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diff --git a/old/55476-0.txt b/old/55476-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e4d5efd..0000000 --- a/old/55476-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2431 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ships at Work, by Mary Elting Folsom - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Ships at Work - -Author: Mary Elting Folsom - -Illustrator: Manning De V. Lee - -Release Date: September 2, 2017 [EBook #55476] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHIPS AT WORK *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan, Chuck Greif -and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - [Illustration: - - SHIPS - _AT WORK_ - - MARY ELTING - - _ILLUSTRATED BY_ - MANNING DEV. LEE - ] - - [Illustration] - - [Illustration] - - Copyright 1946, 1953 by Duenewald Printing Corporation. - Lithographed in the United States of America. - - - - - SHIPS AT WORK - - - [Illustration] - - [Illustration] - - - - - SHIPS - AT WORK - - _By Mary Elting_ - - [Illustration] - - ILLUSTRATED BY - MANNING DE V. LEE - - GARDEN CITY BOOKS - - GARDEN CITY, N.Y. - - [Illustration] - - - - - [Illustration] - - -SHIPS AND MEN - -A ship is a marvellous thing. It took ships--and the men who sail -them--to circle the world and tie it all together into one round ball. -Brave seamen from a thousand ports have faced storms and unknown -dangers, first to make the world a bigger place for people to live in, -then to bring all people close together. - -No matter how dangerous the voyage nor what she carries, a ship is -always “she” to a seagoing man. He never calls a freighter or a tanker -or any large vessel a boat. Only shoreside people who have never been to -sea make the mistake of calling a ship a boat. And shoreside people -never know the excitement and fun--and the long, hard work--that the -skillful men of the sea know every day of their lives. - - -STANDING WATCH - -Jim is a sailor on a freighter carrying cargo across the Atlantic Ocean. -Every morning at half-past three, someone comes into the forecastle. -That’s the seamen’s name for their sleeping quarters. They pronounce it -“foke-sull.” - -Jim mumbles a little. Then the light goes on. The sailor who has waked -him wants to be sure he doesn’t go back to sleep. With half-open eyes, -Jim sees his clothes hanging from hooks. Back and forth they sway as the -ship pitches and rolls. Jim is so used to sleeping in rough weather that -he hadn’t even noticed when a storm blew up in the night. - -[Illustration] - -Now he’s wide awake, and so are the other men in the forecastle. Jim -swings his legs over the side of his bunk, in a hurry to get dressed in -well-washed blue dungarees, a turtleneck sweater instead of a shirt, -thick socks and a heavy woolen pea coat. That’s a sailor’s winter jacket -with pockets that slant in sideways. He makes sure his sharp knife is -dangling from a snap on his belt. No telling when it might come in -handy. Then he sticks a knitted blue stocking cap on his head and -reaches for his fleece-lined mittens. - -[Illustration] - -Jim wants to be warm. He knows the wind will be sharp, even though his -ship is headed for the warm Mediterranean Sea. It’s wintertime and still -cold out on the Atlantic Ocean. - -Jim and the three men who share his bunkroom are ready for work--almost -ready. First they go down the passageway to the mess, which is their -word for dining room. There they have coffee from a big steaming urn -that is always kept full and hot. In another minute Jim steps out onto -the leeward side of the deck--the side away from the wind. Although he’s -in a hurry, he waits there sheltered from the wind for a few minutes -while his eyes get used to the dark. Jim is going to stand his watch. -That means he will work for four hours. - -Jim is an AB--an Able Bodied Seaman. An AB works out on deck instead of -down inside the ship in the engine room or in the kitchen, which he -calls the galley. All the men who work on a ship are seamen. Only -deckhands are called sailors. And only those sailors who have passed -examinations and have been at sea for a certain length of time are AB’s. -The other sailors are called ordinary seamen or ordinaries for short. - -As soon as his eyes can see in the dark, Jim walks toward the bow which -is the front of the ship. As the deck rises and falls and tilts under -his feet, he manages from long practice, to keep his balance, but he -also slides one hand along the rail on top of the bulwark, a kind of low -wall that runs all around the deck. - -In good weather he would go to the bow and stand there, watching for -anything there might be in the ocean ahead. But tonight waves may splash -over the bow. An unexpected wave can knock a man down or even wash him -overboard. It will be safer high up in the crow’s nest above the deck. -Besides he can see farther from up there. So Jim climbs to the little -enclosed platform high on the foremast. - -[Illustration] - -In a very bad storm Jim would not go outside. He would stand watch in -the wheelhouse. This is a room with a big window high above the deck in -the part of the ship called the house. The room gets its name because -the wheel that steers the ship is in it. - -Jim knows it is good manners always to be a little early when you go to -take the place of another seaman whose watch is over. So he doesn’t -waste any time as he scrambles up the steel rungs in the ladder on the -mast. - -He pokes his head through the hole in the floor of the crow’s nest. -There he finds Juan, who is cold and glad enough to climb down and get -into his warm bunk. - -Juan has a telephone strapped on his head. He uses it to talk with the -third mate, the officer in charge of the ship who works in the -wheelhouse. When Juan sees Jim, he says into the telephone, “Crow’s nest -to wheelhouse--being properly relieved, sir.” Now the mate, listening to -the loudspeaker in the wheelhouse, knows that Jim is the lookout in the -crow’s nest. - -[Illustration: 4 BELLS] - -[Illustration: 5 BELLS] - -[Illustration: 6 BELLS] - -[Illustration: 7 BELLS] - -Jim puts the telephone on his head and leans against the rail around the -small platform that sways far to one side, then to the other. Soon he -hears the ship’s bell, a faint sound above the storm--“Ding-ding, -ding-ding, ding-ding, ding-ding.” Eight bells. It is exactly four -o’clock. At four-thirty the bell rings again, just once. Two bells will -be five o’clock, and so on until eight, when there will be eight bells -again. - -[Illustration: 8 BELLS] - -[Illustration: 1 BELL] - -[Illustration: 2 BELLS] - -[Illustration: 3 BELLS] - -For a long time there is nothing for Jim to see but great gray waves -rising and lifting the ship, and once in a while splashing over the -decks way down below. Then far ahead and to the right Jim sees a tiny -speck of light. - -[Illustration: Starboard Side] - -[Illustration: Port Side] - -[Illustration: Harbor Tug With Tow] - -[Illustration: Black Coming Straight Toward You] - -“Crow’s nest to wheelhouse,” he calls into the phone. “White light two -points on the starboard bow.” The mate knows from this where to look for -the light. The diagram on page 16 shows the words Jim will use when he -tells the mate to look in other directions. - -Jim thinks the white light probably comes from another ship. Soon he -knows it does. He can see two white lights very close together and a -green light a little below them. He and the mate know that a green light -is always shown on the right or starboard side of a vessel that’s -moving. There is no danger. Jim’s ship and the other one are a long way -apart and are not headed for each other. If Jim saw both a green light -and a red light with two white lights above them, he would be alarmed. -This would mean a ship coming straight at him. - -[Illustration: Bearings on Port Side Go the Same Way] - -Now and then spray from the waves blows all the way to the crow’s nest, -and Jim is glad of a protecting shield that comes up almost as high as -his face. But he can feel the wind anyway, and he can hear it roar -through the rigging. He almost has to shout into the phone so the mate -can hear him. - -The safety of the ship depends on Jim. Even in the darkness he can see a -great deal from his high perch. He may notice the white foam of waves -ahead behaving in a strange way. This could be the wreck of a -half-sunken ship that would tear a hole in his own ship and send her to -the bottom. If he dozed off, he might fail to sight some danger. So he -must keep alert every minute. He’s responsible for the lives of all his -shipmates, and he takes his job seriously. - -[Illustration] - -Jim watches the dark, heaving ocean for two hours. He’s glad when his -coffee time comes. That’s ten minutes of rest he gets after standing -watch for two hours. When another lookout comes to the crow’s nest to -take his place, he warms up in the mess and then goes to the wheelhouse. -There he works for two hours steering the ship. He stands his watch at -the wheel. - -The wheelhouse is dark, so that the mate can see through the big windows -anything that the lookout reports. The only light comes from -instruments, such as the compass. Jim watches the compass to make sure -he is steering in the right direction. The mate tells him what direction -the captain has ordered the ship to go. But the compass can’t be their -only guide. - -When you guide yourself by a compass on a hike across a wide meadow, you -can keep going in a straight line because nothing pushes you to one side -or the other. But at sea the wind is always pushing against a ship, -making it slip sideways. Currents in the water push, too. The current -may be going one way and the wind in another. There are no trees or -mountains on the ocean to help seamen know exactly where they are. So -they can use the sun and stars as their guides. - -Of course, the sun, stars and moon keep moving. But they travel in an -orderly way. If a seaman knows the rules about their motion, he can look -at them through special instruments and figure out where he is. He can -navigate. - -[Illustration] - -More than two hundred and fifty years