the olive, sheep,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> -cattle, and horses—have no right to desire to withhold from -India a product which is so essentially necessary to her welfare. -Nor do I believe that the better conditioned Peruvians -have any such desire. On the contrary, many of them have -shown themselves willing to promote a friendly interchange -of the products of the New and Old Worlds; and the -foolish decree issued in Ecuador on the 1st of May, 1861, as -well as the numerous obstructions thrown in my way in -southern Peru, may be imputed either to the narrow-minded -selfishness of half-educated officials, or to the ignorant -patriotism of backwoodsmen. These are feelings which are -not shared by either the educated few, or by the Indian -population.</p> - -<p>After much careful consideration it had been decided that -the best place for commencing the experimental cultivation -of chinchona-plants in India would be the Neilgherry hills, -in the Madras Presidency. Here are to be found a climate, -an amount of moisture, a vegetation, and an elevation -above the sea, more analogous to those of the chinchona -forests in South America than can be met with in any other -part of India. In the Government gardens at Ootacamund, -on the Neilgherries, there were the necessary conveniences -for propagating plants and raising seedlings; and in Mr. -William G. McIvor, the Superintendent, was to be found a -zealous, intelligent, and practical gardener, who had carefully -studied the botany of the chinchona genus, and under whose -care the cultivation would be commenced with the best -possible guarantees for its success.</p> - -<p>From the Neilgherries the chinchona-plants will, it is -hoped, be introduced into such other hill districts of Southern -India as, after examination, may be found suitable for -their growth; and it was a part of my duty to visit the most -promising localities, and, in conjunction with Mr. McIvor, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> -select the sites for chinchona plantations on the Neilgherry -hills. With this object in view we landed at the port of -Calicut, on the coast of Malabar, on the 7th of October, -1861.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="TRAVELS_IN_INDIA" id="TRAVELS_IN_INDIA"></a><span class="gesperrt">TRAVELS IN INDIA.</span></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI.</h2> - -<p class="c">MALABAR.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="hang smallish">Calicut—Houses and gardens—Population of Malabar—Namburi Brahmins—Nairs—Tiars—Slaves—Moplahs—Assessment -of rice-fields, of gardens, -of dry crops—Other taxes—Voyage up the Beypoor river—The Conolly -teak plantations—Wundoor—Backwood cultivation—Sholacul—Sispara -ghaut—Black-wood—Scenery—Sispara—View of the Nellemboor valley—Avalanche—Arrival -at Ootacamund.</p></blockquote> - - -<p><span class="smcap">He</span> who would desire to receive the most pleasant impression -of India, on a first arrival, must follow in the wake of Vasco -de Gama, and land on the coast of Malabar, the garden of -the peninsula. Here Nature is clad in her brightest and most -inviting robes, the scenery is magnificent, the fields and -gardens speak of plenty, and the dwellings of the people are -substantial and comfortable.</p> - -<p>As we steamed into the anchorage at Calicut, on board the -little yacht 'Pleiad,' no appearance of any town was visible, -and no building except a tall white lighthouse. Thick -groves of cocoanut-trees line the shore, and are divided -from the sea by a belt of sand; while undulating green hills -rise up behind, and the background of mountains was -hidden by banks of clouds. The whole scene bore a close -resemblance to one of the Sandwich or Society Islands, down -to the canoes which came off to us the moment the anchor -was let go. They are hewn out of the trunk of the jack-tree, -with an upper bulwark fastened with coir twine; and the -canoe-men were naked athletic-looking fellows, with enormous -hats made of a frond of the tallipot palm (<i>Corypha umbracu<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span>lifera</i>). -When we shoved off from the 'Pleiad' a handsome -fish-hawk, with white head and breast, was perched on the fore-topsail -yard-arm, and sea-snakes were playing in the water -alongside. In-shore there were a few native craft, called -<i>pattamars</i>, at anchor. Pattamars are the vessels which have -carried on the coasting trade on the western side of India -from time immemorial. As in the days of Sinbad the -sailor, their planks are not nailed, but sewn together with -coir-twine, and they have high sterns and bows sheering -rapidly aft. The deepest part is at the stem, whence the -bottom curves inwards to the stern. A pattamar has two -masts raking forward, with long picturesque lateen yards -slung with one-third part before the mast, and two-thirds -abaft. They never attempt to tack, but always ware, and -if taken aback there is no alternative but either to wait -until she comes round, or to capsize.</p> - -<p>On landing at Calicut, a carriage drawn by two white -bullocks was, through the hospitality of Mr. Patrick Grant, -the Collector of Malabar, waiting for us on the sandy beach, -to convey us to his house; a drive of about two miles. The -excellent road, of a bright red colour from the soil being -composed of laterite, passes through groves of cocoanut-trees, -interspersed with many houses, each surrounded by its -garden of mangos, nux vomica trees, jacks with pepper-vines -creeping over them, and palm-trees. The houses are all -substantial and comfortable-looking, built of square blocks of -laterite joined with <i>chunam</i>, or lime made from calcined sea-shells, -and roofed with tiles. The laterite or iron-clay is a -rock full of cavities and pores like coral, overlying the -granite which forms the basis of Malabar. When excluded -from the air it is so soft that any iron instrument can readily -cut it, and is dug up in square masses with a pickaxe, and -afterwards shaped into blocks with a knife or trowel. After -exposure it soon becomes as hard, and is as durable as bricks.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> -Each house has a cocoanut safe or store-room on one side, of -open wood-work. Many people were walking along the road, -naked men with huge tallipot-palm hats, and women with -nothing on but bright-coloured petticoats, looking picturesque -in the foreground and middle distance of the palm-shaded -vistas. At intervals the cocoanut groves were broken by -fields of vivid green paddy, and tanks filled with red lotus-flowers.</p> - -<p>From Mr. Grant's house, on the top of a rounded grassy -hill, there is an extensive and very beautiful view of the -undulating hills and dales of Malabar, generally covered -with forest; with the ocean on one side, and the Wynaad -mountains on the other. Malabar is 188 miles long, 25 miles -broad in the northern, and 70 in the southern half, and -contains 6262 square miles. It is divided into 17 <i>Talooks</i> -or districts, and has a population of 1,602,914 souls; of -whom 1,165,174 are Hindus, 414,126 Moplahs, and 23,614 -Christians.</p> - -<p>The people of Malabar are a thriving active race, the men -well built and handsome, and the women remarkable for their -beauty. The highest caste among the Hindus is that of the -Namburi Brahmins, who claim all the land below the ghauts, -and appear to have actually possessed a large portion of it -previous to the invasion of Hyder Ali of Mysore. They declare -that when Parasu Rama, one of the incarnations of Vishnu, -hurled his axe from the mountains, the ocean receded, leaving -the land of Kerala, as Malabar, Cochin, and Travancore were -called; which he gave to the Namburi Brahmins. It is true -that the undulating flat-topped hills, which cover the part of -Malabar near Calicut, are like the waves of the sea, and -appear as if the ocean in receding had forced channels, and -thus formed the intervening valleys. The Namburis are fast -dying out: they are landed proprietors, and perform such -offices as bestowing holy water and ashes, or performing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> -<i>poojah</i> or worship for the other Hindus, but never enter the -public service.</p> - -<p>The most important portion of the population is included -in the eleven classes of Nairs,<a name="FNanchor_390_390" id="FNanchor_390_390"></a><a href="#Footnote_390_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a> a race of pure Sudra caste. -They pretend to be born soldiers, and formed the armies -of the Zamorin and Cochin Rajahs, the lower castes not -being allowed to bear arms. The Nairs now hold most of -the land in Malabar, and are frequently very rich. Both -the Zamorin of Calicut and the Rajah of Cochin are Nairs; -and the origin of their rule is said to have been as follows. -About a thousand years ago, a Viceroy of the Sholum Rajah -ruled over Malabar, named Cheruman Permal, who made -himself independent, and divided the country among his -nobles, of whom five were of the Kshatri caste, and seven -were Nairs. After the division it was found that one of his -bravest officers, the ancestor of the present Zamorin or Tamori -Rajah, had been left out; Cheruman Permal, therefore, -gave him his sword, and all the territory in which a cock -crowing at a certain small temple could be heard. Hence -Calicut, from <i>Colicodu</i>, a cock-crowing.<a name="FNanchor_391_391" id="FNanchor_391_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_391_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a> Down to the time -of Tippoo the whole of Malabar was governed by the descendants -of the sisters of these thirteen Nair chiefs. The -Zamorin of Calicut has some influence, though he is much -reduced in wealth and importance since the days of Vasco -de Gama.</p> - -<p>The Nairs live under the remarkable institution called -<i>murroo-muka-tayum</i>. Sisters never leave their homes, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> -receive visits from male acquaintances, and the brothers go -out to other houses, to their lady-loves, but live with their -sisters. If a younger brother settles in a new house, he takes -his favourite sister with him, and not the woman who, -according to the custom in all other countries, should keep -house for him. The man's mother manages the house, and -after her death his eldest sister takes her place; but no man -has any idea who his father is, and the children of his sisters -are his heirs. Moveable property is divided amongst the -children of the sisters of the deceased equally, and the land -is managed by the eldest male of the family, but each -individual has a right to a share in the income.</p> - -<p>This strange custom gives the women an important position; -and as they are pretty, and take pains with their -personal appearance, their influence is very great. The -Nairs are addicted to drink, and may eat venison, fowls, and -fish; and the families are fond of gaiety, and of visiting among -people of their own rank, when there is much talking and -singing. Most of the men, as well as the women, read and -write in their own character, and there is a Government -Gazette printed in the Malayalim language. The Collector -was anxious, also, to establish a paper in Malayalim, containing -general information, which would no doubt have an -excellent effect, but the difficulty is to find a good native -editor.</p> - -<p>Next in rank to the Nairs come the <i>Tiars</i> or <i>Shanars</i>, a -stout, good-looking, hard-working race, who do not pretend to -Sudra origin. Formerly the Nairs exacted deference from -the Tiars with extreme cruelty and arrogance, treating them -more like brutes than men; and if a Tiar defiled a Nair by -touching him, he was instantly cut down. But British rule -is gradually uprooting these caste barbarisms, and the position -of the Tiars is improving. Some of them hold appointments -as clerks in Government offices, and they are protected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> -by just and equal laws. The Tiars form the mass of the -field labourers; but the proper duty of their caste is to -extract juice from the palm-tree, and either boil it into -<i>jaggery</i> (unrefined sugar), or distil it. Their women are -exceedingly pretty, with masses of long hair; but there is a -prevalent custom for all the brothers of a family to have but -one wife amongst them to save expense, which leads to most -disastrous consequences. Below the Tiars there are several -outcast tribes; among them the <i>Churmas</i> or slaves, a miserable -and down-trodden race, possibly the remnant of the aboriginal -inhabitants. Even now they are slow to understand that they -are not slaves, and land on which there are most <i>Churmas</i> -still sells at the highest price.</p> - -<p>The <i>Moplahs</i>, or Mohammedans of Malabar, are descended -from Arab mariners and traders by native women, and hence -their name, from <i>Mah-pilla</i> "son of the mother." They have -certainly been established in Malabar for a thousand years, if -not more, as it is on record that the Viceroy Cheruman Permal, -who then divided the country amongst his chiefs, was converted -by a Moplah, and sailed for Mecca. All the sympathies -of the Moplahs are with Arabia and the Red Sea, and they -frequently undertake pilgrimages to Mecca. Respecting -their creed they are fanatical, and are easily roused to fury -by an insult, or an attempt on the part of the Nairs to treat -them as a lower caste. On these occasions they run mucks; -but in ordinary times they are hard-working, intelligent, -abstemious, excellent boatmen, and capital backwoodsmen. -Many of the Moplahs are very wealthy. Their mosques, -however, are poor edifices, not to be distinguished from -ordinary dwelling-houses, and the temples of the Hindus are -no better. There is no attempt at ornamental architecture in -the religious buildings of Malabar.</p> - -<p>One-fifth of the collectorate of Malabar is taken up with rice -and garden cultivation, the remaining four-fifths being covered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span> -with forest, or cleared for dry grains and coffee plantations. -The land revenue, taking the average of five years ending in -1858-59, is 255,000<i>l.</i> The assessment of the rice-lands is -essentially the same as that fixed by the Government of -Tippoo Sultan of Mysore in 1783-84. Though unequal, and -in some places burdensome, it is on the whole light, and, -except in two of the Talooks,<a name="FNanchor_392_392" id="FNanchor_392_392"></a><a href="#Footnote_392_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a> it is lighter in the north than -in the south. As an example of the inequality of the land-tax, -I may mention that the district of Pattaumby, on the -river Ponany, is very highly and unfairly assessed, as it is -said, from the following cause. Before the invasion of Tippoo -all the land in Malabar was in the hands of feudal chiefs; -there was no land-tax, and the Zamorin and other Rajahs -were supported by the produce of their own estates. The -first ruler who imposed a land-tax was the Mysore conqueror. -Any village which offended his officers was highly assessed; -and hence the present inequalities, which will, however, be -corrected by the new Survey and Assessment Commission. In -the case of Pattaumby the accountant quarrelled with the -landowners, and threatened to impose a heavy assessment, -and, when they attempted to murder him, he escaped to -Wynaad, and sent in his report to Tippoo.</p> - -<p>All land in Malabar is private property, and the landlord -gets 20 to 40 per cent. of the net rent, the remainder being -the Government demand. From the gross produce of the -rice-fields 20 per cent. is deducted for reaping and other -small charges called <i>puddum</i>, the remainder being available -gross rent. From the gross rent one-third is deducted as -the expense of cultivation, called <i>vitoo vally</i>; one third as the -cultivator's share, or <i>koshoo labon</i>, whether he be a <i>jemakar</i> or -proprietor, a <i>kanomkar</i> or mortgagee, or a <i>pattamkar</i> or -renter; and the remaining third is the <i>pattom</i>, net produce,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> -or rent. Of this last third the Government share is 65 per -cent., leaving 35 per cent. as the share of the proprietor. -The Government share is thus a little less than a quarter of -the gross produce.</p> - -<p>The assessment is not calculated on the extent of land, -but on the amount of seed required to sow a given space, -according to the quality of the soil, which is divided into -three classes, namely <i>pasma</i> (clay), <i>rasee pasma</i> (sand and -clay), and <i>rasee</i> (sand). On an average the soil does not -yield more than tenfold, and most of it bears only one crop. -Some lands are sown in April or May, and the crops cut -in August or September. These are chiefly in the coast -Talooks. Others are sown in September and October, and -the crops cut in January and February. The seeds are raised -on small pieces of land, and the plants, when young, removed -by hand, and planted in the paddy-fields.</p> - -<p>The garden assessment, as it is called, on cocoanut-trees, -the great wealth of Malabar, betel-palms, and jacks, was fixed -in 1820.</p> - -<p>The cocoanut-trees are divided according to their situations -and soils into five classes—the first and second classes being -<i>attivepoo</i>, or sea-coast; and the third, fourth, and fifth, <i>karavepoo</i>, -or inland cocoanut-trees. Each tree pays, on an -average, eighteen pies,<a name="FNanchor_393_393" id="FNanchor_393_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_393_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a> those which are unproductive from -age or youth being excluded. The betel-nut palms pay, on -an average, six pies, and the jack-trees twenty-eight pies; -but the tax on gardens is not more than forty per cent. of the -landlord's rent. A cocoanut-tree is estimated to bear at -least sixteen to forty nuts in the year, according to its site; -and the owner of a plantation derives profit from the leaves -as well as from the husks and shells of the nut. The leaves, -used for covering houses, sell at two and a half to five Rs. the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> -thousand, each tree yielding ten to fifteen annually; and the -husks, for coir ropes, fetch six annas the thousand.<a name="FNanchor_394_394" id="FNanchor_394_394"></a><a href="#Footnote_394_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a></p> - -<p>The betel-nut palm (<i>Areca catechu</i>), which is also taxed -has a long slender smooth stem, and graceful curving fronds. -I have seen palm-trees in the South Sea islands, many kinds -in the forests of South America, and in India; but, of the -whole tribe, the betel-nut palm is certainly the most elegant -and beautiful. Dr. Hooker likens it "to an arrow shot from -heaven, raising its graceful head and feathery crown in luxuriance -and beauty above the verdant slopes." A tree will -produce 300 nuts in the year, and continues to bear for -twenty-five years. The nut is very hard, the size of a cherry, -and is chewed by all the natives of India with the leaves of -the betel-pepper (<i>Chavica betel</i>) spread with <i>chunam</i>. It is cut -into long narrow pieces, and rolled up in the leaves of the -betel-pepper or pawn. It makes the mouth and teeth red, -and gives the chewer a disgusting appearance. The consumption -must be enormous, for it is chewed by 50,000,000 of -men, and, next to tobacco, is the most extensively used -narcotic; but it has none of the excellent properties of the -coca-leaf of the Peruvians.</p> - -<p>The jack (<i>Artocarpus integrifolius</i>), the only other tree -which is taxed in Malabar, grows to a considerable size, and -the wood is much used for furniture of all kinds. The fruit, -a favourite article of food, is of enormous dimensions, and -grows out of the trunk. In Travancore they put the whole -fruit in the ground, and, when the young shoots grow up, the -stems are tied together with straw, and by degrees they form -one stem, bearing fruit in six or seven years.<a name="FNanchor_395_395" id="FNanchor_395_395"></a><a href="#Footnote_395_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> Besides the -taxed trees, the gardens round Calicut generally contain -mangos and nux vomica.</p> - -<p>In addition to the rice or wet cultivation, and the above-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span>mentioned -trees, the upland or dry cultivation of rice and -sesame or gingelee oil-seed is assessed on an annual inspection: -forty per cent. of the gross produce of the former -being deducted, on account of the peculiar labour and probable -loss, and twenty per cent. of the remainder being the -Government share. The sesame cultivation has no deduction -from the gross produce; and ginger, pepper, and some other -dry crops are free of land-tax. The pepper cultivation is -chiefly carried on in northern Malabar, and ginger in the -Shernaad district, south of Calicut, by the Moplahs.<a name="FNanchor_396_396" id="FNanchor_396_396"></a><a href="#Footnote_396_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a></p> - -<p>The other taxes are <i>abkarry</i>, or the privilege of selling -liquors, which is either farmed by public sale, or levied from -the toddy-drawers, when it is called <i>kutty-chatty</i> (knife and -pot) tax; <i>mohturfa</i> on houses, shops, fishing-boats, oil-mills, -and looms; licences, stamps, and the salt monopoly; the -whole revenue of Malabar in 1859 having been 266,860<i>l.</i> The -income-tax had not yet been levied at the time of our visit, -but its nature had been carefully explained to the people, it -had been stripped of everything that was offensive or inquisitorial, -and no difficulty was anticipated in its introduction, -although it was very generally considered that it was unwise -and impolitic, and that it would be unproductive. In -the matter of taxes there was a striking contrast between -Peru, whence we had just come, and where they are scarcely -known, and this land of manifold imposts.</p> - -<p>On the whole, however, Malabar is a splendid possession; -the people are very flourishing, the population increasing,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> -and cultivation rapidly encroaching on the forests. There is -no gang robbery, but occasional housebreaking, and a good -many murders, often caused by jealousy, the criminals usually -making a full confession, and thus saving much trouble.</p> - -<p>In the evening we embarked in a canoe which had been -prepared for us near the fine timber bridge over the Calicut -river, on the road to Beypoor. The setting sun and banks -of rosy clouds were visible through the graceful fronds of the -cocoanut-trees as we drove along the shady road, with occasional -glimpses of the sea. The canoe was very long, and -cut out of one trunk, with raised bow and stern, ornamentally -carved. It was pulled by four tall wiry-looking Moplahs, with -nothing on but clouts and huge umbrella-hats, made of the -tallipot palm;<a name="FNanchor_397_397" id="FNanchor_397_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_397_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a> and a fifth steered with a paddle. Their oars -were long bamboos, with circular boards fastened to one end -by neat coir seizings. We started a little after sunset, and -passed from the Calicut river by a backwater into the Beypoor, -where there were many shallow places, and the Moplahs -had constantly to jump out and drag the canoe over them. -The banks of the river are wooded down to the water's edge, -with groves of slender betel-nut palms rising aloft, and standing -out against the starry sky. The foliage was covered with -brilliant fire-flies, and here and there we passed a hut, with -its owner standing on the shore, waving a burning brand. -All night the boatmen sang noisy glees, and in the morning -we reached the landing-place at Eddiwanna, forty miles from -Calicut, and near the Government teak plantations of Nellamboor.</p> - -<p>These plantations were originated by Mr. Conolly, the late -Collector of Malabar, with a view to the establishment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> -nurseries for replenishing the teak forests, as nearly all the -fine timber had been felled many years ago. There is a -great deal in North Canara of small size, and still more in -Cochin and Travancore; but the reckless system of felling -threatened the same results as has already overtaken the -supply of chinchona-bark in South America. The only forests -containing teak, in Malabar, in which Government has a -proprietary right, are 25 square miles in the Palghat talook, -where all the mature trees have long since gone to the -Bombay dockyard; but in 1842 leases of forest-land were -obtained from the Zamorin for the cultivation of teak, 70 to -80 square miles in extent, chiefly in the Ernaad talook, -near Nellamboor. This most important and now successful -measure is due to the zeal and perseverance of Mr. Conolly, -and there is a good prospect of the stock of teak-timber in -these forests being eventually replenished. The trees, however, -require a growth of 60 or 80 years to reach a maturity -fitting the wood for shipbuilding; but it is then unequalled -by any other known timber; it does not injure iron, and is -not liable to shrink in width.</p> - -<p>It was some time before the method of inducing the teak-seeds -to germinate was discovered, and several experiments -were tried. In the forests it was observed that the seeds -were prepared for growth by losing the hard outer shell -through the warmth caused by fires which annually consume -the brushwood. Mr. Conolly, therefore, burnt a coating of -hay over the ground where the seeds were sown. This trial -was unsuccessful, and in 1843 it was found that the best -method was to steep the nuts in water for thirty-six hours, -then sow them in holes four inches apart, and half an inch -under the surface, covering the beds with straw, so as to -prevent evaporation, and gently watering them every evening. -By following this plan the seeds germinated, and -sprouted in from four to eight weeks. In 1844 as many as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> -50,000 young trees, raised in the adjacent nurseries, were -planted, eight feet apart, in the cleared ground near Nellamboor, -along the banks of the Beypoor river, which had been -cleared of jungle. The seedlings are transplanted from the -nursery at the age of three months, and for the first seven -or eight years they sprout up very fast, but afterwards they -grow slowly. From 1843 to 1859 as many as 1,200,000 -trees have been put down, and they are now planted at the -rate of 70,000 a year. Much care is required in systematic -thinning and pruning, and, for the superintendence of this -important work, an annual visit is paid to the plantations by -Mr. McIvor, who is now so ably conducting the chinchona -experiment on the Neilgherry hills.</p> - -<p>We were met by Mr. McIvor at Eddiwanna, and started -for the village of Wundoor, six miles distant, in <i>munsheels</i> -or hammocks, slung to bamboos with a shade over them, -and carried by six men, who kept up unearthly yells the -whole time. The road leads through rice-cultivation and -groves of betel-nut palms, jacks, and mangos. Wundoor is -a pretty village, with an avenue of sumach-trees<a name="FNanchor_398_398" id="FNanchor_398_398"></a><a href="#Footnote_398_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a> leading up -to the post-house or travellers' bungalow. These post-houses, -which are erected by the Government at easy stages along -all the roads in India, for the convenience of travellers, are -exceedingly comfortable, and render travelling in India as -easy and commodious as it is the reverse in Peru and other -parts of South America. At Wundoor the first bungalow -we had seen put an end to all idea of having to rough it -while travelling in India. The building contained several -clean rooms, with cane-bottom sofas, arm-chairs, and tables; -and outside there was a pleasant verandah, with a glorious -view of the Koondah mountains, which it was necessary to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span> -ascend on our road to the Neilgherries. A clump of trees, -consisting of jacks, mangos, and peepuls, formed a huge -arch, through which there was an enchanting landscape of -smiling hill and dale, with the dense forest beyond, crowned -by the broken outline of the distant mountains.</p> - -<p>We set out from Wundoor at daybreak, and passed a house -just outside the village, where, a few days before, a tiger had -carried off a child before the eyes of its parents. Next day -the brute had the temerity to come again and try to force open -the door, when a man shot it from the window. For some -hours we rode through a country where the jungle alternated -with cultivation in open glades, which in their natural state -are covered with <i>Pandanus</i>, but the people here, as in other -parts of Malabar, are fast encroaching on the forest, and -converting these glades into paddy-fields. As we approached -the foot of the mountains cultivation at last entirely ceased, -and the road led through a dense forest of enormous -bamboos, teak-trees with their large coarse leaves, black-wood, -and other fine timber. At noon we reached the post-house -of Sholacul, at the foot of the Sispara ghaut, which -leads up to the summit of the Koondahs, a western continuation -of the Neilgherries.</p> - -<p>The building at Sholacul was surrounded by a very stout -pallisade, to protect it from the wild elephants, who strongly -object to all encroachments on their domain; and even take -the trouble of pulling up the wooden milestones by the side -of the roads. We found all the roads which we travelled -over in Malabar excellent, and the ascent of the Sispara -ghaut, though only a zigzag bridle-path, is in very good -order. After leaving Sholacul the road first passes through -a region of gigantic reeds, and then through a belt of black-wood, -palms, and tree-ferns, with an undergrowth of <i>Curcumas</i>, -ferns, and a brilliant purple flower (<i>Torenia Asiatica</i>). The -black or rose-wood tree (<i>Dalbergia latifolia</i>) grows to a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> -height of about fifty feet, with handsome spreading branches, -and pinnate leaves. The timber is very valuable; it is extensively -used in Bombay for making beautiful carved furniture, -and planks are sometimes obtained four feet broad, after the -sap-wood has been removed. In consequence of the increasing -price, Dr. Cleghorn, the able and energetic Conservator -of Forests in the Madras Presidency, has caused a -number of seedlings to be planted at Nellamboor; and -plantations have also been formed in N. Canara and Mysore.</p> - -<p>The occasional openings in the forests, at turns in the -road, afforded us views of the mountains below us covered -with the richest vegetation, and of the rice-fields of -Malabar stretching away to the faintly indicated blending -of sea and haze on the horizon; which almost equalled -in beauty the finest parts of the eastern Andes. From -about 1000 to 5000 feet above the sea the jungle is -covered with innumerable leeches, which eagerly fasten -on their prey, whether men, horses, or dogs, and make a -journey through this region, in the wet season, exceedingly -disagreeable. Within this leech-zone there is a considerable -clearing called Walla-ghaut, planted with coffee, which -is in a ruinous and abandoned state, chiefly owing to the -difficulty of inducing labourers to venture among the leeches. -As we continued the ascent, the scenery increased in magnificence, -the views became more extensive, and there were -mountain-tops crowned with glorious forest trees far below -us. At 6000 feet mosses appear, then lilies, brambles, and -wild strawberries, and occasionally we crossed noisy little -streams overshadowed by the trees. We reached the Sispara -bungalow, on the summit of the ghaut, 6742 feet above the -level of the sea, late in the afternoon.</p> - -<p>The Sispara ghaut takes the traveller from the tropical -plains to the temperate climate of the hills, where the face of -nature is entirely changed. Here the hills are covered with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> -grass, and the ravines only are filled with trees, forming -thickets called <i>sholas</i>. In the rear of the bungalow there -is an almost unrivalled view of the Malabar plains, from the -edge of a precipice. The Koondah hills sweep round until -they join the Wynaads, half encircling the Nellamboor valley, -which was thousands of feet below us, and is covered with -forest, intersected in all directions by open glades of a rich light -green. The Koondahs rise up from Malabar like perpendicular -walls, so steep that even a cat could not scale them in -any part, for a distance of forty miles; and the grandeur -of the view from this point, with these sublime cliffs, and the -vast expanse of forest-covered plain below, is very striking.</p> - -<p>At daylight next morning we left the Sispara bungalow, -and rode for several miles through a valley interspersed with -<i>sholas</i> of rhododendron-trees. Eighteen miles from Sispara -is the Avalanche bungalow, 6720 feet above the sea, whence -there is a good carriage-road to Ootacamund, the chief -European station on the Neilgherry hills. At Avalanche the -Koondah range is considered to cease, and the Neilgherry -hills to commence, but the nature of the country is the same. -Between Avalanche and Ootacamund, a distance of 15 miles, -the country consists of grassy undulating rounded hills, -divided from each other by wooded <i>sholas</i>. Herds of fine -buffaloes were grazing by the roadside, and here and there we -saw patches of millet (<i>Setaria Italica</i>) near the huts of the -natives of these hills. As we rode round the artificial lake, -and, passing several pretty little houses surrounded by -shrubberies, stopped at the door of Dawson's hotel at Ootacamund, -it was difficult to persuade ourselves that we were -not again in England. The garden in front of the house -was stocked with mignonette, wallflowers, and fuchsias, but the -immense bushes of heliotrope covered with flowers, ten feet -high and at least twenty in circumference, could not have -attained such dimensions in an English climate. Ootaca<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span>mund -is nearly in the centre of the table-land of the -Neilgherries, at the foot of the western face of the peak of -Dodabetta, and, except to the N.W., the station is completely -surrounded by grass-covered hills. Houses are scattered -about under the shelter of the hills, with gardens and -plantations of <i>Eucalyptus</i> and <i>Acacia heterophylla</i>, trees introduced -from Australia, around them; and the broad excellent -roads are bordered by <i>Cassia glauca</i> bushes with a bright -orange flower, honeysuckles, fox-gloves, geraniums, roses, -and masses of the tall <i>Lobelia excelsa</i>. A graceful white iris -is also common.</p> - -<p>This charming spot, now that the roads are planted -with tall trees, and the hedges filled with all the familiar -flowers introduced from old England, while curling -smoke ascends through the foliage, and suggests the idea -of chimneys and warm firesides, is as unlike India, and as -like an English watering-place, as can be imagined. The -tower of the church, seen from many points of view, increases -the resemblance, which is certainly not lessened by the rosy -cheeks and healthy looks of the children, and the fresh -invigorating mountain air. But when a few miles from the -station, and out of sight of all English associations, there -was much that reminded me of the <i>pajonales</i> in the chinchona -region of Caravaya at a first glance: and I felt sanguine -that all the <i>pajonal</i> chinchona-trees would thrive in most of -the <i>sholas</i> on the Neilgherry hills, while suitable sites for -those species which require a warmer climate would be -found in the forest slopes which overlook the plains. A -closer inspection confirmed me in this opinion.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII.</h2> - -<p class="c">NEILGHERRY HILLS.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="hang smallish">Extent—Formation—Soil—Climate—Flora—Hill tribes—Todars—Antiquities—Badagas—Koters—Kurumbers—Irulas—English -stations—Kotergherry—Ootacamund—Coonoor—Jakatalla—Government -gardens -at Ootacamund and Kalhutty—Mr. McIvor—Coffee cultivation—Rules -for sale of waste lands—Forest conservancy.</p></blockquote> - - -<p>The Neilgherry<a name="FNanchor_399_399" id="FNanchor_399_399"></a><a href="#Footnote_399_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a> hills, between latitude 11° 10' and 11° 32' -N., and longitude 76° 59' and 77° 31' E., form the most -elevated mountain mass in India, south of the Himalayas; -the highest peak, that of Dodabetta, being 8610 feet above -the level of the sea. They are isolated on three sides, and -rise up abruptly from the plains of Coimbatore on the south, -and from the table-lands of Wynaad and Mysore on the -north and east, to a height of 6000 feet above the former, and -2000 to 3000 above the latter; from which they are divided -by the broad ravine of the river Moyaar. On the west they -are united with the Koondah range, which is a continuation -of the western ghauts. The area of the Neilgherries contains -268,494 acres, of which 24,000 are under cultivation.</p> - -<p>The formation consists of syenitic granite, with veins -of basaltic rock, hornblende, and quartz, while, in some -parts, half-decomposed laterite underlies the soil. The plateau -is not a flat table-land, but a succession of undulating -hills and intervening grassy valleys, with ravines thickly -wooded, numerous streams, and occasional rocky ridges -running up into fine mountain-peaks. The streams all go<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> -to swell the great river Cauvery, by its tributaries the Moyaar -and Bowany; the Moyaar descending from the hills by a -fine waterfall at Neddiwuttum, on the northern slope; and -the Bowany flowing down between the Koondahs and Neilgherries -to the south. The soil of the plateau is very rich, -being formed by the decomposition of basaltic and hornblende -rocks, mixed with the clayey products of the granite, -and much decomposed vegetable matter. The latter consists -of the grass killed down to the roots by the frost, washed -in by the succeeding rains, and mixed with the subsoil, -increasing its richness and depth season after season. The -richest land is on the lower slopes, where there are accumulations -of soil washed from the hills above:<a name="FNanchor_400_400" id="FNanchor_400_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a> and there -are extensive deposits of peat in the valleys, which afford -supplies of fuel. The chief defect in the soil is the absence -of lime.</p> - -<p>The temperature and amount of humidity vary according -to the locality. At Ootacamund, 7300 feet above the sea, -the means of the thermometer range from 42° to 68°, while -in the two other lower and warmer stations of Coonoor and -Kotergherry, about 6000 feet above the sea, the range is -from 52° to 71°. The annual rainfall at Ootacamund is -sixty inches, at Coonoor fifty-five inches, and at Kotergherry -fifty inches. During the south-west monsoon, from May to -September, the rain comes down in torrents at Sispara, -and in the western parts of the Neilgherries, but their force -is somewhat exhausted before reaching Ootacamund, in the -centre of the plateau. At that station the rainfall, during -the south-west monsoon, is about thirty-four inches; and the -range of Dodabetta, which rises up like a wall, immediately -to the eastward of Ootacamund, almost entirely screens the -eastern part of the hills from the rains of the south-west mon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span>soon, -and there the rainfall is only twelve inches from May to -September. During the portion of the year from October -to April the western parts of the hills are comparatively dry, -the prevalent winds are from the north-east, and the rains -which they bring with them from the Madras coast do not -extend farther west than the neighbourhood of Ootacamund. -Kotergherry, and the eastern parts of the hills, receive the -full benefit of the rains from the north-east monsoon, but -they are not heavy, and the rainfall at Kotergherry, in that -season, is thirty-eight inches. Ootacamund also gets some -of the rain of the north-east monsoon (thirty-six inches), -so that, in that central part of the plateau, there is a -belt which receives a moderate supply of rain throughout the -year. In January and December there are frosts in the -night, and the extreme radiation which goes on in the valleys -causes great cold at sunrise; but these frosts are confined to -the valleys in the upper plateau, and they never visit the -higher slopes, or the well-wooded "<i>sholas</i>."</p> - -<p>The climates of the Neilgherry hills are the most delightful -in the world; and it may be said of this salubrious region, -with its equable seasons, what the Persian poet said of Kung, -"the warmth is not heat, and the coolness is not cold."<a name="FNanchor_401_401" id="FNanchor_401_401"></a><a href="#Footnote_401_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a> On -the open plateau, in the wooded <i>sholas</i>, and in the thick -forests of the lower slopes, there is a great variety of beautiful -flowering trees and shrubs; and the vegetation of the hills is -both varied and luxuriant. First, in the brilliant splendour of -its flowers, must be mentioned the tree rhododendron (<i>Rhododendron -arboreum</i>), which is very common in all parts of the -hills, either forming small thickets or dotted about on the -grassy slopes. It grows to a height of twenty feet, with a -gnarled stunted trunk, and masses of deep crimson flowers. -In the "sholas" are the <i>Michelia nilagiraca</i>, a large tree, with -yellowish-white fragrant flowers of great size; the <i>Symplocos<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span> -pulchra</i>, with hairy leaves and snow-white flowers; the <i>Ilex -Wightiana</i>, a large umbrageous tree, with small white flowers -and red berries; the pretty pink-flowered <i>Rhodo-myrtus tomentosa</i>, -the berries of which are called "hill gooseberries;" the -<i>Jasminum revolutum</i>, a shrub with sweet yellow flowers; the -<i>Sapota elingoides</i>, a fine forest-tree, with rough cracked bark, -and an edible fruit used in curries; <i>Crotalariæ</i>; <i>Bignoniæ</i>; -peppers, cinnamon, a number of chinchonaceous shrubs, and -many others.</p> - -<p>In the open grassy slopes and near the edges of the wooded -ravines are several <i>Vaccinia</i>, especially the <i>Vaccinium Leschenaultii</i>, -a shrub with pretty rose-coloured flowers; the beautiful -<i>Osbeckia Gardneriana</i>, with a profusion of large purple -flowers; the handsome <i>Viburnum Wightianum</i>; a number of -balsams (<i>Impatiens</i> of several species); the <i>Gaultheria Leschenaultii</i> -in great quantities, a pretty little shrub with white -flowers and blue berries; the <i>Berberis Mahonia</i>, with its -glossy prickly leaves and long slender racemes of yellow -flowers; and the bright little pink <i>Indigofera pulchella</i>; while -the climbing passion-flower (<i>Passiflora Leschenaultii</i>) hangs -in festoons over the trees, especially in the eastern parts of the -hills. Among the more inconspicuous plants are the <i>Gallium -requienianum</i>; the <i>Rubia cordifolia</i>;<a name="FNanchor_402_402" id="FNanchor_402_402"></a><a href="#Footnote_402_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> the thorny <i>Solanum -ferox</i>, with stem and leaves covered with strong straight -prickles; the <i>Girardinia Leschenaultii</i>,<a name="FNanchor_403_403" id="FNanchor_403_403"></a><a href="#Footnote_403_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a> or Neilgherry nettle, -a most virulent stinger; the tall <i>Lobelia excelsa</i>; a <i>Justitia</i>, -with a blue flower, which entirely covers some of the hills; -some pretty <i>Sonerilas</i>; several beautiful <i>Ipomœas</i> and <i>lilies;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span> -elsias</i>; and the <i>Hypericum Hookerianum</i>, growing plentifully -in the meadows, with large orange flowers; besides ferns, -lycopods, and numberless small wild flowers in the grass and -underwood.</p> - -<p>Enjoying a delightful climate, well supplied with water, -and with its gentle undulations of hill and dale in some -places clothed with rich pasture, in others presenting woods -of fine timber and beautiful flowering shrubs, the Neilgherry -hills are eminently fitted for the abode of a thriving and -civilized people. Yet for many centuries it would appear -that their sole inhabitants were a strange race of cowherds, a -people differing in all respects from their neighbours in the -plains, and indeed from all the other natives of Hindostan.</p> - -<p>These are the Todars, a race numbering less than a thousand -souls, who now claim to be the original "Lords of the -hills." In times so remote that no record of them remains -there are still indications that the Indian peninsula was -peopled by races of Scythic origin: and, when the Aryan -warriors came forth with their Vedic hymns and grand old -civilization from the fastnesses of Sind, they swept irresistibly -over Hindostan, and formed as it were an upper stratum of -the population. The Scythic element either mixed with, or -became subservient to the Aryan in the plains, as the Sudra -caste, while in the hill and forest fastnesses a few tribes -remained isolated and independent. Such, possibly, may -have been the origin of the Todars on the Neilgherries. -The Brahmins, characteristically dovetailing every tradition -and every race into one or other of their historical myths, -declare that the Todars came from the north in the army of -Rama, when he marched against the wicked Ravana; and -that, deserting their chief, they fled to these hills. They -themselves have no tradition of their origin, but believe that -they were created on the hills.</p> - -<p>They are certainly a very remarkable and interesting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span> -people, tall, well-proportioned, and athletic, and utterly -unlike all other natives of India. They have Jewish features, -with aquiline noses, hazel eyes, thick lips, bushy black beards, -and immensely thick clusters of glossy hair cut so as to stand -in dense masses round the sides of the head, a very necessary -protection from the sun, as they never wear any other head-covering. -The old men are very handsome, with long white -beards and upright gait, looking like the patriarchs of the -Old Testament, with their strongly marked Jewish features: -but the expressions of the younger men are less agreeable to -look upon. The women are very careful of their hair, which -hangs down in long glossy ringlets; and both sexes wear -nothing but a long piece of coarse cotton cloth, with two -broad red stripes round the edges, worn by the men like a -Roman toga, which sets off their well-shaped limbs to advantage, -and exposes one leg entirely, up to the hip; and by the -women so as to form a short petticoat and mantle. They -never wash either their persons or their clothes from the day -of their birth to the day of their death. They live in small -encampments called <i>munds</i>, which are scattered over the -hills, and consist of five or six huts, and a larger one used as -a dairy. The families are in the habit of migrating from one -<i>mund</i> to another, at certain seasons of the year; so that we -often came upon a <i>mund</i> apparently abandoned. A Todar's -hut is exactly like the tilt of a waggon, very neatly roofed, -with the ends boarded in, and a single low entrance. They -are generally surrounded by a stone wall, and the dairy, a -larger and more important building, is always a little apart. -The only occupation of this singular people is to tend their -large herds of fine buffaloes; they live on milk, and on the -grain which they collect as a due or <i>goodoo</i> from the other -hill tribes, and pass the greater part of their time in idleness; -lolling about and gossiping in their munds, or strolling over -the hills. We passed through one of these munds, about a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> -quarter of a mile from our hotel, almost daily, but I never -remember having seen a Todar engaged in any occupation -whatever.</p> - -<p>The women become the wives of all the brothers into -whose families they marry, the children being apportioned to -husbands according to seniority. This pernicious custom is -also common among the Coorg, and the Tiars of Malabar. -The Todars, formerly, only allowed one female child to live -in each family, the rest being strangled; but the authorities -have lately interfered to put a stop to this custom. -When a Todar bride is given away, she is brought to the -dwelling of her husbands, who each put their feet upon her -head; she is then sent to fetch water for cooking, and the -ceremony is considered to be complete.</p> - -<p>The German missionaries, who have had a good deal of -intercourse with these people, say that they worship the -"sacred buffalo bell," as a representation of <i>Hiridea</i>, or the -chief God, before which they pour libations of milk; and -when there is a dispute about wives or buffaloes it is decided -by the priest, who becomes possessed by the <i>Bell God</i>, rushes -frantically about, and pronounces in favour of the richest. -Formerly there were seven holy <i>munds</i>, each inhabited by a -recluse called <i>palaul</i> (milkman), attended upon by a <i>kavilaul</i> -(herdsman); but three of these are now deserted, and the -fourth is rarely frequented. The rest have a herd of holy -buffaloes attached to them for the use of the sanctified occupants, -and no women may approach them. The only religious -festival of any kind celebrated by the Todars, and that -scarcely deserves the name, takes place on the occasion of a -funeral, when there is much dancing and music. The body -is burnt, and buffaloes are slaughtered to go with the spirit, -and supply it with milk. This is called the green funeral. -A year afterwards there is another ceremony called the dry -funeral, when forty or fifty buffaloes were hunted down, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> -beaten to death with clubs; but the Government has recently -prohibited the immolation of more than two beasts for a rich, -and one for a poor Todar. The burial-places are like gigantic -extinguishers, twelve feet high, and thatched with grass. The -bodies are burnt, and the ashes collected and put into -chatties, which are deposited in the extinguisher. The -Todars have no other ceremonies, care for nothing but their -buffaloes, and leave prayers to the <i>palaul</i> in his lonely retreat, -or to the <i>palikarpal</i> or dairyman of each mund, who covers -his nose with his thumb when he enters the sacred dairy, and -says "May all be well!"<a name="FNanchor_404_404" id="FNanchor_404_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_404_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a></p> - -<p>The Todar language is a very rude dialect of the old -Canarese, and similar to that of the Badagas, another hill -tribe. It is very poor in words conveying abstract ideas, as -they have few notions beyond their buffaloes; their verbs -have generally but one tense, and they express the future -and past by means of adverbs of time.<a name="FNanchor_405_405" id="FNanchor_405_405"></a><a href="#Footnote_405_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a></p> - -<p>There are many ancient cairns and <i>tumuli</i> on the peaks of -the Neilgherries, and it has been objected that they cannot be -assigned to the ancestors of the Todars, because agricultural -implements have been found in them, and these people never -cultivate the ground. But it must be remembered that the -Todars now extort <i>goodoo</i> or tribute of grain from the other -hill tribes, and that it is their only food. It must be inferred, -therefore, that, before they discovered this easy mode of procuring -food, and previous to the arrival of these weaker agricultural -tribes on the hills, the Todars must have been their -own cultivators. The hill people attribute all ancient ruins, -of the origin of which they know nothing, to the Pandus, -the famous heroes of Hindu tradition; and all that can be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> -said of these Neilgherry cairns is that they are probably the -work of an unknown extinct race, who practised Druidical -rites.<a name="FNanchor_406_406" id="FNanchor_406_406"></a><a href="#Footnote_406_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a></p> - -<p>We visited several of these remains of an ancient people. -On the summit of the peak of Kalhutty, on the left hand of -the road leading down the Seegoor ghaut to the Mysore -plains, whence there is a grand view of mountain scenery, -forest-clad slopes, and a wide expanse of country stretching -away to the horizon, we found several old cairns. They were -of great size, built of immense stones, and hollow in the -centre. On another peak, called Ibex Hill, one side of which -is a scarped cliff many hundreds of feet in height, overhanging -the Seegoor ghaut, we also found two huge cairns, -forming a circle about eight feet in diameter. There are -many others in different parts of the hills, generally on the -highest peaks, and iron spear-heads, bells, sepulchral urns -with figures of coiled snakes, tigers, elephants, dogs, and -birds on them, sickles and gold rings have been found buried -under the piles of stones.</p> - -<p>The Todars, as has been said, are the "lords of the hills," -and not only all the other hill tribes pay them tribute, but -the English Government also pays rent to them for the land -on which the stations are situated.<a name="FNanchor_407_407" id="FNanchor_407_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_407_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a> But the agricultural -tribe of Burghers or Badagas, who came to the hills several -centuries after the Todars, and are subject to them, are by -far the most numerous, numbering 15,000 souls, and occupying -300 villages. They are divided into eighteen classes -or castes, the members of one of which, called the Wodearu -Badagas, wear the Brahminical string, are proud and lazy, -and inhabit five villages apart from the rest. The villages<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span> -of the Badagas are scattered all over the plateau of the hills, -and their land occupies two-thirds of its area. They are -much darker, and not nearly such fine men as the Todars, -wear cotton-cloth turbans and clothing much like other -natives of India, and are very superstitious and timid; but -they are industrious, though not so much so as the labourers -who come up from the plains, and kind and affectionate to -their women and children. The Badagas, though they possess -herds of buffaloes, are chiefly employed in cultivation. Their -crops consist of <i>raggee</i> (<i>Eleusine corocana</i>), the most prolific -of cultivated grasses,<a name="FNanchor_408_408" id="FNanchor_408_408"></a><a href="#Footnote_408_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a> which is made into dark brown cakes -and porridge; <i>samee</i> or Italian millet, barley, an amaranth -called <i>keeray</i>, some pulses, mustard, onions, and potatoes. -We often passed through the Badaga villages. The houses -are built in a single row, with one thatched roof extending -over so as to form a verandah, supported on poles. In front -there is a hard mud floor, where the piles of grain are heaped -up; and there is generally a <i>Swami</i>-house or temple, with a -verandah in front supported by numerous poles, the walls -and poles being painted in red and white stripes, the Hindu -holy colour. Round the villages there are cultivated patches -of <i>raggee</i> and <i>samee</i>, which they were reaping in December. -In the centre of the fields there is a small threshing-floor, -where we often saw the Badagas sifting the grain from the -chaff by shaking it through sieves, and letting the wind blow -the chaff away. A Todar was generally squatting near, like -an old vulture, waiting for his <i>goodoo</i>. The Badagas belong -to the Siva sect, their principal deity being Rungaswamy, -whose temple is on the summit of the easternmost peak of -the Neilgherries; but they also worship 338 other idols or -<i>Swamis</i>, such as trees, streams, stone pillars, and even old -knives.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span></p> - -<p>Another hill tribe is that of the Koters, who occupy seven -large villages called <i>Kotergherry</i> (cowkiller's hill). They -are of very low caste, and work as carpenters, smiths, rope-makers, -and potters, besides cultivating the ground. The -Koters also dress and prepare buffalo-hides, and they are -a squalid dirty race, living on the carrion they pick up on -the road-sides. They number about five hundred souls, and -are the artizans of the hills, repairing the ploughs, hoes, and -bill-hooks for the Badagas.</p> - -<p>The Kurumbers, another tribe, live on the slopes of the -hills, in the most feverish places. They are a short miserable-looking -race, and those called <i>Mooloo</i> or jungle Kurumbers -are regular wild men of the woods, in no respect raised -above the beasts of the forest. The others act as musicians -and sorcerers to the Todars and Badagas.</p> - -<p>Lastly, the Irulas live low down the slopes of the hills, -perform the office of priests in the Badagas' temple on the -Rungaswamy peak, and occasionally act plays from the life -of Krishna at Badaga festivals.</p> - -<p>These five tribes of Todars, Badagas, Koters, Kurumbers, -and Irulas, appear for centuries to have had the exclusive -enjoyment of the Neilgherry hills; though Tippoo Sultan of -Mysore erected a fort at Kalhutty, half-way up the Seegoor -ghaut, and another on the Hoolicul-droog, overhanging the -Coonoor ghaut, which leads up from the Coimbatore plains. -He is said to have used these strongholds for the detention of -prisoners, and to enable his officers to extort tribute from the -hill tribes. The Neilgherry hills were first discovered by two -English civilians who made their way up to the plateau in -chasing some Moplah smugglers.<a name="FNanchor_409_409" id="FNanchor_409_409"></a><a href="#Footnote_409_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a></p> - -<p>In 1820 Mr. John Sullivan, then Collector of Coimbatore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span> -built the first house in Ootacamund, on the site of a Todar -mund of the same name.<a name="FNanchor_410_410" id="FNanchor_410_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> It is now used as the building for -the Lawrence Asylum. The first sanatarium on the hills, -however, was at Dimhutty, on the eastern side, and at the -adjoining station of Kotergherry, but the former is now -abandoned. The delightful climate soon attracted crowds of -visitors from the burning plains; many houses gradually rose -up on the grassy slopes round the lake which was formed at -Ootacamund by bunding up one end of the valley, and the -place rapidly became an important hill-station. A small -native town and bazaar sprang up on the banks of the lake, a -handsome church was erected, a club-house, and, most conspicuous -of all, an immense Parsee shop kept by Framjee -Nusserwanjee of Bombay. The roads are excellent, and planted -with tall graceful Acacia and gum-trees from Australia, and -many of the houses are surrounded by beautiful gardens and -shrubberies. The most charming, perhaps, is that of the late -Bishop Dealtry, called Bishops-down, whence there is a -glorious view of the station on one side, and of the distant -Koondah hills, overtopped by the sharp peak of Makoorty, on -the other. Advantage has here been taken of a wooded <i>shola</i> to -make pleasant shady walks, and cut vistas through the trees.</p> - -<p>The warmer station of Coonoor is about nine miles from -Ootacamund, at the head of the ghaut which leads down -to the plains of Coimbatore. Here the scenery is far more -beautiful than at the central station, as the wooded sides -of the ghaut run up into a fine peak called the Hoolicul-droog, -and the view extends far away over the plains. The -houses are perched on the rounded tops of a range of hills, -and there is a church with a fine tower, which is a great -addition to the view of Coonoor from the surrounding eminences. -A mile from Coonoor, in the direction of Ootacamund,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span> -is the military station of Jakatalla, the finest barracks I ever -saw in any part of the world. It is well sheltered by high -hills from the cold north winds to which Ootacamund is -exposed, as well as from the south-west monsoon, and is in -every respect admirably adapted as a sanatarium for soldiers -and their families. It has been maintained that the children -of Europeans cannot be reared even on the hills of India, -though upon what grounds this extraordinary assertion is -based I have not yet learnt. The strongest arguments against -this idea are the fresh rosy cheeks and rude health of the -boys and girls in the Lawrence asylum, and of the boys and -young men at Mr. Pope's<a name="FNanchor_411_411" id="FNanchor_411_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_411_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a> and Mr. Nash's schools in Ootacamund, -who present a striking contrast to the children on the -plains. The bracing climate of the upper plateau of these -hills appears to me to be perfectly well adapted for European -colonists: it has all the advantages with none of the disadvantages -of England, and there are no influences which can -be detrimental to English constitutions. At the time of our -visit a battalion of the 60th Rifles, and a number of convalescent -soldiers from other regiments, were stationed at -Jakatalla. The quarters for the men are built round a -large quadrangle, with an upper story, and airy corridors for -exercise in wet weather. Beyond are the married quarters -for ninety couples, each with two comfortable rooms and a -little garden; and there are also a hospital, library, schoolrooms, -substantially-built skittle-alley with brick arches, fives-court, -and swimming-bath. The officers are quartered in -bungalows on the surrounding hill-slopes, or at Coonoor. It -would be well if the whole of the European troops in the -Madras Presidency were permanently quartered on the Neilgherry -and other hills as soon as the railroads are completed. -Many of the married men might be permitted to cultivate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span> -and settle on land of their own, with their families, subject to -the condition of being liable to be called on to serve if required, -and a sort of military colony might thus be formed. -There is excellent pasture for flocks of sheep, wheat may -be grown in any quantity, and there is not the slightest -danger to Europeans in undertaking field labour.</p> - -<p>The English settler on the Neilgherries will find English -fruits, flowers, vegetables, and grasses, the introduction of which -is mainly due to the exertions of Mr. William G. McIvor, the -Superintendent of the Government gardens at Ootacamund, -and now also Superintendent of Chinchona plantations in -Southern India. This gentleman has been in charge of the -gardens at Ootacamund since 1848, and unites zeal, intelligence, -and skill to the talent and experience of an excellent -practical gardener. Under his auspices the steep slopes of -one of the spurs, which run off from the peak of Dodabetta, -and overlook the cantonment of Ootacamund, have been -converted into a tastefully laid-out garden, in a succession of -terraces. Hampered at first by the interference of a useless -committee, and with no assistance beyond that of an East -Indian foreman and labourers from the Mysore plains, he -has succeeded in changing the wild mountain-sides into a -very beautiful public garden. Every point of view is taken -advantage of with admirable taste, and numerous trees and -flowering shrubs have been introduced from England, Australia, -and other countries, while the native flora of the hills -is fully represented. There are English roses and geraniums, -ponds bordered by white arums, shady walks over-arched -by trellis-work, tasteful vases filled with showy -flowers, thickets of rhododendrons, hedges of heliotrope and -fuchsia, fine clumps of tall spreading trees, and, from the upper -terraces, between the leafy branches, there are glorious views -of the Ootacamund valley, and of the finely broken range of -the distant Koondah hills.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span></p> - -<p>Mr. McIvor also has a small branch-garden at Kalhutty, -about half-way down the Seegoor ghaut, leading to the -Mysore plains, for raising fruits which require a warmer -climate. This garden is self-supporting. A magnificent -waterfall descends into a rocky basin close beside it, and the -garden contains oranges of many kinds, shaddocks, lemons, -limes, citrons, nutmegs, loquats, and plantains. On this spot -the delicious chirimoyas, the seeds of which we brought from -Peru, will hereafter ripen, and enable the people of India to -taste the "masterpiece of nature."</p> - -<p>European enterprise on the Neilgherries has hitherto been -chiefly directed towards the cultivation of coffee, and there -are several fine estates near Coonoor. On the 15th of -November we set out from Ootacamund to visit them, and -rode down the valley of Kaitee, where the house stands which -once belonged to Lord Elphinstone, certainly not in a well-selected -spot. It was originally chosen for a Government -farm, which was given up, and the house was then occupied -for a short time by the Governor of Pondicherry. Lord -Elphinstone, when Governor of Madras, took a fancy to the -place, erected a very substantial house, finished it handsomely, -and frequently resided there. In 1845 the property -was bought by Mr. Casamajor of the Civil Service, who -established a school there for Badaga children, on the principle -of paying them for coming, at the rate of 1 anna a day. -On his death he left it to the Basle Evangelical Missionaries, -by whom it is now occupied. They have schools, and labour -amongst the Badagas, but as yet with scarcely any success.</p> - -<p>The stream which drains the Kaitee valley forms a very -beautiful waterfall down the face of a cliff into the Karteri -valley, where there is a small coffee estate worked by a -Frenchman; and, after crossing a range of hills, in parts -thickly wooded, and in parts covered with a shrubby <i>Justitia</i> -with a blue flower, we reached the coffee plantation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span> -Hoolicul,<a name="FNanchor_412_412" id="FNanchor_412_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_412_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a> owned by Mr. Stainbank. The highest part of his -estate is 5700 feet above the sea,<a name="FNanchor_413_413" id="FNanchor_413_413"></a><a href="#Footnote_413_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a> and here he has twenty-five -acres planted in rather poor soil. Below his house there -are about forty-five more acres planted, down the steep slopes -of the hill, some of the bushes in very good bearing. They -are thick, as he is against pruning the branches, saying that -when covered by leafy branches the fruit ripens by degrees, -and consequently requires less labour in picking. The estate -has passed through several hands, and the oldest trees -were planted seventeen years ago. Mr. Stainbank expects -eventually to get fifty tons of coffee off this estate, in the -year. An acre will occasionally yield twenty-five hundredweight.</p> - -<p>The view from the house is very fine. The plantation -slopes away by a very steep descent, and in the distance are -the Lambton's Peak range of mountains, and the wide plains -of Coimbatore.</p> - -<p>Leaving Hoolicul, we again descended into the ravine of -Karteri, where the river passes close under the steep face of -the hills on which the station of Coonoor stands, and on the -slopes of the opposite mountains there are several coffee -estates. Mr. Dawson, a son of the landlord of the hotel at -Ootacamund, has 100 acres planted; but the most extensive -estate, on the steep slopes overlooking the ghaut leading -down into the Coimbatore plains, belongs to Mr. Stanes. He -has 200 acres planted with 250,000 trees, up the precipitous -sides of the mountain, facing east, and protected from the -excessive rains of the S.W. monsoon. The elevation above -the sea is upwards of 4800 feet. On the summits of the -mountains above this estate Mr. Stanes has induced the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span> -Todars to form two cattle crawls, whence manure is washed -down to his plantation. The trees are planted in rows, 6 to -8 feet apart, and regularly topped and pruned, so as to -admit the sun to ripen the fruit on every branch. They are -from 4 to 6 feet high, and planted in holes 20 inches deep -by 18; the young plants being brought from a nursery, -where seedlings are raised. The trees are generally in full -bearing in the third year. After the berries are picked, and -brought in baskets to the <i>godown</i> or warehouse, the pulp or -fleshy part has to be removed. The berries are placed in -heaps in a loft, above the <i>pulper</i>, looking bright and red like -ripe cherries. They are then sent down a shoot, into which -a stream of water is conducted, and are thus washed into the -pulper. On Mr. Stanes's estate this machine is worked by a -water-wheel, but generally it is turned by hand and a fly-wheel. -The pulper is a roller covered with a sheet of copper, -made rough like a nutmeg-grater. The berries fall on it as -it goes round, but there is only room for the seed to pass, so -that the pulp is squeezed off, and carried away by a stream -thrown off by the water-wheel, while the naked coffee drops -on the other side. The seeds are still covered with glutinous -matter, to remove which they are well washed in a cistern, -the inferior ones floating, while the good ones sink. The -coffee-seeds are then laid out on the <i>barbecus</i>, square platforms -of brick plastered with <i>chunam</i>, with sides a foot high; -where they dry in the sun for about three days, and are -afterwards stored in the godowns.</p> - -<p>It is estimated that an acre of jungle on the Neilgherries -may be cleared for 200 Rs., including all expenses. The -coffee-seedlings, from the nursery, may be planted out in -seven months, and they will yield a first crop in three years. -Coffee-seeds are 5 Rs. a bushel, and that quantity will rear -10,000 plants, covering 10 acres. One acre ought to yield -one ton, when well cultivated, selling at Calicut, uncleaned,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span> -for 4 annas the pound. In three years the estate ought to -pay 10 per cent. on the capital expended, if well conducted; -the next year the gross profit should increase to 60 per cent., -and afterwards to 100 per cent. A good dwelling-house will -cost 4000 Rs.; the pulping-house, machinery, and godowns, -4000 Rs. more. Carpenters get 20 Rs. a month, bricklayers -15 Rs., with 2 annas a day batta for coming out of the town, -and common labourers 4½ Rs.</p> - -<p>The Neilgherry planters have great advantages in the way -of means of conveyance from their estates to Calicut and Beypoor, -their ports of shipment. The coffee is carried down the -Coonoor ghaut on pack-bullocks to Matepoliem, and thence -in carts along a good road, by Palghatchery, to the sea-coast. -Generally the coffee from the Neilgherry estates is bought -by Mr. Perry and Mr. Andrews at Calicut, in rather a dirty -state. They have garbling-machines for clearing away all -remaining dry pulp, and removing the outer coat from the -seeds; and they make their profit by shipping the coffee and -selling it in a clean state fit for European use. Neilgherry -coffee has an excellent name in the London market.</p> - -<p>Europeans, on the Neilgherries, hold land by a <i>puttum</i> or -grant from Government, leasing it in perpetuity, so long as -the assessment is paid, which is fixed at 1 R. per acre of -coffee-land, levied after the third year. By the resolution -of the Madras Government, dated August 5th, 1859, the terms -on which waste lands can be purchased were regulated. -These orders apply to all the regions in Southern India -which are suited for coffee or chinchona cultivation. It was -resolved to sell outright the fee-simple of all land used for -building, and of waste land in the hills, without reservation -of quit-rent, and with an absolute and indefeasible title, -sold to the highest bidder at an upset price, at twenty times -the amount of yearly quit-rent or land-tax. A title-deed -will be given under the seal of the Government, declaring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span> -the absolute title of the holder, free from all demands on -account of land-revenue, with full powers to dispose of the -land at pleasure, but not exempting it from payments for -municipal purposes. Other parties, however, claiming a -previous right in the land, will be free to sue the holder in -the Civil Courts, up to a certain time, so that it will be -necessary to make careful investigations on this point before -purchasing. When the land-tax is not redeemed, Government -will issue permanent title-deeds, reserving a quit-rent, -and the holder will be free to redeem the tax, on the same -terms, at any future time.</p> - -<p>With regard to labour on the Neilgherries, there used to -be abundant supplies of coolies from Mysore and Coimbatore, -but they have recently fallen off, owing to competition on -the railway works. Mr. Stanes was paying his labourers -4½ Rs. a month, and women 3½ Rs. He told me that he was -particular always to pay every labourer himself, and to be -very kind to them, by which means he never found any -difficulty in procuring labour. Some of the planters get the -services of Badagas, and even of some Kurumbers in the -picking-time, but the hill tribes are not generally willing to -work on the coffee plantations. There are fifteen coffee -estates on the Neilgherry hills.</p> - -<p>But the oldest coffee-district in Southern India is Wynaad, -a forest-covered plateau about 3000 feet above the sea, which -adjoins the Neilgherries on the north. In this district there -are upwards of thirty coffee-plantations, some of them, such -as that of Messrs. Campbell and Ouchterlony, near the ascent -to the Neilgherry hills, being very extensive.<a name="FNanchor_414_414" id="FNanchor_414_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_414_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a> There is a -great rainfall in Wynaad during the S.W. monsoon, and the -crops are very abundant; but at the same time the coffee is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span> -not so good as that grown in drier situations, such as the -Neilgherries near Coonoor, though the yield is greater. -Most of the available land is already taken up. The labour -is derived from Mysore, whence the coolies come, often from -distances of sixty or seventy miles, returning to their families -when their wages are paid. In 1860 the tax on coffee-estates -in Wynaad was fixed at 2 Rs. an acre on land actually -planted, to be imposed in the third year, at which time the -trees are in bearing.<a name="FNanchor_415_415" id="FNanchor_415_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_415_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a></p> - -<p>The export trade in coffee, from all the hill-districts of -Southern India, was, in 1859-60, as follows:—</p> - - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc">Quantity.</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdc">Value.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">From the ports of Malabar</td><td class="tdr">7,35,19,26</td><td class="tdl">lbs.</td><td class="tdr">7,35,177</td><td class="tdl">Rs</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">From the ports of Canara</td><td class="tdr">5,13,36,35</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">8,66,644</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">From the ports of Tinnevelly</td><td class="tdr">23,36,93</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">23,387</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">From the port of Madras</td><td class="tdr">8,15,89,74</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr">2,49,846</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr bt bb">20,87,82,28</td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdr bt bb">18,75,054</td></tr> -</table></div> - - -<p>In connexion with the clearing of forests for coffee-cultivation, -it is imperative that due attention should be paid to the -preservation of valuable timber, and the conservancy of the -belts of wood near the sources and along the upper courses of -streams, so as to ensure the usual supplies of water, and to -retain a due amount of moisture in the atmosphere. For the -superintendence of these important measures, together with -other duties, Dr. Cleghorn has been placed at the head of a -Forest Conservancy Department in the Madras Presidency. -He strongly urges that the high wooded mountain-tops overhanging -the low country should not be allowed to be cleared -for coffee-cultivation, lest the supplies of water should be -injured.<a name="FNanchor_416_416" id="FNanchor_416_416"></a><a href="#Footnote_416_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a> "The courses of rivulets," he says, "should be -overshadowed with trees, and the hills should therefore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span> -be left clothed for a distance of half their height from the -top, leaving half the slopes and all the valleys for cultivation. -Immense tracts of virgin forest in the valleys of the -Koondah hills are eminently suited for coffee-cultivation. -The clearing should only be allowed from 2500 to 4500 feet, -this being the extreme range within which coffee planted on -a large scale is found to thrive."</p> - -<p>There are still thousands of acres of uncleared forests, at -suitable elevations, well adapted for the growth of coffee, in -the cultivation of which the English capitalist would make -large and rapid profits; yet it is not many years since the -first coffee-plants were introduced into these hills. Coffee -now forms an important item in the exports from the Madras -Presidency. There is every reason to hope that the bark -from quinine-yielding chinchona-trees may also become one -of the valuable products of the hills; and in the following -chapter I propose to give an account of the selection of the -sites for the first experimental plantations.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a>CHAPTER XXIII.</h2> - -<p class="c">SELECTION OF SITES FOR CHINCHONA-PLANTATIONS ON -THE NEILGHERRY HILLS.</p> - -<p class="c"><span class="smallish">The Dodabetta site—The Neddiwuttum site.</span></p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> selecting sites for chinchona plantations in the Neilgherry -hills we had to compare the climate and other conditions of -growth which prevail in the chinchona forests and open -<i>pajonales</i> in the Andes with any similar localities which -might be found in Southern India. For the first experimental -sites, it was of course important that the resemblance, -as regards elevation, temperature, and humidity, should be -as close as possible; but there was every reason to hope -that, under cultivation, these plants, like most others, would -adapt themselves to conditions of soil and climate extending -over a far more extensive area.</p> - -<p>It was necessary to fix upon two sites in the first instance, -one at the highest point at which chinchona-plants were likely -to flourish, for the species from Loxa and others growing at -great elevations, and as an experimental plantation; and -another in a lower and warmer position for the plants of -<i>C. succirubra</i>, <i>C. Peruviana</i>, <i>C. micrantha</i>, and the tree -<i>C. Calisaya</i>. The highest point at which these plants will -flourish, and the greatest exposure they will bear without -injury, are the most favourable conditions for the formation -of quinine; while, if the <i>sholas</i> in the upper plateau of the -Neilgherry hills should prove to be adapted for their growth, -their cultivation might be indefinitely extended in a climate -suitable for English settlers.</p> - -<p>Previous to my arrival on the hills Mr. McIvor had se<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span>lected -a site for the highest plantation in a wooded ravine or -<i>shola</i> at the back of the hills which rise above the Government -gardens; and, after a careful examination, I came to the -conclusion that it was well suited for the growth of the hardier -species, and for the experimental culture of all the kinds -which have been introduced into India. It has been named -the "Dodabetta" site, from the peak, the highest point of -the Neilgherries, and 8640 feet above the sea, which rises -up immediately behind it.</p> - -<p>With regard to the species for which I considered the -Dodabetta site to be suitable, it will be well in this place to -recapitulate the circumstances under which they grow on -their native mountains.</p> - -<p>The shrub variety of <i>C. Calisaya</i> (lat. 13° to 15° S.) -flourishes in open <i>pajonales</i>, quite exposed, at elevations from -5000 to 7000 feet above the sea, and in April and May I -found the mean temperature to be 60⅓°, minimum 55°, and -range 17°. The <i>C. nitida</i> (lat. 10° S.) grows at similar elevations, -but we have no exact information respecting the temperature -and humidity. The varieties of <i>C. Condaminea</i> (lat. -4° S.) flourish at heights from 6000 to 8000 feet above the sea, -where the mean range is from 45° to 60°, in a moist climate, -and in exposed but always dry situations; and one kind, the -<i>C. crispa</i>, the seeds of which have been received in India and -Ceylon, grows in a deposit of peat, 8000 feet above the sea, -in a temperature falling as low as 27°.<a name="FNanchor_417_417" id="FNanchor_417_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_417_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a> The <i>C. lancifolia</i> -(lat. 5° N.) is found at 7000 feet above the sea and upwards, -where the annual range is from freezing-point to 75°, in an -exceedingly moist climate. The rainy season lasts for nine -months, when the constant rain is only interrupted in the day -by interchanging sun-rays and fog-clouds. In the dry season -cold clear nights follow days in which a warm sun penetrates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span> -through the fog, which almost constantly lies on the damp -foliage of the forest.<a name="FNanchor_418_418" id="FNanchor_418_418"></a><a href="#Footnote_418_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a> Mr. Cross mentions that he saw trees -of <i>C. succirubra</i> on his way to Loxa, growing at elevations of -from 8000 to 9000 feet above the sea.</p> - -<p>The site, in the Dodabetta ravine, slopes down from 7700 -to 7600 feet above the sea, yet, from local causes, it is several -degrees warmer than the station at Ootacamund; and the -temperature agrees with that of the species of chinchona-plants -described above. The annual temperature of the peak -of Dodabetta, of Ootacamund, and of the warmer station of -Kotergherry, are given on the following page.</p> - -<p>The Dodabetta site, being four or five degrees warmer than -Ootacamund, throughout the year, has a temperature, on -the whole, somewhat warmer than the lofty regions where -the species of chinchona grow, for the cultivation of which -this position was selected. The elevation above the -sea exactly corresponds, and the amount of humidity is -about the same. The ravine is full of fine trees, with a -variety of exposures, the general aspect being north-west; a -clear little stream flows through it; and, in most parts, the -soil consists of a rich loam four or five feet deep. Outside -the wooded ravine there are tree Rhododendrons, Berberis, -Gaultherias, lilies, Lycopodia, and brake-ferns, scattered -about on the grassy slopes; and the character of the scenery and -vegetation very closely resembles that of the <i>pajonal</i> country -between the valleys of Sandia and Tambopata in Caravaya, -where the shrub <i>Calisaya</i> flourishes. The site is protected by -rising grounds from the cold northerly winds, and the colder -breezes blowing over it from ridge to ridge prevent the -warm air in the ravine from rising, so that the temperature -became warmer as we ascended through the wood, and in the -highest part there were orchids and pepper-vines hanging on -the trees.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig18.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span></p> - -<p>The analogy between the flora of the Dodabetta ravine and -of the loftier parts of the chinchona region was another point -which influenced my decision. Within the ravine there are -nine species of chinchonaceous plants, namely—</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>Hedyotis Lawsoniæ.</i></td><td class="tdl bl"><i>Canthium umbellatum.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>Hedyotis stylosa.</i></td><td class="tdl bl"><i>Grumilea elongata.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>Lasianthus venulosus.</i></td><td class="tdl bl"><i>Grumilea congesta.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>Coffea alpestris.</i></td><td class="tdl bl"><i>Psychotria bisulcata.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>Coffea grumelioides.</i></td><td class="tdl bl"></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>These are mostly ornamental pretty shrubs, from six to eight -feet high, with clusters of white or cream-coloured flowers. -The other genera of which the wood is composed are as -follows:—<i>Vaccinium</i>, <i>Myrsine</i>, <i>Symplocos</i>, <i>Ilex</i>, <i>Michelia</i>, <i>Sapota</i>, -<i>Isonandra</i>, and <i>Cinnamon</i> among the trees; <i>Eugenia</i>, -<i>Myrtus</i>, <i>Jasminum</i>, <i>Osbeckia</i>, <i>Sonerila</i>, <i>Solanum</i>, <i>Viburnum</i>, -and <i>Acanthus</i> among shrubs; <i>Lonicera</i>, <i>Passiflora</i>, <i>Rubia</i>, -and <i>pepper-vines</i> among the climbers; with an undergrowth -of <i>Lobelia</i>, <i>Begonia</i>, <i>Convolvulus</i>, orchids, and ferns. The -<i>Osbeckias</i> and <i>Sonerilas</i> represent the melastomaceous plants, -the constant companions of chinchonæ in South America.</p> - -<p>It was no small advantage that this excellent site for a -chinchona plantation was close to the Government gardens, -and that it would thus be under the constant supervision -of Mr. McIvor. It receives a supply of moisture during -both monsoons, and is, therefore, as good a position as could -have been selected on the higher plateau of the Neilgherries, -though there are many <i>sholas</i> which will be found equally -well adapted for the growth of the hardier chinchonas. These -precious plants will, it is to be hoped, before very long, form -large plantations on all parts of the hills, and become one of -the most important products of the Neilgherries. In the -mean while Mr. McIvor, the Government Superintendent, -using the Dodabetta site as an experimental plantation, will -be enabled to demonstrate the successful results of chinchona -culture, and to raise thousands of plants for the supply of -private enterprise.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span></p> - -<p>The most extensive operations must, however, necessarily -be carried on at much lower elevations, where the <i>C. succirubra</i>, -the species richest in febrifugal alkaloids, will -flourish best, and where vast unoccupied forests afford space -for plantations on a large scale. A northern aspect is the one -best adapted for the vigorous growth of trees on the Neilgherry -hills, and we, therefore, proceeded to examine the -forest-covered slopes overlooking the table-lands of Wynaad -and Mysore, for a site for the lower chinchona plantation. -We started from Ootacamund early one November morning, -and rode across the central plateau of the hills, consisting of -rounded grassy undulations, intersected by wooded <i>sholas</i>. In -some of the hollows the streams had formed large swamps, -where there were extensive deposits of peat. The traveller's -bungalow of Pycarrah, the first on the road towards Wynaad, -is ten miles from Ootacamund, on the banks of a river of -the same name. Several huge boulders of syenite obstruct -the stream and cause it to foam noisily round them, and -the wet stones were covered with <i>Podostemads</i>, herbaceous -branched floating plants, with the habit of liverworts. We -saw several otters playing in the water, and peering at us -from behind the rocks. Six miles beyond Pycarrah is the -bungalow of Neddiwuttum, on the edge of the rapid descent -into Wynaad, and the road descends from the upland slopes -through a jungle where the ferns first appear, and maiden-hair, -ceterach, and other ferns grow by the roadside. Some -garden marigolds from England had been planted near the -Neddiwuttum bungalow, and they had spread themselves -in masses over the adjacent slopes.</p> - -<p>The tract of forest land which we came to examine is close -to the bungalow, and from the grassy hill above it there is -a glorious view of Wynaad, and of the plains of Mysore, -stretching away to the horizon. Here the mountains sink -abruptly down to the Wynaad table-land, and the Moyaar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span> -river thunders down in a long waterfall, divides Wynaad from -Mysore, and, flowing through a deep gorge to join the Bowany -in Coimbatore, eventually swells the waters of the great river -Cauvery. The land available for immediate occupation comprises -about 400 acres of uncleared forest on the mountain -slopes, at an elevation from a little over 6000 to a little under -5000 feet above the level of the sea, and with a mean temperature -about 8° warmer than that of Ootacamund.</p> - -<p>I selected this site for a plantation of <i>C. succirubra</i>, <i>C. -Calisaya</i>, <i>C. micrantha</i>, and the very delicate <i>C. Peruviana</i>, -because, with a good supply of water, and a deep rich soil on -a base of decomposing laterite and syenite, it had a suitable -elevation above the sea, temperature, and amount of humidity. -The information we possess on these points, with regard to -the above species, is by no means complete; but it is sufficiently -exact to enable us to form a correct opinion. Mr. -Spruce gives the following details respecting the climate of -the region of <i>C. succirubra</i>, in latitude 1° 40´ S. The zone -of the "red bark" is from 2450 to 5000 feet above the sea.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig19.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span></p> - -<p>From the 1st of June to the 31st of December is the dry -season in the "red-bark" region, when the days are usually -sunny in the early morning, and mists generally begin to form -as the sun declines; while after the autumnal equinox there -are heavy rains and thunder-storms. In the wet season the -early part of the day is foggy, and there is heavy continuous -rain during the afternoons and nights. In the region of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, -from 13° to 16° S. lat., and from 4000 to 6000 feet above -the sea, the dry season lasts from April to the end of August. -April and August are showery months. May is also showery, -but clear in the forenoons, and the mean temperature during -the first half is 69°, mean maximum 71½°, and mean minimum -62½°. June and July are hot dry months, with little rain, a -bright hot sun in the day, but cold clear nights. In September -the rains begin, increase in October, and pour down incessantly -from the beginning of November to the middle of March, -with very hot, damp days and nights. We have no detailed -information respecting the region of <i>C. micrantha</i> and <i>C. -Peruviana</i>, species which flourish in 10° S. lat., from 4000 to -5500 feet above the sea. From May to November the sun -shines powerfully, yet heavy rains fell from day to day in -June and July 1860, and it was not until August that the -days were clear and bright. At Casapi, in this region, where -a register was kept, it rained during half the days in the -year.<a name="FNanchor_419_419" id="FNanchor_419_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a> From November to May is the rainy season, and -sometimes the rain pours down for six or seven days without -intermission.<a name="FNanchor_420_420" id="FNanchor_420_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_420_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a></p> - -<p>The Neddiwuttum site, being about 8° or 10° warmer than -Ootacamund, has a temperature exactly similar to that of the -forests where the above species of chinchonæ flourish. Its -elevation above the sea is also the same as that of the chinchona -forests. It is true that Mr. Spruce gives the extreme<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span> -upper limit of the "red-bark" region at 5000 feet; but Mr. -Cross saw that species growing at an elevation of 8000 feet; -and the great importance of cultivating this species at the -highest possible elevation is demonstrated by Mr. Spruce's -observation that the bark of trees growing low down and -near the plains is by no means so thick as that of trees -which flourish in a loftier and more temperate climate.<a name="FNanchor_421_421" id="FNanchor_421_421"></a><a href="#Footnote_421_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a> The -Neddiwuttum site is within the limit of the region which -receives both monsoons. Though protected to some extent -from the south-west, it receives a full share of the rains during -the summer, and is also supplied with moisture by the north-east -monsoon, coming across Mysore between October and -December. During the remaining months it is visited by -mists and heavy dews in the nights until the south-west -monsoon again commences in May. It will probably be -found that these species of chinchonæ will bear a much drier -climate than we at present suppose; and I have no misgivings -that the amount of humidity at Neddiwuttum will not be amply -sufficient for their successful cultivation. The only person -who has visited this site since its selection, who is capable, -through personal knowledge of the South American chinchona -forests, of forming an opinion, is Mr. Cross. It is exceedingly -satisfactory to find that he not only approves of it for the -cultivation of plants of the "red-bark" species, but that, -from the superior depth and richness of the soil, he considers -that they are likely to thrive even better than in their native -forests near Limon, on the eastern slopes of Chimborazo.</p> - -<p>In the Neddiwuttum forest, among other plants, I found the -<i>Hymenodictyon excelsum</i>,<a name="FNanchor_422_422" id="FNanchor_422_422"></a><a href="#Footnote_422_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a> wild yams, coffee-plants, cinnamon, -pepper-vines, <i>Andromedas</i>, <i>Osbeckias</i>, wild ginger, a <i>Balanophra</i> -with a scarlet flower, and abundance of orchids and ferns. -On the edge of the forest there was a little hut, merely a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span> -few branches covered with grass, and leaning against the -trunk of a tree, with some empty honeycombs lying about. -It was the habitation of a family of Mooloo Kurumbers, a -wild race who live in the forests, and run away in great terror -when any one approaches them. The establishment of the -plantation will soon make them alter their haunts from the -neighbourhood of Neddiwuttum.</p> - -<p>The magnificent view from this point embraces a great -part of Wynaad. Far below there was a small coffee-estate, -its bright green contrasting with the more sombre hues of -the surrounding forest; and more to the left, though out of -sight, is the extensive plantation which, together with a tract -of forest on the slopes of the Neilgherries, is owned by -Messrs. Ouchterlony and Campbell.</p> - -<p>After passing the night at Pycarrah, we started next -morning to examine another site further to the eastward, -and overlooking the plateau of Mysore. We crossed several -ranges of grassy hills, with streams in the intervening valleys -flowing through thickets of tree rhododendrons, with the -gorgeous crimson flowers just beginning to bloom, <i>Osbeckias</i>, -and a <i>Lasianthus</i> with a beautiful glossy leaf. The hills were -dotted with a St. John's-wort with a bright orange flower -(<i>Hypericum Hookerianum</i>). We soon reached the edge of -the plateau, overlooking the low country, and looked down -on the wide plains of Mysore, with some Neilgherry peaks in -advance of us, and a valley between, where there was bright -green cultivation, and crimson patches of amaranth, surrounding -the Badaga village of Choloor. Between the place -where we stood and the Choloor valley there were some fine -patches of forest on the steep hill-slopes; but they did not -offer the same advantages as Neddiwuttum for a first experimental -chinchona plantation. This side of the hills is drier, -the soil poorer, and water is less abundant, though it is -nearer Ootacamund, and both labour and supplies are more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span> -easily procurable. Returning to Ootacamund we rode up -to a Todar-mund, where something unusual had evidently -occurred. About thirty Todars were walking in a line through -the forest glades below, and several jackals were prowling -about in the broad daylight. We afterwards heard that a -huge tiger had killed one of the Todar buffaloes that morning, -and retreated into the <i>shola</i> on the edge of which we -had just had luncheon. They expected him to come out at -sunset for his supper.</p> - -<p>We continued our excursion to the summit of the Kalhutty -peak, overlooking the Seegoor ghaut, whence several -fine tracts of forest-land slope down; but Neddiwuttum was -decidedly preferable in every respect to all the localities which -we examined on the northern side of the Neilgherries, and -to the eastward of that site. The part of the hills on the south, -towards Coonoor and Kotergherry, was out of the question on -account of the summer drought, as it is completely screened -from the south-west monsoon by the spurs from the Dodabetta -peak; and the forests towards the Sispara ghaut, being too far -west to receive moisture from the north-east monsoon, were -not so good as Neddiwuttum, at least for a first experiment.</p> - -<p>When the success of the chinchona culture on the 400 acres -of the Neddiwuttum plantation is fully established, the experiment -may then be extended to the east and west, both by -Government and through private enterprise; and these precious -barks may be expected to yield remunerative profits to -European speculators, while they will at the same time confer -an inestimable blessing on the native population.</p> - -<p>Everything, however, depends upon the method which is -adopted for the cultivation of the chinchona-plants in the -experimental plantations; and, in a future chapter, I propose -to give a detailed account of the course of events, as regards -the chinchona-plants on the Neilgherry hills, up to the latest -date.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a>CHAPTER XXIV.</h2> - -<p class="c">JOURNEY TO THE PULNEY HILLS.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="hang smallish">Coonoor ghaut—Coimbatore—Pulladom—Cotton cultivation—Dharapurum—A -marriage procession—Dindigul—Ryotwarry tenure—Pulney hills—Kodakarnal—Extent -of the Pulneys—Formation—Soil—Climate—Inhabitants—Flora—Suitability -for chinchona cultivation—Forest conservancy—Anamallay hills.</p></blockquote> - - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the end of November I set out from Ootacamund, by way -of the Coonoor ghaut and Coimbatore, with the intention of -examining the suitability of the Pulney hills in Madura for -chinchona cultivation. The Coonoor ghaut, on the southern -side of the Neilgherry hills, leads down into the plain of -Coimbatore. The road is good, though much too steep ever -to make a convenient means of carriage traffic, and the -scenery is exceedingly fine. The deep gorge has forest-covered -mountains on the left, and a grand range of cliffs on -the right, crowned by the bold peak of the Hoolicul Droog. -There are few districts in India without some local tradition -respecting the five Pandus,<a name="FNanchor_423_423" id="FNanchor_423_423"></a><a href="#Footnote_423_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a> the great mythical heroes of -ancient Hindoo history, and the Hoolicul Droog is not without -one. It is said that the fort on the summit of the Droog was -inhabited by a <i>rakshi</i> or giant named Pukasooren, who levied -a tribute on the people of the plains, in the shape of a cart-load -of provisions daily. When he had eaten the provisions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span> -he swallowed the driver, and kicked the cart down again. -Bhima, the impersonation of strength, when passing through -this part of the country, volunteered to act as driver, had a -desperate encounter with the giant, and killed him. The -dying Pukasooren cursed the whole country over which the -shadow of the mountain fell during the day, and it has ever -since been the abode of a deadly fever. It is certain that -the jungles at the roots of the hills are the most fever-haunted -districts in India, and I rode rapidly through this -belt of forests, and along a road bordered with <i>cana-fistula</i> -and <i>sappan</i>-trees,<a name="FNanchor_424_424" id="FNanchor_424_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_424_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> to the village of Matepoliem, on the banks -of the river Bowany, and five miles from the foot of the -ghaut.</p> - -<p>Matepoliem is twenty-three miles from the town of Coimbatore, -and I rode this distance on a Neilgherry pony in -the early morning. The road is perfectly straight, with an -avenue of shady trees along the whole length, and good -bridges over the dry sandy water-courses. The soil appeared -to be poor, partly waste, and partly cultivated with <i>cholum</i> -(<i>Sorghum Vulgare</i><a name="FNanchor_425_425" id="FNanchor_425_425"></a><a href="#Footnote_425_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a>), <i>lablab</i>,<a name="FNanchor_426_426" id="FNanchor_426_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> and sesame. <i>Cholum</i>, or great -millet, is much cultivated in the peninsula, and used as food -in the shape of cakes and porridge, where rice is scarce or -too expensive. It grows to a height of five or six feet, and -cattle are very fond of the straw, which contains sugar, but -it soon exhausts the soil, and two crops are never taken off -the same land in succession. There are two villages on the -road between Matepoliem and Coimbatore, called Karamuddy -and Goodaloor, in both of which there is a <i>choultry</i> -or native bungalow, and in the latter an English post-house. -At Karamuddy there is a very picturesque temple, and on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span> -the roadside I passed several horses of earthenware, votive -offerings by the potters to their god. Under many of the -trees there are images of the elephant-headed, pot-bellied -god of wisdom, Ganesa, anointed with ghee, and adorned -with garlands of flowers.</p> - -<p>The streets of Coimbatore consist of long rows of red-tiled, -mud-walled buildings, with no windows, and overhanging -eaves supported by wooden pillars, under which there -are raised platforms where the people sit and talk. In -peeping in at the doors, I could never discern any article -of furniture in the dark obscurity of the interiors, but they -generally looked clean and well swept. The houses of the -English officials are about a mile from the town, generally -surrounded by park-like compounds, but the trees and grass -thrive badly in the shallow sandy soil. Outside the town -there are two very large tanks, one nearly a mile long, which -irrigate some rice-fields. The view is very pretty, with these -extensive sheets of water in the foreground, the cupolas of -temples rising above the trees beyond, and Lambton's Peak -with the blue line of the Neilgherries in the distance.</p> - -<p>Some exertions are being made at Coimbatore, both by -Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries, and about sixty -natives attend the little chapel of the London Mission -Society. The Bible is very properly not admitted into any -of the Government schools, and, strange to say, educated -natives often inquire why this is not done, and why Christians -are ashamed of their Shaster. But in schools unconnected -with the Government the study of the Bible is enforced -like any other class-book, and there are upwards of forty -Brahmin youths in Coimbatore who habitually take it home -to learn, with their other lessons, and never make the slightest -objection. Mr. Thomas, the Collector, felt very strongly the -great importance of educating the women, and a girl-school -has been set on foot, after much difficulty. At present the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span> -influence of the women, and all women have influence, is -for evil. The men, to maintain their superiority, dislike -the women to know anything, and the head official of the -cutcherry at Coimbatore, who is a Brahmin, dare not let his -friends know that his wife can read and write, though this -accomplishment makes her a more useful and agreeable -companion. The women, generally, are treated like slaves -by their husbands. They are never allowed to eat at the -same time, except on the wedding-day, and must walk behind -their husbands on a journey, generally carrying a child on -their hips; yet I have seen the man carrying the child, and -at least taking turn about, and in other respects they always -appeared to be on good terms with each other.</p> - -<p>At Coimbatore I bought a <i>bandy</i> or country cart of the -simplest construction, with two wheels, no springs, and a hood -of matting spread over curved canes; and started, with relays -of bullocks posted at intervals of fifteen miles. This mode -of travelling is inconceivably slow, the rate being about three -miles an hour, and it was near sunset before I reached Pulladom, -a village twenty-two miles from Coimbatore. The road -is nearly straight, and planted on both sides with trees of -stunted growth, owing to the shallowness of the soil. It was -market-day at Pulladom, and people were sitting in rows, -before piles of cotton cloths, rice, and dry grains; while an -old Tahsildar, in spectacles and snow-white garments, was -holding a court under a verandah. In strolling about I came -upon the huge idol-car belonging to the village, on heavy -wooden trucks. The carvings on its sides were very elaborate, -with elephant-headed gods at the angles; but it is only -dragged out on very great occasions, and will require new -trucks before it is moved again.</p> - -<p>All this country round Coimbatore produces much cotton, -and cloths are manufactured in great quantities, which supply -garments, such as they are, for the people of the plains, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span> -well as for the hill tribes of the Neilgherries. The native -cotton is of two kinds, called <i>oopum-parati</i> and <i>nadum parati</i>.<a name="FNanchor_427_427" id="FNanchor_427_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_427_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a> -The seed of the latter is sown broadcast, in the same field with -<i>cholum</i> and <i>cumboo</i>.<a name="FNanchor_428_428" id="FNanchor_428_428"></a><a href="#Footnote_428_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a> After the grain is cut, the ground is -ploughed between the plants four times, and in the next year -the cotton yields a small crop in July, and a larger one in the -following January. After the third year the field is manured -and cultivated with grain for two years, cotton being again -sown when the third crop of grain has been reaped. This -<i>nadum</i> cotton is very little cultivated in the Coimbatore district. -The chief product is the <i>oopum</i>, the best indigenous -cotton, raised, in rotations of two years, with <i>cumboo</i> and -<i>cholum</i>.</p> - -<p>The <i>oopum</i> cotton is raised on the black soil,<a name="FNanchor_429_429" id="FNanchor_429_429"></a><a href="#Footnote_429_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a> an adhesive -black clay, while the little Bourbon cotton that is cultivated -is grown on red soil. It is picked very carelessly, and the bales -are so badly pressed that those which I passed in carts on the -road looked as if they would sink in like a feather-bed, if any -one sat upon them.</p> - -<p>Much pains have been taken by the Government for a -series of years to improve the method of cultivating cotton -in India, and to introduce American and other species; and -very large sums of money have been spent on experiments. -Bourbon cotton was cultivated in Coimbatore as early as -1824; and in 1842 Government cotton-farms were established -for the growth of New Orleans and Indian plants, both in the -black and red soils, under the able superintendence of Dr. -Wight, the eminent botanist. In 1849 these experiments -were abandoned.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span></p> - -<p>The great importance of the question of cotton supply from -India has been long felt, and never more so than at the present -time. To meet the requirements of the English markets -numerous and costly attempts have been made during a -course of years to introduce the American species, which -produces a much longer staple than the indigenous Indian -kind. Yet American cotton has not hitherto been raised so -as to yield a profitable return, excepting in the province of -Dharwar, in the Bombay Presidency. The success in this -instance is chiefly to be attributed to a suitable soil and climate; -but also, in no small degree, to the energy of Mr. -Shaw, a former Collector.</p> - -<p>Great attention has been paid to the nature of the soils, -while less importance than it really deserves has been -attached to climate, though climate, and mainly one element -of climate—the moisture of the atmosphere—is an essential -condition in the successful culture of American cotton. In -travelling southward from the latitude of Bombay the climate -becomes gradually moister, and at 300 miles there is a very -decided change. The American cotton-plant has a very -different constitution from the Indian; it cannot stand so -much drought, and the conditions required for its culture are -an equable and moderate supply of moisture through all the -stages of its growth. These conditions are fulfilled in the -Dharwar country, which retains a considerable quantity of -moisture in the air during the cold season, when other parts -of the Bombay Presidency are intensely dry. Wherever this -is the case, as in Sind, Guzerat, Broach, and Ahmednuggur, -the American plant will not yield a remunerative crop. The -indigenous plant is able to endure this dry season well, because -it is a native, not of the peninsula, but of the arid -country of Sind and part of the Punjab, where it grows wild.</p> - -<p>If careful hygrometrical observations were taken throughout -the year in the various cotton districts, the results might<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span> -be compared with similar observations taken in Dharwar; and -thus the localities may be ascertained where the American -cotton can be advantageously cultivated, so far at least as -this depends on the amount of moisture in the atmosphere. -The supply of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere, at any -period of the year, diminishes as we recede from the coast; -but, having once found a centre where the American plant -can be profitably raised, in Dharwar, it is advisable to work -from that centre, especially in a south-eastern and southerly -direction. This spread of the growth of American cotton has -already taken place to the eastward of Dharwar, to a considerable -extent. The people in the Bellary district, and in -neighbouring parts of the Nizam's territory, have for some -years grown cotton from American seeds, and value it more -highly than their native species.</p> - -<p>In Coimbatore, where scorching hot dry winds parch up -the plains during part of the year, and where the rainfall -varies so much in different seasons,<a name="FNanchor_430_430" id="FNanchor_430_430"></a><a href="#Footnote_430_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a> sometimes being thirty -inches, and at others only seven inches, it is perhaps doubtful -whether it will ever answer to cultivate American cotton -on a large scale, yet excellent samples were obtained from -cotton raised on the farms, under the superintendence of Dr. -Wight. The attention of Sir William Denison, the present -Governor of Madras, has been chiefly directed to the improvement -of native cotton, by increasing the length of the staple, -and lessening the coarseness of the fibre. It is a well-established -fact that "the best seeds make the best breeds,"<a name="FNanchor_431_431" id="FNanchor_431_431"></a><a href="#Footnote_431_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a> and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span> -Sir William Denison proposes to select those seeds to which -the largest fibres are attached, to be used for the next crop, -and so on in each successive season, the minimum length -being increased every year. He believes that, in this way, a -permanent addition may be made to the length, and possibly -to the fineness of the fibre of the native cotton, which might -thus ultimately be able to compete in the English markets -with its American rival. Mr. Haywood, the Secretary of the -Manchester Cotton Company, on the other hand, strongly -urges that attention should be given to the improvement of -American cotton. Well-directed efforts in both directions -will doubtless be rewarded.</p> - -<p>I left Pulladom in the night, and arrived at the large -village of Dharapurum in the following morning, a distance -of twenty-eight miles. Dharapurum is on the banks of a -small river, where there are rice-fields and cocoanut-trees; -for wherever there is the means of irrigation, rice is always -cultivated. Great quantities of cows and calves swarm along -the roads, and in the open spaces of the village, where there -are some fine spreading peepul-trees (<i>Ficus religiosa</i>), one of -the sacred trees of the Hindus. It has a peculiarly shaped -cordate leaf, with a long narrow acumen one-third the length -of the leaf, and yellow flowers; and it is venerated from a -belief that the god Vishnu was born amongst its branches. -Potters' horses, and images of the elephant-headed Ganesa, -were placed under the trees, the objects of worship by the -villagers, who make offerings of ghee and flowers to them. -Literally "an idol under every green tree."</p> - -<p>After leaving Dharapurum the road becomes very sandy, -and passes over a bleak open country covered with low -bushes, on the frontier between the Coimbatore and Madura -collectorates. A range of mountains bounded the view to the -south. A slow jolting journey of thirty miles brought me to -the village of Pulkanooth in Madura. <i>Cholum</i> and <i>lablab</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span> -were cultivated in the surrounding fields, and from the top of -a ridge of rocks overhanging the village there is an extensive -view of open country covered with waving <i>cholum</i>, and bounded -by the broken outline of the Pulney hills. Near the village -there is the ruin of a square brick fort, with bastions at the -angles, entirely overgrown with bushes. One of the happiest -signs of English rule is to be found in the number of -ruined forts scattered over the country, once the lurking-places -of brutal robbers who extorted half the crops from a -wretched peasantry, whose descendants now reap the fruits of -their labour in peace.</p> - -<p>In taking a walk near Pulkanooth I encountered a marriage -procession. First came a man with a drum, then two -more with a gong of skin stretched on wooden hoops, then a -man with a large game-cock under his arm, then a bullock -led by a woman, then four women covered with bracelets and -anklets, then a pony ridden by a boy about twelve, with -nothing on but a red turban and gold necklace and bracelets, -with a little girl about five in front, whom he clasped round -the waist; then more men and women, another drum, and -lastly a small boy mounted on a large cow. They appeared -to have come from a distance, as they stopped to rest under -a peepul-tree, by the road-side.</p> - -<p>Another night journey took me to the town of Dindigul, a -pretty little place at the foot of an isolated mass of primitive -rock, whose perpendicular sides are crowned by a dismantled -fort, said to have been erected in the days of Dupleix and -French ambition, and to have been occupied and long held -by Hyder Ali of Mysore. Here the plains are chiefly covered -with <i>cholum</i> and <i>cumboo</i>; and between the town and the -rock there is a grassy esplanade, a grove of cocoanut and -betel-palms, and a neat little temple to Ganesa. Troops of -young girls were drawing water from a tank near the esplanade. -Their slight graceful figures, supporting chatties on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span> -their heads, were perfect models of beauty; but they had -black ugly faces, flabby ear-lobes, and large studs stuck in -their noses. To be admired their backs must be turned.</p> - -<p>The Tamil people, who inhabit this part of India, are an -exceedingly black and ugly race, and the Brahmins are the -only people who have any pretensions whatever to fair skins. -On the whole the peasantry in the country between the -Neilgherry and Pulney hills appeared to be tolerably well off, -and the country was well cultivated, considering the unpropitious -climate and poor soil. As is well known, the people -in this part of India hold their land by what is called the -<i>ryotwarry</i> tenure, which is a settlement for the land assessment -with each individual ryot or cultivator, without the -intervention of any zemindar or renter. The land is made -over to the actual cultivator, who is regarded by the Government -as the proprietor of the soil, and the arrangement for -the payment of land-tax is made directly with him, while he -receives assistance by remissions of assessment in unfavourable -seasons, and cannot be ejected so long as he pays his dues.</p> - -<p>The land is classified as irrigated and un-irrigated, and then -according to its different degrees of fertility; and this settlement -is permanent so long as the land remains in the same -condition. The Collector of each district makes an annual tour -of inspection, called <i>jummabundy</i>, to ascertain the extent to -which the Government demand ought to be reduced, owing to -particular circumstances of season; but in ordinary times the -duty of collection is intrusted to the Tahsildars or native officials, -and their subordinates the Sheristadars. These officials, -who visited me in the villages through which I passed, -appeared intelligent respectable men, and all the younger -ones talked English fluently.</p> - -<p>Sir Thomas Munro, who was Governor of Madras from -1818 to 1827, established the <i>ryotwarry</i> system, and since his -time the conditions on which the ryots hold their land have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span> -been made lighter and more advantageous. In 1837 it was -enacted that there should be no increase of land-tax on -account of the growth of more valuable crops; in 1852 it -was ordered that no ryot should pay an additional tax on -account of improvements made by himself, causing an -increased value;<a name="FNanchor_432_432" id="FNanchor_432_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a> and, during Lord Harris's administration, -considerable reductions were made in the land-assessment -in nearly all the Madras collectorates. These reductions, -independent of the boon conferred on the people, have been -attended by the most successful results, in an increasing -revenue, and in the extension of the area of cultivation over -lands which were formerly waste.</p> - -<p>Dindigul is about forty miles from the foot of the ghaut -leading up to the Pulney hills, and relays of bullocks were -posted for me every seven miles, with a man running in -front of the cart with a blazing torch. Passing through the -village of Periacolum, round which there are many large -tanks and extensive rice cultivation, we reached the jungle at -the foot of the Pulney hills at early dawn. The path, which -is only practicable for ponies and pack-bullocks, leads up a -ravine for half the distance, and then corkscrews up the steep -sides of the mountain. The range looks very imposing from -the plain, but not equal to the Neilgherries at the foot of -the Coonoor ghaut. After resting under a clump of trees I -commenced the ascent on foot, driving an unhappy sheep -before me, which was to be sacrificed on the summit, where, -at this time of the year, there are no residents, no market, -and no means of procuring any supplies.</p> - -<p>The ascent is exceedingly beautiful, but the undergrowth -is thick grass, and the vegetation is not nearly so luxuriant -as at similar elevations on the Neilgherries. The trees are -chiefly <i>Leguminosæ</i>, and at an elevation of 3000 feet chincho<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span>naceous -plants commence, amongst which I observed the -<i>Hymenodictyon excelsum</i>. At 6000 feet the steep ascent is -covered with long grass, and trees are confined to sheltered -hollows and ravines. After reaching the plateau it is -necessary to scale a second steep grassy slope before arriving -at the settlement of Kodakarnal, which is 7230 feet above -the level of the sea. Kodakarnal consists of eight houses, -built along the crests of undulating hills, and one of the -inner slopes is clothed with a wood of fine trees and tree-ferns, -from which the Tamil people have named the settlement.<a name="FNanchor_433_433" id="FNanchor_433_433"></a><a href="#Footnote_433_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a> -Round the houses there are gum-trees. <i>Acacia -heterophylla</i>, <i>Cassia glauca</i>, fruit-trees, and hedges of roses -and geraniums as at Ootacamund. The houses belong to the -officials of the Madura district, the American missionaries, -a Mr. Clerk of Madras, and the French priest of Pondicherry, -who come here to recruit their healths, and for short intervals -of holiday and relaxation.</p> - -<p>Mr. Ames, the Sub-Collector at Dindigul, had kindly -given me the use of a house which he shared with Mr. -Levinge, the Collector of Madura. It has a pleasant garden, -whence there is a glorious view of the Madura plains, with -their numerous tanks glittering in the sun; and close to -the house a torrent of deliciously cold water babbles over -huge boulders of rock, and finally leaps in long falls down -the face of the cliffs, making a noise at night like the roar -of the sea. The house was in charge of a very original -old native of low caste, with a large family, named Chenatumby, -who is a tolerable gardener, and cultivates his own -patch of potatoes. Chenatumby is a devoted Protestant, -feels a conscientious horror for the idolatry of the Roman -Catholics, and intends to bring up his eldest son as a half-caste, -this honour being conferred on him by the simple pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span>cess -of attiring him in a hat and trousers. Old Chenatumby -acted as a guide in my walks over the hills, and was very -useful.</p> - -<p>The Pulney<a name="FNanchor_434_434" id="FNanchor_434_434"></a><a href="#Footnote_434_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a> or Varragherry hills, like the Neilgherries -further north, branch out in an easterly direction from the -main line of the western ghauts. United to a portion of the -Anamallay range at their western end, they stretch out into -the Madura plains for a distance of fifty-four miles, with a -medium breadth of fifteen, and an area of 798 square miles. -On the south they rise very abruptly from the plains, presenting, -near their summits, a perfect wall of gneiss; but on the -north and east they slope down in a succession of broken -ridges. The Pulneys are divided into two parts: a lower -series of hill and dale to the eastward, called Mailmullay or -Kunnundaven, averaging a height of 4000 feet, and covering -231½ square miles, where there are extensive tracts of forest, -some cultivation, and several villages; and a loftier region -to the westward 6000 to 7500 feet above the sea, with undulating -grassy hills and mountain-peaks, the highest of which, -Permanallie, attains an elevation of 8000 feet.</p> - -<p>The formation is gneiss, interstratified with quartz, and -traversed by veins of felspar; and the rock is generally decayed -to a considerable depth on the plateau, and disintegrated -so as to form a gritty clay. In the eastern part the -soil is a light reddish loam; but on the western and loftier -half it is very poor, being a heavy black peat several feet -thick, with a stiff and plastic yellowish clay as a sub-soil. The -rains on the Neilgherry hills have the effect of mixing the -decaying grass with the decomposed rock, and a rich soil is -thus formed; but on the plateau of the Pulneys this operation -does not appear to take place, the one becoming a black -peat, and the other a stiff clayey subsoil. These remarks,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span> -however, only apply to the interior valleys, for on the outer -slopes, overlooking the plains of Madura, there is plenty of -good soil, and magnificent forests clothe the mountains at the -foot of the perpendicular walls of gneiss which form the -southern ridge of the Pulneys.</p> - -<p>The climate of the Pulneys, as regards temperature, very -closely resembles that of the Neilgherries. At the time of -my visit, in the end of November and beginning of December, -the season was very late, though there were thick mists and -showers of rain every afternoon. This is the time of the -north-east monsoon, and the streams swell to torrents after -every shower. During the first two months in the year it is -very cold, and the ground is often covered with frost on the -upper plateau. In March there are light showers of rain, -which increase during April and May, and continue, with -strong westerly winds, until October. Thus the Pulneys are -within the influence of the south-west monsoon.<a name="FNanchor_435_435" id="FNanchor_435_435"></a><a href="#Footnote_435_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a> In June -and July, the warmest months, the thermometer never falls -below 50°, nor rises above 75°; and the westerly winds, with -occasional rain, continue during August and September.</p> - -<p>The eastern part of the Pulneys, called Kunnundaven, and -Poombary, the principal village to the westward, are inhabited -by people of the Kunnuver and Karakat Vellaler castes, numbering -about two thousand of both sexes. The villages are -chiefly on the lower Pulneys, and one which I visited, called -Vilputty, was surrounded by terrace cultivation of mustard, -garlic, <i>raggee</i>, and <i>keeree</i> or amaranth. The people also cultivate -<i>lablab</i>, limes, oranges, and plantains; and I heard that -in one or two villages there were small coffee-gardens. Many -low-country natives are also settled on the Pulneys, chiefly -men outlawed from their castes; and in the more inaccessible<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span> -forests are the Poliars, a race of timid wild men of the woods. -Chenatumby told me that they have no habitations of any -kind, but run through the jungle from place to place, sleep -under rocks, and live on wild honey and roots. The women -run with them, like wild goats, their children slung in rows -on their hips. The Poliars occasionally trade with the country -people, who place cotton and grain on some stone, and the -wild creatures, as soon as the strangers are out of sight, take -them and put honey in their place, but they will allow no one -to come near them.</p> - -<p>The undulating hills and valleys of the interior plateau are -covered with an aromatic grass (<i>Andropogon</i>), which grows -in large coarse tufts, like the <i>Stipa ychu</i> in Peru; and it is -not until the young tender shoots come out that it affords -good pasture for cattle, of which there is a small herd on the -hills, belonging to American missionaries and others. The -grassy slopes are dotted with tree-Rhododendrons, Gaultherias, -Osbeckias, Lobelias, the <i>Hypericum Hookerianum</i>, and brake -ferns. This upper plateau is admirably adapted for the -growth of English fruits and vegetables. In Mr. Levinge's -garden there were bushes of Fuchsias, Daturas, roses, and -geraniums; and behind the house grew peach, apple, plum, -and loquot-trees, strawberries, potatoes, green peas, and -artichokes.</p> - -<p>Where there are springs or watercourses on the higher -range, there are generally fine wooded "<i>sholas</i>" facing -inwards, and very extensive tracts of forest on the outer -slopes; but the timber, especially teak and black-wood, has -been very extensively cut by the people of the hills. I -examined a <i>shola</i> called Minmurdi-karnal near Pattoor, on -the south side, another between that and Kodakarnal, and -two others, and observed trees of the following genera:— <i>Michelia</i>, -<i>Cinnamomum</i>, <i>Dodonæa</i>, <i>Millingtonia</i>, <i>Myrsine</i>, -<i>Monocera</i>, <i>Symplocos</i>, <i>Bignonia</i>, <i>Crotalaria</i>, <i>Passiflora</i>, <i>Os<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span>beckia</i>, -<i>Jasminum</i>, <i>Hedyotis</i>, <i>Lasianthus</i>, <i>Canthium</i>, and -<i>Hymenodictyon</i>. Tree-ferns abound near the streams, and -in some of the jungles there were trees of enormous size. -Early one morning I went with Chenatumby to see the -"pillar-rocks," three miles to the westward of Kodakarnal. -They consist of grand perpendicular cliffs descending from -the grassy heights, with their bases clothed with forest. -Two of them are separated by fissures from the main cliff, -and have the appearance of gigantic columns. It was altogether -a most magnificent sight, with volumes of fleecy -clouds rolling up from the low country, and occasional peeps -of the far-away plains and glittering tanks through their -folds.</p> - -<p>The natives have long been in the habit of recklessly felling -the most valuable timber, and acres of fine <i>shola</i> used to -be annually destroyed to make clearings for plantain and -cardamom groves. For the latter, however, only the small -trees and underwood are burnt on the Pulneys, the larger trees -being left standing. But this wasteful destruction of timber -has recently been checked by the authorities, and in 1860 -Mr. Spershneider was appointed as overseer of the Pulney -forests, with a small staff, to prevent the reckless cutting of -timber, and to mark, from year to year, the trees which -arrive at sufficient maturity, and are fit to be felled.</p> - -<p>I came to the conclusion that in several of the wooded -<i>sholas</i> the chinchona-plant might be cultivated with advantage, -the <i>C. Condaminea</i>, and other species which thrive at great -elevations, on the upper plateau, and the <i>C. succirubra</i> in Kunnundaven. -Mr. Levinge, the Collector of Madura, takes an -interest in the experiment, and Mr. Spershneider would be -willing to superintend the chinchona plantations; so that, when -the undertaking is in a sufficiently advanced stage on the -Neilgherry hills to enable Mr. McIvor to distribute plants for -cultivation in other parts of India, a number might advan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span>tageously -be sent to the Pulneys. I understand, too, that it -is in contemplation to form a Company for the cultivation of -coffee on these hills, in which case it is to be hoped that the -extension of the growth of chinchona-plants will be advanced -by private enterprise, from motives of humanity as well as -with a view to successful commercial speculation.<a name="FNanchor_436_436" id="FNanchor_436_436"></a><a href="#Footnote_436_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a></p> - -<p>I did not visit the Anamallay hills, to the south of Coimbatore -and westward of the Pulneys, as no planter was as yet -established on them, and a considerable time must elapse -before they are prepared for the introduction of the chinchona-plant. -At the time of my visit no bold clearer of jungles had -ventured to invade the domains of the conservators of forests -on the Anamallays.</p> - -<p>Dr. Cleghorn reports that these hills are under the influence -of the south-west monsoon, though not so much so as -the Koondahs at Sispara: but I do not find that he gives any -detailed account of the amount of moisture in the atmosphere -during the winter. The soil is described as deep and covered -with rich pasture, streams of water are numerous, there are -table-lands 6000 to 7000 feet above the sea, and very fine -timber in the ravines. The three hill-tribes, called Kaders, -Poliars, and Malsars, trade in cardamoms, turmeric, ginger, -honey, wax, resins, soapnuts, and millet. Dr. Cleghorn considers -that, from the extent of forest, the resemblance of the -flora to that of Ceylon, and the altitude, the Anamallays are -suitable for the cultivation of coffee on a large scale, and for -colonization of small communities of Englishmen.<a name="FNanchor_437_437" id="FNanchor_437_437"></a><a href="#Footnote_437_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a> In this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span> -case they are also adapted for the growth of chinchona-plants, -and their introduction, which will of course be simultaneous -with the settlement of Europeans, will be the more beneficial -because the lower slopes of the Anamallays are the haunts of -fevers. The quinine-yielding trees will confer blessings on -those whose duties or interests oblige them to frequent the -forests of the Anamallays, while their cultivation will be -a remunerative speculation to the settlers on the upper -plateau.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV"></a>CHAPTER XXV.</h2> - -<p class="c">MADURA AND TRICHINOPOLY.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="hang smallish">Arrive at Madura—Peopling of India—The Dravidian race—Brahmin -colonists in Southern India—Foundation of Madura—Pandyan dynasty—Tamil -literature—Aghastya—Naik dynasty—The Madura Pagoda—The -Sangattar—The Choultry—Tirumalla Naik's palace—Caste prejudices—Trichinopoly—Coleroon -anicut—Rice cultivation—The palmyra -palm—Caroor—Return to the Neilgherries—Shervaroy hills—Courtallum.</p></blockquote> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> road from the foot of the Pulney hills to Madura, a -distance of upwards of forty miles, is very bad, but it passes -through avenues of shady banyan and peepul trees most of -the way, and is, therefore, not so wearisome for the natives -on foot, as for a European jolting at the rate of three miles -an hour in a bullock-cart without springs.</p> - -<p>Near Madura there are tracts of rice cultivation, plantain -groves, and topes of palm-trees; and at sunrise I came in -sight of the <i>gopurams</i> or towers of the great pagoda, rising -above thick groves of palmyra palms, with a foreground of -bright green paddy-fields. The city is very interesting from -its remarkable palaces and temples, as the capital of a once -powerful kingdom, and as the ancient centre of Tamil -civilization: and a few words respecting the former history -of this part of India appear necessary before describing the -pagoda, and other architectural remains of the former greatness -of Madura.</p> - -<p>Tradition relates that in the most ancient times the country -from the mouths of the Godavery to Cape Comorin was one -vast forest. Here the great Aryan hero Rama is said to have -resided during his exile, with his wife Sita, and here he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span> -commenced his wars against the Rakshasas or fiends, who -divided with hermits and sages the possession of the wilderness. -The simple truth probably is that these "fiends" were -the original inhabitants of Southern India, which was called -Dravida Desa, and that Rama was the first Hindu invader. -Dravida denotes the country of the Dravidas, who are -described in Sanscrit writings as men of an outcast tribe, -descended from degraded Kshatriyas.</p> - -<p>The history of the early peopling of India, by its various -races, is involved in much obscurity; and the little light -which has been thrown upon it is chiefly derived from a -comparison of languages. The prevailing opinion is that -India was originally inhabited by a people whose remains -are to be found in the Koles, Sontals, Bheels, and other wild -hill tribes; that the Dravidians, a Scythic people, came -from the north, settled in Hindustan, and drove the aborigines -into the hills and fastnesses; that in their turn the -Dravidians were driven across the Vindhya mountains by -another Scythic race, and became the ancestors of the present -population of Southern India; and that finally the Aryan -race, with its Vedic civilization, brought this pre-Aryan Scythic -race under subjection, and formed it into the servile -Sudra caste.</p> - -<p>Thus the Dravidian people of Southern India were of -Scythic origin, and they spoke a language from which the -four modern ones of the Madras Presidency, Tamil, Telugu, -Canarese, and Malayalam,<a name="FNanchor_438_438" id="FNanchor_438_438"></a><a href="#Footnote_438_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a> are derived. These are all -grouped as Dravidian languages, and their source is no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span> -longer a matter of doubt. It was formerly supposed that -they were Aryan, from the great number of apparently Indo-Germanic -roots; but it is now known, from the structure of -their grammar, that they belong to the great Turanian or -Scythic group of tongues. Mr. Caldwell considers that the -Scythian family to which they are most closely allied is the -Finnish or Ugrian;<a name="FNanchor_439_439" id="FNanchor_439_439"></a><a href="#Footnote_439_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a> and in this view Professor Max Müller -concurs with him.<a name="FNanchor_440_440" id="FNanchor_440_440"></a><a href="#Footnote_440_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> The ancient Dravidian religion, before the -people were converted to the belief taught in the Puranas, -also favours Mr. Caldwell's view. If we may judge from the -creed which still lingers in Tinnevelly and other districts, it -consisted in the worship of evil spirits by means of bloody -sacrifices and frantic dances, while a Supreme Being was -acknowledged but not venerated, and there was no trace of -worship of the elements. In these respects it closely resembled -the Shamanism of the Scythic races of High Asia.</p> - -<p>It is tolerably certain that the Dravidian races had attained -to some degree of civilization before the Aryans appeared in -their country, and, with a system of castes, introduced the -worship of Vishnu and Siva. One evidence of the ancient -civilization of the Dravidians is that they possessed a system -of numerals up to 1000, essentially the same in all the four -languages; though in counting above 1000 they make use -of Sanscrit numerals. From the existence of these native -numerals among the Dravidian nations, Mr. Crawford draws -the inference that these people must have attained a considerable -measure of civilization before they adopted the -Hinduism of the north, and hence stood in no need of foreign -numerals.<a name="FNanchor_441_441" id="FNanchor_441_441"></a><a href="#Footnote_441_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span></p> - -<p>From the time of Rama, who appears to have been assisted -in his invasion of Lanka (Ceylon) by a Dravidian chief, now -deified as the monkey God Hanuman, the influence of -Hinduism rapidly increased, and caste prejudices spread over -Southern India. But the annals are far too obscure, and too -deeply buried under extravagant fable, to enable us to form -any idea of the time and manner of the complete inoculation -of the Dravidian races with Brahminical legends, caste observances, -and Hindu religious ideas. It is clear, however, -that "to the early Brahminical colonists the Dravidians are -indebted for the higher arts of life, and the first elements of -literary culture."<a name="FNanchor_442_442" id="FNanchor_442_442"></a><a href="#Footnote_442_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a></p> - -<p>The Brahmins came to Southern India not as conquerors, -but as peaceful settlers and instructors; and their influence -was obtained through their superior civilization and learning. -They gave the name of Sudra to all the upper and middle -classes of native Dravidians, while the servile classes were -not, as in Hindustan, called Sudras, but Pariars. Thus, while -in the north a Sudra is a low-caste man, in the south he -ranks next to a Brahmin.</p> - -<p>It is said that, after the avatur of Rama, pilgrims came -in great numbers to visit the scenes of his triumphs, and, -settling in the country, cleared land for cultivation, and laid -the foundations of future principalities. One of these settlers -was a man named Pandya, of the Vellaler or agricultural -caste, who established himself in the south; and his descendant -Kula Sekhara, son of Sampanna Pandya, was the first -king of Madura. Some centuries elapsed, probably five, -before the foundation of the city of Madura, during which -the settlers were occupied in clearing the ground, and forming -themselves into an organized state; and it has been -conjectured that the building of the capital was commenced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span> -between 500 and 600 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> Previously the kings of the -Pandyan dynasty resided at a place called Kurkhi.<a name="FNanchor_443_443" id="FNanchor_443_443"></a><a href="#Footnote_443_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a></p> - -<p>Another tradition states that a merchant lost his way in -the forests, and discovered an ancient temple dedicated to -Siva and his wife Durga, which had been erected by the -God Indra. The merchant was directed by the God to -announce to the Pandyan king, named Kula Sekhara, that it -was the will of Siva that a city should be erected on the spot. -Kula Sekhara, therefore, cleared the forest, rebuilt the temple, -and founded a city. On the completion of the work a -shower of nectareal dew fell from heaven, spreading a sweet -film on the ground, and hence the name of <i>Madura</i> (sweet).<a name="FNanchor_444_444" id="FNanchor_444_444"></a><a href="#Footnote_444_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a></p> - -<p>The wife of Siva became incarnate as the daughter and -successor of this prince, under the name of Minakshi; and -Siva himself as Sundara, or the handsome, was her mortal -husband. Thus the Pandyan kings, like many of the dynasties -of ancient Greece, placed their gods at the head of their -genealogical tree. The immigration of a colony of Aryan -Brahmins from Magadha into the Madura country, and the -commencement of Tamil civilization and literature, have -been placed, by Mr. Caldwell and others, in about the -seventh century <span class="smcap">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>At the Christian æra the kings of Madura were very -powerful, and had extended their dominions over the whole -of the peninsula. They sent two embassies to Rome—the -first in the eighteenth year after the death of Julius Cæsar, -which found the Emperor Augustus at Tarragona; and the -second six years later, when he was at Samos.<a name="FNanchor_445_445" id="FNanchor_445_445"></a><a href="#Footnote_445_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a> Subsequently -the kingdom was reduced in size by the independence of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span> -Malabar, the rise of Chira in the west, of the state of Chola -in the east, and of Ramnad in the south.<a name="FNanchor_446_446" id="FNanchor_446_446"></a><a href="#Footnote_446_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a> A long list of -kings is mentioned in the native annals, with numerous wars, -first against the Buddhists, and afterwards with the Rajahs of -Chola and Ramnad.</p> - -<p>The most flourishing period of Madura history appears to -have been during the reigns of Vamsa Sekhara and his son -Vamsa Churamani, in about 200 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> They erected grand -temples and palaces, and the more ancient and massive parts -of edifices still in existence probably date from their reigns. -A college, called <i>Sangattar</i>, was founded at Madura, at this -time, for the cultivation of the Tamil language and literature.<a name="FNanchor_447_447" id="FNanchor_447_447"></a><a href="#Footnote_447_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a> -The first stimulus was given to this movement by the -famous <i>Rishi</i> or sage, Aghastya, the leader of a colony of -Brahmins, whose migration to the south is mentioned in the -Ramayana. He was a chief agent in diffusing the worship of -Siva in the Deccan; and it is supposed that there was a -second man of learning of the same name in the eighth or -ninth century. Aghastya is said to have been the offspring -of two gods, Mithra and Varuna, and he received the Brahminical -string from seven holy prophets. He became a -most wonderful and enlightened personage, and composed -works on medicine, moral and natural philosophy, and botany, -in high Tamil verse, called <i>Yellacanum</i>, greatly improving -and refining his adopted language. Aghastya's memory is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span> -deeply venerated by the Tamil people, and his healing spirit -is still believed to hover amongst the mountains of Courtallum, -in Tinnevelly;<a name="FNanchor_448_448" id="FNanchor_448_448"></a><a href="#Footnote_448_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> where he is worshipped as <i>Agast-isvara</i>, -or the star Canopus.</p> - -<p>From the ninth to the tenth centuries the Jain religion -predominated in Madura. The Jains were animated by a -national and anti-Brahminical feeling, and it is chiefly to them -that Tamil is indebted for its high culture and independence -of Sanscrit. They were expelled in the reign of Sundara -Pandya, at about the time when Marco Polo visited India. -The Mohammedans first made an inroad into the Deccan in -the reign of Alla-ud-deen of Delhi in 1293, they crossed the -Kistna in 1310, and advanced as far as Rameswara in 1374.</p> - -<p>After reigning for many centuries the Pandyan dynasty -became tributary to the powerful Brahminical kingdom of Bijayanuggur -in Mysore, in about 1380 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> A list of more than -seventy kings is given in the annals.<a name="FNanchor_449_449" id="FNanchor_449_449"></a><a href="#Footnote_449_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> But in the fifteenth -century an officer of the Bijayanuggur Rajah, named Nagama -Naik, was installed as feudatory King of Madura, and founded -the Naik dynasty. He procured the cession of Trichinopoly -from the Chola Rajah, and his son Viswanath Naik distributed -the district of Tinnevelly amongst his adherents of the Totia -caste, the ancestors of the Poligars of Tinnevelly. His descendant -Tirumalla Naik, who succeeded in 1623 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, had a long -and flourishing reign, and public edifices still furnish splendid -proofs of his wealth and magnificence. He died in 1657 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>; -and the Naik dynasty, which came to an end in 1730 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>,<a name="FNanchor_450_450" id="FNanchor_450_450"></a><a href="#Footnote_450_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a> was -followed by obscure feudatories of the Nawabs of the Carnatic, -who eventually made way for British rule.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span></p> - -<p>I went early one morning, with Mr. Levinge the Collector, -to visit the great pagoda of Madura, some of the oldest parts -of which date from the reigns of Pandyan kings in the eighth -century. It covers twenty acres of ground, and is surrounded -by a high stone wall painted in red and white stripes, the -Hindoo holy colours. The walls form a perfect square, and -in the centre of each side there is a lofty <i>gopuram</i> or tower. -These towers are broad, solid, and very lofty masses of -brick, in the form of a truncated pyramid. From the base -to the summit they are one mass of sculptured figures, representing -all the gods in Hindu mythology, rising tier above -tier to the summit, and decreasing in size with the height. -Each end of the top of the <i>gopuram</i> is ornamented by a fan-shaped -structure of brick-work, representing the hood of a -cobra. We entered the pagoda by a gateway in the left -corner of the wall facing the great <i>choultry</i> built by Tirumalla -Naik. Here the warden of the pagoda was waiting for us, who -had arrived just before in his palkee. He is of Sudra caste, a -man advanced in years, and of much reputed holiness; and -he received us in a state of nudity, with the exception of a -yellow gauze scarf, his belly, chest, and forehead being -smeared with holy ashes. A crowd of Brahmins accompanied -us.</p> - -<p>A long corridor leads from the entrance to the cloister, -with a roof supported by stone pillars, between which elephants -were stationed, gaudily painted and caparisoned. The -cloister is the finest part of the interior of the pagoda. The -walls are covered with paintings representing the marvellous -adventures of Krishna, and the pillars supporting the roof of -the galleries are roughly carved. The central space is occupied -by "the tank of the golden lotus," with very dirty green -water, and stone steps leading down from the cloister. The -view from one corner of this tank is very striking; with -green stagnant water as a foreground, rows of fantastically-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span>carved -pillars supporting the gallery on the opposite side, -with the lofty <i>gopurams</i> in the rear, rising as it were from the -graceful fronds of cocoanut-trees which waved over the roof -of the cloisters. Sacred monkeys were running about in all -directions over the roofs.</p> - -<p>The <i>Sangattar</i> or literary college of Madura held its sittings -in this cloister; and Siva is said to have presented it with a -diamond bench which extended itself readily for such persons -as were worthy to be on a level with the sages of the <i>Sangattar</i>, -and excluded all who tried to sit on it without possessing -the necessary qualifications. In other words, the -learned corporation of Madura maintained a strict and exclusive -monopoly. One day a man of the Pariar or lowest caste, -named Tiruvallavar, appeared as a candidate for a seat on the -bench of <i>Sangattar</i> professors. The sages were indignant at -his presumption, but, as he was patronized by the Rajah, they -were obliged to give his book a trial. It was to find a place -on the bench, which the professors took care to occupy fully. -But the miraculous bench extended itself to receive the book, -which expanded and thrust all the sages off into "the tank -of the golden lotus," and the <i>Sangattar</i> was abolished. This -took place in about the ninth century, and the work of Tiruvallavar, -called <i>kural</i>, and consisting of 1330 aphorisms, still -exists, and is the oldest extant work in Tamil literature. -Though rejected by the <i>Sangattar</i>, on account of the low -caste of its author, it was received by the Rajah and people; -and the college was abolished, or perhaps dissolved itself from -mortification at this defeat.</p> - -<p>In a corner of the cloister is the entrance to one of the -<i>gopurams</i>, and we went up to the top. Holding on by the -cobra's hood which crowns the tower, there was an extensive -view of the town of Madura and surrounding country, with -its bright green rice cultivation, groves of palmyra-palms,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span> -broad expanses of water, isolated masses of rock, and the -Pulney hills in the far distance.</p> - -<p>We passed from the cloister, and walked round the corridors -which surround the holy of holies containing the -<i>Sokalinga</i>, the sacred emblem of the God Siva, which no one -but a Brahmin can enter; and the temple of Minakshi, his -fish-eyed wife. The pillars in these corridors are curiously -carved in the form of dancing-girls, elephant-headed Gods, -Sivas, and bulls. Here I was decorated with garlands of -flowers by the warden of the temple, and I saw that there -was a flower-garden in a small enclosure near the cloister, to -supply offerings of flowers for the ceremonial worship in the -temple. In the Hindu religion bright-coloured or fragrant -flowers take a prominent place as offerings to the gods. The -arrows of Kama, the God of Love, were tipped with five -flowers:<a name="FNanchor_451_451" id="FNanchor_451_451"></a><a href="#Footnote_451_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a> the <i>asoka</i> (<i>Jonesia pinnata</i>), a beautiful flower diversified -with orange, scarlet, and bright-yellow tints, is consecrated -to Siva; the lotus-flower, called <i>kamata</i> or <i>padma</i>, to -Vishnu and his wife Lakshmi; a sweet-scented jasmine -(<i>Jasminum undulatum</i>) to Vishnu, and Mariama the Goddess -of Pariars; the superb crimson <i>Ixora Bandhuca</i> is offered at -the shrines of Vishnu and Siva; and the <i>Nauclea Cadumba</i>, -a stately tree, yields the holiest flower in India.<a name="FNanchor_452_452" id="FNanchor_452_452"></a><a href="#Footnote_452_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span> -In an angle of one of the corridors all the jewels of the -temple were spread out on a table for our inspection, and we -sat down before them, by the side of the old warden. It was -a truly magnificent display of wealth; and it was impossible -not to feel that there must be deep faith and conviction in a -religion which induces men to go about naked and in ashes, -and to devote tens of thousands of rupees to ornament the -mystic emblems of their Gods. I particularly noticed some -sapphires of extraordinary size and brilliancy; the cover of -the <i>lingam</i>, a cylinder of pure gold, four feet high, encrusted -with pearls and rubies; the golden sceptre of Siva, three -feet long, and one mass of rubies; the golden shoes and -gauntlets of Siva and Minakshi, inlaid with rubies, emeralds, -and pearls; the head-dress of Minakshi of gold Trichinopoly-work, -adorned with pearls and rubies, with enormous emeralds -hanging from it; her playthings, consisting of golden birds -overlaid with rubies and emeralds; and necklaces and bracelets -covered with jewels of priceless value. There was also -a costly gold chain presented by Mr. Peters, a former Collector, -and another which had lately arrived from Agra, in -an anonymous letter addressed to the pagoda.</p> - -<p>From this corridor I was able to peep down a dark passage -at the end of which there were some dim lights surrounding -the sacred <i>Soka-linga</i>, but I could not distinguish anything. -The warden told us that it was a piece of solid rock cropping -out of the ground, and cut into the shape of a cylinder, with -a rounded top, as the mysterious emblem of Siva, the God of -reproduction. Its roots are said to be in the centre of the -earth, and to have been there since the creation. The -Pandyan kings, when they were dying, were taken into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span> -innermost sanctuary of Siva's temple, to expire and be united -with their God. Parallel with this holy of holies dedicated -to the worship of Siva, in the form of his mystic emblem, -is the temple of his wife Parvati, here better known as -Minakshi, or the fish-eyed.</p> - -<p>We then went into the hall of the thousand pillars, which -are carved into the shape of gods or dancing-girls, and -support a flat stone roof. Here some nautch-girls came -dancing before us in silk trousers, long tunics, golden headdresses, -and rings on their ears, noses, and toes; as we -walked down the long vistas of pillars. Their motions are -stiff and without grace, like the contortions of galvanized -corpses, and they are generally very ugly, with black teeth. -I was glad when they relieved us of their disgusting presence, -as we were shown into a chamber near the outer door, -where the horses and bulls used in the great processions are -kept. These are made of solid silver, ornamented with -precious stones, and on festivals the God and Goddess are -mounted on them, and carried round the town.</p> - -<p>This great pagoda is very richly endowed, and is one -of the most famous in Southern India. It was originally, and -for several centuries, the centre of Tamil civilization, and -it is a very characteristic specimen of Hindu architecture. -All originality and intellectual vigour has disappeared from -amongst the Tamil people, under the blighting influence of -foreign domination, but their devotional feeling appears to -have survived; together with respect and veneration for the -doctrines and aphorisms of their classic sages, among the -more educated. Aghastya stands at the head of the Tamil -authors, and the following confession of faith, in the <i>Njana-nuru</i> -is attributed to him:—</p> - -<blockquote> -<p> -"Worship thou the light of the Universe, who is One:<br /> -Who made the world in a moment, and placed good men in it;<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span>Who afterwards himself dawned upon the earth as a Guru;<br /> -Who, without wife or family, as a hermit performed austerities;<br /> -Who, appointing loving sages to succeed him,<br /> -Departed again into Heaven:—worship Him."<a name="FNanchor_453_453" id="FNanchor_453_453"></a><a href="#Footnote_453_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a><br /> -</p> -</blockquote> - -<p>We left the pagoda by a corridor leading through one -of the <i>gopurams</i> into the street, immediately in front of the -great choultry erected by Tirumalla Naik. It consists of an -immense hall of granite, 300 feet long by 80, supported by -upwards of a hundred pillars of the same stone, elaborately -carved, and about thirty feet high. One of them is formed -of a single block of granite. Figures of the Madura kings -of the Naik dynasty are carved on these pillars, amongst -whom is Tirumalla Naik, the founder of the edifice. One -curious group of carved figures represents a tradition of the -old Pandyan times. It is related that a rich farmer, living -near Madura, had twelve sons, who passed their time in the -chace. A wild hog once attacked them, killed some, and -chased the rest to the vicinity of a sage engaged in meditation. -The angry ascetic cursed them, declaring that, in -their future life, they should be hogs themselves. They were -born again as porkers, but Minakshi took pity on them, -officiated as their nurse, and they became men with pig's -heads, in which capacity they are sculptured on one of the -pillars of the choultry. The pig-headed brethren were -taught the arts and sciences, and were eventually advanced -to the ministerial administration of the affairs of the Pandyan -kingdom. The choultry was originally built as a magnificent -approach to the temple, and to receive the image of the -God Siva for ten days every year. It was crowded with -people, and the spaces between the pillars were occupied by -traders selling silks and cotton-cloths, turbans, bags for betel, -and trinkets.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span></p> - -<p>Next to the great pagoda and the choultry, the most -interesting architectural remains of the former grandeur -of Madura are the ruins of the palace of Tirumalla Naik. -They consist of a large quadrangular court, now roofless,<a name="FNanchor_454_454" id="FNanchor_454_454"></a><a href="#Footnote_454_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a> but -apparently once covered over, with side aisles supported -by massive stone pillars, rendered almost double their original -size by a thick coating of <i>chunam</i>, or lime made with -pounded sea-shells, which takes a very fine polish, like -marble. These columns are exceedingly handsome, and -their capitals bear evidence of Italian design.<a name="FNanchor_455_455" id="FNanchor_455_455"></a><a href="#Footnote_455_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a> They are in -double rows, and the roof of the aisles is most elaborately -carved with mythological figures, originally painted in bright -colours. Numerous green paroquets were screaming and -flying about near the roof. At the end of this splendid -court, opposite the street entrance, there is a broad flight -of steps leading up to an inner hall, where columns of the -same massive character support a richly carved roof. The -whole building has an exceedingly imposing effect, and in -the sombre melancholy of its decay it gives a grand idea -of the former civilization of the Tamil people; but as the -English Judge now holds his court in a portion of the ruins, -we must not say, with the Persian poet,—</p> - -<blockquote> -<p> -"The spider now weaves its web in the palace of Cæsar,<br /> -The owl stands sentinel on the watch-tower of Afrasiab."<br /> -</p> -</blockquote> - -<p>Tirumalla Naik also constructed a great tank, about a -mile outside the town, said to be the finest in Southern India. -It is an exact square, with sides 300 yards long faced with -granite, and flights of steps down to the water, at intervals.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span> -In the centre there is a square island, rising in broad flights -of steps from the water, and covered with a grove of trees, -above which rises the tall tower of a pagoda.</p> - -<p>The town of Madura, situated on the banks of the river -Vaigay, contains about 50,000 inhabitants. It is by far the -cleanest and best built city that I saw in India, with fine -broad streets, and houses with tiled roofs extending far beyond -the walls, so as to form verandahs supported by poles. Here -and there a house with an upper story, belonging to some -wealthy citizen, rose above the rest; and in the bazars there -was a strong sickly smell of spices. Madura is indebted, for -its superiority over other Indian towns, to Mr. Blackburn, a -former Collector, and the inhabitants have erected a lamp on -a tall pedestal to his memory.</p> - -<p>On the day of my visit to the pagoda, the streets were -densely crowded, the women were decked out in all their -finery, and those of the Brahmin caste had their faces -hideously stained with saffron. It was a festival in honour of -some cow or other, who had been turned into a rock, through -the excess of her love for <i>Nandi</i>, the bull on which the God -Siva rides. The religious feelings of the people are displayed -in these festivals, and whether they worship and venerate -the stone or wooden image, or the attributes of God-like -virtue and wisdom which the emblems connected with the -image are intended to represent, my observations led me -to believe that, in all classes, there was a display of most -undoubted sincerity. In connection with their religious -observances, the people of Southern India feel very strongly -on the subject of caste distinctions. The Brahmins are fair -skinned, of Aryan descent, and comparatively strangers, -having been barely a thousand years in the country.<a name="FNanchor_456_456" id="FNanchor_456_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a> Next<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span> -come the <i>Sudras</i>, who represent the upper classes of the -Tamil race. The <i>Vellaler</i> or agricultural caste comes next, -and then the <i>Maravar</i> and <i>Kallar</i>, or robber castes. The -Prince of Ramnad, who is hereditary guardian of Rama's -bridge, belongs to the Maravars, and the Rajah of Tondiman -to the Kallars. Below the robber castes are the <i>Shanars</i> or -toddy-drawers, who are free and proprietors of land; then -the <i>Pariars</i><a name="FNanchor_457_457" id="FNanchor_457_457"></a><a href="#Footnote_457_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a> and chucklers or slaves; then the <i>Korawars</i> or -vagrant basket-makers, and last of all the shoemakers and -low-caste washermen.</p> - -<p>The higher castes had recently been outraged by the -Shanars having been allowed to go in procession along the -road, on the occasion of a marriage at Arpucaté, a populous -mercantile town in the Madura district. This was done in -defiance of all ancient customs and usages connected with -caste, which are clearly defined and acknowledged by all -classes of Hindus. The high-caste people defend their feeling -of exclusiveness by urging that the Shanars and Pariars -are guilty of one or other of the five great sins, namely, -killing the sacred cow, theft, drunkenness, adultery, and -lying: for that the Shanars draw toddy, and the Pariars eat -meat. They claim for immemorial custom the same authority -that is given in England to common law, and declare that -the Shanars never had the right of parading the streets in -procession, with music and flags. In considering this question -it should not be forgotten that the Shanars and other -low castes will no more allow a man of still lower caste to -overstep his privileges by one hair's breadth than will a -Sudra or a Brahmin. Even the Pariars are a well-defined, -distinct, and ancient caste, jealous of the encroachments of -the castes both above and below them: they have strong -caste feelings, and treat the caste of shoemakers with con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span>tempt.<a name="FNanchor_458_458" id="FNanchor_458_458"></a><a href="#Footnote_458_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a> -Thus, if the Shanars and Pariars insist upon their -own caste privileges, it is difficult to see why they should -be permitted to infringe upon those of the castes above -them; and it would seem that a feeling of content and -satisfaction with our rule would be best promoted by ensuring -to all classes of the community the exclusive enjoyment -of their own peculiar usages and privileges.</p> - -<p>Caste is one among many instances of the peculiar exaggerations -in which the Hindu mind loves to indulge. The social -distinctions which prevail in other countries are represented -in India by this institution, in which those distinctions are, not -altogether illogically, carried to an extreme point. Caste may -be modified and rendered less harsh in its general outline; -but it will never cease to exist. The Protestant missionaries, -of course, declare war to the knife against it, as a system of -falsehood and deceit, and an absurdity contrary both to reason -and revelation. This may be true, as well as that Brahmins -get drunk, and eat asafœtida-cakes in which buffalo flesh -forms an ingredient, without losing their caste; but missionary -denunciations of caste absurdity, and exposures of Brahminical -irregularities, are not likely to make the slightest -impression on the minds of a people with whom caste distinctions -are hallowed by immemorial usage, and bound up -in every act of their lives. The favourite missionary receipt -is, therefore, to deprive Brahmins of their <i>Enam</i> or rent-free -lands, to induce Government entirely to disavow caste, to -put an end to all caste distinctions in jails, and to raise the -Pariars and Chucklers from their degradation.<a name="FNanchor_459_459" id="FNanchor_459_459"></a><a href="#Footnote_459_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a> A very -summary plan no doubt, but as impracticable as it would be -impolitic and unjust.</p> - -<p>After a most delightful visit at Madura, I started for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span> -Trichinopoly late one night, and found the road so execrable -in some places, that it was necessary to go off into the fields, -and make a long circuit. The country between Madura -and Trichinopoly is chiefly cultivated with dry grain, but -there are occasional patches of rice. Ranges of rocky -hills intersect the plain, covered with underwood and low -trees, which the natives are allowed to use for firewood, -but, when they carry it off for sale, in cart-loads, there is -a small duty. I walked most of the distance under the shade -of the peepul and banyan-trees which line the road, and -reached Trichinopoly after a journey of a day and two -nights.</p> - -<p>Trichinopoly is a large military station, and the European -houses, therefore, are very numerous, and occupy a considerable -space, as they are generally surrounded by large parks -or compounds. A bridge over a small tributary of the -Cauvery leads to the bazar and native town; and the view -from the bridge is very pretty, with cocoanut-trees and bushes -coming down to the water's edge, and houses embosomed in -trees, whence flights of steps lead down into the water. Beyond -the bridge there is a picturesque mosque of white stone, -and the bazar, a long street leading to the principal part of -the town, in the centre of which the famous rock of Trichinopoly -rises up abruptly. Brahmins and other traders were -sitting in their shops, before piles of earthenware and copper -chatties, cotton cloths, and numerous kinds of grains and -pulses in baskets. The rock is a mass of granite, 400 feet -high, crowned by a small Hindu temple; the ascent is cut in -steps out of the solid rock, and from the summit there is a -most extensive view, including the city, the fine bridges over -the Coleroon and Cauvery, the <i>gopurams</i> of the great pagoda -of Seringam on an island in the river, and a vast expanse of -rice cultivation and palm-groves, with Tanjore on the distant -horizon. The native town contains several large handsome<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span> -houses belonging to Mohammedans, and the ruins of the -palace of the Nawabs of the Carnatic.</p> - -<p>Through the kindness of Mr. McDonnell, the Collector, I -was enabled to pass a very interesting day at the Upper -Coleroon <i>anicut</i>. Passing the base of the rock of Trichinopoly, -and following the main street of the native town, the banks -of the river Cauvery are reached, where there are rows of -stone temples and houses with open corridors, whence flights -of steps lead down into the water. Near the river there is -a tank filled with red and white lotus-flowers. A handsome -stone bridge spans the Cauvery, and another of equal length -crosses the Coleroon, about a mile further on. The two -rivers form an island, and unite a few miles lower down; and -the upper <i>anicut</i> is about fourteen miles up the river, where -Mr. McDonnell had a comfortable bungalow on the banks, -shaded by lofty trees.