ago, an American boy named -Nathaniel Bowditch went to sea and discovered that sailors didn’t have -any good, accurate rules for steering by the stars. He decided to do -something about the problem. Before long he had worked out a set of -rules that were so good that every man in his crew could navigate--even -the cook! - -[Illustration] - -The mate on Jim’s ship has instruments with which he looks at the sun -and stars. And he still uses the book that Nathaniel Bowditch wrote so -long ago. - -Besides the wheel and the compass, there are other instruments in the -wheelhouse. One is the engine room telegraph. The mate uses this when he -wants the ship to go faster or slower, forward or backward. He moves the -handle of the telegraph, and a bell jangles in the engine room. Another -telegraph there, exactly like the one in the wheelhouse, shows the -engineer at what speed the ship should go. To let the mate know he has -received the order, the engineer sends the same signal back on the -telegraph, and a bell in the wheelhouse jangles, too. - -By eight o’clock, when it is daylight, Jim’s watch is over. He goes -below, as seamen say, and sits down with his messmates--all the others -in the crew who aren’t on watch--for a big breakfast of orange juice, -bacon, eggs and flapjacks. Then he goes to sleep. - -A little before noon he is up again. The storm was not a bad one. The -sun is shining, and it is warm out on deck. Jim has all afternoon until -four o’clock to himself. This is how he spends it: First he gets a -bucket of cold water and puts it under a little faucet that brings up -steam from the engine room. He runs steam into the water, and it’s hot -in a few seconds. Out on the afterdeck, sailors have rigged up a -washboard. - -Jim spreads his dirty clothes on the board and scrubs them with a brush -and soap and his steam-heated water. Seamen do a lot of washing. They -like to keep their clothes clean. Often they do their own mending, too. - -[Illustration] - -While Jim’s clothes dry on a regular clothesline on the afterdeck, he -gets out his ditty bag which holds all kinds of odds and ends, including -needles and thread and a sailor’s palm. The palm is what a sailor uses -instead of a thimble for pushing a big needle through heavy canvas. In -the old days when ships had sails to be mended, these palms were very -necessary, but nowadays most sailors only use them the way Jim does. He -is making a sea bag to take the place of his old one that has worn out. -The sea bag is his trunk. He carries it on his shoulder whenever he -changes ships. - -[Illustration] - -While Jim sews, he sings, and other seamen who are off watch sing too. -One of them plays a banjo, and another has a harmonica. Some of the -songs are the ones you hear any day on the radio, and others are songs -that seamen themselves have made up. - -These sailor songs are called chanteys--pronounced shantys. On old -sailing vessels men sang them as they worked together, and the rhythm of -their work set the rhythm of the music. Here is a chantey that helped -them pull together on the rope that lifted a sail: - - Way! Haul away! We’ll haul away the bowline. - Way! Haul away! We’ll haul away, Joe. - -In those days, before there were engines to do work, men used a -hand-turned machine called a capstan to raise the anchor or tighten -heavy lines. They turned it round and round by pushing against long bars -called capstan bars. As they pushed, they sang: - - Yo, heave ho! Round the capstan go. - Heave, men, with a will. Tramp, and stamp it still! - The anchor must be weighed, the anchor must be weighed. - Yo-ho! Heave ho! Yo-ho! Heave ho! - -Now, while the singing goes on, Jim takes his turn at having a haircut. -For a barber’s chair he uses a bitt. That’s a round piece of steel that -sticks up out of the deck at just the right height. It’s used at times -for holding big ropes that seamen call hawsers. - -The barber is a man from the black gang. That means he works in the -engine room. When he is off watch, he likes to make a little extra money -cutting hair. So he puts a sheet around Jim and starts to work. -Chiquita, the ship’s cat, takes a playful swipe at a dangling corner of -the sheet, and then goes off in search of a rat that may have come -aboard in port. - -[Illustration] - -The barber has pictures tattooed on his forearms, and Jim laughs as he -watches them. On one arm is a picture of an old sailing ship. As the -barber’s muscles move, they make the ship look as if wind is blowing on -the sails. On the other arm is a beautiful lady chasing butterflies. -When the barber opens and closes the scissors, the lady looks as if she -is dancing after the butterflies. - -Just before four o’clock, Jim goes to mess again. Then he’s on watch for -four more hours to put in the rest of his eight hours of work in a -twenty-four hour day. He stands lookout again for two hours and takes -the wheel for two more. Now his day is done. - - -SEA LANGUAGE - -When Jim first went to sea, he found that seamen speak a language of -their own. A floor is always a deck. A partition between rooms is a -bulkhead. A ceiling is the overhead. Stairs are always a ladder. The -opening onto a deck at the head of the steps is a companionway. Almost -all ropes are called lines. - -One day another seaman said to Jim: “The bosun wants you to break out -the handy billy in the forepeak and take it aft to Chips. He’s abaft the -mizzenmast.” This is what all those words mean: - -The bosun is a man who acts as foreman, giving orders to deckhands. -“Break out” means “take from its regular storage place.” The handy billy -is a combination of small wheels called blocks with a line running -around them. It is handy for moving heavy weights. The forepeak is a -storeroom under the main deck at the bow where the bosun keeps tools and -equipment. Chips is the ship’s carpenter. Aft means toward the stern of -the ship, and abaft means “behind, in the direction of the stern.” The -mizzenmast is the third mast, counting from bow to stern. - -[Illustration] - -Jim also had to learn that anything toward the bow of the ship is -forward. Anything toward the middle is amidships, and anything crosswise -is athwart or thwartships. Anything on the windy side of a ship is to -windward. (A good sailor never spits to windward.) Anything on the side -away from the wind is to leeward--pronounced “loo-urd.” When Jim goes up -on deck he goes topside; when he climbs a mast, he goes aloft. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: Accommodation Ladder] - -Jim had to learn the commands that the mate gives him when he is at the -wheel steering the ship. Helm is another word for the wheel, and -helmsman is the man who steers. (On some ships, Jim would not steer at -all. Steering is often the special job of AB’s called quartermasters who -don’t do much of anything else.) - -[Illustration: Jacob’s Ladder] - -Suppose the mate says to Jim, “Mind your rudder.” That means Jim must -steer carefully or get ready for a new order. “Steady as you go” means -keep on going just as you are. - -[Illustration] - -The wheelhouse is sometimes called the pilot house. The pilot is a man -who specializes in guiding ships in and out of harbors. A small boat -brings him out from shore. Usually he climbs aboard on an accommodation -ladder, a whole flight of stairs which is lowered from a deck. But -sometimes he has to climb a Jacob’s ladder, which is simply wooden steps -fastened to ropes that hang down the ship’s side. - -[Illustration] - -The pictures explain some more words Jim had to learn. A pier or a wharf -is a platform sticking out into the water. Ships tie up alongside it. -Seamen sometimes call a pier a dock, but a dock is really the water -between piers. - -A hatch or hatchway is an opening in the deck of a vessel. People can go -down a hatch, and so can cargo. Big strong poles called booms raise and -lower cargo through hatches. Booms are attached to single masts on some -ships; on others, to pairs of posts called king posts or Samson posts or -goal posts. When seamen fasten heavy layers of canvas over the hatches, -they say they “batten down the hatches.” - -[Illustration] - -Backstay, stay and shroud are all wire ropes that brace the masts. The -poop deck is a deck at the stern. Taffrail is the rail around the stern. -The taffrail log is a kind of speedometer that tells how far the ship -has travelled. It is made up of a line attached to a little propeller -which measures miles as it is dragged through the water. - -[Illustration] - -The beam is the widest part of a ship. The keel is the lowest part. The -bilge is the low, rounded bottom of the ship. Any water that seeps into -a ship collects there and has to be pumped out. Ballast is a weight of -some sort, low in a ship to balance her or keep her down in the water so -her propellers can work when she has no cargo. Draft is the depth of -water needed to float a vessel. When Jim says his ship “draws twelve -feet,” he means the keel is twelve feet under water when she is loaded. - -[Illustration: Cheepshank knot] - -[Illustration: Marlinspike Bowline Double Sheet Bend Carrick Bend] - - -OTHER JOBS - -A sailor knows how to do many things besides stand lookout and steer. If -a line breaks, he can mend it by splicing the ends together with a tool -called a marlinspike. If lines wear thin, he puts in new ones--and lines -are needed in a great many places on even the most modern ships. - -Sailors know how to tie many different kinds of knots. Each one is good -for special kinds of work. For instance, a sheepshank is made in a line -to shorten it. Jim calls a bad knot a gilligan hitch. - -Painting is something else that sailors do all the time. On one trip Jim -painted the mizzenmast. For this job he sat in a bosun’s chair. You’ll -see a picture of it on page 31. When he works high above the deck he -always has his paint brush tied to his wrist. Then, if it slips out of -his hand, it can’t fall and hit anyone below. - -All the sailors get their orders from the bosun, whom they call “Boats.” -That’s because the real spelling of bosun is boatswain. The bosun gets -his orders from the mate on watch who gets his orders from the captain. -The captain is in charge of everything. Seamen call him the skipper or -the master or the Old Man. - -[Illustration] - -The “Chief” (chief engineer) and his three assistant engineers get -orders from the skipper, too. The firemen in the engine room help the -engineer carry out the orders. When they are on watch, they look through -little peep holes into the oil burning furnaces to make sure the fires -are burning just right. They keep an eye on the steam pressure gauges. - -At the same time, men called oilers keep every part of the ship’s huge -engines and other machinery well oiled. On some ships there is a big -piston, like the driving rod on railroad engine wheels. One end of it -moves in a circle. The oiler has to squirt oil in a little cup at the -end of the piston. Every time the cup swings up where he can reach it, -he aims his oil can. He is very careful to aim straight. If he misses -the cup, oil splashes all over. - -No matter how careful he is, some oil does get spilled and spattered -around. It is the job of the oiler to wipe it up and to polish all the -brass fixtures, which he calls the brightwork. On deck, ordinary seamen -polish the brightwork. - -[Illustration] - -One man is in charge of all the food on a ship. He is the steward, and -the cooks work under him, and so do the messmen who are the waiters and -dish washers. - -The radio man sends and receives all radio messages. He is called -sparks. - -All the seamen who work on cargo vessels, and on passenger vessels, too, -are divided up the same way into the deck department, the engine -department and the steward’s department. - -As the great engine deep down in Jim’s ship pushes her through the calm -blue water of the Mediterranean Sea, he stands watch in the bow. Now he -begins to catch sight of small sailing vessels. When his ship enters the -port of Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile River in Egypt, he is close -to the place where much of the story of ships began. - -[Illustration: Egyptian Papyrus Reed Canoe] - - -PAPYRUS REED CANOE. The people of Egypt discovered long ago that bundles -of papyrus reed would hold up a man’s weight in the water. Later, they -tied the bundles into a canoe shape which was easy to handle. - -[Illustration: Egyptian Dugout] - - -EGYPTIAN DUGOUT. A log hollowed out in the shape of a reed canoe was -stronger, and it lasted longer. By adding boards to a dugout along the -top of each side, Egyptians had a vessel that could carry bigger loads. -Paddles and their own muscles were all they had for power. - -[Illustration: Egyptian Oars and Sail] - - -EGYPTIAN SAILING VESSEL. Here the power of wind was added to the power -of oarsmen. Luckily the winds of Egypt blew from north to south and -helped push sailing vessels up the Nile. - - -GALLEYS. Greeks and Romans used sail-and-oar vessels called galleys. -Slaves, chained to their seats, rowed in rhythm. There were many slaves, -so their masters could get extra muscle-power by seating two, three or -more banks of oarsmen on each side. A ship with two banks was a bireme; -with three, a trireme. - -[Illustration: Greek Trireme] - -[Illustration: Rowers in a Trireme] - - -DHOW. Other people around the Mediterranean Sea discovered they could do -away with oarsmen by making better use of windpower. They invented -triangular sails called lateen sails to take the place of square ones. -Lateen-rigged dhows are still used. Columbus had both square and lateen -sails on the Santa Maria. All three of his ships together were not as -long as Jim’s freighter. - -[Illustration: Arab Dhow] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -New things begin to happen as Jim’s ship nears port. He goes down into -the forepeak under the deck in the bow. There, all around, are neat -coils of hawser which is as thick as his arm. He and other sailors shove -one end of a hawser up the ladder. Men on deck grab it and wrap it -around a sort of spool called a winch head. Now the winch turns the -spool and does the work of lifting out the heavy line. The deckhands lay -it neatly on the decks ready to use when the ship ties up at a pier. - -Next Jim goes up to the bow and helps Chips, the carpenter, break cement -out of the hawse pipes. A hawse pipe is a hole in the ship’s side. An -anchor chain runs through it. Whenever a ship raises, or weighs, its -anchors and starts on a long trip, Chips plugs up the hawse pipes with -cement. This keeps water from splashing up through the pipes in a storm. - -On modern ships, a machine called a windlass raises and lowers the -anchors. In the old days, when sailors had to raise anchors by turning -the capstan by hand, they had a phrase for officers who worked their way -up from being deckhands. They said these officers came up “through the -hawse pipe.” Officers who got their knowledge from going to school and -studying books were said to “come in through the cabin window.” - -After the cement is out of the hawse pipe, Jim takes the devil’s claws -off the anchor chains and releases the riding pawls. These are two -brakes on the anchor chain which you can see in the picture. Now only -the brake on the windlass holds the anchor chain in position over the -wildcat, which is the wheel on the windlass. - -[Illustration] - -The captain signals from the bridge to let go. Chips releases the -windlass brake. The big chain rushes up out of the locker, over the -wildcat and down the hawse pipe with a terrific roar. Soon the ship is -safely anchored. The skipper can wait now until there is a vacant pier -where he can tie up. - -[Illustration: Freighter] - -[Illustration: Tanker] - -After the ship ties up, the captain orders watches broken. The men no -longer work four hours and rest eight. Now most of them work eight hours -during the day and have the remaining time off, just the way shoreside -people do. There is no need for the routine of the sea. Egyptian -longshoremen will unload the cargo. - -Jim puts on a suit he has kept hanging pressed in his locker. Then he -and Juan go down the gangplank. They are off to see the sights in the -fascinating Egyptian city--and to buy souvenirs. - -But before they have gone very far from the waterfront where a tangle of -masts and booms and stacks marks the skyline, they meet Lars, an old -shipmate of theirs. That’s not so strange as you might think. A sailor -often changes ships, and he gets to have many friends who travel just as -much as he does. While they eat an Egyptian meal in an Egyptian -restaurant, Lars says he’s on a tanker now. She’s in Alexandria getting -her rudder repaired. It broke in a storm, but the men fixed up something -to take its place. They called it a jury rudder. - -[Illustration] - -Lars’s tanker looks very different from a freighter. She is long and low -and has two houses. One is midships, and the officers’ quarters and -wheelhouse are there. The crew lives in the other house at the stern. - -Between the two houses the deck is so low that waves often wash over -it, and so there has to be a high bridge called a walkaway or a catwalk. - -Lars says his particular tanker carries “clean” oil. By that he means -oil that has been refined into different grades of gasoline. “Dirty” oil -is crude oil just the way it comes out of the wells. Lars is a tankerman -and a seaman. He has taken a special examination for his job. He knows -all the ways to pump different kinds of oil in and out of the tanks on a -ship. He knows how to keep gasoline from exploding. He has learned to -use special equipment. For instance, he never goes down to clean a tank -on his ship without an oxygen mask and a lifeline. The lifeline is tied -around him so that a seaman on deck can haul him up if fumes in the tank -knock him out. - -Like most seamen, Lars has travelled all over the world. In China he has -seen junks and sampans. He has seen fishing boats in Portugal with big -eyes painted on the bows because sailors thought that helped the boats -to see their way. Eyes of the same kind have been painted on ships for -hundreds of years in many other places, even in Chesapeake Bay. - -[Illustration: Portuguese Fishing Boats] - -[Illustration: Viking Ship] - - -OUTRIGGER. Long ago South Sea Islanders sailed great distances, guiding -themselves by the stars. The outrigger at the side gives their small -vessel balance in rough water. - -[Illustration: Outrigger of the Sulu Sea] - - -JUNK. The sails of this Chinese ship are made of bamboo slats braced by -bamboo rods. The rudder is so big that often a dozen men have to work on -it. Many junks have colored sails. - -[Illustration: Junk] - - -NORWEGIAN SHIPS. Old Viking ships that sailed from Norway had both oars -and brightly decorated sails. Vikings were such good seamen they crossed -the Atlantic in their open ships. Norwegians are still seafarers. Boys -who want to be sailors get training on a sailing ship. - -[Illustration: Chinese Tub-boat] - -[Illustration: Sampan] - -Lars used to work on a tanker that brought oil from the Persian Gulf. -When he went ashore there, he saw boats just like the earliest ones that -men invented thousands of years ago. He saw boats that were really big, -round clay pots, built by people in places where there was plenty of -clay but very little wood. He saw huge basket boats woven from a kind of -grass and waterproofed with a covering of tar. Some of the basket boats -were big enough to carry twenty passengers--or several men and three -horses! - -[Illustration: A Quffa on the Tigris] - -[Illustration: Raft of Timber and Inflated Skins Discharging Grain at -Bagdad. Small quffas Serve as Lighters.] - -Smaller basket boats were used as lighters. (A lighter is any craft that -helps to unload freight from another.) Here on the Tigris River, the -freight was carried on a large raft supported by animal skins blown up -like balloons. A little raft floating downstream sometimes carried its -owner, his donkey and the grain he had to sell. After selling the grain, -the boatman took the skins from under the raft, let the air out, piled -them on the donkey’s back and walked back home upriver. - -Out at sea, whenever Lars sees a life raft on the top deck, he realizes -it is just like the