</p> - -<p>The Upper Coleroon <i>anicut</i> or weir is constructed at the -west end of the island of Seringam, which is formed by the -separation of the Cauvery into two branches, namely the -Coleroon on the north, and the Cauvery on the south. Formerly -the bed of the Coleroon was continually deepening, -while that of the Cauvery was rising, so that there was much -difficulty in obtaining a sufficient supply of water for the -irrigation of the rice-fields of Tanjore. The upper <i>anicut</i>, -commenced by Colonel Cotton in 1836, and finished in 1850, -completely answered the purpose of deepening the bed of the -Cauvery, so much so that another weir was made across that -river, sixty miles lower down; and by means of the second -weir, made in 1845, and the under sluices in the upper one, -the water is now effectually kept under command.<a name="FNanchor_460_460" id="FNanchor_460_460"></a><a href="#Footnote_460_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a> The upper -<i>anicut</i>, which I visited, is broken into three parts by two -small islands. The south part is 282 yards long, the centre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span> -350, and the north 122, the whole length, including the -islands, being 874, and without them 754 yards. The weir is -a plain brick wall, plastered with <i>chunam</i>, six feet thick, and -seven feet high, the top being lined with masonry. It is -defended from the overfall by masses of rough stone; and -there are twenty-four sluices, which prevent accumulations of -sand from forming above the <i>anicut</i>. The sluices are connected -by a narrow bridge of sixty-two arches, to secure -access to them during floods, and it also serves as a means of -communication between the banks for foot passengers. The -cost of the work, and of repairs between 1836 and 1850, was -two lacs of rupees, and it assists the irrigation of 600,000 -acres, yielding a revenue of 400,000<i>l.</i>, or equal to two-thirds -of that of the whole island of Ceylon.</p> - -<p>By means of these <i>anicuts</i> the fertile province of Tanjore is -converted into one vast rice-field,<a name="FNanchor_461_461" id="FNanchor_461_461"></a><a href="#Footnote_461_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a> and the portion of Trichinopoly -below the upper weir is equally rich. The country to -the north of the road between the <i>anicut</i> and the town of -Trichinopoly was a wide expanse of bright green rice cultivation, -stretching to the horizon. In Southern India there -are two annual crops of rice, called the <i>caar</i> and the <i>soombah</i> -or <i>peshanum</i> crops. The former is reaped in October and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span> -reckoned inferior, and the latter in February and March. -Two crops in the year from the same land do not yield -much more than a single crop, but, owing to the liability -of the seasons to fail, the cultivators rear as much as possible -for the first crop. This is reaped in the rainy season, -when the straw cannot be preserved, so that the second crop -must necessarily be sown, for fodder for cattle. Rice requires -rain to ensure the full development of the grain, as well as -irrigation. The seed is sown thick, and then transplanted to -the fields about forty days afterwards; and the fields must -be constantly supplied with water. The stalks when cut are -stacked for a few days, and the grain is then thrashed out by -manual labour or cattle, the husk being separated from the -grain with a rice-stamper, generally beaten by women. In -the interval of sowing, the natives often sow the land with -pulse or sesame, the stubble of which is used as manure for -the next rice-crop.</p> - -<p>At intervals scattered over the plain, there are groves of -cocoanut and palmyra-palms, like islands in the vast sea of -rice-fields, with small villages built under their shade. As -the betel-nut palm is the most graceful in India, so the -palmyra (<i>Borassus flabelliformis</i>) is undoubtedly the ugliest, -with its black stem the same size all the way up, and coarse -fan-shaped leaves. It is chiefly from this tree that the -Shanars draw the toddy. The spadix or young flowering branch -is cut off near the top, and an earthenware <i>chatty</i> is tied on -the stump, into which the juice flows. Every morning it is -emptied and replaced, the stump being cut afresh, and so on -until the whole is exhausted. Sugar is also extracted by the -same process, the inside of the <i>chatty</i> being powdered with -lime to prevent fermentation, and the juice being boiled down -and dried. The sugar thus obtained is called <i>jaggery</i>. The -timber of the palmyra-palm is extensively used for building.</p> - -<p>As we drove towards Trichinopoly, with these rice-fields<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span> -studded with palm-groves on our right, the tall towers of -Seringam<a name="FNanchor_462_462" id="FNanchor_462_462"></a><a href="#Footnote_462_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a> appeared rising above the trees which border the -waters of the Cauvery; and near the town there are large -plantain-groves. In leaving Trichinopoly on the road to the -Neilgherries it is necessary to cross a small affluent of the -Cauvery in ferry-boats. Those for foot-passengers are of -wicker covered with hides, and perfectly round, like those -which are described by Herodotus, and are still used on the -Tigris and Euphrates. After jolting all night through endless -groves of banyan and peepul trees, I reached Caroor,<a name="FNanchor_463_463" id="FNanchor_463_463"></a><a href="#Footnote_463_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a> the -ancient capital of the Chira Rajahs, the following morning. -The Chira state, in the days of its prosperity, extended over -Coimbatore, and part of Mysore and Malabar. Caroor is a -town of some size, in the middle of a plain, through which -flows the river Amaravati, a tributary of the Cauvery. Mr. -Roberts, the Sub-Collector, was living in a curious upper -story, on the top of a pagoda, the entrance to which leads -under a tall brick <i>gopuram</i>, 86 feet high, 64 feet long at the -base, and 52 feet broad, sculptured with images exactly on -the pattern of those at Madura. The country between Caroor -and the foot of the Neilgherries is flat and uninteresting, -chiefly cultivated with <i>cholum</i>, <i>cumboo</i>, cotton, and a few -pulses, with rice in some places. The road is execrable, and -generally lined with banyan-trees, which, though affording -pleasant shade, are ungainly and ugly, owing to the numerous -bunches of dusty-looking roots, which hang in all directions -from the branches. On arriving at Matepoliem I found a -pony waiting, and, riding up the Coonoor ghaut, returned to -Ootacamund. Half-way up the ghaut, at a place called Burlear, -Mr. Thomas, the Collector of Coimbatore, has a small -but interesting garden, containing all kinds of spices, cacao, -coffee and tea plants, besides oranges, lemons, and citrons.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span></p> - -<p>During my tour through the principal Tamil districts I -was chiefly struck with the evidences, furnished by the -pagodas of Madura and Seringam, and the works of Tirumalla -Naik, of the great surplus revenue which was once derived -from the land. By the execution of additional public works, -the improvement of means of communication, and judicious -reductions of the land-tax, which will induce the ryots to bring -more waste land under cultivation, much has been effected, but -much still remains to be done, before the country attains the -same degree of prosperity which it appears to have enjoyed -in the best days of the Pandyan and Naik dynasties. Tanjore -has probably already reached the highest state of profitable -rice cultivation, through the irrigation supplied by the -Coleroon <i>anicuts</i>. But much may yet be done with regard -to the encouragement of the growth of cotton in Coimbatore, -Madura, and Tinnevelly; and hereafter the coffee and chinchona -plantations of the Neilgherry hills, the Pulneys, and -the Anamallays will supply another important source of -wealth and prosperity.</p> - -<p>To the north of the Cauvery, in the district of Salem, -there is a range of isolated hills, called the Shervaroys, which -rise, a few miles north-east of the town of Salem, into a mass -of densely wooded flat-topped hills. The mean height of the -table-land of the Shervaroys, on their summits, is 4600 feet, -and the highest peak rises to 5260 feet. In the Salem district -the south-west monsoon sets in early in June, and -showers continue till September; and in the end of October -the north-east monsoon brings a return of rain from the -opposite quarter, which continues until December, when the -rains cease, owing to the change of wind from north-east to -due north. There are several coffee estates on the Shervaroy -hills, but they are considered to be too dry, and, although -the coffee produced is said to be of excellent quality, yet the -yield is small, and I was told that the Shervaroy plantations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span> -were generally losing concerns. The land-tax on these -estates is one rupee an acre. Between December and June -it is exceedingly dry, and I, therefore, did not consider it -advisable to try the experiment of chinchona cultivation on -the Shervaroys during the first or second years. If the plants -are hereafter found to be capable of enduring longer droughts -than we at present expect, they may then be tried on the -Shervaroys.</p> - -<p>For the same reason I gave up all idea of the hills near -Courtallum, in Tinnevelly. At Courtallum, notwithstanding -the perennial humidity, the rainfall is only 40 inches, though -on the surrounding hills it is probably greater.<a name="FNanchor_464_464" id="FNanchor_464_464"></a><a href="#Footnote_464_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a> The elevation -of those hills, however, is not sufficient for the -profitable cultivation of most species of chinchona-plants. -Tinnevelly is sheltered from the south-west monsoon by the -Travancore mountains, and from the north-east monsoon by -the Serumullay hills, 3500 feet high, which rise from the -Madura plains near Dindigul, and by the island of Ceylon to -the east. This extreme south part of the peninsula, between -latitude 8° and 10° north, therefore receives little moisture, -and has a hot arid climate, resembling Egypt, and producing -senna and Indian cotton of the best quality.<a name="FNanchor_465_465" id="FNanchor_465_465"></a><a href="#Footnote_465_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a> It is possible, -however, that localities may hereafter be found, where the -chinchona species suited to comparatively low elevations -might flourish, such as <i>C. succirubra</i> and <i>C. micrantha</i>, on -the mountains dividing Tinnevelly from Travancore.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXVI"></a>CHAPTER XXVI.</h2> - -<p class="c">MYSORE AND COORG.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="hang smallish">Seegoor ghaut—Sandal-wood—Mysore—Seringapatam—Hoonsoor—The -tannery—Fraserpett—Mercara—The fort—The Rajahs of Coorg—The -Coorgs—Origin of the river Cauvery—Coorg—Climate—Coffee -cultivation—Sites for chinchona-plantations—Caryota Urens—Virarajendrapett—Cardamom -cultivation—Kumari—Poon, blackwood, and -teak—Pepper cultivation in Malabar—Cannanore—Nuggur and Baba -Bodeen hills—The Beebee of Cannanore—Compta—Sedashighur—Arrive -at Bombay.</p></blockquote> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> descent from the plateau of the Neilgherries to the plains -of Mysore on the north, is by the Seegoor ghaut, the only -one which is practicable for carriages. It is much tamer, -and not to be compared with those of Sispara or Coonoor; -and at the foot there is a wide belt of thin, stunted, pestiferous -jungle, twenty-five miles in breadth, through which the river -Moyaar flows to join the Bowany. There are a great many -young teak-trees, and sandal-wood is also found, in the -forests on the inner or eastern slopes of the ghauts; but all -the timber looked poor and stunted.<a name="FNanchor_466_466" id="FNanchor_466_466"></a><a href="#Footnote_466_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a> The sandal-wood tree -(<i>Santalum album</i>) is about twenty feet high, with numerous -spreading branches, and small purplish flowers. Dr. Cleghorn -reports that with vigilant supervision, and slight assistance to -nature in clearing the heads of young plants, which are often -matted down by creepers, an addition might accrue to the -revenue of several districts in the Madras Presidency by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span> -sale of sandal-wood. The export trade in sandal-wood and -oil is even now very considerable. The road from the foot of -the Seegoor ghaut to Mysore, a distance of sixty-four miles, is -excellent, and there is a very good bridge over the river Moyaar. -We passed the night at the half-way bungalow of Goondulpett, -whence there is a grand view, with scattered date-palms -in the foreground, a vast expanse of undulating plain beyond, -bounded by the belt of forest, with the blue line of the Neilgherries -in the distance. There is nothing of interest between -Goondulpett and Mysore.</p> - -<p>Mysore is on a table-land 2450 feet above the sea. On the -western side of the town flows the Purneah canal, which -comes from a distance of seventy miles to supply Mysore -with water, and was made by the Brahmin minister Purneah, -who came into power during the present Rajah's minority, -after the death of Tippoo. In approaching the town, the -isolated rocky hill of Chamandi is seen on the right. Mysore -is fortified, and, after passing under the ramparts, we entered -a square, one side of which is occupied by the Rajah's palace. -Here, and in the adjoining streets, there was an unusual -amount of life and bustle owing to the presence of a native -court; and we met crowds of nautch-girls, men in various -costumes, elephants, camels, and bullock-carts. Some of the -houses have upper stories, but the majority are dark places, -with red-tiled roofs extending far over, and forming verandahs.</p> - -<p>Mysore is so called from its having been the abode of the -buffalo-headed demon <i>Mahesh-asur</i>, who was slain by Parvati, -the wife of Siva, in her most hideous and repulsive form, as -Cali, the impersonation of vengeance. The country, from -1336 to 1565, formed a part of the Brahminical kingdom of -Bijayanuggur; and in 1576 one Raj Wadeyar established his -independence as ruler of Mysore, from whom the present -Rajah is descended. After the death of Tippoo Sultan, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span> -the capture of Seringapatam by the English in 1799, the -present Rajah, then only five years old, was placed on the -throne, and the country was ruled by his very clever minister -Purneah, until he came of age. He afterwards proved so -utterly incompetent to govern, that the country fell into a -state of anarchy, and the English therefore undertook the -administration in 1832. The Mysore Commission was then -formed, with Sir Mark Cubbon at its head, and Mysore was -divided into four divisions—Bangalore, Astagram, Nuggur, -and Chitteldroog.</p> - -<p>The table-land of Mysore covers an area of 30,886 square -miles, and contains a population of 3,300,000 souls. Sir -Mark Cubbon's administration was vigorous and progressive. -In 1832 the revenue was 440,000<i>l.</i>, in 1860-61 it was -950,000<i>l.</i>, and in the latter year there was an excess of -income over expenditure, amounting to 120,000<i>l.</i> The Chief -Commissioner has made upwards of 1600 miles of excellent -carriage-road, bridged throughout, and has introduced many -important measures, while the officers who have worked -under him have generally been distinguished for ability and -zeal. The good old general was sixty years in India, and -governed Mysore from 1832 to 1861. He was adored by all -ranks of the people, and his resignation caused universal -regret, when, early in 1861, he sailed for England. But he -was not destined to see his native land again, he died at Suez, -and thus passed away a brave soldier and an enlightened -statesman, one who had done as good and valuable service to -his country as any English public servant during the present -century.</p> - -<p>During our stay at Mysore we drove over to Seringapatam, -a distance of twelve miles. The immediate neighbourhood -of the capital is chiefly planted with dry grains, such as -raggee and pulses. The common people live chiefly on raggee,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span> -which they store in underground pits. They also use the -seeds of gram (<i>Cicer arietinum</i>) in curries and cakes, and the -oxalic acid which exudes from every part of the plant serves -instead of vinegar for their curries. The roads round Mysore -are lined with hedges of American aloe. After the first few -miles, we began to pass through groves of cocoanut and -betel-palms,<a name="FNanchor_467_467" id="FNanchor_467_467"></a><a href="#Footnote_467_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a> much rice cultivation, and fields of sugar-cane. -Close to Seringapatam a sugar manufactory has been established -by Mr. Grove, who buys up the <i>jaggery</i> from the -ryots and refines it. We crossed the Cauvery by a fine -bridge, and saw the great canal constructed by Tippoo for -irrigating the rice-fields. There are large ruinous houses -and temples, embowered in palm-trees, with flights of steps -down to the river, outside the old town itself, which is -surrounded by a wall and ditch.</p> - -<p>We first drove to the tomb under which Hyder Ali and -Tippoo are buried. It is in the middle of a garden called -the <i>Lal-bagh</i>, with a pretty avenue of cocoanut and betel-palms -leading up to it. The tomb is a square building, -surmounted by a dome, with minarets at the angles, richly decorated -with arabesque-work in <i>chunam</i>. It is surrounded by -an open corridor, supported by pillars of black hornblende, and -in the centre of each side there is a doorway. That facing -the avenue is filled in with an open-work screen of the same -stone, and the others have double doors richly inlaid with -ivory, the gift of Lord Dalhousie. The tombs are placed -under the dome, three in number, namely, of Hyder, Tippoo, -and Tippoo's mother, each covered over with a pall of crimson -silk. The building is surrounded by cloisters, a part being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span> -used as a choultry for Moslem travellers, another as a mosque, -and another as a school for small boys who learn to read the -Koran. Government grants an allowance for keeping the -place in repair, and paying Moulvies to serve in the mosque. -The effect of the snow-white tomb, richly adorned with -arabesque-work, the lance-like minarets, the cloudless sky, -and the feathery palm-trees rearing their graceful heads -round the building, was exceedingly like a scene in the -Arabian Nights. The tomb of Colonel Baillie, who was -taken prisoner by Hyder Ali in 1780, is close by, but in a -very neglected state.</p> - -<p>We then went to the <i>Derya Dowlet-bagh</i> close to the town, -which was the favourite summer-palace of Tippoo. It is a -very richly ornamented arabesque building, every part being -covered with gilding and bright colours, and pictures on the -walls representing the repulse of Lally, and the defeat of -Colonel Baillie. From this place we went to the town of -Seringapatam itself, which is built on an island in the -Cauvery, and surrounded by a strong wall and two very deep -ditches. Close to the gate is the <i>jumma musjid</i>, or principal -mosque, with two tall minarets; and, in one corner, the spot -was pointed out where Tippoo was accustomed to pray, -entering the mosque by a small side-door. The double ditch -is a very formidable defence to the town, but it does not -extend along the side facing the river, and it was here that -the assault was delivered by the English general. A feint -was made in the direction of the <i>Lal-bagh</i>, where the -English suffered severely, while the real storming party was -formed on the opposite side of the Cauvery, at a spot which -is now marked by two upright posts. A bastion facing the -river had previously been breached, the four guns on it -dismounted, and scarcely any other guns could be brought -to bear on the soldiers of the assaulting column at this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span> -particular point, who dashed across the Cauvery and up the -breach. Tippoo was jammed by the flying crowd in a small -doorway, which we saw, where he was killed, and from that -day the pestiferous Seringapatam ceased to be the capital -of Mysore. The palace, now in ruins, is very like that of -the Nawab of the Carnatic at Trichinopoly, a plain rambling -building with rows of large windows, and there are extensive -gardens round it, full of tamarind-trees, cocoanuts, plantains, -and vines.</p> - -<p>The old town of Seringapatam is exceedingly interesting, -but it now wears an appearance of silent decay and desolation. -It is notoriously unhealthy, and the inevitable -penalty of a night passed in the town is a severe attack of -fever.</p> - -<p>From Mysore we took our way, by Hoonsoor, to the hill -district of Coorg. The road to Hoonsoor passes over twenty-eight -miles of a country very little cultivated, with extensive -tracts of waste land, and a few fields of dry grain near the -villages. Hoonsoor has for many years been a Government -grazing-farm and manufactory. In 1860 the bullocks were -all sold off, but there are still thirty-eight fine elephants, and -upwards of a hundred camels. We saw the elephants having -their breakfasts in a solemn motionless row, large heaps of -rice wrapped in bundles of reed being put into their mouths -by the mahouts. Besides an establishment of blacksmiths, -carpenters, brass-workers, and of women employed in making -blankets, there is an extensive Government tannery at Hoonsoor. -There are many trees in India well adapted for -tanning purposes, but the American sumach (<i>Cæsalpinia -coriaria</i>) introduced by Dr. Wallich in 1842, and called by -the natives <i>divi-divi</i>, appears to be considered the best at -Hoonsoor. The <i>kino</i>-tree (<i>Pterocarpus marsupium</i>) is another, -and there are two kinds of <i>catechu</i> used for tanning, one from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span> -the betel-nut-palm, and the other from an acacia. To obtain -the <i>catechu</i> from the betel-palm the nuts are boiled, and the -remaining water is inspissated, and yields the best kind, -which is used for the golden coffee-brown colour in dyeing -calico, as well as for tanning. From the acacia the <i>catechu</i> is -obtained by boiling the unripe pods and old wood. It is not -considered so good as <i>kino</i> or <i>divi-divi</i> for tanning purposes, -on account of its extreme astringency. The tannery at -Hoonsoor is a very extensive establishment, where shoes, -sandals, crossbelts, and scabbards are made for the army.</p> - -<p>This place suffers frequently and most severely from -cholera; and, during these terrible visitations a <i>Swami</i> or -God, in the shape of a small stone image of Ganesa seated -under a black-wood tree, is specially invoked.</p> - -<p>Hoonsoor is 25 miles from Fraserpett, at the foot of the -Coorg mountains, and we passed through extensive groves of -palm-trees with chatties fastened round the spadices to catch -the toddy. Fraserpett is within the Coorg district, and it is -in the pleasant little bungalows which have been built here, -that the English take refuge during the heavy down-pour of -the south-west monsoon. Through the kindness of Captain -Martin, a former Superintendent of Coorg, and now engaged -in the cultivation of coffee, we found horses waiting for us at -Fraserpett, and continued our journey to Mercara, the capital -of the district.</p> - -<p>After the first two miles the road enters a dense bamboo -jungle, extending along the base of the mountains. It was -the month of January and the forest was completely dried -up and burnt by the sun and want of rain, looking brown -and sombre. A splendid white <i>Ipomæa</i>, with a rich lilac -centre, was creeping in festoons to the very top of the -feathery bamboos which bent gracefully over the road. At -a place called Soonticoopah, ten miles from Fraserpett, the -ascent of the mountains begins. The road leads up and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span> -down a succession of wooded heights, which gradually increase -in elevation, with intermediate valleys cultivated with -rice and generally fringed with plantain-groves, through -which the huts of the Coorgs are visible. At the heads of -these valleys the streams are divided into two channels, and -led down each side, the space between being sown with rice -in terraced fields, gradually descending with the slope of the -valley. These bright patches of cultivation are very pretty, -with their light vivid green contrasting with the sombre hues -of the forest. Near Mercara the jungle is a good deal -cleared, and the slopes are covered with coffee-plants. The -road is excellent.</p> - -<p>Towards evening we came in sight of Mercara, by far the -prettiest place I have seen in India. On the opposite side of -a deep narrow valley was the fort and palace, built on an -eminence overlooking a vast extent of mountainous, forest-covered -country. The palace is surrounded by a fortified -wall of dark-coloured stone, with semicircular bastions at -intervals. On the wall facing us were two square buildings, -with a row of long windows, and an overhanging roof, the -residence of Captain Eliott, the Superintendent of Coorg; -and behind rose up the long edifice forming the old palace, -and the white steeple of a modern church. A range of -wooded hills, with heavy clouds hanging over them, formed -the background. To the right, at a lower elevation were the -native town, and two mosque-like buildings, snowy white, -with domes, and minarets at the angles, rising up amongst a -grove of trees. These are the tombs of the former Rajahs. -The narrow gorge below the fort is planted with coffee and -plantains, which almost hide the huts that nestle amongst -them. In the bottom of the ravine is the principal pagoda -of Mercara, built like a mosque, with the tops of the -minarets richly gilded. The entrance to the fort is by a -steep ascent, leading under a deep gateway in the outer line<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span> -of fortification, into a courtyard. A second archway leads -into a second small court, where there is an elaborately -carved pagoda to Ganesa. A third archway opens upon the -principal courtyard of the fort, one side of which is occupied -by the Rajah's palace, a long barrack-looking building, with -an upper story and projecting tiled roof. The officers of a -native regiment are quartered in the palace. To the left is -the English church, and to the right there is a dark dungeon -under the rampart, where the late Rajah kept his prisoners. -He used to allow one at a time to run out, and try to escape -by the archway, while he picked them off with a rifle from a -window of the palace as they ran. There are two full-sized -models of favourite elephants, built of brick and <i>chunam</i>, in -the courtyard. The huts of the native regiment are clustered -in a little valley close under the south wall of the fort.</p> - -<p>The palace is entered by an archway, over which there is -a balconied window supported by two white horses. The -inner court is surrounded by a corridor of stone pillars, with -a roof entirely of copper; and in the centre of the court -there is a tank paved with stone flags, now dry, with five -steps down to it, on two sides, and a carved stone tortoise in -the centre.</p> - -<p>On the other side of the small valley filled with soldiers' -huts, there is a parade-ground, and a small amphitheatre dug -out of the solid rock, where elephants and tigers fought for -the diversion of the Rajah. Beyond the parade-ground the -ridge on which Mercara is built abruptly terminates, and the -land sinks down into a wooded valley. Here the late Rajah -had built a little brick and <i>chunam</i> summer-house, whence -the land descends precipitously to the road leading down the -Mangalore ghaut. From this point there is one of the most -glorious views to be found in India, and we could sit on the -grassy edge of the cliffs for hours, without ceasing to enjoy -it. Right and left there is a wide expanse of forest-covered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span> -ranges of mountains extending into the blue distance, and in -front rises up the mountain of Tadiandamol, the loftiest -peak in Coorg. We watched the crimson sunset over the -hills, and after dark a spontaneous ignition of the dry grass -wound like a serpent along the loftier ridges of the opposite -mountains, producing an indescribably beautiful effect in the -clear starry night.</p> - -<p>Coorg has been a portion of the British dominions since -1834, when the last Rajah was deposed. The old Rajahs were -not Coorgs, but Hindu Lingayets, a peculiar sect whose -members wear a small god round their necks, in a little -silver coffer.<a name="FNanchor_468_468" id="FNanchor_468_468"></a><a href="#Footnote_468_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a> The family had certainly reigned in Coorg -since 1633; and Dodda Virappa, who died in 1734, fixed the -seat of government at Mercara, and was the greatest prince -of his family. He repulsed a simultaneous invasion of the -Mysore Rajah and the Nairs of Malabar, and afterwards -reigned in peace for eighteen years. Hyder Ali invaded and -overran the country several times, but in 1788 the young -Rajah Viraraja rallied the people round him, disputed every -inch of ground against Tippoo's invading army, and made an -alliance with the English in Malabar. On the fall of Tippoo -a treaty was signed between the East India Company and -Viraraja of Coorg, who died in 1807, leaving the country to -his favourite daughter Devammaji. His brother Lingaraja, -however, usurped the throne. He was a monster of cruelty, -and, dying in 1820, was succeeded by his still more brutal -son Viraraja, who massacred all his father's friends, together<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span> -with the poor young princess Devammaji. Her sister, who -had married a Coorg, escaped into British territory. It would -be too revolting to recount all the atrocities of the last Rajah -of Coorg; but at length the patience of Lord William Bentinck -was exhausted, and in April 1834 General Fraser -entered Mercara, and deposed him. Coorg has since been -governed by an English Superintendent, under the orders of -the Commissioners of Mysore.</p> - -<p>The Kodagas or Coorgs are a tall, muscular, broad-chested, -well-favoured race of mountaineers, numbering about 25,000, -with a population rapidly increasing since the deposition of -the Rajah.<a name="FNanchor_469_469" id="FNanchor_469_469"></a><a href="#Footnote_469_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a> They are of Dravidian origin, and speak a dialect -of Canarese; but a colony of Brahmins early settled in the -country, and endeavoured to mould the traditions of the -Coorgs into harmony with their own legends. These are embodied -in the Cauvery Purana, where there is a romantic -account of the origin of that important river, which rises in -the mountains of Coorg.</p> - -<p>In the Mahabharata it is related that the <i>amrit</i> or drink of -immortality, which had been lost in the waters of the Deluge, -was recovered by the Suras and Asuras, gods and demons, by -churning the ocean. The Asuras are then said to have stolen -it, and it was finally restored to the gods by the maiden -Lopamudre, who charmed the Asuras by her beauty. The -fair damsel then resolved to become a river, and thus pour -herself out in blessings over the earth. But the sage Aghastya, -so famous in the history of Madura, was enamoured of her, -and she at length so far yielded as to consent to be his wife, -on condition that she should be at liberty to forsake him the -first time he left her alone. One day he went to a short distance -to bathe, when Lopamudre immediately gratified her -early longings, by jumping into Aghastya's holy tank, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span> -flowing forth as the river Cauvery. The sage, on his return, -ran after her, but the only consolation that was left to him -was to explain to his beloved the course she ought to take in -flowing towards the eastern sea.</p> - -<p>The Cauvery Brahmins, as persons of that caste are called -in Coorg, wear the sacred thread, and perform <i>poojah</i> to Amma, -the goddess of the river. They number about forty families, -but are fast dying out. They are often very rich, and are -employed in the pagoda, or as clerks in the Superintendent's -office. The Coorgs themselves, the inhabitants of this mountainous -district, are divided into thirteen castes.<a name="FNanchor_470_470" id="FNanchor_470_470"></a><a href="#Footnote_470_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a> They -generally retain the old devil-worship of the Scythic or -Dravidian race from which they are descended, and are -addicted to the use of charms and sorceries. They marry at -a ripe age, but the wives of brothers are considered as common -property. All the men wear a silver-mounted dagger, -secured round the waist by a silver chain; and the women, -who are often very pretty, wear a white cotton cloth round -the head, with the ends hanging half-way down the back. -The men are an independent, hard-working race, tall, with -comparatively fair skins. They are very keen sportsmen, -and most of them possess a gun, the boys practising with -pellet-bows.</p> - -<p>Coorg consists of a succession of lofty wooded ridges and -long deep valleys, forty miles broad by sixty long, between -lat. 12° and 13° N. It is bounded on the north by the river -Hemavati, on the south by the Tambacheri pass, on the west -by Malabar and South Canara, and on the east by Mysore. -South of Mercara the country appears covered with forest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span>, -wave upon wave of wooded mountain ranges rising one -behind the other, the highest peak of all having its summit -partially bare of trees, and covered with rich herbage. The -elevations above the sea are as follows:—</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Tadiandamol (the highest peak)</td><td class="tdl">5781</td><td class="tdl">feet</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Pushpagiri (another peak)</td><td class="tdl">5682</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Mercara</td><td class="tdl">4506</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Virarajendrapett</td><td class="tdl">3399</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fraserpett</td><td class="tdl">3200</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The river Cauvery drains about four-fifths of the surface -of Coorg, while about a dozen streams, issuing from the -same hill region, traverse Malabar and South Canara. From -the end of December to the end of March rain is very -scarce, but the valleys are seldom without fogs more or less -dense in the evenings and mornings, and heavy dews are -frequent. During these months a dry east wind prevails, -which has long ceased to carry rain with it from the Bay -of Bengal. Towards the end of March clouds begin to collect, -and the air grows moister. In April and May there -are thunderstorms and frequent showers, with a warm and -moist climate. In the end of May the clouds in the western -sky grow in strength; and in June rain prevails, descending -at times softly, but generally with great violence, accompanied -by heavy gusts of westerly wind. In July and -August the rain pours down in floods day and night, to such -a degree that a flat country would be deluged, but Coorg, -after being thoroughly bathed, sends off the water to the east -and west by her numerous valleys. The yearly fall of rain -often exceeds 160 inches. In September the sun breaks -through, in October a north-east wind clears the sky, in November -showers fall over Coorg, being the tail of the north-east -monsoon, and December is often foggy.<a name="FNanchor_471_471" id="FNanchor_471_471"></a><a href="#Footnote_471_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a> The following -table will give an idea of the annual temperature of Mercara,<a name="FNanchor_472_472" id="FNanchor_472_472"></a><a href="#Footnote_472_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span> -the extremes ranging from 52° to 82°, and the average being -60°:—</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc bt bl br" colspan="5"><span class="smcap">Mercara, the Capital of Coorg</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bl br bb" colspan="5">1836-37.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bl br bb">MONTH.</td><td class="tdc br bb" colspan="2">Mean Temperature.</td><td class="tdc br bb">Rainfall in Inches.</td><td class="tdc br bb">Prevailing Wind.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bl br"> </td><td class="tdc bb br">6 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span></td><td class="tdc bb br">10 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span></td><td class="tdl br"> </td><td class="tdl br"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bl br">January</td><td class="tdc br">56</td><td class="tdc br">69</td><td class="tdc br">None.</td><td class="tdc br">N.E.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bl br">February</td><td class="tdc br">60</td><td class="tdc br">74</td><td class="tdc br">None.</td><td class="tdc br">E.N.E.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bl br">March</td><td class="tdc br">64</td><td class="tdc br">76</td><td class="tdc br">1.3</td><td class="tdc br">Variable.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bl br">April</td><td class="tdc br">65</td><td class="tdc br">78</td><td class="tdc br">0.2</td><td class="tdc br">Variable.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bl br">May</td><td class="tdc br">63</td><td class="tdc br">72</td><td class="tdc br">7.6</td><td class="tdc br">N.W.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bl br">June</td><td class="tdc br">62</td><td class="tdc br">68</td><td class="tdc br">20.8</td><td class="tdc br">W.N.W.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bl br">July</td><td class="tdc br">62</td><td class="tdc br">64</td><td class="tdc br">23.7</td><td class="tdc br">W.N.W.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bl br">August</td><td class="tdc br">60</td><td class="tdc br">63</td><td class="tdc br">24.7</td><td class="tdc br">W.N.W.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bl br">September</td><td class="tdc br">62</td><td class="tdc br">67</td><td class="tdc br">7</td><td class="tdc br">W.N.W.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bl br">October</td><td class="tdc br">63</td><td class="tdc br">68</td><td class="tdc br">0.5</td><td class="tdc br">W.N.W.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bl br">November</td><td class="tdc br">60</td><td class="tdc br">70</td><td class="tdc br">1.5</td><td class="tdc br">E.N.E.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bl br bb">December</td><td class="tdc br bb">58</td><td class="tdc br bb">70</td><td class="tdc br bb">0.07</td><td class="tdc br bb">N.E.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>An immense quantity of rice is cultivated in the Coorg -valleys, and largely exported, but scarcely any dry grain is -raised. In 1853 the rice harvest was said to have been worth -seven lacs of rupees. The Coorgs pay so much on the seed -sown, as a land-tax, besides a small house-tax, and the cardamom -sales yield about 35,000 Rs.<a name="FNanchor_473_473" id="FNanchor_473_473"></a><a href="#Footnote_473_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a></p> - -<p>Coffee cultivation was only commenced in Coorg about six -years ago, but its extension both amongst natives and Euro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span>peans -has since been very remarkable. There are now more -than a dozen plantations owned by Europeans, chiefly near -the road leading down the ghaut from Mercara to the port of -Mangalore, and several thousand acres are already under cultivation. -Mr. Mann, the largest proprietor, has upwards of -800 acres planted with coffee-trees. The natives too have -shown great enterprise in undertaking a cultivation previously -unknown to them, and there is now scarcely a hut to be seen -without its little coffee-garden. All the plantations on the -eastern side of Mercara, excepting one, belong to natives; and -close to the town I observed a small clearing where a Coorg -was hard at work building himself a hut, cutting away the -jungle, leading a small stream into new channels for purposes -of irrigation, and planting the slopes of two hills with coffee.</p> - -<p>An export duty of four annas the maund is levied on coffee -in Coorg, which, in 1861, brought in a revenue of 23,000 Rs. -In that year 1,29,869 maunds were exported, 1,17,223 by -native growers, and 12,645 by Europeans. This disproportion -will not exist this year, as the plants on several new -estates will now be in bearing for the first time. The main -roads in Coorg are excellent, and one at least of the planters, -if not more, has displayed great energy in connecting his -estates by good roads with the main Government highways. -Most of the available land, within reasonable distance of a -highway, is already taken up for coffee cultivation. Labour, -as is also the case in Wynaad and the Neilgherries, is chiefly -procured from Mysore, the coolies coming up after their own -work is done.</p> - -<p>It will be seen by the account I have been able to give -of the elevation, temperature, and of the periods of drought -and moisture in this hill district, that it is not nearly so well -adapted for the cultivation of chinchona-plants as Neddiwuttum, -and many other localities on the Neilgherry hills. -It may be compared, more appropriately, with the forests<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span> -near Sispara on the Koondahs, as it is exposed to the full -force of the south-west monsoon, and suffers from a long -drought during the winter.</p> - -<p>The country to the north and east of Mercara is a plateau, -about 4500 feet above the sea, intersected by ravines full of -trees and underwood, amongst which I observed wild orange -and lime-trees, <i>Michelias</i>, and tree-ferns, with an undergrowth -of ferns, <i>Lobelia</i>, <i>Ipomæa</i>, and <i>Solanum</i>. The scenery is -charming, with grassy slopes, wooded glades, and here and -there a secluded hut in a grove of plantains, on the edge of a -small patch of rice cultivation. I also examined some of the -forests down the Mangalore ghaut. The road is excellent, -winding with a gentle gradient through the beautiful forest -scenery past numerous coffee-plantations to their port of -shipment at Mangalore. At the fourth milestone from Mercara -there is a forest extending for nearly a mile, on the left -of the road, at an elevation of 3800 feet above the sea. It -descends from the road to the bottom of the ravine, and on -the opposite side there are forest-covered heights of greater -elevation. The forest contains many tall trees, not growing -very close, with tree-ferns, <i>Cinnamomum</i>, <i>Hymenodictyon</i>, <i>Melastomaceæ</i>, -a <i>Papilionacea</i> with a bright yellow flower, and -ferns, of which I collected five kinds. The general character -of the flora appeared suitable for the growth of chinchona-plants; -and, though this was the driest time of the year, I -found at least one small stream trickling down through the -underwood. The valley runs north-west and south-east.</p> - -<p>In this locality plants of <i>C. succirubra</i> would no doubt -flourish, and the experiment ought certainly to be tried; -though, from the low elevation, the bark would probably -be thin, and would yield perhaps a small per-centage of -alkaloids. These points, however, can only be ascertained -by experience gained from experimental culture. I was -told by Captain Eliott, the Superintendent of Coorg, that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span> -forest in question has been applied for and refused to several -coffee-planters. The land belongs to Government, but there -is a devil living on it, to which the Coorgs do <i>poojah</i>, and -the Commissioner of Mysore has, therefore, been hitherto -unwilling to allow it to be occupied.</p> - -<p>There are many other localities equally suited for the -cultivation of <i>C. succirubra</i> and <i>C. micrantha</i> in Coorg; the -Government will shortly establish a chinchona nursery there; -and, with so many energetic and intelligent planters in the -district, it will be strange if the growth of this important -product is not extended and rendered profitable by private -enterprise. A few rows of chinchona-plants ought to be -established in the loftiest part of each coffee-clearing; and -every settler should plant them, and encourage the cultivation -among the natives, from motives of humanity, as -well as with a view to successful commercial speculation.</p> - -<p>We finally left Mercara before dawn, and rode for three -miles down the steep ghaut leading to the lower and more -extensive valleys of south-eastern Coorg, which we reached -as the sun rose. It was a very pleasant ride through the -beautiful hill country, with uplands covered with fine forest, -and long strips of fertile valley. In the jungles we saw -immense clumps of bamboo, which overshadowed the road; -a leafless and thorny <i>Erythrina</i> with crimson flowers; and a -<i>Solanum</i> with a small white flower by the road-side. Here -and there we came to open grassy glades, whence little footpaths -led through the neighbouring jungle to some secluded -hut. The cultivated valleys are covered with rice, and -fringed with plantain groves and <i>Caryota urens</i>.</p> - -<p>The <i>Caryota urens</i> is a lofty palm-tree, with large leaves, -and the Coorgs draw an immense quantity of toddy from -it during the hot season. The pith of the trunk of old trees -is a kind of sago, and is made into bread and gruel by the -natives of many parts of India. Humboldt says that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span> -form of the leaves is very singular, the singularity consisting -in their being bipinnatisect, with the ultimate division having -the shape of the fin and tail of a fish.<a name="FNanchor_474_474" id="FNanchor_474_474"></a><a href="#Footnote_474_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a></p> - -<p>We passed several hundred pack-bullocks conveying -Bombay salt from the Malabar ports to the interior, and, -having forded the Cauvery at a point where the bed is full of -large boulders of rock, reached the village of Virarajendrapett. -It consists of two clean streets, at right angles, with -a missionary church and school. The mountains are here -dotted with plantain-groves, and nearly every house has -a small coffee-garden attached. The surrounding country -is exceedingly pretty, the view being bounded by forest-covered -mountains. The bungalow at Virarajendrapett is -on the site of an old palace of the Rajahs, and the compound -is surrounded by a high wall, with an ornamental gateway, -flanked by stone sentry-boxes.</p> - -<p>From this point the descent into Malabar commences, -through dense forest, with bright moonlight glancing through -the branches of gigantic trees, and after a journey of fifteen -miles we reached the bungalow of Ooticully in the middle -of the jungle. It is in these forests, on the western slopes -of the Coorg mountains, that cardamom cultivation is carried -on to a great extent. In February parties of Coorgs start -for these western mountains, and, selecting a slope facing -west or north, mark one of the largest trees on the steepest -declivity. A space about 300 feet long and 40 feet broad is -then cleared of brushwood, at the foot of the tree; a platform -is rigged about twelve feet up the tree, on which a pair of -woodmen stand and hew away right and left until it falls -head foremost down the side of the mountain, carrying with -it a number of smaller trees in a great crash.</p> - -<p>Within three months after the felling, the cardamom-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span>plants -in the soil begin to show their heads all over the -cleared ground during the first rains of the monsoon, and -before the end of the rainy season they grow two or three -feet. The ground is then carefully cleared of weeds, and left -to itself for a year. In October, twenty months after the -felling of the great tree, the cardamom-plants are the height -of a man, and the ground is again carefully and thoroughly -cleared. In the following April the low fruit-bearing -branches shoot forth, and are soon covered with clusters of -flowers, and afterwards with capsules. Five months afterwards, -in October, the first crop is gathered, and a full -harvest is collected in the following year. The harvests -continue for six or seven years, when they begin to fail, and -another large tree must be cut down in some other locality, -so as to let the light in upon a new crop.</p> - -<p>The harvest takes place in October, when the grass is very -high and sharp, sorely cutting the hands, feet, and faces -of the people. It is also covered with innumerable large -greedy leeches. The cultivators pick the cardamom capsules -from the branches, and convey them to a temporary hut, -where the women fill the bags with cardamoms, and carry -them home, sometimes to distances of ten or twelve miles. -Some families will gather 20 to 30 maunds annually, worth -from 600 to 1000 Rs.<a name="FNanchor_475_475" id="FNanchor_475_475"></a><a href="#Footnote_475_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a></p> - -<p>This method of cardamom cultivation must be considered -injurious to the conservancy of fine timber in the forests, but, -on the other hand, the crops themselves are very valuable, -and bring in a considerable revenue. But there is another -kind of cultivation carried on in these vast forests on the -western slopes of the ghauts, which is far more prejudicial -to the production of valuable timber-trees. This is called -<i>kumari</i>, and <i>punam</i> in Malabar. It has been altogether<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span> -prohibited in Coorg and Mysore, while in Canara it is not -now allowed within nine miles of the sea, or three of any -navigable river, or in any of the Government forests without -previous permission. But in Malabar, where all the forests -are private property, the Government is unable to interfere -in the matter, and <i>kumari</i> is quite unrestricted.</p> - -<p><i>Kumari</i> is cultivation carried on in forest-clearings. A -space is cleared on a hill-slope at the end of the year; the -wood is left to dry until March or April, and then burnt. -The seed, generally <i>raggee</i> (<i>Eleusine coracana</i>), is sown in the -ashes on the fall of the first rain, the ground not being -touched with any implement, but merely weeded and fenced. -The produce is reaped at the end of the year, and is said to -be worth double that which could be procured under ordinary -modes of cultivation. A small crop is taken in the second, -and perhaps in the third year, and the spot is then deserted -and allowed to grow up with jungle. The same spot is -cultivated again after 10 or 12 years in Malabar, but in -North Canara the wild hill tribes generally clear patches -in the virgin forest. Dr. Cleghorn reports that <i>kumari</i> -renders the land unfit for coffee-cultivation, destroys valuable -timber, and makes the locality unhealthy, dense underwood -being substituted in the abandoned clearings for tall trees -under which the air circulated freely.<a name="FNanchor_476_476" id="FNanchor_476_476"></a><a href="#Footnote_476_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a> The Kurumbers and -Irulas, wild tribes of the Neilgherries, also raise small crops -by burning patches of jungle and scattering seeds over the -ashes. This system, which sounds so wasteful and is so -injurious to the yield of timber in the forests, is exceedingly -profitable to the cultivator, who has no expenses beyond the -payment of land-tax, which in these wild unfrequented -spots is often evaded. A common profit is 18 to 28 Rs. -an acre.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span></p> - -<p>After leaving Ooticully we still had to pass through fifteen -miles of jungle, before reaching the open cultivated country -in northern Malabar. In driving down the ghaut the views, -through occasional openings, of the wide expanses of forest -were very grand. Tall trunks of trees towered up to a great -height in search of light and air, palms and bamboos waved -gracefully over the road, and the range of Coorg mountains -filled up the background. Most of the valuable timber has -been long since felled in these forests, excepting in the very -inaccessible parts. The poon-trees (<i>Calophyllum angustifolium</i>),<a name="FNanchor_477_477" id="FNanchor_477_477"></a><a href="#Footnote_477_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a> -which are chiefly found in Coorg, and yield most -valuable spars for masts, have become exceedingly scarce. -The young trees are now vigilantly preserved. Black-wood -(<i>Dalbergia latifolia</i>) is also getting scarce, though I saw a -good deal of it in some of the Coorg jungles; and teak-trees -of any size have almost entirely disappeared, excepting -in the forests of North Canara.</p> - -<p>At a distance of twenty miles from the sea the cultivated -country commences in this part of Malabar, and the road on -each side is lined with pepper-fields, with occasional groves -of plantains and clumps of cocoa and betel-nut palms. The -land undulates in a succession of hills and dales, with rice -cultivation in some of the hollows. Here the pepper is -regularly grown in large fields, and not in gardens as at -Calicut. In the first place trees are planted in rows, usually -such as have rough or prickly bark—the jack, the mango, -or the cashew-nut. In the country we were passing through -the tree used was an <i>Erythrina</i>, with the bark of trunk and -branches thickly covered with thorns. Until the trees have -grown to the proper size the land is often used for raising -plantains. When the trees have attained a height of 15 or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span> -20 feet, the pepper is planted at their bases, and soon thickly -covers the stem and festoons over the branches. The -pepper-cuttings or suckers are put down by the commencement -of the rains in June, and in five years the vine begins -to bear. Each vine bears 500 to 700 bunches, which yield -about 8 or 10 seers when dried. During its growth it is -necessary to remove all suckers, and the vine is pruned, -thinned, and kept clear of weeds. The vine bears for thirty -years, but every ten years the old stem is cut down and -layers are trained. It is an exceedingly pretty cultivation, -and, if it was not for the crests of straggling branches which -crown the vine-covered trunks, it would not be unlike the -hop-fields of Kent.</p> - -<p>The houses on the road were built of laterite, large and -comfortable like those at Calicut. We saw the people sitting -before their doors, busy with their heaps of pepper. When -the berries have been gathered they are dried in the sun on -mats, and turn from red to black. The white pepper is from -the same plant, the fruit being freed from the outer skin -by macerating the ripe berries in water. Before reaching -Cannanore we passed over three or four miles of elevated -rocky land, without cultivation, and arrived in the cantonment -late at night.</p> - -<p>In enumerating the localities where it is likely that chinchona-plants -will thrive, the mountainous country in Mysore, -north of Coorg, including Nuggur and the Baba-Bodeen -hills, must not be forgotten. Nuggur consists of rounded hills, -from 4000 to 5000 feet above the sea, with peaks rising as -high as 6000; and the adjoining Baba-Bodeen hills attain a -height of 5700 feet. The climate is exceedingly moist, and -at the town of Nuggur, on the western side of the hills, the -rains last for nine months, during six of which they are so -heavy that the inhabitants cannot leave their houses. The -eastern side is drier and more level. North of Nuggur the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span> -chain of western ghauts sinks down far below the chinchona -zone, and north of 14° they scarcely rise above the plain of -Dharwar.<a name="FNanchor_478_478" id="FNanchor_478_478"></a><a href="#Footnote_478_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a></p> - -<p>There are several profitable coffee plantations in Nuggur, -and I understand that it is in contemplation to establish a -teak plantation in that district. Though, as a locality for -chinchona cultivation, it is not to be compared with the -Neilgherries or Pulneys, or even with Coorg, still it is -probable that some of the hardier species might thrive -there, and thus the area of the chinchona-plants would be -eventually extended from Nuggur, in 14° N., to the hills near -Courtallum, in the extreme end of the peninsula.</p> - -<p>We embarked at Cannanore on board a little steamer for -Bombay. The view from the sea is pretty. On the left is -an old fort built long ago by the Dutch; in the centre, -looking from the anchorage, is a sandy beach, where elephants -were being loaded with the luggage of a detachment of -troops just arrived from Calicut; and a little to the right is -the native town surrounded by extensive groves of cocoanut-trees, -with the blue line of the Coorg and Wynaad mountains -visible in the distance. There are three very large buildings -on the sea-shore, one of which is the palace of the Beebee, -a long house, with the ground-floor let out as a pepper -warehouse.</p> - -<p>The Portuguese built a fort at Cannanore in 1505. They -were driven out by the Dutch, who sold the place to a -Moplah, from whom the present Beebee of Cannanore is -descended, the succession going in the female line. She -is much in debt, but owns the Laccadive islands, as well as -Cannanore, and the land round the town. We were told that -the Beebee considered that she had been shamefully treated -by the English Government, and that she spoke her mind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span> -very freely on the subject. It appears that, in about 1545, -the Laccadive islands were conferred in jagheer on the head -of the Moplah caste at Cannanore, the ancestor of the Beebee, -by the Rajah of Cherikul, on the payment of a certain tribute, -which was duly rendered to the Cherikul family until its -destruction by Hyder Ali in the last century. After the -storming of Cannanore by the English in 1791, the islands -came into possession of the East India Company, and in -1799 they were restored to the Beebee's family, subject to -the payment of an annual <i>peshcush</i> of 10,000 Rs.</p> - -<p>In April, 1847, a hurricane of unequalled violence swept -over the islands, which are only nine feet above the sea in -the highest part. The wind tore up the trees by the roots, -the waves flooded the land, and almost everything on the -two most valuable islands was destroyed. The Beebee borrowed -a steamer from the Government to send supplies for -the relief of the islanders, and she also obtained a remission -of one-third of the <i>peshcush</i> for ten years, on certain conditions -connected with reforms in her administration. Her -difficulties have chiefly arisen from being unable to pay the -sum demanded for arrears of <i>peshcush</i>, and for the use of -the steamer, and in 1854 the English Government assumed -the administration of the islands until the debt was paid. -It was desired that the Beebee should give them up altogether -for a pecuniary equivalent, but to this she has -resolutely refused to consent. The islands have since been -restored to her.<a name="FNanchor_479_479" id="FNanchor_479_479"></a><a href="#Footnote_479_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span></p> - -<p>On the day after sailing from Cannanore we put into Mangalore, -where the town, like that of Calicut, is completely hidden -from the sea, the lighthouse and a few bungalows being -visible on a hill in the rear. This was the dry season, and -the coast of Canara was not nearly so pretty as that of Malabar, -looking parched and dried up. North of Mangalore is -the port of Compta, with a lighthouse on a steep conical hill, -but no town visible. Compta is now the port of shipment for -the cotton of Dharwar, and there were several <i>pattamars</i> in -the anchorage, with their decks piled up with bales of cotton. -They take it up to Bombay, where it is pressed and shipped -for England; and we heard that the crews of the pattamars -work their way into the bales, and pull out large handfuls of -cotton, filling the space up with filth. In this way there is a -petty trade in stolen cotton along the coast, and the people -work it up into gloves, stockings, &c., for sale.</p> - -<p>Though, at the time of my visit, Compta was used as -the cotton-port for Dharwar, yet the port of Sedashighur, -further north, has a great advantage over it, and is the -only place along the coast where there is safe anchorage -during the S.W. monsoon. A point of land, called Carwar -head, forms and protects the bay of Carwar and Beitcool cove, -and, with the assistance of a breakwater, there would be -safe anchorage throughout the year. A line of islands and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span> -rocks, called the Oyster rocks, a little to the northward, also -offers a place of shelter. There is an anchorage under their -lee during the S.W. monsoon, where vessels might ride in -perfect safety, and, when a lighthouse is established on the -highest Oyster rock, vessels will be able to approach this -dangerous coast, and run into the anchorage, during the summer -months. Sedashighur is nearer Dharwar than any other -port; a river, the Kala-nuddee, navigable for boats for twenty -miles, falls into the sea close to the anchorage, and a good -road is all that is required to make this place an important -port for the shipment of cotton. Energetic measures have -already been adopted for this purpose, and it will not be long -before Dharwar, the only cotton district in India where the -American species has as yet been profitably cultivated, will -be supplied with a port where the cotton may be pressed and -shipped direct for England.<a name="FNanchor_480_480" id="FNanchor_480_480"></a><a href="#Footnote_480_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a></p> - -<p>After passing Sedashighur we put into Goa harbour, and -went thence to Vingorla, the port of the Belgaum district, -and a great place for the manufacture of earthenware chatties, -which are taken up the coast in pattamars. The following -day we were at Rutnagherry, and passing Sevendroog, -the famous stronghold of the pirate Angria, we concluded our -coasting voyage by anchoring in Bombay harbour.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXVII"></a>CHAPTER XXVII.</h2> - -<p class="c">THE MAHABALESHWUR HILLS AND THE DECCAN.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="h s">Journey from Bombay to Malcolm-penth—The Mahabaleshwur Hills—The -village and its temples—Elevation of the hills—Formation—Soil—Climate—Vegetation—Sites -for chinchona-plantations—Paunchgunny—Waee—Its -temples—The babool-tree—Shirwul—The village system—Village -officials—Barra balloota—Cultivators—Festivals—Crops and -harvests—Poona—The Bhore ghaut—Return to Bombay.</p></blockquote> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> districts best adapted for the cultivation of chinchona-plants -are those in the southern part of the peninsula, at -suitable elevations, which receive moisture from both monsoons. -The Neilgherry hills are the centre of these hill -districts, and as we advance further from that nucleus in a -northerly direction the rainfall from the south-west monsoon -becomes heavier, while the climate of the winter, when -easterly winds are blowing, increases in dryness. In 14° N. -lat. the hills of Nuggur sink down into the plains of Dharwar, -and from that point to the Mahabaleshwur hills in 18° N. -there are few parts of the western ghauts which attain a -sufficient elevation for the successful growth of chinchona-plants.<a name="FNanchor_481_481" id="FNanchor_481_481"></a><a href="#Footnote_481_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a></p> - -<p>The Mahabaleshwurs, however, are upwards of 4000 feet -above the sea, and it was therefore possible that they might -present localities suitable for chinchona cultivation. In -February 1861 I started from the Mazagon bunder, at -Bombay, in a bunder-boat, for the purpose of examining -these hills, and, crossing the harbour, coasted for a short -distance along the shores of the Concan, and then sailed up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</a></span> -the Nagotna river, with low jungle on either side. At -Nagotna two sets of <i>hamals</i> were waiting for us, and we -started for Mhar, a distance of forty miles across the low -country of the Concan. The <i>hamals</i> or palkee-bearers belong -to the <i>Mhar</i> or <i>Parwari</i> caste, who are also watchmen, porters, -and guides, and are believed to be the aborigines of the -country. They are athletic men, with slender and remarkably -symmetrical figures when young, always working in -gangs of twelve to each palkee, three at each end, and the -others relieving them at intervals. They carry the weight -with a skill which only a life-long practice could give, and go -over the ground at the rate of four miles an hour, at a sort -of trot.</p> - -<p>The country is generally well covered with rice-fields, now -in stubble; and the numerous stacks of rice-straw, raised -five or six feet from the ground on stakes, formed the -principal feature of the landscape. A few miles beyond Mhar -the western ghauts rise abruptly from the plain of the -Concan, in two gigantic steps. The first step is ascended by -the steep corkscrew road of the Parr ghaut, and between its -summit and the foot of the Rartunda ghaut, which winds up -the second step, there is a level cultivated plateau. To the -left of the road, overlooking the Concan, there is a steep -conical hill, crowned by the famous robber fort of Pertaubghur. -Here, in 1659, Sevajee, the famous founder of -Mahratta power, assassinated Afzul Khan, the general of -the Mohammedan King of Beejapore's army, at an interview. -We could see the dark walls of the fort, with ruined buildings, -and a tall tree rising behind them. The ascent of the -second ghaut brought us, almost immediately, into the hill -station of Mahabaleshwur. The view from our lodging -embraced a foreground of rounded hills covered with green -wood, with ranges of pointed, rounded, and flattened peaks in -the distance, shimmering in the rays of a hot sun.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Mahabaleshwur hills are the loftiest part of the -western ghauts in the Bombay presidency. They form an -undulating table-land of small extent, terminated to the -westward by a very abrupt descent, often forming scarped -precipices overhanging the Concan; and sloping down more -gradually on the side of the Deccan. The highest point, close -to the English station, in lat. 17° 59´ N., is only 4700 feet -above the sea. The English station, with a native bazar and -village, was formed by Sir John Malcolm in 1828, and has -received the name of Malcolm-penth. Several of the surrounding -peaks are named after his daughters. The roads -are excellent, and are bordered by such trees and shrubs as -jasmine, figs, <i>Randias</i>, <i>Gnidias</i>, and <i>Crotalariæ</i>, with a pretty -white <i>Clematis</i> climbing over them. The station is near -the edge of a range of precipitous mountain crags and cliffs -overlooking the Parr valley. The cliffs are broken by several -profound ravines, thus forming promontories commanding -grand views of the hill fort of Pertaubghur, the Concan, and -even the sea on very clear days. Good carriage-roads have -been made to those points which command the best views, -such as Babington, Bombay, Sidney, and Elphinstone points, -all looking west. From Babington point there is a magnificent -view. The station, with numerous bungalows peeping -out amongst the trees to the north, is seen along the crest of -a ridge which is separated from Babington point by a profound -ravine. The precipitous cliffs, now dried up and -barren, are scarped and furrowed by the water which deluges -them during the prevalence of the south-west monsoon; but -there was one bright green spot where some potatoes were -cultivated in terraces, on the edge of a precipice.</p> - -<p>The most conspicuous object in the station is an obelisk -of laterite, erected to the memory of Sir Sidney Beckwith. -From this point, immediately above the little thatched -church, there is a good view of the station, the numerous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span> -bungalows, peeping out amongst their shrubberies, dotted -about in all directions; the billiard bungalow, sanatarium, -and public library, all built of laterite, standing in an open -space; the native bazar at our feet; and a curiously shaped -mass of mountain peaks to the south and west.</p> - -<p>One day we rode over to the native village of Mahabaleshwur, -which is three miles from Malcolm-penth. The little -village consists of a few dozen thatched huts, on the side of a -wooded hill, and some very interesting temples. By the -roadside, in the hedges surrounding the huts, there were -roses, daturas, and jambul-trees (<i>Eugenia jambolanum</i>) with -heads of graceful flowers.</p> - -<p>The chief temple, built at the foot of a steep hill, has an -open space in front. The exterior wall is faced with pilasters -painted yellow, the intermediate space being red. In the -centre there is an arched doorway leading into an interior -cloister, built round a tank. No European is allowed to -enter, but, from the outside, a cow carved in stone is visible -on the opposite side of the tank, with a stream of water -pouring from its mouth. This fountain is said to be the -source of the Krishna, and the temple is considered very -sacred in consequence. To the right, and a little in front -of the temple, there is a square chapel sacred to Siva or -Mahadeo. A flight of steps leads up to three narrow arched -doorways, the centre one being occupied by an image of the -bull <i>Nandi</i> in stone, in a sitting posture, with its back to the -people, and facing the image of the God inside. The chapel -is surmounted by a very picturesque dome, with stone tigers -at each angle. Tall trees and thick bushes cover the hill in -the rear immediately above the larger temple, and on the -left there is a long native <i>choultry</i>, with a thatched roof.</p> - -<p>These temples were built about a century ago by a rich -banker of Sattara, but they stand on the sites of more ancient -structures, the work of Gowlee Rajahs. The Gowlees are a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span> -race of aboriginal herdsmen, scattered over the western ghauts -from Mahabaleshwur to Kolapore. Though they now speak -the Mahratta language, yet a great number of their words, -their features, and many of their customs are Canarese; and -they are evidently a branch of the great Dravidian group of -nations.</p> - -<p>The temples of Mahabaleshwur possess extensive landed -property, some of it on the slopes overhanging the Parr -valley. It is in charge of an hereditary Enamdar, who lives -in the Deccan, and visits the temples once a year. He keeps -them in tolerable repair, and pockets the surplus of their -revenues. From the village there is an extensive view of the -deep valley of the Krishna and Yena, to the eastward, which -slopes down abruptly from the hill on which Mahabaleshwur -is built.</p> - -<p>As in Coorg there is a curious legend respecting the origin -of the Cauvery, so in the Mahabaleshwur hills an equally wild -story is attached to the source of the Krishna. It is said that -two giants, called Mahaballee and Anteeballee, made war upon -the Brahmins, until they were destroyed by Siva. Before -they died they asked a favour, which was granted, namely, -that they and their followers might be turned into rivers. -This is the fabulous origin of five rivers:—the Krishna, named -in honour of one of Vishnu's avaturs; the Koina and the -Yena, flowing to the Deccan; and the rivers Sawitri and -Gawitri, finding their way through gorges to the westward, -and becoming tributaries of the Bancoot river in the Concan. -The Krishna is looked upon as a personation of the God -Krishna in a female form, and is often called <i>baee</i> or lady -Krishna. This important stream, issuing from the cow's -mouth at Mahabaleshwur, flows down a gorge bounded by -steep barren hills, terminating in rocky cliffs. We could see -the river, like a silver thread, meandering through some -cultivated land far below; but the general aspect of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</a></span> -country was barren and cheerless. During the monsoon it -is doubtless quite green.</p> - -<p>The Mahabaleshwur hills average an elevation of 4500 -feet above the sea. They are composed almost entirely of -laterite,<a name="FNanchor_482_482" id="FNanchor_482_482"></a><a href="#Footnote_482_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a> overlying eruptive rocks, such as basalt, greenstone, -and amygdaloid; and the soil is a clay resulting from the -disintegration of the laterite.</p> - -<p>On these hills October is the commencement of the dry -season, but during that month the amount of aqueous vapour -in the atmosphere is still considerable, while the temperature -is cool and equable. From November the air becomes gradually -drier until the end of February; the weather is dry -and cold, and a sharp dry easterly wind usually prevails. -The mean temperature of this season is 64°, with a daily -variation of about 12°. Fogs and mists commence in March, -and gradually increase until the rain begins in the end of -May. The hottest month is April. From the end of May to -September there is almost incessant rain, and the hills are -constantly enveloped in clouds and fog. The mean temperature -of the rainy season is 64.5°, but the daily variation is -only 3°. The average rainfall is 227 inches, of which nearly -one-third comes down in August.<a name="FNanchor_483_483" id="FNanchor_483_483"></a><a href="#Footnote_483_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a> (See Table, next page.)</p> - -<p>The vegetation of these hills, as might be expected from -the essential difference in the climate, is quite distinct from -that of the Neilgherries. There is a great want of forest-trees -in the jungles, and the trees and bushes are, as a rule, poor -and stunted. The hills are covered with grass and ferns, and -are dotted over with a shrub called by the natives <i>rumeta</i>. -It is the <i>Lasiosiphon speciosus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_484_484" id="FNanchor_484_484"></a><a href="#Footnote_484_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a> with flowers something like -small Guelder roses, clustered in terminal umbels. The <i>Randia -dumetorum</i>, a thorny bush, is also common. In the thickets - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[Pg 464]</a></span> - -I observed a <i>Memecylon</i>, called by the natives <i>anjun</i>, a melastomaceous -tree, with beautiful purple flowers;<a name="FNanchor_485_485" id="FNanchor_485_485"></a><a href="#Footnote_485_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a> a small -<i>Crotalaria</i>, with a bright yellow flower; a <i>Jasminum</i>; an -<i>Indigofera</i>; the <i>Eugenia Jambolanum</i>; the pretty creeping -<i>Clematis Wightiana</i>; some willows near streams; a <i>Solanum</i>; -and the <i>Curcuma caulina</i>, a kind of arrowroot, with enormous -leaves, sometimes tinged with red,<a name="FNanchor_486_486" id="FNanchor_486_486"></a><a href="#Footnote_486_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a> in flower during the -rains.<a name="FNanchor_487_487" id="FNanchor_487_487"></a><a href="#Footnote_487_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="smallish" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc bt bb" colspan="9">MAHABALESHWUR HILLS.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl bb br"><span class="smcap">Month.</span></td><td class="tdc bb br">Mean Temperature.</td><td class="tdc bb br">Mean Maximum.</td><td class="tdc bb br">Mean Minimum.</td><td class="tdc bb br">Extreme Maximum.</td><td class="tdc bb br">Extreme Minimum.</td><td class="tdc bb br">Mean daily Variation.</td><td class="tdc bb br">Rainfall in inches.</td><td class="tdc bb"><span class="smcap">Wind.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Jan.</td><td class="tdc br">63</td><td class="tdc br">70</td><td class="tdc br">56</td><td class="tdc br">75</td><td class="tdc br">45</td><td class="tdc br">14</td><td class="tdc br">None.</td><td class="tdc">N.E.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Feb.</td><td class="tdc br">64</td><td class="tdc br">72</td><td class="tdc br">57</td><td class="tdc br">78</td><td class="tdc br">46</td><td class="tdc br">14</td><td class="tdc br">0.3</td><td class="tdc">N.N.W.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">March</td><td class="tdc br">71</td><td class="tdc br">79</td><td class="tdc br">65</td><td class="tdc br">87</td><td class="tdc br">57</td><td class="tdc br">13</td><td class="tdc br">0.07</td><td class="tdc">Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">April</td><td class="tdc br">74</td><td class="tdc br">81</td><td class="tdc br">67</td><td class="tdc br">90</td><td class="tdc br">56</td><td class="tdc br">13</td><td class="tdc br">1.3</td><td class="tdc">N.W.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">May</td><td class="tdc br">71</td><td class="tdc br">78</td><td class="tdc br">66</td><td class="tdc br">88</td><td class="tdc br">57</td><td class="tdc br">12</td><td class="tdc br">1.45</td><td class="tdc">Westerly.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">June</td><td class="tdc br">67</td><td class="tdc br">70</td><td class="tdc br">63</td><td class="tdc br">82</td><td class="tdc br">62</td><td class="tdc br">6</td><td class="tdc br">47.9</td><td class="tdc">W.S.W.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">July</td><td class="tdc br">63</td><td class="tdc br">64</td><td class="tdc br">62</td><td class="tdc br">73</td><td class="tdc br">62</td><td class="tdc br">1</td><td class="tdc br">67.4</td><td class="tdc">Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Aug.</td><td class="tdc br">63</td><td class="tdc br">65</td><td class="tdc br">63</td><td class="tdc br">70</td><td class="tdc br">61</td><td class="tdc br">2</td><td class="tdc br">81.8</td><td class="tdc">Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Sept.</td><td class="tdc br">64</td><td class="tdc br">66</td><td class="tdc br">62</td><td class="tdc br">73</td><td class="tdc br">56</td><td class="tdc br">3</td><td class="tdc br">30.6</td><td class="tdc">Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Oct.</td><td class="tdc br">65</td><td class="tdc br">70</td><td class="tdc br">61</td><td class="tdc br">73</td><td class="tdc br">54</td><td class="tdc br">8</td><td class="tdc br">5.5</td><td class="tdc">Easterly.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Nov.</td><td class="tdc br">64</td><td class="tdc br">70</td><td class="tdc br">58</td><td class="tdc br">72</td><td class="tdc br">51</td><td class="tdc br">11</td><td class="tdc br">2.9</td><td class="tdc">Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br bb">Dec.</td><td class="tdc br bb">63</td><td class="tdc br bb">68</td><td class="tdc br bb">58</td><td class="tdc br bb">73</td><td class="tdc br bb">49</td><td class="tdc br bb">10</td><td class="tdc br bb">0.2</td><td class="tdc bb">Do.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[Pg 465]</a></span></p> - -<p>I reluctantly came to the conclusion that the Mahabaleshwur -hills were not well suited for the growth of chinchona-plants. -The intense dryness of the atmosphere during the -greater part of the year, the poor character of the vegetation, -and even the enormous rainfall during the summer months, -which more resembles the climatic conditions of the forests of -Canelos to the eastward, than the region of "red-bark" trees -to the westward of Chimborazo, all pointed to this conclusion. -Nevertheless some seeds of chinchona-plants were forwarded -to Mr. Dalzell, the Conservator of forests in the Bombay -Presidency, which are said to have come up well at Mahabaleshwur. -If these plants should really thrive it will prove -that they are capable of adapting themselves to differences of -climate to an extent of which we previously had no idea. I -sincerely trust that this may be the case, and that some -at least of the species of Chinchonæ now in India may be -successfully introduced into the Mahabaleshwur hills. Mr. -Dalzell informs me that there are high hills to the eastward -of the Portuguese settlement of Goa, but not so elevated as -Mahabaleshwur, where he thinks that some of the Chinchonæ, -which flourish at low elevations, might be acclimatized. He -had observed that, in the Bombay Presidency, a difference of -150 to 200 miles southing is equivalent to a certain elevation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[Pg 466]</a></span> -that is, that plants confined to the highest ground in lat. 18° -are found at a much lower level in lat. 15°; and that -members of the family of Chinchonaceæ increase in the -number of genera and species as we travel south from -Mahabaleshwur, along the summit of the range, to lat. 15°.</p> - -<p>The road down into the Deccan, from Malcolm-penth, leads -to the eastward over hills bare of jungle, and sprinkled over -with a scanty growth of <i>Lasiosiphons</i> and ferns. After six -miles it begins to pass along a ridge or saddle, with the deep -valley of the Krishna on one side, and that of the Yena on -the other. The hills which bound these valleys are very precipitous, -and, at this season, look grey and barren, with ridges -of rock cropping out, entirely destitute of all vegetation. The -valleys and lower slopes of the hills are covered with fields of -grain, now in stubble, but which must look bright and green -during the rainy season.</p> - -<p>At a distance of ten miles from Malcolm-penth, on a slope -overlooking the Krishna valley, there are some small experimental -farms, belonging to apothecaries in Sir Jamsetjee -Jeejeebhoy's hospital at Bombay, at a place called Paunchgunny. -An application was made for some chinchona-plants, -to be raised at Paunchgunny; no doubt all possible care and -attention would have been bestowed upon them; and I, -therefore, regret that it should be a locality where they are -not at all likely to flourish. Here the road descends the Tai -ghaut into the Deccan, and in a couple of hours we reached -the bungalow on the banks of the river Krishna, opposite the -town of Waee.</p> - -<p>The town on the other side of the river, with its numerous -temples, was by far the most interesting place, in an architectural -point of view, that we had yet seen. Long flights of -stone steps lead up from the waters of the sacred Krishna to -the paved platform on which the temples are built. Crowds -of women and children in blue dresses, and men in white<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[Pg 467]</a></span> -cotton cloths and red turbans, were washing their clothes in -the river, or sitting on the steps and gazing into the water, -while naked Brahmins employed themselves in scrubbing the -copper utensils of the temples. The largest and most imposing -temple is that dedicated to Ganesa, or Gunputty as he -is called in the Deccan. It is a mass of solid masonry, whence -a wide flight of stone steps leads down to the Krishna. The -shrine itself is a plain stone building, with a large vestibule -in front, consisting of four arched entrances on each side, and -three at the end. The ceiling of this porch is very curious. -It is formed of square flagstones fitted into each other, and -clamped together above, so as to make a flat surface exactly -resembling the pavement below. From the porch a square -doorway leads into the shrine, which is a small chamber without -ornament or decoration, with the colossal figure of Gunputty -facing the entrance. The idol, with a huge elephant's -head, the trunk of which it holds in one of its four hands, an -enormous belly, and cross legs, is hewn out of a solid block of -black stone.</p> - -<p>The temple of Gunputty is surmounted by a very remarkable -spire, consisting of broad concave flutings rising out of a -circlet of lotus-leaves, and approaching each other slightly as -they ascend, until they finally terminate in another circle of -lotus-leaves, out of which a fluted dome rises and crowns the -spire. The whole effect is very good, and forms the principal -feature in the view of Waee from the right bank of the -Krishna.</p> - -<p>A little further back there is a small temple dedicated to -Siva or Mahadeo, surrounded by a high wall. Within the -enclosure, and in front of the shrine, there is a canopy -supported on sixteen stone columns, the inner four being -under a small dome, and the rest of the roof consisting -of a very curious pavement-like ceiling, exactly similar to -that in front of Gunputty's temple. Advancing through this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[Pg 468]</a></span> -vestibule, which is a plain but perfect piece of masonry in -very good taste, we came to a large image of Siva's bull, called -<i>Nandi</i>, under a <i>mandap</i> or canopy, supported by four pillars. -The image, which is in a sitting posture, with its head turned -towards the door of the shrine, has numerous ornaments -carved about its head and neck, amongst them a necklace of -bells. It is hewn out of an immense block of stone. Immediately -in front of <i>Nandi</i> is the shrine itself, but the interior -was too dark to enable us to discern the god. The lower part -of the building is of plain masonry, with two small square -windows in fretted stone-work; but the upper part is surmounted -by a richly-carved spire and dome, while on the -cornice of the roof there are niches containing stone figures. -The spire has three tiers of gods round it in niches, and is -crowned by a fluted dome, resting on a circlet of lotus-leaves. -There is another temple on the platform facing the river, -dedicated to Parvati, Siva's wife.</p> - -<p>By the time we had completed the examination of these -temples, we were surrounded by a great crowd of Brahmins, -<i>hamals</i>, girls and boys, who continued to follow us -about.</p> - -<p>We then went up one of the streets of this most devout -little town, and came to a temple dedicated to Vishnu, the -enclosure of which is also surrounded by a high wall, with -lean-to grain-shops outside. The interior of the enclosure is -lined with betel-nut palms, and paved with large flags, on one -of which the figure of a tortoise is carved. The temple stands -in the centre, with a richly ornamented spire above it. The -interior consists of a nave, with aisles on each side, and at -the end, opposite the doorway, there is an open grating, -within which is the deity. The temple was crowded with -nautch-girls, and numbers of people were passing in and -out, doing <i>poojah</i>. They first prostrated themselves at the -entrance, then before the grating, and finally touched a bell<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[Pg 469]</a></span> -overhead before giving place to other devotees. Nearly -opposite Vishnu's temple is another to his wife Lakshmi.</p> - -<p>We afterwards walked through the bazar, a busy interesting -scene, crowded with people. We saw exposed for -sale grains of all kinds in baskets, heaps of red ochre for -painting Gods and the sect-marks on the forehead,<a name="FNanchor_488_488" id="FNanchor_488_488"></a><a href="#Footnote_488_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a> sweetmeats, -cotton cloths, muslins, and chatties of clay and -copper. Near the river there are five smaller temples to -Siva, each with its <i>Nandi</i> outside the door, and many sacred -peepul-trees, surrounded by walls of solid masonry.</p> - -<p>At sunset the view of Waee from the opposite side of the -river, with the temples reflected in the water, the thickets of -trees behind, and the crowds of people in snow-white cotton -dresses and red turbans, was enchanting. Waee derives its -great sanctity partly from being on the banks of the sacred -Krishna, and partly from the tradition that it was the -residence of the five Pandus, the favourite mythical heroes -of the Hindus, during part of the time of their exile. The -people still have many tales respecting their deeds, especially -those of Bhima, who was the biggest and strongest of the -five. A peak rising above the dried-up barren line of -mountains behind the town is called after them <i>Pandughur</i>. -The temples of Waee were chiefly built, about a century ago, -by the head of a wealthy Mahratta family named Rastia.</p> - -<p>From Waee we travelled over dried-up plains, with arid -desolate hills in the distance, and reached the village of -Shirwul at early dawn. There were a few banyans near the -road, and some babool-trees (<i>Acacia Arabica</i>) dotted about -over the plain. The babool-tree in the Deccan has the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</a></span> -uses as the carob in Peru. The hard tough wood is extensively -used for ploughshares, naves of wheels, and tent-pegs; -its necklace-shaped pods are favourite food for sheep and -goats, and the bark is used for tanning.<a name="FNanchor_489_489" id="FNanchor_489_489"></a><a href="#Footnote_489_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a> It flourishes on dry -arid plains, and especially in black cotton-soil, where other -trees are rarely met with. The hedges round Shirwul are of -prickly pear or milk-bush (<i>Euphorbia tirucalli</i><a name="FNanchor_490_490" id="FNanchor_490_490"></a><a href="#Footnote_490_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a>).</p> - -<p>Shirwul is one amongst many of those village communities -of the Deccan which have retained their peculiar customs -and organization from time immemorial. The Hindu Rajahs -have been succeeded by Mohammedan Kings, who in their turn -have been followed by Mogul Subadars, Mahratta Peishwas, -and English Collectors, but the village communities have -continued unchanged through all these revolutions, and thus -the great mass of the people still live under institutions -which excite veneration from their immense age. The cultivator -of the Deccan obeys precisely the same rules and has -the same customs as were followed by his ancestor before the -period of history commenced; and, as the land-assessment -has now been established for thirty years, on remarkably easy -terms, his condition may not disadvantageously be compared -with that of any other peasantry in the world.</p> - -<p>The village-system of the Deccan is so curious in itself, and -so interesting from its unknown antiquity, that some account -of one of the villages a few miles from Poona, similar in all -respects to that of Shirwul, will not be out of place. I have -taken it from an article written thirty years ago.<a name="FNanchor_491_491" id="FNanchor_491_491"></a><a href="#Footnote_491_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a></p> - -<p>The land belonging to the village comprises 3669 acres, -1955 arable and the rest common pasture, with hedges of -milk-bush (<i>Euphorbia tirucalli</i>) enclosing the garden-grounds. -The village, which is surrounded by a mud wall with two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</a></span> -gates, includes 107 dwelling-houses of sun-dried bricks with -terraced roofs, a <i>chowree</i> or town-hall, and three temples. -The houses have <i>wosurees</i> or open porticos in front, and the -interiors consist of three or four small dark rooms with no -windows. The temples are of hewn stone and <i>chunam</i>.</p> - -<p>The boundaries and institutions of the village have undergone -no alteration from time immemorial, and its offices -are hereditary. They consist of that of the <i>Pattel</i> or chief -magistrate, his deputy the <i>Chowgulla</i>, the <i>Koolcurny</i> or -accountant, and of the <i>Barra Balloota</i>, or twelve subordinate -servants.</p> - -<p>The <i>Pattel</i> holds his office, which is hereditary and saleable, -from Government, under a written obligation specifying his -duties, rank, and the ceremonies he is entitled to. He has -to collect the Government dues from the cultivators, punish -offences, redress wrongs, and settle disputes. In important -cases he summons a <i>Punchayet</i> or sort of jury, and when -they are of a serious nature he refers them to the <i>Amildar</i> or -Collector of revenue.</p> - -<p>The <i>Koolcurny</i> or accountant keeps the records and -accounts, comprising a general measurement of village-lands, -a list of fields, of the inhabitants, and a detailed account -of the revenue. He is generally a Brahmin, and has lands -or fees allotted to him by Government.</p> - -<p>The <i>Barra Balloota</i> offices are hereditary, and the holders, -called <i>Ballootadars</i>, are bound to their services to the -community for a fixed proportion of the produce of the soil, -from each cultivator. They are twelve in number, namely, -the <i>Sutar</i> or carpenter, who repairs all wooden instruments; -the <i>Lohar</i> or blacksmith, who keeps all iron-work in repair; -the <i>Parit</i> or washerman, who washes all the men's clothes; -the <i>Nahawi</i> or barber, who shaves and cuts the nails of the -villagers, and kneads the muscles and cracks the joints of the -Pattel and Koolcurny; the <i>Kumbhar</i> or potter; the <i>Potedar</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[Pg 472]</a></span> -or silversmith; the <i>Goorow</i> or dresser of idols; the <i>Koli</i> or -water-carrier; the <i>Mang</i> or ropemaker, who makes ropes of -<i>Hibiscus cannabis</i>, and is of very low caste; and the <i>Mhar</i> -or <i>Parwarree</i>, an outcast whose dwelling is outside the -village—he acts as watchman, carries letters, and gives -evidence as to village rights, before Punchayets; the -<i>Tsamhar</i> or cobbler, and <i>Gramjosi</i> or astrologer.</p> - -<p>Besides the above duties, the Ballootadars have certain -perquisites. The carpenter furnishes the stool on which the -brides and bridegrooms are bathed in the marriage ceremony; -the blacksmith sticks the hook through the flesh -of devotees who swing; the barber plays on the pipe and -tabor at weddings; and the potter prepares the stewed -mutton at harvest-homes. In addition to the Ballootadars -there are some other lower officials called <i>Alutadars</i>, consisting -of a watchman, gatekeeper, betel-man, gardener, bard, -musician, and host of the Ganjams of the Lingayet sect.</p> - -<p>The cultivators of the Deccan are lean short men, with -black straight hair, kept shorn except on the upper lip, -bronze complexions, high cheek-bones, low foreheads, and -teeth stained with betel. They are temperate and hard-working, -warmly attached to their children, frugal, and not -improvident, but deceitful, cunning, and false. Their food -consists of grains, pulses, greens, roots, fruits, hot spices, and -oil; together with milk and ghee. No liquor is sold in the -villages. Their every-day fare is first a cake of <i>bajree</i>,<a name="FNanchor_492_492" id="FNanchor_492_492"></a><a href="#Footnote_492_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a> or -<i>jowaree</i>,<a name="FNanchor_493_493" id="FNanchor_493_493"></a><a href="#Footnote_493_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a> baked on a plate of iron; secondly green pods -or fruits cut in pieces, and boiled with pepper, garlic, or -turmeric; and thirdly a porridge of coarse-ground <i>jowaree</i> and -salt. They have three meals daily. For breakfast they eat -a cake with spiced vegetables, and a raw onion; their wives -bring them their dinners in the fields at noon, consisting -of two cakes and green pods boiled; and porridge and milk<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[Pg 473]</a></span> -form their suppers. The holiday fare is cakes of pulse and -sugar, and balls of split gram and spices.<a name="FNanchor_494_494" id="FNanchor_494_494"></a><a href="#Footnote_494_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a></p> - -<p>These hard-working people generally wear nothing but -a dirty rag between their legs, and another round their -heads. On holidays, however, they come out in a white -turban, a frock of white cloth coming down to the knees, -a cloth round the waist, and a pair of drawers. The -furniture of their dwellings generally comprises two wooden -pestles and a stone mortar, earthenware and copper utensils, -a wooden dish for kneading dough, a flat stone and rolling -pin for powdering spices, two iron cups for lamps suspended -by a chain, and two couches laced with rope; the total value -being about 40 shillings.</p> - -<p>The men, as well as the women, are very fond of attending -annual pilgrimages at the temples, and several festivals -break the monotony of their working days, the chief of which -are the <i>Hooli</i>, the <i>Dussera</i>, the <i>Dewallee</i>, and another in -honour of the cattle. The <i>Hooli</i> is held at the full moon in -April, and lasts five days. The <i>Dussera</i>, to celebrate the -destruction of the Demon Mysore by the Goddess Kali, -is in October, and the <i>Dewallee</i> twenty days afterwards. -The cattle festival is in August, when the oxen are painted -and dressed up, fed with sugar, and worshipped by their -owners. In the hot dry months the cultivators hunt deer, -hares, and wild hogs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[Pg 474]</a></span></p> - -<p>The agricultural implements used in the Deccan are the -same as were in use upwards of 3000 years ago. They -consist of a plough, which makes a mere scratch, made of -babool-wood; a rude cart on two solid wheels; a harrow with -wooden teeth; and a drill-plough.<a name="FNanchor_495_495" id="FNanchor_495_495"></a><a href="#Footnote_495_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a> The oxen do most of the -work; and the sheep are black and white, with long hanging -ears. There are two crops, called the <i>Khereef</i> and <i>Rubbee</i>. -In the <i>Khereef</i> crop the sowing takes place in June and -July, and the harvest in October. <i>Bajree</i> is sown with a -drill-plough in rows, mixed with <i>toor</i> and other pulses. It is -the chief food of the people. Next comes the other common -grain <i>jowaree</i>. Italian millet, <i>raggee</i>, <i>badlee</i>, and the <i>amaranthus</i> -are sown in smaller quantities. All land, whether -ploughed or not, is subjected to the drag-hoe, first lengthways -and then across, loosening the surface and destroying weeds: -and crops of millets are alternated with those of pulses. -When the harvest begins, a level spot is chosen for a threshing-floor, -and made dry and hard. A pole, five feet high, is -fixed in the centre, the grains are heaped round the floor, and -the women break off the ears and throw them in. Oxen -are then tied to each other and to the post, and driven round, -to beat out the corn. Winnowing is done by a man standing -on a high stool, and pouring out the grain and chaff to the -winds. Ceremonies are then performed in honour of the five -Pandus, and the grain is stored in large baskets. The pulses -which are sown in the <i>Khereef</i> crop are <i>toor</i> raised in <i>jowaree</i> -and <i>bajree</i> fields, the pods of which are detached by beating -the plant with a log of wood; <i>moong</i>, sown by itself, and when -ripe pulled up by the roots; <i>ooreed</i>; <i>mutkee</i>; and <i>lablab</i>.</p> - -<p>Plants from which cordage is made, namely the <i>sun</i> (<i>Crotalaria -juncea</i>) and <i>ambadee</i> (<i>Hibiscus cannabinus</i>) are also -raised. They grow to a height of five or six feet, and are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span> -then pulled up, steeped for some days in water, and the bark -stripped off.</p> - -<p>In the <i>Rubbee</i>, or cold season crop, the sowing takes place -in October and November, and the harvests in February. At -this time wheat is sown in rich black or loamy soil, well manured; -<i>gram</i> (<i>Cicer arietinum</i>) in the best black soil; and -flax, generally raised on the edge of wheat-fields, in strips of -four rows. The land is only ploughed once in two years, to -the depth of a span.</p> - -<p>As the Indians of Peru live chiefly on roots, so the natives -of the parts of India which I visited find their chief sustenance -in numerous kinds of millets and pulses. Rice is -certainly their favourite food; but, from the expenses attending -the necessary irrigation, it is dearer and not so easily -attainable as the other cereals, and the great mass of the -people live on dry grains and pulses. All these cereals contain -less nourishing matter than wheat, being comparatively -poor in nitrogen, but this deficiency is made up by the pulses -which are generally eaten with them. It is a most remarkable -fact that the natives habitually combine these two -different kinds of food, in their dishes, in about the same -proportions as science has found to be necessary in order that -the mixture may contain the same proportion of carbonous to -nitrogenous matter as is found in wheat.<a name="FNanchor_496_496" id="FNanchor_496_496"></a><a href="#Footnote_496_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[Pg 476]</a></span></p> - -<p>Every one who has travelled much, in different parts of the -world, or who has reflected at all on the subject, well knows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[Pg 477]</a></span> -that there is far more happiness than misery on this earth, -that the good outweighs the evil, and that the wars and -revolutions of history are but specks on the long periods of -tranquillity which remain for ever unrecorded. The village -system of the Deccan is a venerable monument, reminding us -how little the turmoils and civil wars, invasions, and revolutions, -of which history is composed, affect the mass of the -people. The endless conspiracies, treasons, massacres, and -battles which fill the narrative of Briggs's Ferishta might -not have happened in the Deccan at all, for all the change -they have effected in the institutions and customs of the bulk -of the population. The Ballootadar still holds the same office -which was filled by his ancestor centuries ago, performs the -same service, and receives the same perquisites. The cultivator -uses the same implements, raises the same crops in the -same way, and practises the same customs. As it was centuries -ago, so it is now; nothing is changed, and these time-honoured -institutions continue to be admirably adapted to -the simple wants and habits of the people who live under -them. These Deccanees now enjoy their land for a very -trifling assessment unalterable for thirty years, their means -are sufficient to supply themselves and their families with all -they require in the way of clothing and furniture, they have -a considerable variety in their food, days of relaxation and -festivity are not of rare occurrence, their immediate superiors -are of their own race and religion, and there is little to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[Pg 478]</a></span> -remind them of the presence of foreign rulers. On the whole, -in their own simple way, they probably enjoy as much happiness -as the peasantry of most other countries in the world, -while their wants are fewer and their desires more easily -attainable.</p> - -<p>In the country between Shirwul and Poona the harvest -had already been reaped when we crossed it. In one or two -places there were avenues of mango-trees by the road-side, -but generally the country was bare and treeless. The great -city of Poona, once the seat of Mahratta power, still retains -the signs of its former splendour. In the narrow crowded -streets there are many large houses of two stories, with much -richly carved wood about the balconies and doorways, and -frescos painted on the walls of Gods and Goddesses, and scenes -in the lives of the Pandus or of Krishna. The bazar is generally -thronged with Brahmins, Moslems, Lingayets, Bohrahs, -Parsees, men, women, and children, while the shops are -occupied by silversmiths, workers in copper, brass, and wood; -sellers of grains, drugs, oils, and ingredients for curries; of -sweetmeats, of cloths, of blue and green bangles for women, -and of endless other wares. The temples are numerous, but -none of them are remarkable either for size or beauty. The -old palace of the Peishwas forms one side of an open space, -and is surrounded by a high wall with semicircular bastions. -The entrance is by an archway, flanked on either side by -solid Norman-looking towers, with a balcony over it, extending -from one tower to the other, from which the young -Peishwa Mahadeo Rao threw himself in 1795.</p> - -<p>In 1773 the Peishwa Narrain Rao was murdered in this -gloomy-looking castle by his uncle Ragonath Rao, and many -another deed of darkness has been done within its walls.</p> - -<p>Leaving the town, we drove past the <i>Hira Bagh</i> or -"diamond garden," where there is a large tank with a wooded -island in the centre, to the foot of the rocky hill of Parbutty,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</a></span> -on the summit of which there is a temple to Siva. The -ascent is by a well-cut flight of steps, and the temple,<a name="FNanchor_497_497" id="FNanchor_497_497"></a><a href="#Footnote_497_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a> which -crowns the hill, is surrounded by a wall of very solid -masonry, with a covered gallery having quaintly carved -wooden balconies, and an open rampart above. From one of -these balconies Bajee Rao, the last of the Peishwas, watched -the defeat of his army at Kirkee in 1817; when Poona, and -all its territory, became an integral part of British India.</p> - -<p>The view from the Parbutty hill is very extensive. At -our feet was the <i>Hira Bagh</i>, with its broad sheet of water, -and numerous groves of trees; beyond was the great city -almost hidden by trees, the roofs of houses showing here and -there, but no conspicuous towers or lofty building. Further -still we could see the windings of the rivers Mula and Muta, -tributaries of the Krishna. To the left was the village of -Kirkee, and to the right the churches, numerous bungalows, -and other buildings of the English cantonment. At this -time of year the whole mass of buildings and gardens forming -and mingling with the city and cantonment, is surrounded -by brown dried-up plains, and rocky arid-looking mountains, -which furnish a sombre frame to the picture.</p> - -<p>This magnificent view was exceedingly interesting, because -it seemed more than probable that, in a not far distant -future, the city of Poona might become the capital of British -India—the seat of Government of a vast Empire, united for -the first time in history under one firm and beneficent rule, -enjoying a universal peace unknown for centuries, and rapidly -advancing in material prosperity. Calcutta must be given -up as the most distant from England, the least conveniently -situated as regards other parts of India, and the most unhealthy -place that could be selected for a capital. This -point once granted, the old Mahratta capital recommends<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</a></span> -itself as combining all the advantages in which the pestiferous -banks of the Hooghly are deficient. Poona is within a few -hours' journey of the port of Bombay by railroad; situated -on an elevated table-land, its climate is healthy and suitable -both for Europeans and natives; and it is in a central -position as regards all the Presidencies of India.</p> - -<p>The railroad from Poona to Bombay stopped at Khandalla, -on the summit of the Bhore ghaut, where a portion of it -is still unfinished. The village of Khandalla is perched on -the edge of a deep chasm, mountains rise up into sharp -peaks to the right and left, and there is a very extensive -view over the Concan plains. Here the passengers had to -get out of the train, and go down the ghaut by the excellent -road made by Sir John Malcolm, in bullock-<i>gharries</i> or -in <i>palkees</i>, on ponies or on foot. The works of the railway -were, however, progressing fast; and when finished, the -railroad up the Bhore ghaut will be one of the most remarkable -works of the kind in the world. The station at -Khandalla is 1800 feet, and Kampuli, at the foot of the -ghaut, barely 200 feet above the sea. For a distance of -220 miles there are no passes for wheeled vehicles from -Bombay to the interior, except the Bhore and Tal ghauts, so -precipitous is the volcanic scarp which forms this portion of -the western mountains.</p> - -<p>The railroad incline down the Bhore ghaut is upwards -of fifteen miles long, the rise being 1831 feet, and the -average gradient 1 in 48. In this distance there will be -2535 yards of tunnelling, besides an immense amount of -cutting and embanking, eight viaducts, and eighteen bridges. -The best known work of this kind in Europe is at Semmering, -across the Noric Alps; but that of the Bhore ghaut -exceeds it in length, in height, and in the steepness of the -gradient.</p> - -<p>At the foot of the Bhore ghaut is the village of Kampuli,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[Pg 481]</a></span> -whence the railroad runs across the plains of the Concan, -over an arm of the sea, past Tannah, and through the island -of Salsette, into the town of Bombay.</p> - -<p>I had now personally examined the Neilgherry hills, the -Koondahs, the Pulneys, Coorg, and the Mahabaleshwurs; -and collected information respecting the hills near Courtallum, -the Anamallays, the Shervaroys, Wynaad, the Baba-Bodeens, -and Nuggur. After a careful consideration of the -conditions which each of these districts offer, and a comparison -of their elevations, climate, soil, and the character -of their vegetation, with those of the South American -chinchona forests; I was fully confirmed in the opinion that -the mountains of the Indian peninsula offered a splendid -field for the cultivation of this new and most valuable -product.</p> - -<p>The different species thrive in different localities, and -require various modes of treatment, but I am inclined to the -belief that one species or another will thrive in all the hills -from Cape Comorin to the parallel of 14° N. This view -may prove to be too sanguine, and it may be that the -droughts at one season, and the excessive rainfall in another, -in several of the hill districts, will prove prejudicial to successful -cultivation. Under any circumstances, however, there -can be no doubt that the climates of the Neilgherries, -Anamallays, Pulneys, and probably Coorg, are admirably -adapted to the production of quinine in these precious -trees. On the other hand, it is possible that, under cultivation, -the chinchonæ may be able to adapt themselves -to conditions of climate differing as much from those of -their native habitat even as the Mahabaleshwur hills, and -that their cultivation is capable of far wider extension than I -am now able to expect. It would be a source of gratification -if chinchona plantations could be established in any part -of the Bombay Presidency; and while Mr. Dalzell, the able<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</a></span> -Conservator of forests, superintends any experiments which -may be made, it will certainly not be from a want of -botanical knowledge or intelligent care, if his anticipations -of success are not realised.<a name="FNanchor_498_498" id="FNanchor_498_498"></a><a href="#Footnote_498_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII"></a>CHAPTER XXVIII.</h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="c h">CULTIVATION OF THE CHINCHONA-PLANTS IN THE NEILGHERRY -HILLS, UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF -MR. McIVOR.</p></blockquote> - - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> previous chapters detailed accounts have been given of -the proceedings connected with the collection of chinchona -plants and seeds in South America, their conveyance to -India, and the selection of suitable sites for their cultivation. -It now only remains to record the progress of this important -experiment in the Neilgherry hills during the last year, and -to offer some remarks on the contemplated measures connected -with its future management. A very valuable Report -by Mr. McIvor, on the same subject, will be found in an -Appendix.</p> - -<p>It is a subject of congratulation that the Government -should have at their disposal the services of one so admirably -fitted for the post of Director of chinchona cultivation as Mr. -McIvor. This gentleman has superintended the Government -gardens at Ootacamund for fourteen years, and their beauty -as well as their usefulness are due to him;<a name="FNanchor_499_499" id="FNanchor_499_499"></a><a href="#Footnote_499_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a> while his periodical -visits to the Conolly teak plantations have been productive -of the most valuable results,<a name="FNanchor_500_500" id="FNanchor_500_500"></a><a href="#Footnote_500_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a> and he has successfully -introduced a great number of English and other plants into -the Neilgherry hills.<a name="FNanchor_501_501" id="FNanchor_501_501"></a><a href="#Footnote_501_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a> Mr. McIvor combines with his attainments -as a scientific gardener great practical experience, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[Pg 484]</a></span> -a thorough acquaintance with the climates, soils, and flora of -the hills. He has long taken a deep interest in the question -of the introduction of chinchona-plants into India, and he -brought the subject to the notice of Lord Harris, then -Governor of Madras, as long ago as 1855. Since that time -he has made himself master of the subject by a study of -every work of any importance which has appeared in Europe -within the last thirty years;<a name="FNanchor_502_502" id="FNanchor_502_502"></a><a href="#Footnote_502_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a> while the practical knowledge -which he has acquired of the requirements of chinchona-plants -during the fifteen months that he has now superintended -their cultivation, in addition to his previous qualifications, -makes him fitter than any other person that could be found -for the direction of this most important experiment.</p> - -<p>In July 1861 Mr. McIvor was appointed Superintendent of -chinchona cultivation by the Madras Government, with full -and entire control over the operations, in direct communication -with the Government, and subject to no interference -from any intermediate authority.<a name="FNanchor_503_503" id="FNanchor_503_503"></a><a href="#Footnote_503_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a> Orders to the same effect -were sent out to Madras by the Secretary of State for India -in Council on July 2nd, 1861, and the same orders were repeated -both to the Governor-General and to the Governor of -Madras, in despatches dated February 1862. It was above all -things important that Mr. McIvor's position, in connexion -with the chinchona experiment, should be authoritatively -defined, in order to protect him from attempts at interference, -which have been as vexatious as they have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</a></span> -unnecessary, and which have more than once threatened -to render success impossible. These dangers are now, fortunately, -at an end; and the interest taken by Sir William -Denison, the present Governor of Madras, in a measure -calculated to confer so great a benefit on the people of India, -ensures to it a fair trial, and is one of the best guarantees of -ultimate success.</p> - -<p>Mr. McIvor's zeal and ability, his intimate knowledge of -his profession, of the Neilgherry hills, and of all questions -bearing on the subject of chinchona-plants, and his acquirements -as a scientific as well as a practical gardener, justify the -confidence which has thus been placed in him by the Secretary -of State in Council, and by the Madras Government. He -has also had the advantage of personal intercourse, for weeks -together, with Mr. Cross, Mr. Weir, and myself, after we had -explored and carefully examined the chinchona forests in -South America; but his subsequent experience in the cultivation -of the plants under his charge has furnished him with -means of observation which now gives his opinion greater -weight than those of persons whose knowledge is derived -from books, from short visits to the plantations in Java, or -even from personal examination of the South American -forests.</p> - -<p>In offering my opinion on the best method of cultivating -the chinchona-plants, I have the satisfaction of knowing that -my conclusions substantially agree with those of Mr. McIvor—mine -being founded on experience gained in the chinchona -forests, and his on careful observation of the plants which he -has reared in India. That these views should be concurred -in by Dr. Weddell, Mr. Howard, and Mr. Spruce, is most -satisfactory, as it supplies an additional presumption of their -correctness.</p> - -<p>I will now proceed to give an account of the progress of -the chinchona cultivation in the Neilgherry hills. The first -batch of seeds, being those of the "grey-bark" species from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</a></span> -Huanuco, arrived at Ootacamund on the 13th of January, -1861, and those of the "red-bark" followed in the end of -February. On the 7th of April 463 plants of <i>C. succirubra</i> -and six of <i>C. Calisaya</i> reached their destination on the -Neilgherry hills in very good condition, considering the -length of time they had been in Wardian cases, and thus the -experiment was fairly commenced.</p> - -<p>The first sowing, which took place in January, was not very -successful, because Mr. McIvor was induced to use too retentive -a soil, having been misled by the treatment of seeds -adopted in Java; and only 3 to 4 per cent. germinated. -The second sowing took place early in March, the soil used -being of a much freer nature, half composed of burned earth; -and 15 to 25 per cent. germinated. Encouraged by this -result, Mr. McIvor used a soil composed entirely of burned -earth for the third sowing, which took place in the beginning -of April, and included the seeds of the "red-bark" species. -Of this sowing 60 per cent. germinated, and of the seeds of -<i>C. micrantha</i> 90 per cent. It is to be remembered that all -these seeds were collected in the South American forests -some months before, and that they had passed through the -perils of several climates, and a voyage of many thousands -of miles.</p> - -<p>In May all the plants of <i>C. succirubra</i> had taken fairly to -the soil, and were in a healthy and flourishing condition, -those of <i>C. Calisaya</i> were doing well, but recovering more -slowly from the effects of the voyage, and the seedlings were -growing fast. The temperature given to the plants was 60° -in the morning, rising to 75° in the day, with plenty of light -and air; this treatment having proved to be best adapted for -their rapid growth. Of course they would grow higher if -shaded, and consequently drawn up, according to the erroneous -plan adopted in Java; but this is not what is wanted, -and, by giving them plenty of light and air, they grew into -fine strong plants, as broad as they were long.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[Pg 487]</a></span></p> - -<p>It was found that the chinchonæ are remarkably impatient -of any damp at their roots, all the species thrive better in -rough and open than in fine soil, and there is reason to believe -that they will bear a much drier climate than we originally -supposed.</p> - -<p>During the autumn of 1861 the work of propagation, by -means of cuttings and layers, progressed rapidly; and, whereas -in June 1861 we only had 2114 chinchona-plants of valuable -species at Ootacamund, in January the number was increased -to 9732 plants. The layers of <i>C. succirubra</i> root sufficiently -to be removed in five weeks, and cuttings in two months; -layers of the "grey-bark" taking a little longer time to root, -or about six weeks. Mr. McIvor has also made the important -discovery that chinchonæ strike freely from <i>eyes</i>, and make -beautiful plants exactly like strong seedlings. These <i>eyes</i> will -give about eight fine strong plants for one that is obtained -from cuttings, which is a great advantage while there is not -much wood in the young plants. In October Mr. McIvor reduced -the temperature of one of the propagating houses to 55° -at night, and 65° during the day; and, under this treatment, -which is also probably advantageous to the bark, the plants -appeared to grow faster, and the leaves became a very beautiful -bright green. The thickness of the bark, in the plants -of <i>C. succirubra</i>, is very remarkable, having been in some instances -nearly one-seventh of an inch last January, and in -the smaller stems the average thickness of the bark considerably -exceeds that of the wood. Mr. McIvor attributes the -unusual thickness of the bark to the presence of a large -number of healthy leaves, exposed to bright light. These -leaves throw back into the bark a large quantity of highly -elaborated matter. The experience of a year's cultivation -convinced Mr. McIvor that, although the most suitable elevation -and climate differs with the various species, yet that they -all require a rich, rough, and very open soil. In September -the erection of a new propagating house for chinchona-plants,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[Pg 488]</a></span> -in the Government gardens at Ootacamund, was sanctioned, -which was completed early in December. It is 63 feet long -by 21 broad, and will hold about 8000 plants.</p> - -<p>The Dutch Government in Java, at the request of the -Government of India, arranged to forward some chinchona-plants -of the species cultivated in that island to Calcutta; -and accordingly 100 of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, 300 of <i>C. Pahudiana</i>, -and 7 of <i>C. lancifolia</i> were transmitted. Of these 48 of <i>C. -Calisaya</i>, 4 of <i>C. lancifolia</i>, and 250 of <i>C. Pahudiana</i> arrived -at Ootacamund on the 20th of December, 1861. In exchange -for these plants a supply of <i>C. succirubræ</i>, and a proportionate -number of the other species, will be sent to Java, "not more in -return for the valuable accession actually received to our stock -of plants of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, than in acknowledgment of the very -courteous and liberal spirit evinced by the Dutch authorities."<a name="FNanchor_504_504" id="FNanchor_504_504"></a><a href="#Footnote_504_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a> -At about the same time Mr. McIvor also sent 100 plants of -<i>C. succirubra</i> and 50 of each of the "grey-bark" species to -Calcutta, with a view to the establishment of a chinchona -plantation in the Sikkim or Bhotan hills.</p> - -<p>The plants which arrived from Java were drawn and weak, -and had evidently been grown without sufficient light. They -were all more or less affected by rot at their roots, and many -of the roots were covered with fungi. A few of the plants of -<i>C. Calisaya</i> died, but the others recovered under Mr. McIvor's -watchful care.</p> - -<p>A large parcel of seeds of <i>C. Condaminea</i>, probably of two -varieties (<i>Chahuarguera</i> and <i>Uritusinga</i>), and a smaller packet -of seeds of <i>C. crispa</i>, were despatched from England in -January, and arrived at Ootacamund in March, 1862. By -this time Mr. McIvor had discovered the best method of -treatment for chinchona-seeds. He sows in very sandy soil; -and while so much water is never given as to make the -particles of soil adhere to each other, yet the soil is kept<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[Pg 489]</a></span> -in a uniform medium state of moisture. In this way the -seeds not only germinate soon, but come up very strong. -There is every reason to expect that a good per-centage of -these seeds will germinate,<a name="FNanchor_505_505" id="FNanchor_505_505"></a><a href="#Footnote_505_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a> and that a large number of these, -the earliest known of all the valuable chinchona species, will -soon be growing luxuriantly in the upper <i>sholas</i> of the Neilgherry -hills. Mr. Howard has also presented the Government -with a plant of <i>C. Uritusinga</i> of Pavon (<i>C. Condaminea</i>, -H. and B.), six feet high, which he had raised from seed sent -to him from Loxa. This precious plant was embarked on -board the steamer on the 4th of March, 1862, and arrived -at Ootacamund early in April.</p> - -<p>Thus, after two anxious years, we now have all the valuable -species of chinchonæ mentioned in the second chapter, safely -established in Southern India. In the following tabular -statement will be seen at a glance the number of species, the -number of each species, the number of plants last February, -their monthly increase since June, their monthly growth, -and their present dimensions. The number is now increasing -at the rate of several thousands every month. The imported -plants of <i>C. succirubra</i> have already produced some thousands -by propagation; and in December the seedlings had attained -a size sufficient to give wood for propagation, the first of them -having even then produced a few hundred plants.</p> - -<p>From the total number of 10,157 chinchona-plants must -be deducted 425 of the worthless <i>C. Pahudiana</i> sent from -Java, leaving a total of 9732 of valuable species on the -1st of February, with the number rapidly increasing. The -increase was not so large as it otherwise would have been -during the first two months of 1862, owing to the supply of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[Pg 490]</a></span> -number of plants to Java, and the transmission of others to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[Pg 491]</a></span> -Calcutta, with a view to the formation of a plantation in -the Bengal hills, and of sixteen to Mr. Maltby for the Rajah -of Travancore.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<a href="images/fig31.jpg"> -<img src="images/thumb4.jpg" alt="" /></a> -</div> - -<p>It is exceedingly satisfactory to compare these results with -those of the Dutch cultivators in Java. After <i>six</i> years they -only had (exclusive of the <i>C. Pahudiana</i>, which is quite -worthless) 8454 chinchona-plants of valuable species;<a name="FNanchor_507_507" id="FNanchor_507_507"></a><a href="#Footnote_507_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a> -whereas in rather less than <i>one</i> year Mr. McIvor has reared -9732, without counting several hundreds which he has transmitted -to Java, Calcutta, and Travancore. The Dutch have -only introduced <i>two</i> good species, while we have obtained -<i>nine</i>, exclusive of the four plants of <i>C. lancifolia</i> presented by -the Dutch authorities. Thus, the average increase of valuable -species of <i>chinchona</i>-plants in Java between 1854 and 1860 -being at the rate of 1409 a year, the results attained in -India have been nearly seven times as great as those of the -Dutch cultivators. These facts are not mentioned in any -spirit of undue exultation, but in order to show that it is -not advisable slavishly to follow the methods of cultivation -adopted by the Dutch, as two gentlemen, in official positions, -who have recently visited the plantations in Java, appear to -imagine. On the contrary, a system of cultivation diametrically -opposed to that of the Dutch has enabled Mr. McIvor -to achieve his present success; and the sites for plantations -have been selected and prepared, not with any reference -to the erroneous and comparatively unsuccessful systems<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[Pg 492]</a></span> -pursued in Java, but on the principle of carefully comparing -the elevations, temperature, amount of humidity, and of -exposure of the mountains where the different valuable -species of chinchona thrive in South America, with analogous -situations in the hills of Southern India.</p> - -<p>The important process of planting out has now commenced -in the Neilgherry hills, and it has been a subject of careful -consideration whether the chinchona-plants should be grown -under dense shade, under the partial shade of forest-trees, -or quite in the open: in other words—what are the elevations -and amounts of exposure best suited to the growth of -the plants, and the development of their alkaloids?</p> - -<p>In Java the chinchona-plants were at first established at -far too low an elevation, in a wretched soil, and exposed -to the full glare of the sun. Dr. Junghuhn, the present -Superintendent, went to the other extreme, and, though the -proper elevation has been ascertained, yet the error has been -committed of forming the plantations in the dense shade of -the forest, with the intention of allowing some trees to be -drawn up in search of light, without a branch for thirty or -forty feet, and of cutting them down for their bark in about -forty years, and of grubbing up others in search of imaginary -quinine in their roots.<a name="FNanchor_508_508" id="FNanchor_508_508"></a><a href="#Footnote_508_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a> I understand that this plan has -at last been found to be erroneous, and that Dr. Junghuhn -now directs all the trees in the vicinity of the chinchona-plants -to be cut down, though faith is still maintained in the -quinine-yielding roots of the worthless <i>C. Pahudiana</i>.<a name="FNanchor_509_509" id="FNanchor_509_509"></a><a href="#Footnote_509_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a></p> - -<p>If the thing was not sufficiently evident in itself, the appearance -of the barks sent from Java to the Exhibition of -1862 is quite enough to prove that chinchona-plants ought -not to be cultivated under the shade of forest-trees. The -question of the proper amount of exposure to which each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[Pg 493]</a></span> -species should be subjected is, however, one which requires -very careful consideration; as upon its correct solution depends -the most important point of all, namely the method of -cultivation which will be most profitable, and most suitable to -the operations of private enterprise.</p> - -<p>Mr. McIvor commenced experiments in planting out in the -spring of 1861. In April he planted out three plants of -<i>C. succirubra</i>, two under shade, and one in an open spot surrounded -by brushwood and undergrowth. On the 29th of -the same month the S.W. monsoon set in, and the plants -under dense shade assumed a weak climber-like habit, and -were injured from the leaves being cut to pieces by the constant -drip from the forest-trees;<a name="FNanchor_510_510" id="FNanchor_510_510"></a><a href="#Footnote_510_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a> while the plant shaded by -the brushwood continued in the most luxuriant state of health, -with its leaves uninjured. In September 1861, six plants -of different species were planted out in cleared spots on -the highest and most exposed points of the Neddiwuttum -site, and all of these have not only borne the cold and -drought without injury, but their growth has never even been -checked, and at present they are in the finest possible state -of health. Their leaves are of the deepest green, some of -them measuring 12 inches by 9.</p> - -<p>Between May and August fifteen "red-bark" plants were -planted out at Ootacamund. The unusual cold of December -checked the growth of these plants, but did not injure them -in the least, and the leaves still keep their deep-green colour, -and measure from 7 to 9 inches.<a name="FNanchor_511_511" id="FNanchor_511_511"></a><a href="#Footnote_511_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a></p> - -<p>Early in January 1862, the formation of a nursery was -commenced at Neddiwuttum, large enough for 300,000 or -400,000 Chinchonæ; and 2400 were planted out. 150 -acres are to be planted, at the Neddiwuttum site, during the -year; of which 75 acres will be planted under various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[Pg 494]</a></span> -degrees of shade from forest-trees, in order to ascertain the -results of this method by actual experiment; and 75 quite -in the open, the young plants being protected from the -direct rays of the sun by artificial shade during the first -year or two. The original stock will be retained in the -gardens at Ootacamund, for the purpose of propagation, -and the propagated plants will be used for stocking the -nurseries and plantations.</p> - -<p>With regard to the question of whether the chinchonæ -should be planted out in dense shade of forest-trees or in -the open, it will be well to recapitulate some of the information -which has been collected in their native habitat in South -America.</p> - -<p>In the forests of Caravaya I observed that the plants of -<i>C. Calisaya</i>, when in dense shade, were tall and weak, with -few branches, and without any sign of ever having flowered -or fruited. When very slightly shaded, as on the ridge of -rocks above the Yanamayu, or scarcely at all, as on the -precipice of Ccasa-sani, they spread more, have a more healthy -appearance, and are covered with capsule-bearing panicles; -while the most thriving and healthy-looking young plant -that I met with, was growing in the open, without any shade -whatever. It is quite certain that an abundance of light and -air is an absolute necessity for the full development of the -alkaloids in the bark of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, and that the trees must -either grow at the edge of the forests, or else find their way -to the light, by overtopping all other trees: otherwise, as is -too often the case, they assume a weakly, straggling habit -under the baneful influence of dense shade.</p> - -<p>Dr. Weddell is of opinion that, during the first year or two, -the soil and trunks of young trees of <i>C. Calisaya</i> should be -protected from the direct influence of the scorching sun, as -he had observed that plants so exposed generally appeared -to have a stunted growth. He refers of course to the -<i>Josephiana</i> or shrub variety of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, but their dwarfed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[Pg 495]</a></span> -habit must be attributed to the less fertile soil of the open -grass-land in which they grow, and partly also to the great -altitude, and consequently cold climate, rather than to effects -of exposure to light and air.</p> - -<p>With respect to the "red-bark" species, there cannot be -a doubt that they should be planted in the open. On this -point Mr. Spruce's observations are quite conclusive. He -says—"The trees standing in open ground, pasture, cane-field, -&c., are far healthier and more luxuriant than those -growing in the forest, where they are hemmed in and partially -shaded by other trees; and while many of the former had -flowered freely, the latter were, without exception, sterile. -This plainly shows that, although the red-bark may need -shade whilst young and tender, it really requires (like most -trees) plenty of air, light, and room, wherein to develop its -proportions."<a name="FNanchor_512_512" id="FNanchor_512_512"></a><a href="#Footnote_512_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a></p> - -<p>The "grey-bark" species all bear the marks of exposure -to free air, cold, and sunshine; and the overspreading -thallus of various <i>Grapideæ</i> on their barks indicates that the -trees have grown in open situations, exposed to rain and -sunshine.<a name="FNanchor_513_513" id="FNanchor_513_513"></a><a href="#Footnote_513_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a></p> - -<p>The <i>C. Condaminea</i> trees, in the neighbourhood of Loxa, -grow sometimes in little clumps, and sometimes solitary, but -always in dry situations.<a name="FNanchor_514_514" id="FNanchor_514_514"></a><a href="#Footnote_514_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a> Dr. Seemann, who visited Loxa -when serving on board H.M.S. Herald, informs me that -those which he saw, bearing ripe fruit, were on the edge of -thickets, entirely exposed to the influence of air and sunshine.</p> - -<p>Dr. Weddell assures me that he would never recommend -that any of the chinchona-trees should be planted in the -dense shade of the forest, as in such a situation the greater -number would evidently soon be smothered. He is of opinion -that the Chinchonæ, in India, should be planted in open<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[Pg 496]</a></span> -ground; but he considers it important that the trunks and soil -should be shaded during the first year or two. He proposes to -effect this object either by planting the chinchonas at convenient -distances in a quincunx, alternately with some more -fast-growing trees, which might be cut away when no longer -required;<a name="FNanchor_515_515" id="FNanchor_515_515"></a><a href="#Footnote_515_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a> or by planting the chinchonas themselves close -enough to oblige each other to run up, sufficient space and -air being gradually provided by judicious pruning and thinning -out. The former method might be a good one if it -were not for the faster-growing trees taking up a great -proportion of the nourishment from the soil, which would be -more profitably reserved for the chinchonas; and probably -the efficient shading of the trees, while young and tender, -will be more easily and effectually provided for by simple -artificial means.</p> - -<p>Mr. Howard, the author of '<i>Nueva Quinologia de Pavon</i>,' -whose knowledge on all questions connected with chinchona-plants -is not surpassed by that of any botanist in Europe, is -clearly of opinion that they should be planted in the open, -without shade from other trees, and that they should be -cultivated as shrubs; when their branches will yield an -ample and remunerative supply of bark.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, Dr. Junghuhn, in Java, has planted -his chinchonæ under the dense shade of forest-trees, where -they must necessarily be watery and unhealthy, where they -will not flower or bear fruit, and where he does not expect -that they will yield quinine for fifty years, when he contemplates -the entire demolition of the plantations by felling -all the trees. Now, if such a system as this is to be adopted -in India, the chinchona-plants might as well never have been -introduced. The plantations would be a wasteful expense to -Government, with a remote chance of some profit, forming<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[Pg 497]</a></span> -but a small fraction of the outlay, about twice in a century; -and the idea of chinchona cultivation ever being undertaken -by private enterprise, on this system, is quite out of the -question; for what planter in his senses would commence -the cultivation of a product which would yield him no return -for forty or fifty years?</p> - -<p>When planted in the open chinchonæ grow luxuriantly, -yield abundant supplies of seed, and form fine thick bark, -which, owing to the free exposure of the leaves to the -influence of light and fresh air, contains a large per-centage -of alkaloids; while, in the shade of forest-trees, they run up -into tall, weak, straggling plants, with little chance of either -bearing fruit, or elaborating much quinine in their bark, -until, after nearly half a century, some of them at length -overtop the other trees, and reach that essential sunshine of -which they had been so long deprived.</p> - -<p>I not only think, with Mr. Spruce, Dr. Weddell, Mr. -Howard, Mr. McIvor, and Mr. Cross, that the chinchona-plants -must be planted in the open, and freely exposed to the -influence of fresh air and sunshine; but I am most strongly -of opinion that, if the opposite system was unfortunately -adopted, it would have been far better if the expense and -trouble of introducing these precious trees into India had -never been incurred.</p> - -<p>It is true that, when planted in the forest, the chinchonæ -will look well to the casual observer, and that their cultivation -can be conducted without skill or care, as all will be left -to nature; while, in open ground, it will require great skill -and constant attention to get the young trees over the first -year or two. The cleared ground will be exposed to the full -effects of evaporation and radiation, and much judicious -management will be necessary in applying artificial shade, -and in adopting other precautions. The open spaces should -not, I think, be of very great extent, without being broken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[Pg 498]</a></span> -up by clumps or irregular lines of trees; and care must be -taken that the supplies of moisture and of water are not -prejudiced by too much felling. But these details may safely -be left to Mr. McIvor, who now has the assistance of two -well-instructed English gardeners, named Batcock and Lyall; -and he will be able to obtain uniform and constant yearly -supplies of bark, without any damage to the trees, which, -when once full-grown, will thrive luxuriantly, and yield -abundance of seeds.</p> - -<p>The most suitable positions for chinchona-plants, as regards -elevation and climate, having been pointed out, and the -best method of treatment with respect to exposure being -decided in favour of planting out in open ground, two other -questions remain to be discussed which are intimately connected -with the above,—namely, the conditions under which -the largest per-centage of febrifugal alkaloids will be formed -in the bark,<a name="FNanchor_516_516" id="FNanchor_516_516"></a><a href="#Footnote_516_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a> and the method of cultivation which is likely to -yield the largest and most remunerative supplies of bark in -the shortest time.</p> - -<p>One well-established fact, which is proved by universal experience, -is that all the species of chinchona-trees produce the -thickest bark and the largest per-centage of alkaloids when -growing at the highest elevation at which they respectively -flourish. Thus, all other circumstances being favourable, the -<i>C. Calisaya</i> and <i>C. succirubra</i> species will yield more profitable -crops when growing at an elevation of 6000 feet, than -at one of 5000 feet. The shrubby varieties of chinchonæ are -specially good when their stunted growth is owing to the -altitude of the locality.<a name="FNanchor_517_517" id="FNanchor_517_517"></a><a href="#Footnote_517_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a> Mr. Spruce ascertained, with regard -to the "red bark," that the greater the height at which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[Pg 499]</a></span> -tree grows, the larger is the proportion of alkaloids contained -in the bark;<a name="FNanchor_518_518" id="FNanchor_518_518"></a><a href="#Footnote_518_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a> and that, although the trees growing nearest -the plain were generally much larger, yet their bark was by -no means so thick in proportion to their diameter as in trees -higher up. He adds that, in cutting down trees in the hot -plains, he has often been struck with the thinness of the bark -compared to that of trees growing in temperate climates.<a name="FNanchor_519_519" id="FNanchor_519_519"></a><a href="#Footnote_519_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a></p> - -<p>There are several other conditions under which the largest -amount of alkaloids is formed in chinchona-barks, which -are as yet little understood. Dr. Karsten suggests that the -content of alkaloids in the same species of chinchona-trees, -growing in different ravines, is affected by unceasing mists in -one, and constant sunshine resting on the vegetation in the -other; the former impeding, and the latter promoting, the -formation of quinine.<a name="FNanchor_520_520" id="FNanchor_520_520"></a><a href="#Footnote_520_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a> In the Loxa region a great difference -has been noticed in the bark of <i>C. Condaminea</i>, according as -the tree has grown on the sides of the mountains most -exposed to the rays of the morning or of the evening sun: -and Mr. Spruce remarks of the "red-bark" trees that the -ridges on which they grow all deviate from an easterly and -westerly direction, and that the trees are far more abundant -on their northern than on their southern slopes. The northern -and eastern sides of the trees had also borne most flowers, -and scarcely a capsule ripened on their southern and western -sides, except on one tree of more open growth than the rest. -This phenomenon is due to the fact that the trees receive -more sunshine from the north and east, during the summer -mornings,<a name="FNanchor_521_521" id="FNanchor_521_521"></a><a href="#Footnote_521_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a> the afternoons being usually foggy.</p> - -<p>All these points will receive careful attention from Mr. -McIvor, in conducting the cultivation; and his observations -will soon enable him to decide many points connected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[Pg 500]</a></span> -with the formation of quinine in the bark, and to ascertain -the most advantageous conditions under which the plants -should be cultivated.</p> - -<p>The sites have been selected at Neddiwuttum and Dodabetta -with reference to the similarity of elevation and climate -in those localities to the native mountains of the species -which it is intended to cultivate in them, and because they -have plenty of deep loamy soil. It has also been determined -that the best method of cultivation will be found in planting -out the chinchonæ in the open, for reasons already given; -and not only will the luxuriant and healthy growth of the -plants be provided for by this treatment, but it is also -essential for the formation of an abundant supply of alkaloids -in their bark. This process depends on the vigorous action -of the leaves, and the healthful condition of the leaves is -due to a sufficient supply of sunshine. Dr. Lindley says,—"It -is to the action of leaves,—to the decomposition of their -carbonic acid, and of their water; to the separation of the -aqueous particles of the sap from the solid parts that were -dissolved in it; to the deposition thus effected of various -earthy and other substances, either introduced into plants as -silex or metallic salts, or formed there, as the vegetable -alkaloids; to the extrication of nitrogen; and, probably, to -other causes as yet unknown—that the formation of the -peculiar secretions of plants, of whatever kind, is owing. -And this is brought about principally, if not exclusively, by -the agency of light. Their green colour becomes intense, in -proportion to their exposure to light within certain limits."<a name="FNanchor_522_522" id="FNanchor_522_522"></a><a href="#Footnote_522_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a></p> - -<p>Under cultivation the chinchona-plants must either be -raised in their shrubby form in the open, or as tall trees under -the shade of the forest. The latter system, which has been -adopted by Dr. Junghuhn in Java, is defended on the ground<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[Pg 501]</a></span> -that, in their natural localities in the Andes, the chinchonæ -"grow in damp forests overshadowed by trees." There are -two things to be said against this. Firstly, that it is not the -case; for though it is true that some species of chinchonæ do -grow in damp shady forests, yet they never flourish in such -positions, but only when supplied with plenty of light and -air; and secondly, even if it was the case, such an argument -would be worth nothing. In their wild state, and in localities -where they are indigenous, all plants find certain conditions -which are favourable to their perfect development; but they -have to struggle for existence with a multitude of neighbours. -Every condition is not supplied by Providence for the special -behoof of one particular genus, and, in virgin forests, all trees -suffer more or less from being overcrowded and overshadowed. -But under cultivation the case is different. The cultivator -endeavours to combine all the conditions best calculated to -ensure the perfect development of a particular plant, and -does not subject it to the baneful influences of too much shade, -merely because it suffered from overshading in its wild state. -Mr. McIvor has very aptly illustrated this point, by mentioning -that Bruce found wheat growing wild in Upper Egypt, -struggling for existence with rushes and other weeds. An -English farmer would be surprised if he was told to sow his -wheat in the hedges, instead of in the fields, because in its -wild state it is found amongst weeds and briars!</p> - -<p>The facts that it will be necessary to wait for thirty years -before any return can be expected; and that it will have a -most injurious effect on the formation of alkaloids in the bark, -are sufficient arguments against planting the chinchonæ in -the shade of the forest, and waiting for them to run up until -the survivors overtop the surrounding trees. It has been -necessary to bring these points prominently forward, because -attempts have been made to introduce the erroneous system, -adopted by the Dutch cultivators, into India.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[Pg 502]</a></span></p> - -<p>We now come to the other alternative, that of raising the -chinchonæ in their shrubby form, on plantations in open -clearings, with plenty of fresh air and sunshine. It is the -system of cultivation which I, in common with Mr. Howard -and Mr. McIvor, consider to be the most likely to lead to -successful results, because it is the only one by which remunerative -harvests of bark can be obtained year by year, -without injuring the plants.</p> - -<p>Two questions require consideration before adopting this -method: first, whether the chinchonæ in their shrubby form -will yield a sufficient annual supply of febrifugal alkaloids to -make the cultivation remunerative; and secondly, whether it -will be possible to take the required quantity of bark every -year, without checking the growth of the trees.</p> - -<p>The trunk or <i>tabla</i> bark naturally yields a much larger per-centage -of alkaloids than the <i>canuto</i> or small bark of -branches; but as a supply of the former could only be -obtained once in forty years, and then at the cost of destroying -the plantations, while the latter will yield an annual -harvest without any injury to the trees, this point is not of -much consequence.<a name="FNanchor_523_523" id="FNanchor_523_523"></a><a href="#Footnote_523_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a></p> - -<p>The fact is that very little <i>tabla</i> or trunk-bark comes from -South America, and that nearly the entire bark trade is -supplied by quill-bark from the branches of shrubs. Some -Calisaya bark from Bolivia, some "red bark," and "West-coast -Carthagena," from the trunks of <i>C. Palton</i>, arrive in -the form of large slabs of <i>tabla</i>-bark; but a great deal of the -Calisaya and succirubra bark, the whole of the "crown-bark" -from Loxa, and all bark from other quarters, is found only in -the form of quills from small branches. I have measured<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[Pg 503]</a></span> -several of the quills which come into the London market, -and find that none of them have bark equal in thickness to -that already attained by some of the young plants reared by -Mr. McIvor at Ootacamund.<a name="FNanchor_524_524" id="FNanchor_524_524"></a><a href="#Footnote_524_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a> These quills are evidently -taken from small shrubs, and they yield a very good per-centage -of quinine. Several samples of quill Calisaya bark, -sold in London in March 1862, contained four per cent. of -quinine. Their bark was one-eighth of an inch thick, and -the quills were just under an inch in circumference. In a -cultivated state the yield will of course be much greater, and -Mr. Howard, judging from the usual yield of quill-bark, is of -opinion that a large produce may be annually realised by -growing the chinchonæ as shrubs.<a name="FNanchor_525_525" id="FNanchor_525_525"></a><a href="#Footnote_525_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a></p> - -<p>In cultivating the chinchonæ in rows on cleared plantations -it will probably be found advisable to grow them to a -height of ten or twelve feet, and about twelve feet from each -other, so that they may be able to spread out until they are -nearly as broad as they are long; and they should be induced -to branch as near the ground as possible. A certain number -of the branches should be lopped annually for the quinine -harvest; shoots would immediately be thrown out below the -cuts, from which one or two should be selected to take the -place of the lopped branch; and in about six years the new -branches, thus formed, would be sufficiently grown to be -again removed. In the mean while the same operation would -have been going on with other branches, and thus an annual -harvest of quill-bark may be obtained for any number of -years. Mr. McIvor considers that this treatment will ensure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[Pg 504]</a></span> -a quick, uniform, and constant supply of bark; and if the -lopping and pruning is judiciously conducted, the trees will -be benefited rather than injured by the annual removal of a -few branches.<a name="FNanchor_526_526" id="FNanchor_526_526"></a><a href="#Footnote_526_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a> Chinchona-plants, like oaks and willows, -might also be cultivated as pollards.</p> - -<p>By cultivating the chinchona-plants on these principles, -forming plantations in cleared open ground, giving the plants -plenty of light and air, and obtaining annual harvests of quill-bark -from the shrubs, quinine-yielding chinchona-bark will -become an article of commerce within eight years from the -first introduction of the plants into India. After the first -harvest the supply will rapidly increase. Extensive Government -plantations of the different species at Neddiwuttum and -Dodabetta on the Neilgherries, will be in a position to supply -any number of chinchonæ for private enterprise, and it is to -be hoped that the Government will establish other chinchona -nurseries on the Pulney hills, in Coorg, and eventually on the -Anamallays.</p> - -<p>As quinine-yielding bark is a more valuable product than -coffee, there is every reason to believe that, as soon as the -Government plantations are proved to be successful, many -planters will undertake the cultivation; and I understand -from Mr. McIvor that several persons have already expressed -a desire to give the chinchonæ a trial, and that he expects to -be able to distribute plants by June 1862.<a name="FNanchor_527_527" id="FNanchor_527_527"></a><a href="#Footnote_527_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a> Thus another<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[Pg 505]</a></span> -important product will be added to the resources of India, -while the Government will have an abundant and cheap annual -supply of the most indispensable of all medicines to -Europeans in tropical climates, which is now only obtained at -immense expense, and in quantities quite insufficient to meet -the demand.</p> - -<p>In a commercial point of view the introduction of chinchona-plants -into India is likely to prove very beneficial, by -adding another valuable article of export to the numerous -products of that favoured land; but an equal if not a greater -result will be derived from this important measure, in the -naturalisation of these healing plants in a country the inhabitants -of which suffer so severely and constantly from intermittent -and other fevers. From motives of humanity, as well -as from personal interest, every coffee-planter, as I have -before said, ought to cultivate a few rows of chinchona-plants -in the upper part of his clearing. Even if it is not intended -to rear them on account of their commercial value, yet such -a measure recommends itself as a duty, in order to have a -supply of this inestimable febrifuge constantly at hand for the -use of those who are employed on the plantations.</p> - -<p>Many of the natives are already fully aware of the febrifugal -virtues of Peruvian bark, and it is to be hoped that, in all the -hill-districts where there is a suitable elevation and climate, -they will grow chinchona-trees in their gardens, just as is now -generally done with coffee in all the villages in Coorg. For -the use of the natives there will be no necessity to go to the -expense and trouble of extracting the alkaloids, as the green -fresh bark is itself very efficacious. After the natives have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[Pg 506]</a></span> -once used this unfailing remedy, and experienced the power -it has over the fevers from which they suffer, they will, like -Dr. Poeppig in the wilds of Peru, approach the beautiful healing -trees with warm feelings of gratitude,<a name="FNanchor_528_528" id="FNanchor_528_528"></a><a href="#Footnote_528_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a> their fame will -spread far and wide, and the cultivation of chinchonæ will, -I trust, be extended to its utmost limit throughout the -peninsula of India.</p> - -<p>So far as my observations extended, the impression which -I had previously received, that the natives can with difficulty -be induced to undertake the cultivation of any new plants to -which they have not been accustomed, was not confirmed. -Not to mention the potato, maize, tobacco, and capsicums, -which originally came from America, and are now generally -cultivated in India, it is a fact that in Wynaad upwards of -2000 acres are taken up for coffee cultivation by the natives; -and in Coorg, where coffee was only introduced about six years -ago, I scarcely saw a single hut to which a small coffee-garden -was not attached. The extent to which the cassava -(<i>Jatophra Manihot</i>), only lately introduced, is now cultivated -in Travancore, is quite remarkable; and there is every -reason to suppose that the natives will be equally ready -to cultivate a plant possessing such extraordinary febrifugal -powers as the chinchona, the value of which they will soon -appreciate.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[Pg 507]</a></span></p> - -<p>Thus will the successful cultivation of the quinine-yielding -chinchona-plants confer a great and lasting benefit upon the -people of India, as well as upon the commerce of the whole -world; and the concluding words of Dr. Weddell's Introduction<a name="FNanchor_529_529" id="FNanchor_529_529"></a><a href="#Footnote_529_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a> -may, therefore, with strict propriety, be applied to Mr. -McIvor and his assistants: "Reste la ressource de la culture, -et il faut l'employer. S'il est un arbre digne d'être acclimaté, -c'est certes le Quinquina; et la postérité bénirait ceux qui -auraient mis à exécution une semblable idée."</p> - -<p>While speaking of the incalculable value of <i>quinine</i>-yielding -chinchona-plants, it must be understood that I include those -of the "grey-bark" species, which yield <i>chinchonine</i>; and it is -the more important to dwell upon this, because a sentence in -the Introduction to Mr. Howard's valuable work is perhaps -calculated to give a different impression.<a name="FNanchor_530_530" id="FNanchor_530_530"></a><a href="#Footnote_530_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a> It is true that -chinchonine will not command so remunerative a price in the -London market; yet it produces effects on the system precisely -analogous to quinine. To stop intermittent fever, doses of -chinchonine require to be one-third larger than doses of quinine; -but it is absolutely certain that the former is as good -a febrifuge as the latter, and it costs infinitely less. Planters -will of course, in the first instance, undertake the cultivation -of those species which yield quinine, such as <i>C. succirubra</i>, -<i>C. Condaminea</i>, <i>C. lancifolia</i>, and <i>C. Calisaya</i>; but the grey-bark -species will yield barks which will afford valuable -supplies to the Government hospitals; and their naturalisation -all over the plateau of the Neilgherries and other hill -districts will be a great boon to the natives. Hereafter the -latter species will well repay the outlay and labour of cultivation. -Even now there is a great demand for chinchonine;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[Pg 508]</a></span> -the chinchonidine of <i>C. Condaminea</i> is considered by Mr. -Howard to be scarcely if at all inferior to quinine, and Dr. -J. Macpherson thinks so highly of the value of chinchonine -that he considers it to be of little importance whether the -species introduced into India are rich in quinine or chinchonine. -This gentleman speaks from experience acquired -by long practice in the East Indies.<a name="FNanchor_531_531" id="FNanchor_531_531"></a><a href="#Footnote_531_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a></p> - -<p>The following is a table of the largest amount of alkaloids -extracted from, and the price in the London markets of the -barks of species of chinchonæ now introduced into India:—</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig21.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Under cultivation the barks may be expected to yield a -much larger per-centage of alkaloids than they ever do in -their wild state.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[Pg 509]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXIX"></a>CHAPTER XXIX.</h2> - -<p class="c">CHINCHONA-CULTIVATION.</p> - -<p class="c h">Ceylon—Sikkim—Bhotan—Khassya Hills—Pegu—Jamaica—Conclusion.</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> complete success which has attended the cultivation of -chinchona-plants in the Neilgherry hills, encourages the hope -that similar happy results will follow their introduction into -other hill districts of Southern India, which have been described -in more or less detail in previous chapters. I have -no doubt of the suitability of the Pulney hills, the Koondahs, -the Anamallays, and Coorg for such experimental cultivation; -and trials should hereafter be made on the Mahabaleshwurs, -the high hills east of Goa, the Baba-bodeens, Nuggur, -Wynaad, the Shervaroys, and the mountains between Tinnevelly -and Travancore.</p> - -<p>The hill districts of the island of Ceylon, which have the -necessary elevation, and are within the region of both monsoons, -also offer peculiarly favourable conditions for the -cultivation of chinchona-plants, probably equal to the best -localities on the peninsula of India. Mr. Thwaites, the -Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Peradenia, takes -a deep interest in this important measure, and under his -auspices there can be no doubt of its ultimate success. It -was from the first determined to send a portion of the chinchona-seeds -to Ceylon, although the whole expense of the -undertaking has been borne by the revenues of India, and no -assistance whatever has been given by those colonies which -will thus profit by its success.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[Pg 510]</a></span></p> - -<p>The gardens at Peradenia are 1594 feet above the level of -the sea, and the following table will give a correct idea of the -climate:—</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc bt bb" colspan="6"><span class="smcap">Observations</span> taken at <span class="smcap">Peradenia</span>, in Ceylon, in 1857.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc bb br">MONTH.</td><td class="tdc bb br" colspan="3">Thermometer.</td><td class="tdc bb br">Rainfall in inches.</td><td class="tdc bb">REMARKS.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc br"> </td><td class="tdc bb br">Max.</td><td class="tdc bb br">Mean.</td><td class="tdc bb br">Min.</td><td class="tdc br"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc br">1857.</td><td class="tdc br"> </td><td class="tdc br"> </td><td class="tdc br"> </td><td class="tdc br"> </td><td class="tdc"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">January</td><td class="tdc br">82</td><td class="tdc br">79.3</td><td class="tdc br">74.7</td><td class="tdc br">1.8</td><td class="tdl">Fine and sunny. Cold dewy nights and foggy mornings.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">February</td><td class="tdc br">82.5</td><td class="tdc br">79.8</td><td class="tdc br">76.5</td><td class="tdc br">1.3</td><td class="tdc">Do. do. do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">March</td><td class="tdc br">84.2</td><td class="tdc br">82</td><td class="tdc br">77.5</td><td class="tdc br">5.8</td><td class="tdl">A few showers of rain in the evenings.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">April</td><td class="tdc br">86.5</td><td class="tdc br">81.9</td><td class="tdc br">77.5</td><td class="tdc br">8.4</td><td class="tdl">Rain in the latter part of the month.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">May</td><td class="tdc br">82.5</td><td class="tdc br">81.5</td><td class="tdc br">75</td><td class="tdc br">4.7</td><td class="tdl">Showery, with occasional gales of wind.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">June</td><td class="tdc br">82.5</td><td class="tdc br">81.1</td><td class="tdc br">75.5</td><td class="tdc br">6</td><td class="tdl">Showery.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">July</td><td class="tdc br">80.5</td><td class="tdc br">77.1</td><td class="tdc br">75.5</td><td class="tdc br">9.8</td><td class="tdl">Continued rain.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">August</td><td class="tdc br">81.5</td><td class="tdc br">79.2</td><td class="tdc br">77.5</td><td class="tdc br">6.4</td><td class="tdl">Showery, with high winds.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">September</td><td class="tdc br">82.5</td><td class="tdc br">78.8</td><td class="tdc br">75.5</td><td class="tdc br">7.2</td><td class="tdl">Rainy.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">October</td><td class="tdc br">81.5</td><td class="tdc br">78</td><td class="tdc br">74.5</td><td class="tdc br">14.9</td><td class="tdl">Rainy, with occasional sunshiny days.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">November</td><td class="tdc br">82</td><td class="tdc br">77.9</td><td class="tdc br">73.5</td><td class="tdc br">22.3</td><td class="tdl">Heavy rain.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">December</td><td class="tdc br">81.5</td><td class="tdc br">78.6</td><td class="tdc br">75.5</td><td class="tdc br bb">2.8</td><td class="tdl">Fine. Cold nights and hot days.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br bb"> </td><td class="tdl br bb"> </td><td class="tdl br bb"> </td><td class="tdl br bb"> </td><td class="tdc br bb">96</td><td class="tdl bb"> </td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>It is evident that Peradenia is far too low and hot for chinchona -cultivation. The <i>C. succirubra</i>, and some other species, -would probably grow to fine large trees there, but the bark -would be very thin, and would yield little or no febrifugal -alkaloids. But there are many other localities in Ceylon -admirably suited, from their elevation and climate, for this -cultivation, and sites may be selected, well adapted to the -different species, from 5000 feet to Pedrotallagalle, which is -8280 feet above the sea. Among these is the Government -garden of Hakgalle, at Nuwera-ellia, which is 6210 feet above<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[Pg 511]</a></span> -the sea, in a climate with an annual temperature of about 59° -Fahr., and abundantly supplied with moisture. Here most of -the chinchona-plants have been established under the superintendence -of Mr. Thwaites, who is assisted in their cultivation -by Mr. McNicoll, a zealous and intelligent gardener from -Kew. Mr. Thwaites reported, last September, that the progress -of the important experiment in the cultivation of chinchonæ -was satisfactory.</p> - -<p>In February 1861 the first instalment of chinchona-seeds -arrived in Ceylon, being a parcel of the "grey-bark" species -sent from the Neilgherry hills by Mr. McIvor; and soon -afterwards a portion of the "red-bark" seeds was received. -In April six plants of <i>C. Calisaya</i> were transmitted from Kew, -but two only survived, and are now growing vigorously at -Hakgalle. Last September eight cuttings had been taken -from them, two of which had rooted. From the seeds received -early in 1861, 800 plants had been raised last September, -namely, 530 of <i>C. succirubra</i>, 180 of <i>C. micrantha</i>, 25 of <i>C. -Peruviana</i>, 45 of <i>C. nitida</i>, and 60 of the "grey-bark" species -without name.</p> - -<p>In January 1862 I forwarded parcels of seeds of <i>C. Condaminea</i> -and <i>C. crispa</i> to Mr. Thwaites; and early in March six -Wardian cases filled with chinchona-plants, from the depôt at -Kew, were shipped for Ceylon.</p> - -<p>Chinchona cultivation in Ceylon has thus been fairly started. -It is exceedingly gratifying to hear that many coffee-planters -will be glad to try the experiment upon their estates;<a name="FNanchor_532_532" id="FNanchor_532_532"></a><a href="#Footnote_532_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a> and -that Mr. Thwaites will shortly be in a position to distribute -plants from the Hakgalle garden.<a name="FNanchor_533_533" id="FNanchor_533_533"></a><a href="#Footnote_533_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a></p> - -<p>Chinchona-trees, in their wild state, have never been found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[Pg 512]</a></span> -at a greater distance than one thousand miles from the equator, -and they are essentially inter-tropical plants; though -they only flourish at considerable elevations above the sea. -The reason appears to be that one of their chief requirements -is a tolerably equable climate throughout the year, which the -temperate zones, with their great differences of temperature -between winter and summer, do not afford. For this reason -sites were selected, in the first instance, both in India and -Ceylon, within the tropics; and indeed this point was essential -for the first experiments, because all the other conditions -of the growth of chinchonæ could not have been found -beyond the equatorial zone. Under cultivation, however, it -is probable that, with other favouring circumstances, these -plants might thrive within the temperate zone, at short -distances from the tropic, and attention was naturally drawn -to the hill districts of the Eastern Himalayas, in Bengal. -The usefulness and importance of the introduction of the -chinchonæ into India will be much enhanced if their cultivation -can be extended to these regions, and attempts will, -therefore, be made to form chinchona plantations in Sikkim, -Bhotan, and subsequently in the Khassya hills.