skin-float rafts he saw on the Tigris River. Instead -of blown-up skins, water-tight metal containers filled with air hold the -life raft up. When Lars puts on his life jacket for lifeboat drill, he -is getting ready to use a float, just the way people long ago used -bundles of reeds. Even though men have learned so much about ships in -all the years since they first started to travel on water, they still -use some of the first knowledge they ever acquired. - -All of these things interest Lars. He grew up by the sea in Norway, and -his people have been seamen since the days of the Vikings. But best of -all he likes the clean, modern, comfortable tankers. He is not only -going somewhere himself when he is on a tanker. He is also helping to -carry a cargo that helps other people to go places. - -[Illustration: Life raft] - -[Illustration: Life ring] - -[Illustration] - - -SEATRAINS - -Lars’s tanker was built to do a very special kind of job. So were many -other kinds of ships. Look at the Seatrain, which carries fully loaded -freight cars--a hundred of them at a time. - -To load a Seatrain, the railroad locomotive pushes a string of cars out -onto a long pier. A derrick lifts the cars up one by one, swings them -over an open hatch, and lowers them neatly onto tracks in the ship’s -hold. After the holds are filled, there’s still room for more cars on -the main deck outside. - -It seems queer for trains to travel by ship, but sometimes that’s the -best way to send cargo. Freight cars can be filled with sugar on the -island of Cuba and brought across the water to the United States, -without any extra loading and unloading. It’s often cheaper for freight -cars to go by ship than by rail from New York to Savannah or New Orleans -or Texas City. - -[Illustration] - - -BANANA BOATS - -Banana boats do their own particular kind of work, too. Actually, they -aren’t boats, although they do carry bananas. They are refrigerator -ships. Seamen call them reefers--just as railroad men call a -refrigerator car a reefer. Everything about a banana boat is arranged to -keep her cargo cool. She is even painted white, because white things -reflect some of the sun’s rays into the air instead of absorbing their -heat. Inside the ship, blowers send cool air circulating around the -bananas all the time. It isn’t enough just to chill them once and leave -them there. Bananas actually make heat themselves. So a constant cool -breeze is needed to carry their heat away. The ships that bring bananas -from Central America do keep them in the refrigerator. - -A banana boat is fast, for she must rush the green fruit from the farm -to market as quickly as possible. There are even very quick ways of -loading and unloading. Machines called gantries stand on the pier where -the ship ties up. The gantries carry the big bunches of bananas in soft -canvas pockets arranged in an endless chain. Men on the dock lay the -bunches, one after another into the pockets. Men inside the ship take -them out and stow them away. - -A banana boat sailor does just about the same things that sailors on -other cargo vessels do. He steers and stands lookout and works on deck. -And like all sailors he has lifeboat drills. Every ship that sails the -seas must have lifeboats. Look for them on some high deck, where they -are easy to get at in emergencies. Canvas covers on the boats keep out -rain and snow and protect the things stowed inside. - -A lifeboat is equipped with everything that you may need if you have to -float around on the open sea after your ship has gone down. There are -water-tight containers full of food, drinking water and matches. There -are oars and sails and life jackets, first-aid equipment and ropes. -There are flares to light, so that rescuers can locate the boat, and -pistols that shoot signal flares like Roman candles high into the air. -There are scoops called bailers for dipping water out of the boat. And -each lifeboat carries a supply of storm oil. When this oil is spread out -on the water, it keeps stormy waves from breaking near the boat. If a -wave breaks too close, it may fill the boat with water and sink it. - -[Illustration] - -The can of storm oil fits inside a cone-shaped canvas bag called a sea -anchor. The sea anchor floats ahead of the boat and keeps it pointed -toward the wind, while the oil drips slowly out and calms the waves. -It’s important to be pointed into the wind, because a boat that bobs -around sidewise can easily be tipped over by a wave. Long ago sailors -discovered what a wonderful help oil can be in stormy weather, and -that’s where the expression “oil on troubled waters” came from. It means -to calm things down. - -A blast from the ship’s whistle tells seamen when it’s time for lifeboat -drill. Every man knows which boat he’s supposed to use. He runs first -for his life jacket, then up the ladders by the shortest route to his -boat. All the knots and fastenings on the boat are made so that they can -be loosened with one jerk. Quickly the men work machines called davits -that are always in perfect order, ready to swing the lifeboat out over -the water. In a real emergency, the boats would be lowered into the sea, -and the men would scramble down rope ladders which are kept ready on -deck. But in a drill, seamen just test the davits and lines. - -Most lifeboats are double-enders. This means that the bow and stern are -rounded and look just alike. The rounded shape helps keep waves from -tumbling in at either end. Lifeboats are modeled after the old-time -boats in which sailors rowed away from sailing vessels when they went -out to harpoon whales. - -[Illustration] - - -“THAR SHE BLOWS” - -Nowadays, a group of very modern vessels go out together on whaling -expeditions. A big ship called the factory ship waits in one place while -a half-dozen or more killer boats cruise around hunting whales. The -killer boats are power driven, and they are almost as big as an old-time -sailing ship. - -In June or July, one of these little fleets sets out for the South -Pacific. At the whaling grounds, each killer boat begins its search. -Suddenly--“Thar she blows!” A whale rises to the surface and spouts. The -killer boat dashes after it. The harpooner in the bow aims a gun that’s -fastened to the deck. The harpoon in the gun is as tall as a man and -heavy, with an explosive charge in its pointed head, and a line attached -to the shaft. When the head strikes the whale, the charge goes off -inside, killing the great animal. The harpoon barbs spread out. Now the -whale is held tight at the end of the line. The killer boat tows it back -to the factory ship. - -The stern of the factory ship is open. A ramp leads up from the water to -the ship’s after deck. Machinery pulls the whale up the ramp and onto -the deck. There men with knives that look like big hockey sticks cut up -the blubber and throw it into vats where the whale oil is boiled out. - -Hour after hour the killer boats bring in whales, sometimes forty or -fifty a day--or even more! Everybody works day and night, with very -little time to eat and sleep. The oil tanks in the factory ship begin to -fill up. Now an ordinary tanker comes alongside. The whale oil is pumped -from the factory ship to the tanker which delivers it at some big port -thousands of miles away. - -When at last the factory ship again has all the oil she can hold, she -steams off toward home. For seven or eight months her crew has not been -ashore. - -[Illustration] - -Now, as well as in the old days, men on whaling vessels proudly bring -home scrimshaw. That is carving they have done on the teeth or jawbones -of whales. It is often very delicate and beautiful. - -On the return trip the factory ship’s speed is much less than when she -started out--and not just because her tanks are full. In June her hull -was smooth and freshly painted, and it slipped easily through the water. -Now in February she has barnacles all over the hull under water--such a -rough coat of barnacles that she’s held back a great deal. - -Barnacles are tiny sea creatures that grow by the millions. They attach -themselves to anything under water and form hard little shells. They -hold so tightly to the ship that they must be chipped off. That’s a job -to be done in a place called drydock. - - -DRYDOCK - -All ships go to drydock for regular cleaning and repairing and painting. -This is what happens: The ship noses into a place surrounded by three -concrete walls. Huge water-tight gates swing shut behind her, penning -her in. Mooring lines hold her steady in the exact center of the dock, -and pumps go to work taking out all the water in which she floats. -Slowly the ship settles into a sort of cradle that has been prepared on -the floor of the dock to fit her hull just right. When the water is all -out, there she stands, balanced and braced. Now men can work under her -and all over her--and inside. They scrape off the barnacles, paint the -hull, and repair any parts that have begun to wear out. To reach some -parts of the hull painters use long-handled brushes--really long. -They’re often three times as tall as a man! - -[Illustration] - -Experts go over the ship as carefully as doctors examine people. But -many men work at top speed in shifts around the clock, and a ship often -spends only twenty-four hours in drydock. Then the gates open. Water -flows back into the dock. The ship floats again, ready to go to sea. - -Sometimes a ship can’t get to drydock. Then a floating drydock comes to -the ship. It works the same way as a regular one. Floating drydocks have -traveled to distant parts of the world, pulled by seagoing tugs. - - -TUGS - -A tug is a vessel that looks small but has an enormously powerful -engine--an engine almost as big as one that moves a cargo ship. In fact, -the tugboat’s job is to push and pull cargo and passenger ships around. - -Big ships need help getting in and out of the narrow spaces between -piers in a harbor. If they used only their own power, they might either -smash themselves up or crush the piers. Tugs, working together, can push -a little here, pull a little there, and ease a huge vessel gently into -place. - -A tugboat captain must have a great deal of