</p> - -<p>The province of Sikkim,<a name="FNanchor_534_534" id="FNanchor_534_534"></a><a href="#Footnote_534_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a> at the base of the mighty Himalayan -peak of Kunchinginga, consists entirely of the basin of -the river Tista, which, with its tributaries, drains the whole -country. Its position, opposite to the opening of the Gangetic -valley, between the mountains of Behar on the one hand -and the Khassya hills on the other, exposes it to the full -force of the monsoon. Its rains are, therefore, heavy and -almost uninterrupted, accompanied by dense fogs and a saturated -atmosphere throughout the year. There are frequent -winter rains accompanied by cold fogs, alternating with frost, -hail, and snow. March and April are the driest months,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[Pg 513]</a></span> -but rains commence in May, and continue with little intermission -until October. The bounding mountains are very -lofty, and snow-clad throughout a great part of their extent; -but the central range in Sikkim, which separates the Tista -from its great tributary the Rangit, is depressed till very far -into the interior. The rainy winds have thus free access to -the heart of the province.</p> - -<p>The snow-level is at 16,000 feet; and the mean monthly -temperature of the English hill station at Darjeeling, which -is 7430 feet above the sea, and in lat. 27° 3´ N., is as follows:—</p> - - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc bt bb" colspan="6"><span class="smcap">Darjeeling.</span></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br"> </td><td class="tdc bb br">MONTH.</td><td class="tdc bb brd">Mean temperature.</td><td class="tdc bb br">MONTH.</td><td class="tdc bb br">Mean temperature.</td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br"> </td><td class="tdl br">January</td><td class="tdc brd">40</td><td class="tdl br">July</td><td class="tdc br">61.4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br"> </td><td class="tdl br">February</td><td class="tdc brd">42</td><td class="tdl br">August</td><td class="tdc br">61.7</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br"> </td><td class="tdl br">March</td><td class="tdc brd">50.7</td><td class="tdl br">September</td><td class="tdc br">59.9</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br"> </td><td class="tdl br">April</td><td class="tdc brd">55.9</td><td class="tdl br">October</td><td class="tdc br">58</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br"> </td><td class="tdl br">May</td><td class="tdc brd">57.6</td><td class="tdl br">November</td><td class="tdc br">50</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br bb"> </td><td class="tdl br bb">June</td><td class="tdc brd bb">61.2</td><td class="tdl br bb">December</td><td class="tdc br bb">42</td><td class="tdl bb"> </td></tr> -</table></div> - - - -<p>The annual rainfall is 122.2 inches.</p> - -<p>Of course no chinchona-plant would flourish in such a -climate; and in the latitude of 27° it will be necessary to -seek for suitable sites in much lower situations than in the -hill districts of Southern India, which are in corresponding -latitudes to those of the chinchona forests. In the Neilgherries -the sites have been selected at the same altitudes as -those at which the plants are found in South America, but in -the Eastern Himalayas the localities must probably be chosen -upwards of a thousand feet lower for each species—the <i>C. -Condaminea</i> and its companions perhaps at 5000, and the -<i>C. succirubra</i> between 3000 and 4000 feet.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[Pg 514]</a></span></p> - -<p>From the sea-level to an elevation of 12,000 feet Sikkim -is covered with a dense forest, consisting of tall umbrageous -trees, often with dense grass jungle, and in other places -accompanied by a luxuriant undergrowth of shrubs. In the -tropical zone <i>Myrtaceæ</i>, <i>Leguminosæ</i>, and tree-ferns are common, -and the air is near saturation during a great part of the -year. <i>Vaccinia</i> are found at from 5000 to 8000, and snow -occasionally falls at 6000 feet. A sub-tropical vegetation -penetrates far into the interior along the banks of the great -rivers, and tree-ferns, rattans, plantains, and other tropical -plants are found at 5000 feet, in the Ratong valley.<a name="FNanchor_535_535" id="FNanchor_535_535"></a><a href="#Footnote_535_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a></p> - -<p>I should conjecture that the extreme limit for the growth -of the hardier species of chinchonæ, in Sikkim, will be found -where their constant companions the tree-ferns and <i>Vaccinia</i> -end, namely at 5000 feet; and that the best sites for such -species as <i>C. Calisaya</i> and <i>C. succirubra</i> are about 1000 to -2000 feet lower, amidst the sub-tropical vegetation of the -valleys.</p> - -<p>Bhotan, which adjoins Sikkim on the east, is a mountainous -district of much the same character. In its western part the -mountain ranges are lofty and rugged, and the river-courses -very deep and generally narrow. The climate is equable, and -the humidity of the winter appears to increase in the part -adjoining Sikkim. The steepness of the mountains, and the -influence of the elevated mass of the Khassya hills to the -south, make the lower slopes, which skirt the plains of Assam, -drier than those more to the eastward. Deep narrow valleys -carry a tropical vegetation very far into the interior of -Bhotan, among lofty mountains capped with almost perpetual -snow. These attract to themselves so much of the -moisture of the atmosphere, that the bottoms of the valleys -are comparatively dry and bare of forest. The flora resembles -that of Sikkim.<a name="FNanchor_536_536" id="FNanchor_536_536"></a><a href="#Footnote_536_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">[Pg 515]</a></span></p> - -<p>The Khassya hills in 25° N. lat. form an isolated mass, -rising up from the plains of Assam and Silhet to a height of -6000 feet. They rise abruptly from the plains of Silhet to -the south, and at 3000 feet tree vegetation ceases, and is succeeded -by a bleak stony region, with a temperate flora, up to -4000 feet, where the English station of Churra Poorji is built. -The table-land is here three miles long by two, to the eastward -flat and stony, and to the west undulating and hilly. -On the south there are rocky ridges of limestone. The southern -side of the hills is exposed to the full force of the monsoon, -and the rainfall is excessive, as much as 500 or 600 -inches annually. Further in the interior the fall is less, and -it gradually decreases until the valley of Assam is entered. -This great rainfall is attributable to the abruptness of the -mountains to the south, which face the Bay of Bengal, and are -separated from it by 200 miles of Jheels and Sunderbunds. -The heavy rains on the Khassya hills are quite local, as in -Silhet the fall is only 100 inches. The plateau presents a -bleak and inhospitable aspect, and there is not a tree, and -scarcely a shrub to be seen, except occasional clumps of -<i>Pandanus</i>. This desolation is caused by the furious gales of -wind, and the extraordinary amount of rain which washes off -the soil. The valleys are open, though with deep flanks, and -the hill-tops are broad. The grassy slopes to the north are -covered with clumps of shrubby vegetation, and the forests -are confined to sheltered localities. Though the rainfall on -the southern side is 600 inches, twenty miles inland it is -reduced to 200 inches. The mean annual temperature of -Churra Poorji is 66°, and in summer the thermometer rises -to 88° and 90°. To the westward of the Khassyas lie the -Garrows, which do not attain a greater height than 3000 to -4000 feet.<a name="FNanchor_537_537" id="FNanchor_537_537"></a><a href="#Footnote_537_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">[Pg 516]</a></span></p> - -<p>The flora of the Khassya hills bears a greater resemblance -to that of the hills in Southern India than to the Sikkim and -Bhotan types. Genera and species forming masses of shrubby -vegetation are identical with those of the Neilgherry <i>sholas</i>. -It is probable that chinchona-plantations, especially of <i>C. -succirubra</i>, might hereafter be formed advantageously on the -northern slopes of the Khassyas, but it is evident that the best -chances of success for the species growing at great altitudes, -in South America, are offered in the Himalayan districts of -Sikkim and Bhotan.</p> - -<p>With a view to the establishment of chinchona-plantations -in the Eastern Himalayas, plants have been forwarded by Mr. -McIvor to the Botanical Gardens at Calcutta. On January -19th, 1862, there were at Calcutta 91 plants of <i>C. succirubra</i>, -all except four supplied by Mr. McIvor; six of <i>C. Calisaya</i> -from Java, and 133 of "grey-bark" species, of which 106 were -supplied by Mr. McIvor, and twenty-seven were raised from -the original South American seeds. Altogether there were 230 -of the valuable species of Chinchonæ, besides fifty-nine of the -worthless <i>C. Pahudiana</i>. It is intended to commence a chinchona -plantation on the lower and outer range of Darjeeling -in Sikkim at once, with a propagating-house on the model of -Mr. McIvor's at Ootacamund; and afterwards to form a nursery -for species growing at lower elevations on the Khassya hills.</p> - -<p>There is another region in our Eastern dominions where -suitable localities may be found for the cultivation of chinchona-plants, -but it is as yet too little explored, and the difficulties -of obtaining supplies, labour, and transport would be -too great at present to allow of the possibility of forming -plantations for some years to come. I allude to the recently -formed province of Pegu. Dr. Brandis, the Conservator of -Forests in Pegu, reports that it will be preferable to delay -the introduction of chinchona-plants into that province, until -their cultivation shall have proved successful in other parts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">[Pg 517]</a></span></p> - -<p>In Pegu there are four great mountain ranges, running -parallel with the sea-coast, which separate the valleys of the -principal rivers. Commencing from the eastward, the first -range is the Arracan-Yomah, dividing Arracan from Pegu, -which is not higher than 4000 feet. The Pegu-Yomah, the -principal seat of the Pegu teak, which separates the valleys -of the Irrawaddy and the Sitang, only has a mean elevation -of 2000 feet. The third range consists of the Martaban and -Tenasserim coast-ranges, and barely attains a height of 5000 -feet. The fourth and most eastern range, forming the watershed -between the Sitang and Salween rivers, extends into the -large and compact mountain mass of Yoonzaleen, to the -south-east of Toungoo. The area of this lofty region is a -hundred square miles, and several peaks rise to a height of -7000 and 8000 feet above the sea. The rains are heavier on -these hills than on the adjacent plains, and the temperature -is much cooler and more uniform. The formation consists of -granite, gneiss, and quartzite. Up to 3000 feet the vegetation -is of a tropical character, at which elevation teak disappears, -and pines (<i>Pinus Khasyana</i>) begin, and go up to 5000 -feet on dry gravelly soil. There are plenty of small mountain -streams on these hills, with running water throughout the -year; and the valleys and slopes are covered with evergreen -forest.<a name="FNanchor_538_538" id="FNanchor_538_538"></a><a href="#Footnote_538_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a></p> - -<p>The Yoonzaleen hills are doubtless the best localities for -chinchona-plantations in Pegu, but as yet there are no facilities -for taking any steps with a view to the introduction of these -inestimable trees, which will hereafter be as great a blessing to -the fever-haunted jungles of Pegu as to those of India. The -Yoonzaleens are forty miles from the town of Toungoo, which -is at a distance of fifteen days of river navigation from Ran<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518">[Pg 518]</a></span>goon; -and until a Sanatarium is formed on those hills, or -some European settlers have established themselves there, it -will be useless to attempt the introduction of the chinchona-plants. -Before many years, however, it is to be hoped that -plantations on the Yoonzaleen hills will supply quinine-yielding -bark to the inhabitants of the plains of Pegu.</p> - -<p>In a former chapter I stated that I gave directions for the -transmission of a supply of seeds both of the "grey" and the -"red-bark" species to two of our West Indian islands—Trinidad -and Jamaica. In Trinidad they did not germinate, -but in Jamaica, under the watchful care of Mr. N. Wilson, -the Superintendent of the Botanical Gardens in that colony, -they came up plentifully. By the spring of 1861 Mr. Wilson -had a good stock of all the species in the gardens on the -sweltering plains, where the "grey-bark" species naturally -began to die off, but the <i>C. succirubra</i> plants were doing well, -and sixty of them were quite strong enough to be planted -out early in June. On the 4th of June, 1861, Mr. Wilson -removed 120 plants, 60 of <i>C. micrantha</i> and 60 of <i>C. nitida</i>, -to the foot of Catherine's Peak, which is 4000 feet above the -sea. Here he was obliged to leave them, as the Jamaica -Government had furnished him with no efficient assistant. -In November he reported that the plants of <i>C. succirubra</i> -were doing well, and by the latest accounts, dated March -24th, 1862, all the plants were thriving; but the chinchona -experiment is not likely to succeed in Jamaica, owing to the -listless apathy of the legislators of this colony. They have -taken no steps to supply Mr. Wilson with assistant-gardeners, -have allotted no land in suitable localities as sites for chinchona-plantations, -and have thus neglected to secure the -successful introduction of a product which would have enriched -the island, when the means of doing so were placed -gratuitously at their disposal by the Secretary of State for -India.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">[Pg 519]</a></span></p> - -<p>In our Eastern possessions the successful cultivation of -quinine-yielding plants in the hills of Southern India, in -Ceylon, and in the Eastern Himalayas, will undoubtedly be -productive of the most beneficial results. Commercially this -measure will add a very important article to the list of Indian -exports; the European community will be provided with a -cheap and constant supply of an article which, in tropical -climates, is to them a necessary of life; and the natives of -fever-haunted districts may everywhere have the inestimable -healing bark growing at their doors.</p> - -<p>It is impossible to exaggerate the blessings which the -introduction of chinchona-cultivation will confer upon India. -Since quinine has been extensively used among the troops in -India, there has been a steady diminution of mortality; and -whereas in 1830 the average per-centage of deaths to cases of -fever treated was 3.66, in 1856 it was only one per cent. in -a body of 18,000 men scattered from Peshawur to Pegu.<a name="FNanchor_539_539" id="FNanchor_539_539"></a><a href="#Footnote_539_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a> -The present measure will not only ensure a constant and -cheap supply of quinine to those who already enjoy its -benefits, but it will also bring its use within the means of -millions who have hitherto been unable to procure it. Many -lives will thus annually be saved by its agency. In former -ages its use would perhaps have changed the history of the -world. Alexander the Great died of the common remittent -fever of Babylon, merely from the want of a few doses of -quinine.<a name="FNanchor_540_540" id="FNanchor_540_540"></a><a href="#Footnote_540_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a> Oliver Cromwell was carried off by ague, and, -had Peruvian bark been administered to him, which was -even then known in London, the greatest and most patriotic -of England's rulers would have been preserved to -his country. In time to come the lives of men of equal -importance to their generation may be saved by its use, while -the blessings which it will confer on the great mass of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">[Pg 520]</a></span> -mankind, and especially on the inhabitants of tropical countries, -are incalculable. The introduction of chinchona-plants -into our Eastern possessions will be the most effective measure -which could have been adopted to ensure a permanent -and abundant supply of febrifugal bark; and a debt of -gratitude is, therefore, due from India to Lord Stanley, who -originated it, and to Sir Charles Wood, who has sanctioned -all the necessary arrangements, until this great enterprise has -finally been crowned with complete success. To Mr. Spruce, -as the most successful collector in South America, and to -Mr. McIvor, who has so ably and zealously conducted the -cultivation in India, the chief credit of having achieved so -important a result is due; but the author may be allowed -to express his deep satisfaction at having been one of the -labourers in this good work, where all have worked so -zealously.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig22.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption center">CANOE ON THE BEYPOOR RIVER.<br /> -<span class="smallish">See page 351.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521">[Pg 521]</a></span></p> - -<h2><a name="APPENDIX_A" id="APPENDIX_A"></a><span class="gesperrt">APPENDIX A.</span></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="h">GENERAL MILLER, AND THE FOREIGN OFFICERS WHO SERVED -IN THE PATRIOT ARMIES OF CHILE AND PERU, BETWEEN -1817 AND 1830.</p></blockquote> - - -<p><span class="smcap">When</span> the war of independence broke out in South America, many gallant -spirits were attracted from different countries of Europe to fight for liberty -and justice against Spanish oppression. Fired with enthusiasm for the -cause of liberty, these knights errant, many of whom had been distinguished -in the wars of Napoleon and Wellington, went forth to risk their -lives for an idea. That they were in earnest is proved by the fact that, -out of the whole number of sixty-seven, as many as twenty-five were killed -or drowned, and eighteen were wounded.</p> - -<p>In this band of brave adventurers, next perhaps to Lord Dundonald, the -late General Miller takes the most prominent place, as one of the ablest, the -truest, and the best. There is a halo of romance round all who joined in -this crusade for liberty; all passed through many strange adventures, and -did honour to the land from which they hailed; but the lamented old -warrior who went to his rest last year was pre-eminent amongst his -gallant companions, for his many acts of chivalrous daring and bravery.</p> - -<p>William Miller, a native of Kent, served in the British Field Train -Department of the Royal Artillery, during the Peninsular war, under Lord -Wellington. He was present at the sieges and storming of Ciudad Rodrigo, -Badajoz, and San Sebastian, at the battle of Vittoria, and investment of -Bayonne. He had charge of a company of Sappers and Miners in the -American war, was within a few yards of General Ross when he received -his death-wound near Baltimore, and was also present at the attack upon -New Orleans in 1814.</p> - -<p>In 1817, having been placed on half-pay, and tired of an inactive life, he -proceeded to South America, and offered his services in the war against -the Spaniards. He was appointed Captain of artillery by the Government -of the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, crossed the Andes into Chile, -and saved two pieces of artillery, under a heavy fire, at the battle of Talca, -in March 1818. In April he became a Major, and assisted with his regiment -at the declaration of Chilian independence on September 18th, 1818. -In 1819 he commanded the Marines in Lord Cochrane's squadron, and in -March an explosion of gunpowder, on the island of San Lorenzo, in Callao -Bay, shattered one of his hands to pieces, injured his face, and caused -blindness for many days. In October he was again at the head of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522">[Pg 522]</a></span> -men, leading them to victory at Pisco, when he was pierced by two balls, -one passing through his liver, and another through his breast. In -February 1820, though still weak and suffering from his former desperate -wounds, he headed the storming party in the boats, in the gallant attack -and capture of the forts of Valdivia in Chile, where he was again wounded -in the head; and in the subsequent attempt on Chiloe he received a ball -through his left groin, and a cannon-shot broke one of his feet. In May -1821 he landed in Peru, and defeated the Spaniards in the hard-fought -battle of Mirabe; in 1823 he conducted a most adventurous and romantic -campaign through the whole range of the deserts of Peru, from Arequipa to -Pisco, defeating the Spaniards, with greatly inferior numbers, on several -occasions; and in the same year he became General of Brigade.</p> - -<p>In May 1824 General Miller received the command of the Peruvian -cavalry of Bolivar's liberating army, and took a principal part in the victory -of Junin in the following August. Soon afterwards he assumed the command -of the whole of the cavalry of the liberating army, at the head of -which he charged, and routed the division of General Valdez in the -glorious battle of Ayacucho, at a most critical moment. This brilliant -action was fought on the 9th of December 1824, and decided the fate of -the war, the entire Spanish army of 10,000 men under General La Serna, -Viceroy of Peru, being utterly routed. In February 1825 he was Prefect -of Puno, and in April of Potosi; but in 1826 he returned to England on -leave of absence, to cure himself of his wounds, which still caused him -great suffering.</p> - -<p>After a stay of some years in England he returned to Peru in June 1830 -but, owing to the factious outbreaks in which he did not choose to take -part, he again obtained leave of absence in 1831, and visited many of the -islands of the Pacific Ocean, especially the Sandwich and Society groups, -of which he wrote a most interesting account; and only returned to Peru -after the constitutional election of General Orbegoso as President of the -Republic. In the early part of 1834 he served in a campaign against the -revolutionary chief Gamarra; and, though defeated at Huaylacucho, his -operations were on the whole successful, and he was promoted to the rank -of Grand Marshal of Peru on June 11th, 1834.</p> - -<p>In October 1834 he was appointed Military Governor of Arequipa, Puno, -and Cuzco; and it was at this time that he conceived the idea of forming a -military colony in the valleys to the eastward of Cuzco, on the banks of -some of the tributaries of the great river Purus. In March 1835, while on -the point of setting out on an exploring expedition, a revolution broke out -in Cuzco, and he was arrested by Colonel Lopera. He was, however, -allowed to set out on his expedition, with two companions and seven -Indians. He penetrated on foot to a greater distance to the eastward of -Cuzco, on this occasion, than has ever been done before or since.</p> - -<p>In September 1835 he again placed himself under the orders of the Constitutional -President Orbegoso, and in February 1836 he captured Salaverry -and eighty officers of his revolutionary army by a very clever stratagem,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">[Pg 523]</a></span> -near Islay. Shortly afterwards Santa Cruz established the Peru-Bolivian -Confederation, and General Miller was sent as Minister Plenipotentiary to -Ecuador, where he signed a treaty of peace and amity between that Republic -and the Confederation. In August 1837 he became Governor of Callao, -when all customs duties were reduced one half, smuggling ceased, and the -receipts were soon quadrupled. He organized an efficient police; made a -subterraneous aqueduct 3 feet wide, 3½ deep, and 280 yards long, for -supplying Callao with water; commenced the erection of a college; and -formed a tramway for the conveyance of goods from the mole to the -custom-house. The people of Callao still look back with satisfaction and -gratitude to the period when General Miller was their Governor.</p> - -<p>In February 1839, on the overthrow of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, -General Miller was banished with many other able and distinguished men, -whose names were taken off the army list by a decree dated in the following -March. This unjust and illegal act was cancelled by a law of Congress -dated October 1847.</p> - -<p>After leaving Peru in 1839, General Miller was appointed in 1843 -H. M. Commissioner and Consul-General for the Islands in the Pacific. In -1859 he revisited Chile and Peru, partly for his health, and partly to -obtain the payment of his large arrears from the Government. When he -arrived in Peru the Vice-President Mar, while the President, General -Castilla, was absent at Guayaquil in 1859, reinstated him on the army list -of Peru, by a decree dated December 9th, the anniversary of the battle of -Ayacucho, and granted him his current pay as a Grand Marshal of Peru, -and he continued to reside at Lima until his death on the 31st of October -1861. It is satisfactory to be able to record, for the honour of the Peruvian -nation, that the whole of his claims were acknowledged in Congress in a -most handsome way, and without a dissentient voice. But unfortunately the -executive in Peru is still able to set the laws passed by the representatives -of the people at defiance; delays and evasions were resorted to by Castilla, -and the last days of one from whom Peru had perhaps received as valuable -services as from any of her own sons, were embittered by the treatment -which he experienced from the President of the Republic.</p> - -<p>General Miller was a man of whom England may well be proud. He -was one of those characters who combine great ability and extraordinary -daring, almost amounting to rashness, with modesty and diffidence. If -there was any fault to be found in any part of General Miller's former -career, in the camp or in the cabinet, it would be from himself that it -would first be heard. To his bravery and prowess, his body riddled -with bullets, and the history of South American independence, bear testimony; -to his administrative ability the gratitude of the people of Callao -and Cuzco is the witness; his pure standard of honour, his scrupulous -integrity, his warmth of heart, and single-mindedness are known to a -wide circle of sorrowing friends; but of his numerous acts of self-denial -and charity few can tell, for he was one who let not his left hand know -what his right hand did.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524">[Pg 524]</a></span></p> - -<p>In person he was more than six feet high, and when young he was -remarkably handsome; his features and shape of the head being of a -thoroughly English type. In society he was exceedingly agreeable to the -last; his conversation was always interesting, and often very instructive; -and there was a peculiarly gentle and winning expression in his eyes. He -took a deep interest in the attempt to introduce chinchona cultivation into -India, and I was indebted to him for much valuable advice, and for many -letters of introduction which were of great service to me. He also supplied -me with most of the material which has enabled me to write the narrative -of the insurrection of Tupac Amaru, the last of the Incas, forming the -ninth chapter of the present work.</p> - -<p>His memoirs, published by his brother many years ago, give by far the -fullest and most interesting account of the war of independence in Chile -and Peru, though the work of Garcia Camba, a Spanish general, is the -best military history.</p> - -<p>General Miller breathed his last on board H.M.S. 'Naiad' in Callao -Bay, on the 31st of October 1861; and the remains of the gallant old -warrior were interred in the cemetery at Bella Vista, with all the honours -which the Peruvian Government could bestow. While the body was -being embalmed, two bullets were found in it, and twenty-two wounds -were counted on different parts of his frame. The most gratifying incident -on the occasion was that the people of Callao, who had never forgotten the -good he had done them as their Governor, insisted on carrying the coffin.</p> - -<p>One of the last things on which General Miller was employed was the -compilation of the list of his brave companions in arms. Such a list, I -believe, has never appeared before; and as the employment interested and -amused him during a time of much harassing annoyance, it gives me great -pleasure to be able to insert it here, in order that his labour may not have -been entirely in vain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<blockquote> - -<p class="h">A <span class="smcap">List</span> of Foreign Officers, Europeans (not Spaniards) and North -Americans, who served in the patriot armies in Chile and -Peru, between the years 1817 and 1830, showing the killed, -wounded, and not wounded.</p> - -<p class="c s">[The rank specified is that which each officer held when killed, or in 1830.]</p></blockquote> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Killed.</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Major-Gen. Frederic Brandsen</span> (French).—Served on the staff of -the French army under Prince Eugène. Killed at the battle of Ituzaingo, -Feb. 20, 1827.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Major-Gen. James Whittle</span> (Irish).—Was present at the battles of -Junin and Ayacucho. Killed in suppressing the mutiny of a battalion -near Quito in 1830.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525">[Pg 525]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Colonel Charles O'Carrol</span> (Irish).—Served in the British and -Spanish armies in the Peninsula. Killed in an encounter with the Araucanians -at Pangal in 1831.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Colonel William Ferguson</span> (Irish).—Present at the battles of Junin -and Ayacucho. Killed in defending General Bolivar from assassins at -Bogota on September 25th, 1828.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Colonel Peter Raulet</span> (French).—Was a cornet in the French cavalry -at Badajoz, when that place was taken by storm on April 6th, 1812, -and remained a prisoner of war in Scotland until the peace of 1814. Married -and left children in South America. Killed at the battle of the -Portete, Feb. 27th, 1829.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Colonel William de Vic Tupper</span> (Guernsey).—Married and left -children in the country. Killed at the battle of Sircay, April 17th, -1830.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut.-Col. James A. Charles</span> (English.)—Served in the Brigade -Royal Artillery, and joined the Lusitanian Legion under the late General -Sir Robert Wilson in Portugal in 1808. Upon Sir Robert being appointed -Military Commissioner with the Russian army, he served as his aide-de-camp -in the campaigns of Russia and Germany, and received the crosses of -St. George of Russia, of Merit of Prussia, and of Maria Theresa of Austria. -Killed in the action of Pisco on November 7th, 1819.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut.-Col. Charles Sowersby</span> (German).—Killed in the action of -Junin, August 6th, 1824.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Major William Gumer</span> (German).—Killed at the battle of Ica, April -7th, 1822.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Major Thomas Duxbury</span> (English).—Present at the battle of Junin. -Killed in the affair at Matara, Dec. 3rd, 1824.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain Quitospi</span> (Russian).—Killed in an encounter with the Araucanians -on the Bio-Bio, 1818.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain Joseph Borne</span> (Irish).—Married, and left children in the -country. Killed in an encounter at Arauco, May 1820.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain John B. Gola</span> (French).—Killed in an encounter at San -Carlos, 1821.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain Robert Bell</span> (English).—Killed at the battle of Sircay, April -17th, 1830.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut. Charles Eldredge</span> (U.S.).—Killed at the assault of Talcahuano, -December 6th, 1817.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut. Ernest Bruix</span> (French), son of Admiral Bruix.—Killed in an -encounter with the Araucanians on the Bio-Bio, January 1819.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut. —— Gerard</span> (Scotch).—Killed at the battle of Cancha-rayada, -March 19th, 1818.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut. Le Bas</span> (French).—Killed in the affair of Biobamba, April 22nd, -1822.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_526" id="Page_526">[Pg 526]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut. Chris. Martin</span> (English).—Killed near Ayacucho in 1824.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Cornet Danviette</span> (French).—Killed in an encounter at Caucato near -Pisco, in 1822.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Surgeon William Welsh</span> (Scotch).—Killed in the action of Mirabe, -on May 21st, 1821.</p> - -</blockquote> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Total Killed</span> .. .. 21.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Wounded.</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut.-Gen. Wm. Miller</span> (English).—(See ante.)</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Major-Gen. Francis B. O'Connor</span> (Irish).—Brother to the late Fergus -O'Connor. Was for some time Chief of the Staff of the Liberating Army, and -was present at the battles of Junin and Ayacucho; was wounded at Rio de -la Hacha in 1820. He is now residing on his estate at Tarija, in Bolivia. -Married and has children in the country.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Major-Gen. Arthur Sands</span> (Irish).—Wounded at the battle of -Pantano de Bargas, July 25, 1819. Was present at the battles of Junin -and Ayacucho. Died at Cuenca in 1832.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Major-Gen. Daniel F. O'Leary</span> (Irish).—Wounded at Pantano de -Bargas. He was Aide-de-Camp to General Bolivar in Columbia and Peru, -and subsequently H.B.M. Chargé d'Affaires and Consul General at Bogota, -where he died in 1854, having married and left children in the country.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Major-Gen. Philip Braun</span> (German).—Present at the battle of -Ayacucho. He was wounded at Junin, August 6th, 1824. He married in -the country, and now resides in Bolivia.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Colonel George Beauchef</span> (French).—Was at the battles of Austerlitz, -Jena, Marengo, and Friedland. Wounded at the assault upon Talcahuano, -December 6th, 1817. Died in Chile 1840, having married and left -children in the country.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut.-Col. Edward Guitekue</span> (German).—Wounded in the action of -Pisco, November 7, 1819. Died in Chile 1857. Married and left children -in the country.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut.-Col. Eugène Giroust</span> (French).—Wounded at the cutting-out -of the 'Esmeralda' under the fortresses of Callao, Nov. 5th, 1820. Was page -to King Jerome; served in the French Horse Artillery; was made prisoner -at the crossing of the Beresina, and sent to Siberia. Married in Peru, and -is now residing at Lima.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain Philip Marguti</span> (Italian).—Wounded at the battle of Maypo, -April 5th, 1818. Died in Chile 1848.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain Henry Ross</span> (U.S.).—Wounded at the battle of Yerbas-buenas, -March 31st, 1813. Died in Chile.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_527" id="Page_527">[Pg 527]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain George Brown</span> (English).—Present at the battle of Junin. -Wounded at Ayacucho, Dec. 9th, 1824.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain James Lister</span> (English).—Wounded in the affair of Rio -Hacha in 1820. Died at St. John's, New Brunswick.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain Henry Hind</span> (English).—Wounded in an attack on Callao, -Oct. 2nd, 1819. Since dead.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain W. Kennedy</span> (Jamaica).—Wounded in an encounter at Rio -Cuarto, where both his eyes were shot out in 1821. Died some years afterwards -in the United States.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain Danl. L. V. Carson</span> (U. S.).—Wounded at the assault upon -Talcahuano, Dec. 6th, 1817. Married and left children in the country. -Died in Chile.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain Henry Wyman</span> (English).—Present at the battle of Junin; -wounded at Ayacucho in 1824. Is now residing in England. Married in -South America.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut. John Heldes</span> (German).—Wounded at the battle of Cancha-rayada, -March 19th, 1818. Since dead.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut. James Lindsay</span> (English).—Belonged to the expedition under -General Beresford. Wounded at the battle of Maypo, April 5th, 1818. -Married and left children in the country.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="c"> -<span class="smcap">Total Wounded</span> .. .. 18. -</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Not Wounded.</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut.-Gen. Michael Brayer</span> (French).—Was present at the assault of -Talcahuano, Dec. 6th, 1817, and in the battle of Cancha-rayada, March -19th, 1818. He then returned to France, was reinstated in his former -rank of General of Division, and was created a Peer of France.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Major-Gen. James Paroissien</span> (English).—Was Surgeon-General to -the Buenos-Ayrean army under General Belgrano in 1814, and to the -army of the Andes, under General San Martin, at the battles of Chacabuco, -Feb. 12th, 1817, and Maypo, April 5th, 1818. Was appointed Aide-de-Camp -to General San Martin, and became Major-General in 1821. Associated -with M. Garcia del Rio, proceeded from Lima to Europe on a political -mission in 1822, returned to Peru in 1825, and died on his passage from -Callao to Valparaiso in 1826.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Colonel John O'Brien</span> (Irish).—Served at the siege and taking of -Montevideo and campaign in the Banda Oriental in 1814; was Aide-de-Camp -to General San Martin in the battles of Chacabuco and Maypo; -withdrew from active service while with the army in Peru in 1822. Joined -General Santa Cruz a short time previous to the battle of Yanacocha, at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_528" id="Page_528">[Pg 528]</a></span> -which he was present, August 12th, 1835. He became a Major-General, -and died in 1861.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Colonel Belford H. Wilson</span> (English).—Son of the late General Sir -Robert Wilson; was Aide-de-Camp to General Bolivar from 1823 to 1830; -subsequently H.B.M. Chargé d'Affaires and Consul General at Lima and -at Caraccas. Was appointed a K.C.B. Died in London in 1858.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Colonel Albert B. d'Alve</span> (French).—Son of the French General of -the same name. Served in the campaigns in Spain and Russia, 1809 and -1813, and was at the battle of Waterloo in 1815. Died at Valparaiso 1821. -Married and left children in the country.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Colonel Benjamin Viel</span> (French).—Served in the French army encamped -at Boulogne in 1804, and commanded a squadron of cavalry at the -battle of Waterloo 1815. Is now a Major-General in Chile.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Colonel Joseph Rondisoni</span> (Italian).—Is now a Major-General in Chile.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Colonel Clement Althaus</span> (German).—Was present at the battle of -Junin. Became a Major-General and died at La Concepcion in Peru, -having married and left children in the country.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Colonel Salvador Soyer</span> (French).—Was Commissary to the navy, -afterwards Aide-de-Camp to General Gamarra, and for some time charged -with the Ministry of War. Married and left children in the country. Died -at Lima.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut.-Col. Lewis Crammer</span> (French).—Retired from the army 1818; -was afterwards murdered with his wife and family by the Patagonian -Indians.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut.-Col. Alexis Bruix</span> (French).—Son of Admiral Bruix; was -page to Napoleon I. Was present at the battle of Junin. Was killed by -accident at Lima in 1825.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut.-Col. Charles Wood</span> (English).—Married and left children in -Chile. Died in England while on leave of absence in 1856.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Major Michael O'Carrol</span> (Irish).—Died in Chile in 1839, having -married and left children in the country.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain William Smith</span> (English).</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain Miller Hallowes</span> (English).—Was present at the battles of -Junin and Ayacucho. Married and resides in the United States.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain William Harris</span> (Irish).—Is now living at Cuenca, in Ecuador.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain John Rodriguez</span> (English).—Married and left children in the -country. Died at Callao.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Captain Robert Young</span>.—Belonged to the 71st under General Beresford. -Died in Chile.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut. Maguan</span> (French).—Retired in 1818, and was subsequently -killed in a duel in France.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Lieut. Count Lucien Brayer</span> (French).—Served as Aide-de-Camp -to his father, General Brayer, in Chile.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_529" id="Page_529">[Pg 529]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Staff-Surgeon Thomas Foley</span> (Irish).—Dead.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Staff-Surgeon Charles Moore</span> (English).—Present at Junin. Dead.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Staff-Surgeon Hugh Blair</span> (Irish).—Dead.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Staff-Surgeon Michael Crawley</span> (Scotch).—Dead, Sub-prefect of -Lampa, under General Santa Cruz, in 1837.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="c"> -Total .. .. .. 24. -</p> - -<blockquote> -<p class="ht">Drowned at sea off Chiloe, in 1823, while prisoners of war on board a -Spanish privateer.—Major Soulange (French); Captain W. Hill (English); -Captain Robert Hannah (English); and Lieut. Saint Amarand (French).</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Abstract.</span></p> - - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Total of</td><td class="tdl"> killed</td><td class="tdr">21</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">wounded</td><td class="tdr">18</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">drowned</td><td class="tdr">4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">not wounded</td><td class="tdr">24</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr bt bb">67</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<blockquote> -<p class="ht"><i>Note.</i>—Admiral George Martin Guise, Captain George O'Brien, Lieut. -Bayley, and others killed; Admiral Thomas Lord Cochrane, Commodore -(now General) Thomas Charles Wright, and others wounded; are not -included in the foregoing list, because they belonged to the Patriot Navy.</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_530" id="Page_530">[Pg 530]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="APPENDIX_B" id="APPENDIX_B"></a><span class="gesperrt">APPENDIX B.</span></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="h">BOTANICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF THE GENUS CHINCHONA, AND -OF THE SPECIES OF CHINCHONÆ NOW GROWING IN -INDIA AND CEYLON.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="c"><i>From Weddell, Howard's Pavon, Spruce, and Karsten.</i></p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">CHINCHONA.</p> - -<p class="c">(<i>From Weddell's 'Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas,'</i> p. 17.)</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><i>Calyx</i> tubo turbinato, cum ovario connato, pubescente; limbo supero, 5-dentato, -persistente; dentibus in præfloratione valvatis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Corolla</i> hypocrateriformis, tubo tereti vel subpentagono, in angulis baseos -nonnunquam fisso, intus glabro vel rarissime pilosiusculo; limbo 5-fido: -laciniis lanceolatis, intus glabris, margine piloso-barbatis (pilis claviformibus -lanatis) extus tuboque pubescentibus, æstivatione valvatis, explicatis -patulo-recurvis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stamina</i> 5, corollæ laciniis alterna, glabra; filamentis inferno tubo -insertis, adnatis; antheris linearibus, inclusis vel apice subexsertis, bilocularibus, -introrsis, imo dorso affixis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Ovarium</i> disco carnoso, pulviniformi, obsolete 5-vel 10-tuberculato -coronatum.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Ovula</i> numerosa, in placentis linearibus dissepimento utrinque affixis -peltata, imbricata, anatropa.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stylus</i> simplex, glaber, stigma bifidum, in tubo corollino latens vel -subexsertum.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Capsula</i> ovata oblonga vel lineari-lanceolata, utrinque sulcata, limbo -calycis coronata, lævis vel obscure costata, glabra pubescensve, bilocularis, -polysperma, septicide a basi ad apicem dehiscens, valvulis sejunctis, pedicello -simul longitrorsum fisso.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Semina</i> plurima in placentis angulato-alatis denique liberis peltatim -affixa, sursum imbricata, compressa, nucleo oblongo ala membranacea -margine denticulata ex toto ambitu cincto.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Embryo</i> in axi albuminis carnosi rectus; cotyledonibus ovatis integris; -radicula tereti, infera.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_531" id="Page_531">[Pg 531]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Arbores</i> vel <i>frutices</i> sempervirentes, vallium Andinarum intertropicalium -inter 10° lat. Sept. et 19° lat. Austr. altitudineque 1200-3270 metr. -supra Oceani ripas incolæ; trunco ramisque teretibus; ramulis sæpius subtetragonis, -cicatrices foliorum stipularumque delapsorum monstrantibus, -harumce vestigiis in ramis adultis etiam conspicuis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Cortex</i> amarus, Quinina et Chinchonina fœtus. <i>Peridermis</i> varia: modo -tenuissima valde adhærens, e solo <i>subere</i> confecta; modo incrassata et stratis -squamiformibus, e parenchymate cellulari librove externo constantibus -formata, natura frustulatim aliquando secedens, cæterum arte haud ægre -solubilis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Lignum</i> albidum, demum flavescens, e stratis concentricis pro arboris -ætate numero variis, radiisque medullaribus secundum caulis longitudinem -singulariter protractis constans; cellulæ enim quibus isti conflantur hic -horizontaliter extenduntur sicutique in radiis vulgo notis lateriformes -seriem plerumque triplicem agunt, illic vero præter normam longitrorsum -summopere protractæ seriem simplicem exhibent; quapropter radii in -trunco nudato (adempto cortice) inspecti lineas exiles hinc et illinc brevi -spatio ellipticeque dilatatas effingunt. Vasa porosa approximata, seriebus -continuis simplicibus ordinata.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Medulla</i> ramorum vulgo tetragona.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Folia</i> opposita, integerrima, decrescenti-venosa, petiolata, glabra varie -pubescentia vel tomentosa, planiuscula aut margine leviter revoluta; axillis -venarum venularumque paginæ inferioris in nonnullis speciebus scrobiculatis; -scrobiculis simplicissimis, vacuis aut succum adstringentem -sudantibus. Epidermidis cellulæ, paginæ superioris præsertim, ambitu -vulgo sinuosæ, in quibusdam speciebus humore translucido tumidæ, particulas -foventes innumeras innatantes, oculo armato mirantique motu rapido -quasi vitali trepidantes.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Petiolus</i> limbo brevior, semicylindricus, subtus convexus, supra planus -vel subcanaliculatus, rarissime in foliis arboris junioris teres.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stipulæ</i> interpetiolares plerumque liberæ citoque deciduæ vel basi leviter -connatæ, intus ad basim glandulis minutis lanceolatis crebre consitæ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Flores</i> interdum fortuitu 4 vel 6-meri, cymoso-paniculati, albi vel -sæpius carnei aut purpurascentes, mire fragrantes; paniculis terminalibus, -ramulis pedicellisque basi bracteatis.</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532">[Pg 532]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="c">CHINCHONA CONDAMINEA.</p> - -<p class="c">(<i>From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,'</i> No. i.)</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig23.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Capsules and parts of the flower of Chinchona Chahuarguera.</span><br /> -<span class="smallish">(<i>Magnified and natural size.</i>)</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Chinchona Chahuarguera.</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Chinchona Chahuarguera.</span>—Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, lanceolatis, -oblongis ovato-lanceolatisque, undulatis, acuminatis acutisque, pedunculis -paniculatis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Arbor</i> 3-4 orgyalis, comâ, frondosâ ramosissimâ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Truncus</i> solitarius, erectus, cortice fusco aspero maculis cinereis indutus, -rimis longitudinalibus transversalibusque.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Lignum</i> compactum, durum.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Rami</i> erecti, teretes, cortice extus nigrescente, intus pallido cinnamomeo.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Ramuli</i> subteretes, asperi, rimacei, colore ferrugineo-roseo.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Folia</i> opposita, petiolata, lanceolata, oblonga ovato-lanceolataque, acuminata -acutaque, utrinque glabra, subtus nervosa, venosa, integerrima, -undulata, marginibus revolutis, glandulis subtus concavis rotundis villosis, -ad sinus nervorum ortum insertis, supra prominentibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Foliola</i> floralia opposita, petiolata, parva, ovata ovaliaque, glabra, marginibus -revolutis, nervis centralibus purpureis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Petioli</i> teretes, purpurei.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stipulæ</i> duæ oppositæ, supra-axillares, sessiles, ovatæ, integerrimæ, acuminatæ, -basi cohærentes, nervo centrali prominente, marginibus revolutis, -deciduæ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Pedunculi</i> communes, terminales, axillaresque, subtetragoni, partiales -pubescentes, bracteolis oppositis subulatis ad pedicellorum basim, pedicellis -pubescentibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Pedicelli</i> bracteolis subulatis, solitariis ad basim.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Calyx</i> rosaceus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Corolla</i> dilute purpurea, extus pubescens, laciniis reflexis supra villoso-tomentosis, -villis albicantibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">[Pg 533]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Antheræ</i> fauce parum exsertæ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Capsula</i> ovalis oblongaque, purpurea (nonnullæ capsulæ ventricosæ), -bilocularis, bivalvis, valvulis basi dehiscentibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Habitat</i> in collibus Santa Rosa nominatis, situ Huancocolla appellata, -ditione Vilcobamba, Loxa provinciâ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Floret</i> Maio, Junio, Julio, et Augusto.</p> - -<p class="ht">Varietas Prima, <i>Cascarilla amarilla fina del Rey</i>. Varietas Secunda? -<i>Cascarilla colorada fina del Rey.</i> Varietas Tertia? <i>Cascarilla crespilla -negra.</i></p> - -</blockquote> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">(<i>From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,'</i> No. vii.)</p> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Chinchona Uritusinga.</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Chinchona Uritusinga.</span>—Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, lanceolatis; pedunculis -axillaribus terminalibusque, paniculato-corymbosis, trifidis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Arbor</i> 20-ulnaris et ultra.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Lignum</i> compactum, luteo colore.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Truncus</i> solitarius, erectus, teres, crassus, fuscus, nonnullis maculis -nigris obsitus, <i>comâ</i> frondosâ, valde ramosâ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Cortex</i> scaber, fuscus, maculis nigris fuscis et albicantibus, rimis transversalibus. -<i>Color</i> intus luteus, amarissimus, acidulus, non ingratus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Rami</i> erecto-patentes, teretes; superiores brachiati, complanati, leviter -pubescentes, dilute fusci.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Ramuli</i> utrinque sulcati.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Folia</i> opposita, petiolata, lanceolata, integerrima, acuta, supra glaberrima, -nervosa, venosa, subtus per nervos et venas villosiuscula; nervis -alternis, rarius oppositis; marginibus revolutis; <i>tenerrima</i> subtus hirsuta; -<i>glandulis</i> minimis, rotundatis, subtus concavis, circum villis albicantibus -ad nervorum ortum insertis, supra prominentibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Petioli</i> teretes, supra canaliculati, glabri, subtus hirsuti, basi incrassati.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stipulæ</i> duæ, oppositæ, interfoliaceæ, supra-axillares, ovatæ, acutæ, -erectæ, integerrimæ, cauli appressæ, pubescentes, deciduæ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Pedunculi communes</i> axillares terminalesque, trifidi, obtusi tetragoni, -paniculato-subcorymbosi, hirsuti, solitarii, erecti, complanati, foliis breviores; -<i>partiales</i> hirsuti, tri-septemflori trifidique; bracteolis duabus, -oppositis, minimis, ovatis, acutis, concavis, rubris, ad basim insertis, persistentibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Pedicelli</i> teretes, breves, pubescentes; bracteolis solitariis, minimis, ovatis, -acutis, persistentibus, ad basim et in medio insertis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Flores</i> nonnulli sessiles.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Calyx</i> campanulatus, ruber, glaber, in fructu ampliatus, denticulis retroflexis -persistens.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Corolla</i> albo-rosacea, extus pubescens. <i>Tubus</i> intus glaber. <i>Limbus</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_534" id="Page_534">[Pg 534]</a></span> -quinque-partitus, patens; laciniis villoso-tomentosis; villis albicantibus, -densis, longiusculis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Capsula</i> oblonga, angusta, striata, striis longitudinalibus prominentibus -utrinque sulcata, lævis, calyce crescente ampliato coronata, denticulis -retroflexis, bilocularis, bivalvis, basi dehiscens.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Semina</i> minima, fulva, alâ obovatâ leviter lacerâ albo-pallescente circumdata. -<i>Receptaculum</i> lineare.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Habitat</i> prope Loxa in collibus Cajanuma, Uritusinga, Boqueron, Villonaco, -Huancabamba, et Ayavaca.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Floret</i> Maio, Junio, Julio, et Augusto.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Vulgo</i> "Cascarilla Fina."</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Chinchona Crispa</span> (<i>Tafalla</i>).</p> - -<p class="c">(<i>From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia de Pavon.'</i>)</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Chinchona Crispa.</span> <i>Quina fina de Loja</i>, <i>Cascarilla crespilla buena</i>, -<i>Quina Carrasqueña</i>, Tafalla M.S. sec. Ruiz in M.S. Compendio, Mus. Brit.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>C. Condaminea.</i> H. et B. specimen florif. in pl. x. Pl. Equin. exclus. -specim. fructif. et descriptione.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>C. Chahuarguera</i>, varietas (tertia). Pavon, Nueva Quinologia.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig24.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Capsule and parts of the flower of Chinchona Succirubra.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p class="c">CHINCHONA SUCCIRUBRA.</p> - -<p class="c">(<i>From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,'</i> <i>No.</i> iii.)</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Chinchona Succirubra.</span>—Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, ovatis ovalibusque; -petiolis nervisque rubicundis, glabris, nitidis; pedunculis racemoso-paniculatis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_535" id="Page_535">[Pg 535]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Arbor</i> 6-7 orgyalis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Truncus</i> solitarius, erectus; aliquoties duo tresve ex eadem radice repullulant. -<i>Coma</i> frondosa ramosaque. <i>Lignum</i> compactum.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Cortex</i> fuscus, nonnullis maculis albicantibus; rimis transversalibus horizontalibusque.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Rami</i> erecti, nonnulli horizontales, teretes, <i>teneri</i> pubescentes.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Folia</i> opposita, petiolata, ovata ovaliaque, integerrima, acumine brevissimo, -nonnulla subrotunda, glabra, superne parum nitida, nervosa, venosa, -venis reticulatis, nervis venisque villosis, tenuia marginibus retroflexis. -<i>Folia superiora</i>, floralia petiolata, lanceolata, nonnulla sublinearia.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Petioli</i> subteretes, basi crassiores, pubescentes, rubicundi sicuti nervi.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stipulæ</i> duæ, interfoliaceæ, supra-axillares, oppositæ, subamplexicaules, -oblongæ, sessiles, integerrimæ, parum concavæ, cauli appressæ, deciduæ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Pedunculi</i> communes, axillares terminalesque, racemoso-paniculati, pubescentes. -<i>Partiales</i> oppositi alternique, pubescentes.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Pedicelli</i> bracteolis lanceolato-subulatis, parvis, concavis, deciduis, ad -basim et in medio rubicundo.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Flores</i> pedicellati, nonnulli sessiles.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Corolla</i> rubicunda, marginibus laciniarum ciliatis, villis albicantibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Capsula</i> oblonga, parum incurva, immatura rubicunda, bivalvis, basi -hians. <i>Receptaculum</i> lanceolatum.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Semina</i> alis dilaceratis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Habitat</i> ad radices collium, ad declivia Sancti Antonii, in via ad -Huaranda Provinciæ Quitensis, locis frigidis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Floret</i> Julio et Augusto.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Vulgo.</i> <i>Cascarilla Colorada.</i></p> - -<p class="ht">In arborum corticumque amputatione, succum lacteum primum profluit; -postea, in colorem intense rubicundum transmutatur, unde <i>Cascarilla -Colorada</i> nomen oritur.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Chinchona Succirubra</i> (Pavon MSS.) arborea; ramis teretibus; ramulis -obtuso-angulatis flavido-pubescentibus; foliis membranaceis magnis latissime -ovatis petiolatis, utrinque brevissime attenuatis, supra saturate viridibus -glabris subnitidis, subtus pallide viridibus puberulis, ad costam -nervosque primarios pubescentibus; petiolis semiteretibus puberulis, supra -canaliculatis; stipulis oblongis obtusis carinatis subpuberulis caducis; -floribus congestis in paniculam terminalem interruptam dispositis; ramis -floriferis pedunculatis pubescentibus erectis compressis trichotomo-ramosis, -inferioribus foliosis superioribus bracteatis; bracteis subpersistentibus oblongo-linearibus, -extus subpubescentibus carinatis basi attenuatis; calycibus -turbinatis, basi bracteola minuta suffultis, tubo dense albido pubescente, -limbo cupulari quinque-dentato rubescente sparsim pubescente, dentibus -brevibus latis acutis, dorso carinatis; corollis hypocraterimorphis brevissime -pubescentibus, tubo inferne attenuato, limbo quinquefido, laciniis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_536" id="Page_536">[Pg 536]</a></span> -ovatis acutis, intus longe (ad siccam) luteo-barbatis; staminibus subinclusis -glabris; stylo versus basim attenuato; stigmate bipartito incluso.</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">(<i>From Spruce's Report, p. 104, described from fresh specimens.</i>)</p> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Chinchona succirubra</span>, Pavon.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><i>Hab.</i>—In sylvis primævis cordilleræ occidentalis Andium Quitensium -præcipue ad radices montis nivosi <i>Chimborazo</i>, alt. 2000-5000 ped. -Angl. (610-1520 metr.) supra mare.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Descr.</i>—<i>Arbor</i> pulcherrima, 50-80 pedalis; caudice recto circumferentiâ -4-usque ad 10-pedali; comâ symmetricâ elongatâ, ramis infimis longioribus -deinde superioribus sensim decrescentibus paraboloideâ, vel ramis -infimis iis proxime sequentibus sub-brevioribus ovoideâ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Cortex</i>, caudicis ubi lichenibus non obvelatus est fusco-badius, haud -profunde longitudinaliter rimosus, demum etiam rimulis transversalibus -fissus; ramulorum annotinorum rufescens, novellorum e viridi cinerascens -secus apicem rubescens.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Succus</i> ecoloratus, cortice autem inciso, in lucem aeremque susceptus -exinde sæpius albescit, postea sensim albescit.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Rami</i> decussati, angulo 50°-80° adscendentes, teretes, e foliorum stipularumque -cicatricibus annulati; novelli tamen tetragoni foliosi fragiles -succosi, pube brevi deciduâ densiuscule vestiti.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Folia</i> opposita decussata, cujusque ramuli 4-6 paribus contemporalibus, -cujusque paris inter se subæqualia raro valde inæqualia, sæpe perfecte -ovalia, secus paniculas ovato-ovalia, raro rotundato-ovalia, basi in petiolum -sensim abrupteve attenuata, apice abrupte acuta vel levissime acuminata -rarius rotundata, nitida subcoriacea (fragilissima tamen) læte viridia ad -luteum potius quam ad cæruleum vergentia, ætate tota sanguinea, suprà -sparse decidue puberula et inter venas plus minus bullato-elevata, subtus -pubescentia, raro in utraque facie glabrata; venis 11-12 cujusque lateris, -angulo 56°-59° cum costâ tereti (siccando complanatâ) efformantibus, -subtus prominulis, a costâ ultrà, medium rectis dein sensim incurvantibus -et prope marginem anastomosantibus; petiolo tereti, e folii laminâ decurrente -suprà lineis duabus parum elevatis percurso, tomentello. Folia -ramulorum tenuiorum nonnunquam ovali- vel etiam obovato-lanceolata.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stipulæ</i> interpetiolares deciduæ erecto-patulæ ligulato-oblongæ obtusæ ad -costam carinatæ, basi subventricosæ superne explanatæ, reticulato-venosæ, -sub-puberulæ, juniores pallide virides, adultiores basi roseæ vel etiam totæ -sanguineæ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Pedunculi</i> ex axillis foliorum superiorum minorum lanceolatorum (v. -etiam ad bracteas lineari-lanceolatas subulatasve redactorum) orti, subinde -paniculam elongatam pedalem vel etiam sesquipedalem efformantes, tomentosi, -bis terve decussatum pinnati dein trichotomi; divisionibus basi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_537" id="Page_537">[Pg 537]</a></span> -bracteatis sæpe indistincte oppositis v. plane alternis. <i>Pedicelli</i> calycesque -basi bracteolis minutis rigidis sanguineis ovato-lanceolatis basi utrinque -unidentatis suffulti.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Calyx</i> parvus dense appresso-puberulus; <i>tubus</i> subturbinato-hemisphæricus; -<i>limbus</i> cupulatus fere ad medium usque in lobos 5 lato-triangulares -carinatos, apicibus sinubusque acutis, fissus, pubescens raro subglabratus, -persistens.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Corolla</i> calycem fere 5-ies excedens, extus dense puberula, ante anthesin -clavata postea hypocraterimorpha; <i>tubus</i> elongato-truncato-obconicus, intus -glaber; <i>limbus</i> e lobis 5 patulis valvatis elongato-ovato-lanceolatis, margine -apiceque villis densis albis (siccando flavidis) barbatis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stamina</i>, corollæ tubum paululum superantia; <i>filamenta</i> glabra compressa -à basi fere ad medium usque cum corollâ concreta; <i>antheræ</i> elongatæ -lineares.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stylus</i> teres; <i>stigma</i> subemersum e lobis duobus ovato-lanceolatis crassis -faciebus unisulcis erecto-patulis constans.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Capsula</i> stricta curvulave tenui-ovoideo-fusiformis à basi dehiscens, -valvulis dorso costis 5 parum elevatis percursis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Semina</i> anguste subovali-lanceolata sæpius asymmetrica, alâ margine -lacero-fimbriatâ ciliatâ, basi angustata et ibidem integra bilobave.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="c">CHINCHONA CALISAYA.</p> - -<p class="c">(<i>From Weddell's 'Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas,' p. 30.</i>)</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht">C. foliis oblongis vel lanceolato obovatis, obtusis, basi attenuatis, rarius -utrinque acutis, glabratis, nitidis vel subtus pubescentibus, in axillis venarum -scrobiculatis; filamentis quam dimidia anthera plerumque brevioribus; -capsula ovata, flores longitudine vix æquante; seminibus margine crebre -fimbriato-denticulatis.</p> - -<p class="ht">α <i>Calisaya vera</i>, arbor foliis oblongo- vel lanceolato-obovatis, obtusis.</p> - -<p class="ht">β <i>Calisaya Josephiana</i>, frutex, foliis oblongo- vel ovato-lanceolatis, acutiusculis.</p></blockquote> - - -<p class="c">α. <i>Calisaya Vera.</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><i>Arbor</i> excelsa, trunco recto vel e basi arcuatim ascendente, nudo, crassitudinem -corporis humani duplam non infrequenter excedente. Coma -frondosa incolas omnes sylvæ ferme superans.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Cortex</i> trunci crassus. Peridermis ejusdem quam in omnibus fere -generis speciebus crassior, e libro facile solubilis et avulsa ad hujus superficiem -sulcos impressionesve sculpturas referentes detegens, rimis parallelis -verticalibus et scissuris transversalibus plus minus annularibus ornata, -albida vel etiam nigricans. Ramorum peridermis dealbata aut lichenum -thallis diverse marmorata, rimis magis sinuatis et scissuris angustioribus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_538" id="Page_538">[Pg 538]</a></span> -exculpta; aliis annularibus distantibus, aliis brevioribus subapproximatis. -In ramulis denique cortex tenuis est, lævigatus et fusco-olivaceus vel -nigricans.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Folia</i> oblongo vel lanceolato-obovata (3 to 6 inches) 8-15 cm. long; (1 -to 2 inches) 3-6 cm. lat. obtusa, basi acuta aut leviter attenuata, molliuscula, -patula, supra glaberrima, nitore scilicet velutino a cellulis epidermidis prominentibus -orto condecorata, obscure virentia, venis pallidioribus, parum -conspicuis, subtus dilute smaragdina, glabrata, in axillis venarum scrobiculata, -scrobiculis ab antica pagina vix manifestis. Petiolus 1 cm. long., -virescens, rarius cum costa rubescens. In arbore juniori folia sæpius -utrinque acutiuscula sunt, flaccida, læte viridia, eximie velutina, costa et -petiolo roseis, nervis supra lacteo-albidis et limbo persæpe maculis roseosanguineis -insignito paginaque inferiori plus minus purpurascenti.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stipulæ</i> oblongæ, obtusissimæ, petiolis longiores vel subæquales, glaberrimæ, -basi interna glandulis parce obsitæ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Panicula Florifera</i> ovata vel subcorymbosa, vix multiflora, pedunculis -pedicellisque (2-4 mm. long.) pubescentibus. Bracteæ lanceolatæ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Calyx</i> pubescens, limbo-crateriformi, dentibus brevibus, triangularibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Corolla</i> 9-10 cm. long., tubo cylindrico vel basi subpentagono, et leviter -angustato, in angulis interdum fisso, carneo-albescente, laciniis lanceolatis, -superne roseis, villis marginalibus candidis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stamina</i> in medio tubo latentia; filamenta glabra, dimidiis antheris -breviora.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stylus</i> tubum fere æquans, stigmatis lobis linearibus, subexsertis, viridescentibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Panicula Fructifera</i> laxiuscula, haud raro valde depauperata, pedunculis -puberulis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Capsula</i> ovata (.4 to .6 of an inch) 10-15 mm. long., latitudine sua vix -duplo longior, basi rotundata, ecostata, glabrata, sub maturitatem rubiginosa, -dentibus coronæ brevibus, erectiusculis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Semina</i> elliptico-lanceolata, margine fimbriato-denticulata, denticulis -approximatis, obtusiusculis; nucleo tertiam seminis partem circiter æquante.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Habitat</i> in declivibus et præruptis montium, ad altitud. 1500-1800 m. -fervidissimas inter valles Bolivæ et Peruviæ meridionalis, sylvas incolit, -inter 13°-16° 30' S. lat., nempe in provinciis Bolivianis Enquisivi, Yungas, -Larecaja, et Caupolican dictis, et in provincia Caravaya Peruvianorum.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Floret</i> Aprili et Maio.</p></blockquote> - - -<p class="c">β. <i>C. Josephiana.</i></p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><i>Frutex</i> (6½ to 12 feet) 2-3 m. alt., trunco gracili (1 to 2 inches) 3-5 cm. -crass.; ramoso, ramis erectis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Cortex</i> ligno valde hærens, trunci ramorumque schistaceo-nigricans, -læviusculus aut lichenibus diversis ornatus scissurisque nonnullis angustissimis, -distantibus, annulatim notatus; ramulorum brunneo-rufescens.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_539" id="Page_539">[Pg 539]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Folia</i> oblongo- vel ovato-lanceolata, utrinque subacuta aut obtusiuscula, -rigidula, superiora præsertim plus minus concava s. cymbiformia, utrinque -glaberrima vel subtus pubescenti-tomentosa, læte viridia, denique sanguinea -nervique et petiolus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Panicula</i> tum florifera cum fructifera sæpissime interrupta.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Corolla</i> quam in varietate præcedente paulo longior. Stamina imo tubo -inserta, filamentis nunc brevibus ut Calisayæ Veræ, stylo simul longiore, -nunc elongatis antherisque subexsertis, stylo contra iis breviore antherisque -superato.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Capsula</i> ut in typo vel flore aliquanto longior et non raro superne plus -minus attenuata, versus maturitatem pulchre rubescens simulque ramuli -paniculæ. Dentes coronæ paululum elongatæ eleganterque patentes.</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig25.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption center"><span class="smcap">Parts of the flower and fruit of Chinchona Micrantha.</span> -</p> -</div> - -<p class="c">CHINCHONA MICRANTHA.</p> - -<p class="c">(<i>From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,' No.</i> ii.)</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Chinchona Micrantha.</span>—Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, ovalibus obovatisque -glabris; floribus minimis, paniculatis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Arbor</i> 10-15 orgyalis, comâ frondosâ.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_540" id="Page_540">[Pg 540]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Truncus</i> solitarius, erectus, teres; cortice scabro-fusco-cinereo, sapore -valde amaro, acidulo non ingrato; in febribus tertianis usurpari potest; in -commercio ignoto.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Rami</i> patuli, teretes, cortice fusco-nigrescente; teneri foliosi, obtuse -tetragoni, glabri.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Folia</i> opposita, petiolata, ovalia obovataque, integerrima, obtusa, acumine -brevi, ampla, marginibus revolutis, patentia, ut plurimum quadripalmaria, -supra nitida, glaberrima, subtus nervosa, venosa, nervis purpureis; glandulis -obovatis, subtus concavis, supra prominentibus, in foliis adolescentibus -circum villosis, in senioribus deciduis, ad nervorum axillas insertis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Petioli</i> breves, vix pollicares, supra plano-canaliculati, subtus semiteretes.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stipulæ</i> supra axillares, interfoliaceæ, oppositæ, ovatæ, integerrimæ, -connatæ, caducæ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Panicula</i> maxima diffusa, subracemosa, foliosa, floridissima, tomentosa, -helvolo colore.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Pedunculi</i> vix striati, tetragoni, compressiusculi, axillares terminalesque, -<i>communes</i> brachiati, <i>partiales</i> oppositi alternique, omnes bracteis ovato-subulatis, -oppositis, persistentibus, ad basim pedunculorum pedicellorumque -insertis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Flores</i> numerosi, in corymbos parvos multifloros congesti, subsessiles; -bracteis minimis, ovatis, acutis, persistentibus ad basim et in medio pedicellorum.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Calyx</i> minimus, quinquedentatus; denticulis acutis, dilute purpurascentibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Corolla</i> parva, ut plurimum trilinearis, extus tomentosa, albicans.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Limbus</i> patens, laciniis quinque intus villoso-tomentosis, villis albicantibus -extus rubescens.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Antheræ</i> lineares, intra faucem inclusæ, luteæ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Capsula</i> oblonga, acuta, leviter decemstriata, fusca, calyce coronata, a -basi ad apicem dehiscens.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Semina</i> fulva, alâ lineari utrinque acutâ inæqualiter lacerâ cincta.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Habitat</i> in Andium montibus altis, frigidis, et nemorosis, versus vicum -San Antonio de Playa Grande, ubi Johannes Tafalla, anno 1797, eam -observavit, et iconem, cum nonnullis exemplaribus siccis, et descriptionem, -nobiscum communicavit.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Floret</i> Maio, Junio, et Julio.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Vulgo: Cascarilla fina. Cascarilla Provinciana.</i></p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Chinchona Micrantha</i>, β. <i>Oblongifolia</i> (Weddell).</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Chinchona Micrantha</i>, var. α. flor. extus roseis; var. β. flor. extus albidis -(Poeppig).</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_541" id="Page_541">[Pg 541]</a></span></p> - -<p class="c">(<i>From Weddell's 'Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas,' p. 52.</i>)</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Chinchona Micrantha.</span>—<i>Arbor</i> 6-10 m. alt. sat frondosa, trunco recto, -tereti, 2-4 dm. crassitudine raro excedente; ramis patulis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Cortex</i> trunci crassiusculus. <i>Peridermis</i> ejusdem tenuis, libro extus -subcarioso vix hærens, plus minus lævigata, sordide grisea fuscescensve; -ramorum lævis, cinerascens; ramulorum viridescens.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Folia</i> plerumque ovato-rotundata, 12-20 cm, long. 10-15 cm. lat. basi -(præcipue in junioribus) plus minus cuneata vel attenuata, obtusiuscula, -membranacea, supra glabra nitidiuscula, læte viridia, subtus læevissime -puberula pallide virescentia, venis venulisque parce pubescentibus, axillis -pilosiusculis, pilis subfasciculatis. Petiolus 2-3 cm. long. glaber, ejusdem -coloris ac costa.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stipulæ</i> ovatæ, obtusæ, extus pubescentes, intus puberulæ, deciduæ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Panicula Florifera</i> maxima, thyrsoidea; ramulis subpatentibus pedicellisque -(2 mm. long.) pubescentibus, cinereo-virescentibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Calyx</i> pubescens, limbo crateriformi, dentibus acuminatis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Corolla</i> alba, tubo tereti 5-7 mm. long. basi et fauce leviter coarctato, -laciniis lanceolatis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stamina</i> imo tubo inserta, antheris inclusis filamenta subæquantibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stylus</i> brevissimus; stigmatis laciniis linearibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Panicula Fructifera</i> ovata vel subpyramidalis, subconferta, ramulis -glabratis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Capsula</i> lanceolata vel oblongo-lanceolata, 25-30 mm. long. 5-7 mm. lat. -utrinque attenuata, glabrata, lævis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Semina</i> lanceolata, basi integra vel fissa, margine denticulata.</p> - -<p class="ht">Crescit in nemoribus humidis subobscuris montium, nec non infrequentius -juxta ipsas rivulorum ripas, vallium provinciarum Larecaja et Caupolican -Bolivianorum, vallisque Tambopata provinciæ Caravaya incola; -provenit etiam in editioribus versus Chicoplaya et Playa Grande Peruvianorum.</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="c">CHINCHONA NITIDA.</p> - -<p class="c">(<i>From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,' No.</i> vii.)</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Chinchona Nitida.</span>—Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, obovatis, ovali-oblongis -ovato-oblongisque, nitidis, paniculâ terminali—<i>Cascarilla Officinal</i>. (Ruiz -Quinologia, Art. 2, p. 56.)</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Arbor</i> procera, a decem usque ad quadraginta ulnas, glabra.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Truncus</i> solitarius, erectus, teres, aliquando tres aut quinque repullantes.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Cortex</i> extus scaber, fusco-nigricans, sæpe ex fusco et cinereo colore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_542" id="Page_542">[Pg 542]</a></span> -variegatus; intus obscure fulvus, amarissimus, acidulus non ingratus, in -commercio et in febribus tertianis magno usu fit.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Rami</i> seniores teretes, scabri, fusco atri-cinereo colore variegati, <i>teneri</i> -leviter tetragoni, fusci.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Folia</i> opposita, petiolata, obovata, ovali-oblonga ovato-oblongaque, integerrima, -nitidissima, decurrentia, marginibus ad basim revolutis, subtus -venosa, venis purpurascentibus, glandulis rotundis oblongisque, supra prominentibus, -subtus concavis, ad sinus nervorum ortum insertis, villis longis -albicantibus vestitis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Petioli</i> subtus semiteretes, supra planiusculi, purpurei.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stipulæ</i> interfoliaceæ, oppositæ, supra-axillares, basi coadunatæ, oblongæ, -sessiles, obtusæ, intus rubescentes, marginibus reflexis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Panicula</i> terminalis, composita, subracemosa, rubescens.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Pedunculi</i> multiflori, tetragoni.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Flores</i> breviter pedicellati.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Pedicelli</i> bracteolis ovatis acumine subulato concavis ad basim stipati, -persistentes.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Calyx</i> parvus, purpureus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Corolla</i> alba, extus dilute rubicunda, vix semipollicaris, laciniis intus -villosis, villis albicantibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Capsula</i> oblonga, decem-striata, rubescens, bivalvis, valvulis basi hiantibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Semina</i> ovalia, fulva, alis membranaceis oblongis inæqualiter denticulato -cincta.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Habitat</i> in Andium montibus altis, nemorosis, frigidis, ad Pampamarca, -Chacahuasi, Casapi, Casapillo, Cayumba, Sapan, Cuchero, aliisque tractibus, -et in montibus Provinciarum Huamalies, Tarma, et Jauja.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Floret</i> Maio, Junio, et Julio.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Vulgo: Cascarilla fina aut Quina fina. Cascarilla lustrosa</i> (Pritchett).</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">(<i>From Weddell's 'Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas,' p. 47.</i>)</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Chinchona Nitida.</span>—C. foliis lanceolato-obovatis, acutis, basi attenuatis, -utrinque glabris, nitidis vel inferne leviter pilosis, escrobiculatis; filamentis -antheras æquantibus; capsula anguste lanceolata, latitudine sua duplo longiori; -seminibus lanceolatis, margine denticulatis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Arbor</i> 8-12 m. alt., trunco recto, tereti, crassitudine corporis humani; -coma parum frondosa.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Cortex</i> trunci crassus, peridermide rimosa, obscure brunnea; ramorum -peridermis inæqualis, plus minus sulcato-rimosa, brunneo-cinerascens.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Folia</i> lanceolato- vel oblongo-obovata, 9-10 cm. long., 25 mm. lat.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_543" id="Page_543">[Pg 543]</a></span> -utrinque acuta, basi cuneata aut attenuata, sub-membranacea; supra glabra -nitida, subtus nonnunquam (ad venas præsertim) pilosa; petiolo 1 cm. -longo.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stipulæ</i> oblongæ vel obovatæ, obtusæ, deciduæ, raro basi connatæ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Panicula</i> ovata, subcoarctata, ramulis pedicellisque puberulis; bracteis -triangulari-lanceolatis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Calyx</i> limbo subcampanulato, dentibus triangularibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Corolla</i> rosea, tubo subcylindrico, laciniis lanceolatis, villis albidis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Antheræ</i> apice exsertæ, filamenta æquantes vel paulo breviores.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stylus</i> antheras haud attingens; stigmatis lobis linearibus, brevibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Capsula</i> lanceolata, denique glabra, læviuscula vel striata, sub maturitatem -obscure rubiginosa, dentibus coronæ erectiusculis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Semina</i> lanceolata, utrinque acuta, margine denticulata.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Habitat</i> in montibus altis, noctu frigidiusculis, diu apricis ventilatisque.</p> - -<p class="r"> -(Ruiz et Pavon. Poeppig.)<br /> -</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="c">CHINCHONA PERUVIANA. (<i>Howard.</i>)</p> - -<p class="c">(<i>The "Pata de Gallinazo" of Pritchett's Collection.</i>)</p> - -<p class="c">(<i>From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon.'</i>)</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><span class="smcap">Chinchona Peruviana.</span>—Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, lanceolato-ovatis, -basi attenuatis, junioribus lanceolatis, scrobiculatis, paniculâ terminali -compositâ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Arbor</i> procera ... <i>Lignum</i> compactum, luteum.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Cortex</i> extus scaber, rimosus, corticem <i>Calisayæ</i> maxime æmulans, -sæpe ex albo et cinereo colore variegatis; intus obscure fulvus, amarus, -fragrans.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Folia</i> opposita, petiolata, lanceolato-ovata, nonnulla lanceolato-obovata, -alia elliptica, basi attenuata, obtuse acuminata, juniora lanceolata, scrobiculata, -scrobiculis supra valde prominentibus, nitida, subtus venosa.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Petioli</i> subtus semi-teretes, supra planiusculi.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Panicula</i> terminalis, composita, pyramidalis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Capsula</i> oblonga, leviter decemstriata, calyce coronata, bivalvis, valvulis -basi hiantibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Semina</i> ovalia, alis membranaceis, valde laceratis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Habitat</i> in Andium montibus frigidis Cocheros aliisque tractibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Vulgo</i>: "<i>Cascarilla Pata de Gallinazo</i>."</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Obs.</i>:—In commercio magno usu fit.</p> - -<p class="r"> -<i>Speciminibus nobis à Pritchett datis descript.</i> -</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_544" id="Page_544">[Pg 544]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="c">CHINCHONA LANCIFOLIA.</p> - -<p class="c">(<i>From Karsten's 'Floræ Columbiæ Specimina Selecta,'</i> I. p. 21.)</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="ht"><i>Arbor</i> vasta, usque ad 24 metr. adscendens, trunco recto, 1-1½ metra in -diametro; coma subovata, ramosa, ramis teretibus adscendentibus vel -inferioribus, horizontalibus, cortice rugoso, fuscescenti, ut plurimum hic -illic profunde transversim annulato, tectis; ramulis brachiatis, compressiusculis, -uti pedicelli leviter striguloso-pilosiusculis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Folia</i> opposita, petiolata, petiolo semitereti 16-20 m. m. longo, supra -plano, glabro, subtus pilosiusculo insidentia, lanceolata, acuminata, basi -attenuata, integerrima, glaberrima, in axilla venarum leviter scrobiculata, -et hic facie inferiore glomerulo pilorum obsita, patentia, læte viridia, nitida, -lamina 10 centim. longa, 3½ centim. lata, petiolo nervisque, demum folio -integro, rubescentibus; juniora subtus in costa minutissime pilosiuscula; -vernatione applicativa.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stipulæ</i> interpetiolares, liberæ, lanceolatæ, acutæ, pedicellorum longitudine, -glaberrimæ; intus basi pluriseriatim glandulosæ, demum rubræ, -deciduæ.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Inflorescentia</i> terminalis foliosa, paniculata, e cymis dichotomis axillaribus -composita, foliis floralibus lineari-lanceolatis; pedunculi pedicellique bracteis -minutis, glabris, lanceolato-acutis, subpersistentibus, suffulti.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Calycis</i> tubus turbinatus, ovario adnatus, pilis minutis, adpressis strigosus; -limbus persistens campanulatus, quinquefidus, glaber, rubescens, laciniis -triangularibus, acutis.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Corolla</i> tubo cylindrico 10 m. m. longo, extus sericeo, carneo-rubro, intus -glabro; limbo quinquepartito, lobis ovatis, acutis, æstivatione valvatis, -rubris, extus sericeis, intus margine albide-villosis sub anthesin patentibus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Stamina</i> quinque, tubo medio inserta, paullo exserta.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Filamenta</i> subulata, glabra, 1 m. m. longa; <i>antheræ</i> lineares, introrse -longitudinaliter birimosæ, basi sagittata affixæ, filamentis paullo breviores, -plus minus exsertæ; <i>pollen</i> sphæricum granulosum, triocellatum.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Discus</i> epigynus, annularis, carnosus, subpentagonus, quinquesulcatus.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Ovarium</i> inferum biloculare, loculis multiovulatis, placentis linearibus, -medio dissepimenti longitudinaliter adnatis, ovula anatropa, pluriseriata, -imbricatim adscendentia, mox peltata gerentibus; stylus teres glaber, -staminibus longior, exsertus aut inclusus; stigmata duo linearia.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Capsula</i> oblonga, striato-costata, calva, post dehiscentiam septicidam, a -basi ad apicem progredientem, calycis limbo diutius coronata, epicarpio -cum endocarpio connato, 17-20 m. m. longa, 6-8 m. m. lata.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Semina</i> lanceolata, applanata, 7-8 m. m. longa, 2-3 m. m. lata, spermophoro, -a valvis apertis soluto, adhærentia, caduca, ala membranacea, -hyalina, imperforata, margine crenulato-denticulata, cincta; nucleo ovali -sextam partem fere seminis longitudinis attingente.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_545" id="Page_545">[Pg 545]</a></span></p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Embryo</i> in axi albuminis carnosi rectus, cotyledonibus ovalibus, planis, -applicativis, radicula tereti infera.</p> - -<p class="ht">In declivitate Andium Granatensium inter 5° et 1° lat. Sept. altitudine -2500-3000 metr. supra oceani littora ad temperaturam glacialem in horis -nocturnis fere refrigerata hic illic frequenter in locis nebulosis et illuviosis -nascitur.</p> - -<p class="ht"><i>Tunita</i> ab incolis dicta.</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_546" id="Page_546">[Pg 546]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="APPENDIX_C" id="APPENDIX_C"></a><span class="gesperrt">APPENDIX C.</span></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="h">NOTES ON THE PRINCIPAL PLANTS EMPLOYED IN INDIA, -ON ACCOUNT OF THEIR REAL OR SUPPOSED FEBRIFUGE -VIRTUES. BY ALEXANDER SMITH, ESQ.</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>The following enumeration of Indian febrifuge plants, though, from the -limited time at my disposal, not so complete as could be wished, will serve -to give an idea of the great variety of indigenous plants used by the natives -of India in the treatment of the different kinds of fevers so prevalent in -that country. European physicians of the present day rely to a great -extent upon the invaluable products of the <i>Chinchonas</i>, as the most certain -remedies for these disorders; but a couple of centuries ago, when <i>quinine</i> -and the kindred alkaloids were undreamt of, and when even Peruvian Bark, -or, as it was then called, "Countess' Bark" or "Jesuits' Bark," was -scarcely known, and its source a jealously guarded secret, their ancestors -made use of a much greater number of substances, and highly extolled the -febrifuge properties of many of our native wild plants. Most of these, -however, are now known to be of little use and are discarded from the -modern practice of physic, though amongst rustic practitioners, or herb-doctors, -they still to a certain degree enjoy their ancient reputation. We -must not therefore be surprised that the native doctors of the East, whose -knowledge of chemistry and the allied sciences is as limited as was that of -our old herbalists, should in like manner ascribe powerful properties to the -barks, roots, stems, and other parts of plants which in reality possess as -little value in a medical point of view, as the indigenous plants at one -time used in our own country.</p> - -<p>It must not, however, be imagined from these remarks that all the plants -mentioned below are known to be completely devoid of medicinal properties. -Some of them possibly possess qualities of the greatest value, and, were -they properly tested by the enlightened science of the present day, might -yield products useful either as tonics or febrifuges, or prove otherwise -valuable. But the great majority are comparatively valueless, and their -supposed virtues merely the result of fancy.</p> - -<p class="r"> -<span class="smcap">Alex. Smith.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p class="l"><i>Kew, Surrey, April 5th, 1862.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_547" id="Page_547">[Pg 547]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="c">RANUNCULACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Thalictrum foliolosum</span>, <i>D. C.</i></p> - -<p>The bitter roots of this Himalayan species of Meadow Rue are used by -the natives in intermittent fevers, and have, according to O'Shaughnessy, -been experimented upon by European practitioners, and found serviceable -not only as a febrifuge, but as a tonic in convalescence from acute diseases. -The plant is an erect, branching perennial, three or more feet high, -with large quadripinnate leaves composed of numerous small leaflets. It -is common throughout the Himalayas, and is called "Pelijuree" or -"Shuprak" by the natives.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Coptis Teeta</span>, <i>Wall.</i></p> - -<p>Several bitter roots are called "Teeta" in the Bengal bazaars. Those -of the present plant are brought down from the Mishmee Mountains on -the northern borders of Assam, and are consequently called "Mishmee -Teeta." They are usually packed in little baskets about two inches wide, -made of strips of rattan-cane. In the Scinde bazaars they are called -"Mahmira," and they are likewise said to be imported from China under -the name of "Sou-line" or "Chyn-len," but the plant is not known to be a -native of that country. They have an intensely bitter taste, and the -native doctors esteem them very highly as a tonic and stomachic. M. -Virey says that a decoction of them is a powerful febrifuge, but O'Shaughnessy -states that in experiments made in the Indian hospitals they did -not seem to exercise any febrifuge virtues, though their tonic properties -were very manifest. The roots of an allied American species (<i>Coptis -trifolia</i>, Salisb.) are used throughout the United States and Canada as a -tonic, under the name of "Gold Thread."</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Aconitum</span>, <i>sp. pl.</i></p> - -<p>The roots of several species of Aconite, common in the Himalayas, are -reputed to possess febrifuge properties, but the identification of the -particular species is very uncertain. Amongst others the most virulent -kind of "Bikh" or "Bish," that yielded by the <i>Aconitum ferox</i>, Wall., is -said to be thus employed and also in chronic rheumatism; and likewise -the "Bikhma" of Hamilton, supposed to be the <i>Aconitum palmatum</i>, -Don. The little tuber-like roots called "Atees" or "Butees," much -esteemed for their bitter tonic properties, are afforded by the <i>Aconitum -heterophyllum</i>, Wall.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">MAGNOLIACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Michelia Champaca</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>Several of the <i>Magnoliaceæ</i> are known to possess powerful febrifuge -virtues, particularly the <i>Magnolia glauca</i>, Linn., and other American<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_548" id="Page_548">[Pg 548]</a></span> -species, the bark and fruits of which are greatly used in intermittent fever. -Among the Indian species, the only one reputed to possess similar virtues -is the "Champa" (<i>Michelia Champaca</i>, Linn.), O'Shaughnessy remarking -that, after several trials, its bark appeared to him to possess the properties -attributed to the <i>Magnolia glauca</i>. It, however, contains tannin and -gallic acid, both of which are absent in the American bark. The Champa -grows to a large size, has ovate-lanceolate leaves from eight to ten inches -long and two to four broad, and bears exceedingly fragrant yellow or -orange-coloured flowers, which the Hindus offer to their deities.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">BERBERIDACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Berberis Lycium</span>, <i>Royle</i>.</p> - -<p>According to the learned investigations of the late Dr. Royle, it would -appear that this species of Barberry afforded the λύκιον ινδικον of -Dioscorides. At the present day an extract of the sliced root, stem, and -branches is prepared in Nipal and the Dhoon, and employed by the native -doctors in diseases of the eyes, for which purpose the drug was also valued -by the physicians of old. It is known in Bengal by the name of "Rusoot" -or "Rasot," and in Scinde by that of "Ruswul." Employed as a substitute -for Chinchona bark this extract has been found to be a most valuable -remedial agent in common and tertian agues, checking the fever in three -days. The skin is invariably moist during its action. The plant is a -small stiff shrub with twiggy, pale-barked branches armed with conical -tripartite spines, and bearing clusters of small obovate-lanceolate leaves, -either entire or with spiny teeth along the edges.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">MENISPERMACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Tinospora cordifolia</span>, <i>Miers</i> (= <i>Cocculus cordifolius</i>, D. C., and -<i>Menispermum cordifolium</i>, Willd.).</p> - -<p>A tall, climbing shrub with rough corky bark, and broad, heart-shaped, -pointed leaves from two to four inches long, upon stalks of -about the same length; common in woods throughout the peninsula -of India and in Ceylon, and known in the former country by the name -of "Guluncha" or "Gurcha," and amongst the Cinghalese by that of -"Rassakinda." All parts of the plant have a bitter taste, and an infusion -of the young stems and leaves is highly esteemed by the native physicians -as a febrifuge medicine, and also as a tonic, while in some districts it is -looked upon as a certain cure for poisonous snake-bites. Ainslie says that -the bruised plant is put into the water drunk by the Brahmins at some of -their religious ceremonies.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_549" id="Page_549">[Pg 549]</a></span></p> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Tinospora crispa</span>, <i>Miers</i> (= <i>Cocculus crispus</i>, D. C., and <i>Menispermum -crispum</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>This is closely allied to the above, and is known by the same name, -"Guluncha." It has smooth bark, more oval and less heart-shaped -leaves on shorter stalks. Like the last it is greatly valued in the treatment -of intermittent fever; but the natives in Silhet consider that it is -more efficacious when found climbing upon mango-trees. It is found in -Silhet and Pegu, and in several of the Indian islands.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Cissampelos Pareira</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>The woody stems of this widely spread tropical plant are used in a -variety of diseases, and amongst others in fevers, but it is principally -valued for its antilithic properties, on account of which it is admitted into -our Pharmacopœias under the name of Pareira-brava. It is a tall, hard-wooded -climber, indigenous to the tropics of both hemispheres, and is -found in all parts of India. In Ceylon, where it is also used as a fever -medicine, it is called "Deyamitta."</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">CAPPARIDACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Gynandropsis pentaphylla</span>, <i>D. C.</i> (= <i>Cleome pentaphylla</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>A decoction of the little black seeds of this plant is considered useful in -typhus fever, and in convulsive affections. The plant is called "Vaylee" -in the Tamul language; "Hurhuriya" in Bengalese; "Caraila" by the -Hindus; and "Waila" by the Cinghalese. It is an annual plant, a foot -or more in height, with hairy stems, and palmately divided leaves usually -with five, but sometimes with seven or only three segments.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Cratæva Nurvala</span>, <i>Ham.</i> (= <i>Cratæva Tapia</i>, Burm.).</p> - -<p>A small tree, fifteen to twenty feet high, common on the banks of -rivers on the Malabar coast and in Mysore, producing an astringent bark, -a decoction of which is prescribed as a tonic in both intermittent and -typhus fevers. The Sanscrit name of the plant is "Varuna," and it is the -"Nurvala" of Rheede's Hortus Malabaricus, according to Hamilton, who -says that the real name of the plant in the Malabar dialect is "Vala," the -prefix "Nur" (water) merely denoting the localities in which the tree is -found.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">MORINGACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Moringa pterygosperma</span>, <i>Gaertn.</i> (= <i>Hyperanthera Moringa</i>, Vahl.).</p> - -<p>Well known in India as the Horse-radish tree, on account of its roots -possessing a pungent odour and biting aromatic taste similar to those of our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_550" id="Page_550">[Pg 550]</a></span> -common horse-radish, for which they are substituted by European residents -in both the East and West Indies. They are also used medicinally by the -native doctors as a stimulant in paralysis and intermittent fevers, and are -also considered valuable as a rubefacient. "Morunghy," from which the -generic name adopted by modern botanists has been derived, is the Tamul -name; and "Sujna" or "Salijuna," the Hindu. It is a small tree, seldom -more than twenty feet high, and has large compound three-times pinnated -leaves, and axillary bunches of whitish flowers, producing long pendulous -three-sided fruits, containing numerous winged seeds, which some authors -regard as the source of the celebrated Ben-oil.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">CARYOPHYLLACEÆ.</p> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Mollugo Cerviana</span>, <i>Ser.</i> (= <i>Pharnaceum Cervianum</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>This little herb is used as a medicine in fevers in Ceylon, where it is -called "Pat-paadagan;" and as the plant is also found in the Indian -peninsula, it is most probably employed in a similar manner by the Hindu -doctors. The order to which it belongs is remarkable for little besides the -presence of <i>saponine</i> in several species.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">MALVACEÆ.</p> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Sida acuta</span>, <i>Burm.</i> (= <i>Sida lanceolata</i>, Retz.).</p> - -<p>The roots of this have an intensely bitter taste, and their infusion, in -conjunction with ginger, is prescribed in cases of intermittent fever, for -which they have also been tried in the Indian hospitals, but without satisfactory -results, though they were found to possess some medicinal virtues as a -tonic. The plant is called "Pata" in Sanscrit; and "Malaytanghie" in -Tamul. It is a shrub with narrow lance-shaped, pointed leaves, coarsely -toothed along the edges, and either smooth or sprinkled with bristly hairs, -especially on the veins underneath.</p> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Pavonia Zeylanica</span>, <i>Cav.</i> (= <i>Hibiscus Zeylanicus</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>A tall annual plant, with variable leaves, the lower ones being roundish -heart-shaped, and the upper deeply three to five lobed, and whitish or -pale-red flowers. It is called "Sittamootie" in Tamul, and an infusion of -the root is administered in fevers, but Ainslie states that it does not -appear to possess any virtues.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_551" id="Page_551">[Pg 551]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="c">OLACACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Olax Zeylanica</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>A small tree, native of Ceylon and of some parts of India, yielding a -fœtid, salt-tasted wood, which is employed in putrid fevers. The -Cinghalese, who call the tree "Malla," eat the leaves in their curries.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">AURANTIACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Ægle Marmelos</span>, <i>Corr.</i> (= <i>Cratæva Marmelos</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>The Bengal Quince-tree. Almost every part of this tree is used medicinally -by the native Indian doctors. In fever cases a decoction of the -bark of the root, and also of the stem, is employed, but when the latter is -used it is generally combined with a great variety of other substances. -The expressed juice of the leaves, diluted with water, is also administered -in incipient fevers and colds. The fruit is a valuable remedy in diarrhœa -and dysentery, and has been successfully employed in those complaints by -medical men in this country. It is a tree of moderate size, with its young -branches furnished with sharp spines, and has ternate or rarely pinnate -leaves, and axillary panicles of few large fragrant flowers. It has a great -number of vernacular names. In Hindustanee and Bengalee it is called -"Bael, Bêl, or Bêla;" in Telinga, "Maredoo;" in Tamul, "Willamarvum;" -in Malayan, "Tanghula," &c.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">MELIACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Azadirachta Indica</span>, <i>A. de Juss.</i> (= <i>Melia Azadirachta</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>The bitter astringent bark of this tree, the Neem or Margosa tree of -India, is considered by the native doctors to be a most valuable tonic -and febrifuge, and it has been successfully employed as a substitute for -Chinchona-bark by English physicians in India. A bitter principle called -<i>Azadirine</i> has been obtained from it. Other parts of the tree are likewise -reputed to possess medicinal properties: the bitter oil obtained from the -pericarp being employed as an anthelmintic, and the olive-like fruit itself -in leprosy, while the leaves are universally used in India for poultices. -The Neem forms a large ornamental tree, and has pinnate leaves with -unequal-sided smooth leaflets sharply toothed at the edges, and loose -axillary panicles of bluish flowers. "Neem" or "Nim" is its Hindustanee -and Bengalee name; "Nimba," in Sanscrit; "Vaypun" or "Vapan," -in Tamul; and "Kohomba," in Cinghalese.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">CEDRELACEÆ.</p> - - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Cedrela Toona</span>, <i>Roxb.</i></p> - -<p>The Toon-tree grows to a large size, and yields a valuable reddish -timber, resembling some kinds of mahogany. It has abruptly pinnate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_552" id="Page_552">[Pg 552]</a></span> -leaves composed of from six to twelve pairs of opposite, usually entire, -smooth leaflets of an ovate-lanceolate shape; and its flowers are small, -yellowish, and sweet-scented, and are disposed in terminal drooping -panicles. Toon bark is powerfully astringent, but is said to be devoid of -bitterness. It is much esteemed in the treatment of intermittent fever, -though seldom administered alone, but generally prescribed in combination -with the excessively bitter seed of the <i>Guilandina Bonducella</i>. The -flowers yield a yellow dye, but the colour is not permanent.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Soymida febrifuga</span>, <i>A. de Juss.</i> (= <i>Swietenia febrifuga</i>, Roxb.).</p> - -<p>The specific name of this tree indicates its use as a medicine in fevers. -The part employed is the bark, which is of a reddish colour and has a very -bitter, slightly astringent, but not unpleasant taste. It was long ago -highly recommended as a substitute for Peruvian bark by several English -doctors in India, and appears to possess considerable medicinal virtues, -though Ainslie found that when given in large doses it deranged the nervous -system, occasioned vertigo and subsequent stupor. The tree is called -"Shemmarum" by the Tamuls; "Soimido" by the Telingas (whence the -generic name adopted by botanists); and "Rohuna" by the Bengalese. It -is a very large, hard-wooded tree, with abruptly pinnate leaves composed -of from three to six pairs of opposite, oval-oblong blunt leaflets; and produces -large panicles of small yellowish flowers towards the points of -the young branches.</p> - -<p>The bark of another large Indian tree belonging to this order, the -"Chikrassee" of the Bengalese (<i>Chickrassia tabularis</i>, A. de Juss.), is -a powerful astringent, but, like the Toon bark, devoid of bitterness.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">OXALIDACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Averrhoa Bilimbi</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>A syrup prepared with the juice of the excessively acid gherkin-like -fruits of the Bilimbi is used by the native doctors in the treatment of -fevers, as also is a conserve of the flowers. The Bilimbi is a small tree, -with unequally pinnate leaves, which, like those of the well-known sensitive -plant, are irritable and close their leaflets together when touched. Its -fruits are commonly used for pickling by Europeans, both in the East and -in the West Indies.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">XANTHOXYLACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Toddalia aculeata</span>, <i>Pers.</i> (= <i>Scopolia aculeata</i>, Smith).</p> - -<p>Powerful stimulating properties are ascribed to all parts of this plant. -The fresh bark of its root is administered by the Telinga physicians, who -call the plant "Conda cashinda," for the cure of the kind of remittent -fever known by the name of "hill fever," from its being caught in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_553" id="Page_553">[Pg 553]</a></span> -jungles of the Indian hills. It is a moderately tall shrub with prickly -stems and branches, alternate, trifoliate, smooth leaves marked with -numberless pellucid dots, and usually having prickles on their stalks and -on the midribs of the leaflets; and its flowers, which are whitish and -strong scented, are borne in simple or compound racemes. Its Cinghalese -name is "Koodoomirris-wel."</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">SIMARUBACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Samadera Indica</span>, <i>Gaertn.</i></p> - -<p>All parts of this tree partake of the excessively bitter qualities common -to the order. The decoction of the rasped wood has recently been extensively -and successfully employed in Ceylon, in the treatment of intermittent -fever, and is recommended to be given in combination with Myrobalan -galls. The wood is of a pale colour, resembling quassia-wood, and is very -light. The tree is indigenous to Ceylon, and also to the Indian peninsula, -and is the "Karin-njotti" of Rheede. It attains a considerable size, and -has oblong-elliptical, alternate leaves, and long, pendulous, compressed -flower-stalks, divided at the top into a many-flowered umbel. The bark, -called "Niepa bark," also possesses febrifugal properties.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">RHAMNACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Zizyphus Jujuba</span>, <i>Lam.</i> (= <i>Rhamnus Jujuba</i>, Linn.)</p> - -<p>The root of this common Indian tree is a reputed febrifuge, and an -infusion of it, combined with some warm seed, is said to be employed as -such in the Moluccas, while the bark is used in diarrhœa. It is a small -tree, with prickly branches, usually having the spines in pairs, and elliptical -or oblong obtuse leaves, covered on the under side, as also are the branches, -with dense short tawny tomentum, and it bears small greenish-yellow -flowers, which produce roundish, yellow, edible fruits about the size of -cherries. Its Sanscrit name is "Vadari," and its Bengalese "Kool."</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">LEGUMINOSÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Cassia Fistula</span>, <i>Linn.</i> (= <i>Cathartocarpus Fistula</i>, Pers.).</p> - -<p>The black, sweet-tasted pulp contained in the long cylindrical pipe-like -pods of this common tropical plant is well known as a gentle laxative -medicine; and its roots are reputed to be an excellent febrifuge. It is -the "Sonali" of the Bengalese, the "Amultas" of the Hindus, and the -"Ahalla" of the Cinghalese, and is a moderately large tree, with very long -pinnate leaves, and loose drooping racemes of bright-yellow fragrant -flowers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_554" id="Page_554">[Pg 554]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Guilandina Bonducella</span>, <i>Linn.</i> (= <i>Cæsalpinia Bonducella</i>, -Fleming).</p> - -<p>The seeds and bark, but particularly the former, have an intensely bitter -taste, and are supposed to possess powerful tonic virtues. The seeds, -called Bonduc nuts, are lead or ash coloured and most excessively hard. -Their cotyledons, powdered and combined with spices or other medicinal -substances, are prescribed with beneficial results in intermittent fever. -The root is also said to be a good tonic in dyspeptic complaints; in fact, -all parts of the plant are reputed to possess medicinal properties. The -plant is a prickly, trailing shrub, with abruptly twice-pinnate leaves, each -pinna consisting of from five to eight pairs of oval leaflets, and bears -racemes of rusty-yellow flowers. The Tamuls call it "Kalichikai;" the -Telingas "Getsakaia;" the Hindus "Cat-caleyi" and "Natacaranja;" and -the Cinghalese "Koombooroo-wel." It is a common plant throughout the -tropics of both hemispheres.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Phaseolus trilobus</span>, <i>Roth.</i> (= <i>Dolichos trilobus</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>Ainslie says that "this plant was brought to Dr. F. Hamilton in Bahar, -where he was informed by the Vytians of that district that the fresh herb -was given in decoction in cases of irregular fever." It is a procumbent, -spreading, herbaceous plant, with leaves composed of three roundish, entire, -or three-lobed leaflets on long stalks, and bears a few pea-like flowers at -the ends of long ascending stalks.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Ormocarpum sennoides</span>, <i>D. C.</i> (= <i>Hedysarum sennoides</i>, Willd.).</p> - -<p>A shrub with glutinous hairy shoots, unequally pinnate leaves, and -short axillary racemes bearing a few pea-like flowers, producing jointed -pods. The decoction of the roots of this shrub, which is called "Caat -Morungie" in the Tamul language, and "Adivie moonaga" in Telinga, is -prescribed by the native physicians as a tonic and stimulant in fevers, and -a liniment made of the powdered bark and sesamum oil is applied externally -in paralysis and lumbago.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">COMBRETACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Terminalia tomentosa</span>, <i>W. et A.</i> (= <i>Terminalia alata</i>, Roth.).</p> - -<p>This is a large tree with deeply-cracked bark, and nearly opposite, -linear, oblong, obtuse leaves, somewhat cordate at the base, crenulate, and -clothed with pubescence underneath. It is the "Peea-sal" or "Usan" of -the Bengalese; the "Nella madoo" of the Telingas; and the "Aans" of -the Hindus. The reddish-brown, cracked bark has a strong but not -unpleasant astringent taste, and is classed amongst the febrifuge medicines -by the native doctors: powdered and mixed with oil it is employed in -apthæ.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_555" id="Page_555">[Pg 555]</a></span></p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">MYRTACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Syzygium caryophyllifolium</span>, <i>D. C.</i> (= <i>Calyptranthes caryophyllifolia</i>, -Willd.).</p> - -<p>"Nawel" of the Tamuls; "Nereddie" of the Telingas; and "Madang" -of the Cinghalese. The thick, brownish-coloured bark of this tree has an -astringent, slightly aromatic taste, and a decoction of it is sometimes -prescribed by native doctors in fevers and bowel complaints, and is also -employed as a wash for foul ulcers. It has been recommended as a tanning -substance, but it does not possess sufficient astringency to render it suitable -for that purpose. The tree has smooth, entire leaves of an oblong-lanceolate -shape and attenuated at the base, and bears cymose panicles of flowers -upon the old branches, producing little edible fruits about the size of peas.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">BARRINGTONIACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Barringtonia racemosa</span>, <i>Roxb.</i> (= <i>Eugenia racemosa</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>"Cadapum" (Tam.); "Kamtee" (Tel.); and "Deya-midella" (Cing.). -Ainslie says that the reddish-coloured bark of the Cadapum is supposed -to possess virtues similar to those of Chinchona bark. Medicinal properties -are also ascribed to the root and seed, both of which have a bitter though -not unpleasant taste. It is a large tree, with cuneate-oblong, acuminate, -serrulate leaves, crowded together towards the ends of the branches, and -long pendulous racemes of large flowers, producing ovate, bluntly quadrangular -fruits.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">CUCURBITACEÆ.</p> - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Zanonia Indica</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>Mr. Thwaites says that the Cinghalese value this plant as a febrifuge, -and call it "Wal-rasakinda." It is also found in India, and is the "Penar-valli" -of Rheede's Hortus Malabaricus. The plant is a climber, supporting -itself by means of tendrils, and has alternate, elliptical, pointed leaves, -slightly cordate at the base, and axillary racemes of flowers.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Trichosanthes cucumerina</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>This is another cucurbitaceous plant much used by the Cinghalese as -a febrifuge, and from the experiments made with it in the hospitals at -Badulla it appears to possess considerable efficacy. It is astringent and -contains a bitter principle, which it yields to boiling water, and is therefore -recommended to be used in the form of an infusion, made with the dried -stem and leaves. The plant is called "Doommaala" by the Cinghalese, -and is very common both in Ceylon and India. It is an annual climbing -plant, with three-cleft tendrils, and broadly-cordate, angular or lobed -leaves toothed along the edges. Its seeds are used in bowel complaints.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_556" id="Page_556">[Pg 556]</a></span></p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">UMBELLIFERÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Hydrocotyle Asiatica</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>The Asiatic Pennywort has recently been discovered to be a valuable -remedy in leprosy, scrofula, venereal, and other complaints. The native -doctors, however, have hitherto considered it serviceable only in bowel -complaints and fevers, administering it in the form of an infusion of the -toasted leaves in combination with fenugreek. It has a bitter, pungent, -disagreeable taste, and when bruised gives off a peculiar offensive odour. -The active principle of the plant is said to be due to a thick pale-yellow -oil or extract, which has been called <i>Vellarine</i>, from the Tamul name -of the plant, "Vullarei." Its Telinga name is "Babassa;" its Hindu, -"Thulkura;" and its Cinghalese, "Heen-gotookola." By the latter people -it is used as an anthelmintic. Though named <i>Asiatica</i> by botanists, it is -by no means confined to that continent, but is spread very generally -throughout the tropics. It has creeping stems, and tufts of roundish -kidney-shaped leaves.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">CHINCHONACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Hymenodyction excelsum</span>, <i>Wall.</i> (= <i>Cinchona excelsa</i>, Roxb.)</p> - -<p>Roxburgh supposed this tree to belong to the same genus as the Peruvian -barks, but no species of true <i>Chinchona</i> has ever been found wild in the -Eastern hemisphere. The present tree grows to a large size and yields -a thick bark, the inner coatings of which possess the bitterness and astringency -of the real Peruvian bark, especially when fresh; but the bitterness, -though more durable, is not so quickly communicated to the taste. It -is called "Bundaroo" by the Telingas.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">COMPOSITÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Verbesina cinerea</span>, <i>Less.</i> (= <i>Conyza cinerea</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>A low-growing annual plant, widely spread throughout the tropics of -the old world, and considered by the Hindus to possess medicinal virtues, -a decoction of the entire herb being administered in febrile affections in -order to promote perspiration. It is the "Seera shengalaneer" of the -Tamuls, and the "Gherutti Kamma" of the Telingas.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Aucklandia Costus</span>, <i>Falc.</i></p> - -<p>In an elaborate memoir upon this plant, Dr. Falconer has shown it -to be the source of the celebrated "Costus" of the ancients, which was -previously referred to the <i>Costus Arabicus</i>, Linn. (= <i>Costus speciosus</i>, Sm.), -a plant belonging to the order <i>Zingiberaceæ</i>. It is a gregarious herbace<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_557" id="Page_557">[Pg 557]</a></span>ous -plant with a perennial root sending up annual erect stems six or seven -feet high, bearing large, somewhat lyrate pinnatifid leaves. Costus-root -is collected in large quantities in Cashmere, but the only use made of -it there is for perfuming bales of shawls, and thus protecting them from -insects, the great bulk of it being exported to China and Persia, in both of -which countries it is highly esteemed as a medicine, the Persian doctors -regarding it as an efficacious remedy in nearly all the ills human nature is -heir to. Ainslie says that the native practitioners in India prescribe an -infusion of it as a stomachic and tonic, and also in the advanced stages -of typhus fever. In Cashmere it is called "Koot," which agrees with -the Arabic "Koost:" in Bengal it is known by the name of "Putchuk."</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Emilia sonchifolia</span>, <i>D. C.</i> (= <i>Cacalia sonchifolia</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>"Shudimudi" of the Bengalese, or "Kadoo-para" of the Cinghalese. -An annual, with erect or spreading, branching stems, and variously shaped -leaves, the lower ones being usually lyrate, and the upper more or less -amplexicaul, with blunt or sharp auricles. On the Malabar coast the -native practitioners, according to Rheede, consider a decoction of this plant -to possess antifebrile qualities.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">EBENACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Diospyros Embryopteris</span>, <i>Pers.</i> (= <i>Embryopteris glutinifera</i>, Roxb.).</p> - -<p>An American species of <i>Diospyros</i> (<i>D. Virginiana</i>, Linn.) is employed -as a febrifuge by rustic practitioners in the United States, and O'Shaughnessy -states that the bark of the present tree has been given in India, but -with doubtful results, in the treatment of intermittent fevers. It is well -known as the Gaub-tree, and the viscid, excessively astringent juice of its -fruit is used for tanning, and for paying the seams of boats. It is a -middle-sized tree, with long elliptic-lanceolate, smooth, coriaceous leaves, -and whitish flowers.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">APOCYNACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Ophioxylon serpentinum</span>, <i>Willd.</i></p> - -<p>"Chivan amelpodi" in Tamul; "Chota Chand" in Hindostanee; -"Chandra" in Bengalee; "Patalganni" in Telinga; and "Aikawaireya" -in Cinghalese. The root of the Chandra is very bitter, and is administered -by the Telinga and also by the Javanese doctors in the form of a decoction, -as a remedy in fever cases. It is one of the numberless supposed remedies -for the bites of venomous snakes, but, as in many other similar instances, -its virtues are fanciful, and its great reputation is probably ascribable to the -old doctrine of <i>signatures</i>, the plant being a climber and having a twining -stem.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_558" id="Page_558">[Pg 558]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Wrightia antidysenterica</span>, <i>R. Br.</i> (= <i>Nerium antidysentericum</i>, -Linn.).</p> - -<p>The bark of this species of <i>Wrightia</i> is included in some European -works on Materia Medica under the name of Tellicherry or Conessi bark. -It has long enjoyed a high reputation in India as a tonic and febrifuge; -but other parts of the plant likewise appear to possess similar properties, a -decoction of the long oat-like seeds being employed in ardent fever. The -bark is also given in dysentery. Among the Tamuls it goes by the name -of "Veppalei," while the Hindus call it "Curayia," and the Telingas "Pala -codija." It is a small tree producing a white ivory-like wood, which has -been tried for engraving purposes, but found unsuitable on account of it -not being of even quality throughout. It has obovate-oblong, shortly -acuminate, smooth leaves, and nearly terminal corymbs of jasmine-like -flowers.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">ASCLEPIADACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Calotropis gigantea</span>, <i>R. Br.</i> (= <i>Asclepias gigantea</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>Various parts of the Yercum-plant have long been employed for medicinal -purposes by the native doctors, and experiments made by Anglo-Indian -practitioners have proved that the inner bark of the root, called Mudar -bark, is a valuable remedy in leprosy, and that it may also be given with -advantage in several other complaints, including intermittent and other -fevers. An elastic gum and a valuable fibre are also obtained from the -plant. There are two varieties of Yercum, one with white and the other -with purple flowers, the former forming a tree fifteen or twenty feet high, -and the latter a shrub.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">LOGANIACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Strychnos Nux-Vomica</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>According to Roxburgh the exceedingly bitter wood of the Nux Vomica -is employed as a remedy in fevers of the intermittent kind, and also for -the cure of snake-bites, when that of the next species cannot be obtained. -The poisonous bark is commonly sold in the Indian bazaars in place of the -febrifuge "Rohuna bark," which is in reality the produce of <i>Soymida -febrifuga</i>. It is the false Angostura bark of our Materia Medica. Nux -Vomica seeds have also been administered with some benefit in intermittent -fever. The <i>Strychnos Nux-Vomica</i> forms a small tree, has oval, -entire, shining leaves, strongly marked with from three to five longitudinal -nerves, and bears small corymbs of greenish-white flowers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_559" id="Page_559">[Pg 559]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Strychnos colubrina</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>The "Naga musadi" of the Telingas, or "Koochilaluta" of the Bengalese. -The wood of this species is greatly esteemed by the natives as a remedy -for snake-bites, and is also given in cases of intermittent fever. It is a -climbing shrub with thick woody tendrils, elliptic-oblong, blunt-pointed, -three-nerved leaves, and small corymbs of yellowish flowers.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">GENTIANACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Ophelia Chirata</span>, <i>Griseb.</i> (= <i>Gentiana Chirayta</i>, Roxb., and <i>Agathotes -Chirayta</i>, Don.).</p> - -<p>The name "Chirata" or "Chirayta," by which this plant is commonly -known in India, is derived from the Sanscrit "Kirataticta." The dried -stems of the Chirata have long been famed amongst the natives of India as -a tonic and febrifuge; and they have also gained considerable reputation -amongst European practitioners in India, who, however, have found them -to be more efficacious in the cure of intermittent fever when employed -in combination with the seeds of the <i>Guilandina Bonducella</i>, mentioned -above. It is an annual plant, two or three feet high, with smooth round -stems and opposite, ovate or somewhat cordate, acuminate leaves, marked -with from five to seven nerves, and bears yellow flowers. Chirata is -included in the Edinburgh Pharmacopœia.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Ophelia angustifolia</span>, <i>Don.</i> (= <i>Swertia angustifolia</i>, Ham.).</p> - -<p>The stems of this species are called "Pukaree Chirata" in the Himalayas, -and are substituted for the true Chirata. The species is distinguished -by its stems being somewhat four-sided, by its much narrower, sharper-pointed, -obscurely three-nerved, short-stalked leaves, and by its white, -violet-spotted flowers. Both this and the true Chirata are natives of the -Himalayas.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Ophelia elegans</span>, <i>Wight.</i></p> - -<p>It has recently been discovered that the stems of this South Indian species -are made up into bundles in the same manner as the Himalayan Chiratas, -with which they have hitherto been confounded in the bazaars. The -plant, however, has a different native name, being called "Salaras" or -"Salajit" by the inhabitants of the Pulney hills; but it is considered -equally efficacious as a febrifuge. It has obsoletely four-sided stems, -narrow, ovate-lanceolate, sessile, three-nerved leaves, tapering to a slender -point, and beautiful pale-blue flowers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_560" id="Page_560">[Pg 560]</a></span></p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">SALVADORACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Salvadora</span>, <i>sp.</i></p> - -<p>A decoction of the bark of a species of <i>Salvadora</i> is recommended by -Hindu doctors in cases of low fever, and as a tonic. Great confusion, however, -exists among the species of this genus, and it is therefore uncertain -which one is thus employed. Ainslie mentions <i>Salvadora Persica</i>, but -it is very doubtful whether that species is found in any part of India.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">CORDIACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Cordia Myxa</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>Tonic and febrifuge properties are ascribed to the bark of this tree, it -being, according to Horsfield, one of the chief remedies used in fevers by the -Javanese, who call it "Kendal." It is a small tree with rounded branches, -ovate leaves, smooth on the upper surface but roughish underneath, and -usually terminal panicles of flowers, producing yellow, sweet-tasted pulpy -fruits about the size of cherries. In the Tamul language it is called "Vidi -marum;" "Nekra" in Telinga; "Lesura" in Hindostanee; and "Loloo" -in Cinghalese.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">SOLANACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Solanum xanthocarpum</span>, <i>Schrad. et Wendl.</i> (= <i>Solanum Jacquini</i>, -Willd.).</p> - -<p>There are two varieties of this plant, one of which was formerly considered -a distinct species, and named <i>Solanum Jacquini</i>. All parts of the -latter variety are used medicinally, and it is one of the fever remedies -employed by the Cinghalese, who call it "Kattoo-wel-battoo." It is a -decumbent, spreading annual plant, armed with numerous long white -prickles, and has sinuately-pinnatifid prickly leaves. The Tamuls call it -"Kandung Kattiri."</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">SCROPHULARIACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Picrorhiza Kurrooa</span>, <i>Royle.</i></p> - -<p>A small perennial herbaceous plant found in Kemaon, at Gossain-than, -and other parts of the Himalayan mountains, where its roots, which are -called "Hooling" in Tibet, and have a powerful bitter taste, are used as a -febrifuge by the natives, and also sent down to the bazaars of Bengal, where -they form one of the many bitter roots sold under the name of "Teeta." -The plant grows about six inches high, and has scarcely any stem, its -leaves all rising from the summit of the thick root, and also its flower-stalks, -which are five or six inches high, and bear a dense spike of small -bluish flowers at the top.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_561" id="Page_561">[Pg 561]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Herpestis Monnieria</span>, <i>Humb.</i> (= <i>Gratiola Monnieria</i>, Linn.)</p> - -<p>The Cinghalese consider this plant to possess febrifuge virtues: they -call it "Loonoo Weela." In India its expressed juice is mixed with -petroleum, and used as a topical application in rheumatism. It is a little -creeping plant, common in moist places throughout the tropics of both -hemispheres, and has obovate-cuneate leaves, bearing solitary long-stalked -pale-blue flowers in their axils. The Bengalese call it "Adha birni," and -the Telingas "Sambrani-chittoo."</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">ACANTHACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Andrographis paniculata</span>, <i>Nees ab Essen.</i> (= <i>Justicia paniculata</i>, -Burm.).</p> - -<p>This is the celebrated Creyat, the principal ingredient in the famous -bitter tincture called <i>drogue amère</i>, so highly esteemed in India for its -tonic and stomachic properties, and also as a febrifuge. The entire plant -is employed, the intensely bitter principle being found in all parts of it. It -is an annual, with stiff quadrangular stems from one to two feet high, -bearing smooth lanceolate leaves, attenuated at the base. In the Telinga -language it is called "Nella vemoo;" in Bengalese, "Kala-megh;" in -Hindustanee, "Calapnath;" and in Tamul, "Kiriat," hence the common -Indian name of the plant, Creat or Creyat.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Justicia Adhatoda</span>, <i>Linn.</i> (= <i>Adhatoda Vasica</i>, Nees ab Essen.)</p> - -<p>The flowers, leaves, and roots have a bitterish and somewhat aromatic -taste, and are supposed to possess antispasmodic properties. An infusion -of them, especially of the flowers, is given to prevent the return of rigour -in intermittent fever. In Ceylon it is used as an expectorant for children. -The Bengalese call the plant "Bakus;" the Tamuls, "Adhatodey;" the -Cinghalese, "Paawetta;" the Telingas, "Adasara;" and in Sanscrit it is -called "Vasica" or "Uroos." It forms a tree fifteen or twenty feet high, -with elliptic oblong leaves, attenuated to both ends, and pale-coloured -flowers with purple stripes and rusty spots.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">LABIATÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Ocimum sanctum</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>The Tamul physicians prescribe a decoction of the root of this common -Indian species of Basil in fever cases, and the juice of the leaves in catarrhal -affections. The Brahmins consider the plant sacred to Vishnu, and cultivate -it in the vicinity of temples, while the Malays strew it upon the graves -of their departed friends. The whole plant generally has a purplish tinge, -and grows about a foot high: it has long-stalked, downy, oval leaves,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_562" id="Page_562">[Pg 562]</a></span> -toothed along the edges, and small pale-purple flowers. Its Tamul name is -"Toolasee;" its Bengalese, "Kala-toolsee;" and its Cinghalese "Madooroo-tallu."</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Anisomeles Malabarica</span>, <i>R. Br.</i> (= <i>Nepeta Malabarica</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>"Pemayrutie" of the Tamuls; "Moga beerakoo" of the Telingas; and -"Bootan Kooshum" in Sanscrit. A shrub, 2 to 5 feet high, clothed with -short tomentum, and having oblong-lanceolate leaves, narrowed at the base, -and purplish flowers disposed in distant whorls. The leaves are bitter, -astringent, and somewhat aromatic, and are given in infusion in the later -stages of dysentery and in intermittent fevers. Patients suffering under -the last-mentioned disease are also made to inhale the vapour rising from -an infusion of the whole plant, in order to induce a copious perspiration.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Geniosporum prostratum</span>, <i>Benth.</i> (= <i>Ocimum prostratum</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>A small herb used as a febrifuge by the natives of the Madras presidency. -It has a prostrate stem and numerous hispid branches, bearing small -oblong-lanceolate, serrated leaves, and long spike-like racemes of very small -flowers.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Roylea elegans</span>, <i>Wall.</i> (= <i>Phlomis calycina</i>, Roxb., and <i>Ballota cinerea</i>, -Don.).</p> - -<p>According to the late Dr. Royle, after whom the genus is named, this -plant is employed as a febrifuge in the Himalayas, where it is called -"Putkuroo." It is a much-branched, erect shrub from three to five feet -high, having the branches clothed with ash-coloured tomentum, and bearing -ovate, sharp-pointed, coarsely toothed leaves, slightly cordate at the -base. Its flowers vary from white to pale-rose colour.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">VERBENACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Premna serratifolia</span>, <i>Linn.</i> (= <i>Premna integrifolia</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>The warm, bitterish-tasted root of this plant is prescribed in decoction -by the native practitioners as a gentle stomachic and cordial in fevers. It -has an agreeable odour. The tree is called "Moonnee" by the Tamuls; -"Ghebboonellie" by the Telingas; and "Middee-gass" by the Cinghalese. -Its trunk and large branches are armed with spines, and its leaves are -ovate or oval, entire or toothed towards the top, of a shining green above -and paler underneath.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Vitex trifolia</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>Different parts of this plant are employed medicinally, in various ways -and for various diseases, by native doctors in India and also in Java. The -part used as a remedy for intermittent fever is the leaves, which are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_563" id="Page_563">[Pg 563]</a></span> -powdered and taken in water. Pillows stuffed with them are used to cure -cold in the head, and headache. It is a decumbent shrub, with the -branches, under side of the leaves, and inflorescence mealy-white. There -are two varieties: one with trifoliate and the other with simple leaves. -Its Tamul name is "Neer-noochie;" its Telinga, "Neela vavilie;" and -its Hindustanee, "Nisindha," or "Seduari."</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Vitex Negundo</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>This species is considered to have medicinal properties similar to but -weaker than the last. The decoction of the root has a pleasant bitter taste, -and is administered in cases of intermittent and typhus fever. In Tamul -it is called "Noochie;" in Telinga, "Wayalakoo;" in Hindustanee, -"Nisunda;" and in Cinghalese, "Sooddoo-nikka." It is a more erect -shrub than the last, and its leaves are all compound, consisting of from -three to five entire or toothed or deeply pinnatifid leaflets, covered with -white meal underneath, as also are the branches and flowers.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">NYCTAGINACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Boerhaavia diffusa</span>, <i>Linn.</i> (= <i>Boerhaavia procumbens</i>, Roxb.).</p> - -<p>The roots of several species of <i>Boerhaavia</i> are employed medicinally by -the natives of various parts of the world. In India those of the present -have the reputation of being antifebrile, and Ainslie also says that the -native practitioners include them amongst their laxative medicines. This -plant is a herbaceous perennial with decumbent, smooth, or rarely pubescent -stems and leaves, the latter varying very much in shape. Among the -Bengalese it is known by the name of "Gadha-poorna;" and it is the -"Pittasooddopala" of the Cinghalese. Its leaves are eaten as a potherb.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">EUPHORBIACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Tragia cannabina</span>, <i>Willd.</i></p> - -<p>"Sirroo canchorie" in the Tamul; and "Doolya-gunda" in the Telinga -language. The root of this plant has a pleasant odour when fresh: the -native doctors consider it to possess diaphoretic and alterative qualities, and -they prescribe an infusion of it in ardent fever. It is an erect shrub, about -four feet high, with hispid stems and leaves, the latter being divided into -three sinuated lobes. Roxburgh says that the hairs on this plant sting as -bad as those of the common nettle.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_564" id="Page_564">[Pg 564]</a></span></p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">PIPERACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Chavica Betle</span>, <i>Miq.</i> (= <i>Piper Betle</i>, Linn.).</p> - -<p>This affords the celebrated Betle leaves, so extensively employed as a -masticatory in the East. Ainslie says that the warm juice of the leaves is -prescribed by the native doctors as a febrifuge, in the quantity of a small -spoonful twice daily.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Piper nigrum</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>Black pepper has long been known to possess febrifuge powers: an -infusion of it in some kind of spirit is a popular remedy for preventing the -return of the paroxysms in intermittent fevers. The root, however, is the -part used by the native doctors in India, and is administered in the form of -a decoction. <i>Piperin</i>, one of the constituents of pepper, has been said to -be a more certain and speedy febrifuge than the chinchona alkaloids, but -O'Shaughnessy says that after repeated and careful trials he found it was -not of the least utility. The Tamul name of the plant is "Shuvium."</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">ZINGIBERACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Curcuma longa</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>The uses of the various kinds of Turmeric for dyeing purposes and as -a condiment, particularly for the preparation of curry-powder, are well -known, both in this country and to the natives of India; but the latter -consider that it also possesses medicinal virtues, and give it as a stimulant -and tonic in intermittent fever and some other diseases. European practitioners -at one time regarded it as useful in jaundice.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">LILIACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Allium sativum</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>Ainslie says that the Hindus express a stimulating oil from common -garlic, which they prescribe internally in ague to prevent the recurrence of -the paroxysms, and use externally in paralytic and rheumatic affections. -Garlic is called "Vullay poondoo" in Tamul; "Lassun" in Hindostanee; -and "Lasuna" in Sanscrit.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">ORONTIACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Acorus Calamus</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>The rhizomes of the common Sweet-Flag are well known in some parts -of England as a cure for ague, and the natives of the East are well aware<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_565" id="Page_565">[Pg 565]</a></span> -of their virtues in this respect. Indian practitioners also reckon it valuable -in the "indigestions, stomach-aches, and bowel affections of children," so -much so, indeed, that, according to Ainslie, "there is a penalty incurred -by any druggist who will not open his door in the middle of the night -and sell it if demanded." The Bengalese call it "Shwet buch;" the -Cinghalese, "Wadakaha;" and the Hindus, "Bach."</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Pothos scandens</span>, <i>Linn.</i></p> - -<p>The native practitioners use this plant in putrid fevers. It is an epiphyte -with slender rooting stems adhering to the branches of trees like ivy, and -has entire, lanceolate, smooth, coriaceous leaves, tapering upwards to a -point and blunt and rounded at the base, where they are articulated with -the winged stalk.</p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="c">GRAMINACEÆ.</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Andropogon muricatus</span>, <i>Retz.</i></p> - -<p>The fragrant aromatic roots of this grass, called Cuscus or Vetivert, are -only employed for perfumery purposes in this country, but in India they -are well known as the material of which window and door screens are -made, and the native doctors, moreover, consider them to possess medicinal -virtues, prescribing an infusion of them as a diaphoretic and gentle stimulant -in some kinds of fever. "Vittie" is the Tamul name of the plant, -and "Vayr" in the same language signifies <i>root</i>, and, by combining and -corrupting these, Europeans have formed the word <i>Vetivert</i>; while its other -European name, Cuscus, is derived from the Persian "Khus-Khus." In -Hindustanee it is called "Useer;" and in Sanscrit "Viratara."</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Andropogon Iwarancusa</span>, <i>Roxb.</i></p> - -<p>The natives administer an infusion of the roots of this grass, combined -with pepper, in fevers, of both the continued and intermittent kind. It -has a bitter, warm, pungent taste, and fragrant odour. The specific name -is derived from the Bengalee and Hindustanee, which is variously spelt -"Ibharankusha," "Iwarankusha," "Kurankusha," or "Iwarancussa."</p> - - -<p class="c"><span class="smcap">Andropogon Calamus-aromaticus</span>, <i>Royle</i>.</p> - -<p>According to Royle, this is the κάλαμος ἀραματικός of the ancient Greeks, -and the Sweet-cane or Calamus of the Bible. When chewed it has a -strong taste of ginger, whence it is commonly called Ginger-grass. The -native doctors give an infusion of it as a stomachic and febrifuge; and they -also prepare from it a very fragrant aromatic oil, which they esteem very -highly as a liniment in chronic rheumatism. This is sent to this country as -grass-oil, or ginger-grass oil, and is sold by our perfumers as oil of geranium -or spikenard.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_566" id="Page_566">[Pg 566]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="APPENDIX_D" id="APPENDIX_D"></a><span class="gesperrt">APPENDIX D.</span></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="h">REPORT ON THE CULTIVATION OF CHINCHONAS IN SOUTHERN -INDIA. BY WILLIAM G. McIVOR, ESQ., SUPERINTENDENT -OF CHINCHONA-CULTIVATION IN THE NEILGHERRY -HILLS.</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p><i>Rearing Seeds.</i>—<span class="smcap">The</span> first sowing of imported seeds took place in the -beginning of February 1860. No certain data being given for the treatment -of Chinchona-seeds, our first operations were necessarily experimental, -and a good number of seeds were lost by being sown in too retentive a soil, -and supplied with what, to Chinchona-seeds, proved to be an excess of -moisture; the greatest success we obtained in our first attempts was with -the use of a soil composed almost entirely of burned earth, and of this -sowing nearly sixty per cent. germinated, the temperature of the earth -being about 70°. The number of days required before germination took -place in the several sowings varied from sixty-two to sixty-eight. The -seedlings made but little progress for the first six weeks, but after that -time they sprung into rapid growth, averaging from 1¼ to 2 inches per -mensem.</p> - -<p>Seeds of the valuable Chinchona Condaminea, received on the 16th -February 1862, were sown on the same day in a very light open soil -composed of a beautifully open sort of sand, with a very small admixture of -leaf-mould. Our experience with the first seeds having established beyond -all doubt that the Chinchonas are very impatient of any excess of moisture, -particular care was taken in the preparation of the soil used in this sowing. -The earth was in the first instance exposed to the sun for two or three days -and thoroughly dried, it was then heated to about 212° in order to destroy -all grubs or larva of insects; after being allowed to cool, it was brought -into the potting-shed and watered sufficiently to make it moist, but only to -that degree of moisture that the particles of soil would not adhere together -on being pressed firmly with the hand, that is, the earth on being laid -down was sufficiently dry to break and fall into its usual form. With the -soil in this state the pots were filled, the surface lightly pressed down, and -the seeds sown thereon, being lightly covered with a sprinkling of sand. -The pots were then placed on a slight bottom heat of about 72°. These -were never watered in the strict sense of the word; when the surface got -dry they were slightly sprinkled with a fine syringe just sufficient to -damp the surface, but never to penetrate the soil. Under this treatment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_567" id="Page_567">[Pg 567]</a></span> -the seeds began to germinate very vigorously on the sixteenth day after -sowing, and now, 17th March 1862, or twenty-nine days after sowing, -upwards of sixty per cent. of the whole of the perfect seeds sown have -germinated, and we may fairly hope to rear over ninety per cent. of this -sowing. I may, however, observe that these seeds possessed the great -advantage of being forwarded to India in a letter, and thus they were never -subjected to the damaging effects produced on seeds sent out in air-tight -parcels. The reason of this is the want of a circulation of air through the -packets, and a consequent deposit of moisture on the interior of the outer -covering by every increase and decrease of temperature on the voyage. As -soon as the seeds germinate they are carefully pricked out into fresh pots -(the soil being prepared as before described for the seeds). This must of -course be done with very great care, the radicle being carefully covered -with soil, while the seed and cotyledons are kept above the surface. In this -way about twenty-five seedlings are transplanted into a four-inch pot, and -treated in every respect the same as the seeds; that is, they are never -watered, the soil being merely sprinkled as before stated to keep it in that -medium state of moisture in which it was first put into the pots. This -prevents the damping off of the seedlings, to which they are very liable -when treated otherwise; it also greatly facilitates their growth and the -formation of roots, the soil being so perfectly open that it is readily affected -by the atmosphere, and thus kept in the most favourable condition for promoting -vegetation. When treated in this way our seedlings have made an -average growth in ten months of over eighteen inches, the growth being -much more rapid towards the end of the ten months than in the earlier -stages.</p> - -<p><i>Propagation.</i>—As soon as the seedlings and imported plants attained -sufficient size, they were propagated by being layered; in this way it was -found that they rooted readily in about six weeks or two months, and -threw out shoots from every bud; and not only this, but many latent buds -were developed, and a fine growth of young wood produced for succeeding -layers and cuttings. The principle of layering, being so well known to -English gardeners, requires no detail; but in the Chinchona-plants it was -found that the layers were very liable to <i>bleed</i>, and this not only weakened -the plants but retarded the formation of roots; this we found to be remedied -in a great degree by inserting in the cut a triangular piece of perfectly -dry broken porous brick. An abundance of young wood being produced, -we proceeded to propagate by cuttings, the earth being prepared with -great care, the same as for the seeds, with the exception of not being -heated. The ends of the cuttings are placed upon pieces of perfectly dry -porous brick, around the sides of the pots. They are then placed on a -bottom heat of 75° or 80°; and, with this treatment, young and tender -wood roots in about three weeks or one month, older wood in about six -weeks to two months. With cuttings of the young wood our loss has -not exceeded two per cent., and with older wood about ten per cent.</p> - -<p>Our object being to produce the largest number of plants in the shortest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_568" id="Page_568">[Pg 568]</a></span> -possible space of time, it was found that cuttings and layers required more -wood than could be conveniently spared, and it was resolved to try the -propagation by buds; in this respect the success has been most satisfactory. -The secret of success entirely lies in the amount of moisture given; if in -excess, they rot immediately, but, if sufficient care is exercised in reference -to moisture, the losses will not exceed three or four per cent. Six C. Calisaya -buds put in on the 30th January all rooted in forty-one days. It -may be observed that it is not necessary that a leaf should be attached -to the bud: this is no doubt an advantage, although we have struck many -buds of the red bark without leaves, and also a few of the Calisayas.</p> - -<p>It ought to be explained that the reason why the earth is brought to a -medium state of moisture before being put into the pots is because it is -never afterwards watered to such an extent as to render it really wet, being -in fact just kept in that state of moisture in which it was originally placed -in the pots, and this uniform and medium state of moisture is more easily -retained by the pots being plunged in beds of earth. The reason why we -found this system necessary was, that, when the soil was watered in the usual -way after the seedlings or cuttings were placed in it, it was found, from its -expansion and adhesion by the action of the water, that its particles were -forced far too close together to be beneficial to the growth of the plants, -and in many instances this proved to be injurious, vastly retarding their -growth.</p> - -<p>In the nurseries in the open air the same principle of cultivation and propagation -as that described above has been adopted, and, with reference to -the condition of the plants and layers, with nearly equal success, the -period of rooting of the layers being from two months to ten weeks, while -cuttings take from two to three months, the average loss being about -fifteen per cent.: this occurs from the impossibility, in the open air, of -keeping a uniform state of the atmosphere around the cuttings. With -layers this is not so important, as they root quite as surely (though slower) -as in the propagating-houses, and flourish equally well.</p> - -<p><i>Formation of Plantations.</i>—The mode of cultivation of these plants -likely to prove the most advantageous being uncertain, it was resolved in -May and June of 1861 to place out a number of plants under different -conditions of shade, exposure, &c., and the result has been that the plants -placed without the protection of living shade have made the most satisfactory -progress, and borne the dry season without the least injury. The -plants placed under living shade were found to be damaged in some degree -during the rains by the incessant drip, but on the weather clearing up they -threw out new leaves and quickly recovered. Nine months after planting, -or at the end of our dry season, these plants were found to be suffering -considerably from the drought; and on taking a few of them up, it was -found that the holes in which these Chinchonas were planted had become -entirely filled by the fibres of the roots of the living trees in their neighbourhood, -which had drawn up the whole of the moisture and nourishment -from the soil in which the Chinchona-plants were placed. In putting the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_569" id="Page_569">[Pg 569]</a></span> -plants out, which were placed in the open, we of course saw from the first -that with the young plants we had to combat the bad effects of excessive -evaporation during our dry season, under a bright and scorching sun; we -also saw the injury likely to be done to the plants by radiation during -bright and cloudless nights. To obviate these disadvantages the plants -were sheltered on the approach of the dry season by a rough enclosure of -bamboo-branches, with the leaves adhering to them, so as to give them -sufficient shade both from the effects of evaporation and radiation. The -enclosure is left open on the north side, and enclosed on the south, east, -and west; the sun's declination being south during the dry weather. The -ground will not be impoverished by the roots of other trees, and the whole -of its nourishment is preserved for the Chinchona-plants. At the same -time they will, by this treatment, be far more efficiently protected from -evaporation and radiation than they would be by the use of living shade, -whether caused by forest-trees or by the admixture of faster-growing plants. -In addition to this shade of the branches of cut bamboos, the soil around -the roots of some of the young Chinchona-plants was covered one or -two inches in thickness with half-decayed leaves, and the plants thus -treated show a very great luxuriance, which is not exceeded by any of the -plants in our propagating-houses. To ascertain the cause of this luxuriance -a few of the plants were recently examined, and although at the end of -the dry season the soil about the roots was found to be perfectly moist; -thousands of young rootlets of great strength were found to have been -thrown into the covering of decayed leaves, so that it had become one -matted mass of beautiful white roots, many of them nearly the thickness -of a crow-quill. On the strength of these observations we have resolved -to place out this season seventy-five acres of Chinchona-plants in cleared -land, and exactly under the conditions and treatment last described; we -also propose planting seventy-five acres under various degrees of living -shade, in which every attempt will be made to mitigate as much as -possible the injurious effects of this system already described. The cultivation -of these plants being experimental, it is necessary that we should -give every method of cultivation which appears reasonable a fair trial, and -that only developed facts should influence us in giving preference to one -method of cultivation over that of another. The distances at which we -have prepared to place the plants are for the larger growing species from -nine to ten feet apart, for the sorts of medium size eight feet, and for the -shrubby sorts seven feet: these distances are of course too close to admit of -the plants attaining a full size, but we believe that it will be advantageous -to plant them close in the first instance, and thin them out afterwards. In -order to illustrate the extreme growth of our plants, it is worthy of note -that one or two of them, although not yet twelve months old, have -attained a height of about five feet by three and a half feet in diameter -through the branches; we may therefore conclude that the plants will in -about two years fairly cover the ground if placed at the distances given -above. When they begin to crowd and impede the growth of each other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_570" id="Page_570">[Pg 570]</a></span> -they will of course be thinned out and pruned; and it is anticipated that -a good supply of bark may be obtained by these means in from eight to -twelve years, or perhaps earlier.</p> - -<p class="l"><i>Ootacamund, 19th March, 1862.</i></p> - - -<p>P.S. On the 5th of April the seeds of <i>C. Condaminea</i> were coming up -plentifully, and 4193 seedlings had already been transplanted. 100 seedlings -of <i>C. crispa</i> had also come up. The seeds of <i>C. Condaminea</i> were -coming up at the rate of 500 a-day. At this date there were 25,000 -Chinchona-plants on the Neilgherry hills, and all the species, except <i>C. -lancifolia</i>, were increasing rapidly. It will be some time before Mr. McIvor -will be able to propagate from the latter species, owing to the very unhealthy -state in which the plants arrived from Java. In April 50 acres -of ground were prepared for planting at the Dodabetta site, and 70 acres at -Neddiwuttum.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_571" id="Page_571">[Pg 571]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="APPENDIX_E" id="APPENDIX_E"></a><span class="gesperrt">APPENDIX E.</span></h2> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="h">NOTE ON THE EXPORT TRADE IN PERUVIAN BARK FROM -THE PORTS OF SOUTH AMERICA, AND ON THE IMPORT -TRADE INTO ENGLAND.</p></blockquote> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Arica</span>, the port for the "<i>Calisaya</i>" bark from Bolivia. In 1859 the -export of bark amounted to 192,600 lbs., valued at 17,334<i>l.</i>; and between -January and November, 1860, to 388,800 lbs., valued at 35,000<i>l.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Islay</span>, another port for the "<i>Calisaya</i>" bark from Bolivia. In 1859 -the export of bark amounted to 146,000 lbs., valued at 13,460<i>l.</i> (of which -136,500 lbs. went to England, and 9500 lbs. to France); and between -January and November, 1860, to 107,700 lbs., valued at 9770<i>l.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Payta</span>, the port for the "<i>Crown</i>" barks from Loxa. The price of bark -at this port for the last nine years has been twenty-four dollars the cwt.; -but during the last year the price has risen to thirty dollars, where it is -likely to remain for some time. The usual annual export amounts to -140,000 lbs., the actual quantity shipped in 1861, and it is valued at -8400<i>l.</i></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Guayaquil</span>, the port for the "<i>Red</i>" bark and the "<i>West Coast Carthagena</i>" -bark. The quantity exported varies very much in different years, -the price being at present about twenty dollars the cwt. In 1857 the -export of bark amounted to 516,600 lbs.; in 1858 to 533,300 lbs.; in 1859 -to 201,700 lbs.; in 1860 to 91,500 lbs.; and in 1861 to 443,700 lbs.; -valued in the last of these years at 17,748<i>l.</i></p> - -<p>The "<i>Grey</i>" barks were exported, in former years, from <span class="smcap">Callao</span>, and in -small quantities from <span class="smcap">Huanchaco</span> and <span class="smcap">Lambayeque</span>, but of late years none -has been exported.</p> - -<p>The "<i>Carthagena</i>" barks from New Granada are exported from the ports -of <span class="smcap">Carthagena</span> and <span class="smcap">Santa Martha</span>, and also from the little port of -<span class="smcap">Tumaco</span> on the Pacific coast. From 1849 to 1855 great quantities were -exported, but in the latter year the supply began to fail. The existing -civil war in New Granada has still further injured this trade. No reliable -account of the export of bark from the above ports of New Granada has -been received.</p> - -<p>From the four ports of <span class="smcap">Arica</span>, <span class="smcap">Islay</span>, <span class="smcap">Payta</span>, and <span class="smcap">Guayaquil</span> the average -amount of bark annually exported may be taken at 912,900 lbs., valued -at 59,076<i>l.</i> Small quantities may come from other ports, of which no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_572" id="Page_572">[Pg 572]</a></span> -authentic account has been obtained; so that the total amount annually -exported from South America may be estimated at considerably over -2,000,000 lbs.</p> - -<p>There being no duty on the importation of Peruvian bark into England, -the returns of the amount imported are much less carefully kept -than was formerly the case. The returns, too, are in packages, and not -in lbs. or cwts., and these packages vary in weight from 120 lbs. to -60 lbs. The number of packages of Peruvian bark imported into England -in 1858 was 19,831; in 1859 the number was 10,651; in 1860 it was -10,456; and in 1861 it was 20,748. Taking the average of the weight -of the packages at 80 lbs. each, the quantity imported into England -during the last four years would be 4,934,880 lbs., and in the year 1861 -about 1,659,840 lbs.</p> - -<p>The quantity of Peruvian bark imported into England during the three -months ending on March 31st, 1861, was reported to be 306,300 lbs., and -during the same period, in the present year, 310,700 lbs. At this rate the -annual import would be a little over 1,200,000 lbs., which is probably -more correct than the above estimate from the packages.</p> - - -<p class="c">THE END.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="c small">LONDON: PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING CROSS.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <a href="images/fig26.jpg"> - <img src="images/thumb1.jpg" alt="" /> - </a> -<p class="caption center">MAP<br /> -of<br /> -PART <span class="smcap">OF</span> PERU<br /> -to illustrate<br /> -Mr. C. MARKHAM'S JOURNEY<br /> -<span class="s">TO</span><br /> -<span class="sans">THE CHINCHONA FORESTS OF</span><br /> -CARAVAYA. -</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2 id="FOOTNOTES"><span class="gesperrt">FOOTNOTES:</span></h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The only valid argument against this change is that it may cause confusion, -but the alteration is too slight for this to be possible; and it is not -uncommon, among botanists, to correct the usual spelling of genera or -species of plants, when it is found to be erroneous. Among other examples -of such changes may be enumerated those of <i>Plumeria</i>, now altered to -<i>Plumieria</i>; <i>Bufonia</i> to <i>Buffonia</i>; and <i>Gesneria</i> to <i>Gesnera</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>See page 490.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> In Quichua, when the name of a -plant is reduplicated, it almost invariably -implies that it possesses some -medicinal quality.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> La Condamine, Jussieu, and Ruiz -all believed that the Indians were -aware of the medicinal qualities of -Peruvian bark, and that they imparted -their knowledge to the Spaniards. -Humboldt and Ulloa were of an opposite -opinion. The stories of its virtues -having been discovered by watching -the pumas or South-American lions -chewing the bark to cure their fevers, -mentioned by Condamine; and of an -Indian having found it out by drinking -of the waters of a lake into which a -chinchona-tree had fallen—told by -Geoffroy—are of modern and European -origin.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Jussieu says that it is certain that -the first knowledge of the efficacy of this -bark was derived from the Indians of -Malacotas, some leagues south of Loxa.—Weddell, -<i>Histoire Naturelle des -Quinquinas</i>, p. 15.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Poëppig, <i>Reise</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Mr. Spruce's <i>Report</i>, p. 25.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The first Marquis of Astorga -married Leonora, daughter of Don -Fadrique Henriquez, Admiral of Spain, -and sister of the Queen of Aragon, -who was mother of King Ferdinand -the Catholic: so that Ana was sixth -cousin to her contemporary King Philip IV</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>Nobiliario genealogico de los Titulos -de España, por Alonzo Lopez de Haro, -Madrid, 1626.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Alcedo.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <i>Creacion y Privilegios de los Titulos -de Castilla, por Don José Berni.</i> The -Counts of Chinchon were hereditary -Alcaides of the Alcazar of Segovia. -In 1623 the Count of Chinchon here -received Charles I. of England, and -gave him a supper of "certaine trouts -of extraordinary greatnesse." In 1764 -the then Count of Chinchon ceded the -Alcazar to the crown.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> A large supply of seeds of this kind -has been sent to India and Ceylon.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Howard's <i>Nueva Quinologia de -Pavon</i>, No. 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Sebastian Badus asserts that bark -was brought to Alcala de Henares as -early as 1632.—Humboldt's <i>Aspects</i>, ii. -p. 268.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> I translated and edited Acuña's -Voyage for the Hakluyt Society in 1859.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>Disertacion por Dr. Don Hipolito -Unanue.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Torti's work, <i>De Febribus</i>, was -published at Venice in 1732.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <i>Traité Thérapeutique du Quinquina</i>, par P. Briquet. Paris, 1856.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Voyage de Condamine</i>, p. 31.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> 1738, p. 226.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> <i>Noticias Secretas</i>, p. 572.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>Semanario de la Nueva Granada</i>, p. 283.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Endlicher separated the species -whose capsules begin to open from the -top, and formed them into a sub-genus, -which he called <i>Cascarilla</i>. Klotzsch, -combining these with other species characterised -by a six-parted corolla, raised -them to an independent genus called -<i>Ladenbergia</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> <i>Histoire naturelle des Quinquinas</i>, -p. 72.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Dr. Weddell's list is as follows:— -</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdr">1.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Calisaya</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Weddell</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Bolivia and Caravaya.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">2.