knowledge about the harbor -in which he works. In order to pass his captain’s examination, he has to -draw a map of the harbor from memory, showing every pier and marker and -even the rocks, hills and valleys underwater. Most important, he must -have a feel for what a ship is going to do when he nudges her at a -certain point or when he reverses his propeller and pulls. - -For all his skill and responsibility, the captain wouldn’t think of -wearing a uniform at work. He prefers old work clothes, and he sits down -with the crew when the cook serves up jumbo-sized meals. - -The cook goes on duty in the galley at any time from one o’clock in the -morning on, depending on what time the tug must start work. Breakfast -may be at three or four, but the usual time is six. And often the cook’s -job isn’t over at four in the afternoon when he serves supper. If the -tug is working overtime, he fixes a meal called a “midnight snack” which -the men eat perhaps around seven o’clock. There’s enough food in the -snack to feed a shoreside person for a whole day. - -[Illustration] - -Besides the captain and the cook, a tug needs a chief engineer, an -oiler, a fireman and a deckhand. The deckhand works with the hawsers -that are often used when a tug has to pull a big ship. - -This is what happens: An AB aboard the ship holds a coil of light line, -called a heaving line. At the end of the line is a ball-shaped knot -called a monkey fist. The AB gives a big swing and sends the monkey fist -and line flying down to the tug. The deckhand on the tug grabs for the -line. He’s not an outfielder trying to catch the ball. The monkey fist -is there only to make the line uncoil and go straight. - -The deckhand pulls on the heaving line, which is attached to a hawser on -the ship. (Sailors don’t say the line is attached or tied. They say it’s -“bent” to the hawser.) The hawser is so big that it can’t be thrown, but -it can be hauled onto the tug by the heaving line. The deckhand makes -the hawser fast to a bitt on the tug’s deck, and now she can pull. - -For pushing jobs the tug has a thick pad called a bow fender made of -heavy rope hung over the bow. After the fender has been used a while, it -gets worn and shaggy and is often called a “beard.” It protects any ship -the tug is pushing. There are fenders along each side of a tug, too. -Sometimes they are made of rope. Sometimes they are old automobile tires -or just logs hung loosely over the side. The logs get so much banging -around that they may have to be replaced every few days. - -Very often a tug has something on its bridge that looks like a gun. It’s -not. It’s a water nozzle attached to a pump, and it’s there to help -fight fires on ships. - -The kind of tug that you can see on the Mississippi River is called a -towboat. She doesn’t tug, and she - -[Illustration] - -doesn’t tow. She just pushes. A Mississippi towboat gets behind a whole -string of flat-bottomed barges and shoves them up and down rivers. She -often pushes ten barges at a time, loaded with twice as much cargo as an -ordinary seagoing freighter can carry. - -[Illustration] - -Many towboats have all of the latest inventions for quick and safe -travelling in water that is often more tricky than the open sea. There’s -a lot of traffic to watch out for on the Mississippi, and the river -sweeps around in many bends. Mud collects on the river bottom, so the -captain can’t always know how deep the water is going to be. Uprooted -trees and other big things that could damage vessels often come floating -downstream. And when it’s pitch dark, or when a thick fog hangs over the -water, all these problems get much worse. - -Radar is one of the inventions that help towboats avoid danger. Radar -sends out radio waves which bounce back to the towboat from anything -they hit. In the towboat’s pilothouse is a radarscope, which is a little -like a television screen. The returning radio waves show up as spots of -light called pips on the radarscope. By looking at the pips, the pilot -can locate the shores of the river, other vessels, floating trees and -anything else that’s dangerous. - -Another wonderful invention, called a depth recorder, tells the pilot -how deep the water is under the head barge in his tow. If the river -seems to be getting shallow, he can steer the whole tow into safer -water. The depth recorder works by sending out sound waves and making a -record of them when they bounce back from the river bottom. - -[Illustration] - -In the old days, river craft had a leadman who measured depth with a -line tied to a lead weight. Knots and pieces of leather marked the -line. Even at night the leadman could tell by feel how deep the water -was. For instance, if his fingers felt that the line was wet up to a -place where there were two strips of leather, he would know that two -fathoms (twelve feet) of water lay underneath. Two markers at two -fathoms. “By the mark twain,” the leadman would call out to the captain. - -There was once a Mississippi River pilot named Samuel Clemens who, like -all pilots, loved to hear that call. It meant that there was enough -water to keep his vessel afloat. Later, when he began to write books, he -signed them with the name Mark Twain. - -In Mark Twain’s time, the Mississippi River boats were driven by huge -paddle wheels. As the wood-burning steam engine turned the wheels, the -paddles pushed against the water and shoved the boat forward. - -Steam engines began working in rivers very quickly after the first -successful paddle boat, the Clermont, proved that she could push -upstream. River boatmen needed engines more than seafaring men did, -because winds seldom blow upstream as they do on the Nile. - -Before there were paddleboats, men took cargo down the Mississippi in -keelboats. Then they had to get the boats up-river again almost entirely -by muscle-power. Pushing against the bottom with poles, or pulling with -ropes from the shore, river boatmen worked the whole way up from New -Orleans to Pittsburgh. - -[Illustration] - -A river boatman still works hard, but in a very different way. In his -time off, he may listen to radio or even watch television on board the -towboat. In the old days, he would have caught fish and fried them over -a fire built in a pile of sand on the keelboat deck. Today the cook -takes food from a freezer, prepares it on an electric range, and stows -the dirty dishes in an automatic dishwasher. - -In the old days, the river was the quickest way for passengers to -travel, and for freight, too. People now go faster by bus or train or -plane. But there’s more and more cargo for the barges to carry on the -Mississippi and the other rivers that flow into it. Oil, coal, grain, -steel, ore, sulfur are some of the things that move along ahead of the -powerful streamlined towboats. - -[Illustration] - - -GREAT LAKES SHIPS - -Grain, coal, ore and limestone for making steel travel on Great Lakes -ships, too. So do many other kinds of cargo. Long ago, explorers -believed that the enormous sea-like lakes would lead them all the way -around the world to China. One man even wore Chinese clothes as he -paddled westward in an Indian canoe, so he would be properly dressed -when he arrived! - -For nearly three hundred years since then, vessels have used these great -inland waterways to carry goods and the most precious cargo of -all--people. Settlers by the thousand from Germany, Sweden, Scotland and -other countries filled the decks of sailing vessels and paddle -steamboats that took them right up to the frontier. Today almost five -hundred modern cargo vessels shuttle back and forth on the Lakes, -carrying the wealth that the descendants of those pioneers have created. - -A Great Lakes ship doesn’t look like any other. She is broad and low and -very long--so long, in fact that she is less rigid than most ships. -Seamen say she feels “willowy” if she steams along in heavy weather -after her cargo is unloaded. The wheelhouse of a Lakes ship is forward -in the bow, along with quarters for the officers and a few passengers. -The engine and the crew’s quarters are away at the stern. In between, -are holds--a great many more of them than on any ocean-going ship. -Marvellous loading machines dump ore or any other loose cargo into the -holds. Other wonderful unloading machines quickly scoop the cargo out. - -[Illustration] - -Many of the ships run between ports on Lake Huron and Lake Superior. -Lake Superior is 22 feet higher than Lake Huron. So ships must use a -sort of ladder to get from one to the other through a canal called the -Sault Sainte Marie--or Soo for short. Locks in the canal are the -ladder-rungs. Suppose a ship is going up. She enters the narrow canal. -Ahead are gates. Gates close behind her. She is in a lock. Now the gates -in front open and let more water into the lock, lifting the ship higher. -She moves forward into another lock and is lifted again in the same way. -Sometimes as she goes along, seamen on board toss money to ice cream -sellers on shore, and catch the pop-sticks that are thrown back. - -For eight months each year, the Lake ships keep hurrying back and forth -between Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, Chicago, Duluth and other port -cities. There’s hardly a time when a man can’t see smoke from other -vessels on the horizon. Then winter comes, and the Lakes freeze over. -Lake sailors tie up their ships and go ashore. Most of them have been on -the water day and night through the whole season. - -Sometimes a ship stays out too late in the year and can’t get to port -because ice has locked her in. Then a ship called an ice breaker comes -to her rescue. An ice breaker smashes up ice early in the spring, too, -so that ships can begin to move. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: Oil Tanker] - -[Illustration: Coastal Lumber Carrier] - -[Illustration: Types of Cargo-Passenger Ships] - -[Illustration: Banana Ship] - -[Illustration: Coastal Freighter] - -[Illustration: Collier] - -[Illustration: Seatrain] - - -AMERICAN MERCHANT SHIPS - -Merchant seamen man all the different kinds of cargo ships you see in -the pictures on these two pages. Their jobs take great skill and -patience and very often courage. It has always been that way with men -who follow the sea. Some of the things they do are as old as ships -themselves. But many things are different now. - -On old sailing vessels, the crew had to get their sleep wherever they -could find a place to lie down. They might curl up on a coil of rope or -on the cargo in the hold. Later, they were given one room, the -forecastle, for the whole crew. Everybody was on watch at least twelve -hours a day. It is only in the last twenty years that seamen have worked -eight regular hours a day. - -[Illustration: Types of Freighters in Hawaiian Trade] - -[Illustration: Mariner Class Freighter] - -[Illustration: Harbor Tug] - -[Illustration: New Type Freighter] - -[Illustration: Ocean-Going Tug] - -[Illustration: Victory Class Freighter] - -[Illustration: Liberty Ship] - -Almost all ships now have more comfortable bunkrooms, with only two or -four men in each one. Instead of living on old-fashioned salt meat and -salt fish and crackers called hardtack, seamen have almost the same -things that they eat ashore. In the old days, seamen often got a disease -called scurvy because they had no fresh food. Then the British -discovered that lime juice prevented scurvy, and every one of their -ships carried barrels of it. That’s why American seamen still call -British seamen limeys. - -There are laws and regulations now that provide for better food and -working hours and pay on ships. Seamen in their unions have worked hard -to get the laws and rules that have made life better for them. - - -FISHING VESSELS - -Fishermen have always been among the most daring and hardworking men of -the sea. For thousands of years they have experimented and invented, -always in search of the boats and ships and nets that will do the best -job for them. New England fishermen used to be great whittlers of ship -models. They carved out their models partly for fun, partly to give -shipbuilders new ideas for improving their designs. - -One of the great fishing towns is Gloucester, Massachusetts, and there’s -a story about it that goes this way: Almost two hundred and fifty years -ago, a ship builder in Gloucester launched a vessel that everyone -admired. On the day when she first slid into the water, a big crowd -gathered to watch. She was graceful and light, and she fairly skimmed -along--the way a flat stone does when a boy skips it over the water. In -those days in New England, some people called skipping “scooning.” - -All at once, someone in the crowd called out, “See how she scoons!” The -builder called back, “A scooner let her be!” And according to the story, -the name schooner--a new spelling--has stuck to this very day. - -A modern schooner still has sails, but not so many as the early ones. An -engine now gives her power, so that she can make fast time to and from -the fishing grounds, and her sails are used mostly to steady her in the -sea while the men work. The engine also helps with the heavy work of -handling the nets. - -[Illustration] - -Each kind of fish has its own habits, and the fishermen know them well. -Some fish, such as cod and flounder, live down near the floor of the -sea. They are caught in drag nets which are towed at the right speed -behind the vessel. Men haul the net in, dump the catch into ice-cooled -bins in the hold, then drag the net again. - -Mackerel behave differently. They swim along in huge groups called -schools near the surface of the water. The lookout man on the mast keeps -his eye on the sea till he can yell, “School O!” Quickly the men lower a -boat that sets a huge net called a purse-seine. At first the net is -really a fence. Hundreds of floating corks at the top, and lead weights -at the bottom, hold it in place, while the seine-boat draws it into a -circle around the fish. Then, at a signal, a motor in the seine-boat -pulls on a sort of drawstring in the bottom of the net, closing it and -turning it into a kind of giant sack. The seine is “pursed” with the -fish trapped inside. - -This is what happens on a lucky day. But mackerel can be very irritating -fish. Sometimes the whole school will suddenly dive and race away to -safety, just the moment before the trap closes. Fishermen must have -patience as well as skill. - -Before engines went to sea, the men had to purse the seine by hand. -Since their schooner carried no ice, they cleaned the fish, salted them -and packed them into barrels as fast as possible. Everybody, including -the skipper, worked at top speed. Even the cook lent a hand, and he was -often a boy of ten who hung his pots in an open fireplace or smoked -some of the mackerel in the chimney. - -[Illustration] - -Fleets of fishing vessels go out together when the season is right. -There’s a race for the fishing grounds, and then a race back to deliver -the catch to market. In fishing towns all around the seacoasts, small -forests of masts fill the harbors when the fleets are in. - -Among the schooners you can also see sturdily-built trawlers, which are -usually driven by steam-power. Newest of all are the vessels that work -like quick-freeze factories. Machines on board clean the fish, cut them -up, package them and freeze them right where they are caught. Or the -fishermen may quick-freeze the whole fish, then bring them back to be -thawed and sent to market. - -People in fishing towns are proud of their fleets, and there’s a warm -welcome for the vessel that comes in first with a big load. - - -THE UNITED STATES - -The day a ship returns safely has always been important to seafaring -men. It’s especially important if she has made a new record of some -kind. All the seamen in New York harbor were excited when the passenger -liner United States came in after crossing the Atlantic faster than any -other liner had ever done. And they all showed their respect in the -traditional way. - -On tugs and freighters, on tankers, on other liners, skippers passed -down the word, “Break out the bunting!” This meant take out all the -brightly colored signal flags and hang them on the stays. (On page 91 -you can find out what the signal flags are.) The United States had her -bunting out, too. When she appeared in the harbor, every vessel there -greeted her with tremendous whistle blasts. Fireboats filled the air -with high curving streams of water from all their nozzles. - -[Illustration] - -Aboard the United States, the members of the crew were more excited than -any one else in the harbor, but their work went right on through all the -happy hullaballoo. The AB’s got ready to tie their huge ship up. Others, -from the black gang to the steward’s department, were busy with -last-minute jobs. Working together as one huge team, they had made the -world’s fastest crossing. On the trip from New York to England, the -United States averaged 35.9 knots. (That means she travelled nearly 42 -land miles an hour. Seamen never say “knots per hour.” They just say -knots.) Before that the passenger liner Queen Mary held the record. It -took the United States 10 hours and 2 minutes less than the Queen Mary -to cross the ocean. - -The United States is really more than a ship. With a thousand people in -her crew and two thousand passengers, she is a floating town. Besides -the seamen who do their regular seamen’s work, there are crew members -with special jobs. In the ship’s shopping centers, storekeepers sell -souvenirs, and all kinds of things that passengers want and need. Movie -operators work in her two theaters. A children’s nurse takes care of -children in the nursery. A veterinarian cares for pets on board. Guards -watch over the swimming pool. A doctor and a registered nurse are ready -in the ship’s hospital to help anyone who is sick. Air conditioning -experts see that every room in the ship is kept at the right -temperature. Everything from the engine room to the dog kennels is -air-conditioned. - -[Illustration] - -Curtains, chair covers and rugs on the ship are made of material that -doesn’t burn. There is no wood at all in the ship except in the -butchers’ chopping blocks and in the pianos. But suppose a passenger -drops a match into a wastebasket in his stateroom. There’s an automatic -smoke-smelling gadget that sends a signal to a room on the bridge. The -officer there turns on the fire alarm, then pulls a lever which closes -that particular stateroom door and blocks the fire off. - -There are lifeboats for all three thousand people in case of emergency. -These lifeboats are driven by propellers--but they have no engines. -People supply the power for the propeller. They push handles back and -forth. Even on this most modern ship in the world, there are boats that -move in the oldest way--by muscle power. - -[Illustration] - -The four propellers of the liner herself are each as tall as a -two-storey house. They are turned by enormous steam turbine engines. -Smoke from the boilers goes out through unusual-looking stacks. Inside -each one are giant filters that take away most of the soot. Besides, -there are wings called vanes at the top of the stacks to help keep the -smoke from swirling down onto the deck. - -Although the United States is about five city blocks long and twelve -decks high, she looks as light and graceful in her way as the old -clipper ships. The clippers were American sailing vessels that got their -names because they went at a very fast clip. A hundred years ago they -held speed records all over the world. No wonder the captain of the -United States proudly said that his seamen were carrying on the clipper -ship tradition. - -[Illustration] - -Many people think the clippers were the most beautiful ships ever built. -Certainly they were the first sailing ships to be planned by men who -used scientific ideas in their work. At that time, science was bringing -modern machinery of all kinds to the world. Inventors had already put -steam engines into ships, but they had not yet studied what was the best -shape for a speedy vessel. And speed was becoming very important as more -people and cargoes crossed the oceans. - -[Illustration: An Old Bay Liner] - -No one knew whether steamships could go fast. But some shipbuilders -believed that sailing ships could go faster than