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Condaminea</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Humboldt</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Loxa.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">3.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Scrobiculata</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Humboldt</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Peru.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">4.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Amygdalifolia</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Weddell</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Peru and Bolivia.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">5.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Nitida</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Ruiz and Pavon</i>)</td><td class="tdl">N. Peru.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">6.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Australis</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Weddell</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Southern Bolivia.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">7.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Boliviana</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Weddell</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Caravaya and Bolivia</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">8.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Micrantha</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Ruiz and Pavon</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Peru and Bolivia.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">9.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Pubescens</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Vahl</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Peru and Bolivia.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">10.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Cordifolia</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Mutis</i>)</td><td class="tdl">New Granada.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">11.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Purpurascens</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Weddell</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Bolivia.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">12.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Ovata</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Ruiz and Pavon</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Peru and Bolivia.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">13.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Chomeliana</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Weddell</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Bolivia.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">14.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Glandulifera</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Ruiz and Pavon</i>)</td><td class="tdl">N. Peru.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">15.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Asperifolia</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Weddell</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Bolivia.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">16.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Humboldtiana</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Lambert</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Jaen.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">17.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Carabayensis</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Weddell</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Caravaya.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">18.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Mutisii</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Lambert</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Loxa.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">19.</td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Hirsuta</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Ruiz and Pavon</i>)</td><td class="tdl">N. Peru.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr"> </td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdc"><i>Doubtful.</i></td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr"> </td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Discolor</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Klotzsch</i>)</td><td class="tdl">N. Peru.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr"> </td><td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">C. Palalba</span></td><td class="tdl">(<i>Pavon</i>)</td><td class="tdl">Peru.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> M. Delondre decided that the fruit -and flowers, though having a bitter -principle, did not contain the alkaloids, -while the roots contained them, though -in smaller proportion than the bark of -the trunk and branches.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Weddell.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Briquet, p. 22.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>Nueva Quinologia de Pavon</i>, No. -10.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> <i>Aricine</i>, as a sulphate, does not -crystallize, but forms a peculiar trembling -jelly. It was so named from the -port of Arica, whence the bark of <i>C. -pubescens</i> is exported.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Pereira says that, if a substance suspected -to contain <i>quina</i> be powdered, -then shaken with ether, and afterwards -successively treated with chlorine and -ammonia, the liquid will assume a -green colour if the slightest trace of -quina be present.—<i>Mat. Med.</i> ii. part -ii. p. 119. One or two pounds of bark -suffice well for an analysis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Traité Thérapeutique du Quinquina -et de ses préparations</i>, par P. Briquet, -Paris, 1855. Also Pereira's <i>Materia -Medica</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> The word <i>quinquina</i> is generally -adopted for the medical preparations -which are taken from Peruvian bark. -<i>Quina</i> signifies <i>bark</i> in Quichua, and -<i>quinquina</i> is a bark possessing some -medicinal property. <i>Quinine</i> is, of -course, derived from <i>quina</i>, <i>chinchonine</i> -from <i>chinchona</i>. The Spaniards corrupted -the word <i>quina</i> into <i>china</i>; and -in homœopathy the word <i>china</i> is still -retained. In 1735, when M. de la -Condamine visited Peru, the native -name of <i>quina-quina</i> was almost entirely -replaced by the Spanish term -<i>cascarilla</i>, which also means bark.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> <i>Autobiography of Sir James MacGrigor</i>, -chap. xii. p. 241.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Dictionnaire des Sciences Médicales</i>, quoted by Delondre, p. 7.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>Aspects</i>, ii. p. 267.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> <i>Semanario de la Nueva Granada.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> From Martius: a note in No. 1 of -Howard's <i>Nueva Quinologia de Pavon</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Some of these MSS. are, I believe, -in possession of Don Pedro Carbo, of -Guayaquil.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Spanish edition of General Miller's -<i>Memoirs</i>, i. p. 42.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> It is the form of <i>C. Condaminea</i>, -represented in the unshaded branch -with capsules, Plate x. of the <i>Plantes -Equinoctiales</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> It comes in very small quills, as if -taken from a mere shrub.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Besides <i>quinine</i> several other febrifugal -alkaloids are found in the chinchona -barks, one of the most important -of which is <i>chinchonidine</i>, discovered -by Pasteur in 1852.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> I found some very beautiful dried -specimens of this species in the botanical -gardens at Madrid last year. The -lanceolate leaves and panicles of flowers -still retained their colour. They were -marked "<i>Cascarilla fina de Uritusinga -de Loxa, Quin. de Pavon</i>."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Howard's <i>Nueva Quinologia de -Pavon</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> <i>Howard</i>, from MS. of Ruiz.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Mr. Cross's <i>Report</i>, Nov. 1861.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Pereira, <i>Materia Medica</i>, ii. p. 106.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Afterwards published in a pamphlet -of 57 pages, with plates.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> In 1856 Mr. Howard shared Dr. -Weddell's belief that the "red bark" -belonged to a variety of <i>C. ovata</i>.—<i>Pharmaceutical -Journal</i>, Oct. 1856.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Howard.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> With "red bark" another kind, -known as "West coast Carthagena," is -exported from Guayaquil. The name -is absurd. Mr. Howard believes it to -be derived from the <i>C. Palton</i> of Pavon, -which is found in the woods of Cuenca, -and in the province of Loxa. Samples -of this bark yield 2.05 of alkaloids, 1.34 -of chinchonidine, and 0.7 of quinine.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Alcedo.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Mutis was born at Cadiz in 1732. -He resided in South America for forty -years, and corresponded with Linnæus. -Dying in 1808, the greater portion of -his papers was destroyed in the revolution -at Bogota; but a part of his collection -of dried plants is now in the -botanical gardens at Madrid, in a disgraceful -state of disorder.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> In 1776 Don Sebastian José Lopez -Ruiz, a physician at Bogota, persuaded -the Spanish government that he was -the first discoverer of chinchona-trees -in New Granada, and obtained a yearly -pension of 2000 dollars as a reward; -but he was afterwards considered to -be an impostor, and the viceroy deprived -him of it.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> The pupil and fellow-workman of -Mutis, from whose notes he wrote.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> <i>Anales de la Historia Natural de -Madrid</i>, 1800.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> <i>Floræ Columbiæ specimina selecta</i>, -i. p. 21: Berlin, 1858. A superbly illustrated -work by Dr. Karsten.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> <i>Die medicinischen Chinarinden -Neu-Granadas</i>, von H. Karsten: Berlin, -1858. I have had this pamphlet translated -for the use of those intrusted -with, or interested in, the chinchona cultivation -in India and Ceylon. It contains -a great deal of valuable information -respecting the most favourable -situations for the production of alkaloids -in chinchona barks, and other particulars -respecting the growth of the bark, and -the methods of collecting it. Dr. Karsten -is a careful observer and a scientific -botanist and chemist, and his observations -form a very important addition to -our knowledge of this subject.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> <i>Report of the Administrador Don -Ignacio Cavero, Semanario</i>, p. 183.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> 300 dried specimens, and 242 coloured drawings, sent in the ship 'Buen -Consejo.'</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Namely:— -</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig27.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> I have examined Pavon's dried -specimens from Huanuco, now in the -botanical gardens at Madrid. -</p> -<p> -There are leaves of <i>C. lanceolata</i>, -from the forests of Muña; leaves and -capsules of <i>C. ovata</i>, some of the former -very slightly cordate, from Panao -and Pillao; leaves, flowers, and capsules -of <i>C. purpurea</i>; and leaves and capsules -of <i>C. nitida</i>, from Cuchero.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Ruiz published his <i>Quinologia</i> in -1792.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> At first, in the best years, as many -as 25,000 arrobas of bark were exported -from the province of Huanuco, and -some large fortunes were made.—<i>Poeppig.</i> -An arroba = 25 lbs.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> <i>Mercurio Peruano.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> A Peruvian who was for many -years Director of the Cabinet of Natural -History in Madrid, during the reign of -Charles III.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> <i>Reise in Peru, während der Jahre -1827-32</i>, von Eduard Poeppig, Professor -an der Universität zu Leipzig, ii. -pp. 217-23, 257-64.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Stevenson, however, says that large -quantities of bark were brought from -the woods east of Huamalies in 1825.—<i>Travels</i>, -ii. p. 66.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Poeppig. Van Tschudi, p. 399.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Poeppig.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Howard.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> I have caused the part of Poeppig's -work which relates to chinchona-trees -and their barks to be translated for circulation -in India and Ceylon.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> As early as 1790 the calisaya bark -was highly prized in Madrid.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> The valuable species found in Bolivia -and Southern Peru. Dr. Weddell -derives the name from the Quichua -words <i>colli</i> (red) and <i>saya</i> (form); -Poeppig from <i>colla</i> (a remedy) and <i>salla</i> -(rocky ground); Van Tschudi from <i>collisara</i> -(reddish maize). Dr. Laefdael, -the Judge of Caravaya, told me it came -from <i>ccali</i> (strong) and <i>sayay</i> (become, -or be thou). Calisaya is the name of a -family of Indian Caciques in Caravaya, -one of whom acted an important part -in the revolt of 1780-1. The plant may -have been called after him.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> The bark of <i>C. Calisaya</i>, known -as "yellow bark" in commerce, was -at first erroneously believed to come -from <i>C. cordifolia</i>, because Mutis had -called the bark from that species -<i>cascarilla amarilla</i>, or "yellow bark." -See p. 28.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> This account of the Bolivian bark -trade is from Dr. Weddell's <i>Voyage -dans le Nord de Bolivie, et dans les -partes voisines de Pérou</i>. Paris, 1853. -Chap. xiii. p. 235.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Gibbon's <i>Valley of the Amazon</i>, p. -147.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> <i>Mercurio del Vapor</i>, Dec. 15, 1859.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> <i>Yuncu</i> is a tropical valley in Quichua, hence <i>yungus</i>, a Spanish corruption -of the same word.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> <i>Quinologie</i>, par M. A. Delondre. Paris, 1854.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> <i>Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie, et -dans les partes voisines de Pérou</i>, par -H. A. Weddell. Paris, 1853. Dr. -Weddell is now engaged in the publication -of a work on the plants of the -more elevated parts of the Andes, entitled -<i>Chloris Andina</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> An account of it was published in -the Journal of the Horticultural Society, -vol. vii. p. 272.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Pereira, <i>Mat. Med.</i> ii. part ii. p. 118.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Weddell, <i>Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Weddell, <i>Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> <i>Mém. de l' Acad. Roy. des Sciences</i>, 1738, p. 226.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> <i>Noticias Secretas</i>, p. 572.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> MS. quoted by Howard.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Poeppig.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> Karsten.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> I. p. 245. Probably the idea was -first conceived much earlier by Dr. -Ainslie, who, half a century ago, remarked -that it was matter of regret -that "it had never been attempted to -rear those articles of the Materia Medica -in India, for which the world is -now solely indebted to America."—Ainslie's -<i>Materia Medica</i>, p. 66 (<i>note</i>).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> <i>Cours d'Hist. Nat. Pharm.</i> ii. p. -252.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas</i>, -p. 13.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> <i>Quinologie</i>, par M. A. Delondre, p. -15.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> So convinced is Dr. Weddell that -there is imminent danger of the supplies -of bark eventually being exhausted, -that he says, "Avant que la malheur -que je prévois n'arrive (et ce ne sera -pas de notre temps) la science aura -peut-être fait la conquête de quelque -nouveau médicament qui rendra moins -regrettable la perte de l'écorce de -Pérou."—<i>Voyage dans le Nord de -Bolivie</i>, p. 245.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Howard.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Howard.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> <i>Ychu</i> is grass in Quichua, and <i>corpa</i> a lodging.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Information from Gironda, then -Governor of Sina.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> <i>Kew Miscellany</i>, Oct. and Nov. -1856.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Dr. Macpherson's Report, Dec. 19, -1860, No. 50, para. 8.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> <i>Bonplandia</i>, March, 1859, p. 72. -The pay of an Assistant-Resident in -Java is 500<i>l.</i> a-year.—Money's <i>Java</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> A lofty tree, 150 to 200 feet high, with a very close-grained wood. It -yields a fragrant resin called <i>storax</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Report of Mr. Fraser, H. M. Consul at Batavia.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Dr. Junghuhn called some of the -plants <i>C. lanceolata</i>, and others <i>C. -succirubra</i>; but he has himself allowed -that the former are a mere variety of -the worthless species, seeds of which -were sent by M. Hasskarl from Uchubamba; -and the latter certainly cannot -be <i>C. succirubra</i>, as that valuable kind -is not found in the Peruvian districts -visited by M. Hasskarl.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Dr. Macpherson's Report, Dec. 19, 1860. No. 50.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Dr. Anderson's Report, Dec. 14, -1861, No. 326; and Dr. Macpherson's -Report, Dec. 19, 1860, No. 50, para. 12.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Report of Mr. Fraser, late H. M. -Consul at Batavia.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Howard's <i>Nueva Quinologia de Pavon</i>. -No. 7.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> He left Java in September, 1861, -after a residence of six years.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Howard. No. 7 (<i>note</i>).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Report of Mr. Fraser.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> Dr. Junghuhn has published two -very interesting reports on the cultivation -of the chinchona-plants in Java, in -the <i>Bonplandia</i>, a German botanical -journal: the first in Nos. 4 and 5 of -1858, and the second in the numbers -for July and August, 1860. I have -caused these reports to be translated -and circulated for the information of -those who are intrusted with, or interested -in, the chinchona cultivation in -India or Ceylon.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> Mr. Spruce's remark on the eventual -necessity of cultivating the chinchona -tree is important. He says, "I have -seen enough of collecting the products -of the forests to convince me that <i>whatever -vegetable substance is needful to -man, he must ultimately cultivate the -plant producing it</i>."—<i>Report</i>, p. 83.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> It appears, by a government return, -that 2051 lbs. of quinine were -sent to India in 1856, and 1180 lbs. in -1857. -</p> -<p> -The <i>Friend of India</i> of December -10th, 1860, however, quoting from the -<i>Lancet</i>, states that the consumption of -quinine and bark in the government -hospitals in India in 1857-8 was 6815 -lbs., and that in 1858-9 it amounted -to 5087 lbs. The writer of the article -adds that the government druggists -in India sell quinine at 1<i>l.</i> an ounce; -but, taking the cost of an ounce of -quinine at 10<i>s.</i>, the expenditure on -this medicine, according to the above -figures, would amount to 54,520<i>l.</i> in -1857-8, and to 40,696<i>l.</i> in 1858-9!</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> Nevertheless we now have plants -of <i>C. lancifolia</i>, the species which -should have been procured from New -Granada, thriving in India. They have -been received from Java, in exchange -for other species, and were originally -raised from seeds sent by Dr. Karsten.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> When it was founded by General -La Fuente, then Prefect of Arequipa.—<i>Castelnau</i>, -iii. p. 443.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> There is anchorage for 20 or 25 -vessels in 10 or 12 fathoms; but there -is always a rather heavy swell, so that -a hawser is necessary to keep a vessels -bow to it, even in fine weather.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> In the following proportions:— -</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">To England</td><td class="tdl">Alpaca wool</td><td class="tdr">22,500</td><td class="tdc">cwts</td><td class="tdc">worth</td><td class="tdr">£192,729</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">Sheep's wool</td><td class="tdr">18,669</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">67,306</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">Vicuña wool</td><td class="tdr">72</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">1,537</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">Copper</td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">333</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">Bark</td><td class="tdr">1,365</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">12,383</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">Specie</td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr">34,706</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">To France</td><td class="tdl">Wool</td><td class="tdr">877</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">1,886</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdl">Bark</td><td class="tdr">95</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">1,077</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">To the <br />United States</td><td class="tdl">Wool</td><td class="tdr">8,054</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">24,884</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr bt bb">£336,842</td></tr> -</table></div> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> The analysis of this soil, by Dr. Forbes Watson, gave the following result:— -</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water, and a little organic matter</td><td class="tdr">7.100</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Silica, as silicate and as silex</td><td class="tdr">59.800</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Peroxide of iron</td><td class="tdr">12.100</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Alumina</td><td class="tdr">12.300</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Lime</td><td class="tdr">4.100</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Magnesia</td><td class="tdr">2.100</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Soda</td><td class="tdr">0.724</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Chloride of sodium</td><td class="tdr">0.408</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Phosphoric acid</td><td class="tdr">0.117</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Carbonic acid</td><td class="tdr"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sulphuric acid</td><td class="tdr">0.082</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr bt">99.681</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Loss</td><td class="tdr">.319</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr bt bb">100.000</td></tr> -</table></div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> "Tambo" is a Spanish corruption of the Quichua word <i>Tampu</i>, an inn or -post-house.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> Almost all the woollen clothing -of the Peruvian Indians is now imported -from Yorkshire, and their shirtings -from Lowell. Formerly it was -all of home manufacture.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> Probably from the Quichua word -<i>Chiri</i>—cold.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> <i>El Peru en</i> 1860, por Alfredo Leubel.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> The republic of Peru has had 37 years and 7 months of existence, of which -<i>28 years and 8 months</i> have been passed in peace, 2 years in foreign war, and 6 -years and 11 months in civil dissensions. -</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">1824 to 1828 inclusive</td><td class="tdl">At peace.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Jan. to July, 1829</td><td class="tdl">At war with Colombia.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">July, 1829, to the end of 1833</td><td class="tdl">At peace, under President Gamarra.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Jan. 1834, to Feb. 1836</td><td class="tdl">In civil dissensions.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Feb. 1836, to Aug. 1838</td><td class="tdl">At peace, under General Santa Cruz.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Aug. 1838, to Jan. 1839</td><td class="tdl">At war with Chile.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Jan. 1839, to Jan. 1841</td><td class="tdl">At peace, under President Gamarra.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Jan. 1841, to July, 1841</td><td class="tdl">In civil dissensions.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">July, 1841, to June, 1842</td><td class="tdl">At war with Bolivia.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Aug. 1842, to July, 1844</td><td class="tdl">In civil dissensions.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">July, 1844, to June, 1854</td><td class="tdl">At peace under Presidents Castilla and Echenique.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">June, 1854, to Jan. 1855</td><td class="tdl">In civil war.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Jan. 1855, to Oct. 1856</td><td class="tdl">At peace, under President Castilla.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Oct. 1856, to March, 1858</td><td class="tdl">An insurrection at Arequipa.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">March, 1858, to March, 1862</td><td class="tdl">At peace, under President Castilla.</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p> -These are the plain facts of the case, which are preferable to vague and ignorant -statements that Peru has been in a constant state of civil war ever since -the War of Independence.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> The elevations were taken with one of Negretti and Zambra's boiling-point -thermometers.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> So called from being covered with small round pebbles, like comfits.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> At this elevation grows an asclepiad -(<i>Pentagonium flavum</i>), a little -lowly plant with yellow flowers.—<i>Chloris -Andina</i>, ii. p. 49.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> <i>Baccharis Incarum</i> of Weddell.—<i>Chloris -Andina</i>, i. p. 170.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> Dr. Weddell mentions a composita -(<i>Merope piptolepis</i>) as being common -near the shores of these lakes.—<i>Chloris -Andina</i>, i. p. 162. And an oxalis in the -crevices of the rocks near La Compuerta.—<i>Oxalis -Nubigena</i>, ii. p. 291. -</p> -<p> -In the neighbourhood of La Compuerta -there are several other lowly alpine -plants—a St. John's wort (<i>Hypericum -brevistylum</i>), another oxalis, and two -mallows, &c. &c.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> M. de Castelnau says that vessels -exactly resembling those of lake Titicaca -are represented on the tomb of -Rameses III. at Thebes.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Gonzalez Montoya was the best -Governor that Puno has ever known. -He was a benevolent as well as a determined -man, and abolished the <i>mitas</i>, -or drafting of Indians for forced labour -in the mines of Potosi. When ordered -by the Government to restore the -<i>mitas</i>, he replied, "Obedesco pero no -cumplo."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> Garcilasso de la Vega says that -the Indians boil the leaves of the -<i>sunchu</i>, and then dry them in the sun, -and keep them to eat in the winter.—I. -lib. 8, cap. xv. p. 284.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> In 1663 the mines of Laycaycota, -Cancharani, and San Antonio de -Esquilache, near Puno, produced -1,500,000 dollars' worth of silver in one -year!—Miller's <i>Memoirs</i>, ii. p. 238.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> <i>Compendio del hecho y apuntamiento -de derechos de Fisco, en la causa -contra José de Salcedo, sobre las sediciones -y tumultos del asiento de minas de -Laycocota.</i> <i>Papeles Varios</i> 2, in the -National Library at Lima.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> This was the Count of Medellin -who married Catalina Ponce de Leon, -sister of the Duchess of Gandia, whose -husband was brother of the Countess -of Lemos.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> <i>Declaracion de todo lo que contiene -la demonstracion hecha por los Vehedores -Don Juan Eusebio Ximenes, y -Don Valentin Calderon de la Barca, de -Orden Real, a Cancharani, Laycocota -la alta, y Laycocota la baja, sus situaciones -y vetas, desde la villa de Puno -en distancia a una legua a cuya falda -esta la gran laguna de Chucuito</i>, 1718. -MS. Report at Puno, with a map, which -has unfortunately been lost.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> The men who broke out the ores -with picks got 5 rials a day; and 6 -men worked out 6 to 8 cwts. of mineral -daily, working 12 hours. The rest of -the workmen got 4 rials a-day</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> A small shrub (<i>Baccharis Incarum</i>) often covering the hills.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> It yields about 30 per cent. of -silver.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> In 1845 Bustamante placed the -value of the exports at 2,500,000 dol.!</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> From the <i>Geografia del Peru</i>. -Lima, 1859.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> An Englishman had a schooner -on the lake, but I believe she is now -abandoned or broken up; and there is -no craft at present but the reed balsas.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> The Peruvian Government answered -this decree in a noble spirit, by -declaring that they would not retaliate, -but, on the contrary, would assist commercial -traffic between the two countries -by every means in their power. -Linares rescinded his barbarous edict -on October 17th.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> All the bark shipped at Islay is -smuggled across the Bolivian frontier; -Arica is the recognised port of -Bolivia; and the bark exported from -Payta comes from the neighbouring -republic of Ecuador.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> Evaporation, however, goes on at all seasons, owing to the excessive elevation -of the waters.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> So say the people of Puno, but -the island is all limestone.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> The name is more modern; given, -as tradition relates, by one of the Incas, -who happened to be encamped here -when a <i>chasqui</i> or messenger arrived -with extraordinary rapidity from Cuzco. -The Inca exclaimed, "<i>Tia-huanaco!</i>" -"Be seated, O Huanaco!"—the huanaco -being the swiftest animal in Peru.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> The Hindoo god Siva is also represented -with a necklace of human -heads.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> For descriptions of the ruins at -Cuzco, see my former work, <i>Cuzco and -Lima</i>, chap. iv. and v.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> It is now introduced into our greenhouses.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> The lizard appears to have been a -favourite device amongst the ancient -Aymaras. There is also one carved on -a block of stone amongst the ruins of -Tiahuanaco.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> The idol of Copacabana was made -of a beautiful blue stone, hence the -name. It had an ugly human head, -and a fish's body, and it was adored as -the God of the Lake.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> Calancha.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> Facing the road on the mainland, -between Juli and Pomata.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> He nominated Apu Inca Sucso, a -grandson of the Inca Viracocha, as Governor; -who was father of Apuchalco -Yupanqui, the grandfather of Don -Alonzo Viracocha Inca, and his brother -Don Pablo, who governed the island -of Titicaca, under the Spaniards, in -<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1621.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> Fray Alonzo Ramas says that in -1611 an old woman, aged 120 years, -died at Viacha, a day's journey from -La Paz, who confessed that she had -been a Virgin of the Sun.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> <i>Cronica Moralizada de la Provincia -del Peru, del Orden de San -Agustin, por el Padre Fray Antonio de -la Calancha.</i> Lima, 1653.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Mr. Merivale, in his <i>Colonization -and Colonies</i>, says, "It must be admitted -that, had the legislation of Spain -in other respects been as well conceived -as that respecting the Indians, the loss -of her Western empire would have -been an unmerited visitation."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Others say that the word <i>Cacique</i> -was brought from the Old World by -the Spaniards, and that it is a corruption -of the Arabic <i>Sheikh</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Prince of Esquilache's despatch, -<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1618, No. 6, p. 344, H. 53. MS. -despatches in the national library at -Madrid.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> See the sentence of death passed -on the Inca Tupac Amaru in 1782, by -the Visitador Areche, in which the use -of these dresses, and the celebration of -festivals and plays, are prohibited for -the future.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> See <i>Money's Java</i>, i. p. 215, where -there is an account of the position and -functions of the native "Regents."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> The pay of an Indian was usually -1 rial (6<i>d.</i>) a week in the farms, and -20 rials (about 10<i>s.</i>) in the mines. But -the miners kept back a third of the -Indian's wages, nominally to form a -fund to pay for his return to his home -at the end of his period of service.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> The Marquis of Montes Claros derives -the word <i>mita</i> from the Quichua -<i>mitta</i>, "time," and says that the <i>mita</i> -was established to prevent idleness, -and for the good of the Indians!—<i>Memorias</i>, -i. p. 21.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> <i>Report of the Viceroy Prince of -Esquilache</i>, 1620. This, however, is -not quite clear: it is more probable -that Indians were lawlessly torn from -their homes to work in the mines when -the <i>mita</i> of a seventh did not yield -a sufficient number of labourers. In -North Peru the proportion was a sixth, -and in Quito a fifth.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Montes Claros describes them as -Indians domiciled on the estates or in -the houses of Spaniards, like servants; -their masters giving them food, clothes, -and a bit of land, and paying their -tribute for them. Lest the system -should degenerate into slavery, the -king, in a <i>cedula</i> of 1601, declared -that they were free, and desired that -this should be made known to them.—<i>Memorias</i>, -i. p. 27.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> <i>Ordenanzas</i>, No. 34, 12, 140.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> Especially in those of the Count of -Alba de Liste in 1660. In September -of that year this viceroy assembled a -Junta, in obedience to an order from -Spain, to consult respecting the instruction -and good treatment of the -Indians. The proceedings, still in MS., -may be seen in the national library at -Lima.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> <i>Cuzco and Lima</i>, chap. vii., from -the <i>Noticias Secretas</i> of the Ulloas.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> II. p. 304 of the <i>Memorias de los -Vireyes</i>. But no safe calculation can -be made respecting the actual population -from these numbers.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> <i>Papeles Varios.</i> No. 4. MS. in -the library at Lima.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> The amalgamation with quicksilver -was introduced at Potosi by Velasco -in 1571. The quicksilver was sent down -from Huancavelica to the port of Chincha, -thence to Arica by sea, and from -Arica over the cordillera to Potosi.—<i>Report -of the Prince of Esquilache.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> <i>Carta sobre trabajos, agravios, y -injusticias que padecen los Indios del -Peru</i>; por Don Juan de Padilla, 1657.—MS. -in the National Library at Lima.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> <i>Papeles Varios.</i> No. 4. MS.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> MS. in Lima library.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> <i>Manifesto de los agravios que padecen -los Indios.</i>—MS. at Lima.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> <i>Funes</i>, iii. p. 242-333.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> <i>Calancha.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> In 1591 a duty of 2 per cent. was -placed on all merchandise, and 5 per -cent. on coca.—<i>Report of the Prince of -Esquilache</i>, 1620.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> This system of <i>repartimientos</i> or -<i>repartos</i> was also introduced in the -first instance with a benevolent intent, -that of supplying the people with European -goods at a reasonable price. I -use the word <i>reparto</i> in future, to distinguish -this system from that of the -<i>repartimiento</i> during the earlier period -of Spanish domination in Peru, which, -with the same word, had a very different -meaning.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> <i>Informe por Diego Tupac Amaru.—Azangaro.</i> -Oct. 18, 1781. (Angelis).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> Letter from Gen. del Valle to two -friends at Lima, Oct. 3, 1781.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> <i>Colonization and Colonies</i>, p. 6 and -p. 283 (<i>note</i>).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> <i>Papeles Varios</i>, No. 4.—MS. at -Lima.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> <i>Manifesto de Don Juan de Padilla</i>.—MS. -at Lima.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> <i>Sumario del Concilio II., Provincial -en Lima</i>, 1567. Also, letter -from Dr. Juan Moscoso, Bishop of -Cuzco, July 20, 1782, MS.; and in -the collection of Angelis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> <i>Practica de visitas y Residencias</i>, -Naples, 1696; and <i>Papeles Varios</i>, -No. 4.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> See Temple's <i>Travels in Peru</i> for -an authentic account of the rebellion -of the Cataris in Upper Peru, and the -siege of La Paz.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> Report of the Cabildo of Cuzco, -January, 1784, MS.; also in Nos. 9 to -20 of the <i>Museo Erudito</i> of Cuzco, -July, 1837.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> Letter from Moscoso, Bishop of -Cuzco, MS.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> <i>Ensayo de la Historia civil del Paraguay, -Buenos Ayres, y Tucuman, por -el Dr. Don Gregorio Funes, Dean de la -Santa Iglesia Catedral de Cordova.</i>—Buenos -Ayres, 1817, 4 vols, tom. iii. -pp. 242-333. This work contains a -detailed and very interesting account -of the insurrections of Tupac Amaru, -and of the Cataris in Upper Peru.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> An account of the copious materials -from which my information respecting -Tupac Amaru is derived will be found -in a note at the beginning of the following -chapter.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> "Native races must in every instance -either perish, or be amalgamated -with the general population of their -country."—Merivale's <i>Colonies and Colonization</i>, -p. 510.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> <i>Spanish Conquest in America</i>, iv. p. 368.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> <i>Colonies and Colonization</i>, p. 522.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> <i>Amaru</i> means serpent in Quichua, -and <i>Tupac</i> royal or excellent. <i>Tupac</i> -also may be the participle of <i>Tupani</i>, -I rend. -</p> -<p> -Serpents are frequently carved in -relief on the masonry of Inca edifices.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> These particulars are given by -the monk Gonzalez, in his <i>Historia -de lo acaecido en Paucartambo</i>, a narrative -still in MS.; besides which, -the materials for the history of the -rebellion of Tupac Amaru consist of -a large collection of original documents, -including narratives, letters, -despatches, and edicts, printed in the -<i>Coleccion de obras y documentos relativos -a la historia antiqua y moderna -de las provincias de Rio de la Plata</i>, -por Pedro de Angelis (Buenos Ayres, -1836), tom. v. pp. 109-286; the Report -of the Cabildo of Cuzco, printed in the -<i>Museo Erudito del Cuzco</i>; a large collection -of original MSS. which were -given to the late Gen. Miller in 1833, -by Padre José Xavier de Guzman, of -the Franciscan convent in Santiago -de Chile; the letter from Tupac Amaru -to Areche, and the sentence of death -pronounced by Areche, which are -printed in the Appendix to the Spanish -edition of Gen. Miller's <i>Memoirs</i>; -the work of Don Gregorio Funes, Dean -of Cordova, published at Buenos Ayres -in 1817 (4 vols.); and the diary of -Don Sebastian de Segurola, Governor -of La Paz, during its siege by the -Indians, published in Temple's <i>Travels -in Peru</i>, ii. p. 103-78. I also obtained -a copy of Areche's reply to Tupac -Amaru, from a MS. in the public -library at Lima. -</p> -<p> -Weddell has given an account of -the insurrection of Tupac Amaru in -his <i>Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie</i>, -chap. xv. p. 263-88. This chapter is -a résumé of the collection of original -documents in the work of Angelis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> Information from Don Pablo -Astete, aged 80, given to Gen. Miller -at Cuzco in 1835. Astete's father had -been an intimate friend of Tupac -Amaru, but afterwards served against -him.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> Information from Dominga Bastidas, -a cousin of Tupac Amaru's wife, -given to Gen. Miller at Cuzco in 1835. -She said that Micaela was always considered -to have been very beautiful; -and added, that the sons of Tupac -Amaru, when at college at Cuzco, -spent the feast-days at her house. In -1835 she was a very old woman.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> This description of Tupac Amaru -is almost word for word as it was given -to Gen. Miller by Don Pablo Astete, -who well remembered him.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> The inhabitants of Tungasuca, -about 500 in number, were as remarkable -for their agricultural industry in -1853, when I saw them, as they formerly -were as muleteers.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> From a MS. at Lima, headed "<i>En -el Cuzco, Dec. 3, 1780</i>."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> Inca Manco had two sons, Sayri -Tupac and Tupac Amaru. Clara Beatriz -Coya, daughter of Sayri Tupac, -married Don Martin Garcia de Loyola, -and had a daughter, Lorenza, created -Marchioness of Oropesa and Countess -of Alcanises, with remainder to the -descendants of her great-uncle, Tupac -Amaru. She married Don Juan Henriquez -de Borja, but, in 1770, there -were no descendants of this marriage, -and the descendant of Tupac Amaru -was the lawful heir to the marquisate. -</p> -<p> -The decision of the Royal Audience -of Lima disposes of the statement of -Baron Humboldt (<i>Political Essay</i>, i. -p. 208), that "the pretended Inca was -a Mestizo, and his true father a monk." -Humboldt was certainly misinformed, -as there is not a shadow of grounds -for the assertion. Tupac Amaru's -birth is never questioned in any of the -documents in my possession, consisting -of his sentence of death, proclamations, -and letters from his enemies, in which -no opportunity is lost of blackening -his memory.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> <i>Despachos que el Exmo. Señor -Principe de Esquilache, Virey de los -reynos del Peru, envio a su Magestad.</i> -No. 6, p. 344. Lima, April 16, 1618.—MS. -in the National Library at Madrid, -H. 53.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> From the collection of Angelis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> Funes.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> In my review of the language and -literature of the Incas in a former -work (<i>Cuzco and Lima</i>, chap. vi.) I -gave some translated extracts from the -drama of <i>Ollantay</i>, and an abstract of -the plot. I then stated that it was an -ancient play, which had been handed -down from the time of the Incas; but -I have since discovered that Dr. Valdez -was its author, although it contains -several ancient songs and speeches, -and though the plot is undoubtedly -ancient. I was led into the error by -the opinion expressed by the Peruvian -antiquary, Mariano Rivero,<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> a very -high authority, that the drama had -been handed down from the time of -the Incas. -</p> -<p> -The original MS. is now in the possession -of Don Narciso Cuentas, of -Tinta, the nephew and heir of Dr. -Valdez; but there are numerous MS. -copies in Peru, and it has been printed -at the end of Dr. Von Tschudi's <i>Kechua -Sprache</i>. -</p> -<p> -There is a review of this Quichua -drama of Dr. Valdez, in the <i>Museo -Erudito</i> (Nos. 5 to 9), a periodical -published at Cuzco in 1837, by the -editor, Don José Palacios. He says -that the story respecting Ollantay was -handed down by immemorial tradition, -but that the drama was written by Dr. -Valdez. The writer criticizes the plot, -objecting that the treason of Ollantay -is rewarded, while the heroic conduct -of Rumi-ñaui remains unnoticed. Palacios -had inquired of Don Juan -Hualpa, a noble Cacique of Belem in -Cuzco, and of the Caciques of San Sebastian -and San Blas, who agreed in -their account of the tradition, which -was that the rebellion of Ollantay arose -from the abduction of an <i>Aclla</i> or Virgin -of the Sun from her convent, but -they had not heard her name, nor who -she was. -</p> -<p> -These particulars respecting the -origin of the drama of <i>Ollantay</i> may be -interesting to readers who have paid -any attention to the history of the -civilization of the Incas. Though not -so ancient as I once supposed, the -drama is still very curious, because it -contains songs and long passages of -undoubted antiquity.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> Antiquedades Peruanas, p. 116.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> Two and a half leagues from -Tinta, and two miles from Yanaoca.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> Near the port of Islay, and westward -of Cornejo point, the coast forms -a shallow bay, in which is the small -cove of Aranta, 13 miles from the -valley of Quilca. Its capabilities as a -port were personally examined by the -President Castilla three years ago.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> One mile from Tungasuca.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> A coat of arms was granted to the -family of the Incas by Charles V., at -Valladolid, in 1544. Tierce in fess. -On a chief azure, a Sun with glory -proper; on a fess vert an eagle displayed -sable, between a rainbow and -two serpents proper; on a base gules, -a castle proper. -</p> -<p> -These partitions, by tiercing the -shield, are not used in English heraldry.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> <i>Quispi</i>, flint; and <i>cancha</i>, a place.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> The Spaniards declared that the -Indians set the church on fire, and -that all perished.—(<i>Report of the Cabildo -of Cuzco</i>, MS.) But the above -account of the affair was given by the -Inca himself to Don Miguel Andrade -of Azangaro, and he denied positively -that the church was set on fire.—<i>Sublevacion -de Tupac Amaru.</i> Angelis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> Landa, the Governor of Paucartambo, -had formerly led an exploring -expedition into the montaña, in search -of the great river of Madre de Dios or -Purus.—<i>Cuzco and Lima</i>, p. 263.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> This Cacique Sahuaraura was the -father of the late Dr. Justo Sahuaraura, -of Cuzco, who published a little genealogical -work in Paris, in 1850, in -which he claimed descent from the -Incas. I hear, however, that his genealogy -is apocryphal. In 1835 he wrote -to the editor of the <i>Museo Erudito</i> of -Cuzco, offering to write the traditions -of his family in that periodical, as an -Inca. A Dr. Gallego, of Cuzco, replied -that no Inca was ever called -Sahuaraura, but that the Inca Rocca -once had a servant of that name, and -that he might possibly be descended -from him. This silenced Don Justo -for a long time. (<i>Sahuay</i>, a flame; -<i>raurac</i>, make. He had to light the -Inca's fire).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> Letter from Dr. Moscoso, Bishop of Cuzco, July 20, 1782.—<i>Angelis.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> In the collection of Angelis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> <i>Angelis</i> and <i>Guzman</i>, MSS.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> <i>Historia de lo acaecido en el Real -Asunto de Paucartambo, en la rebelion -sucitada por José Gabriel Tupac Amaru.</i> -A manuscript account of the siege -of Paucartambo, by Fray Raymundo -Gonzalez, Religioso Mercedario, written -in 1782. The original is still at -Paucartambo, where I saw it, and there -are two or three copies at Cuzco.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> Namely:— -</p> - - -<ul><li>Pumacagua of Chinchero.</li> -<li>Rosas of Anta.</li> -<li>Sucacahua of Umachiri.</li> -<li>Huaranca of Santa Rosa.</li> -<li>Chuquihuanca of Azangaro.</li> -<li>Game of Paruro.</li> -<li>Espinosa of Catoca.</li> -<li>Carlos Visa of Achalla.</li> -<li>Chuquicallata of Saman.</li> -<li>Huambo Tupa of Yauri.</li> -<li>Callu of Sicuani.</li> -<li>Aronis of Checacupe.</li> -<li>Cotacellapa of Caravaya.</li> -<li>Sahuaraura of Oropesa.</li> -<li>Choquechua of Belem, in Cuzco.</li> -<li>Bustinza Uffucana of Sta. Anna, in Cuzco.—<i>Letter from Dr. Moscoso, Bishop of Cuzco.</i></li></ul> - - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> The way in which this valuable -despatch of the Inca Tupac Amaru -became public is very curious. In 1806 -Dr. Tadeo Garate, of La Paz, Secretary -to Bishop Las Heras (afterwards Archbishop -of Lima), was ordered by the -Viceroy Marquis of Aviles to publish a -history of the Rebellion of Tupac Amaru -in 1780-1; and, to guard against -the possibility of authentic counter-statements, -this despatch was taken -from the archives of Cuzco, and sent -to La Paz in charge of an Indian student -named Pasoscanki, who perused -it on the road, and was so struck with -the magnanimity and heroism of his -native prince, that he did not deliver -the papers. He afterwards emigrated -to Buenos Ayres, and, in 1812, went -to England, and commissioned Mr. -Wood, of Poppin's-court, Fleet-street, -to print Tupac Amaru's despatch; but, -for want of funds, this was not done, -and, Pasoscanki returning to Buenos -Ayres, the publication was abandoned. -In 1828 the same printer was employed -to print the Spanish edition of Gen. -Miller's <i>Memoirs</i>, and at that time the -despatch was found amongst some old -papers in Mr. Wood's office. It was -finally published in an appendix to -the Spanish edition of Gen. Miller's -<i>Memoirs</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> Report of Gen. del Valle, Sept. -30, 1781, MS. Letter of Areche. MS., -in the library at Lima.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> This draft of an edict is amongst -the papers in Angelis. It is possible, -however, that it may have been forged -by the Spaniards, in order to produce -written evidence of the intentions of -Tupac Amaru.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> Tomas Parvina de Colquemarca, -"Justicia Mayor," and Felipe Bermudez, -a Spaniard, belonged to the -"Junta Privada," or Privy Council, of -the Inca. Bermudez had acted as the -Inca's secretary.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> There is said to be a picture in -the church at Tinta representing this -massacre.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> He is said to have been dressed -in Incarial robes, with the arms of the -Incas embroidered in gold at the corners.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> A list of the prisoners is given -amongst the Angelis papers.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> It is printed in the appendix to the Spanish edition of Gen. Miller's -<i>Memoirs</i>, vol. i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> One account says that he was tortured -until one arm was dislocated, by -the <i>garruche</i>, by order of Matta Linares. -<i>Guzman</i> MSS.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> Letter from Gen. del Valle, Sept. -30, 1781.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> One of these was Dr. Don Toribio -Carrasco, afterwards Cura of Belem in -Cuzco, who, in 1835, mentioned the -circumstance, and the impression it -had made, to Gen. Miller.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> These executions, in all their revolting -details, were certified by Juan -Bautista Gamarra, public notary to the -Cabildo of Cuzco, in a document dated -May 20, 1781.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> <i>Report of the Cabildo of Cuzco.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> The edict, fixing the destinations -of the different parts of each victim, is -printed amongst the papers in Angelis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> The Pizarros and their companions -were angels of mercy when compared -with such vile wretches as Areche and -Matta Linares; yet we are told by one -of his flatterers that "the tender heart -of the visitador was filled with piety -and humanity, and that early on the -day after the execution he went to the -cathedral, and, having confessed and -partaken of the sacrament, he paid for -several masses for the souls of the culprits, -and heard them all on his knees, -thus edifying the whole city." Hypocritical -hyæna!—<i>Guzman</i> MSS.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> When Señor Zea, of Bogota, was -in Paris, Kotzebue undertook a journey -on purpose to obtain information from -him respecting Tupac Amaru, having -conceived the idea of writing a tragedy -founded on his rebellion. But Zea, -being a Colombian, knew little or nothing -about it. -</p> -<p> -Kotzebue, however, continued his -inquiries respecting Peru, which resulted -in his play <i>The Virgins of the -Sun</i>, and hence Sheridan's <i>Pizarro</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> Orellana was a native of Cuenca, and descended from the great navigator -of the Amazons.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> <i>Relacion del Gobernador de Puno, -de sus expediciones, sitios, defensa, y -varios acaecimientos, hasta que despoblo -la villa de orden del Inspector y Commandante -General Don José Antonio -del Valle: corre desde 16 Noviembre -1780, hasta 17 de Julio 1781.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> During my stay at Puno I lived -in the house which was occupied -by Orellana during the siege. It is -now the property of Don Manuel -Costas.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> Information from Gen. San Roman.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> One thousand nine hundred and -fifty men deserted in six days.—<i>Letter -from del Valle.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> <i>Manifesto del Gen. del Valle. Se -queja amargamente contra el visitador -Areche.</i> Cuzco, Septre. 1781.—<i>Guzman</i> -MSS.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> Information from Don Luis Quiñones of Azangaro.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> Angelis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> Custom-house officers.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> <i>Informe por Don Diego Tupac -Amaru.</i> Azangaro, Oct. 18, 1781.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> Angelis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> By far the best account of the -rebellion of the Cataris in Upper Peru, -and of the two sieges of La Paz, is to be -found in the work of Dean Funes.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> The Bishop of Cuzco, Dr. Don -Juan Manuel Moscoso y Peralta, afterwards -had twenty-two accusations or -charges brought against him connected -with this rebellion, which he answered -in detail in a work published at Madrid. -One is that he excommunicated a priest -for betraying the secrets of the Indians -told under the seal of confession; another -that he tried to save the lives of -several Indian rebels; another that he -asked for a general pardon after the -death of the Inca; another that he permitted -Mariano Tupac Amaru to celebrate -the funeral of his father, &c. If -these accusations were true, they all -redound to the bishop's honour; and -it is to be regretted that he was so -anxious to defend himself against -them. At the end of his book there are -some letters to him from Diego Tupac -Amaru. "<i>Inocencia justificada contra -los artificios de la calumnia. Papel -que escribio en defensa de su honor y -distinguidos servicios hechos con motivo -de la rebelion del Reyno del Peru, por -José Gabriel Tupac Amaru: el Illustrissimo -Señor Don Juan Manuel -Moscoso y Peralta, Obispo del Cuzco.</i>" -(Fol. Madrid).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> <i>Oficio del Inspector Don José del -Valle, al Virey de Buenos Ayres.</i> Ayaviri, -July 14, 1782.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> Report of the Cabildo of Cuzco.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> Report of Don Augustin de Jauregui, -Viceroy of Peru. Lima, March -29, 1783.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> <i>Oficio de Don Gabriel de Aviles, -a Don Sebastian de Segurola.</i> Cuzco.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> <i>Sentencia contra el reo Tupac -Amaru, y demas acomplices, pronunciada -por Don Gabriel de Aviles, y -Don Benito de la Matta Linares.</i> July, -1783.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> Information from Don Luis Quiñones -of Azangaro. Dr. Valdez died -in 1816. Don Pablo Pimentel, the -worthy Subprefect of Caravaya, told me -that he remembered the old cura well, -as a tall man with a stately walk, who -always gave him a dollar when he met -him in Sicuani.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> A fabulous region supposed to exist -far to the eastward of the Andes, in -the unknown parts of the Amazonian -valley.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> <i>Oficio de Don Felipe Carrera, Corregidor -de Parinacochas</i>, Julio 12, -1783. Also <i>Sentencia dado por el Virey -de Lima, contra los reos</i>, Julio, 1783. -Angelis.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> A person calling himself Juan -Bautista Tupac Amaru, and professing -to have been one of the sufferers, -printed a pamphlet, which was deposited -in the archives of Buenos Ayres. -In it he relates the tale of his miseries -in uncouth Spanish. He says that he -beheld his fettered mother perish of -thirst on the road to Lima, in presence -of guards who turned a deaf ear to -her cries for water. He saw his faithful -wife die on board the ship, without -being allowed length of chain enough -to approach her. During an imprisonment -of forty years at Ceuta the sentries -never relaxed their cruelties until -the ministry which came into power -in Spain, after the military movement -of 1820, set the few survivors at liberty. -</p> -<p> -It is now confidently asserted that -the author of this pamphlet was an -impostor. He came to Buenos Ayres -in 1822, and the republican government -granted him a house, and a pension -for life of 30 dollars a month.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> The words of the Cura of Belem, -who heard it.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> Don Luis Ocampo related this -anecdote to Gen. Miller in 1835, when -he was still living at Cuzco, but upwards -of eighty years of age. After -Peru had become independent, in -about 1828, a person, calling himself -Fernando Tupac Amaru, appeared in -Buenos Ayres, and went on to Lima, -becoming a monk in the convent of -San Pedro; but he is believed to have -been an impostor.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> Goyeneche was created Count of -Huaqui. His brother, the late Bishop -of Arequipa, and present Archbishop -of Lima, is probably the senior Bishop -of Christendom, dating his appointment -from 1809; and he is certainly -the richest man in all South America.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> <i>Confesion de Pumacagua.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> Information from Gen. San Roman, who called them <i>Fresaderos</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> <i>Diario de la expedicion del Mariscal -de Campo Don Juan Ramirez, sobre las -provincias interiores de la Paz, Puno, -Arequipa, y Cuzco, por Don José Alcon, -Teniente Coronel agregado a la misma -expedicion.</i> Lima, 1815. (1 tom. 4°, -112 paginas).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> Information from Gen. San Roman, -whose father, a native of Puno, joined -Pumacagua at Cavanilla.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> Colonel Alcon.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> Gen. San Roman.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> <i>Documento</i>, i. <i>Oficio de Vicente Angulo a Ramirez.</i> Feb. 28, 1815.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> <i>Documento</i> ii. <i>Oficio de Pumacagua -a Ramirez.</i> Marzo 6, 1815.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> <i>Documento</i> iii. <i>Contestacion de -Ramirez a Pumacagua.</i> Marzo 7, 1815.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> Information from Gen. San Roman.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> Gen. San Roman, who gave me -the account of this battle, was himself -present at it, with his father, when a -very little boy. His father was afterwards -shot in the plaza of Puno, by -the Spaniards, and when the liberating -army arrived on the coast of Peru, in -1822, the young San Roman hurried -down from his mountain home to join -their ranks.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> In October, 1823, Gen. Miller saw -the fair object of the poet Melgar's -adoration, at Camana, on the coast of -Peru. She was a native of Arequipa, -with light hair, blue eyes, and a fair -clear complexion. She refused Melgar, -married another, and, being obliged -to flee with her husband to escape the -persecution of the Royalists, found -an asylum on the banks of the river -Camana. Her maiden name was Paredes.—Miller's -<i>Memoirs</i>, ii. p. 90. -</p> -<p> -Melgar's brother is now Minister of -Foreign Affairs at Lima.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> Information from Don Luis Quiñones -of Azangaro.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> So strong is the feeling of the -Peruvian people generally against this -oppressive system, that, in the reformed -constitution promulgated on Nov. -25, 1860, forced recruiting was declared -to be a crime. -</p> -<p> -"El reclutamiento es un crimen."—<i>Titulo</i> -xvi., <i>art.</i> 123.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> In 1859 there was a very formidable -rising of the Indians in Chayanta, -which was not put down until -after much bloodshed.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> Humboldt.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> Hatun-colla was once the capital of the great Inca province of the Collao.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> The three latter are also mentioned by Haenke.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> <i>Antiquedades Peruanas.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> One of the manufacturers, Don -Manuel Zenon Ramos, has been very -active in seeking for instruction, designs, -and models from Europe.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> <i>Lupinus Paniculatus.</i>—Chloris Andina, ii. p. 252.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_286_286" id="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> Landa sent in a report of his expedition -to the Corregidor of Cuzco. My -friend Dr. Don Julian Ochoa, the -rector of the university of Cuzco, has -recently searched the archives of the -ancient municipality of that city, as -well as private collections, for this interesting -document, at my request, but -without success.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_287_287" id="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> See <i>Cuzco and Lima</i>, chap. viii.; -also <i>Roy. Geo. Soc. Journal</i> for 1855.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_288_288" id="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> This is not the great river which -flows near Cuzco, and falls into the -Ucayali. The Indians call all rivers -which serve as the trunk or centre of -a system of streams <i>Huilca</i> or <i>Vilca-mayu</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_289_289" id="Footnote_289_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a> Brother of the present rector of the -university of Cuzco.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_290_290" id="Footnote_290_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a> Account of the Valleys of Marcapata, -by Don José Maria Pacheco. -<i>Museo Erudito del Cuzco</i>, 1839, No. -21. See also an account of a journey -down the course of the river Marcapata -as far as its junction with the -Ollachea, signed Paul Marcoy, in the -<i>Revue Contemporaine</i>, tom. 4<sup>me</sup>, 1860. -<i>Scènes et Paysages dans les Andes.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_291_291" id="Footnote_291_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a> <i>Comm. Real</i>, ii. lib. iii. cap. xix. p. 174.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> Lib. iv. cap. iv.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> Don Pablo Pimentel says that the -ancient name of the province was <i>Inahuaya</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_294_294" id="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> <i>Bosquejo del estado actual de la -provincia de Carabaya, y majorias que -proponen al Supremo Gobierno el Suprefecto -de ella, Don Pablo Pimentel.</i> -Arequipa, 1846.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_295_295" id="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> <i>Memorias de los Vireyeo</i>, i. p. 36.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_296_296" id="Footnote_296_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a> <i>Memorial de cosas tocantes las minas -de Caravaya.</i> J. 58, p. 441. A very -illegible manuscript in the national -library at Madrid.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_297_297" id="Footnote_297_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a> <i>Relacion del Conde de Castellar</i>, -p. 222.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_298_298" id="Footnote_298_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a> <i>Relacion del Obispo Melchor Liñan -y Cisneros</i>, p. 299.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_299_299" id="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> This appears from the <i>Informe</i> of -Diego Tupac Amaru, dated Azangaro, -Oct. 18, 1781; in which he stipulates -that the coca estate near San Gavan, -in Caravaya, shall be granted to Mariano -Tupac Amaru as his rightful possession, -because it belonged to his -father the Inca.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> <i>Bosquejo</i>, &c.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a> There is one other town, or rather -wretched village, on this Arctic plain, -within Caravaya, called Macusani, -about 30 miles north-west of Crucero.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> A Quichua poem was written on -the Cura Cabrera, and his breed of -paco-vicuñas, by Don M. M. Basagoitia. -<i>Rivero's Antiq. Per.</i> 112-13.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_303_303" id="Footnote_303_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a> According to Don Pablo Pimentel. -The people of Sandia told me 45,000 -cestos, or 900,000 lbs.; and Lieut. -Gibbon, U.S.N., in his work, says -500,000 lbs.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_304_304" id="Footnote_304_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a> These Chunchos of Caravaya belong -to the same tribe as the fierce -Indians of the Paucartambo valleys, -for some account of whom see my former -work, <i>Cuzco and Lima</i>, p. 272. -</p> -<p> -Don Pablo Pimentel calls the wild -tribes of Caravaya <i>Caranques</i> and <i>Sumahuanes</i>, -but I think this is a mistake. -Garcilasso de la Vega mentions the -<i>Coranques</i> as a fierce tribe to the north -of Quito, who were conquered by the -Inca Huayna Capac.—<i>Comm. Real</i>, i. -lib. viii. cap. vii. p. 274.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_305_305" id="Footnote_305_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a> <i>Challhua</i>, fish, in Quichua; and -<i>uma</i>, water, in Aymara.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_306_306" id="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> <i>Lijera descripcion que hace Juan -Bustamante, de su viaje a Carabaya, y -del estado actual de sus lavaderos y -minerales.</i> Arequipa, 1850. Bustamante -says that, at the time of his -visit, there were a hundred people at -the <i>lavaderos</i> of the Challuma, and -that the Indians received 4 rials a -day.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_307_307" id="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> <i>On the Geology of Bolivia and -Southern Peru</i>, by David Forbes, Esq., -in the Journal of the Geological Society -for Feb. 1861, p. 53. -</p> -<p> -Mr. Forbes had, of course, personally -examined only a portion of this -great Silurian region. At Tipuani, in -Bolivia, there is a very rich auriferous -country, composed of blue-clay slates, -with no fossils; while the beds near -Sorata contain fossils, and consist of -blue-clay shales, micaceous slates, -grauwacke, and clay slates, with gold-bearing -quartz, metallic bismuths, iron-ore, -and argentiferous galena. "The -whole of this Silurian formation is eminently -auriferous, and contains everywhere -frequent veins of auriferous -quartz, usually associated with iron -pyrites."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_308_308" id="Footnote_308_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a> The thermometer was at 25° Fahr. inside the hut.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_309_309" id="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> Observations by Negretti and Zambra's boiling-point thermometer.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_310_310" id="Footnote_310_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a> Titulo 14, s. 104.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_311_311" id="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> The <i>Juntas Departmentales</i> have -since been abolished by the Reformed -Constitution, promulgated in Nov. -1860. Up to May, 1860, Gen. Castilla, -the President, had never permitted -them to meet.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> Titulo 15, s. 114.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_313_313" id="Footnote_313_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a> <i>La Revista de Lima</i>, tom. i. p. -159-60. Nov. 15, 1859. An article -by G. A. Flores.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> The same was once the case all -over Peru, in the good old days of the -Incas, as we know from the curious -dying confession of the last of the -conquerors, Marcio Serra de Lejesama, -addressed to Philip II., <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1589. -</p> -<p> -"Your Majesty must understand that -my reason for making this statement -is to relieve my conscience, for we -have destroyed the government of this -people by our bad example. Crimes -were once so little known among them, -that an Indian with 100,000 pieces of -gold and silver in his house left it -open, only placing a little stick across -the door, as a sign that the master -was out; and nobody went in. But -when they saw that we placed locks -in our doors, they understood that it -was from fear of theft; and when they -saw that we had thieves amongst us, -they thought little of us; but now -these natives, through our bad example, -have come to such a pass that no crime -is unknown to them."—<i>Calancha</i>, lib. -i. cap. 15, p. 98.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> G. de la Vega, <i>Com. Real.</i> i. lib. -viii. cap. 15.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> <i>Acosta</i>, lib. iv. cap. 22, who cannot -agree with those who believe its reputed -virtues to be the effects of imagination.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_317_317" id="Footnote_317_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a> <i>Cedula</i>, 18 Oct. 1569.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> <i>Solorzano</i>, <i>Polit. Ind.</i>, lib. ii. cap. 10, quoted by Unanue.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_319_319" id="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> J. de Jussieu was the first botanist -who sent specimens of coca to Europe, -in 1750. -</p> -<p> -Dr. Weddell suggests that the word -comes from the Aymara <i>khoka</i>, a tree, -i. e. <i>the</i> tree <i>par excellence</i>, like <i>yerba</i>, -<i>the</i> plant of Paraguay. The Inca -historian Garcilasso, however, spells -the word <i>cuca</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_320_320" id="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> The cesto of coca sells at 8 dollars in Sandia. In Huanuco it is 5 dollars -the arroba of 25 lbs.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_321_321" id="Footnote_321_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a> Report of the Prince of Esquilache.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_322_322" id="Footnote_322_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a> Poeppig calculates the yield of Huanuco at 500,000 lbs.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> Poeppig, <i>Reise</i>, ii. p. 252; also -Van Tschudi, p. 455.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_324_324" id="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> In Caravaya the <i>llipta</i> is made -into a pointed lump, and kept in a -horn, or sometimes in a silver receptacle, -in the <i>chuspa</i>. With it there is -also a pointed instrument, with which -the <i>llipta</i> is scratched, and the powder -is applied to the pellet of coca-leaves. -In some provinces they keep a small -calabash full of lime in their <i>chuspas</i>, -called <i>iscupurus</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_325_325" id="Footnote_325_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a> <i>Bonplandia</i>, viii. p. 355-78.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_326_326" id="Footnote_326_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a> The information in this chapter is -derived from personal observation; from -the essay on coca by Dr. Don Hipolito -Unanue, in Nos. 3 to 8 of the <i>Museo -Erudito</i>; and from the works treating -of coca, by Van Tschudi, <i>Travels in -Peru</i>, p. 455; Dr. Poeppig, <i>Reise in -Peru</i>, ii. p. 248; Dr. Weddell, <i>Voyage -dans le Nord de Bolivie</i>, p. 516; the -<i>Bonplandia</i>; and a memorandum by Dr. -Booth, of La Paz. These are the best -authorities on the subject.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> Dr. Weddell, the discoverer of this -species, had never seen it in flower. -I brought home leaves, flowers, and -fruit of the <i>C. Caravayensis</i>, which are -now in the herbarium at Kew.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> An Umbellifer. The roots taste -something like a parsnip, and there -are four kinds—white, yellow, brown, -and reddish.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_329_329" id="Footnote_329_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a> <i>Lenco</i> appears to mean "sticky mud," and <i>huayccu</i> is a ravine, in Quichua.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_330_330" id="Footnote_330_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a> <i>Com. Real.</i> i. lib. viii. cap. 15.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_331_331" id="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> Lib. iv. cap. 29.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_332_332" id="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> Not, of course, the famous gold-bearing -river of the same name.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_333_333" id="Footnote_333_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a> <i>Carhua-carhua-blanca (Lasionema ?) -Tree.</i>—30 or 40 feet high, growing -in moist parts of the valley of Tambopata. -</p> -<p> -<i>Leaves.</i>—Opposite, entire, petiolate, -oblong, acute, smooth on both sides, -dark green above, lighter beneath, with -veins and midrib nearly white. 2½ feet -long by 9 or 10 inches broad. Coarse, -bulging, and wrinkled between the -veins. -</p> -<p> -<i>Calyx.</i>—Deep purple and green, leathery, -5-toothed, teeth rounded. -</p> -<p> -<i>Corolla.</i>—Tube white, tinged with -light purple, leathery, 5 laciniæ, smooth -and reflexed. -</p> -<p> -<i>Stamens.</i>—5, attached to the middle -of the tube of the corolla, exserted. -Filaments pillose at the base, tinged -with purple. Anthers a little shorter -than the filaments, all lying on the -lower sides of the tube of the corolla, -light brown. -</p> -<p> -<i>Style.</i>—Exserted, but a little shorter -than the stamens, light green colour. -<i>Stigma</i>, bi-cleft. -</p> -<p> -<i>Panicles.</i>—Corymbose and multiflor, -in threes, 6 to 15 buds on each. <i>Pedicels</i> -a brownish purple. -</p> -<p> -I have attempted to describe this -tree, because I have been unable to -identify it with any of the chinchonaceous -plants in Dr. Weddell's work.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_334_334" id="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a> <i>Yana</i>, in Quichua, is black; and <i>mayu</i> a river.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> <i>Rupicola Peruviana</i> (family of -<i>Ampelidæ</i>). Van Tschudi says that -they feed on the seeds of chinchona-trees.—<i>Travels -in Peru</i>, p. 427.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_336_336" id="Footnote_336_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a> The bark, leaves, and capsules from this tree are deposited in the herbarium -and museum at Kew.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_337_337" id="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> I brought home a bunch of the capsules, now in the herbarium at Kew.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_338_338" id="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> There we also found the <i>Trichomanes -muscoides</i>, a pretty little fern -which, I am informed by Mr. J. Smith, -of Kew, though common in the West -Indies, was not previously known to -be a native of Peru.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_339_339" id="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> Specimens from this locality were -examined and reported upon at 28, -Jermyn-street.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_340_340" id="Footnote_340_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a> Described by Dr. Weddell, in his <i>Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas</i>, in -a note under the genus <i>Pimentelia</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> In Peru the father of a child is -<i>compadre</i> to its godfather. It is considered -a very close and sacred relationship.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_342_342" id="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> Hence the name <i>Lenco-huayccu</i>. <i>Lenqui</i> is anything sticky in Quichua, -and <i>huayccu</i> a ravine.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_343_343" id="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> <i>Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society</i>, Feb. 1, 1860, p. 59.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_344_344" id="Footnote_344_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a> Dr. Weddell believes it to be a distinct species from the <i>C. Micrantha</i> of -Huanuco, and has named it <i>C. Affinis</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_345_345" id="Footnote_345_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a> "<i>Alcalde Municipal del Distrito de -Quiaca, al Señor Juez de Paz Don -Juan de la Cruz Gironda.</i> -</p> -<p class="r"><i>"6 de Mayo de 1860.</i><br /></p> - -<p> -"Teniendo positivas noticias de que -sea internado a los puntos de Tambopata -un estranjero Ingles, con objeto -de estraer plantas de cascarilla, me es -de absoluta necesidad pasarle a vm -esta nota, para que sin permitir que en -grave perjuicio de los hijos del pais, lo -tome ni una planta, por lo que como -autoridad debe vm de aberiguar bien -para capturar a el y al persona quien -se propone a facilitarle dichas plantas, -y conducirlos a este. -</p> - -<p class="sig">"Dios guarde a vm.,<br /> -"<span class="smcap">José Mariano Bobadilla.</span>" -</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_346_346" id="Footnote_346_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a> Hence the name of the Peruvian -province of <i>Parinacochas</i>. <i>Parihuana-cocha</i>, -the Flamingo lake.—G. de la -Vega, <i>Comm. Real.</i> i. lib. iii. cap. ix. p. -83.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_347_347" id="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a> "We give here the notices which -we have collected respecting the existence -and position of a lake which is -not to be found in any map, and which -bears the name of Arapa. It is said -to be 6 leagues to the north of lake -Titicaca, and is 30 leagues in circumference. -It extends from the foot of a -very abrupt chain of mountains, and -its figure is that of a half-moon. It -contains some islands. Its waters, -having traversed two other smaller -lakes to the west, fall into the Ramiz, -which is thus rendered navigable at -all seasons. The principal villages -around the lake of Arapa are Chacamana, -Chupan, Arapa, and Vetansas. -Round the latter place it is said that -there are many veins of silver and -mines of precious stones."—<i>Castelnau</i>, -tom. iii. chap. xxxix. p. 420.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_348_348" id="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a> <i>Taya</i> is an Aymara word, meaning -"cold."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_349_349" id="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a> <i>La Balsa de Arequipa</i>, Junio 15. -</p> -<p> -"Las cuestiones municipales han -hecho gran daño al puerto de Islay, -pues todo va mal con el desacuerdo -que reina entre el cuerpo y las demas -autoridades que lo combaten escandalosamente. -</p> -<p> -"Quiero que se sepa en esa ciudad -que los estranjeros han dado en esportar -per esta plantas de cascarilla, que es -sabido esta prohibido hacerlo: acaba -de embarcar un Ingles una multitud -de ellas para la India, por comision -official de su Gobierno. Yo no sé -como es que esto se tolera, defraudando -asi uno de los mejores y mas esclusivos -ramos de nuestra riqueza."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_350_350" id="Footnote_350_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a> -</p> -<p> -"<i>Ministerio de Hacienda y Comercio.</i><br /> -<i>"Lima, Junio 20 de 1860.</i><br /> -</p> -<p> -"En el expediente relativa a la medida -tomada por el Administrador de -la Aduana de Islay, impediendo la extraccion -de cierto numero de plantas -de cascarilla, ha recaido con fecha de -hoy, el siguiente decreto. -</p> -<p> -"Visto este expediente, y atendiendo -a que no esta prohibida por reglamento -de Comercio, la extraccion de plantas -de cascarilla, y a que de impedirse su -exportacion, con detrimento de la libertad -comercial que las leyes de la -Republica, y ese reglamento protejan, -no se conseguiria en manera alguna -el objeto que el Administrador de la -Aduana se ha propuesto al impedir el -embarque de varias plantas de esa -especie, se desaprueba dicha prohibicion, -sin que por este se entiende que -el Gobierno deja de apreciar el celo y -patriotismo que revela en el preindicado -Administrador la enunciada medida. -</p> -<p class="sig">"Dios guarda a V. S.,<br /> -<span class="smcap">"Juan José Salcedo</span>." -</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_351_351" id="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a> In an Appendix will be found a -list of these knights errant in the -cause of liberty. It was one of the last -things upon which that gallant old -warrior, General Miller, the most distinguished -of their number, was engaged -before his death in November -1861.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_352_352" id="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a> "Pos las narraciones tan calumniosas -como absurdas de algunos aventureros -maldicientes, se nos considera -punto menos que salvages," says a -Peruvian writer.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_353_353" id="Footnote_353_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a> In Spanish times there were 83 -"titulos de Castilla" in Peru, consisting -of 1 duke, 46 marquises, 35 counts, -and 1 viscount. The descendants of -several of these noblemen still reside -on their estates in Peru.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> The boundary between Ecuador -and Peru is now founded on the <i>uti -possidetis</i> of 1810, and the treaty of -1829.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_355_355" id="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a> <i>Pruvonena</i>, i. p. 688.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_356_356" id="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a> Pedro Castilla discovered the class -of ore called <i>lecheador</i> (chloro-bromide -of silver). See Bollaert's <i>Antiquarian -and other Researches in Peru</i>, &c. In -this work there is a full and interesting -account of the province of Tarapaca, -and of the nitrate of soda works, and -other mineral products of that part of -Peru.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_357_357" id="Footnote_357_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_357_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a> This province also yields great -quantities of tobacco, sugar, rice, and -maize; and the adjoining province of -Truxillo produces cochineal, which was -introduced by Mr. Blackwood.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_358_358" id="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a> 1 <i>fanegada</i> = 41,472 square <i>varas</i> -(yards), and 1 acre = 4840 varas. In -Arequipa the square measure is called -a <i>topu</i>. 1 <i>topu</i> = 5000 square <i>varas</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_359_359" id="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a> Mr. Gerard Garland is about to -commence a cotton plantation in the -littoral province of Payta; and, if his -project succeeds, it will doubtless induce -others to follow his example.—<i>Cotton -Supply Reporter</i>, March 15th, -1862.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_360_360" id="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a> The use of guano as a manure was -well known to the ancient Peruvians -long before the Spanish conquest. -Garcilasso de la Vega, the historian of -the Incas, thus describes the use made -by them of the deposits of guano on -the coast of Peru:— -</p> -<p> -"On the shores of the sea, from below -Arequipa to Tarapaca, which is -more than 200 leagues of coast, they -use no other manure than that of sea-birds, -which abound in all the coasts -of Peru, and go in such great flocks -that it would be incredible to one who -had not seen them. They breed on -certain uninhabited islands which are -on that coast; and the manure which -they deposit is in such quantities that -it would also seem incredible. From -afar the heaps of manure appear like -the peaks of some snowy mountain range. -In the time of the kings, who -were Incas, such care was taken to -guard these birds in the breeding season, -that it was not lawful for any one -to land on the isles, on pain of death, -that the birds might not be frightened, -nor driven from their nests. Neither -was it lawful to kill them at any time, -either on the islands or elsewhere, also -on pain of death. Each island was, -by order of the Incas, set apart for the -use of a particular province, and the -guano was fairly divided, each village -receiving a due portion. Now in these -times it is wasted after a different -fashion. There is much fertility in -this bird-manure."—II. lib. v. cap. iii. -p. 134-5. (Madrid, 1723.) -</p> -<p> -Frezier mentions that, when he was -on the coast in 1713, guano was brought -from Iquique and other ports along the -coast, and landed at Arica and Ylo, -for the aji-pepper and other crops.—Frezier's -<i>South Sea</i>, p. 152. (London, -1717.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_361_361" id="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a> <i>Informes sobre la existencia de -Huano, en las Islas de Chincha, por -la comision nombrada por el Gobierno -Peruano</i>, 1854. A small pamphlet, -with plans.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_362_362" id="Footnote_362_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a> Bollaert's <i>Account of Tarapaca</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_363_363" id="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a> In 1858 there were 52 ships loading -at the Kooria Mooria islands, off the -coast of Arabia. In Jibleea the guano -is found coating nearly the whole of -the island (about 500,000 tons), white -and polished, so as to be very slippery, -which is very different from the guano -of Peru. In May, 1857, this guano -from Jibleea island was analyzed at -Bombay by Dr. Giraud, with the following -result:— -</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdr">6·88</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Azotized matter, with ammoniacal salts</td><td class="tdr">38·75</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fixed alkaline salts</td><td class="tdr">6·00</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sand</td><td class="tdr">26·25</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sulphate of lime</td><td class="tdr">3·77</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Phosphate of lime</td><td class="tdr">18·35</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl bt bb">100·00</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p> -Thus the quantity of phosphate of -lime is very small, and it appears that -the rains have washed it down, and -that it has formed a stalactitic deposit -on the surface of the rock beneath the -guano. A cargo of this deposit was -shipped and sold at Liverpool for 8<i>l.</i> a -ton. -</p> -<p> -The composition of Peruvian guano -is as follows:— -</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdr">13·73</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Organic matter and ammoniacal salts</td><td class="tdr">53·16</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Phosphates</td><td class="tdr">23·48</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Alkaline salts</td><td class="tdr">7·97</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sand</td><td class="tdr">1·66</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr bb bt">100.00</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p> -Of Ichaboe guano:— -</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Water</td><td class="tdr">24·21</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Organic matter, and ammoniacal salts</td><td class="tdr">39·30</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Phosphates</td><td class="tdr">30·00</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Alkaline salts</td><td class="tdr">4·19</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Sand</td><td class="tdr">2·30</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr bt bb">100·00</td></tr> -</table></div> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> The Peruvian Government contracted -three loans in London between -1822 and 1825, amounting to -1,816,000<i>l.</i>, bearing interest at 6 per -cent. -</p> -<p> -No interest was paid from 1825 to -1849, when the sales of guano had -greatly increased the resources of -Peru. In 1849 Señor Osma made an -agreement with the bondholders to -issue New Bonds at 4 per cent. per -annum, the rate to increase ½ per cent. -annually up to 6 per cent. Arrears of -interest, about 2,615,000<i>l.</i>, were to be -capitalized, and Deferred Bonds to be -issued to represent 75 per cent. of these -arrears, and to bear interest at 1 per -cent. per annum, increasing ½ per cent. -annually up to 3 per cent. -</p> -<p> -In 1852 the Congress authorised -General Mendiburu to effect a loan in -London for 2,600,000<i>l.</i> to redeem the -remainder of the 6 per cent. loan, and -to refund other home and Chile debts. -</p> -<p> -The annual interest and sinking -fund amount, respectively, to 267,000<i>l.</i> -and 82,000<i>l.</i>; the payment of which is -secured on the profits of guano sold in -Great Britain. -</p> -<p> -There is also a French loan of -800,000<i>l.</i> secured on the profits of -guano sold in France. -</p> -<p> -The whole foreign debt of Peru -amounted to 4,491,042<i>l.</i> in 1857; and -the domestic debt to 4,835,708<i>l.</i> The -foreign debt is annually reduced by -means of a sinking fund.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> <i>Memorias de los Vireyes que han gobernado el Peru.</i> (Lima, 1859.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_366_366" id="Footnote_366_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a> After his death 22 wounds were found on his body, and 2 bullets lodged.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_367_367" id="Footnote_367_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367_367"><span class="label">[367]</span></a> Mr. Howard has recently obtained 8·5 per cent. of alkaloids from a specimen -of red bark.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_368_368" id="Footnote_368_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368_368"><span class="label">[368]</span></a> There is no ascertained law by -which many of the species of the chinchona -genus are thus limited to narrow -zones as regards latitude. Mr. Spruce -mentions that on the lower regions of -the Andes of Pasto and Popayan, in -New Granada, there are the conditions -of climate and altitude requisite for the -growth of <i>C. succirubra</i>, but it has not -been found there.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_369_369" id="Footnote_369_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_369_369"><span class="label">[369]</span></a> This is not the same as the <i>pata -de gallinazo</i> of Huanuco, which has -been named by Mr. Howard <i>C. Peruviana</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_370_370" id="Footnote_370_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370_370"><span class="label">[370]</span></a> Mr. Cross sowed eight of the seeds; -one began to germinate on the fourth -day, and at the end of a fortnight four -seeds had pushed their radicles. In -three weeks one had the seed-leaves -completely developed; and on the -twenty-eighth day after sowing, the -last of the eight pushed its radicle. -Eight chinchona-seeds, gathered by Mr. -Spruce in 1859, were sown at Guayaquil, -which had remained nine months -in his herbarium. Of these four germinated, -which clearly shows that well-ripened -and properly-dried seeds do -not lose their vitality for a much longer -period than their excessive delicacy -would lead one to suspect.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_371_371" id="Footnote_371_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371_371"><span class="label">[371]</span></a> 1. <i>Notes of a visit to the Chinchona -Forests</i>, by R. Spruce, Esq., printed by -the Linnæan Society, vol. iv. of their -<i>Proceedings</i>. -</p> -<p> -2. Mr. Spruce's <i>Report to the Under -Secretary of State for India</i>, Oct. 12, -1860. -</p> -<p> -3. <i>Report of the Expedition to procure -Plants and Seeds of the Chinchona -succirubra</i>, by R. Spruce, Esq., Sept. -22, 1861.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_372_372" id="Footnote_372_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a> Letter from Mr. Pritchett to the -Under Secretary of State for India, -dated July 9, 1861.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_373_373" id="Footnote_373_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a> Letter from Mr. Pritchett to the -Under Secretary of State for India, -dated Dec. 13, 1860.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_374_374" id="Footnote_374_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a> Smyth's <i>Journey from Lima to -Para</i>, p. 63.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_375_375" id="Footnote_375_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375_375"><span class="label">[375]</span></a> Herndon's <i>Valley of the Amazon</i>, -p. 126.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_376_376" id="Footnote_376_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376_376"><span class="label">[376]</span></a> Herndon's <i>Valley of the Amazon</i>, -p. 136.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_377_377" id="Footnote_377_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a> Smyth, p. 115; who says that, according -to a register which had been -kept there, it rains at Casapi on more -than half the days of the year. -</p> -<p> -"From May to November the sun -shines very powerfully in the valley of -Chinchao, and consequently the soil, -when it is cleared of wood, becomes so -parched that its surface opens in chinks, -but underneath it always preserves -humidity, and therefore needs no irrigation. -From November to May it -rains much, sometimes six or seven -days without intermission."—Dr. A. -Smith's <i>Peru as It Is</i>, ii. p. 57.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_378_378" id="Footnote_378_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a> Of the identity of the species collected -by Mr. Pritchett there is no -doubt. He brought home specimens -from the trees whence the seeds were -obtained, which have been examined -by Mr. Howard, and proved to belong -to <i>C. nitida</i>, <i>C. micrantha</i>, and <i>C. -Peruviana</i>. The barks also have been -found to contain a satisfactory percentage -of alkaloids. Some further -particulars respecting these species -have already been given in chap. ii. -p. 30-35.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_379_379" id="Footnote_379_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a> Pavon gives its height at from 18 -to 24 feet, and 8 to 9 inches in diameter.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_380_380" id="Footnote_380_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a> They yield the <i>crown bark</i> of commerce.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_381_381" id="Footnote_381_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381_381"><span class="label">[381]</span></a> Seemann's <i>Voyage of H. M. S. -Herald</i>, i. p. 177. For some further -particulars respecting the chinchona -region of Loxa, see chap. ii. p. 21-25.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_382_382" id="Footnote_382_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382_382"><span class="label">[382]</span></a> <i>Nueva Quinologia de Pavon.</i> <i>C. -Chahuarguera</i> and <i>C. crispa</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_383_383" id="Footnote_383_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a> Mr. Cross transmitted the following -dried specimens of the parts of chinchona-trees from -Loxa:— -</p> -<p> -1. Very characteristic specimens of -the bark, leaves, flowers, and capsules of -<i>C. Condaminea</i> (<i>C. Chahuarguera</i>, Pavon). -This kind yields the rusty crown -bark of commerce. -</p> -<p> -2. Bark, leaves, and flowers of <i>C. -crispa</i>, Tafalla, a kind which is included -in the <i>C. Condaminea</i>, H. and -B. It yields the <i>quina fina de Loxa</i>, -or <i>cascarilla crespilla</i>. -</p> -<p> -3. Bark and leaves of <i>C. Lucumæfolia</i> -of Pavon, from Zamora. This is the -<i>cascarilla de hoja de lucma</i> of the -natives. Mr. Cross made no attempt -to collect the seeds, as this species is -comparatively worthless.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_384_384" id="Footnote_384_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384_384"><span class="label">[384]</span></a> My collection of dried specimens -is deposited in the museum and herbarium -at Kew. It consists of leaves, -flowers, fruit, and bark of <i>C. Calisaya</i>; -leaves and flowers of <i>C. micrantha</i>; -leaves and fruit of <i>C. Caravayensis</i>; -fruit of <i>Pimentelia glomerata</i>; and -bark from the branches of almost every -species of chinchona and allied genera -in the Caravayan forests. -</p> -<p> -Mr. Spruce's collection of all the -parts of <i>C. succirubra</i> is in the herbarium -at Kew. -</p> -<p> -Mr. Pritchett's collection of leaves, -fruit, and bark of <i>C. nitida</i>, <i>C. micrantha</i>, -<i>C. Peruviana</i>, and <i>C. obovata</i>, is in -the possession of Mr. Howard. -</p> -<p> -Mr. Cross's dried specimens of leaves, -flowers, fruit, and bark of <i>C. Condaminea</i> -(<i>C. Chahuarguera</i> of Pavon), -bark, leaves, and flowers of <i>C. crispa</i> -of Tafalla, and bark and leaves of -<i>C. Lucumæfolia</i>, are partly in my possession, -partly in that of Mr. Howard, -and partly in that of Mr. Veitch.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_385_385" id="Footnote_385_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385_385"><span class="label">[385]</span></a> Six cases of chinchona-plants from this depôt were despatched to Ceylon -by the mail of March 4, 1862.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_386_386" id="Footnote_386_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386_386"><span class="label">[386]</span></a> See Fortune's <i>Tea Districts</i>, chap. xxi. p. 358-9.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_387_387" id="Footnote_387_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387_387"><span class="label">[387]</span></a> Mr. Cross says that Wardian cases, -as they are at present constructed, -are notoriously unfit for the growth -of plants of any description. He adds -that the plants must be healthy root -and top before they are deposited in -the cases. They ought to be exposed -for at least a month to the full action -of the sun and atmosphere, so that the -juices, stems, and leaves may be fully -developed and matured. Plants taken -out of hothouses, or from dense forests, -are not in a fit state to be sent away -immediately in Wardian cases. They -are then "blanched," and are easily -affected by adverse influences, such as -excess of moisture or drought.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_388_388" id="Footnote_388_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a> In October, 1861, the <i>Schinus molle</i> -plants were 3 feet high; and the chirimoyas -15 inches. Plants of both have -been sent to the gardens at Bangalore.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_389_389" id="Footnote_389_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_389_389"><span class="label">[389]</span></a> Seemann's <i>Voyage of the Herald</i>, -i. p. 171.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_390_390" id="Footnote_390_390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_390_390"><span class="label">[390]</span></a> These 11 classes are:—1. The <i>Kirüm -Nairs</i>, who are agriculturists, -clerks, and accountants, and do the -cooking on all public occasions, a sure -sign of transcendent rank. 2. The -<i>Sudra Nairs</i>. 3. The <i>Charnadus</i>. 4. -The <i>Villiums</i>, who are palkee-bearers -to Namburis and Rajahs. 5. The <i>Wattacotas</i>, -or oil-makers. 6. The <i>Atticourchis</i>, -or cultivators. 7. The <i>Wallacutras</i>, -or barbers. 8. The <i>Wallateratas</i>, -or washermen. 9. The <i>Tunars</i>, -or tailors. 10. The <i>Andoras</i>, or pot-makers. -11. The <i>Taragons</i>, or weavers, -who are very low in the scale, -for even a potter must purify himself -if he chances to touch a weaver.—Buchanan, -ii. p. 408.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_391_391" id="Footnote_391_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_391_391"><span class="label">[391]</span></a> Buchanan.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_392_392" id="Footnote_392_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392_392"><span class="label">[392]</span></a> Temulporum and Palghaut.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_393_393" id="Footnote_393_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a> They range from 12 to 60 reas, or 6 pies to 2 annas 5 pies per tree.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_394_394" id="Footnote_394_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394_394"><span class="label">[394]</span></a> The value of the exported nuts, -kernels, oil, and coir of the cocoanuts -in 1859, was 157,995<i>l.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_395_395" id="Footnote_395_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395_395"><span class="label">[395]</span></a> Drury's <i>Useful Plants of India</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_396_396" id="Footnote_396_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396_396"><span class="label">[396]</span></a> The best soil for ginger-cultivation -is red earth free from gravel. At the -commencement of the monsoon beds -of 10 or 12 feet by 3 or 4 are formed, in -which holes are dug a foot apart, which -are filled with manure. The roots, -hitherto carefully buried under sheds, -are dug out, chipped into suitable -sizes for planting (1½ to 2 inches long), -and buried in the holes. The bed is -then covered with a thick layer of -green leaves, which serve as manure, -while they keep the beds from too -much dampness. Rain is requisite, -but the beds must be kept from inundation, -and drains are therefore cut -between them. The roots or rhizomes, -when old, are scalded, scraped, and -dried, and thus form the white ginger -of commerce.—Drury's <i>Useful Plants -of India</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_397_397" id="Footnote_397_397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_397_397"><span class="label">[397]</span></a> The tallipot or fan-palm (<i>Corypha -umbraculifera</i>) has a stem 60 or 70 feet -high, crowned with enormous fan-shaped -leaves, with 40 or 50 pairs of -segments. These fronds, when dried, -are very strong, and are used for hats -and umbrellas. The petiole is seven -feet long, and the blade six feet long -and thirteen feet broad.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_398_398" id="Footnote_398_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_398_398"><span class="label">[398]</span></a> The sumach-tree (<i>Cæsalpinia coriaria</i>) -was introduced into India from -America, by Dr. Wallich, in 1842. -The pods are much used for tanning -purposes.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_399_399" id="Footnote_399_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399_399"><span class="label">[399]</span></a> <i>Nil</i>, blue, and <i>giri</i>, a mountain; from the blue <i>Justitias</i> which cover many -of the hill-slopes.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_400_400" id="Footnote_400_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400_400"><span class="label">[400]</span></a> <i>Report of Captain J. Ouchterlony, Superintendent of the Neilgherry Survey -in 1848.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_401_401" id="Footnote_401_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401_401"><span class="label">[401]</span></a> Ferdosi.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_402_402" id="Footnote_402_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a> Dr. Wight says that this plant -might be collected in vast quantities -with little trouble or expense, and -yields an excellent red dye.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_403_403" id="Footnote_403_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a> This nettle is frequent all over -the higher ranges of the Neilgherries. -The bark yields a fine strong fibre, -which the natives obtain by first boiling -the whole plant, to deprive it of -its virulently-stinging properties, and -then peeling the stalks. The textile -material thus obtained is of great delicacy -and strength.—Wight's <i>Spicelegium -Neilgherense</i>. The fibre of the -Neilgherry nettle is worth 200<i>l.</i> a ton -in England, and its cultivation is likely -to be a remunerative speculation.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_404_404" id="Footnote_404_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a> <i>Tribes inhabiting the Neilgherry -Hills, from the rough Notes of a German -Missionary.</i> (Madras, 1856.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_405_405" id="Footnote_405_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a> <i>Vocabulary of the Dialect spoken -by the Todars of the Nilagiri Mountains</i>, -by the Rev. F. Metz, of the German -Evangelical Mission. (Madras, 1857.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_406_406" id="Footnote_406_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406_406"><span class="label">[406]</span></a> <i>Antiquities of the Neilgherry Hills</i>, -by Captain H. Congreve, 1847. Also, -Caldwell's <i>Comparative Dravidian -Grammar</i>. The German missionaries -believe that these cairns were the -work of the Kurumbers, another wild -hill tribe.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_407_407" id="Footnote_407_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407_407"><span class="label">[407]</span></a> Todars pay two taxes to Government -in return, on female buffaloes and on -grazing land, both small in amount.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_408_408" id="Footnote_408_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408_408"><span class="label">[408]</span></a> <i>Raggee</i>, however, is the least nourishing -of all the cereals, although it -forms the chief part of the diet of the -poorer classes in Mysore and on the -Neilgherries. In good seasons it yields -120-fold, but it is very poor fare.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_409_409" id="Footnote_409_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409_409"><span class="label">[409]</span></a> In 1807 Buchanan mentioned the -Badagas of the Neilgherries, as gatherers -of honey and wax in the hills south -of Wynaad.—ii. p. 246 and p. 273.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_410_410" id="Footnote_410_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410_410"><span class="label">[410]</span></a> Literally "one stone village."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_411_411" id="Footnote_411_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a> The great Tamil scholar.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_412_412" id="Footnote_412_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412_412"><span class="label">[412]</span></a> <i>Hooli</i>, a tiger in the Badaga language; -and <i>cul</i>, a rock or stone in -Tamil and Canarese. <i>Pili</i> is a tiger in -Tamil.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_413_413" id="Footnote_413_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413_413"><span class="label">[413]</span></a> Mr. Fowler, in his evidence before -a Committee of the House of Commons, -gave 2500 to 4000 feet as the most -favourable elevation for the growth of -coffee.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_414_414" id="Footnote_414_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a> There are 11,386 acres of land -under coffee cultivation in Wynaad, -7358 owned by Europeans, and 4028 -by natives: of these 7224 are liable to -assessment, that is, the coffee-trees -are in bearing.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_415_415" id="Footnote_415_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415_415"><span class="label">[415]</span></a> Besides a <i>jemmi</i> fee on Government -land, of eight annas an acre.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_416_416" id="Footnote_416_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416_416"><span class="label">[416]</span></a> Cleghorn's <i>Forests and Gardens of -Southern India</i>, p. 16.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_417_417" id="Footnote_417_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417_417"><span class="label">[417]</span></a> Several species of <i>Chinchonæ</i> flourish -at altitudes from 8000 to over -10,000 feet above the sea, and within -the region of frequent frosts.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_418_418" id="Footnote_418_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418_418"><span class="label">[418]</span></a> Karsten.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_419_419" id="Footnote_419_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419_419"><span class="label">[419]</span></a> Smyth's <i>Journey from Lima to -Para</i>, p. 115.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_420_420" id="Footnote_420_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420_420"><span class="label">[420]</span></a> Dr. A. Smith's <i>Peru as It Is</i>, ii. -p. 57.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_421_421" id="Footnote_421_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a> Mr. Spruce's <i>Report</i>, p. 27.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_422_422" id="Footnote_422_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422_422"><span class="label">[422]</span></a> Called <i>Cinchona excelsa</i> by Dr. -Roxburgh, but excluded from the list -of Chinchonæ by Dr. Wallich, who -gave the plant its present name.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_423_423" id="Footnote_423_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_423_423"><span class="label">[423]</span></a> In the <i>Mahabharata</i> the five -Pandus, who contended with the 100 -Kurus or vices, were—Yudisthira, the -personification of modesty; and his -brothers Arjuna, or courage; Bhima, -or strength; Nakal, or beauty; and -Sahadeva, or harmony. The conversation -between Arjuna and the incarnate -deity Krishna, in the <i>Bhagavat -Gita</i>, an episode in the <i>Mahabharata</i>, -is perhaps the finest passage in the -whole range of Sanscrit literature.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_424_424" id="Footnote_424_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424_424"><span class="label">[424]</span></a> <i>Cæsalpinia sappan</i>, a handsome -tree, with curiously-shaped pods. It -yields a valuable dye.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_425_425" id="Footnote_425_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_425_425"><span class="label">[425]</span></a> Called <i>jowaree</i>, in Bengalee; <i>jonna</i>, -in Telugu; <i>yawanul</i>, in Sanscrit; and -<i>doora</i>, in Egypt.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_426_426" id="Footnote_426_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426_426"><span class="label">[426]</span></a> <i>Dolichos lablab</i>, a kind of pulse -much eaten by the poor people.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_427_427" id="Footnote_427_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427_427"><span class="label">[427]</span></a> Cotton (<i>Gossypium Indicum</i>) is -called <i>parati</i>, in Tamil; <i>putti</i>, in Telugu; -and <i>kurpas</i>, in Sanscrit.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_428_428" id="Footnote_428_428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_428_428"><span class="label">[428]</span></a> The former of these grains has -already been mentioned. The latter -is <i>Panicum spicatum</i>, or spiked millet. -It is called <i>bajree</i>, in Guzeratee; and -<i>kunghoo</i>, in Sanscrit; and is made into -cakes and porridge.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_429_429" id="Footnote_429_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429_429"><span class="label">[429]</span></a> "The black cotton soil seems to -have arisen from the decomposition -of basalt and trap. When dry it is -dark-coloured, and glistens from the -presence of nearly pure grains of silica. -It possesses extraordinary attraction -for water, and forms with it -a most tenacious mud."—<i>Dr. Forbes -Watson.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_430_430" id="Footnote_430_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a> "The district of Coimbatore lies -opposite the great gap in the Peninsular -chain between the southern -slopes of the Nilgiri mountains, and -the northern face of those of Travancor. -Across this depression the S.W. -monsoon has almost a free passage to -the eastward; but the great elevation -of the mountains on both sides, and -the absence of any considerable hills -in the district, cause the monsoon -wind to pass over without depositing -much of its moisture; and, though the -climate is humid, the rainfall is very -trifling. During the N.E. monsoon -the hills of Salem intercept the moisture."—Hooker's -<i>Flora Indica</i>, i. p. 132.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_431_431" id="Footnote_431_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431_431"><span class="label">[431]</span></a> Lindley's <i>Theory and Practice of -Horticulture</i>, p. 487.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_432_432" id="Footnote_432_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a> "This is an assurance which no private -tenant in any country, not even in -England, has obtained."—<i>East India -Company's Memorandum</i>, 1858, p. 17.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_433_433" id="Footnote_433_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a> <i>Koda</i>, a shade or umbrella; and <i>karnal</i>, a jungle.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_434_434" id="Footnote_434_434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_434_434"><span class="label">[434]</span></a> Literally "Fruit-hills."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_435_435" id="Footnote_435_435"></a><a href="#FNanchor_435_435"><span class="label">[435]</span></a> Yet I missed the <i>Berberis Mahonia</i>, -which in the Neilgherries is not found -beyond the limits of the S.W. monsoon.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_436_436" id="Footnote_436_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436_436"><span class="label">[436]</span></a> For short accounts of the Pulney -hills, see— -</p> -<p> -1. <i>Memoir of the Varagherry Hills</i>, -by Capt. B. S. Ward, <i>Madras Journal -of Literature and Science</i>, Oct. 1837, -vol. vi. p. 280. -</p> -<p> -2. <i>Observations on the Pulney Mountains</i>, -by Dr. Wight, <i>Madras Journal</i>, -v. p. 280. -</p> -<p> -3. <i>Report on the Pulneys</i>, by Lieut. -R. H. Beddome, <i>Madras Journal</i>, -1857. -</p> -<p> -4. Sir Charles Trevelyan's <i>Official -Tour in the South of India</i>. He says, -"It is an important fact that, as regards -much the largest portion of this -tract, there is no claim to the soil -which can interfere with the establishment -of the most absolute freehold."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_437_437" id="Footnote_437_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437_437"><span class="label">[437]</span></a> For a very interesting account of -the Anamallay hills, see <i>Forests and -Gardens of South India</i>, p. 289-302, -by Dr. Cleghorn, Conservator of Forests -in the Madras Presidency.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_438_438" id="Footnote_438_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438_438"><span class="label">[438]</span></a> Tamil is spoken throughout the -Carnatic, in the southern part of -Travancore, and north part of Ceylon, -by about 10,000,000 souls. Telugu, -the first of the Dravidian languages -in euphonious sweetness, is spoken in -the Ceded districts, Kurnool, part of -the Nizam's territory, and part of -Nagpore; Canarese in Canara and -Mysore; and Malayalam in Malabar. -The whole Dravidian race numbers -30,000,000 souls. The Tamil, Telugu, -and Malayalam languages have each -a system of written characters peculiar -to itself: the Canarese letters are -borrowed from the Telugu.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_439_439" id="Footnote_439_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439_439"><span class="label">[439]</span></a> Caldwell's <i>Comparative Dravidian -Grammar</i>. Preface, p. v.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_440_440" id="Footnote_440_440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_440_440"><span class="label">[440]</span></a> <i>Lectures on the Science of Language</i>, -p. 341.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_441_441" id="Footnote_441_441"></a><a href="#FNanchor_441_441"><span class="label">[441]</span></a> Adam Smith says that numerals -are among the most abstract ideas -which the human mind is capable of -forming. See a paper read before the -Ethnological Society in Feb. 1862, -<i>On the numerals as evidence of the -progress of civilization</i>, by Mr. Crawford.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_442_442" id="Footnote_442_442"></a><a href="#FNanchor_442_442"><span class="label">[442]</span></a> Caldwell, p. 2.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_443_443" id="Footnote_443_443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_443_443"><span class="label">[443]</span></a> <i>Kolki</i> of the Periplus; perhaps -<i>Kilkhar</i>, on the Coromandel coast, -opposite Rameswaram.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_444_444" id="Footnote_444_444"></a><a href="#FNanchor_444_444"><span class="label">[444]</span></a> In Sanscrit.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_445_445" id="Footnote_445_445"></a><a href="#FNanchor_445_445"><span class="label">[445]</span></a> In 1802 a pot of Roman coins -was dug up near Dharaparum, in -Coimbatore, of the Emperors Augustus -and Tiberius, with <i>Cæsarea</i> marked -on them, the place where they were -struck. Buchanan's <i>Travels</i>, ii. p. 318. -</p> -<p> -One coin, a Roman <i>aureus</i>, has been -found in a cairn on the Neilgherry -hills.—Captain H. Congreve's <i>Antiquities -of the Neilgherry Hills</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_446_446" id="Footnote_446_446"></a><a href="#FNanchor_446_446"><span class="label">[446]</span></a> The author of the Periplus of the -Erythræan Sea mentions Nelcynda -(Neliceram), Paralia (Malabar), and -Comari (Cape Comorin), as under -King Pandion (Regio Pandionis); -and Dr. Vincent thinks that the Pandyan -Kings of Madura lost Malabar -between the time of the author of the -Periplus and that of Ptolemy; because -the latter does not allude to Pandion -until Cape Comorin is passed. Chira -is the modern Coimbatore, and the -capital of the Chira state was at -Caroor. The state of Chola is the -modern Tanjore. The word <i>Pandya</i> -is probably of Sanscrit origin, but the -masculine termination of <i>on</i> is Tamil.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_447_447" id="Footnote_447_447"></a><a href="#FNanchor_447_447"><span class="label">[447]</span></a> "In Tamil few Brahmins have -written anything worthy of preservation: -but the language has been cultivated -and developed with immense -zeal and success by native Sudras."—<i>Caldwell</i>, -p. 33. Tamil literature, -now extant, dates from the eighth or -ninth century: p. 68.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_448_448" id="Footnote_448_448"></a><a href="#FNanchor_448_448"><span class="label">[448]</span></a> Dr. Ainslie, in his <i>Materia Medica</i>, -gives a list of twenty works by -Aghastya, chiefly on medical subjects, -some of them translated from Sanscrit.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_449_449" id="Footnote_449_449"></a><a href="#FNanchor_449_449"><span class="label">[449]</span></a> For a list of kings of Madura, of -the Pandyan and Naik dynasties, see -a paper in the Asiatic Society's Journals, -by H. H. Wilson; from MS. -collections of the late Colonel Mackenzie.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_450_450" id="Footnote_450_450"></a><a href="#FNanchor_450_450"><span class="label">[450]</span></a> Tanjore was seized by the Mahrattas -in 1675. The last Naik sovereign -of Madura was installed as a -tributary of the Nawab of the Carnatic.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_451_451" id="Footnote_451_451"></a><a href="#FNanchor_451_451"><span class="label">[451]</span></a> Namely the <i>Michelia Champacca</i>, -a golden-coloured flower with a strong -aromatic smell, also dedicated to -Krishna; the mango-flower-called -<i>amra</i>; the <i>Pavonia odorata</i> with a -sweet flower, called <i>bulla</i>; the <i>Strychnos -potatorum</i>; and the <i>Mesua ferea</i>, a -guttiferous plant, with a flower white -outside, and yellow inside the tube, -with a smell like sweet-briar.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_452_452" id="Footnote_452_452"></a><a href="#FNanchor_452_452"><span class="label">[452]</span></a> While on the subject of sacred -Hindu plants, I may also mention the -<i>soma</i> juice, so often alluded to in the -Vedas, which comes from a leafless -asclepiad (<i>Sarcostemma viminale</i>) with -white flowers in terminal umbels, -which appear during the rains, in -the Deccan: the holy <i>kusa</i>-grass -(<i>Poa cynosuroides</i>), made into ropes -in the N.W. provinces: the peepul-tree, -the banyan, the neem (<i>Melia -Azadyraclita</i>): the <i>Cratæva religiosa</i>, -specially sacred to Siva: the <i>Nerium -odorum</i>, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: -the <i>Cæsalpinia pulcherrima</i>, sacred to -Siva: the <i>Guettarda speciosa</i>, sacred -to Siva and Vishnu: the <i>Origanum -marjoranum</i>, a labiate plant sacred to -Vishnu and Siva: the <i>Caryophyllum -inophyllum</i>, sacred to Vishnu and -Siva: the <i>Pandanus odoratissimus</i>, -sacred to Vishnu and Mariama, but -offensive to Siva: the <i>Artemisia -astriaka</i>, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: -the <i>Ocimum sanctum</i> or <i>toolsu</i>, a labiate -plant with a white flower, specially -sacred to Vishnu and Krishna: and -the <i>Chrisanthemum Indicum</i>, a yellow -flower, sacred to Vishnu and Siva.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_453_453" id="Footnote_453_453"></a><a href="#FNanchor_453_453"><span class="label">[453]</span></a> Mr. Caldwell considers that these -lines do not allude to any of the -avaturs of the Hindu Deities, but -that they are borrowed, in some unexplained -way, from Christianity.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_454_454" id="Footnote_454_454"></a><a href="#FNanchor_454_454"><span class="label">[454]</span></a> In Fergusson's <i>Architecture</i>, i. p. -105, the hall is represented with an -arched roof, in a sketch from Daniell's -<i>Views of Hindostan</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_455_455" id="Footnote_455_455"></a><a href="#FNanchor_455_455"><span class="label">[455]</span></a> There was a Portuguese Jesuit -mission, with two Christian churches, -established at Madura during the -reign of Tirumalla Naik. It was -founded by Robert de Nobilibus, a -nephew of Cardinal Bellarmin, and the -missionaries wore the sacred thread, -declaring themselves to be Brahmins -from the West.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_456_456" id="Footnote_456_456"></a><a href="#FNanchor_456_456"><span class="label">[456]</span></a> The Brahmins of course are of -mixed blood, through intercourse with -Tamil women. Children are therefore -Sudras, and are not Brahmins until -they are invested with the sacred -thread.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_457_457" id="Footnote_457_457"></a><a href="#FNanchor_457_457"><span class="label">[457]</span></a> From <i>Parei</i>, a drum, as they act as drummers at funerals.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_458_458" id="Footnote_458_458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_458_458"><span class="label">[458]</span></a> Caldwell's <i>Comparative Dravidian -Grammar</i>, Appendix, p. 491.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_459_459" id="Footnote_459_459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_459_459"><span class="label">[459]</span></a> <i>Proceedings of the South India Missionary -Conference</i>, 1858, p. 283.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_460_460" id="Footnote_460_460"></a><a href="#FNanchor_460_460"><span class="label">[460]</span></a> <i>Reports connected with the duties -of the Corps of Engineers of the Madras -Presidency</i>, 1846, vol. ii., p. 108. <i>Report -of Captain Bell</i>, p. 117.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_461_461" id="Footnote_461_461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_461_461"><span class="label">[461]</span></a> There was formerly a peculiar -system of collecting land revenue -prevalent in Tanjore and part of -Tinnevelly, called <i>Oolungoo</i>, by which -the Government demand was dependent -on the current price of grain. A -standard grain assessment was fixed -on each village, and also a standard -rate according to which the grain -demand was to be commuted into -money; but if prices rose more than -10 per cent. above the standard commutation -rate, or fell more than 5 per -cent. below it, the Government, and -not the cultivator, was to receive the -profit and to bear the loss. The -advantage of the system was that the -Government participated in the benefit -of high prices with the cultivator, -while the latter was relieved from -loss when prices were much depressed.—Mill's -<i>India in 1858</i>, p. 119. -</p> -<p> -This Oolungoo system was introduced -into Tanjore in 1825. It was -found that the system was fertile in -fraud and corruption, especially in -connection with the determination of -the annual price, and with claims for -alleged deficiency of produce. In -July, 1859, the Government resolved -to abolish the Oolungoo system, and -to substitute a fixed money demand, -similar to that which prevails in all -other districts. By 1860 this change -had been completed, both in Tanjore -and Tinnevelly.—<i>Principal Measures -of Sir Charles Trevelyan's Administration -at Madras</i> (<i>Madras</i>, 1860), p. 55.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_462_462" id="Footnote_462_462"></a><a href="#FNanchor_462_462"><span class="label">[462]</span></a> The largest temple in Southern -India, next to that of Madura.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_463_463" id="Footnote_463_463"></a><a href="#FNanchor_463_463"><span class="label">[463]</span></a> From <i>Kar</i>, black, and <i>ur</i> a town, -in Tamil.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_464_464" id="Footnote_464_464"></a><a href="#FNanchor_464_464"><span class="label">[464]</span></a> Hooker's <i>Flora Indica</i>, i. p. 124.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_465_465" id="Footnote_465_465"></a><a href="#FNanchor_465_465"><span class="label">[465]</span></a> Ibid., i. p. 133.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_466_466" id="Footnote_466_466"></a><a href="#FNanchor_466_466"><span class="label">[466]</span></a> Dr. Cleghorn states that the -Seegoor forest has been much exhausted -by unscrupulous contractors. -"It is important," he adds, "that it -should be allowed to recover, as it is -the main source of supply to Ootacamund -for housebuilding purposes." -Captain Morgan has been placed in -charge of it, and it is hoped that the -sale of sandal and jungle-wood will -cover the expenses, while the young -teak is coming on for future supply, -P. 36.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_467_467" id="Footnote_467_467"></a><a href="#FNanchor_467_467"><span class="label">[467]</span></a> The areca-palm requires a low -moist situation, with rather a sandy -soil, either under the <i>bund</i> of a tank, -or in a position otherwise favourable -for irrigation. The seeds are put into -holes six feet apart, and the tree comes -into bearing in about eight years. It -yields fruit for fifty years, and, when -in full bearing, produces 1½ lbs. of -nuts.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_468_468" id="Footnote_468_468"></a><a href="#FNanchor_468_468"><span class="label">[468]</span></a> The Lingayets are members of -the <i>Vira Saiva</i> sect, or worshippers -of Siva as the <i>Linga</i>, a representation -of which they carry round their necks. -The sect is numerous in the central and -southern parts of the peninsula. It is -of modern origin, having been founded -by a Brahmin of Kalyan in the middle -of the 12th century. Its members -deny the sanctity of the Brahmins -and the authority of the Vedas, recognize -various divinities, and virtually -abolish the distinction of castes and -the inferiority of women. They are -divided into <i>Aradhyas</i>, by birth Brahmins, -and often well versed in Sanscrit -literature; <i>Jangamas</i>, who have a -literature of their own, written in -Karnata and Telugu; and Bhaktas.—Wilson's -<i>Indian Glossary</i>, p. 311.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_469_469" id="Footnote_469_469"></a><a href="#FNanchor_469_469"><span class="label">[469]</span></a> The whole population of Coorg is about 119,160.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_470_470" id="Footnote_470_470"></a><a href="#FNanchor_470_470"><span class="label">[470]</span></a> Namely, the <i>Amma Kodagas</i> or -Cauvery Brahmins; the <i>Kodagas</i> or -chief tribe; the <i>Himbokulu</i> or herdsmen; -the <i>Heggade</i> or cultivators; the -<i>Ari</i> or carpenters; the <i>Badige</i> or -smiths; the <i>Kuruba</i> or honey gatherers; -the <i>Kavati</i> or jungle cultivators; -the <i>Budiya</i> or drawers of -toddy from the <i>Caryota urens</i> palm; -the <i>Meda</i> or basket-makers; the -<i>Kaleya</i> or farm-labourers; the <i>Holeya</i> -or slaves; and the <i>Yerawa</i> or slaves -from Malabar, cheaper than cattle.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_471_471" id="Footnote_471_471"></a><a href="#FNanchor_471_471"><span class="label">[471]</span></a> <i>Coorg</i>, by Rev. H. Moegling. -(Mangalore, 1855.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_472_472" id="Footnote_472_472"></a><a href="#FNanchor_472_472"><span class="label">[472]</span></a> Observations by Dr. R. Baikie. -<i>Madras Journal</i>, 1837, vi. p. 342.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_473_473" id="Footnote_473_473"></a><a href="#FNanchor_473_473"><span class="label">[473]</span></a> -</p> -<p class="c">1860-61.</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdc br" colspan="2"><i>Revenue of Coorg.</i></td><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><i>Expenditure.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Land revenue</td><td class="tdr br">£14,727</td><td class="tdl">General expenditure</td><td class="tdr">£10,211</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Excise and stamps</td><td class="tdr br">3,611</td><td class="tdl">Public works</td><td class="tdr">1,153</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Income tax</td><td class="tdr">98</td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Miscellaneous</td><td class="tdr">8,300</td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr bt bb">£26,736</td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr bt bb">£11,364</td></tr> -</table></div> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_474_474" id="Footnote_474_474"></a><a href="#FNanchor_474_474"><span class="label">[474]</span></a> Seemann's <i>Popular History of the Palms</i>, p. 134.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_475_475" id="Footnote_475_475"></a><a href="#FNanchor_475_475"><span class="label">[475]</span></a> Moegling's <i>Coorg</i>, pp. 74-77; also Buchanan's <i>Travels</i>, ii. p. 511, and -Drury's <i>Useful Plants of India</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_476_476" id="Footnote_476_476"></a><a href="#FNanchor_476_476"><span class="label">[476]</span></a> Cleghorn's <i>Forests and Gardens of -South India</i>, pp. 126-44, where the -official correspondence respecting -<i>kumari</i> will be found.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_477_477" id="Footnote_477_477"></a><a href="#FNanchor_477_477"><span class="label">[477]</span></a> <i>Cleghorn</i>, p. 11. Poon spars are -also obtained from <i>Stercula fœtida</i>, a -tree with brownish flowers, emitting -a most horrible smell.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_478_478" id="Footnote_478_478"></a><a href="#FNanchor_478_478"><span class="label">[478]</span></a> Hooker's <i>Flora Indica</i>, i. p. 126.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_479_479" id="Footnote_479_479"></a><a href="#FNanchor_479_479"><span class="label">[479]</span></a> The inhabitants of the Laccadive -islands are Sooni Mussulmans. They -have some songs commemorating the -introduction of Islam 500 years ago, -but do not know when the Beebee of -Cannanore got possession. Menakoy, -the largest island, is a mass of coral -5½ miles in diameter. The land is -less than a mile wide, the rest being a -reef encircling a large lagoon. Within -a hundred yards of the reef there -is no bottom. The lagoon, which -abounds in turtle and fish, has three -entrances from the sea, one of which -has a depth of two fathoms. The soil -of the island is a coarse powdered -coral, with a little vegetable matter. -It is quite flat, no part being destitute -of vegetation; the south thickly covered -with cocoanut-trees and underwood, -and the north more sparingly. -Rats abound, there are some cats, a -few cows and goats, large grey cranes, -ducks occasionally, and the mosquitos -are fearful. -</p> -<p> -The population is 2500; of these -116 are <i>Malikans</i>, the aristocracy of -the islands, who own vessels trading -to Bengal. The <i>Koornakar</i>, or agent -of the Beebee, is generally a <i>Malikan</i>; -he collects rents, and superintends -her traffic. The <i>Malikans</i> -have the exclusive privilege of wearing -shoes, live in large houses built -round courtyards, and possess English -quadrants, charts, compasses, and -telescopes. Below them are 180 -<i>Malummies</i>, or pilots, a rank obtained -by merit. Then 1107 <i>Klasies</i>, forming -the bulk of the population, who are -small landed proprietors, go to sea for -regular wages, but are very independent. -Then 583 <i>Maylacherries</i>, or -tree-climbers for hire. The head-men -are elected by the people. The -islanders have six or seven vessels fit -for the Bengal trade, and three or -four for coasting. They go with money -to Goa and Mangalore for salt and -rice, with coir to Bengal, with cocoanuts -to Galle, and bring Calcutta -cloths home.—Mr. Thomas's <i>Report</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_480_480" id="Footnote_480_480"></a><a href="#FNanchor_480_480"><span class="label">[480]</span></a> The gross exports of cotton from the ports in the various districts of the -Madras Presidency in 1859-60 were as follows:— -</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl">Vizagapatam</td><td class="tdr">40,758</td><td class="tdl">lbs.</td><td class="tdc">Valued at</td><td class="tdr">£783</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Gosavery</td><td class="tdr">3,000</td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">36</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Krishna</td><td class="tdr">198,670</td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">1,591</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Nellore</td><td class="tdr">21,075</td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">230</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Fort St. George</td><td class="tdr">7,960,368</td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">128,648</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Tinnevelly</td><td class="tdr">18,562,546</td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">274,380</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">Malabar</td><td class="tdr">2,509,132</td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">49,900</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl">N. and S. Canara</td><td class="tdr">33,264,498</td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr">504,905</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr">Total</td><td class="tdr bt bb">62,560,047</td><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdc">"</td><td class="tdr bt bb">960,473</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p> -In 1860-61 the total export of cotton from Bombay amounted to -355,393,894 lbs.; of which 278,868,126 lbs. went to Great Britain. -</p> -<p> -In the same year the ports of Malabar and Canara sent 55,182,181 lbs. to -Bombay.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_481_481" id="Footnote_481_481"></a><a href="#FNanchor_481_481"><span class="label">[481]</span></a> In lat. 15° N. the western ghauts are not more than 1100 feet above the -sea.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_482_482" id="Footnote_482_482"></a><a href="#FNanchor_482_482"><span class="label">[482]</span></a> The trap formation of the northern -part of the ghauts terminates in 18° -N., and is succeeded by laterite.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_483_483" id="Footnote_483_483"></a><a href="#FNanchor_483_483"><span class="label">[483]</span></a> <i>Transactions of the Medical and -Physical Society of Bombay for 1838</i>, i. -p. 92.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_484_484" id="Footnote_484_484"></a><a href="#FNanchor_484_484"><span class="label">[484]</span></a> Or <i>Gnidia eriocephala</i> of Graham.—Dalzell's -<i>Bombay Flora</i>, p. 221.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_485_485" id="Footnote_485_485"></a><a href="#FNanchor_485_485"><span class="label">[485]</span></a> Dalzell's <i>Bombay Flora</i>, p. 93.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_486_486" id="Footnote_486_486"></a><a href="#FNanchor_486_486"><span class="label">[486]</span></a> Ibid., p. 275.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_487_487" id="Footnote_487_487"></a><a href="#FNanchor_487_487"><span class="label">[487]</span></a> The following list of shrubs, trees, -and ferns growing at Mahabaleshwur -has been kindly furnished by Mr. -Dalzell. -</p> -<p> -<span class="smcap">List of Shrubs and Trees growing on the highest ground at Mahabaleshwur.</span> -</p> - -<ul><li>Eugenia Jambolanum.</li> -<li>Memecylon tinctorium.</li> -<li>Mæsa Indica.</li> -<li>Pygeum Zeylanicum.</li> -<li>Indigofera pulchella.</li> -<li>Actinodaphne (2 sp.).</li> -<li>Bradleia lanceolaria.</li> -<li>Elæagnus Kologa.</li> -<li>Osyris Wightiana.</li> -<li>Lasiosiphon speciosus.</li> -<li>Salix tetrasperma.</li> -<li>Callicarpa cana.</li> -<li>Strobilanthus asperrimus and callosus.</li> -<li>Ligustrum Neilgherrense.</li> -<li>Olea dioica and Roxburgiana.</li> -<li>Ilex Wightiana.</li> -<li>Maba nigrescens.</li> -<li>Diospyros (3 sp.)</li> -<li>Hopea spicata and racemosa.</li> -<li>Embelia ribes and glandulifera.</li> -<li>Notonia grandiflora.</li> -<li>Artemisia parviflora and Indica.</li></ul> - -<p> -<span class="smcap">Chinchonaceæ.</span> -</p> - -<ul><li>Grumilea vaginans.</li> -<li>Pavetta Indica.</li> -<li>Ixora nigricans and parviflora.</li> -<li>Canthium umbellatum.</li> -<li>Vangueria edulis.</li> -<li>Santia venulosa.</li> -<li>Wendlandia Notoniana.</li> -<li>Hymenodictyon obovatum and excelsum.</li> -<li>Griffithia fragrans.</li> -<li>Randia dumetorum.</li></ul> - -<p> -<span class="smcap">Ferns at Mahabaleshwur.</span> -</p> - -<ul><li>Lastrea densa and cochleata.</li> -<li>Nephrodium molle.</li> -<li>Sagenia hippocrepis.</li> -<li>Athyrium filix fœmina.</li> -<li>Asplenium planicaule and erectum.</li> -<li>Diplazium esculentum.</li> -<li>Pteris quadrialata, lucida, and aquilina.</li> -<li>Campteria Rottleriana.</li> -<li>Adiantum lunulatum.</li> -<li>Cheilanthes farinosa.</li> -<li>Polypodium quercifolium.</li> -<li>Pleopeltis nuda.</li> -<li>Pœcilopteris virens.</li> -<li>Leptochilus lanceolatus.</li> -<li>Acrostichum aureum.</li> -<li>Lygodium scandens.</li> -<li>Osmunda regalis.</li></ul> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_488_488" id="Footnote_488_488"></a><a href="#FNanchor_488_488"><span class="label">[488]</span></a> Every Hindu wears a sect-mark -on his forehead. These marks are -thick daubs of white earth, red ochre, -or sandal-wood, and there are several -forms according to the different sects. -The grand distinctions are between -worshippers of Vishnu and Siva, the -latter wearing his mark horizontal, -and the former perpendicular. Any -conical or triangular mark is a symbol -of the <i>linga</i>. Two perpendicular lines -and a dot between, denotes a worshipper -of Vishnu as Rama or Krishna, -&c. &c.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_489_489" id="Footnote_489_489"></a><a href="#FNanchor_489_489"><span class="label">[489]</span></a> Cleghorn, p. 222. Dalzell, p. 86.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_490_490" id="Footnote_490_490"></a><a href="#FNanchor_490_490"><span class="label">[490]</span></a> Or <i>Euphorbia neriifolia</i>. Dalzell, -p. 226.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_491_491" id="Footnote_491_491"></a><a href="#FNanchor_491_491"><span class="label">[491]</span></a> <i>Account of the village of Lony</i>, by -T. Coats. <i>Transactions of the Bombay -Literary Society</i>, 1823, vol. iii. p. 172.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_492_492" id="Footnote_492_492"></a><a href="#FNanchor_492_492"><span class="label">[492]</span></a> The <i>cumboo</i> of the Madras Presidency -(<i>Holcus spicatus</i>).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_493_493" id="Footnote_493_493"></a><a href="#FNanchor_493_493"><span class="label">[493]</span></a> The <i>cholum</i> of Madras (<i>Sorghum -vulgare</i>).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_494_494" id="Footnote_494_494"></a><a href="#FNanchor_494_494"><span class="label">[494]</span></a> The natives of India are supplied, -by Nature, with an endless variety -of condiments to season their food, -many of them growing wild. In the -different parts of India I noticed as -many as twenty-five ingredients used -in curries and porridges. The tender -leaves and legumes of the <i>agati</i> -(<i>Agati grandiflora</i>); oil from the <i>elloopa</i> -fruit (<i>Bassia longifolia</i>); young -unripe gourds of the <i>Benincasa cerifera</i>; -the <i>papaw</i> fruit; cocoanut-oil; -the leaves of <i>Canthium parviflorum</i>; -capsicums; cinnamon; leaves of <i>Cocculus -villosus</i>; turmeric; cardamoms; -<i>jhingo</i> (<i>Luffa acutangula</i>); the fruit of -<i>Momordica charantia</i>; green fruit of -<i>Morinda citrifolia</i>; the legumes of -the horse-radish-tree (<i>Hyperanthera -Moringa</i>); the plantain; the tender -shoots of the lotus; the pickled seeds -of a <i>Nymphæa</i>; the leaves of <i>Premna -latifolia</i>; berries of <i>Solanum verbascifolium</i>; -legumes of <i>Trigonella tetrapetala</i>; -the white centre of the leaf culms -of lemon-grass; the <i>Lablab -cultratus</i>; onions; the fruit of <i>Sapota -elingoides</i> in the Neilgherries; the -<i>moong</i> (<i>Phaseolus mungo</i>); and many -other pulses.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_495_495" id="Footnote_495_495"></a><a href="#FNanchor_495_495"><span class="label">[495]</span></a> The ploughs, and the carts on -wheels bringing home the food from -the fields, are mentioned in the 1st -Ashtaka of the Rig Veda.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_496_496" id="Footnote_496_496"></a><a href="#FNanchor_496_496"><span class="label">[496]</span></a> Dr. Forbes Watson has made -some very interesting calculations on -the amount of pulses rich in nitrogen, -which must be added to rice and -other cereals comparatively poor in -that constituent, in order that the -mixture may contain the same proportion -of carbonous to nitrogenous -matter as is found in wheat, namely -six to one. (See Table, next page.) -</p> -<p> -The cereals which I saw growing -in the peninsula of India, besides rice, -maize, wheat, and barley, were:— -</p> -<p> -1. <i>Setaria Italica</i>, called <i>tennay</i> in -Tamil, and <i>samee</i> by the tribes on the -Neilgherry hills, which is the Italian -millet. The seeds are used for cakes -and porridge. In the Deccan it is -only cultivated in small quantities for -the ryot's own use, and seldom for -market. The grain is very small. -</p> -<p> -2. <i>Panicum Miliaceum</i>, called <i>varagoo</i> -on the Pulney hills, and <i>warree</i> -in the Deccan: a small millet, generally -sown broadcast on the sides of -hills. In the Neilgherries it is used -as an offering to the gods, mixed with -honey, and wrapped in plantain-leaves. -</p> -<p> -3. <i>Panicum pilosum</i>, or <i>badlee</i>, will -grow in the worst soil, but is not -much cultivated, unless the rains -happen to be too scanty for other -crops. The seed is very small, forming -a long hairy spike. -</p> -<p> -4. <i>Cynosurus corocanus</i>, or <i>ragee</i>, is -a very prolific grain, and forms the -staple food of the poorer classes in -Mysore, and on the slopes of the -ghauts. It requires a light good soil, -from which the water readily flows. -In the Deccan they raise it in seed-beds, -and transplant when a few -inches high. It is made into dark -brown cakes. -</p> -<p> -5. <i>Holcus spicatus</i>, or spiked millet, -called <i>cumboo</i> in Madras, and <i>bajree</i> in -the Deccan, where it is the chief food -of the inhabitants, and is considered -very nutritious. -</p> -<p> -6. <i>Sorghum vulgare</i>, or great millet, -called <i>cholum</i> in Madras, and <i>jowaree</i> -in the Deccan. It is made into cakes -and porridge, and the stalks, which -contain sugar, are excellent fodder for -cattle. It grows six or eight feet -high, and soon exhausts the soil, so -that two crops are never taken in -succession. -</p> -<p> -7. <i>Sesamum Indicum</i>, or gingelee -oil-plant, called <i>till</i> in the Deccan. -Oil is expressed from the seeds, which -are also toasted and ground into meal -for food. In the Deccan it is sown on -gravelly or red soil, and the plants -grow three or four feet high. Presents -of the seed, made up in little boxes, -are exchanged by friends on the day -that the sun takes its northerly declination; -and they are also acceptable -as offerings to the god Mahadeo or -Siva. -</p> -<p> -With these seven grains, the following -pulses are usually raised:— -</p> -<p> -1. <i>Cicer arietinum</i>, or Bengal gram, -the seeds of which are eaten, and the -oxalic acid, which exudes from all -parts of the plant, is used as vinegar -for curries. -</p> -<p> -2. <i>Dolichos unifloris</i>, or horse gram, -with grey seeds, used for feeding -horses and cattle. -</p> -<p> -3. <i>Dolichos sinensis</i>, or <i>lobia</i>, a twining -annual, with large pale violet -flowers. The seeds are much used -for food. -</p> -<p> -4. <i>Cajanus Indicus</i>, pigeon-pea, or -<i>toor</i>. A shrub three to six feet high, -with yellow papilionaceous flowers. -This is an excellent pulse, and makes -a good peas-pudding. -</p> -<p> -5. <i>Phaseolus mungo</i>, black gram, or -<i>moong</i>. A nearly erect, hairy annual, -with greenish-yellow flowers. It is -much cultivated, and is a very important -article of food. -</p> -<p> -6. <i>Phaseolus rostratus</i>, or <i>hullounda</i>, -a twining plant, with large, deep rose-purple, -papilionaceous flowers, grown -in Malabar, and other parts of the -peninsula. -</p> -<p> -7. Another kind of <i>moong</i>, called -<i>ooreed</i>, with black and white seeds. -</p> -<p> -8. <i>Lablab cultratus</i>, a twining plant, -with white, red, or purple papilionaceous -flowers; much cultivated in -gardens, and used for food. -</p> -<p> -9. <i>Dolichos lablab</i>, or <i>bulla</i>, a twining -plant of which there are several -varieties. The seeds are much eaten -by the poorer classes when rice is -dear, and are reckoned a wholesome -substantial food. Cattle are very fond -of the stalks. One variety, with white -flowers, is cultivated in gardens, supported -on poles, forming arbours about -the doors of houses. The pods are -eaten, but not the seeds. -</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/fig28.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_497_497" id="Footnote_497_497"></a><a href="#FNanchor_497_497"><span class="label">[497]</span></a> Built in 1749 by the Peishwa Balajee Bajee Rao.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_498_498" id="Footnote_498_498"></a><a href="#FNanchor_498_498"><span class="label">[498]</span></a> "The cultivation of the chinchona-trees -may succeed in localities not -appearing to offer exactly the same -conditions regarding climate and the -general character of the country as -are peculiar to their native forests."—<i>Report -by Dr. Brandis</i> (Supplement to -the <i>Calcutta Gazette</i>, August 31, 1861), -p. 467.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_499_499" id="Footnote_499_499"></a><a href="#FNanchor_499_499"><span class="label">[499]</span></a> "Mr. McIvor deserves great credit -for the manner in which he has laid -out the garden. It is both a beautiful -pleasure-ground, and a valuable public -institution for the improvement of -indigenous, and the naturalisation -of foreign plants; and it has been -formed from the commencement by -Mr. McIvor, with great industry and -artistic skill, out of a rude ravine."—<i>Minute -by Sir Charles Trevelyan</i>, Feb. -24th, 1860.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_500_500" id="Footnote_500_500"></a><a href="#FNanchor_500_500"><span class="label">[500]</span></a> <i>Cleghorn</i>, p. 318.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_501_501" id="Footnote_501_501"></a><a href="#FNanchor_501_501"><span class="label">[501]</span></a> <i>Cleghorn</i>, p. 180 and 359.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_502_502" id="Footnote_502_502"></a><a href="#FNanchor_502_502"><span class="label">[502]</span></a> I have supplied Mr. McIvor with -the following works on the chinchona-plants:— -</p> - -<ul><li>1. Weddell's <i>Histoire Naturelle des -Quinquinas</i>.</li> -<li> -2. Howard's <i>Nueva Quinologia de -Pavon</i>. -</li> -<li> -3. Poeppig's <i>Notes on the Chinchona -Trees and Barks of Huanuco</i>. -</li> -<li> -4. Karsten's <i>Medicinal Chinchona -Barks of New Granada</i>. -</li> -<li> -5. Markham's <i>Report of a Visit to -the Chinchona Forests of Caravaya</i>. -</li> -<li> -6. Spruce's <i>Expedition to procure -Seeds and Plants of C. succirubra</i>. -</li> -<li> -7. Pritchett's <i>Report on the Chinchona -Plants of Huanuco</i>. -</li> -<li> -8. Cross's <i>Report on the C. Condaminea</i>. -</li> -<li> -9. Junghuhn's <i>Cultivation of the -Quina-tree in Java</i>, 1859. -</li> -<li> -10. <i>Botanical Descriptions of Species -of Chinchonæ now growing in India.</i></li></ul> - - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_503_503" id="Footnote_503_503"></a><a href="#FNanchor_503_503"><span class="label">[503]</span></a> <i>Order of the Madras Government</i>, -July 3rd, 1861, No. 1328.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_504_504" id="Footnote_504_504"></a><a href="#FNanchor_504_504"><span class="label">[504]</span></a> <i>Secretary to the Government of India, to the Secretary to the Government of -Fort St. George</i>, Dec. 9th, 1861.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_505_505" id="Footnote_505_505"></a><a href="#FNanchor_505_505"><span class="label">[505]</span></a> I sent a smaller parcel of C. Condaminea -seeds in a letter, which arrived -first at Ootacamund, in the -middle of February. Sixteen days -after sowing, twelve seeds were found -to have germinated; and early in -March 138 seedlings were up, or 30 -per cent. of the total number of seeds -sown. The large parcel of seeds arrived -at Ootacamund on March 4th, -and were sown at once. See p. 570.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_507_507" id="Footnote_507_507"></a><a href="#FNanchor_507_507"><span class="label">[507]</span></a> The chinchona-plantations were commenced in Java in December 1854. -On the 31st of December, 1860, they had of -</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. Calisaya</i> plants:</td><td class="tdr">5510</td><td class="tdl">in the germinating sheds.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr">1806</td><td class="tdl">planted out.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr">1030</td><td class="tdl">living cuttings.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"><i>C. lancifolia</i> plants:</td><td class="tdr">38</td><td class="tdl">in the nursery sheds.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr">42</td><td class="tdl">planted out.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl"> </td><td class="tdr">28</td><td class="tdl">living cuttings.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdc">Total .. .. </td><td class="tdr bt bb">8454</td><td class="tdl"> </td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p> -Their other species is worthless.—Mr. Fraser's <i>Report</i>, p. 2.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_508_508" id="Footnote_508_508"></a><a href="#FNanchor_508_508"><span class="label">[508]</span></a> "It is the height of improvidence -for the collectors to strip off the bark -from the roots, thus securing a worthless -product at the expense of any -possible future renovation of the tree."—<i>Howard</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_509_509" id="Footnote_509_509"></a><a href="#FNanchor_509_509"><span class="label">[509]</span></a> See chap. iii. p. 58.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_510_510" id="Footnote_510_510"></a><a href="#FNanchor_510_510"><span class="label">[510]</span></a> This is provided for in Java by -placing a shed over the young plants.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_511_511" id="Footnote_511_511"></a><a href="#FNanchor_511_511"><span class="label">[511]</span></a> Mr. McIvor informs me that the -winter of 1861-62 was the coldest he -has experienced since he came to the -Neilgherry hills, a period of fourteen -years.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_512_512" id="Footnote_512_512"></a><a href="#FNanchor_512_512"><span class="label">[512]</span></a> Spruce's <i>Report</i>, p. 23.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_513_513" id="Footnote_513_513"></a><a href="#FNanchor_513_513"><span class="label">[513]</span></a> Howard, <i>Nueva Quinologia</i>, Nos. 2 and 7.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_514_514" id="Footnote_514_514"></a><a href="#FNanchor_514_514"><span class="label">[514]</span></a> Cross's <i>Report</i>, p. 5.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_515_515" id="Footnote_515_515"></a><a href="#FNanchor_515_515"><span class="label">[515]</span></a> See also Weddell's <i>Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas</i>, p. 32.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_516_516" id="Footnote_516_516"></a><a href="#FNanchor_516_516"><span class="label">[516]</span></a> Mr. Howard thinks that the alkaloids -are formed in the barks, by a -reaction between ammonia and chincho-tannic -acid. The alkaloids are -pure in the bark of the branches, -somewhat less so in that of the trunk, -and most impure in that of the roots.—<i>Microscopic -Observations</i>, p. 2.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_517_517" id="Footnote_517_517"></a><a href="#FNanchor_517_517"><span class="label">[517]</span></a> Howard.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_518_518" id="Footnote_518_518"></a><a href="#FNanchor_518_518"><span class="label">[518]</span></a> Spruce's <i>Report</i>, p. 83.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_519_519" id="Footnote_519_519"></a><a href="#FNanchor_519_519"><span class="label">[519]</span></a> Ibid., p. 27. See also <i>Karsten</i>, -p. 20.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_520_520" id="Footnote_520_520"></a><a href="#FNanchor_520_520"><span class="label">[520]</span></a> <i>Karsten</i>, p. 20.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_521_521" id="Footnote_521_521"></a><a href="#FNanchor_521_521"><span class="label">[521]</span></a> Spruce's <i>Report</i>, p. 23.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_522_522" id="Footnote_522_522"></a><a href="#FNanchor_522_522"><span class="label">[522]</span></a> Lindley's <i>Theory and Practice of Horticulture</i>, p. 70.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_523_523" id="Footnote_523_523"></a><a href="#FNanchor_523_523"><span class="label">[523]</span></a> In quills from large branches there -is more alkaloid than in the smaller -branches: in the bark of the trunk -the proportion is still further increased, -but this diminishes in quantity and -deteriorates in quality in the bark of -the roots.—<i>Howard.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_524_524" id="Footnote_524_524"></a><a href="#FNanchor_524_524"><span class="label">[524]</span></a> Mr. McIvor reports the thickness -of the bark of some of the young -plants at Ootacamund to be nearly a -quarter of an inch. The bark of -quills of <i>C. Calisaya</i> given me by Mr. -Howard, as samples from a lot on -sale, is only one-eighth of an inch in -thickness.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_525_525" id="Footnote_525_525"></a><a href="#FNanchor_525_525"><span class="label">[525]</span></a> The only reason why the value of -quill-bark is much less than that of -<i>tabla</i>-bark is that the former is usually -mixed with spurious barks. Otherwise -the value of quill-bark would only be -about threepence per lb. less than -<i>tabla</i>-bark.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_526_526" id="Footnote_526_526"></a><a href="#FNanchor_526_526"><span class="label">[526]</span></a> Cinnamon is one of the plants -which, like the chinchonæ, are cultivated -solely for their bark. Mr. Thwaites, -the Director of the Botanical Gardens -in Ceylon, has supplied me with a few -particulars respecting the cultivation -of cinnamon. The young shoots are -peeled twice during the year, at a particular -period of growth, when the -bark comes off readily. This time is -known at once by the peelers, from -the appearance of the young shoots, -and the process of peeling is then a -very expeditious one, with practised -hands. Young plants are raised from -seeds in nurseries, and planted six -feet apart, when they are a foot or -eighteen inches long. They will commonly -bear peeling in three or four -years after being transplanted, if in -a favourable locality and properly -attended to. The roots are earthed -up frequently, to keep the soil loose -and free from weeds. In 1858, -750,744 lbs. of cinnamon were exported -from Ceylon, worth 37,537<i>l.</i> There -are forty-nine cinnamon-gardens in -the island.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_527_527" id="Footnote_527_527"></a><a href="#FNanchor_527_527"><span class="label">[527]</span></a> Mr. McIvor observes that the -leaves of all the chinchona-plants at -Ootacamund are exceedingly bitter to -the taste, and he suggests that these -leaves, which naturally fall off the -trees in succession, may be turned to -account by being imported to England -as a substitute for hops in the manufacture -of beer. They would no -doubt prove a healthy ingredient in -beer, but it remains to be proved -whether their bitter would preserve -it as well as hops.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_528_528" id="Footnote_528_528"></a><a href="#FNanchor_528_528"><span class="label">[528]</span></a> "Attacked with violent tertian -ague, and without any medicine, in -Pampa-yacu, I made use of the green -bark direct from the chinchona-tree, -which I peeled from one growing a few -hundred steps distant; and although, -in consequence of unavoidable exposure -in the rainy season, and the -very great exhaustion after eight -months' wild forest life, the disease -returned on three occasions, it was -each time conquered within a week. -The very unpleasant additional effect, -in this case, of the green bark, of -producing obstinate obstructions, demands -consideration. It might be -well obviated by a plentiful addition -of Epsom salts to the infusion. After -the first dose of this fresh and unadulterated -remedy, a sensation of -general well-being is felt, and after -recovery, on the first excursion, one -approaches the healing trees with -warm feelings of gratitude, whose -beautiful reddish blossoms appear in -such quantities in January, and their -round crowns can be distinguished at -a distance."—Poeppig, <i>Reise</i>, ii. p. -223.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_529_529" id="Footnote_529_529"></a><a href="#FNanchor_529_529"><span class="label">[529]</span></a> <i>Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas</i>, -p. 13.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_530_530" id="Footnote_530_530"></a><a href="#FNanchor_530_530"><span class="label">[530]</span></a> "From the unfitness of the 'Grey -Bark' species for the production of -quinine, comparatively small good -will be likely to result from their -naturalisation."—Howard, <i>Introduction</i>, -p. xiii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_531_531" id="Footnote_531_531"></a><a href="#FNanchor_531_531"><span class="label">[531]</span></a> <i>Quinine and Antiperiodics in their Therapeutic Relations</i>, by Dr. J. -Macpherson (Calcutta, 1856), p. 27.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_532_532" id="Footnote_532_532"></a><a href="#FNanchor_532_532"><span class="label">[532]</span></a> There are 477 coffee estates in -Ceylon; and in 1858-59 the quantity -of coffee exported was 601,595 cwts., -valued at 1,488,019<i>l.</i> In the same -year the revenue was 654,961<i>l.</i>, expenditure -594,382<i>l.</i>, value of imports -3,444,889<i>l.</i>, and of exports 2,328,790<i>l.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_533_533" id="Footnote_533_533"></a><a href="#FNanchor_533_533"><span class="label">[533]</span></a> See Mr. Thwaites's <i>Report</i>, dated -Peradenia, Sept. 28th, 1861.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_534_534" id="Footnote_534_534"></a><a href="#FNanchor_534_534"><span class="label">[534]</span></a> I have taken the following brief -notices of Sikkim, Bhotan, and the -Khassya hills, from Dr. Hooker's <i>Flora -Indica</i>, and <i>Himalayan Journals</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_535_535" id="Footnote_535_535"></a><a href="#FNanchor_535_535"><span class="label">[535]</span></a> <i>Flora Indica</i>, i., p. 178.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_536_536" id="Footnote_536_536"></a><a href="#FNanchor_536_536"><span class="label">[536]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, i., p. 175.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_537_537" id="Footnote_537_537"></a><a href="#FNanchor_537_537"><span class="label">[537]</span></a> <i>Flora Indica</i>, i., p. 233. <i>Himalayan Journals</i>, ii., p. 277.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_538_538" id="Footnote_538_538"></a><a href="#FNanchor_538_538"><span class="label">[538]</span></a> <i>Report</i> by Dr. Brandis, <i>Supplement to the Calcutta Gazette</i>, August 31st, -1861, No. 55, p. 467.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_539_539" id="Footnote_539_539"></a><a href="#FNanchor_539_539"><span class="label">[539]</span></a> <i>Quinine and Antiperiodics in their -Therapeutic Relations</i>, by Dr. J. Macpherson -(Calcutta, 1856).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_540_540" id="Footnote_540_540"></a><a href="#FNanchor_540_540"><span class="label">[540]</span></a> <i>Macpherson</i>, p. 2.</p></div> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Travels in Peru and India, by -Clements Robert Markham - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS IN PERU AND INDIA *** - -***** This file should be named 55593-h.htm or 55593-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/5/9/55593/ - -Produced by Josep Cols Canals, Alan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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