ever before. They built -the record-breaking clippers. Soon the magnificent vessels began to have -races all the way from China to New York and London. It was many years -before steamships caught up with the clippers, but in the end they -proved to be faster. More important, they could keep going whether there -was any wind or not. - - -OTHER PASSENGER SHIPS - -It’s the job of a passenger ship to carry people--and give them a good -time on their journey. But passenger ships also carry cargo. That’s true -of big ones and little ones, such as the City of Norfolk which belongs -to the Old Bay Line, the oldest American shipping company. - -The City of Norfolk goes on short trips back and forth between Norfolk -and Baltimore on Chesapeake Bay. She takes on cargo during the day and -sails at night. Although she’s an old ship, she has radar to help guide -her through the busy waters of the Bay. All around are fishing craft, -ferries, ocean-going vessels--endless traffic through which the officers -must steer a safe course. In the dark wheelhouse, soft small lights hold -the key to safety--the sea-green light by which the man at the wheel -sees the markings on the compass, the yellow pips and the revolving blue -line on the radarscope. - -In the hold below are automobiles, piles of second-hand truck tires, -crates holding all kinds of things, copper sheets by the ton which have -come by train from Utah, and will end up in some eastern factory. - -[Illustration: Interior of an Old Time Bay Line Steamer] - -[Illustration: Seattle to Bremerton Ferry] - -Passengers stroll all over the decks. Some are travelling on business; -some are just sailing for fun. A group of school boys and girls on their -class trip dance to phonograph records. Their staterooms are -air-conditioned, but the inside of the ship looks almost as it did in -their grandmothers’ day, with balconies and big living-rooms called -saloons. - -The City of Norfolk--and many other ships like her on bays and rivers -and lakes--is really a sort of combination ferry boat and hotel. Most -ferries, of course, have much shorter runs, and they are built to fit -the needs of their own special work. - -Many ferries look exactly the same fore and aft. They have propellers, -rudders and wheelhouses at both ends, and there’s a good reason why. A -double-ended ferry makes quick trips back and forth. She can save time -if she doesn’t have to turn around in the water when she goes in and out -of her dock which is called a slip. - -The big ferries carry automobiles, trucks, and as many as three thousand -people at a time. Some of them, on long runs, have up-to-date snack bars -so passengers can get quick meals. For safety, they carry lifeboats and -life jackets, just as ocean-going vessels do. But a ferry could never go -to sea. She is built very broad, with very little of her under the water -and a great deal above. Big ocean waves would tip her over. - -[Illustration: Staten Island Ferry] - -[Illustration: Arkansas River Ferry] - -Men have used ferries from the earliest times. Hundreds and even -thousands of years ago people and animals were ferried across rivers on -rafts. Even today there are raft-like ferries which men guide across our -rivers by steel cables. - -[Illustration: Railroad Car Ferry] - -Train ferries take loaded freight cars across harbors where there are no -railroad bridges. In some harbors, the cars travel on flat-bottomed -barges which tugboats shove along. - -[Illustration] - -Long ago, barges were quite different. They were elegant vessels in -which kings and important people travelled on rivers. And fancy barges, -towed along behind paddle steamboats, once carried passengers up and -down the Hudson River, too. At that time the steam boilers on -paddleboats often exploded. Many crewmen and passengers were killed. So, -in order to attract customers, some steamboats towed “safety barges” -behind. - -Nowadays barges are plain cargo vessels that do heavy work. Most of them -have no power of their own. They must be towed or pushed. The seaman who -handles a barge is called a barge captain. He must be an AB to get the -job, and on some barges he lives in a house at the stern. If he has a -family, they may make their home there the year round. - -Before the days of railroads, a whole system of canals joined many of -the important American cities. Along these waterways horses or mules -pulled barge-loads of freight. Many a canal boatman started before he -was twelve years old, driving a mule on long trips all by himself. There -are still some canals in use, and powerdriven barges carry cargoes on -them. - - -FIREBOATS AND OTHER HELPERS - -The old-fashioned engines that used to explode are gone now. So are the -candles and whale-oil lamps that lighted ships. All these caused fires -in wooden vessels. But even today, when most ships are made of steel, -with fireproofing equipment, there’s work for fireboats to do. - -The seamen aboard fireboats belong to the Fire Department. They do deck -work or engine work, and they also handle the pumps and nozzles that -shoot enormous streams of water. The pumps suck in water through holes -in the side of the boat and force it through hoses and nozzles that can -be aimed like big guns. - -[Illustration] - -Sometimes fireboats go a little way outside their harbor to help a -burning ship. On the way, the fireboat captain guides his vessel between -buoys that mark the channels where ships can go. All harbors have these -channels, which are really streets for water traffic. The buoys are -floating signals anchored to the bottom. On a clear day, seamen can tell -by looking at the shape and color what each buoy means. In a fog or at -night, they listen for the bells or whistles on some special buoys and -watch for the flashing lights on others. - -Rivers have channels marked with buoys, too, and men who belong to the -United States Coast Guard Service have the job of placing and repairing -them. - -The Coast Guard also cares for lighthouses at dangerous points along the -shore. Powerful lights and foghorns in the lighthouses warn ships away -from rocks or shallow water and also help them find out exactly where -they are. In some places, lightships anchored in the sea do this same -job. A lightship is really a giant buoy. Seamen live aboard her to care -for the safety equipment. They get their food and mail from vessels -called tenders. (Any vessel that supplies another is a tender.) - -Coast Guardsmen help seamen in other ways, too. Suppose a ship is -sinking. Fast, tough little Coast Guard cutters race off to the rescue -the minute the dreaded SOS signal comes over their radio. (SOS is the -code - -[Illustration] - -signal for “help!” and every radio man understands it, no matter what -language he speaks.) - -[Illustration] - -Using a special gun, men on the cutter shoot a lifeline across to the -sinking ship, and a breeches buoy is rigged on it. This is a canvas -seat, made like a pair of short pants. The seat hangs from a wheel -called a block which runs along the line. One by one the seamen sit in -the seat and are pulled along to safety. - - -CHARTS FOR SAFETY - -In the days when the United States was still a very new country, many -people in Europe longed for the freedom they were sure they could find -here. One of them was Ferdinand Hassler, a young Swiss mathematician. -Hassler was no seaman when he set out for the new world in a sailing -ship. But luckily he did know a great deal about the stars. After the -captain of his vessel collapsed in a terrific storm, Hassler was able to -look at the stars and tell the seamen how to steer the ship. - -[Illustration] - -The things Hassler knew about mathematics made it easy for him to -navigate, but real troubles began when the ship came into Delaware Bay. -The map of the bay was old and very inaccurate. Hassler could not tell -whether the ship was in shallow water or deep water, except by watching -the leadline day and night. - -This last part of his adventure made young Hassler very angry because it -was so unscientific. He realized that the safety of all ships depended -on accurate maps, called charts, of the coasts and harbors. Soon after -he landed he began to make plans for a survey of the whole American -coast. He talked to President Jefferson who agreed with him, and -Congress finally gave him the job. At last his good charts began to help -save lives. - -Today the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey carries on the work -Hassler started. Using many ships and small boats with marvellous -equipment, the scientific men of the sea go about their important and -often dangerous work. It’s their job to map the earth that lies under -the oceans, rivers and harbors. Here are some of the things they do -along the Alaskan coast. - -A survey ship moves through the water sending sound waves to the bottom -of the ocean. A delicate machine records the echoes made when the sound -waves bounce back from the deep valleys and the high mountain tops that -lie beneath the surface. Scientists know how fast sound travels in -water, so they can tell exactly how deep it is. But some of the peaks -are narrow and sharp. Even the wonderful machines miss them. And so -these very modern vessels must do something old-fashioned and simple. -Two of them travel side by side with a long wire cable hanging between -them. If the cable catches on a rock, the men know they have snagged a -sunken mountain top. - -Often, men on shore help the men on ships with their surveying. The -instruments they use are so delicate that the warmth of direct sunlight -would cause inaccuracies. One slight error might mean a shipwreck. So, -even in Alaska, a surveyor works under an umbrella. - -[Illustration] - -You might think that all the charts and maps should have been finished -in the long years since President Jefferson’s time. But the work of -making charts can never be finished. The coastline is always changing. -Currents and tides, storms and floods shift millions of tons of sand -near the coast. Earthquakes and volcanoes raise land or lower it. A -place that was safe for ships yesterday may be dangerous today. - -In Alaska, glaciers that run into the sea grow bigger or melt back. -Sometimes these enormous rivers of ice push themselves out under the -water. The little survey vessels mapping the ocean’s bottom have to sail -over the sunken glaciers. There is always danger that, at any moment, a -great mountain of fresh-water ice may break loose and rush toward the -surface. When this happens, any vessel nearby is almost certain to be -destroyed. - -Seafaring men need to know about the tides when they enter or leave -harbors. Tides are very different at different places along our enormous -coastline, and they change from one day to another. The Coast and -Geodetic Survey has worked out a wonderful way of telling ships about -tides in advance. Every day, records pour into Washington from all along -the seacoast. The figures they give are put into a fantastic “thinking -machine,” together with other figures about the sun and moon which cause -the tides. Electricity is turned on, and in no time the machine tells -what tides will be like with ordinary weather tomorrow or even next -month. - -Men have come a long way since they first learned to float on a blown-up -animal skin or a bundle of reeds. For thousands of years, they have been -inventing new and better ways to travel across water. But the oceans -have an enormous power and force. Science and seamen still have much to -learn about the power which they must fight and make work for them--and -which will always be exciting. - -[Illustration] - - -WHAT SEAMEN SAY - -Here are some words that you haven’t met in the rest of the book. They -are all part of seagoing language. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - AHOY--a call given by men on one ship to greet men on another. - - AVAST--an officer shouts “avast” if he wants a seaman to stop - hauling on a line. - - BELAY--to tie or make fast. A belaying pin is a short rod which can - be stuck into a holder so that a line can be twisted around it. - There were many belaying pins on old sailing vessels, and they made - handy weapons at times. - - DEEP SIX--when a sailor throws something overboard, he “gives it - the deep six.” The expression comes from the days when sailors - measured the depth of water with a leadline. The “deep six” was a - place on the line which showed the water was six fathoms (36 feet) - deep. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - FOUL--Seamen use this word to describe anything that has gone wrong - or got mixed up. A snarled line is foul. A ship’s hull covered with - barnacles is foul. Bad weather is foul. - - NORWEGIAN STEAM--seamen say they use “Norwegian steam” when they do - heavy work without the help of machinery. - - SCUTTLE BUTT--the drinking fountain on a ship. Because seamen often - gather there to talk, the rumors and gossip that they pass on are - also called “scuttle butt.” - - SEA LAWYER--a seaman who likes to argue about rules and - regulations. - - SLOP CHEST--a room where seamen can buy clothes. Every ship is - required to have one. - - SLUMGULLION--a seaman’s word for stew that he doesn’t like. - - TRAMP--a freighter that ties up anywhere and has no regular - schedule. - - WINDJAMMER--a sailing vessel. - -[Illustration] - -Code flags make it possible for ships to talk to each other at sea. Each -flag stands for a number or for a letter in the alphabet. The flags are -used in combinations--not to spell out individual words, but to send a -whole message. For instance, the two flags N and C flown together mean, -“In distress. Need prompt aid.” No matter what language a seaman speaks -he knows what this signal means. Some of the other messages he can read -are IQ--“Do not pass ahead of me”; RW--“Where are you from?”; AG--“Shall -not abandon my vessel.” - - - - -INDEX - - -AB, 12, 26 - -Able Bodied Seaman, 12 - -accommodation ladder, 26 - -amidships, 25 - -anchor, 34-35 - -athwartships, 25 - - -backstay, 28 - -banana boats, 43-46 - -basket boat, 40 - -barge, 60, 80, 81 - -barnacles, 50 - -batten down the hatches, 27 - -beam, 28 - -bells, 14 - -bilge, 28 - -bireme, 33 - -booms, 27 - -bosun, 24, 29 - -bosun’s chair, 29, 31 - -bow, 12 - -Bowditch, Nathaniel, 18, 19 - -brightwork, 31 - -bulkhead, 24 - -buoy, 82 - - -canal, 62, 80, 81 - -capstan, 22 - -captain, 29 - -chantey, 21, 22 - -charts, 84-87 - -Chips, 24, 25, 34 - -Clermont, 58 - -clipper, 75, 76 - -City of Norfolk, 76, 77 - -Coast Guard, 82, 83 - -companionway, 24 - -compass, 17, 18 - -crow’s nest, 13 - - -davit, 46 - -depth recorder, 57 - -dhow, 33 - -dock, 27 - -draft, 28 - -drydock, 50-51 - -dugout, 32 - - -Egypt, 31-32 - -engineer, 30 - -engine room telegraph, 19 - - -fathom, 58 - -fender, 54 - -ferry boats, 78, 79 - -fireboat, 81 - -firemen, 30 - -fishing vessels, 66-70 - -forecastle, 10 - - -gantries, 44 - -galley, 12 - -galleys, 33 - -Great Lakes Ships, 60-62 - - -handy billy, 25 - -Hassler, Ferdinand, 84-86 - -hatch, 27 - -hawse pipe, 34 - -heaving line, 53 - -helm, 26 - -helmsman, 26 - - -ice breaker, 62 - -International Code flags, 91 - - -Jacob’s ladder, 26 - -junk, 39 - -jury rudder, 37 - - -keelboat, 58 - -king posts, 27 - -knots, 29 - - -leadline, 57, 58, 85 - -leeward, 25 - -lifeboat, 44-46, 73, 74 - -lifeline, 38 - -life raft, 41 - -lighter, 40 - -lights, 15 - -limey, 65 - -locks, 62 - - -Mark Twain, 58 - -marlinspike, 29 - -mate, 14 - -merchant ship types, 64-65 - -messmen, 31 - -mizzenmast, 24, 29 - -monkey fist, 53, 54 - - -navigating, 19 - - -oiler, 30 - -oil tanker, 37-41 - -Old Bay Line, 76, 77 - -ore carriers, 60-62 - -outrigger, 39 - - -paddleboats, 58, 80 - -papyrus reed canoe, 32 - -passenger ships, 70-79 - -pea coat, 10 - -pier, 27 - -pilot, 26, 57 - -pilot house, 26 - -poop deck, 28 - -port, 15 - -purse seine, 68 - - -Queen Mary, 72 - -quartermaster, 26 - - -radar, 56, 57, 77 - -radio man, 31 - -raft, 40 - - -SOS, 82, 83 - -sailor, 12 - -sailor’s palm, 21 - -Samson posts, 27 - -Santa Maria, 33 - -schooner, 66, 67 - -scrimshaw, 49 - -sea anchor, 45 - -Seatrain, 42 - -sheepshank, 29 - -shroud, 28 - -sparks, 31 - -standing watch, 10-19 - -starboard, 15 - -stay, 28 - -steward, 31 - -storm oil, 45, 46 - -survey ships, 86-87 - - -taffrail log, 28 - -tanker, 37-41 - -tides, 88 - -towboat, 54-59 - -trawler, 69 - -trireme, 33 - -tugs, 52-59 - - -United States, 70-74 - -United States Coast Guard, 82, 83 - -United States Coast Guard and Geodetic Survey, 86-87 - - -Viking ships, 39 - - -watch, 12 - -whaler, 48-49 - -wharf, 27 - -wheel, 17 - -wheelhouse, 13-14, 17, 26 - -wildcat, 35 - -windlass, 35 - -windward, 25 - -[Illustration] - - The saltiest thanks of the author and artist go to the following - who, in one way or another, have helped make this book possible: - Margaret Gossett; R. L. Jones of the Old Bay Line; Inez M. DeVille - of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad; Penelope Spurr of the United - Fruit Company; Arthur L. Pleasants, Captain, USN; Samuel S. Yeaton, - Colonel, USN, Ret.; the Cleveland, Ohio, Chamber of Commerce: the - Lake Carriers Association, the Mariners’ Museum, Newport News, - Virginia; the National Maritime Union, CIO; the Norfolk Chamber of - Commerce; the Pennsylvania Railroad; the State of Washington; - Department of Fisheries; the San Francisco Chamber of Commerce; - Seatrain Lines, Inc.; the Standard Oil Company (New Jersey); the - State of New York, Department of Public Works; the United States - Coast and Geodetic Survey; the United States Coast Guard; the - United States Lines; and finally to a modest AB and to many people - who have written careful, enthusiastic books about ships and - seafaring men. - - * * * * * - -$1.50 - - SHIPS AT WORK - - _By_ Mary Elting - - _Illustrated by_ Manning deV. Lee - - -Here is the colorful, exciting life of the sea--the men, the ships they -sail, the work they do, the cargoes they carry to the far corners of the -world--all vividly presented. - -Freighters, tankers, ferries, tugs, and the many unusual ships that do -highly specialized jobs are shown in action. The work, the sailor’s -language, the kind of life a seaman lives, the use of recent inventions -(such as radar) all contribute to this fascinating picture of SHIPS AT -WORK. The newest and proudest of ocean liners, the “United States,” is -pictured and described as well as the humblest dugouts and sailing -vessels of ancient times. - -The illustrator, famous for his marine paintings, has combined beauty -with clear, sharp detail. His many full-color pictures in this book give -added interest to your seafaring knowledge. - -You will find this book an exciting companion to TRAINS AT WORK, TRUCKS -AT WORK, MACHINES AT WORK. - -[Illustration] - - -Garden City Books - -Garden City, New York - - * * * * * - - MACHINES AT WORK - - _By_ Mary Elting - - _Illustrated by_ Laszlo Roth - - [Illustration] - - -There are machines to dig, to hammer, to push--to do every kind of heavy -job and to make work thousands of times easier and faster. - -On farms, in the mines, in cities where huge buildings are built and out -in the woods where powerdriven saws slice through great trees, many -kinds of special machines do many kinds of remarkable jobs. - -Can you imagine a giant shovel so huge that it took 45 freight cars to -haul it from factory to mine? Do you know that there is a machine that -plucks the feathers off chickens, ones that pick corn, dig potatoes? -Inventors of machines work on everything--they even had fun making a -mechanical mouse that can sniff about until it finds a piece of “cheese” -and then “remember” and run straight to it next time! - -As marvelous and complicated as all these machines are, the author -points out that no inventions will ever be as wonderful as the men who -invented them--and the men who make them work. - - -Garden City Books - -Garden City, New York - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ships at Work, by Mary Elting Folsom - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHIPS AT WORK *** - -***** This file should be named 55476-0.txt or 55476-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/4/7/55476/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan, Chuck Greif -and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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